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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fd0c9d4 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #50575 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/50575) diff --git a/old/50575-8.txt b/old/50575-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 8ab249d..0000000 --- a/old/50575-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4898 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Firemen and their Exploits: with some -account of the rise and development of fire-brigades, of various -appliances for saving life at fires and extinguishing the flames., by F. M. Holmes - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Firemen and their Exploits: with some account of the rise -and development of fire-brigades, of various appliances for saving -life at fires and extinguishing the flames. - -Author: F. M. Holmes - -Release Date: November 29, 2015 [EBook #50575] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FIREMEN AND THEIR EXPLOITS *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Martin Pettit and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -FIREMEN AND THEIR EXPLOITS: - - - WITH SOME ACCOUNT - -_OF THE RISE AND DEVELOPMENT OF FIRE-BRIGADES, - OF VARIOUS APPLIANCES FOR SAVING LIFE - AT FIRES AND EXTINGUISHING - THE FLAMES_. - - -BY -F. M. HOLMES, - -AUTHOR OF "ENGINEERS AND THEIR TRIUMPHS," "MINERS AND -THEIR WORKS UNDERGROUND," ETC. - - -LONDON: -S. W. PARTRIDGE & CO., -8 & 9, PATERNOSTER ROW. -1899. - - -[Illustration: THE NEW HORSED FIRE-ESCAPE, - -DESIGNED BY COMMANDER WELLS, CHIEF OFFICER OF THE METROPOLITAN -FIRE-BRIGADE.] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -PREFACE. - - -The present volume, though complete in itself, forms one of a series -seeking to describe in a popular and non-technical manner the Triumphs -of Engineers. The same style has, therefore, been followed which was -adopted in the preceding volumes. The profession of Engineering has -exercised great influence on the work of Fire Extinguishment, as on some -other things; and the subject is, therefore, not inappropriate to the -series of books of which the volume forms part. - -The story of the Fire-Engine begins in Egypt about a hundred and fifty -years before Christ. Hero of Alexandria describes a contrivance called -the "siphon used in conflagrations," and some persons are of opinion -that he was not unacquainted with the use of the air-chest. But it was -not until nearly two thousand years later--that is, about the close of -the seventeenth century--that the air-chamber and the hose seem to have -been brought into anything like general use,--if, indeed, the use can be -called general even then. - -Much of the story is involved in obscurity, or it may be there was -little story to tell; but by the year 1726, Newsham had constructed -satisfactory fire-engines in London; and Braithwaite the engineer--who -with Ericsson constructed the "Novelty" to compete with Stephenson's -"Rocket" at the locomotive contest at Rainhill in 1829--built a steam -fire-engine about 1830, though it was not until thirty years, or more, -later that the use of the machine became general. - -As to Fire-Brigades, the Insurance Companies, which began to appear -after the Great Fire of 1666, were wont to employ separate staffs of men -to extinguish fires; but by the year 1833, the more important had -united, and the London Fire-Brigade had been formed under the control of -Mr. James Braidwood. Many provincial towns followed the metropolitan -model in forming their brigades. - -Together with the development of the Fire-Engine and of efficient -brigades has been the introduction of various other appliances, such as -Fire-Escapes, Chemical Extinctors, Water-Towers, and the great -improvement in the water supply. Nothing is more striking in the history -of conflagrations than the comparison between the dry state of the New -River pipes at the Great Fire of 1666 and the copious flood of five -million gallons poured into the city in a few hours by the same company -to quench the great Cripplegate fire of November, 1897. - -But, indeed, the whole realm of Fire Extinguishment is a world of -constant improvement and strain after perfection. To describe something -of these efforts, and trace out the main features of their story, is the -object of the present volume. - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CONTENTS. - -CHAP. PAGE - I. THE HORSED FIRE-ESCAPE APPEARS. AN EXCITING SCENE 9 - - II. THE BEGINNING OF THE STORY. HERO'S "SIPHON." - HOW THE ANCIENTS STROVE TO EXTINGUISH FIRES 17 - - III. IN MEDIÆVAL DAYS. AN EPOCH-MAKING FIRE 20 - - IV. THE PEARL-BUTTON MAKER'S CONTRIVANCE. - THE MODERN FIRE-ENGINE 36 - - V. EXTINGUISHMENT BY COMPANY. THE BEGINNINGS OF - FIRE INSURANCE 47 - - VI. THE STORY OF JAMES BRAIDWOOD 53 - - VII. THE THAMES ON FIRE. THE DEATH OF BRAIDWOOD 58 - -VIII. A PERILOUS SITUATION. CAPTAIN SHAW. IMPROVEMENTS OF THE - METROPOLITAN BOARD AND OF THE LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL 67 - - IX. A VISIT TO HEADQUARTERS 83 - - X. HOW RECRUITS ARE TRAINED 98 - - XI. SOME STORIES OF THE BRIGADE 111 - - XII. FIRE-ESCAPES AND FIRE-FLOATS 123 - -XIII. CHEMICAL FIRE-ENGINES. FIRE-PROOFING, OR MUSLIN - THAT WILL NOT FLAME 134 - - XIV. THE WORK OF THE LONDON SALVAGE CORPS. THE GREAT - CRIPPLEGATE FIRE 144 - - XV. ACROSS THE WATER 156 - - - - -[Illustration: OFF TO THE FIRE.] - - - - -FIREMEN AND THEIR EXPLOITS. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE HORSED FIRE-ESCAPE APPEARS. AN EXCITING SCENE. - - -"Shall we have a quiet night, Jack?" - -"Can't say," replied Jack philosophically; "I take it as it comes." - -Clang! - -Even as he spoke, the electric fire-alarm rang through the silent -station. The men sprang toward the stables, glancing at the bell-tablet -as they ran. - -The tablet revealed the name of the street whence the alarm had been -sounded; and at the clang the horses tossed their heads and pawed the -ground, mad to be off. They knew the sound of the alarm as well as the -men themselves. - -"Will it be a life-saving job, d'ye think, mate?" - -"May be," was Jack's sententious reply; "you never know." - -The horses were standing ready harnessed, and were unloosed at once. -They were led to the engine, the traces hooked on, the crew, as the -staff of firemen is called, took their places, and the doors in front of -them were opened smartly by rope and pulley. - -"Ready?" - -"Aye, aye, sir!" - -"Right away!" - -In less than two minutes from the ringing of the alarm, the engine was -rushing out of the station, and tearing along London streets with -exciting clatter, the firemen shouting their warning cry, and sparks -flying from the funnel. Soon the engine fire was roaring below, and the -steam was hissing for its work. - -How had the firemen obtained a blazing fire and hot steam so soon? When -the engine was waiting in the station, a lighted gas-jet, kept near the -boiler, maintained the water at a high temperature; and while the horses -were being hooked on, a large fusee, called a "steam-match," had been -promptly ignited, and dropped flaming down the funnel. The match fell -through the water-tube boiler to the fuel in the fire-box below; the -draught caused by the rush of the engine through the air helped the -fire; and the water being already so hot, steam pressure soon arose. - -"The new escape's close behind!" cried one of the men, as the engine -hurried along. - -Something, unusual then, to London streets was rapidly following the -steamer. In the gloom, it looked like a dim spectral ladder projecting -over the horses in front, and several men could be seen sitting on the -carriage conveying it. - -"She's a-comin' on pretty fast," exclaimed one of the men; "she travels -as smart as an engine." - -Indeed, the new escape was now so near, that it could be seen more -clearly. It was securely mounted on a low car, and its large wheels hung -over the end at the back, not far above the ground. Designed by -Commander Wells, chief officer of the London Fire-Brigade, it was -brought into use in the brigade in July, 1897. - -But now it was nearing the fire, and cheers and cries rang loudly from -the excited crowd gathered at the spot. - -"Make way for the escape! Hurrah! Hurrah!" - -No wonder the crowd were excited. On the second-floor window of a large -building appeared three white, eager faces, framed by the dark sashes, -and crying eagerly for help. - -Cheer after cheer rent the air, as the escape drew up opposite, and was -slipped from its car; then, resting on its own wheels, it was pitched -near the burning building, and its ladders run up to the window. The -policemen could scarce keep back the thronging crowd. - -Away go the firemen up the rungs of the ladder, and amid continued -cheers, and cries, and great excitement approach the sufferers in their -peril. - -"They've got one!" shouts an excited voice. - -"Aye, and there's another!" cries a second spectator. - -"They're all three saved!" vociferates a third; and loud cheers greet -the firemen's triumph. - -It was a smart piece of work; and with the rescued persons thrown over -their shoulders in the efficient manner they are taught at drill, the -firemen carefully descend the ladder one after the other, and amid -shouts and plaudits arrive safely on the ground. - -The flames dart out of the building more fiercely than ever, as if in -anger at losing their prey; the glare and heat grow more intense; the -smoke rolls off in dense volumes; the fire is raging furiously. - -Engine after engine rushes fast to the spot, the loud, alarming cries of -"Fire-ire! Fire-ire!" echoing shrilly along the lamp-lighted -thoroughfares; fireman after fireman leaps from the arriving engines, -and with their bright brass helmets flashing in the glare are quickly -stationed round the huge conflagration. - -The "brigade call" has been telephoned all round London, and from east -and west, and north and south, engines and firemen have hurried to the -spot. Steamers with sparks flying, steam hissing, and whistles -shrieking; manuals with the clatter of their handles; hose-carts with -their lengths of flexible pipes; and tall ladders of fire-escapes, -useful, even when no life is to be saved, as high points of vantage -whence firemen can direct streams of water straight into the raging -fire,--all--all are here. One after another they arrive, until the word -is passed that more than twenty engines and a hundred and twenty firemen -are concentrated on the spot. - -Hydrants also are at work. They are appliances, permanently fixed under -the pathway, from which firemen can obtain a powerful pressure of water, -ranging from thirty-five to seventy pounds per square inch. From the -steamers and the hydrants the quantity of water poured on the huge fire -is now immense, and the steam and smoke roll off in immense volumes. - -Crash! - -"There goes the glass!" cries a fireman; and a few moments later it is -rumoured that one of the brigade has been badly cut in the hands. The -skylight had broken and fallen upon him, showing that it is not only -from heat and smoke that the men are likely to suffer, but also from -falling parts of the burning building. - -The huge fire is fought at every possible point. It is prevented from -spreading to surrounding buildings by deluging them with water, and -strenuous efforts are made to quench it at its source. Steadily in the -growing light of day the firemen work on; but the morning had far -advanced before the great conflagration was fully extinguished and the -London Salvage Corps were left in possession of the ruined premises. - -"Well, you've had your first big fire, Newall; how d'ye like it?" - -"Oh, it's all right, mate; it's pretty hard work, but I don't mind it." - -"'Tain't all over yet," said Jack cheerfully; "there's this 'ere hose to -be scrubbed and cleaned, and hung up in the well to dry. I reckon it -will be four or five o'clock before we can turn in." - -Jack was right. The wet hose had to be suitably treated to keep it in -good condition, and the engines carefully prepared for the next alarm -that might arise; and when the men turned in to rest, they slept sound -enough. - -This story not only illustrates the work of the London Fire-Brigade, but -also points to a notable fact in its history. That fact is the -introduction of the horsed fire-escape. The first rescue in London by -this valuable appliance took place on October 17th, 1898. There were, in -fact, two disastrous fires raging at nearly the same time on that day, -and the new appliance was used at one of these. - -Early in the morning, a disastrous fire broke out in Manresa Road, -Chelsea. The conflagration originated in the centre of a large -timber-yard, and spread so rapidly that a very serious fire was soon in -progress. Engines and firemen hurried up from various quarters, until -sixteen steamers, three manuals, and more than a hundred men were on the -spot. The fire was completely surrounded, and the enormous quantity of -water poured upon the blazing wood soon took effect. - -But before all the engines had left, news came that a still more serious -fire had broken out in Oxford Street. The extensive premises of Messrs. -E. Tautz & Co., wholesale tailors, were discovered to be in flames, and -the alarm was brought to the fire-stations from various sources. - -The Orchard Street fire-alarm rang into Manchester Square station, and -resulted in the horsed escape being turned out; then another fire-alarm -rang into Great Marlborough Street fire-station, and the horsed escape -had hurried from this point also. The appliance was new, and for some -time the men of the brigade had cherished a laudable ambition to be the -first to use the escape in what they call a life-saving job. And it was -only by an untoward chance, or simple fortune of war, that the men of -the Manchester Square station, who were first on the spot, missed the -coveted honour. - -When they arrived on the scene, no sign of fire was visible in Oxford -Street itself, and the firemen were pointed to North Row, one of the -boundaries of the burning block behind. They made their way thither, -searching for inmates, but were driven back by the fierce flames. - -Meantime, the three persons sleeping on the premises--the foreman, Mr. -Harry Smith, his wife, and their little son, aged six years--had been -endeavouring to escape by the staircase, but had been driven back by the -fire. Mr. Smith had been awakened by the dense smoke filling the room, -and he aroused his wife at once and took the boy in his arms. - -Not being able to escape by the staircase, they hurried to the front of -the large block of buildings, shutting the doors after them as they -went. So it happened that they appeared at the second-floor windows -facing Oxford Street just as the horsed escape from Great Marlborough -Street fire-station hurried up. A scene of great excitement followed. -The firemen ran the ladders from the escape to the building, and brought -down all three persons in safety; but Mrs. Smith unfortunately had -suffered a burn on the left leg. It is probable that, but for the -rapidity with which the horsed escapes arrived on the scene, the family -might have suffered much more severely; for the fire was very fierce, -and soon appeared in Oxford Street. - -The honour, therefore, of the first rescue by the new horsed escape -rests with the Great Marlborough Street station, though the efforts of -their brave comrades of the Manchester Square station should always be -remembered in connection therewith. Commander Wells appreciated this; -for he telephoned a special message to Superintendent Smith, saying: - -"Please let your men understand that I thoroughly appreciate and -approve their action on arrival at the fire this morning, although the -honour of rescue falls by the fortune of war to the second -horse-escape." - -The fire proved very disastrous, and a large force was speedily -concentrated. It was eventually subdued; but it was about two o'clock in -the afternoon before the brigade were able to leave, a large warehouse -belonging to Messrs. Peel & Co., boot-makers, being also involved, and -other buildings more or less damaged. - -The horsed fire-escape, which was found so useful on this occasion, is -but one among several appliances for saving life and fighting the fire. -These appliances are worked by highly-trained brigades of firemen, whose -efficient organization, well-considered methods, and ingenious apparatus -form one of the remarkable features of the time. - -They did not reach their present position in a day. Indeed, a stirring -story of human effort and of high-spirited enterprise lies behind the -well-equipped brigades of the time. Step by step men have won great -victories over difficulty and danger; step by step they have profited by -terrible disasters, which have spurred them on to fresh efforts. - -What, then, is this story of the fight against fire? How have the -fire-services of the day reached their present great position? - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE BEGINNING OF THE STORY. HERO'S "SIPHON." HOW THE ANCIENTS STROVE TO -EXTINGUISH FIRES. - - -No one knows who invented the modern fire-engine. - -The earliest machine, so far as is generally known, was described by -Hero of Alexandria about a hundred and fifty years before Christ. He -called it "the siphon used in conflagrations"; and it seems to have been -originated by Ctesibius, a Greek mechanician living in Egypt, whose -pupil Hero became. - -It is very interesting to notice how this contrivance worked. It was -fitted with two cylinders, each having a piston connected by a beam. -This beam raised and lowered each piston alternately, and with the help -of valves--which only opened the way of the jet--propelled water to the -fire, but not continuously. The method must have proved very -inefficient, especially when compared with the constant stream thrown by -the modern fire-engine. Indeed, it is this power to project a steady and -continuous stream which chiefly differentiates the modern fire-engine -from such machines as Hero's siphon. - -How far this siphon or any similar contrivance was used in ancient times -we cannot say; but no doubt buckets in some form or other were the first -appliances used for extinguishing conflagrations. Whenever mankind saw -anything valuable burning, the first impulse would be to stamp it out, -or quench the flame by throwing water on it; and the water would be -conveyed by the readiest receptacle to hand; then when men had -discovered the use of the pump, or the squirt, they would naturally -endeavour to turn these appliances to account. - -In some places the use of water-buckets was organized. Juvenal alludes -to the instructions of the opulent Licinus, who bade his "servants watch -by night, the water-buckets being set ready"; the wealthy man fearing -"for his amber, and his statues, and his Phrygian column, and his ivory -and broad tortoise-shell." - -Then Pliny and Juvenal use a term--_hama_--which signifies an appliance -for extinguishing fires; but the true rendering seems to be in dispute, -some translators being content to describe it simply as a water-vessel. -Pliny the Younger refers to _siphones_, or pipes, being employed to -extinguish fires; but we do not know how they were used, or whether they -resembled Hero's siphon. - -In fact, the earliest references to fire-engines by Roman writers are -regarded by some as being merely allusions to aqueduct-pipes for -bringing water to houses, rather than to a special appliance. And from -Seneca's remark, "that owing to the height of the houses in Rome it was -impossible to save them when they took fire," we may gather that any -appliances that may have been in use were very inefficient. - -A curious primitive contrivance is described by Apollodorus, who was -architect to Trajan. It consisted of leathern bags or bottles, having -pipes attached; and when the bottles were squeezed, the water gushed -through the pipes to extinguish the flames. Augustus was so enterprising -as to organize seven bands of firemen, each of which protected two -districts of Rome. Each band was in charge of a _tribunus_, or captain, -and the whole force was under a _præfectum vigilum_, or prefect of the -watch; though what apparatus they employed--whether buckets or -pipe-bags, syringes or Hero's siphon--we do not know. - -But these appliances, or some of them, were no doubt in use at the Great -Fire of Rome in A.D. 66. In July of that year--the tenth of the reign of -the infamous Emperor Nero--two-thirds of the city was destroyed. The -fire broke out at a number of wooden shops built against the side of the -great Circus, and near to the low-lying ground between the Palatine and -the Cælian Hills. The east wind blew the flames onward to the corner of -the Palatine Hill, and there the fire blazed in two directions. It -gained such enormous power, that stonework split and fell before it like -glass, and building after building succumbed, until at one point it was -only stopped by the river, and at another by frowning cliffs. - -For six awful days and seven nights the fire raged, and then, when it -was supposed to have been extinguished, it burst forth again for three -more days. The sight must have been appalling. We can picture the huge -sheets and tongues of flame sweeping ever onward, the fearful heat, and -the immense volumes of smoke which mounted upward and obscured the sky. - -The panic-stricken people fled to the imperial gardens, but whispered -that Nero himself had originated the fire. To divert suspicion, he -spread reports that the Christians were the culprits; and they were -treated with atrocious cruelty, some being wrapped in fabric covered -with pitch and burnt in the Emperor's grounds. The guilt of Nero remains -a moot point; but he seems to have acted with some amount of liberality -to the sufferers, though his acts of humanity did not free his name -from the foul suspicion. - -The conflagration itself stands out as one of the most terrible in -history. Before its furious rage the capable Romans seem to have been -reduced to impotence. Their organization, if they had any, seems to have -been powerless; and their appliances, if they used any, seem to have -been worthless. - -We are entitled to draw the deduction that they had no machine capable -of throwing a steady, continuous stream from a comparatively safe -distance. No band of men, however strong and determined, could have -stood their ground sufficiently near the fierce fire to throw water from -buckets, pipe-bags, or even portable pumps. For small fires they might -prove of service, if employed early; but for large conflagrations they -would be worthless. And if Rome, the Mistress of the World, was so -ill-provided, what must have been the condition of other places? - -We may infer, therefore, that the means of fire extinction in the -ancient world were miserably inadequate. - -Had mediæval Europe anything better to show? - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -IN MEDIÆVAL DAYS. AN EPOCH-MAKING FIRE. - - -"Prithee, good master, what's o' fire?" - -"A baker's house they say, name of Farryner." - -"Faith! it's in Pudding Lane, nigh Fish Street Hill," quoth another -spectator, coming up. "They say the oven was heated overmuch." - -"It's an old house, and a poor one," said another speaker. "'Twill burn -like touchwood this dry weather." - -"Aye, it have been dry this August, sure enow; and I reckon the rain -won't quench it to-night." And the speaker looked up to the starlit sky, -where never a cloud could be seen. - -"Have they the squirts at work, good-man?" - -"Aye, no doubt. 'Twill be quenched by morning, neighbour. Faith! 'tis -just an old worm-eaten house ablaze, and that's the tale of it." - -But it was not "the tale of it." A strong east wind was blowing, and the -hungry flames spread quickly to neighbouring buildings. These houses -were old and partly decayed, and filled with combustible material, such -as oil, pitch, and hemp used in shipwright's work. In a comparatively -short time the ward of Billingsgate was all ablaze, and the fierce fire, -roaring along Thames Street, attacked St. Magnus Church at Bridgefoot. - -Before the night was far spent, fire-bells were clashing loudly from the -steeples, alarming cries of "Fire! Fire!" resounded through the streets, -and numbers of people in the old narrow-laned city of London were -rushing half dressed from their beds. - -It was the night of Saturday, September 2nd, 1666, a night ever -memorable in the history of London. About ten o'clock, any lingerers on -London Bridge--where houses were then built--might have seen a bright -flame shoot upward to the north. They probably conversed as we have -described, and retired to bed. But the fire spread from the baker's -shop, as we have seen, and the confusion and uproar of that terrible -night grew ever more apace. - -Half-dazed persons crowded the streets, encumbered with household -goods, and the narrow thoroughfares soon became choked with the -struggling throng. But the flames seized upon the goods, and the -panic-stricken people fled for their lives before the fierce attack. The -lurid light fell on their white faces, and the terrible crackling and -roaring of the flames mingled with their shrieks and shouts as they -hurried along. Now the night would be obscured by dense clouds of thick -smoke, and anon the fire would flash forth again more luridly than ever. - -To add to the alarm, the cry would ring through the streets, or would be -passed from mouth to mouth, that the pipes of the New River -Company--then recently laid--were found to be dry. With the suspicion of -Romanist plots prevailing, the scarcity of water and the origin of the -fire were put down to fanatical incendiaries; or, as an old writer -quaintly expressed it, "This doth smell of a popish design." - -When the next morning dawned, the terrible conflagration, so far from -having been extinguished, was raging furiously; the little jets and -bucketsful of water, if any had been used, proved of no avail; and the -narrow streets became, as it were, great sheets of flame. - -But was nothing done to extinguish the fire? What appliances would the -Londoners have had? - -Here, perhaps, in the early hours of the conflagration, you might have -seen a group of three men at the corner of a street working a -hand-squirt. This instrument was of brass, and measured about 3 feet -long. Two men held it by a handle on each side; and when the nozzle had -been dipped into a bucket or a cistern near, and the water had flowed -in, they would raise the squirt, while the third man pushed up the -piston to discharge the water. The squirt might hold about four quarts -of water. - -[Illustration: A CITY FIRE TWO HUNDRED YEARS AGO.] - -If one man worked the squirt, he would hold it up by the handles, and -push the end of the piston, which was generally guarded by a button, -against his chest. But, at the best, it is obvious that the hand-squirt -was a very inadequate contrivance. - -Not far distant you might also have seen a similar squirt, mounted in a -wheeled reservoir or cistern, the pistons, perhaps, worked by levers; -and, possibly, in yet another street you might have noticed a pump of -some kind, also working in a cistern; while here and there you might -have come upon lines of persons passing buckets from hand to hand, -bringing water either from the wells in the city, or from the river, or -actually throwing water on the fire. Such were the appliances which we -gather were then used for extinguishing fires. - -But such contrivances as were then in the neighbourhood of Fish Street -Hill appear to have been burnt before they could be used, and the people -seem to have been too paralyzed with terror to have attempted any -efforts. - -The suggestion was made to pull down houses, so as to create gaps over -which the fire could not pass; and this suggestion no doubt indicates -one of the methods of former days. But the method was not at first -successful on this occasion. - -Thus, Pepys, in his Diary, tells us, under date of the Sunday: "At last -[I] met my Lord Mayor in Canning Street, like a man spent, with a -handkercher about his neck. To the King's message [to pull down houses -before the fire] he cried, like a fainting woman, 'Lord! what can I do? -I am spent: people will not obey me. I have been pulling down houses; -but the fire overtakes us faster than we can do it.'" This is a graphic -little picture of the bewilderment of the people; and Pepys goes on to -say that, as he walked home, he saw "people all almost distracted, and -no manner of means used to quench the fire." - -[Illustration: THE GREAT FIRE OF LONDON (FROM A CONTEMPORARY PRINT).] - -In a similar manner, another famous eye-witness, John Evelyn, notes in -his Diary that "some stout seamen proposed, early enough to have saved -nearly the whole city," the destruction of houses to make a wide gap; -"but this some tenacious and avaricious men, aldermen, etc., would not -permit, because their houses must have been of the first." - -The main idea, therefore, of extinguishing the fire seems to have lain -in the pulling down of houses to produce a wide gap over which the fire -could not pass. But at first the civic authorities shrank from such bold -measures. On Sunday, then, the flames were rushing fiercely onward, the -ancient city echoing to their roaring and to the cries and shrieks of -the populace. The houses by London Bridge, in Thames Street, and the -neighbourhood were but heaps of smouldering ruins. The homeless people -sought refuge in the fields outside the city by Islington and Highgate, -and the city train-bands were placed under arms to watch for -incendiaries; while, as if the horror of the terrible fire was not -enough, numbers of ruffians were found engaged in the dastardly work of -plunder. The clanging of the fire-bells, the crackling of the huge fire, -the cries and curses of the people, made such a frightful din as can -scarce be imagined; while many churches, attended on the previous Sunday -by quiet worshippers, were now blazing in the fire. - -That night the scene was appalling, and yet magnificent. An immense -sheet of fire rose to the sky, rendering the heavens for miles like a -vast lurid dome. The conflagration flamed a whole mile in diameter, -hundreds of buildings were burning, and the high wind bent the huge -flames into a myriad curious shapes, and bore great flakes of fire on to -the roofs of other houses, kindling fresh flames as they fell. For ten -miles distant the country was illumined as at noonday, while the smoke -rolled, it is said, for fifty miles. - -Evelyn describes the scene in his Diary, under date September 3rd: "I -had public prayers at home. The fire continuing, after dinner I took -coach with my wife and son and went to the Bankside in Southwark, where -we beheld the dismal spectacle, the whole city in dreadful flames near -the water-side; all the houses from the Bridge, all Thames Street, and -upwards towards Cheapside, down to the Three Cranes, were now consumed: -and so returned exceeding astonished what would become of the rest. - -"The fire having continued all this night (if I may call that night -which was light as day for ten miles round about, after a dreadful -manner) when conspiring with a fierce eastern wind in a very dry season; -I went on foot to the same place, and saw the whole south part of the -city burning from Cheapside to the Thames and all along Cornhill.... -Here we saw the Thames covered with goods floating, all the barges and -boats laden with what some had time and courage to save, as, on the -other [side], the carts, etc., carrying out to the fields, which for -many miles were strewed with moveables of all sorts, and tents erecting -to shelter both people and what goods they could get away. Oh the -miserable and calamitous spectacle! such as haply the world had not seen -the like since the foundation of it, nor be outdone till the universal -conflagration of it! All the sky was of a fiery aspect, like the top of -a burning oven, and the light seen above forty miles round about for -many nights. God grant mine eyes may never behold the like, who now saw -above ten thousand houses all in one flame; the noise and cracking and -thunder of the impetuous flames, the shrieking of women and children, -the hurry of people, the fall of towers, houses, and churches, was like -a hideous storm, and the air all about so hot and inflamed that at the -last one was not able to approach it, so that they were forced to stand -still and let the flames burn on, which they did for near two miles in -length and one in breadth. The clouds also of smoke were dismal, and -reached, upon computation, near fifty-six miles in length. Thus I left -it this afternoon burning, a resemblance of Sodom or the last day." - -On Monday the Royal Exchange perished in the sea of flame. By evening -Cheapside had fallen, and beside the water's edge it was blazing in -Fleet Street; while it had also burned backward, even against the wind, -along the eastern part of Thames Street, toward Tower Hill. The heat was -so terrible that persons could not approach within a furlong, while the -very pathways were glowing with fiery heat. Some persons chartered -barges and boats, and, filling them with such property as they could -save, sent them down the Thames. Others paid large sums for carts to -convey property far beyond the city walls. A piteous exodus of sick and -sound, aged and young, crawled or fled to the spacious fields beyond the -gates. The ground was strewn with movables for miles, and tents were -erected to shelter the burned-out multitude. - -At length St. Paul's succumbed. It had stood tall and strong in the -space of its churchyard, lifting its head loftily amid the billows of -flame; but at last the terrible fire, driven toward it by the east wind, -lapped the roof, and seized some scaffold-poles standing around. The -lead on the roof melted in the fierce heat, and ran down the walls in -streams; the stones split, and pieces flew off with reports like -cannon-shots; and beams fell crashing like thunder to the ground. - -Evelyn notes, under date September 4th: "The burning still rages, and it -was now gotten as far as the Inner Temple; all Fleet Street, the Old -Bailey, Ludgate Hill, Warwick Lane, Newgate, Paul's Chain, Watling -Street now flaming, and most of it reduced to ashes; the stones of -Paul's flew like granados, the melting lead running down the streets in -a stream, and the very pavements glowing with fiery redness, so as no -horse nor man was able to tread on them, and the demolition had stopped -all the passages, so that no help could be applied. The eastern wind -still more impetuously driving the flames forward. Nothing but the -almighty power of God was able to stop them, for vain was the help of -man." - -On the eastern side of St. Paul's, the old Guildhall fell to the fire. -On Tuesday night, it was, says a contemporary writer, the Rev. Thomas -Vincent, in a little volume published a year afterwards, "a fearfull -spectacle, which stood the whole body of it together in view, for -several hours together, after the fire had taken it, without flames (I -suppose because the timber was such solid oake), in a bright shining -coale as if it had been a Pallace of gold, or a great building of -burnished brass." - -The fire had now become several miles in circumference. It had reached -the Temple at the western end of Fleet Street by the river, and was -blazing up by Fetter Lane to Holborn; then backward, its course lay -along Snow Hill, Newgate Street--Newgate Prison being consumed--and so -past the Guildhall and Coleman Street, on to Bishopsgate Street and -Leadenhall Street. It seemed as though all London would be burnt, and -that it would spread westward even to Whitehall and Westminster Abbey. - -But now the King (Charles II.) and his brother the Duke of York and -their courtiers were fully aroused; and it must have become clear to -even the meanest intelligence that houses must be blown down on an -extensive scale, in order to create large gaps over which the fire could -not pass. All through Tuesday night, therefore, the sound of explosions -mingled with the roaring of the fire. - -By the assistance of soldiers, and by the influence of the royal -personages, buildings were blown up by gunpowder in the neighbourhood of -Temple Bar, which then, of course, spanned the western end of Fleet -Street; at Pye Corner near the entrance to Smithfield, and also at other -points of vantage. These bold means, together, no doubt, with the -falling of the wind, and also the presence of some strong brick -buildings, as by the Temple, checked and stopped the fire. Some began -now to bestir themselves, "who hitherto," remarks Evelyn, "had stood as -men intoxicated with their hands across." On the Wednesday, therefore, -the fire extended no farther west than the Temple, and no farther north -than Pye Corner near Smithfield; but within this area it still burned, -and the heat was still so great that no one would venture near it. - -During the Wednesday, the King was most energetic. He journeyed round -the fire twice, and kept workers at their posts, and assisted in -providing food and shelter for the people. Orders were sent into the -country for provisions and tents, and also for boards wherewith to build -temporary dwellings. On Thursday the Great Fire was everywhere -extinguished; but on Friday the ruins were still smouldering and -smoking, and the ground so hot that a pedestrian could not stand still -for long on one spot. From St. Paul's Churchyard, where the ground rises -to about the greatest height in the old city, the eye would range over a -terrible picture of widespread destruction, from the Temple to the Tower -and from the Thames to Smithfield. Two hundred thousand homeless persons -were camping out, or lying beside such household goods as they had been -able to save, in the fields by Islington and Highgate. It has been -computed that no fewer than 13,200 houses, 89 churches, including St. -Paul's, 400 streets, and several public buildings, together with four -stone bridges and three of the city gates, etc., were destroyed, while -the fire swept over an area of 436 acres. - -Now, in connection with this great calamity, we cannot find any -appliance at work corresponding to our modern fire-engine. The -inhabitants of London seem to have been almost, if not quite, as badly -provided against fire as Rome in the days of Nero. - -In fact, the chief protection in early days in England seems to have -been a practice of the old proverb that prevention is better than cure, -care being exercised to regulate the fires used for domestic purposes: -we see an instance in the arrangement of the curfew-bell, or -_couvre-feu_, a bell to extinguish all fires at eight at night. Still, -when conflagrations did occur, we may suppose that buckets and -hand-squirts, as soon as mankind came to construct them, were the -appliances used. - -Entries for fire-extinguishing machines of some sort have been found in -the accounts of many German towns: for instance, in the building -accounts of Augsburg for 1518, "instruments of fire" or "water-syringes" -are mentioned. - -Fires appear to have been very frequent in Germany in the latter part of -the fifteenth and in the sixteenth century. And though we do not know -much of the contrivances used in Europe in the Middle Ages, it is not -until 1657 that we have any reliable record of a machine at all -resembling Hero's siphon on the one hand, or the modern fire-engine on -the other. - -This record is given by Caspar Schott, a Jesuit, and tells of an engine -constructed by Hautsch of Nuremberg, a city long famous for mechanical -contrivances. The machine was really a large water-cistern drawn on a -wheeled car, or sledge; and the secret of its propulsive power, Schott -supposes was a horizontal cylinder containing a piston and producing an -action like a pump. The cistern measured 8 feet long by 4 feet high, and -2 feet wide; its small width being probably designed for entering narrow -streets. It was operated by twenty-eight men, and it forced a stream of -water an inch thick to a height of about eighty feet. Hautsch desired to -keep the methods of its construction secret; but, apparently, it was not -furnished with the important air-chamber, and does not seem to have -differed very materially from Hero's siphon. Schott also says he had -seen one forty years before at Königshofen. - -Notwithstanding, therefore, the danger of great conflagrations, mankind -does not seem to have made much progress in the construction of -fire-engines from the days of Ctesibius until the time of Charles II., a -period of about eighteen hundred years. On the other hand, we must -remember that syringes and water-buckets can be of very great service -when promptly and efficiently used. Even to-day London firemen find -similar appliances of great value for small conflagrations in rooms. - -But we get a vivid little picture of the helplessness of even the -seventeenth-century public before a fire of any size, in a description -left by Wallington of a fire on Old London Bridge in 1633. Houses were -then built on the bridge, and Wallington says: "All the conduits near -were opened, and the pipes that carried the water through the streets -were cut open, and the water swept down with brooms with help enough; -but it was the will of God it should not prevail. For the three engines -which are such excellent things that nothing that ever was devised could -do so much good, yet none of them did prosper, for they were all broken, -and the tide was very low that they could get no water, and the pipes -that were cut yielded but littel. Some ladders were broke to the hurt of -many; for several had their legges broke, some their arms; and some -their ribes, and many lost their lives." More than fifty houses, we may -add, were destroyed by this fire. - -Of what character were the engines to which he refers we cannot tell. We -do not know whether any engine like Hautsch's was established in London -at this time, or at the date of the Great Fire; but if so, it was not -apparently much in vogue. It must be remembered that the term "engine" -was applied indiscriminately to any sort of mechanical contrivance, and -even to a skilful plan or method (Shakespeare uses the word to designate -an instrument of torture); if, therefore, the word is used for a -fire-extinguishing appliance by any old writer, it does not follow that -the so-called engine would resemble Hautsch's machine or a modern -fire-engine. - -[Illustration: FIRE-EXTINGUISHING APPLIANCES, SQUIRTS, BUCKETS, ETC., -A.D. 1667.] - -Judging from some Instructions of the Corporation after the fire, -hand-squirts and ladders and buckets were still chiefly relied upon in -1668. The Instructions are, moreover, interesting, as showing what -action the Corporation took after the Great Fire. - -The city was divided into four districts, each of which was to be -furnished with eight hundred leathern buckets, fifty ladders varying in -sizes from 16 to 42 feet long, also "so many hand-squirts of brass as -will furnish two for every parish, four-and-twenty pickaxe-sledges, and -forty shod shovels." Further, each of the twelve companies was to -provide thirty buckets, one engine, six pickaxe-sledges, three ladders, -and two hand-squirts of brass. Again, "all the other inferior companies" -were to provide similar appliances; and aldermen were likewise to -provide buckets and hand-squirts of brass. The pickaxes and shovels were -for use in demolishing houses and walls if necessary, or dealing with -ruins; and though some kind of engine is mentioned, we know not whether -it was a hand-squirt mounted in a cistern, or some sort of portable -pump. - -We may regard these regulations, however, as fixing for us the -hand-squirt and the bucket as the principal means of fire extinguishment -in Britain up to that date. - -But now a great development was at hand, and a new chapter was to -commence in the story. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE PEARL-BUTTON MAKER'S CONTRIVANCE. THE MODERN FIRE-ENGINE. - - -How to force a continuous stream of water on the fire! - -That was the problem which puzzled an unknown inventor about the year -1675. He probably saw that hitherto the appliances for extinguishing -conflagrations failed at this point, and we may suppose that he -cudgelled his brains to hit upon the right remedy. - -Then one day, no one seems to know when, he thought of inventing, or -adapting, the compressed air-chamber to a sort of portable pump, and, -behold!-- - -The Modern Fire-Engine was born! - -The invention was introduced, probably, after the Great Fire, because -authorities describe it as first mentioned in the French _Journal des -Savans_ in 1675, and Perrault states that an engine with an air-chamber -was kept at Paris for the protection of the Royal Library in 1684. If, -therefore, Hero knew of the air-chamber, as some assert, it does not -appear to have been much used. But probably the great disaster in London -stirred invention, and the addition of the air-chamber was the result. -It may not, however, have been a distinct invention, for an air-chamber -had been found of great value in various hydraulic machines. - -What, then, is this invention, and what is its great value to a -fire-engine? - -Briefly, it enables a steady and continuous stream of water to be thrown -on a fire. It is the vital principle of the modern fire-engine, and -renders it distinctly different from all squirts, syringes, and portable -pumps preceding it. Instead of an unequal and intermittent supply, -sometimes, no doubt, falling far short of the fire, we have now a -persistent stream, which can be continuously directed to any point, in -reach, with precision and efficiency. - -How, then, are these results obtained? How does the air-chamber work? - -It depends on the elasticity and power of compressed air. The water, -when drawn from the source of supply by two pistons, working -alternately, is driven into a strong chamber filled with air. The air -becomes compressed, and is driven to one part of the chamber; but when -it is forced back to occupy about one-third of the whole space, the air -is so compressed that, like the proverbial worm which will turn at last, -it exerts a pressure on the water which had been driving it back. If the -water had no means of escape, the chamber would soon burst; but the -water finds its way through the delivery-hose. If the hose issue from -the top of the chamber, it is fitted with a connecting pipe reaching -nearly to the bottom to prevent any escape of air. - -Now, as long as the pumps force the water into the air-chamber to the -necessary level--that is, to about two-thirds of the space--the pressure -is practically continuous, and thus a constant jet of water is -maintained through the hose. The ordinary pressure of air is about 14·7 -pounds per square inch; and when compressed to one-half its usual bulk, -its elasticity or power of pressure is doubled, and of course is -rendered greater if still further compressed. - -This power, then, of the compressibility and elasticity of air is the -secret of the fire-engine air-chamber; but though introduced about 1675, -it was not until 1720 that such engines seem to have become more -general. About that date, Leupold built engines in Germany with a -strongly-soldered copper chest, and one piston and cylinder, the machine -throwing a continuous and steady jet of water some twenty or thirty feet -high. - -In the meantime, what was being done in England? - -Here again the story is obscure; but we imagine the course of events to -have been something like this: - -In the dismal days after the Great Fire, people began to cast about for -means to prevent a recurrence of so widespread and terrible a calamity. -Fire-insurance offices were organized, and they undertook the -extinguishment of fires. It is not unreasonable to suppose that in some -form--perhaps by offering prizes, perhaps by simply calling attention to -the need for improvement, perhaps by disseminating information such as -of the engine mentioned by Perrault at Paris--these offices stimulated -invention; perhaps the memory of the Great Fire was enough to stir -ingenious effort without their aid. - -Now, there was a pearl-button maker named Newsham, at Cloth Fair, not -far distant from Pye Corner, who obtained patents for improvements in -fire-engines in 1721, and again in 1725; while the _Daily Journal_ of -April 7th, 1726, gives a report of one of his engines which discharged -water as high as the grasshopper on the Royal Exchange. This apparently -was not only due to the great compression of air in the air-chamber, but -also to the peculiar shape he gave to the nozzle of the jet; and it is -said he was able to throw water to a height of a hundred and thirty feet -or more. - -In France a man named Perier seems to have been busy with fire-engines, -though how far he worked independently of others we cannot tell. - -The hose and suction-pipe are said to have been invented by two men -named Van der Hide, inspectors of fire-extinguishing machines at -Amsterdam about 1670. The hose was of leather, and enabled the water to -be discharged close to the fire. It is worthy of note that this -invention also appears to have been after the Great Fire of London. - -Remembering, therefore, that Newsham was probably indebted to others -for the important air-chamber and flexible leathern hose--though how far -he was indebted we cannot say--we must regard him as the Father of the -Modern Fire-Engine in England. Especially so, as his improvements have -been regarded as in advance of all others in their variety and value. It -is also worthy of note that the first fire-engines in the United States -were of his construction. - -Little is known of Newsham's life. The reasons leading him, a maker of -pearl buttons, to turn his attention to fire-engine improvement are not -clear. At his death in 1743, the undertaking passed by bequest to his -son. The son died about a year after his father, and the business then -came into the hands of his wife and cousin George Ragg, also by bequest; -and the name of the firm became Newsham & Ragg. - -One of Newsham's engines may be seen in the South Kensington Museum -to-day, having been presented to that institution by the corporation of -Dartmouth. The pump-barrels will be found to measure 4œ inches in -diameter, with a piston-stroke of 8œ inches. The original instructions -are still attached, and are protected by a piece of horn. - -The general construction of Newsham's engines appears to have been -something like this: - -The body, which was long and narrow, measured about 9 feet by 3 feet -broad; this shape enabled it to be wheeled in narrow streets, and even -through doorways. Along the lower part of the body, which was swung on -wheels, ran a pipe of metal, which the water entered from a feed-pipe. -The feed-pipe was intended to be connected with a source of supply; but -if this failed, a cistern, attached to the body of the engine, could be -filled by buckets, while a strainer was placed at the junction between -the cistern and the interior pipe to prevent dirt or gravel from -entering it. - -[Illustration: EARLY MANUAL FIRE-ENGINE.] - -On the top of the body was built a superstructure, which looked like a -high box--greater in height than in breadth, and larger at the top than -at the bottom. This box contained the all-important air-chamber and the -pumps. The water in the interior pipe was forced into the air-chamber by -the two pumps, and then thrown on the fire through a pipe connected with -a hose of leather projecting from the top of the air-chamber. This pipe -descended within the chamber almost to the bottom, so that when water -was pumped into the air-chamber it flowed round the bottom of the pipe, -and prevented any ingress or egress of air. As the water rose, the air -already in the chamber became compressed in the top part of the chamber, -and in turn exerted its power on the water. - -The pumps were worked by levers, one on each side of the engine, and -alternately raised and lowered by the men operating the machine; while -this manual-power was much increased by one or two men working treadles -connected with the levers, and throwing the weight of the body on each -treadle alternately. - -The principle of the force-pump may be thus briefly explained: - -When a tight-fitting piston working in a cylinder is drawn upward, the -air in the cylinder is drawn up also, and a partial vacuum created; if -the cylinder is connected with water not too far distant by a pipe, the -water will then rush upward to fill the vacuum. Then, if the bottom of -the cylinder be fitted with a valve opening upward only, it is closed -when the piston is pushed down again; and the water would burst the -cylinder, if enough power were applied to the piston, but escape is -afforded along another pipe as an outlet, which in the case of the -fire-engine opens into the air-chamber, and which is opened and closed -by another valve. Thus is the water not only raised from the source of -supply, but is forced along another channel. - -And the modern fire-engine--which we date from Newsham's engines in -England about 1726--is a combination of the principles of the force-pump -and of the air-chamber, which acts by reason of the great elasticity of -compressed air. - -Other inventors made improvements as well as Newsham, namely, Dickenson, -Bramah, Furst, Rowntree, and others, though the differences were chiefly -in details. An engraving mentioned in an old work of reference sets -forth that a London merchant named John Lofting was the patentee and -inventor of the fire-engine. His invention must have been since the -Great Fire, because the Monument is depicted in one corner of the -engraving and the Royal Exchange in another. Rowntree made an engine for -the Sun and some other fire-offices, which protected the feed-pipe more -efficiently from mud and gravel; and Bramah devised a hemispherical -perforated nozzle, which distributed water in all directions, so that -the ceilings, sides, and floor of a room would become equally drenched. - -Bramah also applied the rotary principle to the fire-engine. He studied -the principles of hydraulics, and introduced many improvements into -machinery for pumping, a rotary principle being one of them. He attained -this object by changing the form of the cylinder and piston, the part -acting directly on the water being shaped as a "slider," and working -round a cavity in form of a cylinder, and maintained in its place by a -groove. He applied the rotative principle to many objects, one being the -fire-engine. His fire-engine was patented in 1793; but we cannot -discover that it changed any vital principle of the machine, which, as -we have seen, consists in essence of a movable force-pump, steadied and -strengthened by a compressed air-chamber and a flexible delivery-hose. - -Joseph Bramah, however, is doubtless best known to fame as the inventor -of the hydraulic press, though he is also celebrated for the safety-lock -which bears his name. He was a farmer's son, and was born at -Stainborough in Yorkshire in 1748; but an accident rendering him lame, -he was apprenticed to a carpenter. Engaging in business as a -cabinet-maker in London, he was employed one day to fit up some sanitary -appliances, and their imperfections led him to devise improvements. He -took out his first patent in 1778 and this contrivance proved to be the -first of a long series. His lock followed, and then, assisted in one -detail by Henry Maudslay, he introduced his hydraulic press, a machine -which he foresaw was capable of immense development. - -Several of his improvements are concerned with water, such as -contrivances connected with pumps and fire-engines, and with building -boilers for steam-engines. It is also said he was one of the first -proposers of the screw-propeller for steamships. Altogether, he was the -author of eighteen patents; though it has been pointed out that he -improved and applied the inventions of others, rather than originated -the whole thing himself. While he contributed improvements to the -fire-engine, the vital principle of the air-chamber and the flexible -hose remained the same. Up to about the year 1832, the larger engines -generally in use in London seem to have thrown some eighty-eight gallons -a minute from fifty to seventy feet high. - -The next notable development was the application of steam to work the -force-pumps. But this addition, which was made about 1830 by John -Braithwaite, also did not alter the principle of the air-chamber. - -John Braithwaite came of an engineering family. He was born in 1797, the -third son of John Braithwaite, the constructor of one of the first -diving-bells. The ancestors of the Braithwaites had conducted an -engineer's business, or something analogous to it, at St. Albans ever -since the year 1695. - -The younger John entered his father's business, and from 1823, after his -father and brother died, conducted it alone. Those were the days when -steam was coming into vogue, and he began to manufacture high-pressure -steam-engines. Together with Ericsson, he constructed the "Novelty," the -locomotive which competed in the famous railway-engine contest at -Rainhill in 1829, when Stephenson's "Rocket" won the prize. -Braithwaite's engine, though it did not fulfil all the conditions of the -competition, yet is said by some to have been the first locomotive to -run a mile a minute--or rather more, for it is held to have covered a -mile in fifty-six seconds. He used a bellows to fan the fire; and in his -steam fire-engine, he also employed bellows, though on one day of the -Rainhill contest the failure of the bellows rendered the locomotive -incapable of doing work. - -In the fire-engine, the bellows were worked by the wheels of the -machine, and eighteen or twenty minutes were required to raise the -steam. At the present time, a hundred pounds of steam can be raised in -five minutes in the biggest engine of the London Brigade, this result -being due, in one respect at least, to the use of water-tube boilers. - -Braithwaite's engine of 1830 was fitted with an upright boiler, and was -of scarcely six horse-power; but, nevertheless, it forced about fifteen -gallons of water per minute from eighty to ninety feet high. The pistons -for the steam and water respectively were on opposite ends of the same -rod, that for steam being 7 inches in diameter, and for the water 6œ -inches, and both having a stroke of 16 inches. - -The engine was successful in its day. During an hour's work, it would -throw between thirty and forty tons of water on a fire; while another -engine, also made by Braithwaite, threw the larger quantity of ninety -tons an hour. - -The steam fire-engine was first used at the burning of the Argyle Rooms -in London in 1830; it was also used at the fire of the English -Opera-House in the same year, and at the great fire at the Houses of -Parliament in 1834. But, curiously enough, a great prejudice existed -against it, and the engine was at length destroyed by a London mob. The -fire-brigade were also against it. So Braithwaite gave it up; but he -built a few others, one at least being for Berlin, where it seems to -have given great satisfaction. - -Braithwaite, who became engineer-in-chief to the Eastern Counties -Railway, also applied steam to a floating fire-engine, and constructed -the machinery so that the power could be rapidly changed from propelling -the vessel to operating the pumps. - -The brigade could not long disregard the use of steam. In 1852, their -manual-float was altered to a steamer, the alterations being made by -Messrs. Shand & Mason. Six years later, the firm made a land steam -fire-engine, which, however, was sent to St. Petersburg; and then in -1860--thirty years after Braithwaite had introduced the machine--the -London Brigade hired one for a year. The experiment was successful, and -a steam fire-engine was purchased from the same makers. But only two -steam fire-engines were at work at the great Tooley Street fire. - -Then, in July, 1863, a steam fire-engine competition took place at the -Crystal Palace, the trials lasting three days. Lord Sutherland was -chairman, and Captain Shaw, who was then chief of the London Brigade, -was honorary secretary of the competition committee. In the result, -Merryweather & Son won the first prize in the large-class engine, and -Shand & Mason the second prize. Shand & Mason also took the first prize -in the small class, and Lee & Co. the second prize in the small class. -The value of the steam fire-engine was fully established. - -At the present time, Messrs. Shand & Mason have an engine capable of -throwing a thousand gallons a minute; while one of the water-floats of -the London Brigade will throw thirteen hundred and fifty gallons a -minute. These powerful machines form a striking development of Newsham's -engine of 1726, and afford a remarkable contrast to the old -fire-quenching appliances of former times. - -But while the development of the modern fire-engine had been proceeding, -a not less remarkable organization of firemen had been growing. It arose -in a very singular, and yet under the circumstances a not unnatural, -manner. And to this part of the story we must now turn our attention. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -EXTINGUISHMENT BY COMPANY. THE BEGINNINGS OF FIRE INSURANCE. - - -"Cannot provision be made against loss by fire?" - -Looking at the terrible ruin caused in 1666, prudent men would naturally -begin to ask this question. And some enterprising individual declared -that a scheme must be launched whereby such provision might be made. - -So, although proposals and probably attempts for fire insurance had been -made before, by individuals or clubs, and by Anglo-Saxon guilds; yet we -read that "a combination of persons"--which, in the words of to-day, we -suppose means a company--opened "the first regular office for insuring -against loss by fire" in 1681. - -Of course, another speedily followed. That is our English way. But both -of these have disappeared. One, however,--the appropriately named -Hand-in-Hand, which was opened in 1696,--still survives, and added -life-insurance business in 1836. The Sun was projected in 1708 and -started in 1710, the Union followed four years later, the Westminster in -1717, the London in 1720, and the Royal Exchange in the same year. - -[Illustration: LONDON FIREMAN IN 1696.] - -Therefore, the close of the seventeenth and the beginning of the -eighteenth centuries saw the practice of fire insurance well established -in Britain as an organized system. Now, these offices not only undertook -to repay the insurers for losses, but also to extinguish the fires -themselves. This latter, indeed, was fully regarded as an integral part -of their business. Thus, one of the prospectuses of an early fire-office -states that "watermen and other labourers are to be employed, at the -charge of the undertakers, to assist at the quenching of fires." And it -is worthy of note that, while the earliest men employed were watermen, -the London Fire-Brigade to-day will only accept able-bodied sailors as -their recruits. - -[Illustration: FIRE-INSURANCE BADGES.] - -The offices dressed their men in livery, and gave them badges; the men -dwelt in different parts of the city, and were expected to be ready when -any fires occurred. Even to-day the interest of the companies in the -extinguishment of fires is recognized, and their early connection -therewith maintained; for they pay the London County Council £30,000 -annually toward the support of the brigade. - -By the beginning of the nineteenth century, the fire-offices had notably -increased in numbers. Thus, in 1810 there were sixteen, and some of -their names will be recognized to-day. In addition to the Hand-in-Hand -and the Sun, were the Phoenix (1782), the Royal Exchange, the North -British (1809), the Imperial (1803), and the Atlas, dating from 1808; -there was also the Caledonian, dating from 1805. - -Each company fixed its badge to the building insured, a course which -appears to have been suggested by the Sun, and adopted so that the -firemen of the different companies might know to which office the -burning house belonged. - -The badge was stamped in sheet-lead, and was painted and gilded; but the -badges for the firemen appear usually to have been of brass, and were -fixed to the left arm. Each company not only kept its own engines and -its staff of firemen, but also clad its men in distinctive uniforms. The -dress for the Sun Office consisted of coat, waistcoat, and breeches of -dark-blue cloth, adorned with shining brass buttons. The brass badge -represented the usual conventional face of the sun, with the rays of -light around, and the name placed above. - -The helmet was of horse-hide, with cross-bars of metal. It was made of -leather inside, but stuffed and quilted with wool. This quilting would, -it was hoped, protect the head from falling stones or timbers, dangers -which are still the greatest perils threatening firemen at their work. - -By-and-by, Parliament made some effort towards organizing fire -extinction. In 1774, a law was passed, providing that the parish -overseers and churchwardens should maintain an engine to extinguish -fires within their own boundaries. These engines were doubtless manned -in many parishes, especially in rural districts, by voluntary workers, -who sometimes were probably not even enrolled in an organized voluntary -brigade; the police also in certain places undertook fire duty. But -"what is every one's business is no one's business," and for various -reasons numbers of these parish fire-engines fell into disuse. - -In short, the organization for the extinguishment of fires was -thoroughly unsatisfactory. The men belonging to the different companies -were too often rivals, when they should have been co-workers; each -naturally gave special attention to the houses bearing their badges. We -obtain a remarkable picture of the inefficiency prevailing in a letter -from an eye-witness, Sir Patrick Walker, in No. 9 of the _Scots -Magazine_ in 1814. It refers to Edinburgh, but doubtless is true of -other places. - -[Illustration: ROYAL EXCHANGE FIREMAN. - -(_From a portrait._)] - -Sir Patrick had taken an active part in endeavouring to arrest a -conflagration, and he remarks on "a total absence of combined and -connected aid, which must often render abortive all exertions." The -chief defect, he declares, lies "in having company engines, which -creates a degree of jealousy among the men who work them." When all -success depended on their united efforts, then they were most -discordant. There were often more engines than water to adequately -supply them, consequently no engine had probably enough to be efficient. -The remedy, he held, was to abolish all names or marks, and form the -whole into one body on military principles. - -Curiously enough, the brigade that was formed in London has come to be -regulated rather on naval than on military principles; but the essence -of Sir Patrick's suggestion was undoubtedly sound. He also complained -greatly of the waste of water by hand-carrying, which, moreover, created -great confusion. - -These grave defects were, no doubt, also felt keenly by the London -fire-offices, and in 1825 some of them combined to form one brigade. -They were the Sun, the Phoenix, the Royal Exchange, the Union, and the -Atlas; and seven years later, in the memorable year 1832, all the more -important companies united. - -In this action they were led by Mr. R. Bell Ford, director of the Sun -Fire-Office. The organization then formed was called the London -Fire-Engine Establishment, and had nineteen stations and eighty men. It -was placed under the superintendence of Mr. James Braidwood, a name -never to be forgotten in the story of fire-brigades and their work. - -But to learn something of this great man and his daring deeds and noble -career, we must change the scene to Edinburgh. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE STORY OF JAMES BRAIDWOOD. - - -"Something must be done!" - -Many an Edinburgh citizen must have expressed this decision in the -memorable year 1824. Several destructive fires had occurred, and at each -catastrophe the need of efficient organization was terribly apparent. It -seemed as though the whole city would be burned. - -Then the police took action. The commissioners of the Edinburgh police -appointed a committee, and a Fire-Engine Corps, as it was called, was -established, on October 1st of the same year. The new organization was -to be supported by contributions from various companies, from the city -of Edinburgh, and from the police funds. - -"But who was to superintend it?" - -Now, a gentleman had become known to the commissioners, perhaps through -being already a superintendent of fire-engines; and though only -twenty-four years of age, he was appointed. - -His name was James Braidwood. He was born in 1800 in Edinburgh, and was -the son of a builder. Receiving his education at the High School, he -afterwards followed his father's business. But in 1823, he was appointed -superintendent of the fire-engines, perhaps owing to his knowledge of -building and carpentry; and when the corps was established, he was -offered the command. - -He proceeded to form his brigade of picked men. He selected slaters, -house-carpenters, plumbers, smiths, and masons. Slaters, he said -afterwards, become good firemen; not only from their cleverness in -climbing and working on roofs--though he admitted these to be great -advantages--but because he found them generally more handy and ready -than other classes of workmen. - -They were allowed to follow their ordinary occupations daily; but they -were regularly trained and exercised every week, the time chosen being -early in the morning. Method was imparted to their work. Instead of -being permitted to throw the water wastefully on walls or windows where -it might not reach the fire at once, they were taught to seek it out, -and to direct the hose immediately upon it at its source. - -This beneficial substitution of unity, method, skill, and intelligent -control for scattered efforts, random attempts, lack of organization, -and discord in the face of the enemy, was soon manifest. - -Five years after the corps had been established under Mr. Braidwood, the -_Edinburgh Mercury_ wrote: "The whole system of operations has been -changed. The public, however, do not see the same bustle, or hear the -same noise, as formerly; and hence they seem erroneously to conclude -that there is nothing done. The fact is, the spectator sees the -preparation for action made, but he sees no more. Where the strength of -the men and the supply of water used to be wasted, by being thrown -against windows, walls, and roofs, the firemen now seek out the spot -where the danger lies, and, creeping on hands and feet into the chamber -full of flame or smoke, often at the hazard of suffocation, discover the -exact seat of danger, and, by bringing the water in contact with it, -obtain immediate mastery over the powerful element with which they have -to contend. In this daring and dangerous work, men have occasionally -fainted from heat, or dropped down from want of respiration; in which -case, the next person at hand is always ready to assist his companion, -and to release him from his service of danger." - -Not only exercising great powers of skilful management, Braidwood showed -remarkable determination and presence of mind in the face of danger. -Hearing on one occasion that some gunpowder was stored in an -ironmonger's shop, which was all aflame, he plunged in, and, at imminent -risk of his life, carried out first one cask from the cellar, and then, -re-entering, brought out another, thus preventing a terrible explosion. - -In 1830, Mr. Braidwood issued a pamphlet dealing with the construction -of fire-engines, the training of firemen, and the method of proceeding -in cases of fire. In this work he declared he had not been able to find -any work on fire-engines in the English language--a state of things -which testifies to the lack of public interest or lack of information in -the matter in those days. The book is technical, but useful to the -expert before the era of steam fire-engines. - -But in a volume, issued a few years after his death, Mr. Braidwood takes -a comprehensive glance at the condition of fire extinguishment in -different places. The date is not given; but it was probably about 1840. - -In substance he says: "On the Continent generally, the whole is managed -by Government, and the firemen are placed under martial law, the -inhabitants being compelled to work the engines. In London, the -principal means ... is a voluntary association of the Insurance -Companies without legal authority; the legal protection by parish -engines being, with a few praiseworthy exceptions, a dead letter. In -Liverpool, Manchester, and other towns, the extinction of fires by the -pressure of water only, without the use of engines, is very much -practised. In America, the firemen are generally volunteers enrolled by -the local governments, and entitled to privileges." - -From this bird's-eye view, it will be seen that organization for fire -extinction and the use of efficient appliances for fighting the flames -were still in a very unsatisfactory state; yet the increasing employment -of lucifer-matches and of gas in the earlier years of the nineteenth -century tended to increase conflagrations. - -Moreover, it is curious that the public seemed but little aroused to -this unsatisfactory condition of affairs. Perhaps they saw their way to -nothing better; perhaps, if they took precautions, they regarded a fire -as unlikely to occur in their own house, even if it might happen to -their neighbour. Whatever the cause, they seem to have been but little -stirred on the subject. - -It was probably Mr. Braidwood's pamphlet of 1830 that led to his -appointment as chief of the newly-formed London Fire-Engine -Establishment. The publication showed him to be an authority on the -subject, and one likely to succeed in the post. He came with the cordial -good wishes of his Edinburgh friends. The firemen presented him with a -gold watch, and the committee with a piece of plate. - -He was ever careful of his men. He watched their movements, when they -were likely to be placed in positions of peril; and he would not allow -any man to risk unnecessary danger. Yet he was himself as daring as he -was skilful, and never shrank from encountering personal risk. - -This was the sort of man who came to lead the London Fire-Engine -Establishment. He found it a small force, composed of groups of men -accustomed formerly to act in rivalry, and having between thirty and -forty engines, throwing about ninety gallons a minute to a height of -between seventy and eighty feet, and also several smaller hand-hauled -engines, comparatively useless at a large fire. In addition to the -establishment of the associated companies, there were about three -hundred parish engines and many maintained at places of business by -private firms. - -By his energy and skill, Mr. Braidwood kept the fires in check, and came -to be regarded as a great authority on fire extinguishment and -protection from fire. On these subjects, he was consulted in connection -with the Royal Palaces and Government Offices, and held an appointment -as a chief fire inspector of various palaces and public buildings. He -became an Associate of the Institute of Civil Engineers, and read -several papers before that body, and also before the Society of Arts, on -the subject of the extinction and prevention of fires. - -The force under his command was increased from eighty to a hundred and -twenty men; but it still remained the Establishment of the Fire-Offices. -Throughout the country, the extinguishment of fire continued largely in -the hands of voluntary workers, assisted by various authorities, even -the fire-brigades being sometimes supplemented by the police and the -water companies, as well as the general public. - -And then an event occurred, which not only thrilled London with horror, -but probably led to one of the most remarkable developments in the -efforts for fire extinction that England had known. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -THE THAMES ON FIRE. THE DEATH OF BRAIDWOOD. - - -About half-past four o'clock in the afternoon of June 22nd, 1861, an -alarm of fire reached the Watling Street station. - -The firemen turned out to the call; but little did they think, as they -hurried along, that the fire to which they were summoned would burn for -a whole month, and would become known as one of the most serious in the -history of London. - -The call came from Tooley Street, on the south side of London Bridge. -Some jute in the upper part of a warehouse had been discovered -smouldering, and bucketsful of water had been thrown upon it; but the -smoke became so thick and overwhelming, that the men were compelled to -desist, and the flames grew rapidly. - -By this time the alarm had been sent to Watling Street. Quickly the -fire-engines arrived on the spot, and the men found dense masses of -smoke pouring from buildings at Cotton's Wharf. A number of tall -warehouses, rising up to six stories high, and filled with inflammable -goods, stood here and near by, among the goods being oil, tallow, tar, -cotton, saltpetre, bales of silk, and chests of tea. In spite of all -efforts, the fire burned steadily on, and dense volumes of smoke poured -forth. - -Mr. Braidwood had speedily arrived, and two large floating-engines, in -addition to others, were got to work. He stationed his men wisely, and -huge jets of water were speedily playing on the fire. - -Great excitement soon rose in the neighbourhood. Surging crowds of -eager people thronged the streets approaching the wharf, and a dense -assemblage pressed together on London Bridge. Even the thoroughfares on -the opposite side were blocked. But the spectators could see little just -then, except thick clouds of smoke and great jets of water. On the -river, vessels struggled to escape from the proximity of the burning -building; while on land, the police forced back the people from the -surrounding streets, so as to give greater freedom to the firemen. - -[Illustration: JAMES BRAIDWOOD.] - -Then, about an hour after the alarm had been given, a loud explosion -startled the people; a bright tongue of flame shot upward through the -smoke, and seemed to strike downward also to the ground, while the whole -building became a sheet of fire. - -The neighbouring buildings became involved; rivers of fire burst out of -windows, ran down walls, and actually flowed along the streets. It even -poured on to the waters of the Thames itself. Melted tallow and oil -flowed along as they burned, like liquid fire. No wonder the -conflagration spread rapidly. Less than two hours after the call had -been received--that is, at about six o'clock--the fire had extended to -eight large warehouses. - -The heat now became overpowering. Drifting clouds of smoke obscured the -calm evening sky, and spread like a pall overhead. In spite of all -efforts, the fierce conflagration gained continually on the men; it -leaped over a space between the buildings, and attacked a block of -warehouses on the opposite side. The roaring of the flames, the thick -smoke, and the curious, disagreeable smells arising from the various -goods which were burning, became almost unbearable. - -The men suffered greatly from exhaustion; and Mr. Braidwood, seeing -their distress, procured refreshments. He was dividing them among the -men as he stood near the second building which had caught fire, when -again a loud explosion rent the air, and the wall of the warehouse was -seen to be falling. - -"Run for your lives!" was the cry; and the men, seized for once with -panic, rushed away. Mr. Braidwood and a gentleman with him followed; but -unhappily they were not in time, and with a loud crash the huge wall -fell upon them, and crushed them to the ground with tons of heavy -masonry. - -"Let us save them!" cried the men; and a score hurried to the spot. But -again a third explosion occurred, a mass of burning material was hurled -on the fatal heap, all around fell the fire, and rescue was seen to be -hopeless. - -[Illustration: THE TOOLEY STREET FIRE, 1861.] - -As if in triumph, the flames swept on and mounted higher. Wharf after -wharf was involved, and warehouse after warehouse. The Depôt Wharf, -Chamberlain's Wharf, and others caught fire. Night seemed turned into -day by the blaze. Ships near the wharves, laden with the same -inflammable materials of oil, and tar, and tallow, became ignited; and -the blazing liquids poured out on the river, forming a lake of fire a -quarter-mile long by a hundred yards wide. - -People crowded everywhere to see the sight. They thronged house-tops and -church-steeples. Boatmen ventured near to pick up such goods as they -might be able to find, and were threatened with dire peril. Some fainted -from the heat. A barge drifted near with three men aboard, who were so -overcome that they could not manage their cumbersome craft; a skiff -approached sufficiently near to rescue the men, after which the barge -drifted nearer still, and was burnt. - -Though greatly dispirited by the loss of their captain, the firemen -fought doggedly on. But still their efforts seemed unavailing. Flakes of -fire fell in all directions, and huge volumes of flame flashed upward to -the sky. The whole of Bermondsey seemed in peril, and at one period the -fire blazed for close upon a quarter-mile along the river-bank. - -Through the night more engines clattered up from distant stations, and -the firemen fought the flames at every step of their destructive career. -Tons of water were poured upon each building as it became threatened, -only, however, to yield in course of time. - -The wind saved the old church of St. Olave's, and also London Bridge -Station; but the fire raged along the wharves. Sometimes great warehouse -walls fell into the river with a gigantic splash, revealing the inferno -of white-hot fire raging behind them. - -At length the fire reached Hay's Wharf, which was supposed to be -fireproof, and for long it justified the name. But at last it also -yielded; the upper part began to blaze, and, in spite of the quantities -of water thrown upon the roof and walls, the fire gradually increased. - -Now beyond the building lay a dock, in which were berthed two ships. The -tide had been too low to allow of their removal. If they could not be -towed out in time, the fire would probably seize them, and thus be -wafted over the dock to the other side. - -Would the tide rise in time to allow the ships to be hauled out? It was -a critical moment, and the firemen must have worked their hardest to -keep the building from flaming too quickly. - -Gradually the tide flowed higher and higher. No matter what happens in -the mighty city, twice in the day and night does the Thames silently ebb -and flow; and now the quiet flowing of the tide helped to save the great -city on its bank. Just in time two tugs were able to enter the dock. The -towing-ropes were thrown aboard; but even as the vessels were passing -out, the flames, as if determined not to lose their prey, darted from -the building, and set the rigging of one ship aflame. - -But the firemen were as quick as their enemy. An engine threw a torrent -of water on the burning ship, and promptly quenched the flames. And so, -amid the plaudits of the huge crowds on both sides of the river, the two -ships were slowly towed to a place of safety, and the fierce fire was -left face to face with the empty dock. - -The quiet dock was successful. The wide space filling up with water from -the flowing tide stopped the progress of the fire. This stoppage must -have occurred about five o'clock on the following morning; but within -the area already covered by the conflagration, fire continued to burn -for a month. - -Even after the first seven days, a fresh explosion and flash of flame -showed the danger of the conflagration, now fortunately confined within -limits. In fact, July 22nd had dawned before it was entirely -extinguished, the total loss being estimated at about two millions -sterling. - -Nearly all the goods destroyed were of the most inflammable description. -There were nine thousand casks of tallow and three hundred tuns of -olive oil, beside thousands of bales of cotton, two thousand parcels of -bacon, and other valuable merchandise. The tallow, no doubt, burned the -fiercest and the most persistently. Melting with the intense heat, it -poured out into cellars and streets, where much of it speedily caught -fire. The floors of nine vaults, each measuring 100 by 20 feet, were -covered two feet deep with melted tallow and palm oil, and all helped to -feed the fire. No wonder it burned for days, if such material fed the -flames, although the firemen continued to pour water on the ruins. Some -of the tallow, found floating on the river, was collected, and sold at -twopence per pound. - -Mr. Braidwood's body was found on June 24th, so charred as to be -scarcely recognizable. He was buried at Abney Park Cemetery, and was -accorded the honour of a great public funeral. The London Rifle-Brigade -attended, as well as large bodies of firemen and of the police, and an -immense concourse of the general public. So large a multitude, it was -said, had not attended any funeral since the obsequies of the Duke of -Wellington. - -A proposition was made to raise a public fund for the benefit of Mr. -Braidwood's widow and six children, and a large sum was subscribed; but -it was announced that the Insurance Companies had amply provided for his -family. - -The neighbourhood of Southwark, where the fatal fire occurred, has been -the scene of many remarkable conflagrations. In the same year as the -famous Tooley Street fire, Davis's Wharf at Horselydown was burnt, -involving a loss of about £15,000; while at a large fire at Dockhead two -or three years later, vast quantities of saltpetre, corn, jute, and -flour were consumed. A brisk wind favoured the flames, and hundreds of -tons of saltpetre flashed up into fire. Bright sparks and flame-coloured -smoke floated over the conflagration, and were wafted by the wind, -accompanied by deafening reports and great flashes of fire. - -Numbers of other conflagrations have occurred in this neighbourhood. The -streets were narrow, and the district was full of warehouses, containing -all kinds of merchandise, which burnt like tinder when fairly ignited. -Imagine coffee and cloves, sulphur and saltpetre, oil, turpentine, and -tallow all afire! What a commingling of odours and of strange-coloured -flame! - -The bacon frizzles; the corn parches and chars; the flour mixes with the -water, then dries and smoulders in the great heat, and smells like -burning bread; the preserved tongues diffuse an offensive odour of -burning flesh; while the commingling of cinnamon and salt, mustard and -macaroni, jams and figs and liquorice, unite to make a hideous -combination of coloured flames, sickening smells, and thick and lurid -smoke. The huge warehouses built in this district since the closing -years of the eighteenth century are filled with all kinds of goods from -various parts of the world; but of all the disastrous fires which have -ravaged the district, the great Tooley Street fire of 1861 has been the -worst. - -Moreover, it will always be memorable for the death of Braidwood. Even -now you may hear men in the London Fire-Brigade speak of Braidwood or -Braidwood's time, and his memory has become a noble tradition in the -service. So great an authority had he become on the subject of fire -extinction, and so highly was he held in public esteem, that his -terrible death in the performance of his duty was regarded as a national -calamity. - -But the conflagration also revealed with startling clearness the -inadequacy of the Companies' Fire Establishment. More appliances and -more men were wanted. The companies were asked, "Will you increase your -organization?" And their answer, put briefly, was, "No." - -Thereupon, in 1862, a Parliamentary Commission was instituted to enquire -into the matter, and in due time the commission reported. It recommended -that a brigade should be established; the companies consulted with the -Home Secretary and the Metropolitan Board of Works; and in 1865 an Act -was passed placing the brigade under the Metropolitan Board, the change -to take place as, and from January 1st, 1866. - -This was practically the establishment of a Municipal Fire-Brigade, -though it was also provided that every company insuring property for -loss by fire in London should contribute to the cost of the brigade at -the rate of £35 for every million pounds of the gross amounts insured, -except by way of reassurance; the Government were also to pay £10,000 a -year for the protection of public buildings; while the Metropolitan -Board itself was empowered to levy a rate not exceeding a halfpenny in -the pound in support of the organization. - -In 1863, the Fire-Engine Establishment had increased to a hundred and -thirty men with twenty stations; but the Metropolitan Board were given -power to construct further engines and stations, to act in conjunction -with a salvage corps, to obtain the services of the men, and to divide -the metropolis into suitable districts. Such powers would enable the -Board greatly to strengthen the brigade. - -The Act also provided that the firemen should be placed under command of -an officer, to be called the Chief Officer of the Metropolitan -Fire-Brigade; and a gentleman was appointed who had had experience of -similar duties at Belfast, and who was for long to be popularly known in -London as Captain Shaw. - -And on the very day when the new arrangements came in force a great fire -occurred, as if to roughly remind the organization of its -responsibilities and test its powers. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -A PERILOUS SITUATION. CAPTAIN SHAW. IMPROVEMENTS OF THE METROPOLITAN -BOARD AND OF THE LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL. - - -"The dock is on fire!" - -On New Year's Day, 1866, some hours after St. Katherine's Dock had been -opened for work, several persons came running to the gates from the -adjoining streets, crying loudly, "The dock is on fire!" - -At first the policemen would not believe the report. "We can see -nothing," said they. - -"But flames are bursting from the roof! Look! look!" - -And before long the policemen were convinced that a serious fire was, -indeed, in progress. It was in the upper floors of a division of a block -of warehouses named F, six stories high, and by eleven o'clock they -were blazing fast. - -"Fire! Fire!" - -The alarming cry rang through the dock, and superintendents, dock -managers, and policemen hurried to the spot; while gangs of dock -labourers were taken off their work, and set to quench the fire with -buckets. - -The conditions were somewhat similar to those of the great Tooley Street -fire of five years or so before. The fire broke out on a floor where -bales of jute and coir fibre were stored; and a huge heap of these goods -was seen to be burning, and sending forth such a suffocating and -blinding smoke, that the men were compelled to retreat. - -"Shut the iron doors!" shouted the officers; and one after another the -iron doors between the different warehouses were closed, though with one -exception. This was the door connecting the fifth floor of F Warehouse -with the fifth floor of H Warehouse. It was open wide, and one man after -another endeavoured to close it by crawling towards it on the floor. But -the smoke was so suffocating that the men had to be dragged back almost -unconscious before they could reach the door. - -Meantime, the dock fire-engines and hydrants had been got to work, and -the dock engineer was able to turn on full pressure, so that soon -powerful jets of water were thrown on the flames. A hydrant is, briefly, -an elbow-shaped metal pipe, permanently fixed to a main water-pipe; and -when the fireman attaches his hose to it, he can get at once a stream of -water through the hose at about the same pressure as the water in the -main. - -The flames were spreading furiously, and the two upper floors of F -Warehouse were blazing fast, throwing out such dense clouds of smoke, -that the neighbourhood was darkened as by a thick fog. - -The block of warehouses on fire towered up six stories high, and -occupied half of the northern side of the dock next to East Smithfield. -They formed a huge pile about 440 feet long by about 140 feet deep, the -import part of the dock lying on the south side with its ships. - -The block was built in a number of divisions or bays, each measuring -about 90 by 50 feet, and separated by strong walls, which rose from -basement to roof. Happily, the communication between these divisions was -afforded by double folding-doors of iron, a space of about three feet -existing between the double doors; they were believed to be fireproof; -and with the one exception they were closed. - -But, like the Tooley Street buildings, these warehouses were chiefly -stored with very combustible materials. Tallow was here, which played -such a bad part in 1861; spirits were here also, palm oil, tons of -dyewood, flax, jute, and cotton. Labourers had been at work for some -hours when the alarm was given, and men were busy on every floor. They -were receiving the goods from the quays, and wheeling them along through -the building, when the fire was discovered. - -And now Captain Shaw, the chief who succeeded Braidwood as the head of -the fire-brigade, dashed up with a steamer from Watling Street, which -was then the headquarters of the brigade. He had received the alarm at -about twenty minutes to twelve o'clock, and had telegraphed to all -subsidiary stations. - -Captain Shaw, who afterwards became Sir Eyre Massey Shaw, K.C.B., was -born the same year as the steam fire-engine was first used--_viz._, in -1830. He was the son of Mr. B. R Shaw, of Monkstown, County Cork, and in -due time entered the army. Retiring in 1860, he became chief of the -Belfast Borough Forces, including police and fire-brigade, being -appointed in the next year the chief of the London Fire-Brigade. - -[Illustration: THE FIRST COMPLETE FLOATING STEAM FIRE-ENGINE, 1855.] - -Not only did he telegraph for land steam fire-engines to the -conflagration; but a large steam-float, usually kept off Southwark -Bridge, was also quickly under way. Soon he had eight land steamers and -from seventy to eighty men on the spot, while he himself directed in -person. - -Mr. Collett, one of the Dock Company's secretaries, worked hard, and -often at great peril; Mr. Graves and Mr. Stephens, also officials of the -company, were busily engaged in directing removal of valuable materials; -while about seventy men employed by Cubitt & Co. in rebuilding a -warehouse, destroyed by fire in the previous October, rendered -assistance. - -The little army found themselves face to face with a difficult task. The -fire was now burning furiously, and the smoke was well-nigh -overpowering. The flames had reached the fourth, fifth, and sixth -floors, and seemed working downward; while the burning jute sent forth -such dense volumes of smoke, that the men were forced back again and -again. But bravely they returned to their task; and taking advantage of -the moments when the clouds cleared, they directed the hose to the most -needful points. - -For six hours the fire raged, until all the three upper floors were -destroyed, and the third floor seriously damaged. The scene in the -waning winter afternoon was sufficiently striking as the smoke gradually -cleared and the blackened ruins became dimly visible. They were very -dangerous, for the walls appeared likely to topple over at the slightest -provocation. - -About five o'clock, the firemen seemed to have gained the mastery, and -Captain Shaw returned home; but later in the evening he was summoned -again. Most mysteriously the flames had burst forth once more in fresh -places, the upper parts of two adjacent warehouses of the same block had -caught, and were in flames. By eleven o'clock the fire was blazing as -furiously as ever. - -Captain Shaw returned with new relays of men to assist those on the -spot; and during the night and all the next day the force was busily at -work. On the Monday night two firemen were so overcome by the smoke that -they had to be removed, being nearly suffocated; but happily they -recovered, and no life was lost during the fire. The streams of melted -grease flowed from the burning warehouse into the quay, and thence to -the dock basin, where by-and-by they cooled and solidified, looking -something like snow on a frozen lake. Thirteen steam fire-engines and -one float continued to throw immense quantities of water on the burning -building; but the fire was not really subdued until the morning of -January 3rd. - -A few engines remained on the Wednesday and the Thursday, and threw -water on the heated ruins, to cool them down and quench any latent fire; -while on January 4th, men were busy skimming the dock basin,--which was -thickly covered with the solid tallow and oil,--and loading the mass -into barges. - -After the conflagration, engines were employed in pumping water out of -the vaults where it had collected, and as much jute was found injured by -water as destroyed by fire. No doubt, it was the jute and the tallow and -oil which rendered the conflagration so obstinate; but it was also found -that while water collected to a great extent in some parts, yet it did -not penetrate to other parts of even the same floor--a result which, -perhaps, was due to the method of packing the jute. - -In the end, about three-parts of the block of warehouses was burned. The -amount of tallow in the four burning buildings was calculated to range -between two and three thousand casks, some of which appear to have been -saved; but several hundred barrels of cocoanut oil and palm oil were -lost as well, and the coir fibre, flax, and jute burnt reached to a very -large quantity, the total pecuniary loss being estimated at over -£200,000. - -This great fire proved a terrible object-lesson. For about two days and -nights the engines and appliances of the brigade, with some two-thirds -of the men, were engaged at this one conflagration. What if another -great fire had broken out in those dark January days? The situation was -fraught with the gravest peril. - -No doubt, voluntary aid at fires used often to be relied upon, and in -1861 payment was given to assistants. But the Metropolitan Board now had -the means of strengthening the brigade, and they proceeded to use it. In -marked contrast to the 130 men and 20 stations of the Fire Establishment -of 1863, were the 591 firemen and 55 land fire-engine stations of the -brigade in 1889, when it passed over to the London County -Council--figures which show a notable development. - -[Illustration: SIR EYRE M. SHAW, K.C.B.] - -Further, there were also 83 coachmen and pilots, 131 horses, 150 -engines (55 being worked by steam), 155 fire-escapes, and other ladders, -with 33 miles of hose. By this time (1889) many provincial towns had -established a fire-brigade on the London plan. - -The London County Council, having no restriction as to powers of rating, -adopted Captain Shaw's recommendations--made in April, 1889--of a large -increase in the brigade, and resolved to add 138 firemen, 4 new -stations, with steamers and manuals, and 50 fire-escapes, and to raise -the number of electrical fire-alarms to over 600. - -Since then, the increase has still continued, until in 1898 the brigade -had an authorized fire-staff of nearly 1,100 men, with a certain number -of store-keepers, etc.; while the telegraphic arrangements and -distribution of stations were rendered so complete, that 100 men could -be concentrated within fifteen minutes at any dangerous area for large -fires. - -Furthermore, out of the authorized staff, 134 men are on watch by day, -and 369 at night, giving a total of 503 constantly on duty during the -twenty-four hours--a force that compares wonderfully with the total -strength of about 130 men at Braidwood's death in 1861. - -This brigade strength of 1,048 included about 80 officers, 824 firemen, -96 coachmen, 17 pilots, and 32 men under instruction. To these must be -added seventeen licensed watermen for navigating tug-boats, -river-engines, etc., and also stores and office clerks. But twenty-four -additional firemen, however, have been sanctioned, so that the complete -staff would reach to about 1,080 men--a remarkable development of the -staff of 80 men of the London Fire-Engine Establishment of 1832. - -These figures are only given to show how greatly the brigade has grown; -for in the course of a few years, it is not improbable that the numbers -may be still further increased. - -The number of stations has also been remarkably augmented. The 19 -stations of 1832 have grown into nearly 200 for divers uses. Thus, there -are 189 fire-escape stations, 59 stations with engines, 57 with -hose-carts, 9 with hose- and ladder-trucks, 16 permanently established -in centres of wide streets with fire-extinguishing and life-saving -appliances, and 4 river stations. - -The appliances of the brigade have also greatly increased. There are 230 -fire-escapes and police-ladders, 59 land steam fire-engines, 57 six-inch -manuals, 7 small manuals called curricles, 175 horses which we may rank -as most useful appliances, and 24,284 hydrants. - -These last-named are very important. They not only afford a ready and -efficient means of throwing water on conflagrations, a means which is -fast rendering the manual-engines of less and less importance; but they -also yield a quick and ready method of water supply. Thus, in the year -1897 there were only three cases of unsatisfactory water supply. - -In addition to 24,284 hydrants of the London County Council, the -corporation of the City have 800 hydrants, which are used for watering -the streets as well as for extinguishing fires. In the year 1897, no -fewer than 466 fires were put out by hydrants and stand-pipes. - -The increase of hydrants has been very conspicuous under the County -Council. Thus, in March, 1889, the number was but 8,881, showing that no -fewer than 15,403 were added during the first eight years of the -Council's existence. No doubt, still more will follow. On March 31st, -1898, hydrants had been fixed or ordered in 97œ square miles of the -county area, leaving a comparatively small space unprovided with these -appliances. This space will doubtless be shortly supplied, and it is not -unreasonable to suppose that, with the 800 in the City, the metropolis -will ere long be sown with a total of about 30,000 hydrants, which, as -the twentieth century dawns, may be regarded as among the most effectual -means of fighting the fire at the disposal of the brigade. - -[Illustration: FIRE-HYDRANT PLACED UNDER THE PAVEMENT.] - -The establishment of these excellent appliances dates from 1871, and is -bound up with the system of constant water supply. By the Metropolis -Water Act of that year, it was provided that a water company, after -giving a constant supply, must notify the fact to the local -authority--now the County Council--which must then specify the -fire-plugs or hydrants required, and the Council has the power under the -Act of requiring water companies to provide a constant supply within -parts of their districts. Hydrants are fully charged from the main, and -have a commanding cock or tap attached, so that a supply of water can be -obtained at once. - -The use of these appliances is very important. Planted at convenient and -commanding spots,--often at the corners of streets or roadways, and at -varying distances apart, ranging from fifty to about four hundred feet, -according to the circumstances of the locality, and marked also, not -only by the plate in the pavement, but by the letter H, placed in a -conspicuous position near,--the fireman can now, at almost a moment's -notice, find the hydrant, and obtain an ample supply of water for his -engine, or even a jet of water for the fire, before an engine is on the -spot. Very different from the troublesome and hindering work of -floundering about, possibly in fog or rain or snow, to find the -fire-plug, and then to find the turncock which governed the plug. On -snowy or foggy nights, the difficulty and delay were sometimes very -great; and the substitution of an extensive system of hydrants, with -their quickly-obtained water-jets for the old fire-plugs, may rank as -one of the most efficient means of fire extinction in the closing years -of the nineteenth century. - -Firemen being thus interested in the pressure of water in the mains, an -apparatus for recording the pressure automatically was fixed up at the -fire-brigade headquarters at Southwark Bridge Road in November, 1898. A -clock stands at the top of the instrument, and under the clock is a -roll of paper, having the hours of day and night marked upon it, and -divided into sections. A small pipe connected with the main runs under -the big engine-room, and acts upon mechanism beneath the paper roll, and -the clock and the column of water, and its pressure per inch, are marked -in red ink upon the sheet, varying perhaps from forty up to seventy-five -or even eighty pounds per square inch. - -At noon each day the sheet can be removed, and forms a permanent record -of the variation in water pressure in the mains of the neighbourhood. - -But if the number of hydrants is large, the area to be protected by the -brigade is also very large. Including the ancient city of London, which -is estimated to cover about a square mile, the area measures about 118 -square miles. Of these, twelve are estimated by the fire-brigade -committee to be covered by parks and open spaces, where fire-hydrants -will probably never be needed. This leaves, however, a net area of 106 -square miles, extending from Sydenham to Highgate, and from Plumstead to -Roehampton, to be efficiently protected by the brigade. - -Another means of water supply has been suggested. In his evidence at the -Cripplegate Fire Enquiry, Mr. John F. Dane, an ex-officer of the -Metropolitan Fire-Brigade, suggested that at the centre of the junction -of the most important streets surrounded by large buildings underground -tanks should be placed, and supplied by the main water-pipes. The tanks -would be empty until required, and would be under the control of the -brigade, while the hydrants should still be maintained for service. Such -tanks were in use at Leeds and at Salford. - -The objection is raised, however, that the streets of the City are -already too crowded with pipes, while advantage of the pressure from the -water-main is lost, and also the vacuum caused by the engine. - -Noticing other improvements, we observe that the number of fire-alarm -posts has also been greatly increased. The alarm consists of a red post -in the street, with a glass face at the top front. The glass is readily -broken, and the handle within it pulled, when a loud electric bell rings -at the nearest fire-station. The Post-Office provides and maintains the -fire-alarms; and Commander Wells, chief officer of the brigade, has -devised a portable telephone, which can be plugged into a fire-alarm -post, and a message sent by it from a fire to the station. Arrangements -have been made with the Post-Office to supply the telephones and make -the plug-holes. Over 2,380 fire-alarms were raised in 1897, of which 363 -were maliciously-given false alarms. Practical jokes of this kind have -been heavily punished, as they richly deserve. - -Many false alarms are also given which cannot be regarded as malicious, -but are genuine mistakes, such as of supposed chimney fires. Over 500 of -these were recorded in one year. In 1898, the number of malicious false -alarms was happily less--_viz._, 270; while the full record of false -alarms reached 830. - -The total number of fires in the metropolis in that year was 3,585--an -average of nearly ten per day. This total gives an increase of 571 above -the average; but only 205 out of the whole 3,585 were serious. There -seems no doubt but that the public are learning to use the fire-alarms -more readily and to give earlier intimation of fires. But, as the chief -officer points out, while everybody knows the nearest letter-box, very -few comparatively even now seem to know the nearest fire-alarm. -Lamp-posts near the alarms are now painted red, and are fitted with a -red pane of glass in order to attract attention; and we imagine the -probability is that the alarms will be increasingly used at even the -slightest appearance of fire. - -Not only is each fire-station connected with a dozen or more fire-alarms -in its neighbourhood, but it is also in electric communication with -other fire-stations. There are 114 lines of telephone between the -stations, and sixteen between brigade- and police-stations; while -electric communication exists between stations and ninety-eight public -or other buildings. In fact, the whole fire-brigade establishment is -bound together by a web of electric wire, the centre being the -headquarters at Southwark. - -The remarkable organization of the brigade, famous for its leaders, -famous for the bravery and skill of its men, and famous for the number -and variety of its efficient appliances, has been a growth of -comparatively few years. Starting in 1825 with the union of a few -fire-office companies, it grew in seventy-three years to a remarkably -strong and increasing force, with a multitude of hydrants, stations, -horsed escapes, fire-alarms, and other appliances. - -The development attained in these seventy-odd years, as compared with -the hundreds of years before, is surely marvellous, though doubtless -some seeds of the development--as in the introduction of the modern -fire-engine--were sown before. But step by step it has proceeded, -utilizing now the discoveries of science and now the work of the -engineer, until it has reached its great position of usefulness and of -high esteem. - -It would be tedious to mark every detail of development. The work begun -by his predecessors was carried still further by Captain Shaw, and under -him the London Brigade became one of the most efficient in the world. - -[Illustration: COMMANDER WELLS.] - -He retired with a well-deserved pension in 1891, after about thirty -years of service, and was succeeded by Mr. J. Sexton Simonds. Five years -later Mr. Simonds retired; and in November, 1896, Commander Lionel -Wells, R.N., was appointed chief officer. The brigade has also a second -officer--Mr. Sidney G. Gamble; and in January, 1899, a third officer was -appointed--Lieutenant Sampson Sladen, R.N. - -A few months after his accession, and in answer to the request of the -fire-brigade committee of the County Council, the chief officer -submitted a scheme for additional protection, including certain -regulations of brigade management. - -Of this scheme, the more prominent features were the introduction of -horsed fire-escapes, and the distribution of the men in small stations, -with horses, whence they can be speedily concentrated wherever required. -In short, the chief officer's object is that, at any call, the firemen -may be able, if the machine leave the station at once, to arrive at the -fire within five minutes' time; while the principle of station-work -should be that each station is responsible for a certain area in its -neighbourhood. - -The committee agreed with the opinions of the chief officer, and on -February 8th, 1898, the full Council adopted the committee's proposals. -Steps were forthwith taken to carry out the scheme, which thus marks -another stage of development. - -But let us visit the headquarters, and see for ourselves something of -this great organization actually at work. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -A VISIT TO HEADQUARTERS. - - -"We light our fires differently from everybody else," says the foreman. -"We put shavings on top, the wood next, and the coal at the bottom; then -we strike a steam-match, and drop it down the funnel, and, behold! the -thing is done." - -It was the engine fire of which the foreman spoke, and he was pointing -to one of the magnificent steam fire-engines at the headquarters of the -London Brigade. - -[Illustration: HEADQUARTERS, METROPOLITAN FIRE-BRIGADE, SOUTHWARK.] - -"Here is a steam-match," he continued, "kept in readiness on the engine. -It is like a very large fusee, and is specially made for us. Water won't -put it out." - -He strikes the match, and it burns with a large flame. He plunges it -into some water near by, and it still continues to burn. It evidently -means to flame until the engine fire is burning fast. - -The wood also is carefully prepared, being fine deal ends, specially cut -to the required size; while the coal is Welsh--the best for -engine-boilers. - -These details may seem trivial; but they assist in the rapid kindling of -the engine fire, which is not trivial. But the rapid kindling of the -fire is not the only reason why the brigade raises steam so quickly in -its engines; in addition, a gas-jet is always kept burning by the -boiler, and maintains the water at nearly boiling-point before the fire -is lighted. This was a method adopted by Captain Shaw. But even this -arrangement does not explain everything. - -[Illustration: SECTION OF A STEAM FIRE-ENGINE BOILER.] - -To fully understand the mystery, we must leave this smart engine, -shining in scarlet and flaming with brass, and go upstairs to the -instruction-room for recruits. - -Here we can see a section of the engine fire-box and boiler. It is very -interesting and very ingenious. But probably a novice would ask, "Where -is the boiler? I see little else but tubes." - -That is the explanation. The tubes chiefly form the boiler; for they are -full of water, and they communicate with a narrow space, or "jacket," -also full of water, and which reaches all round the fire-box. - -This fire-box is held in a hollow below the tubes, which are placed in -rows, one row across the other, just at the bottom of the funnel and -above the fire-box. When, therefore, the flaming steam-match is dropped -down the funnel, it finds its way straight down between the crossed mass -of tubes to the shavings beneath; and the tubes full of the hot water -are at once wrapped in heat from the newly-kindled and rapidly-burning -fire. Every particle of heat and smoke and flame that rises must pass -upward between the tubes. Furthermore, the hot water rises and the -colder falls, so that there is a constant circulation maintained. The -colder water is continually descending to the hottest tubes; and when -bubbles of steam are formed, they rise with the hot water to the top. A -space is reserved above the tubes, and around the funnel, called the -"steam-space" or "steam-chest," where the steam can be stored; the steam -pressure at which the engine frequently works being a hundred and twenty -pounds to the square inch. - -The result of all these ingenious arrangements is that, starting with -very hot water, a hundred pounds of steam can be raised in five minutes. - -"But," it may be asked, "why is a fire not always kept burning, and -steam constantly at high pressure?" - -The answer is that a constant fire, whether of coal or of oil, would -cause soot or smoke to accumulate; while the Bunsen gas-burner affords -as clear a heat as any, and maintains the water at a great heat, or even -at boiling-point. - -Near the funnel, but not so high, rises a large, gleaming metal -cylinder, closed and dome-shaped. This is the indispensable -air-chamber, without which even the powerful force-pumps could not yield -so steady and persistent a stream. - -A small air-chamber is now added to the suction-pipe by which the water -is drawn to the engine. The use of the air-chamber in connection with -this pipe greatly steadies the engine, the vibration caused by the -throbbing of the powerful machinery as it draws and forces along such a -quantity of water being very great. The nozzle of the hose belonging to -one of the largest steam fire-engines measures 1Œ inch in diameter, some -nozzles being as small as Ÿ inch; and a large column of water is being -constantly driven along the hose at a pressure of a hundred and ten -pounds to the square inch, and forced through the narrow nozzle; here it -spurts out, in a large and powerful stream, to a distance of over a -hundred feet. It is obvious, therefore, that the power exerted by the -steam-driven force-pumps and air-chamber is very high; and although such -an engine may be in some folks' opinion only a force-pump, it is a -force-pump of a very elaborate character; and not inexpensive, the -average price being about £1,000. - -Every steam fire-engine carries with it five hundred feet of hose. The -hose is made in lengths of a hundred feet, costing about £7 a piece, -without the connections. If you examine a length, you will find it made -of stout canvas, and lined with india-rubber, the result being that, -while it is very strong, it is yet very light. - -Miles of it are used in the service; and upstairs in the hose-room you -will find a large stock kept in reserve. Every piece is tested before -being accepted. - -[Illustration: POWERFUL STEAM FIRE-ENGINE FOR THE METROPOLITAN -FIRE-BRIGADE. - -_Capacity, 350-400 gallons per minute. Delivered to the brigade, -February 9th, 1899, by Messrs. Shand, Mason, & Co._] - -Water is forced through it by hydraulic power at a pressure of three -hundred pounds to the square inch, so that when at work, with water -rushing through at a hundred and ten pounds' pressure, it is not likely -to split and spill the liquid on the ground. The splitting of hose in -the face of a fierce fire would be a great calamity. When charged with -water, its weight is very heavy; and to enable it to be carried more -easily, a loop called a "becket" is attached at distances of about ten -feet. - -The greatest care is taken of the hose. When it is brought back, -drenched and dripping, from a fire, it is cleaned and scrubbed, and then -suspended in the hose-well to dry. - -The hose-well is a high space, like a glorified chimney-shaft, without -the soot, where the great lengths of canvas pipe can be hung up to dry. -They are, in fact, not used again until they are once more in the pink -of perfection. The outside public see the fire-brigade and their -appliances smartly at work at big fires, but little know of the numerous -details of drill and of management which are instrumental in producing -the brilliant and efficient service. - -Look, for another instance, at the manuals' wheels. You will find them -fitted with broad, wavy-shaped iron tyres, which extend over the side of -the wheel and prevent it from tripping or slipping over tramway-lines in -the headlong rush through the streets. And should a horse fall as he is -tearing to the fire, that swivel-bar, which you will find at the end of -the harness-pole, can be quickly turned, and in a moment the fallen -steed is unhooked and helped to his feet again. - -The horses are harnessed quite as quickly. Behind the engine-room and -across a narrow yard you will find five pairs of horses, and, like the -men, some are always on the watch. Here they stand, ready harnessed, -their faces turned round, and looking over the strip of yard to the -engines. The harness is light, but efficient; and the animal's neck is -relieved from the weight of the collar, as it is suspended from the -roof. - -[Illustration: IN THE STABLES READY FOR ACTION.] - -Directly the fire-alarm clangs, the rope barring egress from the stall -is unswivelled, the suspender of the collar swept aside, and the horse, -eager, excited, and impatiently pawing the ground, is led across the -narrow strip of yard, hooked on to the engine, and is ready for his -headlong rush through the streets. - -Horses stand thus ready harnessed at all stations where they may be -kept; and when their watch is over, they are relieved by others, even -though they may not have been called out to a fire. So intelligent have -some of these animals become, that they have been wont to trot out -themselves, and take their places by the engine-pole without human -guidance; and so expert are the men and so docile the horses, that the -whole operation of harnessing to the engine occupies less than a minute, -sometimes, indeed, only about fifteen or twenty seconds. Every man knows -exactly what to do, and has his place fixed on the engine. There is -consequently no confusion and no overlapping of work. - -A steam fire-engine has a "crew"--as the brigade call it--of one -officer, one coachman, and four firemen. The officer No. 1 stands on the -"near side" of the engine by the brake; No. 2 stands on the other side -by the brake; No. 3 stands behind the officer, and No. 4 behind No. 2; -No. 5 attends to the steam, and rides in the rear for that purpose; -while the coachman handles the reins on the box. - -The positions are taken in a twinkling, the shed-doors open as swiftly, -and away rush the impatient steeds, while the loud and exciting cry of -"Fire! Fire!" rings from the firemen's throats as they speed along. -Wonderfully that cry clears the way through the crowded streets. When -the men arrive at the scene of action, the preparations proceed in the -same orderly manner. Nos. 1 and 2 brake the wheels, and proceed to the -fire; while the coachman, if necessary, removes the horses, and is -prepared to take back any message with them, No. 1 charging No. 2 to -convey the message to the coachman. By the chief officer's plan, -however,--whereby a portable telephone, carried on a fire-engine, can -be plugged into a fire-alarm post,--a message can be sent back from a -fire by telephone instead of by a coachman. Meanwhile, No. 3 is opening -the engine tool-box, and passing out the hydrant-shaft, hose, etc.; and -No. 4 receives the hose, and connects it up with the water-mains, and -places the dam or tank in which water is gathered from the hydrant. No. -3 is then busy with the delivery-hose, which is to pour the water on the -flames; and No. 5 connects the suction-pipe. When ready, No. 4 hurries -away with the "branch," as the delivery-pipe with nozzle is called; No. -3 helping with the hose attached to it--until sufficient is paid -out--and connecting the lengths as required. Then, when all is finished, -every one except the steam-man is ready to proceed to the fire, unless -otherwise instructed. Every engine, it may be added, carries a -turncock's bar, useful for raising the cover from the hydrants. - -So each one has his recognized duties in preparing the apparatus, all of -which duties are duly set forth in the neat and concise little pocket -drill-book prepared by Commander Wells. The most complete organization -must be in operation, otherwise a force of a hundred or a hundred and -fifty men, no matter how brave and zealous, gathered at one fire would -only be too likely to get in one another's way. And in a similar manner -the crews of manual-engines and horsed escapes have all their duties -assigned in preparing the machines. - -During a conflagration, the superintendent of the district in which the -fire occurs controls the operations under the superior officers; for -London is divided, for fire purposes, into five districts, which are -known to the brigade by letters. A District is the West End, and the -superintendent's station is at Manchester Square; B District is the -Central, and the superintendent's station is at Clerkenwell; C District -is the East and North-East, with district superintendent's station at -Whitechapel: all of these three being north of the Thames. The D -District is the South-East of London, with superintendent's station at -New Cross; and the E District in the South-West, with superintendent's -station at Kennington. The headquarters, which are known as No. 1, and -which used to be at Watling Street in the City, now occupy a central -position in Southwark Bridge Road, and thence the chief officer can -readily reach the scene of a fire. - -[Illustration: A TURN OUT FROM HEADQUARTERS AT SOUTHWARK.] - -All these stations are in electric communication, and all telegraph -their doings to No. 1. The lines stretch from No. 1 to the five district -superintendents' stations; from there they extend to the ordinary -stations in each district; and from these stations again they reach to -points such as street stations, and even in some cases to hose-cart -stations. The consequence is, that superintendents and superior officers -can speedily arrive on the spot; and that, if necessary, a very large -force can be concentrated at a serious outbreak in a short time. - -Thus headquarters knows exactly how the men are all engaged, and the -character of the fire to which they may be called. Electric bells seem -always clanging. Messages come clicking in as to the progress of -extinguishing fires, or notifying fresh calls, or announcing the -stoppage of a conflagration. And should an alarm clang at night, all the -other bells are set a-ringing, so that no one can mistake what's afoot. - -A list is compiled at headquarters of all these fires, the period of -each list ranging from 6 a.m. to the same hour on the next morning. This -list, with such details as can be supplied, is printed at once, and -copies are in every insurance-office by about ten o'clock. The lists -form, as it were, the log-book of the brigade. Some days the calls run -up to seventeen or more, including false alarms; on other days they sink -to a far fewer number; the average working out in 1898 to nearly ten -calls daily. - -The Log also shows the causes of fires, so far as can be ascertained; -and the upsetting of paraffin-lamps bulks largely as a frequent cause. -The overheating of flues and the airing of linen also play their -destructive part as causes of fires. The airing of linen is, indeed, an -old offender. Evelyn writes in his Diary, under date January 19th, 1686: -"This night was burnt to the ground my Lord Montague's palace in -Bloomsbury, than which for painting and furniture there was nothing more -glorious in England. This happened by the negligence of a servant -airing, as they call it, some of the goods by the fire in a moist -season; indeed, so wet and mild a winter had scarce been seen in man's -memory." And now, more than two hundred years later, the same cause is -prevalent. - -[Illustration: THE CHIEF'S OFFICE AT SOUTHWARK, METROPOLITAN -FIRE-BRIGADE.] - -But the upsetting and exploding of lamps is now, perhaps, the chief -cause, especially for small fires; and more deaths occur at small fires -than at large. This is not surprising, when we remember that such lamps -are generally used in sitting or bedrooms, where persons might quickly -be wrapped in flames or overwhelmed with smoke. - -Smoke, indeed, forms a great danger with which firemen themselves have -to contend. At a fire in Agar Street, Strand, in November, 1892, a -fireman was killed primarily through smoke. He was standing on a -fire-escape, when a dense cloud burst forth and overpowered him. He lost -his grasp, and, falling forty feet to the earth below, injured his head -so severely that he died. - -Again, several men nearly lost their lives through smoke at a fire about -the same time at the London Docks. The firemen were in the building, -when thick smoke, pouring up from some burning sacks, nearly choked -them. Ever ready of resource, the men quickly used some hose they had -with them as life-lines, and slipped from the windows by means of the -hose to the ground below. - -Nevertheless, dense smoke is not the greatest danger with which firemen -are threatened. Their greatest peril comes from falling girders and -walls, from tottering pieces of masonry, and burning fragments of -buildings, shattered and shaken by the fierce heat. Helmets may be seen -in the museum at headquarters showing fearful blows and deep -indentations from falling fragments of masonry, and firemen would -probably tell you that they suffer more from this cause than any other. - -For small fires in rooms, little hand-pumps, kept in hose-carts, are -most useful. They can be speedily brought to bear directly on the flames -and prevent them from spreading. These little pumps can be taken -anywhere; they are used with a bucket, which is kept full of water by -assistants, who pour water into it from other buckets. - -The fire, large or small, being extinguished, a message to that effect -is sent to headquarters, and the firemen return, with the possible -exception of one or two men to keep guard against a renewed outbreak. In -the case of larger fires, perhaps half a dozen men and an engine will -remain; while on returning, the various appliances have all to be -prepared in readiness to answer another alarm. It sometimes happens that -a fireman may be on duty for many hours at a stretch, or may only have -time to snatch an hour's sleep with clothes and boots on; for nearly -every hour a fresh alarm comes clanging into the station, telling of a -new fire in some part of busy London. And for any real need, there is, I -trow, no grumbling or complaint from the brave men. But the miscreant -detected in raising a malicious false alarm would have scant mercy. He -would be promptly handed over to the police, and the magistrate would -punish him severely--perhaps with a month's imprisonment. - -When not actually engaged at fires, the men find plenty to do in -painting and repairing appliances, attending to horses, and keeping up -everything to the pink of perfection. The hours on duty and for -specified work are all marked down in the brigade-station routine, -general work commencing at 7 a.m., and ending at one, while allowing for -a "stand easy" of fifteen minutes at eleven. The testing of all -fire-alarms once in every twenty-four hours, excepting Sundays and -before six o'clock at night, also forms part of the brigade-station -routine. Every fireman, however, has a spell of twenty-four hours -entirely off duty in the fortnight; but at all other times he is ready -to be called away. Indeed, men on leave are liable to be summoned in -case of urgent necessity; but such time is made up to them afterwards. - -Now, before being drafted into the effective ranks, all the men have to -pass through a three months' daily drill at headquarters. The buildings -are very extensive, affording accommodation for about a hundred men, -thirty-five or so being the recruits. In the centre, enclosed by the -buildings, stretches a large square, in which the drill takes place. To -see the combined drill is something like seeing the brigade actually at -work; and this being Wednesday afternoon, and three o'clock striking, -here come the squad of men marching steadily into the yard. - -The evolutions are about to begin. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -HOW RECRUITS ARE TRAINED. - - -Tramp, tramp, tramp! Two lines of wiry, muscular young men march into -the centre of the yard. - -"Halt! Right about face!" - -Quick as thought the men pause and wheel around. - -Indian clubs and dumb-bells! - -The opening of the drill this afternoon is a course of exercises with -these familiar appliances; but they soon give place to other evolutions, -such as jumping in the sheet, practise with the engines, rescue by the -fire-escape, and the chair-knot. - -Round and round whirl the clubs. Every day some section of the drill is -taken; but on Wednesday afternoons, the whole or combined drill is -practised. All candidates must have been sailors; no one need apply who -has not been at least four years an A.B. Further, they must be between -the ages of twenty-one and thirty, and able to pull over the escape; -that is, they must be able to pull up a fire-escape ladder from the -ground by the levers. The height of the ladder is about 28 feet, and the -pull is equal to a weight of about 244 pounds. It is a hard pull, and a -severe test of a man's strength; but after the first twelve feet, the -weight seems lessened, as the man's own weight assists him. In this -test, as in some other things, it is the first step that costs. Should -the candidate pass this test successfully, he is examined by the doctor; -finally, he comes to headquarters for his probationary drills. - -[Illustration: TESTS OF STRENGTH FOR MEN ENTERING THE FIRE-BRIGADE: -PULLING UP THE ESCAPE.] - -"Open order!" - -The men break off from their gymnastic exercises, and in obedience to -instructions some of them run for large canvas sheets, and spread them -out, partly folded on the ground. Then others calmly lie themselves -down on these sheets. What is going to happen? - -The recruits approach the recumbent figures, which lie there quite -still, and apparently heavy as lead; the lifeless feet are placed close -together, and the limp, inanimate arms arranged beside the body. Then, -at a word or a sign, the bodies are picked up as easily as though they -were tiny children, and carried over the recruits' shoulders--each -recruit with his man--some distance along the yard. The men are -practising the art of taking up an unconscious person, overcome may be -by smoke, or heat and flame, and carrying him in the most efficient -manner possible out of danger. - -There is more in this exercise than might at first appear. It might seem -a comparatively easy task--if only you had sufficient strength--to throw -a man over your shoulder and carry him thus, even leaving one of your -hands and arms quite free; but you would find it not so easy in the -midst of blinding flame and choking smoke; you would find it not so easy -to pick your uncertain way through a burning building and over flaming -floors, over a sloping roof or shaky parapet, and even down a -fire-escape. - -Hence the urgent necessity that the fireman should be so well practised, -that in a moment he can catch up an insensible, or even conscious person -in exactly the most efficient manner, and, with hand and arm free, be -able to find his way quickly out of the fire. - -He must be cool and clear-headed, dexterous, and sure-footed, ready of -resource, and quick yet reliable in all his movements; and to these -ends, as to others, the drill is directed. - -Captain Shaw's advice to those beginning "in the business of -extinguishing fires" may be quoted here from his volume on "Fire and -Fire-Brigades." "Go slowly," he says, "avoid enthusiasm, watch and -study, labour and learn, flinch from no risk in the line of duty, and be -liberal and just to fellow-workers of every grade." - -But shouts of laughter are rising, as presently two or three of the -recruits at the drill appear in a long flowing skirt, and look awkward -enough in their unaccustomed garments as they stride along. They imitate -women for the nonce, and are rescued in a similar manner, the men also -carrying apparently lifeless figures down the ladders of the escapes. - -[Illustration: ESCAPE-DRILL.] - -The sheets, however, are used for other purposes of drill. See! A group -of men are opening one out, and carrying it below an open window some -twenty-five feet above the ground. - -There are fourteen or so of these men, and they grip the sheet firmly -all round, and spread it out a little less than breast-high. A man -appears at the window, twenty-five feet or so above. He is about to jump -into the sheet far below. - -At the cry he leaps, or rather drops, down plump into the sheet; and the -force of the fall is so great, that, unless these men were all leaning -well backward, it would drag them toward the ground, and the rescued man -sustain injury. As it is, they are all dragged pretty well forward by -the impact of the fall. - -A person jumping like this into a sheet should drop down into it, not -spring, as though intending to cover a great space. And the persons -holding the sheet should lean as far backward as possible. If they -simply held the sheet, standing upright in the ordinary way, no matter -how firm the grip, they would probably all be dragged to the ground in a -heap. - -The jumping-sheet is made of the best strong canvas about 9 feet square, -and strengthened with strips of webbing fastened diagonally across. The -sheet is also bound round at the edges with strong bolt-rope, and is -furnished with about a score of hand-beckets, or loops. If at a fire all -other means of rescue be unavailable, the sheet should be brought into -use. Volunteers, if necessary, should be pressed into the service, and -instructed to stretch out the sheet by the beckets, holding it about two -feet or so from the ground. They should grasp the becket firmly with -both hands, the arms being stretched at full length, their feet planted -well forward, but their heads and bodies thrown as far back as possible. -Even then the volunteers will probably find great difficulty in -maintaining the sheet, and preventing it from dashing on the ground. If -possible, a mattress or pile of straw or some soft object should be -placed on the ground beneath the sheet. The uninitiated have no idea of -the weight of a body suddenly falling or jumping on to the sheet from a -great height, and this occasion is one for the putting forth of all the -strength of body and determination of will of which a man may be -capable. - -But, now the sheet is being folded, and men are appearing on the roofs -of the buildings above. A new exercise is beginning. Rescue by rope is -now to be practised, and long threads of rope begin to appear. Imagine -yourself a fireman on the top of a burning house, with smoke and flame -belching out of the windows below, and agonizing screams for help -ringing in your ears. No fire-escape is near, or, if near, not -available; for it sometimes happens that persons cannot be rescued by -ladders, and the staircase is a mass of flames. What would you do? - -It is then that the firemen use the chair-knot, or, speaking popularly, -they try rescue by rope. Every engine carries excellent rope of tanned -manilla, and the fireman carries a rope about his body. Quickly the ends -of the rope are fastened to two points, one on either side of the -window--to a chimney-stack, if possible; then, as sailors know how, by -means of what is called a "tomfool's knot," loops and knots are made in -the rope--one loop to be slung under the arms, and the other to support -the knees, and together forming a sort of chair. Speedily the loops are -adjusted round the person to be rescued, and then he is gradually -lowered to the ground. A guiding-rope has been attached, and thrown to -the men below, and is used by them to steady the person's descent, to -prevent him from bobbing hither and thither, or to draw him out of reach -of the flame and smoke. - -This exercise being over, there is a rattle and a clatter, and into the -yard dashes a horsed fire-escape. The men pounce upon it at once, and in -a trice whip it off its carriage and wheel it to the building. The -present escapes are great improvements on the old forms, and two men can -extend it with ease. - -The first or main ladder of the escape reaches about 24 feet high; and -in the 1897 pattern the 40-feet ladders having one extension. Other -escapes have extending-ladders rising to a height of 50 feet, and even -70 feet, these being in three lengths. But an Act of Parliament now -provides that all buildings above a certain height must have means of -exit attached; this generally takes the form of iron ladders or -stairways outside the building. All parts of an escape are as far as -possible interchangeable, and the ladder-vans are designed to carry any -ladders in the brigade. - -And now the escape-drill is about to commence. The machine is placed -against the building, which we must suppose to be burning. Up runs a -fireman, with hands and feet on the rungs, to the window where the top -of the ladder rests. If the window will not open readily, he may, in -case of real need, smash it with his axe to obtain ready entrance. - -Then, if you watched him closely, you would see he did something which -you would never think of doing. He fastens the end of his rope to the -rung of his ladder, and, with the rest of the rope coiled over his arm, -disappears into the room. The rope easily runs out as he moves, and -affords him a means of speedily finding his way back to the window -through the smoke; a very valuable arrangement it may prove to be, when -the fireman finds an insensible person or a couple of children to -rescue. - -One child he carries in his arm, and the other he throws across his -shoulder, in the recognized brigade manner; and loaded thus, he gropes -his way, guided by his one free hand, along the rope. - -Or there may be more than one adult to save. Then the rescued person is -carried over the shoulder to the top of the trough, or shoot of -netting, with which some escapes used to be fitted at the back of the -escape-ladder, and is slipped down it feet first to the firemen waiting -below; while the plucky fireman above returns for the next person in -peril. - -The fireman will probably follow the last down the shoot by turning a -somersault and coming down head first; meantime, holding the other's -hands, and regulating the speed of the descent by pressing his knees and -elbows against the sides of the netting. But without the shoot he -descends by the ladder. - -Should the fire occur at a house surrounded by garden-wall, shrubs, or -forecourt, the machine is wheeled as close as possible, and the -extension or additional ladders can be placed at a somewhat different -angle from the first, so as to bridge over the intervening space and -reach the farthest window. The ladders of fire-escapes may also be -useful substitutes for water-towers. A water-tower is a huge pipe, -running up beside the ladder, or tower; and as three or four steamers -play into the base of the huge pipe, the water is forced up it, and the -jet at the top can then be directed anywhere into the burning building. - -"But we don't want any water-towers," exclaimed a fireman; "we can make -one ourselves, if we need one." That is, by using the fire-escape -ladders to obtain points of vantage. - -We soon see this accomplished. With a rush of horses and a whiz of -steam, a fire-engine tears into the yard, the steam raising the -safety-valve at a pressure of a hundred and twenty pounds to the square -inch. - -Off leap the men, as though actually at a fire; each one attends to his -prescribed duty; and ere long you see one of the men hurrying up the -escape-ladder bearing the branch in his hand--_i.e._, the heavy nozzle -end of the hose. In a second the engine whistles, there is a spurt of -water, and the fireman directs the jet from the distant head of the -ladder to a tank in the centre of the yard. - -The beckets on the hose, placed at intervals of seventeen and then -twenty feet, over a hundred-feet length, are made of leather; and are -most useful for fastening it to a chimney or any point of vantage by -means of the fireman's rope. The weight of a hundred-feet length when -complete ranges from sixty to sixty-five pounds, and when full of water -much more. - -The hose for the London Brigade is woven seamless, of the best flax; and -the interior india-rubber lining is afterwards introduced, and fastened -by an adhesive solution. Unlined hose is used by some provincial -brigades; and it is contended that the water passing through it keeps it -wet, and therefore not liable to be burned by the great heat of the -conflagration. On the other hand, the leakage is said to be a very -objectionable defect. The internal diameter of the hose is two inches -clear at the couplings, but a little larger within. - -The steam-man is taught to remember the great power he rules; otherwise -he may, by neglecting to give the warning whistle, endanger his -brother-fireman's life by suddenly sending the water rushing through the -hose, or bringing a great strain upon it, when the men controlling it -are not prepared. - -It may appear an easy thing to stand on a ladder or a house-top, and -direct the jet on the fire; but it is not so easy to carry and to guide -the long, heavy, and to some extent sinuous pipe, full of the heavy -water throbbing and gushing through it at such tremendous pressure, -especially when your foothold is none too secure. - -A fireman lost his life one night, when holding the hose on the parapet -of a roof in the Greenwich Road. He overbalanced himself, and fell -crashing, head downward, sixty feet or more below, and met a terrible -death. - -Whether this fearful accident was entirely due to the heavy hose, we -cannot say; but unless hose be laid straight, it is apt to struggle like -a living thing. The reason is obvious. The water rushes through it at -great pressure; and if the hose be not quite straight, the pressure on -the bent part of the hose is so great that it struggles to straighten -itself. Consequently, a fireman turning a stream will probably have to -use a great deal of strength. - -The increase in velocity of the water by the use of a branch and nozzle -is, of course, very great. A branch-pipe is defined by Commander Wells -as "the guiding-pipe from hose to nozzle." Some branches are made of -metal; but leather branches are being substituted for long metal pipes. -Some of these latter measured from 4 to 6 feet long, and were not only -very cumbersome to carry, but often impracticable to use with efficiency -inside buildings. - -Leather branch-pipes are sometimes longer, and are tapered from 2 inches -in diameter to 1œ inch at the nozzle. When, therefore, a stream of water -from two to two and a half inches in diameter, forced along at a great -pressure, and distending the hose to its utmost capacity, is driven -through the narrowing path of the branch-pipe, it spurts out from the -nozzle at a much higher velocity; and it is just this narrowing part of -the hose which the fireman has to handle, and whence he directs the jet. - -Some nozzles are like rose watering-can pipes, and are furnished with a -hundred holes to distribute the water. These nozzles are useful in -interior conflagrations and smoky rooms. - -Yet, all important as is the engine-drill, and invaluable as are the -engines for serious conflagrations, it is interesting to read in the -Brigade Report that in 1897 no fewer than 808 fires were extinguished by -buckets, and 460 by hand-pumps, while 98 were extinguished by engines, -and, as we have said, 466 by hydrants and stand-pipes. - -The brigade bucket carried on the engine holds about 2œ gallons, and is -made of canvas; it is collapsible, cane hoops being used for the top and -bottom rings. Drill is maintained even for bucket and hand-pump; and the -latter appliance is so portable, that the whole of the gear pertaining -to it, including two ten-feet lengths of hose, is carried in a canvas -bag. - -Hand-pumps are often used for chimney fires. Two men usually attend, and -expect to find a bucket in the house. They pour small quantities of -water on the fire in the grate, and allow as large a quantity of steam -as possible to pass up the flue. When the fire in the grate is quenched, -the men use the hand-pump on the fire in the lower part of the chimney, -and then, mounting to the roof, pour water down the chimney. - -As sometimes the ends of wooden joists are built into the flues, an -examination should be made to discover if the lead on the roof or in any -place shows signs of unusual heat, and the joists have caught fire; for -outbreaks of fire have been known to occur from this obscure cause. A -comparatively simple but effective means of dealing with a chimney fire -is to block up both ends of the chimney with thoroughly wet mats or -sacks; while one of the easiest methods is to throw common salt on the -fire. The heat decomposes the salt, and sets free chlorine gas--common -salt being chloride of sodium, and chlorine being a gas which very -feebly supports combustion, and tends to choke and dull a fire, if not -to extinguish it entirely. - -And so the drill goes on, with scaling-ladders and long ladders, -hose-carts and horsed escapes, steamers and manual-engines, the object -of the whole being, not alone to perfect the men in their knowledge of -the gear and machines, and skill in using them, but also to develop -quickness of eye, and readiness and firmness of hand. A systematic -routine is followed by fully-qualified instructors, part of the course -being theoretical and part practical; while about the year 1898 a new -syllabus of instruction came into use. - -Among other alterations, it was arranged that a selected officer should -take charge of the recruits' drill for about two years, instead of -engineers appointed at comparatively short intervals. Further, it was -decided to permanently increase the authorized number of recruits, with -the anticipation that never fewer than thirty men will be under -instruction; and to prohibit them, if possible, from being called away -to engage in cleaning or other work, so that their instruction drill -should never be interrupted. - -When the men have passed through a three months' course of instruction, -they should be ready to be drafted into the ranks as fourth-class -firemen. The men in the brigade are divided into four classes; in -addition to which, there are coachmen, and licensed watermen for the -river-craft, also engineers, foremen, and superintendents, the whole -being in charge of a chief officer and a second and third officer. - -First aid to the injured is also included in the instruction of the men; -and the Recruits Instruction-Room and Museum contains a -beautifully-jointed skeleton, kept respectfully in a case, for -anatomical lessons. - -[Illustration: RELICS OF THE BRAVE.] - -Further, if you search the indispensable boxes on the engines, you will -find among the mattocks and shovels, the saws and spanners and -turncock's tools, a few medical and surgical appliances. Every engine -carries a pint of Carron oil, which is excellent for burns. Carron oil -is so called from the Carron Ironworks, where it has long been used, and -consists of equal parts of linseed oil and limewater; olive oil may be -used, if linseed oil be not procurable. Carron oil may be used on rags -or lint; and triangular and roller bandages are carried with the oil, -also a packet of surgeon's lint and a packet of cotton-wool. Accidents -which are at all serious are, of course, taken as soon as possible to -the hospital. But, alas! some accidents occur which no Carron oil can -soothe, or hospital heal; and on that roll of honour in the little room -beside the big engine-shed, and in the blackened bits of clothing and -discoloured, dented helmets in the museum in the instruction-room, you -find ample demonstration that a fireman's life is often full of -considerable risk. - -These are the mute but touching memorials of the men who have died in -the service; to each one belongs some heroic tale. Let us hear a few of -these stories; let us endeavour to make these charred memorials speak, -and tell us something of the brave deeds and thrilling tragedies -connected with their silent but eloquent presence here. - -Listen, then, to some stories of the brigade. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -SOME STORIES OF THE BRIGADE. - - -Here are two tarnished and dented helmets of brass. They belonged -respectively to Assistant-Officer Ashford and to Fourth-class Fireman -Berg, who both lost their lives at the same great conflagration. - -About one o'clock in the early morning of December 7th, 1882, the West -London policemen, stepping quietly on their beat about Leicester Square, -discovered that the Alhambra Theatre was on fire. - -A fireman on watch within the building had made the same discovery, and -with his comrade was working to subdue the flames. But they proved too -strong for the men. - -The nearest brigade station was speedily aroused, the news telegraphed -to others, and ere long several fire-engines had hurried to the spot. -Quickly they were placed at different points about the building, and -streams of water were thrown on the fire. But in spite of all efforts, -it gained rapidly on the large structure. - -The position was fairly high and central, and the flames and ruddy glow -in the sky were visible in all parts of London; even at that hour -spectators rushed in numbers to the scene and crowded the surrounding -streets. It was with difficulty that the police could prevent them from -forcing themselves into even dangerous situations. - -The heat was intense, and as far off as the other side of the spacious -square it struck unpleasantly to the face. The flames darted high in the -air as if in triumph, and the huge rolling clouds of smoke became -illumined by the brilliant light. Several notable buildings in the -neighbourhood stood out clearly in the vivid glow as though in the -splendour of a gorgeous sunset, while high amid the towering flames -stood the picturesque Oriental minarets of the building as though -determined not to yield. - -The firemen endured a fearful time. Some stood in the windows, -surrounded, it seemed, by sparks of fire. Mounting fire-escapes also, -they poured water from these points of vantage into the burning -building. By half-past one twenty-four steam fire-engines were at work, -and at that time the brigade had only thirty-five effective steamers in -the force. At about two o'clock the minarets and the roof fell in with a -tremendous crash, and still the flames shot upward from the basement. - -Crash now succeeded crash; girders, boxes, galleries, all fell in the -general ruin. Moreover, the fire leaped out of the building, and began -to attack other houses at the back. A number of small and crowded -tenements existed here, and the danger of an extended and disastrous -fire became very great. But the efforts of the firemen were happily -successful in preventing its increase to any considerable extent. - -It was while working on an escape-ladder that Berg met with his death. -An escape had been placed against the building next to the front of the -theatre, and he was engaged in directing the jet of water from the -extended or "fly" ladder fifty feet high, when from some cause--probably -the slipperiness of the ladder-rungs--he lost his footing, and crashed -head-foremost to the ground. - -When taken up, he was found to be insensible; and while the fearful -flames were still raging, and his comrades were still at work, he was -conveyed to the Charing Cross Hospital. Among other injuries which he -had received was a fracture of the head; and after lingering a few days, -and lapsing into long fits of unconsciousness, he died. - -Not long after Berg was admitted to the hospital on that fearful night, -another fireman was carried thither from the same place. This sufferer -was Assistant-Officer Ashford, who arrived at the fire in charge of an -engine from Southwark. He was standing behind the stage, when a wall -fell upon him and crushed him to the ground. His comrades hurried to -rescue him, and he was quickly taken to the hospital; but his back was -found to be broken, and he had also sustained serious internal injuries. -After lingering for a few hours in great pain, he died. He had been -thirteen years in the brigade, and was married. - -Several other accidents occurred at this great fire. At the same time -that Ashford was stricken down, Engineer Chatterton, who was standing -near him, was stunned, and narrowly escaped with his life. Four other -firemen were also injured, one suffering from burns, one from sprain and -contusions of the legs, one from falling through a skylight and cutting -his hands, and one from slipping from a steam fire-engine on returning -to Rotherhithe and breaking his arm. These incidents show how various -are the heavy risks the firemen run in the course of their work. - -When any member of the brigade dies in the execution of his duty, it has -been customary to accord the body a public funeral, and Ashford's -obsequies proved a very solemn and imposing ceremony. At eleven o'clock -on December 14th, a large crowd assembled in Southwark Bridge Road, and -detachments of officers and men had been drawn from various -fire-stations, until nearly three hundred representatives of the brigade -were present. A large number of policemen also joined the procession. It -had a long way to traverse to Highgate Cemetery, where the burial took -place. The coffin, of polished oak, was carried on a manual-engine, and -covered by a Union Jack, the helmet of the deceased and a beautiful -wreath subscribed for by members of the brigade being placed upon the -flag. Three police bands preceded the coffin, and after it came -mourning-coaches with the relatives of the deceased. Captain Shaw -followed, leading, with Mr. Sexton Simonds, the second officer and the -chairman of the brigade committee of the Board of Works; then came the -large body of firemen with their flashing brass helmets; superintendents -and engineers were also present, and the large contingent of police. -Finally, followed six manual-engines in their vivid scarlet, and -representatives of the salvage corps and of volunteer brigades. The -procession marched slowly and solemnly, the bands playing the Dead March -in "Saul." And thus, with simple yet effective ceremony, the crushed and -broken body was borne through London streets to its last resting-place. - -It may be interesting to trace here the chief particulars of the fire, -to illustrate the working of the brigade. Of the firemen watching on the -premises, one had gone his round, when about one o'clock, on going on -the stage, he saw the balcony ablaze. He aroused Hutchings, another -fireman who slept at the theatre, and the two got a hydrant to work, -there having been several fitted in the building; they also despatched a -messenger to Chandos Street station, which is quite near. The fire -proved too strong for the hydrant to quench it; and when the -manual-engine from the station arrived, a fairly fierce fire was in -progress. - -Meantime, directly the alarm had been received at Chandos Street, it -was, as is customary, sent on to the station of the superintendent of -the district, and thence it was circulated to all the stations in the -district, and also to headquarters. Captain Shaw was soon on the spot, -and directed the operations in person. Of course, such a call as "The -Alhambra Theatre alight!" would cause a number of engines to assemble; -and in truth, they hurried from all points of the district: they came -from Holloway and Islington, from St. Luke's and Holborn. But soon "more -aid" was telegraphed for; and then engines came flying from Westminster -and Brompton, from Kensington and Paddington, even from Mile End and -Shadwell in the far east, and from Rotherhithe, Deptford, and Greenwich -across the Thames. In rapid succession, they thundered along the -midnight streets, waking sleepers in their warm beds, and paused not -until the excited horses were pulled up before the furious fire. - -In fact, just within half an hour of the first call at Chandos Street -station, twenty-four steamers were at work on the fire, and throwing -water upon the flames from every possible point. Captain Shaw was -assisted by his lieutenant, Mr. Sexton Simonds, and Superintendents -Gatehouse and Palmer. The contents of the building were so inflammable, -or the fire had obtained such a firm hold, that the enormous quantities -of water thrown upon it appeared to exercise little or no effect. But at -length, when the roof had fallen, the firemen seemed to gain somewhat on -their enemy; and they turned their attention to the dwellings in Castle -Street, and prevented the flames from spreading there. Finally, three -hours after the outbreak, that is, about four in the morning, the fire -was practically suppressed. Several of the surrounding buildings were -damaged by fire and heat, and by smoke and water. - -In the dim wintry dawn, the scene that slowly became revealed presented -a remarkable spectacle. Looking at it from the stage door, the blackened -front wall could be seen still standing, though the windows had gone, -and within yawned a huge pit of ruin. Scorched remains of boxes and -galleries, dressing-rooms and roof, all were here; while huge girders -could be seen twisted and rent and distorted into all manner of curious -shapes, which spoke more eloquently than words of the fearful heat which -had been raging. - -The value of strong iron doors, however, was demonstrated; for the -paint-room had been shut off by these doors from the rest of the -building, and the flames had not entered it. - -But to turn to other relics in the museum. Here lies a terrible little -collection,--a part of a tunic, a belt-buckle, an iron spanner, part of -a blackened helmet, and part of a branch-pipe and nozzle. They are the -memorials of a man who was burnt at his post. - -Early in the afternoon of September 13th, 1889, an alarm was sent to the -Wandsworth High Street fire-station. The upper part of a very high -building in Bell Lane, occupied by Burroughs & Wellcome, manufacturing -chemists, was found to be on fire. The time was then about a -quarter-past two, and very speedily a manual-engine from the High Street -station was on the spot. - -A stand-pipe was at once utilized, and Engineer Howard, with two -third-class firemen, named respectively Jacobs and Ashby, took the hose -up the staircase to reach the flames. Unfortunately, the stairs were at -the other end of the building, and the men had to go back along the -upper floor to arrive at the point where the fire was burning. - -Having placed his two men, Engineer Howard went for further assistance. -Amid suffocating smoke, Jacobs and Ashby stood at their post, turning -the water on the fire; and their efforts appeared likely to be -successful, when suddenly, a great outburst of flame occurred behind -them, cutting off their escape by the staircase. - -It was a terrible position,--fire before and behind, and no escape but -the window! - -Both men rushed to a casement, and cried aloud, "Throw up a line!" The -crowd below saw the men tearing at the window-bars and endeavouring to -break them, while the fire rapidly spread towards them. - -Could no help be given? Howard had endeavoured to rejoin the two men, -and, finding this impracticable, turned to obtain external aid. The -ladders on the engine were fixed together, but they fell far short of -the high window. A builder's ladder was added; but even this extension -would not reach the two men caged up high above in such fearful peril. - -A moment or two of dreadful suspense, and then the crowd burst forth -into loud cheers. Ashby was seen to be forcing his way through the iron -bars. He was small in stature, and his size was in his favour. By some -means, perhaps scarcely known to himself, he dropped down to the top of -the ladder and clung there, and finally, though very much burned, he -reached the ground in safety. - -But the other? Alas! his case was far different. It is supposed that the -smoke overcame him, and that he fell on his face; but he was never seen -alive again. Engines rattled up from all parts of London, and quantities -of water were thrown on the flames, but to no effect so far as he was -concerned. When the fire was subdued, and the men hastily made their way -to the upper floor, they found only his charred remains. He had died at -his post, the smoke suffocation, it may be hoped, rendering him -insensible to pain. - -But an even more terrible accident happened to a fireman named Ford, in -October, 1871. His death, after saving six persons, remains one of the -most terrible in the annals of the brigade. - -[Illustration: FIREMAN FORD AT THE GRAY'S INN ROAD FIRE.] - -About two in the morning of October 7th, 1871, an alarm of fire reached -the Holborn station. The call came from Gray's Inn Road; and Ford, who -had charge of the fire-escape, was soon at the scene of action. He found -a fire raging in the house of a chemist at No. 98 in the road, and the -inmates were crying for help at the windows. - -Placing the escape against the building, he hurried to a window in one -of the upper floors, and, assisted by a policeman, brought down five of -the inhabitants in safety. Still there was one remaining, and frantic -cries from a woman in a window above led him to rush up the escape once -more. He had taken her from the building, and was conveying her down the -escape, when a burst of flame belched out from the first floor and -kindled the canvas "shoot" of the escape. In a second, both the fireman -and the rescued woman were surrounded by fire. - -Unable to hold her any longer, he dropped her to the ground, where she -alighted without suffering any serious injury. But the fireman became -entangled in the wire netting of the machine, and it held him there in -its cruel grasp, in spite of all his struggles, while the fierce fire -roasted him alive. - -At length, by a desperate effort, he broke the netting, apparently by -straining the rungs of the ladder; but he himself fell to the ground so -heavily, that his helmet was quite doubled up, and its brasswork hurt -his head severely. His clothes were burning as he lay on the pavement; -but, happily, they were soon extinguished, and he was removed, suffering -great agony, to the Royal Free Hospital in the Gray's Inn Road. He -lingered until eight o'clock on the evening of the same day, when he -died. - -He was only about thirty years of age, and had been four years in the -brigade, where he bore a good character. A subscription was raised for -his widow and two children, and his funeral was an imposing and solemn -ceremony. The coffin was borne on a fire-engine drawn by four horses to -Abney Park Cemetery, and was followed by detachments of firemen and of -police. - -It is a peculiarly sad feature of this case that, after saving so many -lives, he should himself have succumbed, and that the very machine -intended to save life should have been the cause of his death. At the -inquest the jury added to their verdict the remark that, had the canvas -been non-inflammable (means having been discovered to render fabrics -non-inflammable), and had the machine been covered with wire gauze -instead of the netting, Ford's life might have been saved. Considerable -improvements have been made in fire-escapes since then, and machines of -various patterns are in use in the brigade; but, speaking generally, it -may be said that the shoot, when used, is made of copper netting, which -is, of course, non-inflammable. - -Happily, all the brave deeds of the firemen do not meet with personal -disaster. One brilliant summer afternoon in July, 1897, the Duke and -Duchess of York were present at the annual review of the brigade on -Clapham Common, and the Duchess pinned the silver medal for bravery on -the breast of Third-class Fireman Arthur Whaley, and the good service -medal was given to many members of the brigade. Whaley had saved two -little boys from a burning building, and his silver medal is a -highly-prized and honourable memorial of his gallant deed. - -About one o'clock on the early morning of April 26th, 1897, a passer-by -noticed that a coffee-house in Caledonian Road, North London, was on -fire. Several policemen hurried to the spot; but in three minutes from -the first discovery the place was in flames. The house was full of -people. Mr. Bray, the occupier, was apparently the first inmate to -notice the fire from within, and the others were soon aroused. The -terrified people appeared at the windows, and, impelled by the cruel -fire, threw themselves one after the other into the street below. They -numbered Mr. and Mrs. Bray and four daughters; all except Mr. Bray -appeared to be injured, and were taken to the hospital. Some one also -threw a child into the street, and he was caught by one of the persons -passing by. - -And now up came the firemen with their escape from Copenhagen Street. -Pitching it against the house, they hurried to the upper windows. From -one of these they brought down a young woman, who was sadly burnt about -the face, and she was sent also to the hospital. Penetrating still -farther amid the smoke and flame, Arthur Whaley groped about, and found -two lads asleep, and, bearing them out, saved their lives by means of -the escape. - -The fire did considerable damage before it was finally extinguished; but -when the stand-pipes were got fully to work, the flames were quickly -subdued. One of the daughters died from severe burns soon after her -admission to the hospital, and it was afterwards found that a girl of -fifteen had been unhappily suffocated in bed. But for the bravery of -Whaley, the two little boys might have suffered the same sad fate. - -These true stories of work in the brigade show how various are the -perilous risks to which firemen are liable. Danger, indeed, meets them -at every turn, and in almost every guise. To cope with these risks -requires instant readiness of resource as well as knowledge and skill. -In times when seconds count as hours, it is not enough to know what to -do, but how to do it with the utmost smartness and efficiency. - -Improved appliances will greatly assist the men; and Commander Wells's -horsed escape fully justified expectations soon after its introduction. -It can be hurried through the streets at twelve miles an hour, and the -wonder is that the brigade used the old hand-driven machine with its -slow pace so long. In December, 1898, a horsed escape reached a fire in -Goswell Road in a minute from the alarm signalling in St. John's Square -fire-station, and saved three lives,--an instance of very smart work -that might establish a record, except that great smartness is everywhere -the characteristic of the brigade. - -Let us, then, look at the story of the fire-escape a little more -closely, and also at some of the new improved appliances, such as the -new fire-engine floats and the river-service. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -FIRE-ESCAPES AND FIRE-FLOATS. - - -"Very smart indeed." - -The speaker was watching a light van, which had just been whirled into a -yard. Light ladders projected horizontally in front of the van, and -large wheels hung behind, a few inches above-ground. The machine was -glowing in brilliant red paint. - -Off jump five men in shining brass helmets. - -"Stand by to slip!" cries one of the men, who is known as No. 1. - -Thereupon, another man casts off some fastenings at the head of the -van, and controls the ladders until the large wheels touch the roadway; -another man eases away certain tackle; and yet another, as by a magical -touch, brings the ladder to an upright position directly the big red -wheels come in contact with the ground, No. 2 man assisting him. - -The whole operation is performed with great smartness, and the -escape--for the machine is one of Commander Wells's new horsed -escapes--is whipped off its van and reared against the house in the -proverbial twinkling of an eye. - -Such a scene may be witnessed any afternoon at the London Fire-Brigade -Headquarters, when the horse-escape drill is being practised; and the -superiority of the new machine over the old seems so obvious, that you -exclaim: "I wonder it has not been done before!" - -The men's positions are all assigned to them. The "crew," as it is -called, consists of four firemen and a coachman. When hurrying to a -fire, No. 1 takes his place on the near side in front, No. 2 is at the -brake on the off side, No. 3 at the brake on the near side, while No. 4 -takes his seat on the off side. - -Arrived at the scene of the fire, each man springs to his appointed -duty. When the escape is quite clear, No. 1 goes to the fire, No. 3 is -seen busy with the gear, and the coachman is occupied with his horses. -He removes them from the van if necessary, and is ready to ride with a -message if required to do so. - -Moreover, the van carries five hundred feet of hose, and all the -necessary gear for using a hydrant at once; so that water can be thrown -on a fire directly, even without the arrival of an engine. - -Life-saving is, however, the special use of the escape itself; and -looking at it superficially, you will say that the ladder of this -machine is not nearly long enough to reach the upper windows of a high -house. - -But if you watch the men at work, you will see that the ladder can be -cleverly and quickly extended to a much greater height. - -You will observe that the escape is made on the telescopic principle, -and on a sliding carriage; and though when not extended it only measures -about 24 feet over all,--as when riding on the van,--yet when the -extending gear is set to work, it can be made to reach a height of 50 -feet, or more than double its usual length. - -This gear for extending the ladder is fitted to the levers on each side, -and is easily worked by two men. The 50-feet escapes are in three -lengths, the middle ladder being worked by two separate wires, and the -top ladder by one wire. - -The van carrying the escape is specially built for the purpose; and, as -we have seen, the machine can be instantaneously detached, the van being -thus free for other uses if necessary. - -Not long after his appointment as chief officer in November, 1896, -Commander Wells submitted plans which he had designed for new escapes 40 -and 50 feet in length, and ladders 70 feet in length. The 40-feet escape -was in two lengths, and the others in three lengths; and all of them -were designed to be carried on a van of new pattern. - -The County Council authorized the chief officer to obtain patents for -his invention, and also ordered experimental machines to be made. These -proving satisfactory, it was determined to use them; and a considerable -number were ordered, the horsed escape being introduced into the brigade -in July, 1897. The appliance is lighter than those hitherto in use, and -can be manipulated by fewer men with even greater ease. - -It has no shoot, or trough, down which a rescued person can be slipped; -and bearing in mind that this operation may prove hazardous, unless the -person have sufficient presence of mind to raise and press his arms -against either side of the shoot so as to break his fall, there is no -reason to regret its absence. - -Further, the machine will now be able to reach the scene of action so -speedily, and is so amply manned, that the firemen should be able to -effect a rescue without the need of a shoot. At the same time, it must -be borne in mind that instruction for various patterns of fire-escapes -is given at headquarters, and the shoot may be seen in use on some -machines there. - -The new horsed escape follows a series of life-saving appliances, -extending over many years. Ladders of various kinds, of course, form an -important feature; but the necessity of some arrangement whereby the -height of the ladders could be rapidly and efficiently extended would, -no doubt, stimulate invention; and various contrivances were devised for -this purpose. Further, the need for conveying the machine rapidly to the -fire would lead to the ladders being placed on wheels. - -Without specifying the various kinds of portable ladders in use, it may -be stated that the Metropolitan Brigade came to use one, consisting of a -main ladder varying from 32 to 36 feet high, and furnished with a canvas -trough along its length. It was doubtless a machine of this sort which -was in use when Fireman Ford lost his life at the Gray's Inn Road fire -in 1871. A second ladder, jointed to the first, extended the height 15 -feet; while other ladders in some escapes raised the height to 60 and in -some cases to 70 feet. - -The escape in general use by the brigade in 1889 consisted of a main -ladder, having the sides strengthened by patent wire-rope, and finished -at the back with a shoot or a trough of uninflammable copper-wire -netting. A fly-ladder lay along the main ladder, to which it was -jointed, and was raised, when needed, by levers and ropes. A third -ladder, known as the "first floor," which could be jointed to the -fly-ladder, was placed under the main ladder; while a fourth could be -added, bringing the height up to 60 feet. The fly-ladder could also be -instantly detached for separate use if required. - -The carriage on which this arrangement of ladders was mounted was -comparatively light, and was fitted with springs and high wheels, and -two men could move it anywhere. - -As we have said, drill for various descriptions of escapes is practised -at headquarters; but the general instructions are that, when running the -machine, two men are to be "on the levers," to prevent accident. - -There used to be a society to organize the use of fire-escapes. It was -called the Royal Society for the Protection of Life from Fire, and was -first established in 1836. About seven years later its object was more -fully attained, when it was reorganized, and had six escape-stations in -the metropolis. In 1866, it possessed no fewer than eighty-five -stations, while many lives had been saved, and numerous fires had been -attended. - -But next year, a municipal fire-brigade having been established, the -society handed over its works, and practically made a present of all its -plant to the Metropolitan Board of Works, the Fire-Brigade Act having -been passed in 1865. And so once more municipal organization took up and -developed what voluntary effort had begun. - -Various devices have also been employed to afford escape from the -interior of the building. Perhaps the simplest, and yet one of the most -effectual, consists of a rope ladder fastened permanently to the -window-sill, and rolled up near it; or a single cord may be used, -knotted at points about a foot apart all along its length. Like the rope -ladder, the cord may be permanently fastened to the window-sill, and -coiled up under the toilet-table, or in any place where it may be out of -the way, and yet convenient to hand. - -Persons may be lowered by this rope, by fastening them at the end--as, -for instance, by tying it under their arms, or placing them in a sack -and fastening the rope to it--and then allowing the rope to gradually -slip through the hands of the person lowering them. Better still, the -rope should be bent round the corner of the window-sill, or round the -corner of a bed-post, when the friction on the hands will not be so -great, and the gradual descent will be safe-guarded. - -In descending alone, a person will find the knots of great assistance in -preventing him from slipping down too fast; and he may increase the -safety of his descent by placing his feet on the wall as he moves his -grip, one hand after the other, on the rope; this arrangement prevents -the friction on the hands, which hurried sliding might cause, with its -attendant danger of falling. - -Permanent fire-escapes are provided in large buildings by means of iron -ladders or staircases at the back or sides of the structure, with -balconies at each story; while poles having baskets attached, ropes -with weights so that they may be thrown into windows, and various -contrivances and combinations of ladders, baskets, nets and ropes, etc., -have all been recommended or brought into use during a long course of -years. They are designed to afford escape, either from within, or from -without, the burning building; several, however, being for private -installation. - -[Illustration: STERN OF YARROW'S FIRE-LAUNCH.] - -Returning, then, to the public improvements in fire extinction, a new -and remarkable floating fire-engine was designed about the year 1898, by -Messrs. Yarrow & Co. of Poplar, in conjunction with Commander Wells, -chief of the London Brigade. It was intended for use in very shallow -water. - -The plan was cleverly based on the lines of the _Heron_ type of -shallow-draught gunboats constructed for use on tropical rivers. Six of -these vessels were built by Messrs. Yarrow for the Admiralty, and two -went to the Niger and four to China. The new fire-float design provided -for twin-screw propellers fitted in raised pipes, or inverted tunnels, -to ensure very light draught combined with high speed, and the -consequent power of manoeuvring quickly quite near to the shore. - -The difficulty of working fire-floats close to the shore in all states -of the tide had long troubled the London Brigade, and rendered the best -type of vessel for this purpose a matter of much concern. Originally, -vessels of comparatively large size were used, containing machinery both -for throwing water and for propelling the boat. These vessels, however, -were costly to maintain, and could not be effectively used at all states -of the tide. Captain Shaw, therefore, separated the fire-engine from the -propelling power, using tug-boats which would float in a few feet of -water to haul along fire-engine rafts, which could be used quite near to -the scene of the fire. - -The last of the large vessels disappeared from the brigade in 1890, and -the river-service consisted of tugs and floats, the fire-engines or -rafts being familiarly called by the latter name. This system, however, -did not prove satisfactory; for, as the chief engineer pointed out, just -before the appointment of Commander Wells, tugs being necessary to haul -the floats, double the number of river-craft were employed, and there -was a consequent increase in cost of maintenance. He suggested that both -the propelling and the fire-engine machinery should be united on one -vessel, but that it should be of light draught. - -The new chief officer was consulted. Now, Commander Wells, who was then -thirty-seven years of age, had enjoyed a long experience in the navy; -and, moreover, had been used to torpedo-boats, which of course are -comparatively light craft. Entering the Service in 1873, he was second -in command of a torpedo-boat destroyer in the Egyptian campaign of 1882, -and for three years was second in command of the Torpedo School at -Devonport. At the time of his election to the chief officer's post of -the London Fire-Brigade, he was senior officer of a torpedo-boat -squadron. He had also been second in command of two battleships, and had -partly organized the London Naval Exhibition of 1891. He was, -therefore, likely to be thoroughly conversant with all the latest types -of light-draught navy vessels. - -He pointed out the great disparity existing between the brigade's tugs, -which required nine feet of water, and the fire-engine floats, which -needed only about two feet; and he prepared a rough plan of a craft on -the model of shallow-draught gunboats. The chief engineer approving the -plan, a design was prepared by Messrs. Yarrow & Co., in conjunction with -Commander Wells. - -This design, or one similar to it, is probably destined to revolutionize -river fire-engine service. The class of material used would be the same -as that employed for building light-draught vessels for her Majesty's -Government; and the method of raising the steam would be, of course, by -Yarrow's water tube-boilers, having straight tubes, and raising steam -from cold water in fifteen minutes. - -The design shows a vessel about 100 feet long by 18 feet beam, and the -draught only about 1 foot 7 inches--_i.e._, five inches less than the -previous floats, though containing its own propelling power. The -engines, twin-screw and compound, would develop about 180 horse-power, -and the speed range from nine to ten knots an hour, while no doubt much -higher speed could be obtained if desired. - -But the main feature is the ingenious use of the propellers. How can -they work in such shallow water? - -Briefly, the propellers operate in the two inverted tunnels, the upper -parts of which are considerably above the water-line. When the -propellers commence to work, the air is expelled from the tunnels, and -is immediately replaced by water. Thus, a large propeller can be fully -immersed, while the vessel itself is only floating in half or may be a -third of the amount of water in which the propeller is actually working. -The design thus combines maximum speed with minimum draught. Sooner or -latter, it seems likely that some such system must be adopted for -fire-floats used in protecting water-side premises; and so far the -design promises to inaugurate a new era. - -The boilers in the design also operate the fire-engine pumps, which -would probably consist of four powerful duplex "Worthingtons," each -throwing five hundred gallons a minute. They discharge into a pipe -connected with a large air-vessel, whence a series of branches issue -with valves connected with fire-hose. - -But at the top of the large air-vessel stands a water-tower ladder, the -two sides consisting of water-pipes. At the heads of the pipes are -fitted two-inch nozzles, the direction of which can be varied by moving -the water-ladders from the deck. Branch-pipes can also be led underneath -the deck to either side of the vessel. Suitable accommodation is -provided for the crew, and ample deck space is available for working the -craft. She seems likely to give a good account of herself at any -water-side fire to which she might be called. - -Concurrently with this new design, arrangements were made to alter the -London river-stations, and to some extent remodel the river -organization. Previously, there had been five river-stations; but -usually between fifteen and twenty minutes elapsed after a fire-alarm -was received before a tug got under way with its raft or float. This -delay was partly owing to the fact that the men lived at some distance, -and also that a full head of steam was not kept on the tugs. - -The chief officer advised that the staff and appliances of the A and B -stations, and also of the C and D stations, should be amalgamated, and -thus a crew could be always on board and ready to proceed to a fire at a -moment's notice. There would be four river-stations--_viz._, at -Battersea, Blackfriars, Rotherhithe, and Deptford--from any of which a -crew with appliances could steam at once. The value of the new -arrangement is obvious. Moreover, the staff of the Blackfriars post are -lodged in the large new fire-engine station at Whitefriars, opened July -21st, 1897, and which is not far from the north of Blackfriars Bridge. - -As, therefore, the nineteenth century closes, we see the London Brigade, -which has formed the model of so many others in the kingdom, straining -every nerve, not only to maintain its high reputation, but to develop -and to improve its elaborate organization and its numerous appliances -for coping with its terrible enemy. - -But, in the meantime, invention has been busy in other directions. Fire -is so terrible a calamity, and its risks so great, that ingenuity has -been taxed to the utmost to master it in every way; and not only to -extinguish it, but to prevent it from occurring at all. Of a fire, -indeed, it may be said that prevention is better than cure. - -What think you of muslin that will not flame, of ceilings that will pour -forth water by themselves, of glass bottles that break and choke the -fire? What think you of chemical fire-engines, some so small as to be -easily carried on a man's back? or of curtains and screens and fabrics -that stubbornly refuse to yield? - -All kinds of contrivances, in short, have been cleverly designed. Let -us now see some in operation. Have you ever seen a fire choked in a -minute? and how is it done? - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -CHEMICAL FIRE-ENGINES. FIRE-PROOFING, OR MUSLIN THAT WILL NOT FLAME. - - -Which structure will be first extinguished? - -Imagine yourself gazing at two wooden sheds, both quite filled with -combustible materials, and drenched with petroleum and tar. These are to -be fired, and then one is to be extinguished by water, and the other by -an extinctor, or chemical fire-engine. - -"Ready!" - -At the word, the torch is applied, and the first shed bursts into -flames. It soon blazes furiously. A man steps forward, armed with a -hand-pump, such as is used by the Metropolitan Fire-Brigade, and turns a -jet of water upon it. - -Hiss! squish! A cloud of steam rises as the water dashes upon the fire, -and still the stream pours on. Now the fireman pauses to refill his pump -with water, and then again the jet plays on the burning pile. - -The fire dims down to a dull red, the flames cease to shoot upward and -outward, and after about five minutes the conflagration is extinguished. -Bravo! A very smart piece of work! - -But now the second shed is lighted, and blazes fast. Another man hurries -forward. He has a steel cylinder slung on his back, and in a second, -without any pumping, he directs a jet of fluid upon the fire. The -flames die down, the red gives place to blackness, and, in about half -the time taken by the other method, the extinctor has completely -quenched the fire. How is it done? - -[Illustration: CHEMICAL EXTINCTOR.] - -[Illustration: SECTION OF CHEMICAL FIRE-ENGINE.] - -Within the steel cylinder is suspended a bottle charged with a powerful -acid, probably sulphuric acid--but the secrets of patents must not be -revealed. The bottle can be instantaneously broken by a lever or weight, -and the acid is precipitated into the cylinder, which is filled with an -alkaline fluid--perhaps a solution of carbonate of soda. The mixture of -these fluids rapidly produces large quantities of carbonic acid gas, -which is a great enemy to fire. Moreover, water absorbs the gas easily; -and when generated in the cylinder, the expansion of the gas causes a -propelling power, varying from seventy to a hundred pounds per square -inch. Consequently, a jet of water propelled by the gas shoots out a -distance varying from thirty to fifty feet; and when it reaches the -fire, the heat evaporates the water, and liberates the gas held in -solution, which chokes the fire. - -This is the general principle of most chemical fire-engines. There are -several varieties; but they are, no doubt, chiefly based on the rapid -evolution of carbonic acid gas. If you find the principle difficult to -understand, imagine a soda-water bottle bursting, or the contents -spurting forth if the cork be suddenly removed, and you will not be so -surprised at the stream jetting forth from an extinctor. Soda-water is, -of course, aërated by being charged with carbonic acid gas. - -These chemical extinctors are of all sizes; they range from small -bottles upward, to large double-tank machines, and drawn by horses. The -small bottles contain the necessary materials, so arranged that, when -the bottle is thrown down, the gas is generated and the fire choked. -Both Germany and the United States make large use of chemical -fire-engines, some of which are capable of giving a pressure of a -hundred and forty pounds, and perhaps more, to the square inch. - -Cases filled with sulphur, saltpetre, and other chemicals are sometimes -used, which, being ignited, send forth a choking vapour, stifling all -fire in a confined space; again, other contrivances discharge ammoniacal -gases and hydrochloric acid. - -Extinctors, or fire-annihilators, have been invented or introduced by -several persons. Mr. T. Phillips was responsible for one in 1849, which -generated steam and carbonic acid. Two or three persons seem to have had -a hand in an apparatus developed by Mr. W. B. Dick about twenty years -later, and patented April, 1869. This consisted of an iron cylinder -furnished with tartaric acid, bicarbonate of soda and water, and -generating the carbonic acid gas. The first inventor of this appliance -was a Dr. Carlier, who suggested it, or something like it, a few years -previously. - -About the same time, Mr. James Sinclair introduced his chemical -appliance, the firm now being the Harden Star, Lewis, & Sinclair -Company. British fire-brigades would not touch the extinctors; but the -Americans seized upon them rapidly, and manufactured them largely. At -the present time, it is said that there is scarcely a fire-brigade in -the States that does not use a chemical fire-engine in some shape or -form. - -In Britain, the extinctor, either as the hand-grenade bottle or portable -cylinder, which latter contains about eight gallons, is largely used by -private persons, and is kept in many large establishments. Several -provincial fire-brigades have also adopted the appliances in some form -or other; but, as a rule, the chemical fire-engine has not been used by -the public fire-brigades of the country. Perhaps one reason is, that it -is regarded as more suitable for private use, and not as superior to the -powerful steam-engines, hydrants, etc., operated so efficiently by -trained firemen. - -It will be seen that the claims for chemical fire-engines are twofold in -character: first, that they themselves supply propelling power for the -fluid without pumps--a great consideration for private persons; and, -secondly, that the liquid thrown has far greater fire-quenching powers -than water. - -To the first of these claims, it is possible that fire-brigades, with -their numerous hydrants and powerful steam-engines, would pay but little -regard; while as to the second claim, only accomplished chemists and -impartially-minded persons of wide and varied experience can form a -fully-reliable opinion. - -At the time of the great Cripplegate fire in London, November, 1897, -Americans were very keen in their criticism, much of which was unjust -and inaccurate; but one of their points was the absence of chemical -appliances in the London Brigade. - -It is, however, fairly open to argument whether the use of such -apparatus would have mended matters. Even Americans have by no means -abolished the steam fire-engine; and they have sometimes found that the -fire has obtained so firm a hold, that the best they could do was to -prevent the flames from spreading. When quantities of inflammable -substances are crowded in high and comparatively frail buildings in -narrow thoroughfares, you have all the elements of serious fires; and -when once fairly started, it remains to be proved whether a -gas-propelled and gas-laden stream would be more efficient than powerful -and copious jets of water. - -The difficulty would appear to be rather that of directly and quickly -reaching the seat of the fire, than of the more or less fire-quenching -properties of rival fluids. From the evidence of Mr. John F. Dane at the -Cripplegate Fire Enquiry, we may gain some idea why the brigade dislike -the chemical fire-engine. He had been twenty-eight years in the -brigade--though he had then left the service, and was a consulting fire -engineer--but at one fire, where he had found a dense smoke, an hour was -occupied in tracing the fire to its source, it being worked upon by -hand-buckets. Had he used a chemical fire-engine, it would, no doubt, -have been played into the dense smoke, and damaged a thousand pounds' -worth of goods, while, after having exhausted the charge, they would not -have found the fire subdued. Chemical fire-engines could not be trusted -to discharge where wanted. - -Many modern structures at the Cripplegate fire were comparatively frail. -Iron girders and stone were, no doubt, largely used, and you would -naturally think that iron would be fireproof; but, as a matter of fact, -iron may be worse than wood. That is, cast-iron is very liable to split, -if suddenly heated or cooled; and a jet of water playing on a hot -cast-iron girder would most likely cause it to collapse at once, and -bring down everything it supported in a terrible ruin. - -The truth is, therefore, that light iron and stone structures are not -nearly so fireproof as they might appear. The difficulty of building -fireproof structures has not yet been fully solved, though many -suggestions to that end have been made. Wood soaked in a strong solution -of tungstate or silicate of soda is rendered uninflammable and nearly -incombustible. Silicate of soda is, perhaps, the best. It fuses in the -heat, and forms a glaze over the wood, preventing the oxygen in the air -from reaching it. But intense heat will overcome it. Whichcord's plan of -fire-proofing encases metal girders in blocks of fire-clay; other -systems make great use of concrete. Walls, of course, should be built of -brick or stone; while double iron doors are of great value, as in the -case of the warehouses burning at the docks on January 1st, 1866. - -At the enquiry into the Cripplegate fire of 1897, Mr. Hatchett Smith, -F.R.I.B.A., declared that the well-holes or lighting-areas in the -warehouses involved, were a source of danger as constructed, and he -recommended that such lighting-areas should be confined by party walls, -and sealed with rolled plate-glass or pavement-lights. Windows facing -the street should be glazed with double sashes, and external walls -should be built with a hollow space of about two inches between them and -their plastering, with an automatic water-sprinkler at the top of the -hollow space. Such a plan of construction would, he contended, confine -the fire to the apartment in which it originated, though it would not -extinguish the fire in that room. The flooring Mr. Smith seemed to take -for granted would be of concrete and fireproof. - -Among other fire precautions, the introduction of the electric light in -place of gas may operate as a valuable precautionary measure, especially -in theatres and public places; while a strong iron curtain, to be -quickly dropped down between the stage and the auditorium, is also a -most valuable precaution. - -But all such measures may be largely neutralized by the inflammable -contents of the buildings. Some manufactures are remarkably dangerous in -this respect, and the extensive storage of certain goods renders even -spontaneous combustion probable. Thus, if a well-built fireproof -structure contain large quantities of combustible materials, and these -burn furiously, the heat evolved may be so great as to conquer almost -everything in the building. Indeed, the heat in huge fires is sufficient -to melt iron. - -Nevertheless, the liability to fire and its destructiveness is much -decreased by wise precautionary measures in building, the idea -underlying them being that walls, floorings, doors, or what not should -be so made as to localize the fire to the apartment in which it -originated. - -As with buildings, so with clothing. Here is a piece of muslin. Light -it: it will not flame; it slowly smoulders. But even as the problem of -building completely fireproof structures has not been solved, so also -the question of fireproof fabrics has not been completely answered. - -Progress, however, has been made in that direction. Methods have been -adopted whereby the flaming of fabrics can be prevented, and their -burning reduced to smouldering. - -A solution of tungstate of soda is, perhaps, one of the best chemicals -to use for this purpose, for it is believed not to injure the fibre; but -for articles of clothing, borax is better suited, as it does not injure -the appearance of the clothes, and it is very effectual in its -operation, though it weakens the fibre. Alum, common salt, and sulphate -of soda will also diminish or entirely prevent flaming; but they tend to -weaken the fibre. - -A simple experiment illustrates the principle. Any boy who has made -fireworks, or dabbled in chemistry, knows that paper--one of the most -inflammable of substances--after being soaked in a solution of -saltpetre, will not flame, but smoulders quickly at the touch of fire; -hence the name touch-paper, which is used to ignite fireworks. - -Some of these salts, then, prevent the fabric from flaming, and also -reduce the burning to slow smouldering, the explanation being apparently -this,--when the fabric is dipped in solutions of certain salts, tiny -crystals are deposited among the fibres on drying, and the -inflammability is diminished; but the effect of the salt upon the fabric -has to be considered, and some, such as sulphate of ammonia, will -decompose when the goods are ironed with a hot iron. - -This necessary operation of the laundry, however, does not affect -tungstate of soda; and all the dresses of a household could be rendered -non-inflammable and largely incombustible by dipping them in a solution -of this salt. The proportions would be about one pound of the tungstate -to a couple of gallons of water. For starched goods, the best way to use -the tungstate would be to add one part of it to three parts of the -starch, and use the compound in the ordinary manner. - -Various methods have been adopted for fire-proofing wood, the strong -solution of silicate of soda being one of the best. Asbestos paint is -also useful, if it does not peel off, a little trick to which it seems -addicted. By another method, the wood is soaked for three hours in a -mixture of alum, sulphate of zinc, potash, and manganic oxide, with -water and a small quantity of sulphuric acid. But while the -inflammability of wood may be removed, it is questionable if it can be -rendered entirely incombustible. In short, the problem of absolutely -preventing fires by rendering substances perfectly fireproof has yet to -be solved, if, indeed, it is capable of solution. - -But if fire cannot be entirely prevented, could not some method be -devised of automatically quenching the flames directly they break forth? - -Such a method would appear like the prerogative of the good genii of a -fairy fable, and beyond the reach of ordinary mortals. But science and -human ingenuity which tell so many true "fairy tales" have made some -approach to this also. The device is known popularly as "sprinklers," -and is contrived somewhat in this way:-- - -Lines of water-pipes are conducted along the ceilings of the building, -and are connected with the water supply through a large tank on the -roof. To these pipes, the sprinklers are attached at distances of about -ten feet. They are, in some cases, jointed with a soft metal, which -melts at a temperature of about 160 degrees; the valve then falls, and -the water is sprayed forth into the apartment. - -Other sprinklers are said to act by a thread, which, it is claimed, will -burn when the heat reaches a certain temperature and release the water. -The essential idea, therefore, is that the heat of the fire shall -automatically set free the water to quench it. Such great importance is -attached to the use of sprinklers by some insurance-offices, that they -offer a large reduction of premiums to those employing them. Again, -other sprinklers are not automatic, but require to be set in operation -by hand. - -Nevertheless, in spite of all these varied precautions, it is -unfortunately a platitude to say that fires do occur; but the point to -be noted is, that but for these efforts, they would probably be greater -in number and more destructive in their results. - -Even when the flames are raging in fury, much may be done by courageous -and well-trained men to preserve goods from injury; and, indeed, much is -done by a body of men whose work is perhaps too little known. They pluck -goods, as it were, out of the very jaws of the fire, and often while the -flames are burning above them. Would you like to know them, and see them -at work? - -Behold, then, the black helmets and the scarlet cars of the London -Salvage Corps. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -THE WORK OF THE LONDON SALVAGE CORPS. THE GREAT CRIPPLEGATE FIRE. - - -"Where is the fire?" - -"City, sir; warehouses well alight." - -"Off, and away!" - -The horses are harnessed to the scarlet car as quickly as though it were -a fire-engine; the crew of ten men seize their helmets and axes from the -wall beside the car, and mount to their places with their officers; the -coachman shakes the reins; and away dashes the salvage-corps trap to the -scene of action. - -The wheels are broad and strong; they do not skid or stick at trifles; -the massy steel chains of the harness shine and glitter with burnishing, -and might do credit to the Horse Artillery; the stout leather helmets -and sturdy little hand-axes of the men look as fit for service as hand -and mind can make them. Everything was in its right place; everything -was ready for action; and at the word of command the men were on the -spot, and fully equipped in a twinkling. - -The call came from the fire-brigade. The brigade pass on all their calls -to the salvage corps, and the chiefs of the corps have to use their -discretion as to the force they shall send. The public do not as a rule -summon the salvage corps. The public summon the fire-brigade, and away -rush men and appliances to extinguish the flames and to save life. The -primary duty of the salvage corps is to save goods. There is telephonic -connection between the brigade and the corps, and the two bodies work -together with the utmost cordiality. - -We will suppose the present call has come from a big City fire. The -chief has to decide at once upon his mode of action. No two fires are -exactly alike, and saving goods from the flames is something like -warfare with savages--you never know what is likely to happen; so he has -to take in the circumstances of the case at a glance, and shape his -course accordingly. Should the occasion require a stronger force, he -sends back a message by the coachman of the car; and in his evidence -concerning the great Cripplegate fire, Major Charles J. Fox, the chief -officer of the salvage corps, stated that he had seventy men at work at -that memorable conflagration. - -But see, here is the fire! Streams of water are being poured on to the -flames, and the policemen have hard work to keep back the excited crowd. -They give way for the scarlet car, and the salvage men have arrived at -the scene of action. Entrance may have to be forced to parts of the -burning building, and doors and windows broken open for this purpose. - -Crash! crash! The axes are at work. And a minute more the men step -within amid the smoke. The firemen may be at work on another floor, and -the water to quench the fire may be pouring downstairs in a stream. The -noises are often extraordinary. There is not only the rush and roar of -the flames, the splashing and gurgling of the water, but the falling of -goods, furniture, and may be even parts of the structure itself. - -Walls, girders, ceilings may fall, ruins clatter about your ears, clouds -of smoke suffocate you, tongues of flame scorch your face; but if you -are a salvage man, in and out of the building you go, while with your -brave brethren of the corps you spread out the strong rubber tarpaulins -you have brought with you in your trap, and cover up such goods as you -find, to preserve them from damage. Under these stout coverlets, heaps -of commodities may lie quite safe from injury from water and smoke. - -Overhead you still hear terrible noises. Safes and tanks tumble and -clatter with dreadful din; part of the structure itself, or some heavy -piece of furniture, falls to the ground; dense volumes of water poured -into the windows rain through on to your devoted head. But you stick to -your post, preserving such goods as you can in the manner that the chief -may direct. May be you have to assist in conveying goods out of reach of -the hungry fire, and your training has taught you how to handle -efficiently certain classes of goods. Sometimes quantities of water -collect in the basement, doing much damage; and down there, splash, -splash, you go, to open drains, or find some means of setting the water -free. - -On occasion, the men of the salvage corps find themselves in desperate -straits. At the Cripplegate fire, one of the corps discovered the -staircase in flames, and his retreat quite cut off. With praiseworthy -promptitude, he knotted some ladies' mantles together into a rope, and -by this means escaped from a second-story window to the road below. - -On another occasion, Major Fox himself, the chief of the corps, was -rather badly hurt on the hip, when making his way about a burning -building at a fire in the Borough. The probability of accident is only -too great, and it was no child's play in training or in practice which -enabled the corps to attain such proficiency as to carry off a handsome -silver challenge cup at an International Fire Tournament at the -Agricultural Hall in the summer of 1895. - -The duties of the salvage corps do not end even when the fire is -extinguished. They remain in possession of the premises until the -fire-insurance claims are satisfactorily arranged. They do not, however, -know which office is paying the particular claims, and all offices unite -in supporting the corps. It is, in fact, their own institution, though -established under Act of Parliament; and it is not, therefore, like the -London Fire-Brigade, a municipal service. - -When the brigade was handed over to the Metropolitan Board of Works by -the Act of 1865, provision was made for the establishment of a salvage -corps, to be supported by the Fire-Insurance Companies, and to -co-operate with the brigade. The corps has now five stations, the -headquarters--where the chief officer, Major Fox, resides--being at -Watling Street in the City. The eastern station is at Commercial Road, -Whitechapel; the southern, at Southwark; the northern, at Islington; and -the western, at Shaftesbury Avenue. - -The force consists of about a hundred men. Their uniform somewhat -resembles that of the fire-brigade, being of serviceable dark blue -cloth, but with helmets of black leather instead of brass. They are -nearly all ex-navy men, excepting the coachmen, some of whom have seen -service in the army; indeed, candidates now come from the royal navy -direct, but receive a special training for their duties, such as in the -handling of certain classes of goods. Their ranks are divided into -first, second, and third-class men, with coachmen, and foremen, five -superintendents, and one chief officer. - -Their work lies largely outside the public eye. They labour, so to -speak, under the fire; and it is difficult to estimate the immense -quantity of goods they save from damage during the course of the year. -Thousands of pounds' worth were saved at the great Cripplegate fire -alone in November, 1897. That huge conflagration, which was one of the -largest in London since the Great Fire of 1666, may well serve to -illustrate the work of the corps. - -The alarm was raised shortly before one o'clock mid-day on November -19th, and an engine from Whitecross Street was speedily on the spot. As -usual, the salvage corps received their call from the brigade; and in -his evidence at the subsequent enquiry at the Guildhall, Major Fox -stated he received the call at headquarters from the Watling Street -fire-station, a warehouse being alight in Hamsell Street. - -He turned out the trap, and with the superintendent and ten men hurried -to the fire. He also ordered other traps to be sent on from the other -four stations of the corps, and left the station at two minutes past -one. - -The Watling Street fire-engine had preceded him; and when he turned the -corner of Jewin Street out of Aldersgate Street, he saw "a bright cone -of fire with a sort of tufted top." It was very bright, and he was -struck by the absence of smoke. He thought the roof of one of the -warehouses had gone, and the flames had got through. - -Perceiving the fire was likely to be a big affair, he at once started a -coachman back to Watling Street with the expressive instructions to -"send everything." - -The coachman returned at thirteen minutes past one, so the chief and his -party must have arrived at the fire about five minutes past one; that -is, they reached the scene of action in three minutes. The major and -superintendent walked down Hamsell Street, and found upper floors "well -alight," and the fire burning downward as well. It was, in fact, very -fierce; so fierce, indeed, that he remarked to his companion what a late -call they had received. The firemen were getting to work, and he himself -proceeded with his salvage operations. - -Believing that some of the buildings were irrevocably doomed, he did not -send his men into these, for the sufficient reason that he could not see -how he could get the men out again; but they got to work in other -buildings in Hamsell Street and Well Street, though the fire was -spreading very rapidly. Many windows were open, which was a material -source of danger, causing, of course, a draught for the fire. They shut -some of the windows, and removed piles of goods from the glass, so that -the buildings might resist the flames as long as possible. Eventually, -the staff of men, now increased to seventy in number, cleared out a -large quantity of goods, and stacked them on a piece of vacant ground -near Australian Avenue. - -In spite of the heat and smoke and flame, in spite of falling tanks and -safes and walls, the men worked splendidly, and were able to save an -immense quantity of property. - -Meantime, the firemen had been working hard. On arrival, they found the -fire spreading with remarkable rapidity, and the telephone summoned more -and more assistance. Commander Wells was at St. Bartholomew's Hospital -examining the fire appliances when he was informed of the outbreak. He -left at once, and reached Jewin Street about a quarter past one. -Superintendent Dowell was with him; and on entering the street, they -could see from the smoke that the fire was large, and that both Hamsell -Street and Well Street were impassable, as flames even then were -leaping across both the streets. - -Steamers, escapes, and manuals hurried up from all quarters, until about -fifty steamers were playing on the flames. Early in the afternoon, the -girls employed in a mantle warehouse hastened to the roof in great -excitement, and escaped by an adjoining building. - -A staff of men soon arrived from the Gas Company's offices; but the -falls of ruins were already so numerous and so dangerous, that they were -not able to work effectually. - -In fact, the whole of Hamsell Street was before long in flames; and in -spite of all efforts, the fire spread to Redcross Street, Jewin -Crescent, Jewin Street, and Well Street. The brigade had arrived with -their usual promptitude; but before their appliances could bring any -considerable power to bear, the conflagration was extending fast and -fiercely. - -The thoroughfares were narrow, the buildings high, and the contents of a -very inflammable nature, such as stationery, fancy goods, celluloid -articles (celluloid being one of the most inflammable substances known), -feathers, silks, etc., while a strong breeze wafted burning fragments -hither and thither. Windows soon cracked and broke, the fire itself thus -creating or increasing the draught; the iron girders yielded to the -intense heat, the interiors collapsed, and the flames raged -triumphantly. - -In Jewin Crescent, the firemen worked nearly knee-deep in water, and -again and again ruined portions of masonry crashed into the roadway. -Through the afternoon, engines continued to hurry up, until at five -o'clock the maximum number of about fifty was reached. The end of Jewin -Street resembled an immense furnace, while the bare walls of the -premises already burnt out stood gaunt and empty behind, and portions of -their masonry continued to fall. - -[Illustration] - -Firemen were posted on surrounding roofs and on fire-escape ladders, -pouring immense quantities of water on the fire, while others were -working hard to prevent the flames from spreading. All around, thousands -of spectators were massed, pressing as near as they could. They -responded readily, however, to the efforts of the police, and order was -well maintained. - -This was the critical period of the fire. It still seemed spreading; in -fact, it appeared as though there were half a dozen outbreaks at once. -But after six, the efforts of the firemen were successful in preventing -it from spreading farther. As darkness fell, huge flames seemed to spurt -upward from the earth, presenting a strikingly weird appearance; they -were caused by the burning gas which the workmen had not been able to -cut off. Crash succeeded crash every few minutes, as tons of masonry -fell; while in Well Street, at one period a huge warehouse, towering -high, seemed wrapped in immense flame from basement to roof. - -An accident occurred by Bradford Avenue. Some firemen, throwing water on -the raging fire, were suddenly surprised by a terrible outburst from -beneath them, and it was seen that the floors below were in flames. To -the excited spectators it seemed for a moment as though the men must -perish; but a fire-escape was pitched for them, and amid tremendous -cheering the scorched and half-suffocated men slid down it in safety. - -Cripplegate Church, too, suffered a narrow escape, even as it did in -the Great Fire of 1666. On both occasions, sparks set fire to the roof, -the oak rafters on this occasion being ignited. But the special efforts -made by the firemen to save it were happily crowned by success, though -it sustained some damage. Also Mr. Nein, one of the churchwardens, -assisted by Mr. Morvell and Mr. Capper, posted on the roof, worked hard -with buckets to quench the flames. - -It was late at night before the official "stop" message was circulated, -and eight o'clock next morning before the last engine left. It was found -that the area affected by the fire covered four and a half acres, two -and a half being burnt out; and no fewer than a hundred and six premises -were involved. Fifty-six buildings were absolutely destroyed, and fifty -others burnt out or damaged. Seventeen streets were affected; but -happily no lives were lost, though several firemen were burnt somewhat -severely. The total loss was estimated at two millions sterling, the -insurance loss being put at about half that amount. The verdict, on the -termination of the enquiry at the Guildhall on January 12th, 1898, -attributed the conflagration to the wilful ignition of goods by some one -unknown. - -The quantity of water used at this fire was enormous. Mr. Ernest -Collins, engineer to the New River Water Company, in whose district the -conflagration took place, said that, up to the time when the "stop" -message was received, the total reached to about five million gallons. -No wonder that the firemen were working knee-deep in Jewin Street. The -five million gallons would, he testified, give a depth of about five -feet over the whole area. But, further, a large quantity was used for a -week or so afterwards, until the conflagration was completely subdued. -In addition to the engines, it must be remembered that there were fifty -hydrants in the neighbourhood. - -These hydrants can, of course, be brought into use without the turncock; -but, as a matter of fact, that official arrived at two minutes past one, -the same time as the first engine; while the fire was dated in the -company's return as only breaking out at four minutes to one, and the -brigade report their call at two minutes to one. - -The water used came from the company's reservoir in Claremont Square, -Islington. But this receptacle only holds three and a half million -gallons when full. It is, however, connected with another reservoir at -Highgate having a capacity of fifteen million gallons, and with yet -another at Crouch Hill having when full twelve million gallons. As a -matter of fact, these two reservoirs held twenty-five million gallons -between them on the day of the fire, and both were brought into -requisition, as well as the Islington reservoir. The drain was, however, -enormous. - -In the course of the first hour, the water in the Islington reservoir -actually fell four feet. It never fell lower, however; for instructions -were telegraphed to the authorities at other reservoirs to send on more -water, and the supply was satisfactorily maintained,--a striking -contrast, indeed, to the Great Fire of 1666, when the New River -water-pipes were dry! - -It was about nine o'clock when the chief officer of the salvage corps -felt able to leave. During the eight hours he had been on duty, his men -had saved goods to the value of many thousands of pounds. He had known -to some extent the class of goods he would meet with, for the inspectors -of the corps make reports from time to time as to the commodities -stored in various City warehouses, and he is therefore to some extent -prepared. On the following day, the 20th, the corps were occupied in -pulling down the tottering walls of the burned-out warehouses which were -in a dangerous condition. - -This great Cripplegate fire aroused a good deal of attention in the -American papers, and certain discussion also arose in England as to -water-towers and chemical fire-engines. America is very proud of its -well-furnished firemen, and not without cause. Several cities in the -States are, indeed, famous for their well-organized and well-equipped -fire departments. Let us, then, cross the Atlantic, and see something of -the men and their methods in active operation. - -We shall find much to interest and to inform us. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -ACROSS THE WATER. - - -"How can the firemen climb up there?" - -The question may well be asked; for the tall New York houses seem to -reach to the sky. - -"Ordinary ladders won't do." - -"I guess not," replies the New Yorker. "Why, as far back as 1885, -fourteen out of every hundred buildings were too high to be scaled that -way. We build tall here." - -"Then, how about the fire-escape?" asks the Englishman. - -"Wa'll, iron ladders or steps are permanently fixed to some of the top -windows. But the firemen bring their hook-and-ladder; that is a most -valuable contrivance." - -Pursuing his enquiries, the Englishman would find that a hook-and-ladder -consisted, briefly, of a strong pole, with steps projecting on either -side, and a long and stout hook at the top. The fireman can crash this -hook through a window, and hang the pole firmly over the window-sill; -the hook, of course, plunging right through into the room. - -Climbing up this pole, with another length in his hand, the fireman can -hang the second length into the window next above, and so on, up to the -very top of the building. He has also a hook in his belt, which he can -fasten to the ladder, when necessary, to steady and secure himself. In -fact, a well-trained and courageous fireman can climb up the tallest -structures by these appliances. - -These hooked poles are made of various lengths, ranging from about 10 to -20 feet and more. Some single ladders and extensions reach to over 80 -feet; but it will be seen at once that a succession of, say, ten- or -twelve-feet hooked-pole ladders can be easily handled to reach from -floor to floor, and that, used by an active and well-trained fireman, it -can become a most important appliance for saving life. - -St. Louis appears to have been the pioneer city in the use of this -apparatus; but New York and other corporations have followed suit. Since -1883 every candidate for the New York Fire Department must undergo a -course of instruction in the use of this and other appliances, and the -thorough learning in this work renders them better men for their -ordinary duties. - -The ladders are wheeled to the fire on a truck 50 feet long, and called -a "hook-and-ladder truck." It carries ladders of different lengths, and -also conveys pickaxes, shovels, battering-rams, fire-extinguishers, -life-lines, etc., and tools for pushing open heavy doors. The majority -of the ladders are placed on rollers, and can be removed at once without -disturbing those resting above them. - -[Illustration: AMERICAN FIRE-LADDERS.] - -To some extent, therefore, we might say that the hook-and-ladder truck -with its various appliances answers to the horsed escape of the London -Brigade; but, while London firemen make use of the escape as a point of -vantage whence they can discharge water on the fire, the Americans -largely adopt the water-tower. Indeed, they appear to regard this -apparatus as indispensable for high business buildings. Briefly, it -consists of lengths of pipe, which can be quickly jointed together, the -lengths being carried on a van, and varying from about 30 to 50 feet. -When jointed, they can rapidly be raised to an upright position, the -topmost length having a flexible pipe and nozzle for the discharge of -the jet of water. This pipe can be turned in any direction by means of a -wire rope descending below, and the tower can be revolved by simple -apparatus-gearing. The whole appliance is so arranged that it can be -controlled by one man when in action. The water is supplied by a hose -fastened to the bottom of the tower. - -[Illustration: AMERICAN FIRE-LADDERS.] - -As in England, hydrants are largely used in the States, and the steam -fire-engine is also, of course, a very important appliance. The average -American steam fire-engine generally weighs about three tons, with water -in boiler and men in their seats on the machine. The water in the boiler -is kept at steaming-point by a pipe full of steam passing through it, or -boiling water is supplied from a stationary boiler, so that on arriving -at a fire a working-pressure is obtained. The steam-heating pipe, -however, is capable of being instantly disconnected at the sound of the -fire-alarm. - -The alarm, moreover, is so arranged that the first beat of the gong -draws a bolt fastening the horse's halter to the stall. The animals rush -to their posts, the firemen slide down poles from the upper stories to -the lower, through holes in the floors made for the purpose, and, every -one smartly doing his duty, the horses are harnessed, and the engine or -apparatus-van is fully ready to start through the open doors before the -gong has finished striking--unless it be a very brief alarm. - -Four snaps harness the horses. - -The animals stand on the ground-floor by the sidewalls, facing the -wheels of the engines and trucks. The harness is hung over the -pole-shaft exactly above the place where the horses will stand, the -traces being fastened to the truck; the hinged collar is snapped round -the animal's neck, the shaft-chain is fastened with a snap, and two -snaps fix the reins. One shake of the reins by the coachman detaches the -harness from the suspenders, and away fly the horses. - -Arriving at the fire, the engine is attached to the nearest hydrant, and -the delivery-hose is led off to the burning building. The hydrant is -probably of the upright kind, standing up above the roadway level, -though some cities use the hydrant below-ground, and covered with an -iron plate. - -But, the water obtained and the engine ready, the method of attacking -the fire at close quarters and inside the edifice is adopted if -practicable; and, to accomplish this purpose, the firemen have to fight -through blinding and suffocating smoke. For hours they may struggle, -well-nigh choked and scorched, though scarce a flash of flame may be -visible. To reach the seat of fire, doors are broken down, and even iron -shutters opened; while hose is led upstairs, or down into cellars, in -order to quench the flames at their source. - -Sometimes, however, on arrival at a fire, the chiefs realize that the -conflagration has gained such hold that the firemen's efforts will be -most usefully directed to prevent it from spreading. When the water has -done its work, the fireman can usually turn it off by a relief-valve -without recourse to the engineer, the complete control thus gained -tending to prevent unnecessary damage by water. - -The American fire-brigades--or departments, as they are called--may be -broadly divided into two classes: those of great cities, consisting of a -paid staff of officers and men, devoting all their time to the service; -and, secondly, those of smaller places, consisting of a staff of unpaid -volunteers, pursuing their usual daily avocations, but agreeing to -respond to fire-alarms;--these men, though unpaid, are generally exempt -from service as jurymen and militiamen, and sometimes are permitted a -slight abatement of taxation. Some brigades, again, consist partly of -fully-paid firemen, and partly of volunteers. - -Many of these organizations are not only charged with the extinguishment -of fires, but also with the regulation of the storage and sale of -combustibles, and in some cities with the supervision of building -construction. It is claimed that this arrangement has led to a much more -economical and efficient administration of this department; and -undoubtedly the fire-brigade has a very lively interest in the security -and stability of buildings. The firemen's efforts to improve them rank -as valuable precautions and preventives of fire. - -It is also claimed that some of the American fire departments, as, for -instance, that of New York, are among the best in the world, and their -engines superior in size and capacity and greater in number than those -of other lands. On the other hand, the laws regulating the prevention of -fires are said to have been less stringent than those obtaining in some -other countries. - -The terrible fire in New York in 1835, when the loss reached three -million pounds, led to the development of the fire-service and of -apparatus; and prizes were offered for designs for steam fire-engines. -Cincinnati appears to have taken the lead at first; but the New York -Fire Department is now regarded as one of the most perfect. It is under -the control of three commissioners, whom the mayor appoints; and it has -substantially a military organization. - -The paid brigades are usually divided into companies, varying from six -to twelve individuals, including both officers and men. A company may be -supplied with a steam fire-engine and tender for hose, or with a -chemical fire-engine, such being called "engine companies"; or with a -hook-and-ladder truck and horses, called "hook-and-ladder companies"; or -with hose-cart only and horses, called "hose companies." A hose-cart -will carry nearly a thousand feet of hose, as well as tools for use at -fires and half a dozen firemen; while some of them also convey short -scaling-ladders. - -A water-tower is sometimes placed with an engine or a hook-and-ladder -company; and, again, these two companies are occasionally brigaded -together. Further, many cities are arranged into company districts, the -captain of each company taking general control over all material, and -the enforcement of the laws connected with his department. In some -cities, the companies are combined into battalions under a chief of -battalion, the highest officer commanding the whole being known as the -chief of the department, or may be rejoicing in the imposing title of -the Fire-Marshal. - -Some of the larger cities have shown their wisdom in appointing their -firemen for life, including the highest officers, dismissal only taking -place on misconduct; but in others the baneful practice is followed of -dismissing at least the chief officials after a change in local -politics--a plan which does not conduce to great efficiency and -discipline. New York has abandoned this policy since 1867. - -In arranging sites for the fire companies, the principle pursued is to -distribute small companies with different appliances over as wide an -area as possible, instead of concentrating men and appliances at certain -central points. By thus placing companies separately, it is believed -that a larger area is served in the same time than by concentrating them -together. On the occurrence of large fires, when many companies are -called out, distant companies are called from various points, like -reserves, to take the places of some of those in action, to meet calls -that may arise in the same districts; while at some stations, or company -houses, the men are divided into two sections with duplicate apparatus, -so that, while one responds instantly to the first call, the second at -once prepares to answer any subsequent alarm. - -Among the apparatus used is the jumping-sheet, designed as a last -attempt to save life; circular rope nets some 15 feet in diameter being -carried on the tenders and trucks in New York; while their canvas sheets -have rope handles. Light chemical fire-engines are also largely used in -small places and in the suburbs of large cities, the lightness of the -machine being, no doubt, a great recommendation. An efficient pattern is -the double-tank engine, one tank of which can be replenished while the -other is being discharged. The tanks contain a mixture producing -carbonic acid gas, which is a great foe to fire. The gas is absorbed by -water, and as it expands causes a great pressure, sufficient to force -the fluid through hose, and throw it a distance of about a hundred and -fifty feet. When the water reaches the flames, the gas held in solution -is liberated by the heat and chokes the fire. The mixture will not -freeze, even when the temperature falls to zero; it is thus always -ready. The machine is light, and contains its own propulsive force for -the water; so that we cannot wonder it is widely adopted. - -Similar apparatus throws hydrochloric acid and ammoniacal gases, but -opinions differ as to their utility; for though efficient -fire-quenchers, yet a small portion only of the gas appears to be -carried by the fluid and actually reaches the flames. - -Another piece of apparatus is a hose-hoister. For using hose on very -high buildings, and also, indeed, for hoisting ladders to great heights, -a simple appliance has been devised, consisting essentially of a couple -of rollers in a frame; the rope, of course, runs over the rollers to -hoist the hose, but the frame is shaped to adjust itself to the coping -or cornice of the wall. - -For cities on rivers, fire-boats are in use, some being fitted with -twin-screw propellers, and the crew being sometimes berthed on shore; -while, lastly, as in England, the fire-alarm telegraph forms a marked -feature of the American system. The alarms are fitted with keyless -doors, and the telephone is also largely in use. When, however, the -keyless door of the alarm is opened by its handle, a gong sounds on the -spot, attracting attention, and preventing, it is intended, wrongful -interference with the alarm. When the door is opened, the call for the -fire company is then sent. - -As for the horses, they are regularly trained in New York. They are -accepted on trial at the dealer's risk, and placed in a training-stable; -here they grow accustomed to the startling clang of the alarm-gong, to -the use of the harness, and to being driven in an engine or -ladder-truck. - -Passing through these trials satisfactorily, the animal is promoted to -service in a company; and if, after a time, a good report is forthcoming -as to activity, intelligence, etc., it is bought in and placed on the -regular staff. Then it is given a registered number, which is stamped in -lead, and worn round the creature's neck. A record is kept of each -horse, the average term of service working out at about six years. - -Some horses are so highly trained that they will stand in their stalls -unfastened; others are simply tethered by a halter-strap, a bolt in the -stall-side holding a ring in the strap. It is this bolt which is -withdrawn by the first beat of the fire-alarm, instantly releasing the -horse. - -Fire-horses often develop heart disease, as a result of the excitement -of their work, and sudden deaths sometimes occur. When beginning to show -signs of varying powers or of unfitness for their exciting duties, the -horses are sold out of the service, being still useful for many other -purposes. - -It was of one such that Will Carleton wrote in stirring verse. The old -fire-horse was sold to a worthy milkman, and instead of the exciting -business of rushing to fires came the useful occupation of taking around -milk. - -But one day the old horse heard the exciting cry it knew so well. The -rush of the fire-horses sounded near; the engine rattled past. The -influence was too strong. Regardless of the milk, the old fire-horse -started forward; his eye gleamed with the old excitement; no effort -could restrain him, and he swept along to the fire, with the lumbering -milkcart behind. Over fell the cans; the milk splashed all over the -streets; but on and on tore the steed, until he actually came in front -of the fire-horses, and kept the lead. Then, when he reached the fire, -he halted, moped, and presently fell in the street, and died. He was -game to the last. - -This glance at the American fire departments indicates the great -excellence which many of them have reached. The remarkable efficiency is -found both in organization and in appliances, and it no doubt invites -comparison with British fire-brigades. If so, Britain has nothing to -fear. Such comparison, if superficial, is little worth; and if -exhaustive, would consider all the varying circumstances of each -country, and would discover great merit on both sides. - -Thus, the immense height of the American edifices, no doubt, renders the -hook-and-ladder a most valuable appliance; but buildings in Britain, -under the present Acts, are not likely to tower so high; and the -improved fire-escapes so deftly handled by British firemen yield as -good, or even better, results for the work they have to do. The question -of the chemical fire-engine is for experts and experience to decide; -and whether, with its fumes and its gases, it is really superior under -all circumstances, and whether it will ever supersede the water-engine -for all purposes, the twentieth century may reveal. - -We conclude that absolute superiority cannot be claimed by any one -country. The truth is, that the means of fighting fire have been -developed to very great excellence in many places; and when we consider -the high courage and efficient training of the men, and the valuable -improvements and great usefulness of the various engines and appliances -employed, we may truly regard this immense development as one of the -wonders of the modern world. - - -THE END. - - -Printed by Hazell, Watson, & Viney, Ld., London and Aylesbury. - - - - -IN THE SAME SERIES. - - -THE WORLD'S WONDERS SERIES _of Popular Books treats of the present-day -wonders of Science and Art. They are well written, printed on good -paper, and fully illustrated. Crown 8vo, 160 pages. Handsome Cloth -Cover._ +1s. 6d.+ _each_. - - -+MARVELS OF ANT LIFE.+ -By W. F. KIRBY, F.L.S., F.E.S., of the Natural History Museum, -South Kensington. - -+THE ROMANCE OF THE SAVINGS BANKS.+ -By Arch. G. BOWIE. - -+THE ROMANCE OF THE POST OFFICE+: Its Inception and Wondrous Development. -By Arch. G. BOWIE. - -+THE ROMANCE OF GLASS-MAKING+: A Sketch of the History of Ornamental - Glass. -By W. GANDY. - -+TRIUMPHS OF THE PRINTING PRESS.+ -By WALTER JERROLD. - -+ASTRONOMERS AND THEIR OBSERVATIONS.+ -By LUCY TAYLOR. With Preface by W. THYNNE LYNN, B.A., F.R.A.S. - -+MARVELS OF METALS.+ -By F. M. HOLMES. - -+MINERS AND THEIR WORKS UNDERGROUND.+ -By F. M. HOLMES. - -+CELEBRATED MECHANICS AND THEIR ACHIEVEMENTS.+ -By F. M. HOLMES. - -+CHEMISTS AND THEIR WONDERS.+ -By F. M. HOLMES. - -+ENGINEERS AND THEIR TRIUMPHS.+ -By F. M. HOLMES. - -+ELECTRICIANS AND THEIR MARVELS.+ -By WALTER JERROLD. - -+MUSICIANS AND THEIR COMPOSITIONS.+ -By J. R. GRIFFITHS. - -+NATURALISTS AND THEIR INVESTIGATIONS.+ -By GEORGE DAY, F.R.M.S. - - -LONDON: S. W. PARTRIDGE & CO., 8 & 9, PATERNOSTER ROW. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Firemen and their Exploits: with some -account of the rise and development of fire-brigades, of various -appliances for saving life at fires and extinguishing the flames., by F. M. 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Thus, we do not necessarily -keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. - - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: - - http://www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/old/50575-8.zip b/old/50575-8.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4a8ca26..0000000 --- a/old/50575-8.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/50575-h.zip b/old/50575-h.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6c1cb24..0000000 --- a/old/50575-h.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/50575-h/50575-h.htm b/old/50575-h/50575-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index e437086..0000000 --- a/old/50575-h/50575-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5046 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" - "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> - -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> - <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> - <title> - The Project Gutenberg eBook of Firemen and Their Exploits, by F. M. Holmes. - </title> - <style type="text/css"> - - p { margin-top: .75em; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .75em; - } - - p.bold {text-align: center; font-weight: bold;} - p.bold2 {text-align: center; font-weight: bold; font-size: 150%;} - - h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { - text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ - clear: both; - } - h1 span, h2 span { display: block; text-align: center; } - #id1 { font-size: smaller } - - - hr { - width: 33%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 2em; - margin-left: 33.5%; - margin-right: 33.5%; - clear: both; - } - - hr.smler { - width: 15%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 2em; - margin-left: 42.5%; - margin-right: 42.5%; - clear: both; - } - - body{margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; - } - - table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding: 5px; border-collapse: collapse; border: none; text-align: right;} - - .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ - /* visibility: hidden; */ - position: absolute; - left: 92%; - font-size: smaller; - text-align: right; - text-indent: 0px; - } /* page numbers */ - - .center {text-align: center;} - .smaller {font-size: smaller;} - .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} - .box {max-width: 40em; margin: 1.5em auto;} - .space-above {margin-top: 3em;} - .left {text-align: left;} - .s3 {display: inline; margin-left: 3em;} - - </style> - </head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Firemen and their Exploits: with some -account of the rise and development of fire-brigades, of various -appliances for saving life at fires and extinguishing the flames., by F. M. Holmes - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Firemen and their Exploits: with some account of the rise -and development of fire-brigades, of various appliances for saving -life at fires and extinguishing the flames. - -Author: F. M. Holmes - -Release Date: November 29, 2015 [EBook #50575] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FIREMEN AND THEIR EXPLOITS *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Martin Pettit and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class="center"><a name="cover.jpg" id="cover.jpg"></a><img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="cover" /></div> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i002.jpg" alt="THE NEW HORSED FIRE-ESCAPE" /></div> - -<p class="bold">THE NEW HORSED FIRE-ESCAPE,</p> - -<p class="bold">DESIGNED BY COMMANDER WELLS, CHIEF OFFICER OF THE METROPOLITAN FIRE-BRIGADE.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p> - -<h1>FIREMEN<br />AND THEIR EXPLOITS:</h1> - -<p class="bold">WITH SOME ACCOUNT<br /> -<br /> -<i>OF THE RISE AND DEVELOPMENT OF FIRE-BRIGADES,<br /> -OF VARIOUS APPLIANCES FOR SAVING LIFE<br /> -AT FIRES AND EXTINGUISHING<br /> -THE FLAMES</i>.</p> - -<p class="bold space-above">BY<br /> -F. M. HOLMES,<br /><br /> -AUTHOR OF "ENGINEERS AND THEIR TRIUMPHS," "MINERS AND<br /> -THEIR WORKS UNDERGROUND," ETC.</p> - -<p class="bold space-above">LONDON:<br /> -S. W. PARTRIDGE & CO.,<br />8 & 9, PATERNOSTER ROW.<br />1899.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i005.jpg" alt="illustration" /></div> - -<h2>PREFACE.</h2> - -<hr class="smler" /> - -<p>The present volume, though complete in itself, forms one of a series -seeking to describe in a popular and non-technical manner the Triumphs -of Engineers. The same style has, therefore, been followed which was -adopted in the preceding volumes. The profession of Engineering has -exercised great influence on the work of Fire Extinguishment, as on some -other things; and the subject is, therefore, not inappropriate to the -series of books of which the volume forms part.</p> - -<p>The story of the Fire-Engine begins in Egypt about a hundred and fifty -years before Christ. Hero of Alexandria describes a contrivance called -the "siphon used in conflagrations," and some persons are of opinion -that he was not unacquainted with the use of the air-chest. But it was -not until nearly two thousand years later—that is, about the close of -the seventeenth century—that the air-chamber and the hose seem to have -been brought into anything like general use,—if, indeed, the use can be -called general even then.</p> - -<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span></p><p>Much of the story is involved in obscurity, or it may be there was -little story to tell; but by the year 1726, Newsham had constructed -satisfactory fire-engines in London; and Braithwaite the engineer—who -with Ericsson constructed the "Novelty" to compete with Stephenson's -"Rocket" at the locomotive contest at Rainhill in 1829—built a steam -fire-engine about 1830, though it was not until thirty years, or more, -later that the use of the machine became general.</p> - -<p>As to Fire-Brigades, the Insurance Companies, which began to appear -after the Great Fire of 1666, were wont to employ separate staffs of men -to extinguish fires; but by the year 1833, the more important had -united, and the London Fire-Brigade had been formed under the control of -Mr. James Braidwood. Many provincial towns followed the metropolitan -model in forming their brigades.</p> - -<p>Together with the development of the Fire-Engine and of efficient -brigades has been the introduction of various other appliances, such as -Fire-Escapes, Chemical Extinctors, Water-Towers, and the great -improvement in the water supply. Nothing is more striking in the history -of conflagrations than the comparison between the dry state of the New -River pipes at the Great Fire of 1666 and the copious flood of five -million gallons poured into the city in a few hours by the same company -to quench the great Cripplegate fire of November, 1897.</p> - -<p>But, indeed, the whole realm of Fire Extinguishment is a world of -constant improvement and strain after perfection. To describe something -of these efforts, and trace out the main features of their story, is the -object of the present volume.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i007.jpg" alt="illustration" /></div> - -<h2>CONTENTS.</h2> - -<hr class="smler" /> - -<div class="box"> -<table summary="CONTENTS"> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="left"><span class="smaller">CHAP.</span></td> - <td><span class="smaller">PAGE</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>I. </td> - <td class="left">THE HORSED FIRE-ESCAPE APPEARS. AN EXCITING SCENE</td> - <td><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>II. </td> - <td class="left">THE BEGINNING OF THE STORY. HERO'S -"SIPHON." HOW THE ANCIENTS STROVE TO EXTINGUISH FIRES</td> - <td><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>III. </td> - <td class="left">IN MEDIÆVAL DAYS. AN EPOCH-MAKING FIRE</td> - <td><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>IV. </td> - <td class="left">THE PEARL-BUTTON MAKER'S CONTRIVANCE. THE MODERN FIRE-ENGINE</td> - <td><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>V. </td> - <td class="left">EXTINGUISHMENT BY COMPANY. THE BEGINNINGS OF FIRE INSURANCE</td> - <td><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>VI. </td> - <td class="left">THE STORY OF JAMES BRAIDWOOD</td> - <td><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>VII. </td> - <td class="left">THE THAMES ON FIRE. THE DEATH OF BRAIDWOOD</td> - <td><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>VIII. </td> - <td class="left"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>VIII. A PERILOUS SITUATION. CAPTAIN SHAW. -IMPROVEMENTS OF THE METROPOLITAN BOARD AND OF THE LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL</td> - <td><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>IX. </td> - <td class="left">A VISIT TO HEADQUARTERS</td> - <td><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>X. </td> - <td class="left">HOW RECRUITS ARE TRAINED</td> - <td><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>XI. </td> - <td class="left">SOME STORIES OF THE BRIGADE</td> - <td><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>XII. </td> - <td class="left">FIRE-ESCAPES AND FIRE-FLOATS</td> - <td><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>XIII. </td> - <td class="left">CHEMICAL FIRE-ENGINES. FIRE-PROOFING, OR MUSLIN THAT WILL NOT FLAME</td> - <td><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>XIV. </td> - <td class="left">THE WORK OF THE LONDON SALVAGE CORPS. THE GREAT CRIPPLEGATE FIRE</td> - <td><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>XV. </td> - <td class="left">ACROSS THE WATER</td> - <td><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i009.jpg" alt="OFF TO THE FIRE" /></div> - -<p class="bold">OFF TO THE FIRE.</p> - -<p class="bold2">FIREMEN AND THEIR EXPLOITS.</p> - -<hr class="smler" /> - -<h2><span>CHAPTER I.</span> <span class="smaller">THE HORSED FIRE-ESCAPE APPEARS. AN EXCITING SCENE.</span></h2> - -<p>"Shall we have a quiet night, Jack?"</p> - -<p>"Can't say," replied Jack philosophically; "I take it as it comes."</p> - -<p>Clang!</p> - -<p>Even as he spoke, the electric fire-alarm rang through the silent -station. The men sprang toward the stables, glancing at the bell-tablet -as they ran.</p> - -<p>The tablet revealed the name of the street whence the alarm had been -sounded; and at the clang the horses tossed their heads and pawed the -ground, mad<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> to be off. They knew the sound of the alarm as well as the -men themselves.</p> - -<p>"Will it be a life-saving job, d'ye think, mate?"</p> - -<p>"May be," was Jack's sententious reply; "you never know."</p> - -<p>The horses were standing ready harnessed, and were unloosed at once. -They were led to the engine, the traces hooked on, the crew, as the -staff of firemen is called, took their places, and the doors in front of -them were opened smartly by rope and pulley.</p> - -<p>"Ready?"</p> - -<p>"Aye, aye, sir!"</p> - -<p>"Right away!"</p> - -<p>In less than two minutes from the ringing of the alarm, the engine was -rushing out of the station, and tearing along London streets with -exciting clatter, the firemen shouting their warning cry, and sparks -flying from the funnel. Soon the engine fire was roaring below, and the -steam was hissing for its work.</p> - -<p>How had the firemen obtained a blazing fire and hot steam so soon? When -the engine was waiting in the station, a lighted gas-jet, kept near the -boiler, maintained the water at a high temperature; and while the horses -were being hooked on, a large fusee, called a "steam-match," had been -promptly ignited, and dropped flaming down the funnel. The match fell -through the water-tube boiler to the fuel in the fire-box below; the -draught caused by the rush of the engine through the air helped the -fire; and the water being already so hot, steam pressure soon arose.</p> - -<p>"The new escape's close behind!" cried one of the men, as the engine -hurried along.</p> - -<p>Something, unusual then, to London streets was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> rapidly following the -steamer. In the gloom, it looked like a dim spectral ladder projecting -over the horses in front, and several men could be seen sitting on the -carriage conveying it.</p> - -<p>"She's a-comin' on pretty fast," exclaimed one of the men; "she travels -as smart as an engine."</p> - -<p>Indeed, the new escape was now so near, that it could be seen more -clearly. It was securely mounted on a low car, and its large wheels hung -over the end at the back, not far above the ground. Designed by -Commander Wells, chief officer of the London Fire-Brigade, it was -brought into use in the brigade in July, 1897.</p> - -<p>But now it was nearing the fire, and cheers and cries rang loudly from -the excited crowd gathered at the spot.</p> - -<p>"Make way for the escape! Hurrah! Hurrah!"</p> - -<p>No wonder the crowd were excited. On the second-floor window of a large -building appeared three white, eager faces, framed by the dark sashes, -and crying eagerly for help.</p> - -<p>Cheer after cheer rent the air, as the escape drew up opposite, and was -slipped from its car; then, resting on its own wheels, it was pitched -near the burning building, and its ladders run up to the window. The -policemen could scarce keep back the thronging crowd.</p> - -<p>Away go the firemen up the rungs of the ladder, and amid continued -cheers, and cries, and great excitement approach the sufferers in their -peril.</p> - -<p>"They've got one!" shouts an excited voice.</p> - -<p>"Aye, and there's another!" cries a second spectator.</p> - -<p>"They're all three saved!" vociferates a third; and loud cheers greet -the firemen's triumph.</p> - -<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p><p>It was a smart piece of work; and with the rescued persons thrown over -their shoulders in the efficient manner they are taught at drill, the -firemen carefully descend the ladder one after the other, and amid -shouts and plaudits arrive safely on the ground.</p> - -<p>The flames dart out of the building more fiercely than ever, as if in -anger at losing their prey; the glare and heat grow more intense; the -smoke rolls off in dense volumes; the fire is raging furiously.</p> - -<p>Engine after engine rushes fast to the spot, the loud, alarming cries of -"Fire-ire! Fire-ire!" echoing shrilly along the lamp-lighted -thoroughfares; fireman after fireman leaps from the arriving engines, -and with their bright brass helmets flashing in the glare are quickly -stationed round the huge conflagration.</p> - -<p>The "brigade call" has been telephoned all round London, and from east -and west, and north and south, engines and firemen have hurried to the -spot. Steamers with sparks flying, steam hissing, and whistles -shrieking; manuals with the clatter of their handles; hose-carts with -their lengths of flexible pipes; and tall ladders of fire-escapes, -useful, even when no life is to be saved, as high points of vantage -whence firemen can direct streams of water straight into the raging -fire,—all—all are here. One after another they arrive, until the word -is passed that more than twenty engines and a hundred and twenty firemen -are concentrated on the spot.</p> - -<p>Hydrants also are at work. They are appliances, permanently fixed under -the pathway, from which firemen can obtain a powerful pressure of water, -ranging from thirty-five to seventy pounds per square inch. From the -steamers and the hydrants the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> quantity of water poured on the huge fire -is now immense, and the steam and smoke roll off in immense volumes.</p> - -<p>Crash!</p> - -<p>"There goes the glass!" cries a fireman; and a few moments later it is -rumoured that one of the brigade has been badly cut in the hands. The -skylight had broken and fallen upon him, showing that it is not only -from heat and smoke that the men are likely to suffer, but also from -falling parts of the burning building.</p> - -<p>The huge fire is fought at every possible point. It is prevented from -spreading to surrounding buildings by deluging them with water, and -strenuous efforts are made to quench it at its source. Steadily in the -growing light of day the firemen work on; but the morning had far -advanced before the great conflagration was fully extinguished and the -London Salvage Corps were left in possession of the ruined premises.</p> - -<p>"Well, you've had your first big fire, Newall; how d'ye like it?"</p> - -<p>"Oh, it's all right, mate; it's pretty hard work, but I don't mind it."</p> - -<p>"'Tain't all over yet," said Jack cheerfully; "there's this 'ere hose to -be scrubbed and cleaned, and hung up in the well to dry. I reckon it -will be four or five o'clock before we can turn in."</p> - -<p>Jack was right. The wet hose had to be suitably treated to keep it in -good condition, and the engines carefully prepared for the next alarm -that might arise; and when the men turned in to rest, they slept sound -enough.</p> - -<p>This story not only illustrates the work of the London Fire-Brigade, but -also points to a notable fact<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> in its history. That fact is the -introduction of the horsed fire-escape. The first rescue in London by -this valuable appliance took place on October 17th, 1898. There were, in -fact, two disastrous fires raging at nearly the same time on that day, -and the new appliance was used at one of these.</p> - -<p>Early in the morning, a disastrous fire broke out in Manresa Road, -Chelsea. The conflagration originated in the centre of a large -timber-yard, and spread so rapidly that a very serious fire was soon in -progress. Engines and firemen hurried up from various quarters, until -sixteen steamers, three manuals, and more than a hundred men were on the -spot. The fire was completely surrounded, and the enormous quantity of -water poured upon the blazing wood soon took effect.</p> - -<p>But before all the engines had left, news came that a still more serious -fire had broken out in Oxford Street. The extensive premises of Messrs. -E. Tautz & Co., wholesale tailors, were discovered to be in flames, and -the alarm was brought to the fire-stations from various sources.</p> - -<p>The Orchard Street fire-alarm rang into Manchester Square station, and -resulted in the horsed escape being turned out; then another fire-alarm -rang into Great Marlborough Street fire-station, and the horsed escape -had hurried from this point also. The appliance was new, and for some -time the men of the brigade had cherished a laudable ambition to be the -first to use the escape in what they call a life-saving job. And it was -only by an untoward chance, or simple fortune of war, that the men of -the Manchester Square station, who were first on the spot, missed the -coveted honour.</p> - -<p>When they arrived on the scene, no sign of fire was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> visible in Oxford -Street itself, and the firemen were pointed to North Row, one of the -boundaries of the burning block behind. They made their way thither, -searching for inmates, but were driven back by the fierce flames.</p> - -<p>Meantime, the three persons sleeping on the premises—the foreman, Mr. -Harry Smith, his wife, and their little son, aged six years—had been -endeavouring to escape by the staircase, but had been driven back by the -fire. Mr. Smith had been awakened by the dense smoke filling the room, -and he aroused his wife at once and took the boy in his arms.</p> - -<p>Not being able to escape by the staircase, they hurried to the front of -the large block of buildings, shutting the doors after them as they -went. So it happened that they appeared at the second-floor windows -facing Oxford Street just as the horsed escape from Great Marlborough -Street fire-station hurried up. A scene of great excitement followed. -The firemen ran the ladders from the escape to the building, and brought -down all three persons in safety; but Mrs. Smith unfortunately had -suffered a burn on the left leg. It is probable that, but for the -rapidity with which the horsed escapes arrived on the scene, the family -might have suffered much more severely; for the fire was very fierce, -and soon appeared in Oxford Street.</p> - -<p>The honour, therefore, of the first rescue by the new horsed escape -rests with the Great Marlborough Street station, though the efforts of -their brave comrades of the Manchester Square station should always be -remembered in connection therewith. Commander Wells appreciated this; -for he telephoned a special message to Superintendent Smith, saying:</p> - -<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span></p><p>"Please let your men understand that I thoroughly appreciate and -approve their action on arrival at the fire this morning, although the -honour of rescue falls by the fortune of war to the second -horse-escape."</p> - -<p>The fire proved very disastrous, and a large force was speedily -concentrated. It was eventually subdued; but it was about two o'clock in -the afternoon before the brigade were able to leave, a large warehouse -belonging to Messrs. Peel & Co., boot-makers, being also involved, and -other buildings more or less damaged.</p> - -<p>The horsed fire-escape, which was found so useful on this occasion, is -but one among several appliances for saving life and fighting the fire. -These appliances are worked by highly-trained brigades of firemen, whose -efficient organization, well-considered methods, and ingenious apparatus -form one of the remarkable features of the time.</p> - -<p>They did not reach their present position in a day. Indeed, a stirring -story of human effort and of high-spirited enterprise lies behind the -well-equipped brigades of the time. Step by step men have won great -victories over difficulty and danger; step by step they have profited by -terrible disasters, which have spurred them on to fresh efforts.</p> - -<p>What, then, is this story of the fight against fire? How have the -fire-services of the day reached their present great position?</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p> - -<h2><span>CHAPTER II.</span> <span class="smaller">THE BEGINNING OF THE STORY. HERO'S "SIPHON." HOW THE ANCIENTS STROVE TO -EXTINGUISH FIRES.</span></h2> - -<p>No one knows who invented the modern fire-engine.</p> - -<p>The earliest machine, so far as is generally known, was described by -Hero of Alexandria about a hundred and fifty years before Christ. He -called it "the siphon used in conflagrations"; and it seems to have been -originated by Ctesibius, a Greek mechanician living in Egypt, whose -pupil Hero became.</p> - -<p>It is very interesting to notice how this contrivance worked. It was -fitted with two cylinders, each having a piston connected by a beam. -This beam raised and lowered each piston alternately, and with the help -of valves—which only opened the way of the jet—propelled water to the -fire, but not continuously. The method must have proved very -inefficient, especially when compared with the constant stream thrown by -the modern fire-engine. Indeed, it is this power to project a steady and -continuous stream which chiefly differentiates the modern fire-engine -from such machines as Hero's siphon.</p> - -<p>How far this siphon or any similar contrivance was used in ancient times -we cannot say; but no doubt buckets in some form or other were the first -appliances used for extinguishing conflagrations. Whenever mankind saw -anything valuable burning, the first impulse would be to stamp it out, -or quench the flame by throwing water on it; and the water would be -conveyed by the readiest receptacle to hand; then when men had -discovered the use of the pump, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> the squirt, they would naturally -endeavour to turn these appliances to account.</p> - -<p>In some places the use of water-buckets was organized. Juvenal alludes -to the instructions of the opulent Licinus, who bade his "servants watch -by night, the water-buckets being set ready"; the wealthy man fearing -"for his amber, and his statues, and his Phrygian column, and his ivory -and broad tortoise-shell."</p> - -<p>Then Pliny and Juvenal use a term—<i>hama</i>—which signifies an appliance -for extinguishing fires; but the true rendering seems to be in dispute, -some translators being content to describe it simply as a water-vessel. -Pliny the Younger refers to <i>siphones</i>, or pipes, being employed to -extinguish fires; but we do not know how they were used, or whether they -resembled Hero's siphon.</p> - -<p>In fact, the earliest references to fire-engines by Roman writers are -regarded by some as being merely allusions to aqueduct-pipes for -bringing water to houses, rather than to a special appliance. And from -Seneca's remark, "that owing to the height of the houses in Rome it was -impossible to save them when they took fire," we may gather that any -appliances that may have been in use were very inefficient.</p> - -<p>A curious primitive contrivance is described by Apollodorus, who was -architect to Trajan. It consisted of leathern bags or bottles, having -pipes attached; and when the bottles were squeezed, the water gushed -through the pipes to extinguish the flames. Augustus was so enterprising -as to organize seven bands of firemen, each of which protected two -districts of Rome. Each band was in charge of a <i>tribunus</i>, or captain, -and the whole force was under a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> <i>præfectum vigilum</i>, or prefect of the -watch; though what apparatus they employed—whether buckets or -pipe-bags, syringes or Hero's siphon—we do not know.</p> - -<p>But these appliances, or some of them, were no doubt in use at the Great -Fire of Rome in <span class="smaller">A.D.</span> 66. In July of that year—the tenth of the reign of -the infamous Emperor Nero—two-thirds of the city was destroyed. The -fire broke out at a number of wooden shops built against the side of the -great Circus, and near to the low-lying ground between the Palatine and -the Cælian Hills. The east wind blew the flames onward to the corner of -the Palatine Hill, and there the fire blazed in two directions. It -gained such enormous power, that stonework split and fell before it like -glass, and building after building succumbed, until at one point it was -only stopped by the river, and at another by frowning cliffs.</p> - -<p>For six awful days and seven nights the fire raged, and then, when it -was supposed to have been extinguished, it burst forth again for three -more days. The sight must have been appalling. We can picture the huge -sheets and tongues of flame sweeping ever onward, the fearful heat, and -the immense volumes of smoke which mounted upward and obscured the sky.</p> - -<p>The panic-stricken people fled to the imperial gardens, but whispered -that Nero himself had originated the fire. To divert suspicion, he -spread reports that the Christians were the culprits; and they were -treated with atrocious cruelty, some being wrapped in fabric covered -with pitch and burnt in the Emperor's grounds. The guilt of Nero remains -a moot point; but he seems to have acted with some amount of liberality -to the sufferers, though his acts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> of humanity did not free his name -from the foul suspicion.</p> - -<p>The conflagration itself stands out as one of the most terrible in -history. Before its furious rage the capable Romans seem to have been -reduced to impotence. Their organization, if they had any, seems to have -been powerless; and their appliances, if they used any, seem to have -been worthless.</p> - -<p>We are entitled to draw the deduction that they had no machine capable -of throwing a steady, continuous stream from a comparatively safe -distance. No band of men, however strong and determined, could have -stood their ground sufficiently near the fierce fire to throw water from -buckets, pipe-bags, or even portable pumps. For small fires they might -prove of service, if employed early; but for large conflagrations they -would be worthless. And if Rome, the Mistress of the World, was so -ill-provided, what must have been the condition of other places?</p> - -<p>We may infer, therefore, that the means of fire extinction in the -ancient world were miserably inadequate.</p> - -<p>Had mediæval Europe anything better to show?</p> - -<hr /> - -<h2><span>CHAPTER III.</span> <span class="smaller">IN MEDIÆVAL DAYS. AN EPOCH-MAKING FIRE.</span></h2> - -<p>"Prithee, good master, what's o' fire?"</p> - -<p>"A baker's house they say, name of Farryner."</p> - -<p>"Faith! it's in Pudding Lane, nigh Fish Street Hill," quoth another -spectator, coming up. "They say the oven was heated overmuch."</p> - -<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p><p>"It's an old house, and a poor one," said another speaker. "'Twill burn -like touchwood this dry weather."</p> - -<p>"Aye, it have been dry this August, sure enow; and I reckon the rain -won't quench it to-night." And the speaker looked up to the starlit sky, -where never a cloud could be seen.</p> - -<p>"Have they the squirts at work, good-man?"</p> - -<p>"Aye, no doubt. 'Twill be quenched by morning, neighbour. Faith! 'tis -just an old worm-eaten house ablaze, and that's the tale of it."</p> - -<p>But it was not "the tale of it." A strong east wind was blowing, and the -hungry flames spread quickly to neighbouring buildings. These houses -were old and partly decayed, and filled with combustible material, such -as oil, pitch, and hemp used in shipwright's work. In a comparatively -short time the ward of Billingsgate was all ablaze, and the fierce fire, -roaring along Thames Street, attacked St. Magnus Church at Bridgefoot.</p> - -<p>Before the night was far spent, fire-bells were clashing loudly from the -steeples, alarming cries of "Fire! Fire!" resounded through the streets, -and numbers of people in the old narrow-laned city of London were -rushing half dressed from their beds.</p> - -<p>It was the night of Saturday, September 2nd, 1666, a night ever -memorable in the history of London. About ten o'clock, any lingerers on -London Bridge—where houses were then built—might have seen a bright -flame shoot upward to the north. They probably conversed as we have -described, and retired to bed. But the fire spread from the baker's -shop, as we have seen, and the confusion and uproar of that terrible -night grew ever more apace.</p> - -<p>Half-dazed persons crowded the streets, encumbered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> with household -goods, and the narrow thoroughfares soon became choked with the -struggling throng. But the flames seized upon the goods, and the -panic-stricken people fled for their lives before the fierce attack. The -lurid light fell on their white faces, and the terrible crackling and -roaring of the flames mingled with their shrieks and shouts as they -hurried along. Now the night would be obscured by dense clouds of thick -smoke, and anon the fire would flash forth again more luridly than ever.</p> - -<p>To add to the alarm, the cry would ring through the streets, or would be -passed from mouth to mouth, that the pipes of the New River -Company—then recently laid—were found to be dry. With the suspicion of -Romanist plots prevailing, the scarcity of water and the origin of the -fire were put down to fanatical incendiaries; or, as an old writer -quaintly expressed it, "This doth smell of a popish design."</p> - -<p>When the next morning dawned, the terrible conflagration, so far from -having been extinguished, was raging furiously; the little jets and -bucketsful of water, if any had been used, proved of no avail; and the -narrow streets became, as it were, great sheets of flame.</p> - -<p>But was nothing done to extinguish the fire? What appliances would the -Londoners have had?</p> - -<p>Here, perhaps, in the early hours of the conflagration, you might have -seen a group of three men at the corner of a street working a -hand-squirt. This instrument was of brass, and measured about 3 feet -long. Two men held it by a handle on each side; and when the nozzle had -been dipped into a bucket or a cistern near, and the water had flowed -in, they would raise the squirt, while the third man pushed up the -piston<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> to discharge the water. The squirt might hold about four quarts -of water.</p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i023.jpg" alt="A CITY FIRE TWO HUNDRED YEARS AGO" /></div> - -<p class="bold">A CITY FIRE TWO HUNDRED YEARS AGO.</p> - -<p>If one man worked the squirt, he would hold it up by the handles, and -push the end of the piston, which was generally guarded by a button, -against his chest. But, at the best, it is obvious that the hand-squirt -was a very inadequate contrivance.</p> - -<p>Not far distant you might also have seen a similar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> squirt, mounted in a -wheeled reservoir or cistern, the pistons, perhaps, worked by levers; -and, possibly, in yet another street you might have noticed a pump of -some kind, also working in a cistern; while here and there you might -have come upon lines of persons passing buckets from hand to hand, -bringing water either from the wells in the city, or from the river, or -actually throwing water on the fire. Such were the appliances which we -gather were then used for extinguishing fires.</p> - -<p>But such contrivances as were then in the neighbourhood of Fish Street -Hill appear to have been burnt before they could be used, and the people -seem to have been too paralyzed with terror to have attempted any -efforts.</p> - -<p>The suggestion was made to pull down houses, so as to create gaps over -which the fire could not pass; and this suggestion no doubt indicates -one of the methods of former days. But the method was not at first -successful on this occasion.</p> - -<p>Thus, Pepys, in his Diary, tells us, under date of the Sunday: "At last -[I] met my Lord Mayor in Canning Street, like a man spent, with a -handkercher about his neck. To the King's message [to pull down houses -before the fire] he cried, like a fainting woman, 'Lord! what can I do? -I am spent: people will not obey me. I have been pulling down houses; -but the fire overtakes us faster than we can do it.'" This is a graphic -little picture of the bewilderment of the people; and Pepys goes on to -say that, as he walked home, he saw "people all almost distracted, and -no manner of means used to quench the fire."</p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i025.jpg" alt="THE GREAT FIRE OF LONDON" /></div> - -<p class="bold">THE GREAT FIRE OF LONDON (FROM A CONTEMPORARY PRINT).</p> - -<p>In a similar manner, another famous eye-witness, John Evelyn, notes in -his Diary that "some stout<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> seamen proposed, early enough to have saved -nearly the whole city," the destruction of houses to make a wide gap; -"but this some tenacious and avaricious men, aldermen, etc., would not -permit, because their houses must have been of the first."</p> - -<p>The main idea, therefore, of extinguishing the fire seems to have lain -in the pulling down of houses to produce a wide gap over which the fire -could not pass. But at first the civic authorities shrank from such bold -measures. On Sunday, then, the flames were rushing fiercely onward, the -ancient city echoing to their roaring and to the cries and shrieks of -the populace. The houses by London Bridge, in Thames Street, and the -neighbourhood were but heaps of smouldering ruins. The homeless people -sought refuge in the fields outside the city by Islington and Highgate, -and the city train-bands were placed under arms to watch for -incendiaries; while, as if the horror of the terrible fire was not -enough, numbers of ruffians were found engaged in the dastardly work of -plunder. The clanging of the fire-bells, the crackling of the huge fire, -the cries and curses of the people, made such a frightful din as can -scarce be imagined; while many churches, attended on the previous Sunday -by quiet worshippers, were now blazing in the fire.</p> - -<p>That night the scene was appalling, and yet magnificent. An immense -sheet of fire rose to the sky, rendering the heavens for miles like a -vast lurid dome. The conflagration flamed a whole mile in diameter, -hundreds of buildings were burning, and the high wind bent the huge -flames into a myriad curious shapes, and bore great flakes of fire on to -the roofs of other houses, kindling fresh flames as they fell. For ten -miles distant the country was illumined as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> at noonday, while the smoke -rolled, it is said, for fifty miles.</p> - -<p>Evelyn describes the scene in his Diary, under date September 3rd: "I -had public prayers at home. The fire continuing, after dinner I took -coach with my wife and son and went to the Bankside in Southwark, where -we beheld the dismal spectacle, the whole city in dreadful flames near -the water-side; all the houses from the Bridge, all Thames Street, and -upwards towards Cheapside, down to the Three Cranes, were now consumed: -and so returned exceeding astonished what would become of the rest.</p> - -<p>"The fire having continued all this night (if I may call that night -which was light as day for ten miles round about, after a dreadful -manner) when conspiring with a fierce eastern wind in a very dry season; -I went on foot to the same place, and saw the whole south part of the -city burning from Cheapside to the Thames and all along Cornhill.... -Here we saw the Thames covered with goods floating, all the barges and -boats laden with what some had time and courage to save, as, on the -other [side], the carts, etc., carrying out to the fields, which for -many miles were strewed with moveables of all sorts, and tents erecting -to shelter both people and what goods they could get away. Oh the -miserable and calamitous spectacle! such as haply the world had not seen -the like since the foundation of it, nor be outdone till the universal -conflagration of it! All the sky was of a fiery aspect, like the top of -a burning oven, and the light seen above forty miles round about for -many nights. God grant mine eyes may never behold the like, who now saw -above ten thousand houses all in one flame; the noise and cracking and -thunder of the impetuous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> flames, the shrieking of women and children, -the hurry of people, the fall of towers, houses, and churches, was like -a hideous storm, and the air all about so hot and inflamed that at the -last one was not able to approach it, so that they were forced to stand -still and let the flames burn on, which they did for near two miles in -length and one in breadth. The clouds also of smoke were dismal, and -reached, upon computation, near fifty-six miles in length. Thus I left -it this afternoon burning, a resemblance of Sodom or the last day."</p> - -<p>On Monday the Royal Exchange perished in the sea of flame. By evening -Cheapside had fallen, and beside the water's edge it was blazing in -Fleet Street; while it had also burned backward, even against the wind, -along the eastern part of Thames Street, toward Tower Hill. The heat was -so terrible that persons could not approach within a furlong, while the -very pathways were glowing with fiery heat. Some persons chartered -barges and boats, and, filling them with such property as they could -save, sent them down the Thames. Others paid large sums for carts to -convey property far beyond the city walls. A piteous exodus of sick and -sound, aged and young, crawled or fled to the spacious fields beyond the -gates. The ground was strewn with movables for miles, and tents were -erected to shelter the burned-out multitude.</p> - -<p>At length St. Paul's succumbed. It had stood tall and strong in the -space of its churchyard, lifting its head loftily amid the billows of -flame; but at last the terrible fire, driven toward it by the east wind, -lapped the roof, and seized some scaffold-poles standing around. The -lead on the roof melted in the fierce heat, and ran down the walls in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> -streams; the stones split, and pieces flew off with reports like -cannon-shots; and beams fell crashing like thunder to the ground.</p> - -<p>Evelyn notes, under date September 4th: "The burning still rages, and it -was now gotten as far as the Inner Temple; all Fleet Street, the Old -Bailey, Ludgate Hill, Warwick Lane, Newgate, Paul's Chain, Watling -Street now flaming, and most of it reduced to ashes; the stones of -Paul's flew like granados, the melting lead running down the streets in -a stream, and the very pavements glowing with fiery redness, so as no -horse nor man was able to tread on them, and the demolition had stopped -all the passages, so that no help could be applied. The eastern wind -still more impetuously driving the flames forward. Nothing but the -almighty power of God was able to stop them, for vain was the help of -man."</p> - -<p>On the eastern side of St. Paul's, the old Guildhall fell to the fire. -On Tuesday night, it was, says a contemporary writer, the Rev. Thomas -Vincent, in a little volume published a year afterwards, "a fearfull -spectacle, which stood the whole body of it together in view, for -several hours together, after the fire had taken it, without flames (I -suppose because the timber was such solid oake), in a bright shining -coale as if it had been a Pallace of gold, or a great building of -burnished brass."</p> - -<p>The fire had now become several miles in circumference. It had reached -the Temple at the western end of Fleet Street by the river, and was -blazing up by Fetter Lane to Holborn; then backward, its course lay -along Snow Hill, Newgate Street—Newgate Prison being consumed—and so -past the Guildhall and Coleman Street, on to Bishopsgate Street and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> -Leadenhall Street. It seemed as though all London would be burnt, and -that it would spread westward even to Whitehall and Westminster Abbey.</p> - -<p>But now the King (Charles II.) and his brother the Duke of York and -their courtiers were fully aroused; and it must have become clear to -even the meanest intelligence that houses must be blown down on an -extensive scale, in order to create large gaps over which the fire could -not pass. All through Tuesday night, therefore, the sound of explosions -mingled with the roaring of the fire.</p> - -<p>By the assistance of soldiers, and by the influence of the royal -personages, buildings were blown up by gunpowder in the neighbourhood of -Temple Bar, which then, of course, spanned the western end of Fleet -Street; at Pye Corner near the entrance to Smithfield, and also at other -points of vantage. These bold means, together, no doubt, with the -falling of the wind, and also the presence of some strong brick -buildings, as by the Temple, checked and stopped the fire. Some began -now to bestir themselves, "who hitherto," remarks Evelyn, "had stood as -men intoxicated with their hands across." On the Wednesday, therefore, -the fire extended no farther west than the Temple, and no farther north -than Pye Corner near Smithfield; but within this area it still burned, -and the heat was still so great that no one would venture near it.</p> - -<p>During the Wednesday, the King was most energetic. He journeyed round -the fire twice, and kept workers at their posts, and assisted in -providing food and shelter for the people. Orders were sent into the -country for provisions and tents, and also for boards wherewith to build -temporary dwellings. On Thursday<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> the Great Fire was everywhere -extinguished; but on Friday the ruins were still smouldering and -smoking, and the ground so hot that a pedestrian could not stand still -for long on one spot. From St. Paul's Churchyard, where the ground rises -to about the greatest height in the old city, the eye would range over a -terrible picture of widespread destruction, from the Temple to the Tower -and from the Thames to Smithfield. Two hundred thousand homeless persons -were camping out, or lying beside such household goods as they had been -able to save, in the fields by Islington and Highgate. It has been -computed that no fewer than 13,200 houses, 89 churches, including St. -Paul's, 400 streets, and several public buildings, together with four -stone bridges and three of the city gates, etc., were destroyed, while -the fire swept over an area of 436 acres.</p> - -<p>Now, in connection with this great calamity, we cannot find any -appliance at work corresponding to our modern fire-engine. The -inhabitants of London seem to have been almost, if not quite, as badly -provided against fire as Rome in the days of Nero.</p> - -<p>In fact, the chief protection in early days in England seems to have -been a practice of the old proverb that prevention is better than cure, -care being exercised to regulate the fires used for domestic purposes: -we see an instance in the arrangement of the curfew-bell, or -<i>couvre-feu</i>, a bell to extinguish all fires at eight at night. Still, -when conflagrations did occur, we may suppose that buckets and -hand-squirts, as soon as mankind came to construct them, were the -appliances used.</p> - -<p>Entries for fire-extinguishing machines of some sort have been found in -the accounts of many German<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> towns: for instance, in the building -accounts of Augsburg for 1518, "instruments of fire" or "water-syringes" -are mentioned.</p> - -<p>Fires appear to have been very frequent in Germany in the latter part of -the fifteenth and in the sixteenth century. And though we do not know -much of the contrivances used in Europe in the Middle Ages, it is not -until 1657 that we have any reliable record of a machine at all -resembling Hero's siphon on the one hand, or the modern fire-engine on -the other.</p> - -<p>This record is given by Caspar Schott, a Jesuit, and tells of an engine -constructed by Hautsch of Nuremberg, a city long famous for mechanical -contrivances. The machine was really a large water-cistern drawn on a -wheeled car, or sledge; and the secret of its propulsive power, Schott -supposes was a horizontal cylinder containing a piston and producing an -action like a pump. The cistern measured 8 feet long by 4 feet high, and -2 feet wide; its small width being probably designed for entering narrow -streets. It was operated by twenty-eight men, and it forced a stream of -water an inch thick to a height of about eighty feet. Hautsch desired to -keep the methods of its construction secret; but, apparently, it was not -furnished with the important air-chamber, and does not seem to have -differed very materially from Hero's siphon. Schott also says he had -seen one forty years before at Königshofen.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding, therefore, the danger of great conflagrations, mankind -does not seem to have made much progress in the construction of -fire-engines from the days of Ctesibius until the time of Charles II., a -period of about eighteen hundred years. On the other hand, we must -remember that syringes and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> water-buckets can be of very great service -when promptly and efficiently used. Even to-day London firemen find -similar appliances of great value for small conflagrations in rooms.</p> - -<p>But we get a vivid little picture of the helplessness of even the -seventeenth-century public before a fire of any size, in a description -left by Wallington of a fire on Old London Bridge in 1633. Houses were -then built on the bridge, and Wallington says: "All the conduits near -were opened, and the pipes that carried the water through the streets -were cut open, and the water swept down with brooms with help enough; -but it was the will of God it should not prevail. For the three engines -which are such excellent things that nothing that ever was devised could -do so much good, yet none of them did prosper, for they were all broken, -and the tide was very low that they could get no water, and the pipes -that were cut yielded but littel. Some ladders were broke to the hurt of -many; for several had their legges broke, some their arms; and some -their ribes, and many lost their lives." More than fifty houses, we may -add, were destroyed by this fire.</p> - -<p>Of what character were the engines to which he refers we cannot tell. We -do not know whether any engine like Hautsch's was established in London -at this time, or at the date of the Great Fire; but if so, it was not -apparently much in vogue. It must be remembered that the term "engine" -was applied indiscriminately to any sort of mechanical contrivance, and -even to a skilful plan or method (Shakespeare uses the word to designate -an instrument of torture); if, therefore, the word is used for a -fire-extinguishing appliance by any old writer, it does not follow that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> -the so-called engine would resemble Hautsch's machine or a modern -fire-engine.</p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i035.jpg" alt="FIRE-EXTINGUISHING APPLIANCES" /></div> - -<p class="bold">FIRE-EXTINGUISHING APPLIANCES, SQUIRTS, BUCKETS, ETC., -A.D. 1667.</p> - -<p>Judging from some Instructions of the Corporation after the fire, -hand-squirts and ladders and buckets were still chiefly relied upon in -1668. The Instructions are, moreover, interesting, as showing what -action the Corporation took after the Great Fire.</p> - -<p>The city was divided into four districts, each of which was to be -furnished with eight hundred leathern buckets, fifty ladders varying in -sizes from 16 to 42 feet long, also "so many <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>hand-squirts of brass as -will furnish two for every parish, four-and-twenty pickaxe-sledges, and -forty shod shovels." Further, each of the twelve companies was to -provide thirty buckets, one engine, six pickaxe-sledges, three ladders, -and two hand-squirts of brass. Again, "all the other inferior companies" -were to provide similar appliances; and aldermen were likewise to -provide buckets and hand-squirts of brass. The pickaxes and shovels were -for use in demolishing houses and walls if necessary, or dealing with -ruins; and though some kind of engine is mentioned, we know not whether -it was a hand-squirt mounted in a cistern, or some sort of portable -pump.</p> - -<p>We may regard these regulations, however, as fixing for us the -hand-squirt and the bucket as the principal means of fire extinguishment -in Britain up to that date.</p> - -<p>But now a great development was at hand, and a new chapter was to -commence in the story.</p> - -<hr /> - -<h2><span>CHAPTER IV.</span> <span class="smaller">THE PEARL-BUTTON MAKER'S CONTRIVANCE. THE MODERN FIRE-ENGINE.</span></h2> - -<p>How to force a continuous stream of water on the fire!</p> - -<p>That was the problem which puzzled an unknown inventor about the year -1675. He probably saw that hitherto the appliances for extinguishing -conflagrations failed at this point, and we may suppose<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> that he -cudgelled his brains to hit upon the right remedy.</p> - -<p>Then one day, no one seems to know when, he thought of inventing, or -adapting, the compressed air-chamber to a sort of portable pump, and, -behold!—</p> - -<p>The Modern Fire-Engine was born!</p> - -<p>The invention was introduced, probably, after the Great Fire, because -authorities describe it as first mentioned in the French <i>Journal des -Savans</i> in 1675, and Perrault states that an engine with an air-chamber -was kept at Paris for the protection of the Royal Library in 1684. If, -therefore, Hero knew of the air-chamber, as some assert, it does not -appear to have been much used. But probably the great disaster in London -stirred invention, and the addition of the air-chamber was the result. -It may not, however, have been a distinct invention, for an air-chamber -had been found of great value in various hydraulic machines.</p> - -<p>What, then, is this invention, and what is its great value to a -fire-engine?</p> - -<p>Briefly, it enables a steady and continuous stream of water to be thrown -on a fire. It is the vital principle of the modern fire-engine, and -renders it distinctly different from all squirts, syringes, and portable -pumps preceding it. Instead of an unequal and intermittent supply, -sometimes, no doubt, falling far short of the fire, we have now a -persistent stream, which can be continuously directed to any point, in -reach, with precision and efficiency.</p> - -<p>How, then, are these results obtained? How does the air-chamber work?</p> - -<p>It depends on the elasticity and power of compressed air. The water, -when drawn from the source of supply<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> by two pistons, working -alternately, is driven into a strong chamber filled with air. The air -becomes compressed, and is driven to one part of the chamber; but when -it is forced back to occupy about one-third of the whole space, the air -is so compressed that, like the proverbial worm which will turn at last, -it exerts a pressure on the water which had been driving it back. If the -water had no means of escape, the chamber would soon burst; but the -water finds its way through the delivery-hose. If the hose issue from -the top of the chamber, it is fitted with a connecting pipe reaching -nearly to the bottom to prevent any escape of air.</p> - -<p>Now, as long as the pumps force the water into the air-chamber to the -necessary level—that is, to about two-thirds of the space—the pressure -is practically continuous, and thus a constant jet of water is -maintained through the hose. The ordinary pressure of air is about 14·7 -pounds per square inch; and when compressed to one-half its usual bulk, -its elasticity or power of pressure is doubled, and of course is -rendered greater if still further compressed.</p> - -<p>This power, then, of the compressibility and elasticity of air is the -secret of the fire-engine air-chamber; but though introduced about 1675, -it was not until 1720 that such engines seem to have become more -general. About that date, Leupold built engines in Germany with a -strongly-soldered copper chest, and one piston and cylinder, the machine -throwing a continuous and steady jet of water some twenty or thirty feet -high.</p> - -<p>In the meantime, what was being done in England?</p> - -<p>Here again the story is obscure; but we imagine the course of events to -have been something like this:</p> - -<p>In the dismal days after the Great Fire, people<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> began to cast about for -means to prevent a recurrence of so widespread and terrible a calamity. -Fire-insurance offices were organized, and they undertook the -extinguishment of fires. It is not unreasonable to suppose that in some -form—perhaps by offering prizes, perhaps by simply calling attention to -the need for improvement, perhaps by disseminating information such as -of the engine mentioned by Perrault at Paris—these offices stimulated -invention; perhaps the memory of the Great Fire was enough to stir -ingenious effort without their aid.</p> - -<p>Now, there was a pearl-button maker named Newsham, at Cloth Fair, not -far distant from Pye Corner, who obtained patents for improvements in -fire-engines in 1721, and again in 1725; while the <i>Daily Journal</i> of -April 7th, 1726, gives a report of one of his engines which discharged -water as high as the grasshopper on the Royal Exchange. This apparently -was not only due to the great compression of air in the air-chamber, but -also to the peculiar shape he gave to the nozzle of the jet; and it is -said he was able to throw water to a height of a hundred and thirty feet -or more.</p> - -<p>In France a man named Perier seems to have been busy with fire-engines, -though how far he worked independently of others we cannot tell.</p> - -<p>The hose and suction-pipe are said to have been invented by two men -named Van der Hide, inspectors of fire-extinguishing machines at -Amsterdam about 1670. The hose was of leather, and enabled the water to -be discharged close to the fire. It is worthy of note that this -invention also appears to have been after the Great Fire of London.</p> - -<p>Remembering, therefore, that Newsham was <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>probably indebted to others -for the important air-chamber and flexible leathern hose—though how far -he was indebted we cannot say—we must regard him as the Father of the -Modern Fire-Engine in England. Especially so, as his improvements have -been regarded as in advance of all others in their variety and value. It -is also worthy of note that the first fire-engines in the United States -were of his construction.</p> - -<p>Little is known of Newsham's life. The reasons leading him, a maker of -pearl buttons, to turn his attention to fire-engine improvement are not -clear. At his death in 1743, the undertaking passed by bequest to his -son. The son died about a year after his father, and the business then -came into the hands of his wife and cousin George Ragg, also by bequest; -and the name of the firm became Newsham & Ragg.</p> - -<p>One of Newsham's engines may be seen in the South Kensington Museum -to-day, having been presented to that institution by the corporation of -Dartmouth. The pump-barrels will be found to measure 4½ inches in -diameter, with a piston-stroke of 8½ inches. The original -instructions are still attached, and are protected by a piece of horn.</p> - -<p>The general construction of Newsham's engines appears to have been -something like this:</p> - -<p>The body, which was long and narrow, measured about 9 feet by 3 feet -broad; this shape enabled it to be wheeled in narrow streets, and even -through doorways. Along the lower part of the body, which was swung on -wheels, ran a pipe of metal, which the water entered from a feed-pipe. -The feed-pipe was intended to be connected with a source of supply; but -if this failed, a cistern, attached to the body of the engine, could be -filled by buckets, while a strainer was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> placed at the junction between -the cistern and the interior pipe to prevent dirt or gravel from -entering it.</p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i041.jpg" alt="EARLY MANUAL FIRE-ENGINE" /></div> - -<p class="bold">EARLY MANUAL FIRE-ENGINE.</p> - -<p>On the top of the body was built a superstructure, which looked like a -high box—greater in height than in breadth, and larger at the top than -at the bottom. This box contained the all-important air-chamber and the -pumps. The water in the interior pipe was forced into the air-chamber by -the two pumps, and then thrown on the fire through a pipe connected with -a hose of leather projecting from the top of the air-chamber. This pipe -descended within the chamber almost to the bottom, so that when water -was pumped into the air-chamber it flowed round the bottom of the pipe, -and prevented any ingress or egress of air. As the water rose, the air -already in the chamber became compressed in the top part of the chamber, -and in turn exerted its power on the water.</p> - -<p>The pumps were worked by levers, one on each side of the engine, and -alternately raised and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> lowered by the men operating the machine; while -this manual-power was much increased by one or two men working treadles -connected with the levers, and throwing the weight of the body on each -treadle alternately.</p> - -<p>The principle of the force-pump may be thus briefly explained:</p> - -<p>When a tight-fitting piston working in a cylinder is drawn upward, the -air in the cylinder is drawn up also, and a partial vacuum created; if -the cylinder is connected with water not too far distant by a pipe, the -water will then rush upward to fill the vacuum. Then, if the bottom of -the cylinder be fitted with a valve opening upward only, it is closed -when the piston is pushed down again; and the water would burst the -cylinder, if enough power were applied to the piston, but escape is -afforded along another pipe as an outlet, which in the case of the -fire-engine opens into the air-chamber, and which is opened and closed -by another valve. Thus is the water not only raised from the source of -supply, but is forced along another channel.</p> - -<p>And the modern fire-engine—which we date from Newsham's engines in -England about 1726—is a combination of the principles of the force-pump -and of the air-chamber, which acts by reason of the great elasticity of -compressed air.</p> - -<p>Other inventors made improvements as well as Newsham, namely, Dickenson, -Bramah, Furst, Rowntree, and others, though the differences were chiefly -in details. An engraving mentioned in an old work of reference sets -forth that a London merchant named John Lofting was the patentee and -inventor of the fire-engine. His invention must have been since the -Great Fire, because the Monument is depicted in one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> corner of the -engraving and the Royal Exchange in another. Rowntree made an engine for -the Sun and some other fire-offices, which protected the feed-pipe more -efficiently from mud and gravel; and Bramah devised a hemispherical -perforated nozzle, which distributed water in all directions, so that -the ceilings, sides, and floor of a room would become equally drenched.</p> - -<p>Bramah also applied the rotary principle to the fire-engine. He studied -the principles of hydraulics, and introduced many improvements into -machinery for pumping, a rotary principle being one of them. He attained -this object by changing the form of the cylinder and piston, the part -acting directly on the water being shaped as a "slider," and working -round a cavity in form of a cylinder, and maintained in its place by a -groove. He applied the rotative principle to many objects, one being the -fire-engine. His fire-engine was patented in 1793; but we cannot -discover that it changed any vital principle of the machine, which, as -we have seen, consists in essence of a movable force-pump, steadied and -strengthened by a compressed air-chamber and a flexible delivery-hose.</p> - -<p>Joseph Bramah, however, is doubtless best known to fame as the inventor -of the hydraulic press, though he is also celebrated for the safety-lock -which bears his name. He was a farmer's son, and was born at -Stainborough in Yorkshire in 1748; but an accident rendering him lame, -he was apprenticed to a carpenter. Engaging in business as a -cabinet-maker in London, he was employed one day to fit up some sanitary -appliances, and their imperfections led him to devise improvements. He -took out his first patent in 1778<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> and this contrivance proved to be the -first of a long series. His lock followed, and then, assisted in one -detail by Henry Maudslay, he introduced his hydraulic press, a machine -which he foresaw was capable of immense development.</p> - -<p>Several of his improvements are concerned with water, such as -contrivances connected with pumps and fire-engines, and with building -boilers for steam-engines. It is also said he was one of the first -proposers of the screw-propeller for steamships. Altogether, he was the -author of eighteen patents; though it has been pointed out that he -improved and applied the inventions of others, rather than originated -the whole thing himself. While he contributed improvements to the -fire-engine, the vital principle of the air-chamber and the flexible -hose remained the same. Up to about the year 1832, the larger engines -generally in use in London seem to have thrown some eighty-eight gallons -a minute from fifty to seventy feet high.</p> - -<p>The next notable development was the application of steam to work the -force-pumps. But this addition, which was made about 1830 by John -Braithwaite, also did not alter the principle of the air-chamber.</p> - -<p>John Braithwaite came of an engineering family. He was born in 1797, the -third son of John Braithwaite, the constructor of one of the first -diving-bells. The ancestors of the Braithwaites had conducted an -engineer's business, or something analogous to it, at St. Albans ever -since the year 1695.</p> - -<p>The younger John entered his father's business, and from 1823, after his -father and brother died, conducted it alone. Those were the days when -steam was coming into vogue, and he began to manufacture <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>high-pressure -steam-engines. Together with Ericsson, he constructed the "Novelty," the -locomotive which competed in the famous railway-engine contest at -Rainhill in 1829, when Stephenson's "Rocket" won the prize. -Braithwaite's engine, though it did not fulfil all the conditions of the -competition, yet is said by some to have been the first locomotive to -run a mile a minute—or rather more, for it is held to have covered a -mile in fifty-six seconds. He used a bellows to fan the fire; and in his -steam fire-engine, he also employed bellows, though on one day of the -Rainhill contest the failure of the bellows rendered the locomotive -incapable of doing work.</p> - -<p>In the fire-engine, the bellows were worked by the wheels of the -machine, and eighteen or twenty minutes were required to raise the -steam. At the present time, a hundred pounds of steam can be raised in -five minutes in the biggest engine of the London Brigade, this result -being due, in one respect at least, to the use of water-tube boilers.</p> - -<p>Braithwaite's engine of 1830 was fitted with an upright boiler, and was -of scarcely six horse-power; but, nevertheless, it forced about fifteen -gallons of water per minute from eighty to ninety feet high. The pistons -for the steam and water respectively were on opposite ends of the same -rod, that for steam being 7 inches in diameter, and for the water 6½ -inches, and both having a stroke of 16 inches.</p> - -<p>The engine was successful in its day. During an hour's work, it would -throw between thirty and forty tons of water on a fire; while another -engine, also made by Braithwaite, threw the larger quantity of ninety -tons an hour.</p> - -<p>The steam fire-engine was first used at the burning<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> of the Argyle Rooms -in London in 1830; it was also used at the fire of the English -Opera-House in the same year, and at the great fire at the Houses of -Parliament in 1834. But, curiously enough, a great prejudice existed -against it, and the engine was at length destroyed by a London mob. The -fire-brigade were also against it. So Braithwaite gave it up; but he -built a few others, one at least being for Berlin, where it seems to -have given great satisfaction.</p> - -<p>Braithwaite, who became engineer-in-chief to the Eastern Counties -Railway, also applied steam to a floating fire-engine, and constructed -the machinery so that the power could be rapidly changed from propelling -the vessel to operating the pumps.</p> - -<p>The brigade could not long disregard the use of steam. In 1852, their -manual-float was altered to a steamer, the alterations being made by -Messrs. Shand & Mason. Six years later, the firm made a land steam -fire-engine, which, however, was sent to St. Petersburg; and then in -1860—thirty years after Braithwaite had introduced the machine—the -London Brigade hired one for a year. The experiment was successful, and -a steam fire-engine was purchased from the same makers. But only two -steam fire-engines were at work at the great Tooley Street fire.</p> - -<p>Then, in July, 1863, a steam fire-engine competition took place at the -Crystal Palace, the trials lasting three days. Lord Sutherland was -chairman, and Captain Shaw, who was then chief of the London Brigade, -was honorary secretary of the competition committee. In the result, -Merryweather & Son won the first prize in the large-class engine, and -Shand & Mason the second prize. Shand & Mason also took the first prize -in the small class, and Lee & Co. the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> second prize in the small class. -The value of the steam fire-engine was fully established.</p> - -<p>At the present time, Messrs. Shand & Mason have an engine capable of -throwing a thousand gallons a minute; while one of the water-floats of -the London Brigade will throw thirteen hundred and fifty gallons a -minute. These powerful machines form a striking development of Newsham's -engine of 1726, and afford a remarkable contrast to the old -fire-quenching appliances of former times.</p> - -<p>But while the development of the modern fire-engine had been proceeding, -a not less remarkable organization of firemen had been growing. It arose -in a very singular, and yet under the circumstances a not unnatural, -manner. And to this part of the story we must now turn our attention.</p> - -<hr /> - -<h2><span>CHAPTER V.</span> <span class="smaller">EXTINGUISHMENT BY COMPANY. THE BEGINNINGS OF FIRE INSURANCE.</span></h2> - -<p>"Cannot provision be made against loss by fire?"</p> - -<p>Looking at the terrible ruin caused in 1666, prudent men would naturally -begin to ask this question. And some enterprising individual declared -that a scheme must be launched whereby such provision might be made.</p> - -<p>So, although proposals and probably attempts for fire insurance had been -made before, by individuals or clubs, and by Anglo-Saxon guilds; yet we -read that "a combination of persons"—which, in the words of to-day, we -suppose means a company—opened<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> "the first regular office for insuring -against loss by fire" in 1681.</p> - -<p>Of course, another speedily followed. That is our English way. But both -of these have disappeared. One, however,—the appropriately named -Hand-in-Hand, which was opened in 1696,—still survives, and added -life-insurance business in 1836. The Sun was projected in 1708 and -started in 1710, the Union followed four years later, the Westminster in -1717, the London in 1720, and the Royal Exchange in the same year.</p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i048.jpg" alt="LONDON FIREMAN IN 1696" /></div> - -<p class="bold">LONDON FIREMAN IN 1696.</p> - -<p>Therefore, the close of the seventeenth and the beginning of the -eighteenth centuries saw the practice of fire insurance well established -in Britain as an organized system. Now, these offices not only undertook -to repay the insurers for losses, but also to extinguish the fires -themselves. This latter, indeed, was fully regarded as an integral part -of their business. Thus, one of the prospectuses of an early fire-office -states that "watermen and other labourers are to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> employed, at the -charge of the undertakers, to assist at the quenching of fires." And it -is worthy of note that, while the earliest men employed were watermen, -the London Fire-Brigade to-day will only accept able-bodied sailors as -their recruits.</p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i049.jpg" alt="FIRE INSURANCE BADGES" /></div> - -<p class="bold">FIRE-INSURANCE BADGES.</p> - -<p>The offices dressed their men in livery, and gave them badges; the men -dwelt in different parts of the city, and were expected to be ready when -any fires occurred. Even to-day the interest of the companies in the -extinguishment of fires is recognized, and their early connection -therewith maintained; for they pay the London County Council £30,000 -annually toward the support of the brigade.</p> - -<p>By the beginning of the nineteenth century, the fire-offices had notably -increased in numbers. Thus, in 1810 there were sixteen, and some of -their names will be recognized to-day. In addition to the Hand-in-Hand -and the Sun, were the Phœnix (1782), the Royal Exchange, the North -British (1809), the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> Imperial (1803), and the Atlas, dating from 1808; -there was also the Caledonian, dating from 1805.</p> - -<p>Each company fixed its badge to the building insured, a course which -appears to have been suggested by the Sun, and adopted so that the -firemen of the different companies might know to which office the -burning house belonged.</p> - -<p>The badge was stamped in sheet-lead, and was painted and gilded; but the -badges for the firemen appear usually to have been of brass, and were -fixed to the left arm. Each company not only kept its own engines and -its staff of firemen, but also clad its men in distinctive uniforms. The -dress for the Sun Office consisted of coat, waistcoat, and breeches of -dark-blue cloth, adorned with shining brass buttons. The brass badge -represented the usual conventional face of the sun, with the rays of -light around, and the name placed above.</p> - -<p>The helmet was of horse-hide, with cross-bars of metal. It was made of -leather inside, but stuffed and quilted with wool. This quilting would, -it was hoped, protect the head from falling stones or timbers, dangers -which are still the greatest perils threatening firemen at their work.</p> - -<p>By-and-by, Parliament made some effort towards organizing fire -extinction. In 1774, a law was passed, providing that the parish -overseers and churchwardens should maintain an engine to extinguish -fires within their own boundaries. These engines were doubtless manned -in many parishes, especially in rural districts, by voluntary workers, -who sometimes were probably not even enrolled in an organized voluntary -brigade; the police also in certain places undertook fire duty. But -"what is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> every one's business is no one's business," and for various -reasons numbers of these parish fire-engines fell into disuse.</p> - -<p>In short, the organization for the extinguishment of fires was -thoroughly unsatisfactory. The men belonging to the different companies -were too often rivals, when they should have been co-workers; each -naturally gave special attention to the houses bearing their badges. We -obtain a remarkable picture of the inefficiency prevailing in a letter -from an eye-witness, Sir Patrick Walker, in No. 9 of the <i>Scots -Magazine</i> in 1814. It refers to Edinburgh, but doubtless is true of -other places.</p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i051.jpg" alt="ROYAL EXCHANGE FIREMAN" /></div> - -<p class="bold">ROYAL EXCHANGE FIREMAN.</p> - -<p class="bold">(<i>From a portrait.</i>)</p> - -<p>Sir Patrick had taken an active part in endeavouring to arrest a -conflagration, and he remarks on "a total absence of combined and -connected aid, which must often render abortive all exertions." The -chief defect, he declares, lies "in having company engines, which -creates a degree of jealousy among the men who work them." When all -success depended on their united efforts, then they were most -discordant. There<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> were often more engines than water to adequately -supply them, consequently no engine had probably enough to be efficient. -The remedy, he held, was to abolish all names or marks, and form the -whole into one body on military principles.</p> - -<p>Curiously enough, the brigade that was formed in London has come to be -regulated rather on naval than on military principles; but the essence -of Sir Patrick's suggestion was undoubtedly sound. He also complained -greatly of the waste of water by hand-carrying, which, moreover, created -great confusion.</p> - -<p>These grave defects were, no doubt, also felt keenly by the London -fire-offices, and in 1825 some of them combined to form one brigade. -They were the Sun, the Phœnix, the Royal Exchange, the Union, and the -Atlas; and seven years later, in the memorable year 1832, all the more -important companies united.</p> - -<p>In this action they were led by Mr. R. Bell Ford, director of the Sun -Fire-Office. The organization then formed was called the London -Fire-Engine Establishment, and had nineteen stations and eighty men. It -was placed under the superintendence of Mr. James Braidwood, a name -never to be forgotten in the story of fire-brigades and their work.</p> - -<p>But to learn something of this great man and his daring deeds and noble -career, we must change the scene to Edinburgh.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p> - -<h2><span>CHAPTER VI.</span> <span class="smaller">THE STORY OF JAMES BRAIDWOOD.</span></h2> - -<p>"Something must be done!"</p> - -<p>Many an Edinburgh citizen must have expressed this decision in the -memorable year 1824. Several destructive fires had occurred, and at each -catastrophe the need of efficient organization was terribly apparent. It -seemed as though the whole city would be burned.</p> - -<p>Then the police took action. The commissioners of the Edinburgh police -appointed a committee, and a Fire-Engine Corps, as it was called, was -established, on October 1st of the same year. The new organization was -to be supported by contributions from various companies, from the city -of Edinburgh, and from the police funds.</p> - -<p>"But who was to superintend it?"</p> - -<p>Now, a gentleman had become known to the commissioners, perhaps through -being already a superintendent of fire-engines; and though only -twenty-four years of age, he was appointed.</p> - -<p>His name was James Braidwood. He was born in 1800 in Edinburgh, and was -the son of a builder. Receiving his education at the High School, he -afterwards followed his father's business. But in 1823, he was appointed -superintendent of the fire-engines, perhaps owing to his knowledge of -building and carpentry; and when the corps was established, he was -offered the command.</p> - -<p>He proceeded to form his brigade of picked men. He selected slaters, -house-carpenters, plumbers, smiths, and masons. Slaters, he said -afterwards, become good<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> firemen; not only from their cleverness in -climbing and working on roofs—though he admitted these to be great -advantages—but because he found them generally more handy and ready -than other classes of workmen.</p> - -<p>They were allowed to follow their ordinary occupations daily; but they -were regularly trained and exercised every week, the time chosen being -early in the morning. Method was imparted to their work. Instead of -being permitted to throw the water wastefully on walls or windows where -it might not reach the fire at once, they were taught to seek it out, -and to direct the hose immediately upon it at its source.</p> - -<p>This beneficial substitution of unity, method, skill, and intelligent -control for scattered efforts, random attempts, lack of organization, -and discord in the face of the enemy, was soon manifest.</p> - -<p>Five years after the corps had been established under Mr. Braidwood, the -<i>Edinburgh Mercury</i> wrote: "The whole system of operations has been -changed. The public, however, do not see the same bustle, or hear the -same noise, as formerly; and hence they seem erroneously to conclude -that there is nothing done. The fact is, the spectator sees the -preparation for action made, but he sees no more. Where the strength of -the men and the supply of water used to be wasted, by being thrown -against windows, walls, and roofs, the firemen now seek out the spot -where the danger lies, and, creeping on hands and feet into the chamber -full of flame or smoke, often at the hazard of suffocation, discover the -exact seat of danger, and, by bringing the water in contact with it, -obtain immediate mastery over the powerful element with which they have -to contend. In this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> daring and dangerous work, men have occasionally -fainted from heat, or dropped down from want of respiration; in which -case, the next person at hand is always ready to assist his companion, -and to release him from his service of danger."</p> - -<p>Not only exercising great powers of skilful management, Braidwood showed -remarkable determination and presence of mind in the face of danger. -Hearing on one occasion that some gunpowder was stored in an -ironmonger's shop, which was all aflame, he plunged in, and, at imminent -risk of his life, carried out first one cask from the cellar, and then, -re-entering, brought out another, thus preventing a terrible explosion.</p> - -<p>In 1830, Mr. Braidwood issued a pamphlet dealing with the construction -of fire-engines, the training of firemen, and the method of proceeding -in cases of fire. In this work he declared he had not been able to find -any work on fire-engines in the English language—a state of things -which testifies to the lack of public interest or lack of information in -the matter in those days. The book is technical, but useful to the -expert before the era of steam fire-engines.</p> - -<p>But in a volume, issued a few years after his death, Mr. Braidwood takes -a comprehensive glance at the condition of fire extinguishment in -different places. The date is not given; but it was probably about 1840.</p> - -<p>In substance he says: "On the Continent generally, the whole is managed -by Government, and the firemen are placed under martial law, the -inhabitants being compelled to work the engines. In London, the -principal means ... is a voluntary association of the Insurance -Companies without legal authority; the legal protection by parish -engines being, with a few<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> praiseworthy exceptions, a dead letter. In -Liverpool, Manchester, and other towns, the extinction of fires by the -pressure of water only, without the use of engines, is very much -practised. In America, the firemen are generally volunteers enrolled by -the local governments, and entitled to privileges."</p> - -<p>From this bird's-eye view, it will be seen that organization for fire -extinction and the use of efficient appliances for fighting the flames -were still in a very unsatisfactory state; yet the increasing employment -of lucifer-matches and of gas in the earlier years of the nineteenth -century tended to increase conflagrations.</p> - -<p>Moreover, it is curious that the public seemed but little aroused to -this unsatisfactory condition of affairs. Perhaps they saw their way to -nothing better; perhaps, if they took precautions, they regarded a fire -as unlikely to occur in their own house, even if it might happen to -their neighbour. Whatever the cause, they seem to have been but little -stirred on the subject.</p> - -<p>It was probably Mr. Braidwood's pamphlet of 1830 that led to his -appointment as chief of the newly-formed London Fire-Engine -Establishment. The publication showed him to be an authority on the -subject, and one likely to succeed in the post. He came with the cordial -good wishes of his Edinburgh friends. The firemen presented him with a -gold watch, and the committee with a piece of plate.</p> - -<p>He was ever careful of his men. He watched their movements, when they -were likely to be placed in positions of peril; and he would not allow -any man to risk unnecessary danger. Yet he was himself as daring as he -was skilful, and never shrank from encountering personal risk.</p> - -<p>This was the sort of man who came to lead the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> London Fire-Engine -Establishment. He found it a small force, composed of groups of men -accustomed formerly to act in rivalry, and having between thirty and -forty engines, throwing about ninety gallons a minute to a height of -between seventy and eighty feet, and also several smaller hand-hauled -engines, comparatively useless at a large fire. In addition to the -establishment of the associated companies, there were about three -hundred parish engines and many maintained at places of business by -private firms.</p> - -<p>By his energy and skill, Mr. Braidwood kept the fires in check, and came -to be regarded as a great authority on fire extinguishment and -protection from fire. On these subjects, he was consulted in connection -with the Royal Palaces and Government Offices, and held an appointment -as a chief fire inspector of various palaces and public buildings. He -became an Associate of the Institute of Civil Engineers, and read -several papers before that body, and also before the Society of Arts, on -the subject of the extinction and prevention of fires.</p> - -<p>The force under his command was increased from eighty to a hundred and -twenty men; but it still remained the Establishment of the Fire-Offices. -Throughout the country, the extinguishment of fire continued largely in -the hands of voluntary workers, assisted by various authorities, even -the fire-brigades being sometimes supplemented by the police and the -water companies, as well as the general public.</p> - -<p>And then an event occurred, which not only thrilled London with horror, -but probably led to one of the most remarkable developments in the -efforts for fire extinction that England had known.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span></p> - -<h2><span>CHAPTER VII.</span> <span class="smaller">THE THAMES ON FIRE. THE DEATH OF BRAIDWOOD.</span></h2> - -<p>About half-past four o'clock in the afternoon of June 22nd, 1861, an -alarm of fire reached the Watling Street station.</p> - -<p>The firemen turned out to the call; but little did they think, as they -hurried along, that the fire to which they were summoned would burn for -a whole month, and would become known as one of the most serious in the -history of London.</p> - -<p>The call came from Tooley Street, on the south side of London Bridge. -Some jute in the upper part of a warehouse had been discovered -smouldering, and bucketsful of water had been thrown upon it; but the -smoke became so thick and overwhelming, that the men were compelled to -desist, and the flames grew rapidly.</p> - -<p>By this time the alarm had been sent to Watling Street. Quickly the -fire-engines arrived on the spot, and the men found dense masses of -smoke pouring from buildings at Cotton's Wharf. A number of tall -warehouses, rising up to six stories high, and filled with inflammable -goods, stood here and near by, among the goods being oil, tallow, tar, -cotton, saltpetre, bales of silk, and chests of tea. In spite of all -efforts, the fire burned steadily on, and dense volumes of smoke poured -forth.</p> - -<p>Mr. Braidwood had speedily arrived, and two large floating-engines, in -addition to others, were got to work. He stationed his men wisely, and -huge jets of water were speedily playing on the fire.</p> - -<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p><p>Great excitement soon rose in the neighbourhood. Surging crowds of -eager people thronged the streets approaching the wharf, and a dense -assemblage pressed together on London Bridge. Even the thoroughfares on -the opposite side were blocked. But the spectators could see little just -then, except thick clouds of smoke and great jets of water. On the -river, vessels struggled to escape from the proximity of the burning -building; while on land, the police forced back the people from the -surrounding streets, so as to give greater freedom to the firemen.</p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i059.jpg" alt="JAMES BRAIDWOOD" /></div> - -<p class="bold">JAMES BRAIDWOOD.</p> - -<p>Then, about an hour after the alarm had been given, a loud explosion -startled the people; a bright tongue<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> of flame shot upward through the -smoke, and seemed to strike downward also to the ground, while the whole -building became a sheet of fire.</p> - -<p>The neighbouring buildings became involved; rivers of fire burst out of -windows, ran down walls, and actually flowed along the streets. It even -poured on to the waters of the Thames itself. Melted tallow and oil -flowed along as they burned, like liquid fire. No wonder the -conflagration spread rapidly. Less than two hours after the call had -been received—that is, at about six o'clock—the fire had extended to -eight large warehouses.</p> - -<p>The heat now became overpowering. Drifting clouds of smoke obscured the -calm evening sky, and spread like a pall overhead. In spite of all -efforts, the fierce conflagration gained continually on the men; it -leaped over a space between the buildings, and attacked a block of -warehouses on the opposite side. The roaring of the flames, the thick -smoke, and the curious, disagreeable smells arising from the various -goods which were burning, became almost unbearable.</p> - -<p>The men suffered greatly from exhaustion; and Mr. Braidwood, seeing -their distress, procured refreshments. He was dividing them among the -men as he stood near the second building which had caught fire, when -again a loud explosion rent the air, and the wall of the warehouse was -seen to be falling.</p> - -<p>"Run for your lives!" was the cry; and the men, seized for once with -panic, rushed away. Mr. Braidwood and a gentleman with him followed; but -unhappily they were not in time, and with a loud crash the huge wall -fell upon them, and crushed them to the ground with tons of heavy -masonry.</p> - -<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span></p><p>"Let us save them!" cried the men; and a score hurried to the spot. But -again a third explosion occurred, a mass of burning material was hurled -on the fatal heap, all around fell the fire, and rescue was seen to be -hopeless.</p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i061.jpg" alt="THE TOOLEY STREET FIRE, 1861" /></div> - -<p class="bold">THE TOOLEY STREET FIRE, 1861.</p> - -<p>As if in triumph, the flames swept on and mounted higher. Wharf after -wharf was involved, and warehouse after warehouse. The Depôt Wharf, -Chamberlain's Wharf, and others caught fire. Night seemed turned into -day by the blaze. Ships near the wharves, laden with the same -inflammable materials of oil, and tar, and tallow, became ignited; and -the blazing liquids poured out on the river, forming a lake of fire a -quarter-mile long by a hundred yards wide.</p> - -<p>People crowded everywhere to see the sight. They thronged house-tops and -church-steeples. Boatmen ventured near to pick up such goods as they -might be able to find, and were threatened with dire peril. Some fainted -from the heat. A barge drifted near<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> with three men aboard, who were so -overcome that they could not manage their cumbersome craft; a skiff -approached sufficiently near to rescue the men, after which the barge -drifted nearer still, and was burnt.</p> - -<p>Though greatly dispirited by the loss of their captain, the firemen -fought doggedly on. But still their efforts seemed unavailing. Flakes of -fire fell in all directions, and huge volumes of flame flashed upward to -the sky. The whole of Bermondsey seemed in peril, and at one period the -fire blazed for close upon a quarter-mile along the river-bank.</p> - -<p>Through the night more engines clattered up from distant stations, and -the firemen fought the flames at every step of their destructive career. -Tons of water were poured upon each building as it became threatened, -only, however, to yield in course of time.</p> - -<p>The wind saved the old church of St. Olave's, and also London Bridge -Station; but the fire raged along the wharves. Sometimes great warehouse -walls fell into the river with a gigantic splash, revealing the inferno -of white-hot fire raging behind them.</p> - -<p>At length the fire reached Hay's Wharf, which was supposed to be -fireproof, and for long it justified the name. But at last it also -yielded; the upper part began to blaze, and, in spite of the quantities -of water thrown upon the roof and walls, the fire gradually increased.</p> - -<p>Now beyond the building lay a dock, in which were berthed two ships. The -tide had been too low to allow of their removal. If they could not be -towed out in time, the fire would probably seize them, and thus be -wafted over the dock to the other side.</p> - -<p>Would the tide rise in time to allow the ships to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> be hauled out? It was -a critical moment, and the firemen must have worked their hardest to -keep the building from flaming too quickly.</p> - -<p>Gradually the tide flowed higher and higher. No matter what happens in -the mighty city, twice in the day and night does the Thames silently ebb -and flow; and now the quiet flowing of the tide helped to save the great -city on its bank. Just in time two tugs were able to enter the dock. The -towing-ropes were thrown aboard; but even as the vessels were passing -out, the flames, as if determined not to lose their prey, darted from -the building, and set the rigging of one ship aflame.</p> - -<p>But the firemen were as quick as their enemy. An engine threw a torrent -of water on the burning ship, and promptly quenched the flames. And so, -amid the plaudits of the huge crowds on both sides of the river, the two -ships were slowly towed to a place of safety, and the fierce fire was -left face to face with the empty dock.</p> - -<p>The quiet dock was successful. The wide space filling up with water from -the flowing tide stopped the progress of the fire. This stoppage must -have occurred about five o'clock on the following morning; but within -the area already covered by the conflagration, fire continued to burn -for a month.</p> - -<p>Even after the first seven days, a fresh explosion and flash of flame -showed the danger of the conflagration, now fortunately confined within -limits. In fact, July 22nd had dawned before it was entirely -extinguished, the total loss being estimated at about two millions -sterling.</p> - -<p>Nearly all the goods destroyed were of the most inflammable description. -There were nine thousand<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> casks of tallow and three hundred tuns of -olive oil, beside thousands of bales of cotton, two thousand parcels of -bacon, and other valuable merchandise. The tallow, no doubt, burned the -fiercest and the most persistently. Melting with the intense heat, it -poured out into cellars and streets, where much of it speedily caught -fire. The floors of nine vaults, each measuring 100 by 20 feet, were -covered two feet deep with melted tallow and palm oil, and all helped to -feed the fire. No wonder it burned for days, if such material fed the -flames, although the firemen continued to pour water on the ruins. Some -of the tallow, found floating on the river, was collected, and sold at -twopence per pound.</p> - -<p>Mr. Braidwood's body was found on June 24th, so charred as to be -scarcely recognizable. He was buried at Abney Park Cemetery, and was -accorded the honour of a great public funeral. The London Rifle-Brigade -attended, as well as large bodies of firemen and of the police, and an -immense concourse of the general public. So large a multitude, it was -said, had not attended any funeral since the obsequies of the Duke of -Wellington.</p> - -<p>A proposition was made to raise a public fund for the benefit of Mr. -Braidwood's widow and six children, and a large sum was subscribed; but -it was announced that the Insurance Companies had amply provided for his -family.</p> - -<p>The neighbourhood of Southwark, where the fatal fire occurred, has been -the scene of many remarkable conflagrations. In the same year as the -famous Tooley Street fire, Davis's Wharf at Horselydown was burnt, -involving a loss of about £15,000; while at a large fire at Dockhead two -or three years later, vast quantities<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> of saltpetre, corn, jute, and -flour were consumed. A brisk wind favoured the flames, and hundreds of -tons of saltpetre flashed up into fire. Bright sparks and flame-coloured -smoke floated over the conflagration, and were wafted by the wind, -accompanied by deafening reports and great flashes of fire.</p> - -<p>Numbers of other conflagrations have occurred in this neighbourhood. The -streets were narrow, and the district was full of warehouses, containing -all kinds of merchandise, which burnt like tinder when fairly ignited. -Imagine coffee and cloves, sulphur and saltpetre, oil, turpentine, and -tallow all afire! What a commingling of odours and of strange-coloured -flame!</p> - -<p>The bacon frizzles; the corn parches and chars; the flour mixes with the -water, then dries and smoulders in the great heat, and smells like -burning bread; the preserved tongues diffuse an offensive odour of -burning flesh; while the commingling of cinnamon and salt, mustard and -macaroni, jams and figs and liquorice, unite to make a hideous -combination of coloured flames, sickening smells, and thick and lurid -smoke. The huge warehouses built in this district since the closing -years of the eighteenth century are filled with all kinds of goods from -various parts of the world; but of all the disastrous fires which have -ravaged the district, the great Tooley Street fire of 1861 has been the -worst.</p> - -<p>Moreover, it will always be memorable for the death of Braidwood. Even -now you may hear men in the London Fire-Brigade speak of Braidwood or -Braidwood's time, and his memory has become a noble tradition in the -service. So great an authority had he become on the subject of fire -extinction, and so highly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> was he held in public esteem, that his -terrible death in the performance of his duty was regarded as a national -calamity.</p> - -<p>But the conflagration also revealed with startling clearness the -inadequacy of the Companies' Fire Establishment. More appliances and -more men were wanted. The companies were asked, "Will you increase your -organization?" And their answer, put briefly, was, "No."</p> - -<p>Thereupon, in 1862, a Parliamentary Commission was instituted to enquire -into the matter, and in due time the commission reported. It recommended -that a brigade should be established; the companies consulted with the -Home Secretary and the Metropolitan Board of Works; and in 1865 an Act -was passed placing the brigade under the Metropolitan Board, the change -to take place as, and from January 1st, 1866.</p> - -<p>This was practically the establishment of a Municipal Fire-Brigade, -though it was also provided that every company insuring property for -loss by fire in London should contribute to the cost of the brigade at -the rate of £35 for every million pounds of the gross amounts insured, -except by way of reassurance; the Government were also to pay £10,000 a -year for the protection of public buildings; while the Metropolitan -Board itself was empowered to levy a rate not exceeding a halfpenny in -the pound in support of the organization.</p> - -<p>In 1863, the Fire-Engine Establishment had increased to a hundred and -thirty men with twenty stations; but the Metropolitan Board were given -power to construct further engines and stations, to act in conjunction -with a salvage corps, to obtain the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> services of the men, and to divide -the metropolis into suitable districts. Such powers would enable the -Board greatly to strengthen the brigade.</p> - -<p>The Act also provided that the firemen should be placed under command of -an officer, to be called the Chief Officer of the Metropolitan -Fire-Brigade; and a gentleman was appointed who had had experience of -similar duties at Belfast, and who was for long to be popularly known in -London as Captain Shaw.</p> - -<p>And on the very day when the new arrangements came in force a great fire -occurred, as if to roughly remind the organization of its -responsibilities and test its powers.</p> - -<hr /> - -<h2><span>CHAPTER VIII.</span> <span class="smaller">A PERILOUS SITUATION. CAPTAIN SHAW. IMPROVEMENTS OF THE -METROPOLITAN BOARD AND OF THE LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL.</span></h2> - -<p>"The dock is on fire!"</p> - -<p>On New Year's Day, 1866, some hours after St. Katherine's Dock had been -opened for work, several persons came running to the gates from the -adjoining streets, crying loudly, "The dock is on fire!"</p> - -<p>At first the policemen would not believe the report. "We can see -nothing," said they.</p> - -<p>"But flames are bursting from the roof! Look! look!"</p> - -<p>And before long the policemen were convinced that a serious fire was, -indeed, in progress. It was in the upper floors of a division of a block -of warehouses<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> named F, six stories high, and by eleven o'clock they -were blazing fast.</p> - -<p>"Fire! Fire!"</p> - -<p>The alarming cry rang through the dock, and superintendents, dock -managers, and policemen hurried to the spot; while gangs of dock -labourers were taken off their work, and set to quench the fire with -buckets.</p> - -<p>The conditions were somewhat similar to those of the great Tooley Street -fire of five years or so before. The fire broke out on a floor where -bales of jute and coir fibre were stored; and a huge heap of these goods -was seen to be burning, and sending forth such a suffocating and -blinding smoke, that the men were compelled to retreat.</p> - -<p>"Shut the iron doors!" shouted the officers; and one after another the -iron doors between the different warehouses were closed, though with one -exception. This was the door connecting the fifth floor of F Warehouse -with the fifth floor of H Warehouse. It was open wide, and one man after -another endeavoured to close it by crawling towards it on the floor. But -the smoke was so suffocating that the men had to be dragged back almost -unconscious before they could reach the door.</p> - -<p>Meantime, the dock fire-engines and hydrants had been got to work, and -the dock engineer was able to turn on full pressure, so that soon -powerful jets of water were thrown on the flames. A hydrant is, briefly, -an elbow-shaped metal pipe, permanently fixed to a main water-pipe; and -when the fireman attaches his hose to it, he can get at once a stream of -water through the hose at about the same pressure as the water in the -main.</p> - -<p>The flames were spreading furiously, and the two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> upper floors of F -Warehouse were blazing fast, throwing out such dense clouds of smoke, -that the neighbourhood was darkened as by a thick fog.</p> - -<p>The block of warehouses on fire towered up six stories high, and -occupied half of the northern side of the dock next to East Smithfield. -They formed a huge pile about 440 feet long by about 140 feet deep, the -import part of the dock lying on the south side with its ships.</p> - -<p>The block was built in a number of divisions or bays, each measuring -about 90 by 50 feet, and separated by strong walls, which rose from -basement to roof. Happily, the communication between these divisions was -afforded by double folding-doors of iron, a space of about three feet -existing between the double doors; they were believed to be fireproof; -and with the one exception they were closed.</p> - -<p>But, like the Tooley Street buildings, these warehouses were chiefly -stored with very combustible materials. Tallow was here, which played -such a bad part in 1861; spirits were here also, palm oil, tons of -dyewood, flax, jute, and cotton. Labourers had been at work for some -hours when the alarm was given, and men were busy on every floor. They -were receiving the goods from the quays, and wheeling them along through -the building, when the fire was discovered.</p> - -<p>And now Captain Shaw, the chief who succeeded Braidwood as the head of -the fire-brigade, dashed up with a steamer from Watling Street, which -was then the headquarters of the brigade. He had received the alarm at -about twenty minutes to twelve o'clock, and had telegraphed to all -subsidiary stations.</p> - -<p>Captain Shaw, who afterwards became Sir Eyre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> Massey Shaw, K.C.B., was -born the same year as the steam fire-engine was first used—<i>viz.</i>, in -1830. He was the son of Mr. B. R Shaw, of Monkstown, County Cork, and in -due time entered the army. Retiring in 1860, he became chief of the -Belfast Borough Forces, including police and fire-brigade, being -appointed in the next year the chief of the London Fire-Brigade.</p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i070.jpg" alt="THE FIRST COMPLETE FLOATING STEAM FIRE-ENGINE" /></div> - -<p class="bold">THE FIRST COMPLETE FLOATING STEAM FIRE-ENGINE, 1855.</p> - -<p>Not only did he telegraph for land steam fire-engines to the -conflagration; but a large steam-float, usually kept off Southwark -Bridge, was also quickly under way. Soon he had eight land steamers and -from seventy to eighty men on the spot, while he himself directed in -person.</p> - -<p>Mr. Collett, one of the Dock Company's secretaries, worked hard, and -often at great peril; Mr. Graves and Mr. Stephens, also officials of the -company, were busily engaged in directing removal of valuable materials; -while about seventy men employed by Cubitt & Co. in rebuilding a -warehouse, destroyed by fire in the previous October, rendered -assistance.</p> - -<p>The little army found themselves face to face with a difficult task. The -fire was now burning furiously, and the smoke was well-nigh -overpowering. The flames had reached the fourth, fifth,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> and sixth -floors, and seemed working downward; while the burning jute sent forth -such dense volumes of smoke, that the men were forced back again and -again. But bravely they returned to their task; and taking advantage of -the moments when the clouds cleared, they directed the hose to the most -needful points.</p> - -<p>For six hours the fire raged, until all the three upper floors were -destroyed, and the third floor seriously damaged. The scene in the -waning winter afternoon was sufficiently striking as the smoke gradually -cleared and the blackened ruins became dimly visible. They were very -dangerous, for the walls appeared likely to topple over at the slightest -provocation.</p> - -<p>About five o'clock, the firemen seemed to have gained the mastery, and -Captain Shaw returned home; but later in the evening he was summoned -again. Most mysteriously the flames had burst forth once more in fresh -places, the upper parts of two adjacent warehouses of the same block had -caught, and were in flames. By eleven o'clock the fire was blazing as -furiously as ever.</p> - -<p>Captain Shaw returned with new relays of men to assist those on the -spot; and during the night and all the next day the force was busily at -work. On the Monday night two firemen were so overcome by the smoke that -they had to be removed, being nearly suffocated; but happily they -recovered, and no life was lost during the fire. The streams of melted -grease flowed from the burning warehouse into the quay, and thence to -the dock basin, where by-and-by they cooled and solidified, looking -something like snow on a frozen lake. Thirteen steam fire-engines and -one float continued to throw immense quantities of water on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> the burning -building; but the fire was not really subdued until the morning of -January 3rd.</p> - -<p>A few engines remained on the Wednesday and the Thursday, and threw -water on the heated ruins, to cool them down and quench any latent fire; -while on January 4th, men were busy skimming the dock basin,—which was -thickly covered with the solid tallow and oil,—and loading the mass -into barges.</p> - -<p>After the conflagration, engines were employed in pumping water out of -the vaults where it had collected, and as much jute was found injured by -water as destroyed by fire. No doubt, it was the jute and the tallow and -oil which rendered the conflagration so obstinate; but it was also found -that while water collected to a great extent in some parts, yet it did -not penetrate to other parts of even the same floor—a result which, -perhaps, was due to the method of packing the jute.</p> - -<p>In the end, about three-parts of the block of warehouses was burned. The -amount of tallow in the four burning buildings was calculated to range -between two and three thousand casks, some of which appear to have been -saved; but several hundred barrels of cocoanut oil and palm oil were -lost as well, and the coir fibre, flax, and jute burnt reached to a very -large quantity, the total pecuniary loss being estimated at over -£200,000.</p> - -<p>This great fire proved a terrible object-lesson. For about two days and -nights the engines and appliances of the brigade, with some two-thirds -of the men, were engaged at this one conflagration. What if another -great fire had broken out in those dark January days? The situation was -fraught with the gravest peril.</p> - -<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span></p><p>No doubt, voluntary aid at fires used often to be relied upon, and in -1861 payment was given to assistants. But the Metropolitan Board now had -the means of strengthening the brigade, and they proceeded to use it. In -marked contrast to the 130 men and 20 stations of the Fire Establishment -of 1863, were the 591 firemen and 55 land fire-engine stations of the -brigade in 1889, when it passed over to the London County -Council—figures which show a notable development.</p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i073.jpg" alt="SIR EYRE M. SHAW" /></div> - -<p class="bold">SIR EYRE M. SHAW, K.C.B.</p> - -<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span></p><p>Further, there were also 83 coachmen and pilots, 131 horses, 150 -engines (55 being worked by steam), 155 fire-escapes, and other ladders, -with 33 miles of hose. By this time (1889) many provincial towns had -established a fire-brigade on the London plan.</p> - -<p>The London County Council, having no restriction as to powers of rating, -adopted Captain Shaw's recommendations—made in April, 1889—of a large -increase in the brigade, and resolved to add 138 firemen, 4 new -stations, with steamers and manuals, and 50 fire-escapes, and to raise -the number of electrical fire-alarms to over 600.</p> - -<p>Since then, the increase has still continued, until in 1898 the brigade -had an authorized fire-staff of nearly 1,100 men, with a certain number -of store-keepers, etc.; while the telegraphic arrangements and -distribution of stations were rendered so complete, that 100 men could -be concentrated within fifteen minutes at any dangerous area for large -fires.</p> - -<p>Furthermore, out of the authorized staff, 134 men are on watch by day, -and 369 at night, giving a total of 503 constantly on duty during the -twenty-four hours—a force that compares wonderfully with the total -strength of about 130 men at Braidwood's death in 1861.</p> - -<p>This brigade strength of 1,048 included about 80 officers, 824 firemen, -96 coachmen, 17 pilots, and 32 men under instruction. To these must be -added seventeen licensed watermen for navigating tug-boats, -river-engines, etc., and also stores and office clerks. But twenty-four -additional firemen, however, have been sanctioned, so that the complete -staff would reach to about 1,080 men—a remarkable development<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> of the -staff of 80 men of the London Fire-Engine Establishment of 1832.</p> - -<p>These figures are only given to show how greatly the brigade has grown; -for in the course of a few years, it is not improbable that the numbers -may be still further increased.</p> - -<p>The number of stations has also been remarkably augmented. The 19 -stations of 1832 have grown into nearly 200 for divers uses. Thus, there -are 189 fire-escape stations, 59 stations with engines, 57 with -hose-carts, 9 with hose- and ladder-trucks, 16 permanently established -in centres of wide streets with fire-extinguishing and life-saving -appliances, and 4 river stations.</p> - -<p>The appliances of the brigade have also greatly increased. There are 230 -fire-escapes and police-ladders, 59 land steam fire-engines, 57 six-inch -manuals, 7 small manuals called curricles, 175 horses which we may rank -as most useful appliances, and 24,284 hydrants.</p> - -<p>These last-named are very important. They not only afford a ready and -efficient means of throwing water on conflagrations, a means which is -fast rendering the manual-engines of less and less importance; but they -also yield a quick and ready method of water supply. Thus, in the year -1897 there were only three cases of unsatisfactory water supply.</p> - -<p>In addition to 24,284 hydrants of the London County Council, the -corporation of the City have 800 hydrants, which are used for watering -the streets as well as for extinguishing fires. In the year 1897, no -fewer than 466 fires were put out by hydrants and stand-pipes.</p> - -<p>The increase of hydrants has been very conspicuous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> under the County -Council. Thus, in March, 1889, the number was but 8,881, showing that no -fewer than 15,403 were added during the first eight years of the -Council's existence. No doubt, still more will follow. On March 31st, -1898, hydrants had been fixed or ordered in 97½ square miles of the -county area, leaving a comparatively small space unprovided with these -appliances. This space will doubtless be shortly supplied, and it is not -unreasonable to suppose that, with the 800 in the City, the metropolis -will ere long be sown with a total of about 30,000 hydrants, which, as -the twentieth century dawns, may be regarded as among the most effectual -means of fighting the fire at the disposal of the brigade.</p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i076.jpg" alt="FIRE-HYDRANT PLACED UNDER THE PAVEMENT" /></div> - -<p class="bold">FIRE-HYDRANT PLACED UNDER THE PAVEMENT.</p> - -<p>The establishment of these excellent appliances dates from 1871, and is -bound up with the system of constant water supply. By the Metropolis -Water Act of that year, it was provided that a water company, after -giving a constant supply, must notify the fact<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> to the local -authority—now the County Council—which must then specify the -fire-plugs or hydrants required, and the Council has the power under the -Act of requiring water companies to provide a constant supply within -parts of their districts. Hydrants are fully charged from the main, and -have a commanding cock or tap attached, so that a supply of water can be -obtained at once.</p> - -<p>The use of these appliances is very important. Planted at convenient and -commanding spots,—often at the corners of streets or roadways, and at -varying distances apart, ranging from fifty to about four hundred feet, -according to the circumstances of the locality, and marked also, not -only by the plate in the pavement, but by the letter H, placed in a -conspicuous position near,—the fireman can now, at almost a moment's -notice, find the hydrant, and obtain an ample supply of water for his -engine, or even a jet of water for the fire, before an engine is on the -spot. Very different from the troublesome and hindering work of -floundering about, possibly in fog or rain or snow, to find the -fire-plug, and then to find the turncock which governed the plug. On -snowy or foggy nights, the difficulty and delay were sometimes very -great; and the substitution of an extensive system of hydrants, with -their quickly-obtained water-jets for the old fire-plugs, may rank as -one of the most efficient means of fire extinction in the closing years -of the nineteenth century.</p> - -<p>Firemen being thus interested in the pressure of water in the mains, an -apparatus for recording the pressure automatically was fixed up at the -fire-brigade headquarters at Southwark Bridge Road in November, 1898. A -clock stands at the top of the instrument,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> and under the clock is a -roll of paper, having the hours of day and night marked upon it, and -divided into sections. A small pipe connected with the main runs under -the big engine-room, and acts upon mechanism beneath the paper roll, and -the clock and the column of water, and its pressure per inch, are marked -in red ink upon the sheet, varying perhaps from forty up to seventy-five -or even eighty pounds per square inch.</p> - -<p>At noon each day the sheet can be removed, and forms a permanent record -of the variation in water pressure in the mains of the neighbourhood.</p> - -<p>But if the number of hydrants is large, the area to be protected by the -brigade is also very large. Including the ancient city of London, which -is estimated to cover about a square mile, the area measures about 118 -square miles. Of these, twelve are estimated by the fire-brigade -committee to be covered by parks and open spaces, where fire-hydrants -will probably never be needed. This leaves, however, a net area of 106 -square miles, extending from Sydenham to Highgate, and from Plumstead to -Roehampton, to be efficiently protected by the brigade.</p> - -<p>Another means of water supply has been suggested. In his evidence at the -Cripplegate Fire Enquiry, Mr. John F. Dane, an ex-officer of the -Metropolitan Fire-Brigade, suggested that at the centre of the junction -of the most important streets surrounded by large buildings underground -tanks should be placed, and supplied by the main water-pipes. The tanks -would be empty until required, and would be under the control of the -brigade, while the hydrants should still be maintained for service. Such -tanks were in use at Leeds and at Salford.</p> - -<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p><p>The objection is raised, however, that the streets of the City are -already too crowded with pipes, while advantage of the pressure from the -water-main is lost, and also the vacuum caused by the engine.</p> - -<p>Noticing other improvements, we observe that the number of fire-alarm -posts has also been greatly increased. The alarm consists of a red post -in the street, with a glass face at the top front. The glass is readily -broken, and the handle within it pulled, when a loud electric bell rings -at the nearest fire-station. The Post-Office provides and maintains the -fire-alarms; and Commander Wells, chief officer of the brigade, has -devised a portable telephone, which can be plugged into a fire-alarm -post, and a message sent by it from a fire to the station. Arrangements -have been made with the Post-Office to supply the telephones and make -the plug-holes. Over 2,380 fire-alarms were raised in 1897, of which 363 -were maliciously-given false alarms. Practical jokes of this kind have -been heavily punished, as they richly deserve.</p> - -<p>Many false alarms are also given which cannot be regarded as malicious, -but are genuine mistakes, such as of supposed chimney fires. Over 500 of -these were recorded in one year. In 1898, the number of malicious false -alarms was happily less—<i>viz.</i>, 270; while the full record of false -alarms reached 830.</p> - -<p>The total number of fires in the metropolis in that year was 3,585—an -average of nearly ten per day. This total gives an increase of 571 above -the average; but only 205 out of the whole 3,585 were serious. There -seems no doubt but that the public are learning to use the fire-alarms -more readily and to give earlier intimation of fires. But, as the chief -officer points<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> out, while everybody knows the nearest letter-box, very -few comparatively even now seem to know the nearest fire-alarm. -Lamp-posts near the alarms are now painted red, and are fitted with a -red pane of glass in order to attract attention; and we imagine the -probability is that the alarms will be increasingly used at even the -slightest appearance of fire.</p> - -<p>Not only is each fire-station connected with a dozen or more fire-alarms -in its neighbourhood, but it is also in electric communication with -other fire-stations. There are 114 lines of telephone between the -stations, and sixteen between brigade- and police-stations; while -electric communication exists between stations and ninety-eight public -or other buildings. In fact, the whole fire-brigade establishment is -bound together by a web of electric wire, the centre being the -headquarters at Southwark.</p> - -<p>The remarkable organization of the brigade, famous for its leaders, -famous for the bravery and skill of its men, and famous for the number -and variety of its efficient appliances, has been a growth of -comparatively few years. Starting in 1825 with the union of a few -fire-office companies, it grew in seventy-three years to a remarkably -strong and increasing force, with a multitude of hydrants, stations, -horsed escapes, fire-alarms, and other appliances.</p> - -<p>The development attained in these seventy-odd years, as compared with -the hundreds of years before, is surely marvellous, though doubtless -some seeds of the development—as in the introduction of the modern -fire-engine—were sown before. But step by step it has proceeded, -utilizing now the discoveries of science and now the work of the -engineer, until it has reached its great position of usefulness and of -high esteem.</p> - -<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span></p><p>It would be tedious to mark every detail of development. The work begun -by his predecessors was carried still further by Captain Shaw, and under -him the London Brigade became one of the most efficient in the world.</p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i081.jpg" alt="COMMANDER WELLS" /></div> - -<p class="bold">COMMANDER WELLS.</p> - -<p>He retired with a well-deserved pension in 1891, after about thirty -years of service, and was succeeded by Mr. J. Sexton Simonds. Five years -later Mr.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> Simonds retired; and in November, 1896, Commander Lionel -Wells, R.N., was appointed chief officer. The brigade has also a second -officer—Mr. Sidney G. Gamble; and in January, 1899, a third officer was -appointed—Lieutenant Sampson Sladen, R.N.</p> - -<p>A few months after his accession, and in answer to the request of the -fire-brigade committee of the County Council, the chief officer -submitted a scheme for additional protection, including certain -regulations of brigade management.</p> - -<p>Of this scheme, the more prominent features were the introduction of -horsed fire-escapes, and the distribution of the men in small stations, -with horses, whence they can be speedily concentrated wherever required. -In short, the chief officer's object is that, at any call, the firemen -may be able, if the machine leave the station at once, to arrive at the -fire within five minutes' time; while the principle of station-work -should be that each station is responsible for a certain area in its -neighbourhood.</p> - -<p>The committee agreed with the opinions of the chief officer, and on -February 8th, 1898, the full Council adopted the committee's proposals. -Steps were forthwith taken to carry out the scheme, which thus marks -another stage of development.</p> - -<p>But let us visit the headquarters, and see for ourselves something of -this great organization actually at work.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p> - -<h2><span>CHAPTER IX.</span> <span class="smaller">A VISIT TO HEADQUARTERS.</span></h2> - -<p>"We light our fires differently from everybody else," says the foreman. -"We put shavings on top, the wood next, and the coal at the bottom; then -we strike a steam-match, and drop it down the funnel, and, behold! the -thing is done."</p> - -<p>It was the engine fire of which the foreman spoke, and he was pointing -to one of the magnificent steam fire-engines at the headquarters of the -London Brigade.</p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i083.jpg" alt="HEADQUARTERS, METROPOLITAN FIRE BRIGADE" /></div> - -<p class="bold">HEADQUARTERS, METROPOLITAN FIRE-BRIGADE, SOUTHWARK.</p> - -<p>"Here is a steam-match," he continued, "kept in readiness on the engine. -It is like a very large fusee, and is specially made for us. Water won't -put it out."</p> - -<p>He strikes the match, and it burns with a large flame. He plunges it -into some water near by, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> it still continues to burn. It evidently -means to flame until the engine fire is burning fast.</p> - -<p>The wood also is carefully prepared, being fine deal ends, specially cut -to the required size; while the coal is Welsh—the best for -engine-boilers.</p> - -<p>These details may seem trivial; but they assist in the rapid kindling of -the engine fire, which is not trivial. But the rapid kindling of the -fire is not the only reason why the brigade raises steam so quickly in -its engines; in addition, a gas-jet is always kept burning by the -boiler, and maintains the water at nearly boiling-point before the fire -is lighted. This was a method adopted by Captain Shaw. But even this -arrangement does not explain everything.</p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i084.jpg" alt="SECTION OF A STEAM FIRE ENGINE BOILER" /></div> - -<p class="bold">SECTION OF A STEAM FIRE-ENGINE BOILER.</p> - -<p>To fully understand the mystery, we must leave this smart engine, -shining in scarlet and flaming with brass, and go upstairs to the -instruction-room for recruits.</p> - -<p>Here we can see a section of the engine fire-box and boiler. It is very -interesting and very ingenious. But probably a novice would ask, "Where -is the boiler? I see little else but tubes."</p> - -<p>That is the explanation. The tubes chiefly form the boiler; for they are -full of water, and they <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>communicate with a narrow space, or "jacket," -also full of water, and which reaches all round the fire-box.</p> - -<p>This fire-box is held in a hollow below the tubes, which are placed in -rows, one row across the other, just at the bottom of the funnel and -above the fire-box. When, therefore, the flaming steam-match is dropped -down the funnel, it finds its way straight down between the crossed mass -of tubes to the shavings beneath; and the tubes full of the hot water -are at once wrapped in heat from the newly-kindled and rapidly-burning -fire. Every particle of heat and smoke and flame that rises must pass -upward between the tubes. Furthermore, the hot water rises and the -colder falls, so that there is a constant circulation maintained. The -colder water is continually descending to the hottest tubes; and when -bubbles of steam are formed, they rise with the hot water to the top. A -space is reserved above the tubes, and around the funnel, called the -"steam-space" or "steam-chest," where the steam can be stored; the steam -pressure at which the engine frequently works being a hundred and twenty -pounds to the square inch.</p> - -<p>The result of all these ingenious arrangements is that, starting with -very hot water, a hundred pounds of steam can be raised in five minutes.</p> - -<p>"But," it may be asked, "why is a fire not always kept burning, and -steam constantly at high pressure?"</p> - -<p>The answer is that a constant fire, whether of coal or of oil, would -cause soot or smoke to accumulate; while the Bunsen gas-burner affords -as clear a heat as any, and maintains the water at a great heat, or even -at boiling-point.</p> - -<p>Near the funnel, but not so high, rises a large, gleaming metal -cylinder, closed and dome-shaped.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> This is the indispensable -air-chamber, without which even the powerful force-pumps could not yield -so steady and persistent a stream.</p> - -<p>A small air-chamber is now added to the suction-pipe by which the water -is drawn to the engine. The use of the air-chamber in connection with -this pipe greatly steadies the engine, the vibration caused by the -throbbing of the powerful machinery as it draws and forces along such a -quantity of water being very great. The nozzle of the hose belonging to -one of the largest steam fire-engines measures 1¼ inch in diameter, -some nozzles being as small as ¾ inch; and a large column of water is -being constantly driven along the hose at a pressure of a hundred and -ten pounds to the square inch, and forced through the narrow nozzle; -here it spurts out, in a large and powerful stream, to a distance of -over a hundred feet. It is obvious, therefore, that the power exerted by -the steam-driven force-pumps and air-chamber is very high; and although -such an engine may be in some folks' opinion only a force-pump, it is a -force-pump of a very elaborate character; and not inexpensive, the -average price being about £1,000.</p> - -<p>Every steam fire-engine carries with it five hundred feet of hose. The -hose is made in lengths of a hundred feet, costing about £7 a piece, -without the connections. If you examine a length, you will find it made -of stout canvas, and lined with india-rubber, the result being that, -while it is very strong, it is yet very light.</p> - -<p>Miles of it are used in the service; and upstairs in the hose-room you -will find a large stock kept in reserve. Every piece is tested before -being accepted.</p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i087.jpg" alt="POWERFUL STEAM FIRE ENGINE" /></div> - -<p class="bold">POWERFUL STEAM FIRE-ENGINE FOR THE METROPOLITAN FIRE-BRIGADE.</p> - -<p class="bold"><i>Capacity, 350-400 gallons per minute. Delivered to the brigade, -February 9th, 1899, by Messrs. Shand, Mason, & Co.</i></p> - -<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p><p>Water is forced through it by hydraulic power at a pressure of three -hundred pounds to the square inch, so that when at work, with water -rushing through at a hundred and ten pounds' pressure, it is not likely -to split and spill the liquid on the ground. The splitting of hose in -the face of a fierce fire would be a great calamity. When charged with -water, its weight is very heavy; and to enable it to be carried more -easily, a loop called a "becket" is attached at distances of about ten -feet.</p> - -<p>The greatest care is taken of the hose. When it is brought back, -drenched and dripping, from a fire, it is cleaned and scrubbed, and then -suspended in the hose-well to dry.</p> - -<p>The hose-well is a high space, like a glorified chimney-shaft, without -the soot, where the great lengths of canvas pipe can be hung up to dry. -They are, in fact, not used again until they are once more in the pink -of perfection. The outside public see the fire-brigade and their -appliances smartly at work at big fires, but little know of the numerous -details of drill and of management which are instrumental in producing -the brilliant and efficient service.</p> - -<p>Look, for another instance, at the manuals' wheels. You will find them -fitted with broad, wavy-shaped iron tyres, which extend over the side of -the wheel and prevent it from tripping or slipping over tramway-lines in -the headlong rush through the streets. And should a horse fall as he is -tearing to the fire, that swivel-bar, which you will find at the end of -the harness-pole, can be quickly turned, and in a moment the fallen -steed is unhooked and helped to his feet again.</p> - -<p>The horses are harnessed quite as quickly. Behind the engine-room and -across a narrow yard you will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> find five pairs of horses, and, like the -men, some are always on the watch. Here they stand, ready harnessed, -their faces turned round, and looking over the strip of yard to the -engines. The harness is light, but efficient; and the animal's neck is -relieved from the weight of the collar, as it is suspended from the -roof.</p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i090.jpg" alt="IN THE STABLES READY FOR ACTION" /></div> - -<p class="bold">IN THE STABLES READY FOR ACTION.</p> - -<p>Directly the fire-alarm clangs, the rope barring egress from the stall -is unswivelled, the suspender of the collar swept aside, and the horse, -eager, excited, and impatiently pawing the ground, is led across the -narrow strip of yard, hooked on to the engine, and is ready for his -headlong rush through the streets.</p> - -<p>Horses stand thus ready harnessed at all stations<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> where they may be -kept; and when their watch is over, they are relieved by others, even -though they may not have been called out to a fire. So intelligent have -some of these animals become, that they have been wont to trot out -themselves, and take their places by the engine-pole without human -guidance; and so expert are the men and so docile the horses, that the -whole operation of harnessing to the engine occupies less than a minute, -sometimes, indeed, only about fifteen or twenty seconds. Every man knows -exactly what to do, and has his place fixed on the engine. There is -consequently no confusion and no overlapping of work.</p> - -<p>A steam fire-engine has a "crew"—as the brigade call it—of one -officer, one coachman, and four firemen. The officer No. 1 stands on the -"near side" of the engine by the brake; No. 2 stands on the other side -by the brake; No. 3 stands behind the officer, and No. 4 behind No. 2; -No. 5 attends to the steam, and rides in the rear for that purpose; -while the coachman handles the reins on the box.</p> - -<p>The positions are taken in a twinkling, the shed-doors open as swiftly, -and away rush the impatient steeds, while the loud and exciting cry of -"Fire! Fire!" rings from the firemen's throats as they speed along. -Wonderfully that cry clears the way through the crowded streets. When -the men arrive at the scene of action, the preparations proceed in the -same orderly manner. Nos. 1 and 2 brake the wheels, and proceed to the -fire; while the coachman, if necessary, removes the horses, and is -prepared to take back any message with them, No. 1 charging No. 2 to -convey the message to the coachman. By the chief officer's plan, -however,—whereby a portable telephone, carried on a fire-engine,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> can -be plugged into a fire-alarm post,—a message can be sent back from a -fire by telephone instead of by a coachman. Meanwhile, No. 3 is opening -the engine tool-box, and passing out the hydrant-shaft, hose, etc.; and -No. 4 receives the hose, and connects it up with the water-mains, and -places the dam or tank in which water is gathered from the hydrant. No. -3 is then busy with the delivery-hose, which is to pour the water on the -flames; and No. 5 connects the suction-pipe. When ready, No. 4 hurries -away with the "branch," as the delivery-pipe with nozzle is called; No. -3 helping with the hose attached to it—until sufficient is paid -out—and connecting the lengths as required. Then, when all is finished, -every one except the steam-man is ready to proceed to the fire, unless -otherwise instructed. Every engine, it may be added, carries a -turncock's bar, useful for raising the cover from the hydrants.</p> - -<p>So each one has his recognized duties in preparing the apparatus, all of -which duties are duly set forth in the neat and concise little pocket -drill-book prepared by Commander Wells. The most complete organization -must be in operation, otherwise a force of a hundred or a hundred and -fifty men, no matter how brave and zealous, gathered at one fire would -only be too likely to get in one another's way. And in a similar manner -the crews of manual-engines and horsed escapes have all their duties -assigned in preparing the machines.</p> - -<p>During a conflagration, the superintendent of the district in which the -fire occurs controls the operations under the superior officers; for -London is divided, for fire purposes, into five districts, which are -known to the brigade by letters. A District is the West End,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> and the -superintendent's station is at Manchester Square; B District is the -Central, and the superintendent's station is at Clerkenwell; C District -is the East and North-East, with district superintendent's station at -Whitechapel: all of these three being north of the Thames. The D -District is the South-East of London, with superintendent's station at -New Cross; and the E District in the South-West, with superintendent's -station at Kennington. The headquarters, which are known as No. 1, and -which used to be at Watling Street in the City, now occupy a central -position in Southwark Bridge Road, and thence the chief officer can -readily reach the scene of a fire.</p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i093.jpg" alt="A TURN OUT FROM HEADQUARTERS AT SOUTHWARK" /></div> - -<p class="bold">A TURN OUT FROM HEADQUARTERS AT SOUTHWARK.</p> - -<p>All these stations are in electric communication, and all telegraph -their doings to No. 1. The lines stretch from No. 1 to the five district -superintendents' stations; from there they extend to the ordinary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> -stations in each district; and from these stations again they reach to -points such as street stations, and even in some cases to hose-cart -stations. The consequence is, that superintendents and superior officers -can speedily arrive on the spot; and that, if necessary, a very large -force can be concentrated at a serious outbreak in a short time.</p> - -<p>Thus headquarters knows exactly how the men are all engaged, and the -character of the fire to which they may be called. Electric bells seem -always clanging. Messages come clicking in as to the progress of -extinguishing fires, or notifying fresh calls, or announcing the -stoppage of a conflagration. And should an alarm clang at night, all the -other bells are set a-ringing, so that no one can mistake what's afoot.</p> - -<p>A list is compiled at headquarters of all these fires, the period of -each list ranging from 6 a.m. to the same hour on the next morning. This -list, with such details as can be supplied, is printed at once, and -copies are in every insurance-office by about ten o'clock. The lists -form, as it were, the log-book of the brigade. Some days the calls run -up to seventeen or more, including false alarms; on other days they sink -to a far fewer number; the average working out in 1898 to nearly ten -calls daily.</p> - -<p>The Log also shows the causes of fires, so far as can be ascertained; -and the upsetting of paraffin-lamps bulks largely as a frequent cause. -The overheating of flues and the airing of linen also play their -destructive part as causes of fires. The airing of linen is, indeed, an -old offender. Evelyn writes in his Diary, under date January 19th, 1686: -"This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> night was burnt to the ground my Lord Montague's palace in -Bloomsbury, than which for painting and furniture there was nothing more -glorious in England. This happened by the negligence of a servant -airing, as they call it, some of the goods by the fire in a moist -season; indeed, so wet and mild a winter had scarce been seen in man's -memory." And now, more than two hundred years later, the same cause is -prevalent.</p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i095.jpg" alt="THE CHIEF'S OFFICE AT SOUTHWARK" /></div> - -<p class="bold">THE CHIEF'S OFFICE AT SOUTHWARK, METROPOLITAN FIRE-BRIGADE.</p> - -<p>But the upsetting and exploding of lamps is now, perhaps, the chief -cause, especially for small fires; and more deaths occur at small fires -than at large. This is not surprising, when we remember that such lamps<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> -are generally used in sitting or bedrooms, where persons might quickly -be wrapped in flames or overwhelmed with smoke.</p> - -<p>Smoke, indeed, forms a great danger with which firemen themselves have -to contend. At a fire in Agar Street, Strand, in November, 1892, a -fireman was killed primarily through smoke. He was standing on a -fire-escape, when a dense cloud burst forth and overpowered him. He lost -his grasp, and, falling forty feet to the earth below, injured his head -so severely that he died.</p> - -<p>Again, several men nearly lost their lives through smoke at a fire about -the same time at the London Docks. The firemen were in the building, -when thick smoke, pouring up from some burning sacks, nearly choked -them. Ever ready of resource, the men quickly used some hose they had -with them as life-lines, and slipped from the windows by means of the -hose to the ground below.</p> - -<p>Nevertheless, dense smoke is not the greatest danger with which firemen -are threatened. Their greatest peril comes from falling girders and -walls, from tottering pieces of masonry, and burning fragments of -buildings, shattered and shaken by the fierce heat. Helmets may be seen -in the museum at headquarters showing fearful blows and deep -indentations from falling fragments of masonry, and firemen would -probably tell you that they suffer more from this cause than any other.</p> - -<p>For small fires in rooms, little hand-pumps, kept in hose-carts, are -most useful. They can be speedily brought to bear directly on the flames -and prevent them from spreading. These little pumps can be taken -anywhere; they are used with a bucket, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> is kept full of water by -assistants, who pour water into it from other buckets.</p> - -<p>The fire, large or small, being extinguished, a message to that effect -is sent to headquarters, and the firemen return, with the possible -exception of one or two men to keep guard against a renewed outbreak. In -the case of larger fires, perhaps half a dozen men and an engine will -remain; while on returning, the various appliances have all to be -prepared in readiness to answer another alarm. It sometimes happens that -a fireman may be on duty for many hours at a stretch, or may only have -time to snatch an hour's sleep with clothes and boots on; for nearly -every hour a fresh alarm comes clanging into the station, telling of a -new fire in some part of busy London. And for any real need, there is, I -trow, no grumbling or complaint from the brave men. But the miscreant -detected in raising a malicious false alarm would have scant mercy. He -would be promptly handed over to the police, and the magistrate would -punish him severely—perhaps with a month's imprisonment.</p> - -<p>When not actually engaged at fires, the men find plenty to do in -painting and repairing appliances, attending to horses, and keeping up -everything to the pink of perfection. The hours on duty and for -specified work are all marked down in the brigade-station routine, -general work commencing at 7 a.m., and ending at one, while allowing for -a "stand easy" of fifteen minutes at eleven. The testing of all -fire-alarms once in every twenty-four hours, excepting Sundays and -before six o'clock at night, also forms part of the brigade-station -routine. Every fireman, however, has a spell of twenty-four hours -entirely off duty in the fortnight; but at all other times he is ready -to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> be called away. Indeed, men on leave are liable to be summoned in -case of urgent necessity; but such time is made up to them afterwards.</p> - -<p>Now, before being drafted into the effective ranks, all the men have to -pass through a three months' daily drill at headquarters. The buildings -are very extensive, affording accommodation for about a hundred men, -thirty-five or so being the recruits. In the centre, enclosed by the -buildings, stretches a large square, in which the drill takes place. To -see the combined drill is something like seeing the brigade actually at -work; and this being Wednesday afternoon, and three o'clock striking, -here come the squad of men marching steadily into the yard.</p> - -<p>The evolutions are about to begin.</p> - -<hr /> - -<h2><span>CHAPTER X.</span> <span class="smaller">HOW RECRUITS ARE TRAINED.</span></h2> - -<p>Tramp, tramp, tramp! Two lines of wiry, muscular young men march into -the centre of the yard.</p> - -<p>"Halt! Right about face!"</p> - -<p>Quick as thought the men pause and wheel around.</p> - -<p>Indian clubs and dumb-bells!</p> - -<p>The opening of the drill this afternoon is a course of exercises with -these familiar appliances; but they soon give place to other evolutions, -such as jumping in the sheet, practise with the engines, rescue by the -fire-escape, and the chair-knot.</p> - -<p>Round and round whirl the clubs. Every day some section of the drill is -taken; but on Wednesday<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> afternoons, the whole or combined drill is -practised. All candidates must have been sailors; no one need apply who -has not been at least four years an A.B. Further, they must be between -the ages of twenty-one and thirty, and able to pull over the escape; -that is, they must be able to pull up a fire-escape ladder from the -ground by the levers. The height of the ladder is about 28 feet, and the -pull is equal to a weight of about 244 pounds. It is a hard pull, and a -severe test of a man's strength; but after the first twelve feet, the -weight seems lessened, as the man's own weight assists him. In this -test, as in some other things, it is the first step that costs. Should -the candidate pass this test successfully, he is examined by the doctor; -finally, he comes to headquarters for his probationary drills.</p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i099.jpg" alt="TESTS OF STRENGTH FOR MEN" /></div> - -<p class="bold">TESTS OF STRENGTH FOR MEN ENTERING THE FIRE-BRIGADE: -PULLING UP THE ESCAPE.</p> - -<p>"Open order!"</p> - -<p>The men break off from their gymnastic exercises, and in obedience to -instructions some of them run for large canvas sheets, and spread them -out, partly folded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> on the ground. Then others calmly lie themselves -down on these sheets. What is going to happen?</p> - -<p>The recruits approach the recumbent figures, which lie there quite -still, and apparently heavy as lead; the lifeless feet are placed close -together, and the limp, inanimate arms arranged beside the body. Then, -at a word or a sign, the bodies are picked up as easily as though they -were tiny children, and carried over the recruits' shoulders—each -recruit with his man—some distance along the yard. The men are -practising the art of taking up an unconscious person, overcome may be -by smoke, or heat and flame, and carrying him in the most efficient -manner possible out of danger.</p> - -<p>There is more in this exercise than might at first appear. It might seem -a comparatively easy task—if only you had sufficient strength—to throw -a man over your shoulder and carry him thus, even leaving one of your -hands and arms quite free; but you would find it not so easy in the -midst of blinding flame and choking smoke; you would find it not so easy -to pick your uncertain way through a burning building and over flaming -floors, over a sloping roof or shaky parapet, and even down a -fire-escape.</p> - -<p>Hence the urgent necessity that the fireman should be so well practised, -that in a moment he can catch up an insensible, or even conscious person -in exactly the most efficient manner, and, with hand and arm free, be -able to find his way quickly out of the fire.</p> - -<p>He must be cool and clear-headed, dexterous, and sure-footed, ready of -resource, and quick yet reliable in all his movements; and to these -ends, as to others, the drill is directed.</p> - -<p>Captain Shaw's advice to those beginning "in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> business of -extinguishing fires" may be quoted here from his volume on "Fire and -Fire-Brigades." "Go slowly," he says, "avoid enthusiasm, watch and -study, labour and learn, flinch from no risk in the line of duty, and be -liberal and just to fellow-workers of every grade."</p> - -<p>But shouts of laughter are rising, as presently two or three of the -recruits at the drill appear in a long flowing skirt, and look awkward -enough in their unaccustomed garments as they stride along. They imitate -women for the nonce, and are rescued in a similar manner, the men also -carrying apparently lifeless figures down the ladders of the escapes.</p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i101.jpg" alt="ESCAPE-DRILL" /></div> - -<p class="bold">ESCAPE-DRILL.</p> - -<p>The sheets, however, are used for other purposes of drill. See! A group -of men are opening one out, and carrying it below an open window some -twenty-five feet above the ground.</p> - -<p>There are fourteen or so of these men, and they grip the sheet firmly -all round, and spread it out a little less than breast-high. A man -appears at the window, twenty-five feet or so above. He is about to jump -into the sheet far below.</p> - -<p>At the cry he leaps, or rather drops, down plump into the sheet; and the -force of the fall is so great, that, unless these men were all leaning -well backward, it would drag them toward the ground, and the rescued man -sustain injury. As it is, they are all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> dragged pretty well forward by -the impact of the fall.</p> - -<p>A person jumping like this into a sheet should drop down into it, not -spring, as though intending to cover a great space. And the persons -holding the sheet should lean as far backward as possible. If they -simply held the sheet, standing upright in the ordinary way, no matter -how firm the grip, they would probably all be dragged to the ground in a -heap.</p> - -<p>The jumping-sheet is made of the best strong canvas about 9 feet square, -and strengthened with strips of webbing fastened diagonally across. The -sheet is also bound round at the edges with strong bolt-rope, and is -furnished with about a score of hand-beckets, or loops. If at a fire all -other means of rescue be unavailable, the sheet should be brought into -use. Volunteers, if necessary, should be pressed into the service, and -instructed to stretch out the sheet by the beckets, holding it about two -feet or so from the ground. They should grasp the becket firmly with -both hands, the arms being stretched at full length, their feet planted -well forward, but their heads and bodies thrown as far back as possible. -Even then the volunteers will probably find great difficulty in -maintaining the sheet, and preventing it from dashing on the ground. If -possible, a mattress or pile of straw or some soft object should be -placed on the ground beneath the sheet. The uninitiated have no idea of -the weight of a body suddenly falling or jumping on to the sheet from a -great height, and this occasion is one for the putting forth of all the -strength of body and determination of will of which a man may be -capable.</p> - -<p>But, now the sheet is being folded, and men are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> appearing on the roofs -of the buildings above. A new exercise is beginning. Rescue by rope is -now to be practised, and long threads of rope begin to appear. Imagine -yourself a fireman on the top of a burning house, with smoke and flame -belching out of the windows below, and agonizing screams for help -ringing in your ears. No fire-escape is near, or, if near, not -available; for it sometimes happens that persons cannot be rescued by -ladders, and the staircase is a mass of flames. What would you do?</p> - -<p>It is then that the firemen use the chair-knot, or, speaking popularly, -they try rescue by rope. Every engine carries excellent rope of tanned -manilla, and the fireman carries a rope about his body. Quickly the ends -of the rope are fastened to two points, one on either side of the -window—to a chimney-stack, if possible; then, as sailors know how, by -means of what is called a "tomfool's knot," loops and knots are made in -the rope—one loop to be slung under the arms, and the other to support -the knees, and together forming a sort of chair. Speedily the loops are -adjusted round the person to be rescued, and then he is gradually -lowered to the ground. A guiding-rope has been attached, and thrown to -the men below, and is used by them to steady the person's descent, to -prevent him from bobbing hither and thither, or to draw him out of reach -of the flame and smoke.</p> - -<p>This exercise being over, there is a rattle and a clatter, and into the -yard dashes a horsed fire-escape. The men pounce upon it at once, and in -a trice whip it off its carriage and wheel it to the building. The -present escapes are great improvements on the old forms, and two men can -extend it with ease.</p> - -<p>The first or main ladder of the escape reaches about<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> 24 feet high; and -in the 1897 pattern the 40-feet ladders having one extension. Other -escapes have extending-ladders rising to a height of 50 feet, and even -70 feet, these being in three lengths. But an Act of Parliament now -provides that all buildings above a certain height must have means of -exit attached; this generally takes the form of iron ladders or -stairways outside the building. All parts of an escape are as far as -possible interchangeable, and the ladder-vans are designed to carry any -ladders in the brigade.</p> - -<p>And now the escape-drill is about to commence. The machine is placed -against the building, which we must suppose to be burning. Up runs a -fireman, with hands and feet on the rungs, to the window where the top -of the ladder rests. If the window will not open readily, he may, in -case of real need, smash it with his axe to obtain ready entrance.</p> - -<p>Then, if you watched him closely, you would see he did something which -you would never think of doing. He fastens the end of his rope to the -rung of his ladder, and, with the rest of the rope coiled over his arm, -disappears into the room. The rope easily runs out as he moves, and -affords him a means of speedily finding his way back to the window -through the smoke; a very valuable arrangement it may prove to be, when -the fireman finds an insensible person or a couple of children to -rescue.</p> - -<p>One child he carries in his arm, and the other he throws across his -shoulder, in the recognized brigade manner; and loaded thus, he gropes -his way, guided by his one free hand, along the rope.</p> - -<p>Or there may be more than one adult to save. Then the rescued person is -carried over the shoulder to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> top of the trough, or shoot of -netting, with which some escapes used to be fitted at the back of the -escape-ladder, and is slipped down it feet first to the firemen waiting -below; while the plucky fireman above returns for the next person in -peril.</p> - -<p>The fireman will probably follow the last down the shoot by turning a -somersault and coming down head first; meantime, holding the other's -hands, and regulating the speed of the descent by pressing his knees and -elbows against the sides of the netting. But without the shoot he -descends by the ladder.</p> - -<p>Should the fire occur at a house surrounded by garden-wall, shrubs, or -forecourt, the machine is wheeled as close as possible, and the -extension or additional ladders can be placed at a somewhat different -angle from the first, so as to bridge over the intervening space and -reach the farthest window. The ladders of fire-escapes may also be -useful substitutes for water-towers. A water-tower is a huge pipe, -running up beside the ladder, or tower; and as three or four steamers -play into the base of the huge pipe, the water is forced up it, and the -jet at the top can then be directed anywhere into the burning building.</p> - -<p>"But we don't want any water-towers," exclaimed a fireman; "we can make -one ourselves, if we need one." That is, by using the fire-escape -ladders to obtain points of vantage.</p> - -<p>We soon see this accomplished. With a rush of horses and a whiz of -steam, a fire-engine tears into the yard, the steam raising the -safety-valve at a pressure of a hundred and twenty pounds to the square -inch.</p> - -<p>Off leap the men, as though actually at a fire; each<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> one attends to his -prescribed duty; and ere long you see one of the men hurrying up the -escape-ladder bearing the branch in his hand—<i>i.e.</i>, the heavy nozzle -end of the hose. In a second the engine whistles, there is a spurt of -water, and the fireman directs the jet from the distant head of the -ladder to a tank in the centre of the yard.</p> - -<p>The beckets on the hose, placed at intervals of seventeen and then -twenty feet, over a hundred-feet length, are made of leather; and are -most useful for fastening it to a chimney or any point of vantage by -means of the fireman's rope. The weight of a hundred-feet length when -complete ranges from sixty to sixty-five pounds, and when full of water -much more.</p> - -<p>The hose for the London Brigade is woven seamless, of the best flax; and -the interior india-rubber lining is afterwards introduced, and fastened -by an adhesive solution. Unlined hose is used by some provincial -brigades; and it is contended that the water passing through it keeps it -wet, and therefore not liable to be burned by the great heat of the -conflagration. On the other hand, the leakage is said to be a very -objectionable defect. The internal diameter of the hose is two inches -clear at the couplings, but a little larger within.</p> - -<p>The steam-man is taught to remember the great power he rules; otherwise -he may, by neglecting to give the warning whistle, endanger his -brother-fireman's life by suddenly sending the water rushing through the -hose, or bringing a great strain upon it, when the men controlling it -are not prepared.</p> - -<p>It may appear an easy thing to stand on a ladder or a house-top, and -direct the jet on the fire; but it is not so easy to carry and to guide -the long, heavy, and to some extent sinuous pipe, full of the heavy -water<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> throbbing and gushing through it at such tremendous pressure, -especially when your foothold is none too secure.</p> - -<p>A fireman lost his life one night, when holding the hose on the parapet -of a roof in the Greenwich Road. He overbalanced himself, and fell -crashing, head downward, sixty feet or more below, and met a terrible -death.</p> - -<p>Whether this fearful accident was entirely due to the heavy hose, we -cannot say; but unless hose be laid straight, it is apt to struggle like -a living thing. The reason is obvious. The water rushes through it at -great pressure; and if the hose be not quite straight, the pressure on -the bent part of the hose is so great that it struggles to straighten -itself. Consequently, a fireman turning a stream will probably have to -use a great deal of strength.</p> - -<p>The increase in velocity of the water by the use of a branch and nozzle -is, of course, very great. A branch-pipe is defined by Commander Wells -as "the guiding-pipe from hose to nozzle." Some branches are made of -metal; but leather branches are being substituted for long metal pipes. -Some of these latter measured from 4 to 6 feet long, and were not only -very cumbersome to carry, but often impracticable to use with efficiency -inside buildings.</p> - -<p>Leather branch-pipes are sometimes longer, and are tapered from 2 inches -in diameter to 1½ inch at the nozzle. When, therefore, a stream of -water from two to two and a half inches in diameter, forced along at a -great pressure, and distending the hose to its utmost capacity, is -driven through the narrowing path of the branch-pipe, it spurts out from -the nozzle at a much higher velocity; and it is just this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> narrowing -part of the hose which the fireman has to handle, and whence he directs -the jet.</p> - -<p>Some nozzles are like rose watering-can pipes, and are furnished with a -hundred holes to distribute the water. These nozzles are useful in -interior conflagrations and smoky rooms.</p> - -<p>Yet, all important as is the engine-drill, and invaluable as are the -engines for serious conflagrations, it is interesting to read in the -Brigade Report that in 1897 no fewer than 808 fires were extinguished by -buckets, and 460 by hand-pumps, while 98 were extinguished by engines, -and, as we have said, 466 by hydrants and stand-pipes.</p> - -<p>The brigade bucket carried on the engine holds about 2½ gallons, and -is made of canvas; it is collapsible, cane hoops being used for the top -and bottom rings. Drill is maintained even for bucket and hand-pump; and -the latter appliance is so portable, that the whole of the gear -pertaining to it, including two ten-feet lengths of hose, is carried in -a canvas bag.</p> - -<p>Hand-pumps are often used for chimney fires. Two men usually attend, and -expect to find a bucket in the house. They pour small quantities of -water on the fire in the grate, and allow as large a quantity of steam -as possible to pass up the flue. When the fire in the grate is quenched, -the men use the hand-pump on the fire in the lower part of the chimney, -and then, mounting to the roof, pour water down the chimney.</p> - -<p>As sometimes the ends of wooden joists are built into the flues, an -examination should be made to discover if the lead on the roof or in any -place shows signs of unusual heat, and the joists have caught fire; for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> -outbreaks of fire have been known to occur from this obscure cause. A -comparatively simple but effective means of dealing with a chimney fire -is to block up both ends of the chimney with thoroughly wet mats or -sacks; while one of the easiest methods is to throw common salt on the -fire. The heat decomposes the salt, and sets free chlorine gas—common -salt being chloride of sodium, and chlorine being a gas which very -feebly supports combustion, and tends to choke and dull a fire, if not -to extinguish it entirely.</p> - -<p>And so the drill goes on, with scaling-ladders and long ladders, -hose-carts and horsed escapes, steamers and manual-engines, the object -of the whole being, not alone to perfect the men in their knowledge of -the gear and machines, and skill in using them, but also to develop -quickness of eye, and readiness and firmness of hand. A systematic -routine is followed by fully-qualified instructors, part of the course -being theoretical and part practical; while about the year 1898 a new -syllabus of instruction came into use.</p> - -<p>Among other alterations, it was arranged that a selected officer should -take charge of the recruits' drill for about two years, instead of -engineers appointed at comparatively short intervals. Further, it was -decided to permanently increase the authorized number of recruits, with -the anticipation that never fewer than thirty men will be under -instruction; and to prohibit them, if possible, from being called away -to engage in cleaning or other work, so that their instruction drill -should never be interrupted.</p> - -<p>When the men have passed through a three months' course of instruction, -they should be ready to be drafted into the ranks as fourth-class -firemen. The men in the brigade are divided into four classes; in -addition<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> to which, there are coachmen, and licensed watermen for the -river-craft, also engineers, foremen, and superintendents, the whole -being in charge of a chief officer and a second and third officer.</p> - -<p>First aid to the injured is also included in the instruction of the men; -and the Recruits Instruction-Room and Museum contains a -beautifully-jointed skeleton, kept respectfully in a case, for -anatomical lessons.</p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i110.jpg" alt="RELICS OF THE BRAVE" /></div> - -<p class="bold">RELICS OF THE BRAVE.</p> - -<p>Further, if you search the indispensable boxes on the engines, you will -find among the mattocks and shovels, the saws and spanners and -turncock's tools, a few medical and surgical appliances. Every engine -carries a pint of Carron oil, which is excellent for burns. Carron oil -is so called from the Carron Ironworks, where it has long been used, and -consists of equal parts of linseed oil and limewater; olive oil may be -used, if linseed oil be not procurable. Carron oil may be used on rags -or lint; and triangular and roller bandages are carried with the oil, -also a packet of surgeon's lint and a packet of cotton-wool. Accidents -which are at all serious are, of course, taken as soon as possible to -the hospital. But, alas! some accidents occur which no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> Carron oil can -soothe, or hospital heal; and on that roll of honour in the little room -beside the big engine-shed, and in the blackened bits of clothing and -discoloured, dented helmets in the museum in the instruction-room, you -find ample demonstration that a fireman's life is often full of -considerable risk.</p> - -<p>These are the mute but touching memorials of the men who have died in -the service; to each one belongs some heroic tale. Let us hear a few of -these stories; let us endeavour to make these charred memorials speak, -and tell us something of the brave deeds and thrilling tragedies -connected with their silent but eloquent presence here.</p> - -<p>Listen, then, to some stories of the brigade.</p> - -<hr /> - -<h2><span>CHAPTER XI.</span> <span class="smaller">SOME STORIES OF THE BRIGADE.</span></h2> - -<p>Here are two tarnished and dented helmets of brass. They belonged -respectively to Assistant-Officer Ashford and to Fourth-class Fireman -Berg, who both lost their lives at the same great conflagration.</p> - -<p>About one o'clock in the early morning of December 7th, 1882, the West -London policemen, stepping quietly on their beat about Leicester Square, -discovered that the Alhambra Theatre was on fire.</p> - -<p>A fireman on watch within the building had made the same discovery, and -with his comrade was working to subdue the flames. But they proved too -strong for the men.</p> - -<p>The nearest brigade station was speedily aroused,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> the news telegraphed -to others, and ere long several fire-engines had hurried to the spot. -Quickly they were placed at different points about the building, and -streams of water were thrown on the fire. But in spite of all efforts, -it gained rapidly on the large structure.</p> - -<p>The position was fairly high and central, and the flames and ruddy glow -in the sky were visible in all parts of London; even at that hour -spectators rushed in numbers to the scene and crowded the surrounding -streets. It was with difficulty that the police could prevent them from -forcing themselves into even dangerous situations.</p> - -<p>The heat was intense, and as far off as the other side of the spacious -square it struck unpleasantly to the face. The flames darted high in the -air as if in triumph, and the huge rolling clouds of smoke became -illumined by the brilliant light. Several notable buildings in the -neighbourhood stood out clearly in the vivid glow as though in the -splendour of a gorgeous sunset, while high amid the towering flames -stood the picturesque Oriental minarets of the building as though -determined not to yield.</p> - -<p>The firemen endured a fearful time. Some stood in the windows, -surrounded, it seemed, by sparks of fire. Mounting fire-escapes also, -they poured water from these points of vantage into the burning -building. By half-past one twenty-four steam fire-engines were at work, -and at that time the brigade had only thirty-five effective steamers in -the force. At about two o'clock the minarets and the roof fell in with a -tremendous crash, and still the flames shot upward from the basement.</p> - -<p>Crash now succeeded crash; girders, boxes, galleries,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> all fell in the -general ruin. Moreover, the fire leaped out of the building, and began -to attack other houses at the back. A number of small and crowded -tenements existed here, and the danger of an extended and disastrous -fire became very great. But the efforts of the firemen were happily -successful in preventing its increase to any considerable extent.</p> - -<p>It was while working on an escape-ladder that Berg met with his death. -An escape had been placed against the building next to the front of the -theatre, and he was engaged in directing the jet of water from the -extended or "fly" ladder fifty feet high, when from some cause—probably -the slipperiness of the ladder-rungs—he lost his footing, and crashed -head-foremost to the ground.</p> - -<p>When taken up, he was found to be insensible; and while the fearful -flames were still raging, and his comrades were still at work, he was -conveyed to the Charing Cross Hospital. Among other injuries which he -had received was a fracture of the head; and after lingering a few days, -and lapsing into long fits of unconsciousness, he died.</p> - -<p>Not long after Berg was admitted to the hospital on that fearful night, -another fireman was carried thither from the same place. This sufferer -was Assistant-Officer Ashford, who arrived at the fire in charge of an -engine from Southwark. He was standing behind the stage, when a wall -fell upon him and crushed him to the ground. His comrades hurried to -rescue him, and he was quickly taken to the hospital; but his back was -found to be broken, and he had also sustained serious internal injuries. -After lingering for a few hours in great pain, he died. He had been -thirteen years in the brigade, and was married.</p> - -<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span></p><p>Several other accidents occurred at this great fire. At the same time -that Ashford was stricken down, Engineer Chatterton, who was standing -near him, was stunned, and narrowly escaped with his life. Four other -firemen were also injured, one suffering from burns, one from sprain and -contusions of the legs, one from falling through a skylight and cutting -his hands, and one from slipping from a steam fire-engine on returning -to Rotherhithe and breaking his arm. These incidents show how various -are the heavy risks the firemen run in the course of their work.</p> - -<p>When any member of the brigade dies in the execution of his duty, it has -been customary to accord the body a public funeral, and Ashford's -obsequies proved a very solemn and imposing ceremony. At eleven o'clock -on December 14th, a large crowd assembled in Southwark Bridge Road, and -detachments of officers and men had been drawn from various -fire-stations, until nearly three hundred representatives of the brigade -were present. A large number of policemen also joined the procession. It -had a long way to traverse to Highgate Cemetery, where the burial took -place. The coffin, of polished oak, was carried on a manual-engine, and -covered by a Union Jack, the helmet of the deceased and a beautiful -wreath subscribed for by members of the brigade being placed upon the -flag. Three police bands preceded the coffin, and after it came -mourning-coaches with the relatives of the deceased. Captain Shaw -followed, leading, with Mr. Sexton Simonds, the second officer and the -chairman of the brigade committee of the Board of Works; then came the -large body of firemen with their flashing brass helmets; superintendents -and engineers were also<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> present, and the large contingent of police. -Finally, followed six manual-engines in their vivid scarlet, and -representatives of the salvage corps and of volunteer brigades. The -procession marched slowly and solemnly, the bands playing the Dead March -in "Saul." And thus, with simple yet effective ceremony, the crushed and -broken body was borne through London streets to its last resting-place.</p> - -<p>It may be interesting to trace here the chief particulars of the fire, -to illustrate the working of the brigade. Of the firemen watching on the -premises, one had gone his round, when about one o'clock, on going on -the stage, he saw the balcony ablaze. He aroused Hutchings, another -fireman who slept at the theatre, and the two got a hydrant to work, -there having been several fitted in the building; they also despatched a -messenger to Chandos Street station, which is quite near. The fire -proved too strong for the hydrant to quench it; and when the -manual-engine from the station arrived, a fairly fierce fire was in -progress.</p> - -<p>Meantime, directly the alarm had been received at Chandos Street, it -was, as is customary, sent on to the station of the superintendent of -the district, and thence it was circulated to all the stations in the -district, and also to headquarters. Captain Shaw was soon on the spot, -and directed the operations in person. Of course, such a call as "The -Alhambra Theatre alight!" would cause a number of engines to assemble; -and in truth, they hurried from all points of the district: they came -from Holloway and Islington, from St. Luke's and Holborn. But soon "more -aid" was telegraphed for; and then engines came flying from Westminster -and Brompton, from Kensington and Paddington,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> even from Mile End and -Shadwell in the far east, and from Rotherhithe, Deptford, and Greenwich -across the Thames. In rapid succession, they thundered along the -midnight streets, waking sleepers in their warm beds, and paused not -until the excited horses were pulled up before the furious fire.</p> - -<p>In fact, just within half an hour of the first call at Chandos Street -station, twenty-four steamers were at work on the fire, and throwing -water upon the flames from every possible point. Captain Shaw was -assisted by his lieutenant, Mr. Sexton Simonds, and Superintendents -Gatehouse and Palmer. The contents of the building were so inflammable, -or the fire had obtained such a firm hold, that the enormous quantities -of water thrown upon it appeared to exercise little or no effect. But at -length, when the roof had fallen, the firemen seemed to gain somewhat on -their enemy; and they turned their attention to the dwellings in Castle -Street, and prevented the flames from spreading there. Finally, three -hours after the outbreak, that is, about four in the morning, the fire -was practically suppressed. Several of the surrounding buildings were -damaged by fire and heat, and by smoke and water.</p> - -<p>In the dim wintry dawn, the scene that slowly became revealed presented -a remarkable spectacle. Looking at it from the stage door, the blackened -front wall could be seen still standing, though the windows had gone, -and within yawned a huge pit of ruin. Scorched remains of boxes and -galleries, dressing-rooms and roof, all were here; while huge girders -could be seen twisted and rent and distorted into all manner of curious -shapes, which spoke more eloquently than words of the fearful heat which -had been raging.</p> - -<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p><p>The value of strong iron doors, however, was demonstrated; for the -paint-room had been shut off by these doors from the rest of the -building, and the flames had not entered it.</p> - -<p>But to turn to other relics in the museum. Here lies a terrible little -collection,—a part of a tunic, a belt-buckle, an iron spanner, part of -a blackened helmet, and part of a branch-pipe and nozzle. They are the -memorials of a man who was burnt at his post.</p> - -<p>Early in the afternoon of September 13th, 1889, an alarm was sent to the -Wandsworth High Street fire-station. The upper part of a very high -building in Bell Lane, occupied by Burroughs & Wellcome, manufacturing -chemists, was found to be on fire. The time was then about a -quarter-past two, and very speedily a manual-engine from the High Street -station was on the spot.</p> - -<p>A stand-pipe was at once utilized, and Engineer Howard, with two -third-class firemen, named respectively Jacobs and Ashby, took the hose -up the staircase to reach the flames. Unfortunately, the stairs were at -the other end of the building, and the men had to go back along the -upper floor to arrive at the point where the fire was burning.</p> - -<p>Having placed his two men, Engineer Howard went for further assistance. -Amid suffocating smoke, Jacobs and Ashby stood at their post, turning -the water on the fire; and their efforts appeared likely to be -successful, when suddenly, a great outburst of flame occurred behind -them, cutting off their escape by the staircase.</p> - -<p>It was a terrible position,—fire before and behind, and no escape but -the window!</p> - -<p>Both men rushed to a casement, and cried aloud,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> "Throw up a line!" The -crowd below saw the men tearing at the window-bars and endeavouring to -break them, while the fire rapidly spread towards them.</p> - -<p>Could no help be given? Howard had endeavoured to rejoin the two men, -and, finding this impracticable, turned to obtain external aid. The -ladders on the engine were fixed together, but they fell far short of -the high window. A builder's ladder was added; but even this extension -would not reach the two men caged up high above in such fearful peril.</p> - -<p>A moment or two of dreadful suspense, and then the crowd burst forth -into loud cheers. Ashby was seen to be forcing his way through the iron -bars. He was small in stature, and his size was in his favour. By some -means, perhaps scarcely known to himself, he dropped down to the top of -the ladder and clung there, and finally, though very much burned, he -reached the ground in safety.</p> - -<p>But the other? Alas! his case was far different. It is supposed that the -smoke overcame him, and that he fell on his face; but he was never seen -alive again. Engines rattled up from all parts of London, and quantities -of water were thrown on the flames, but to no effect so far as he was -concerned. When the fire was subdued, and the men hastily made their way -to the upper floor, they found only his charred remains. He had died at -his post, the smoke suffocation, it may be hoped, rendering him -insensible to pain.</p> - -<p>But an even more terrible accident happened to a fireman named Ford, in -October, 1871. His death, after saving six persons, remains one of the -most terrible in the annals of the brigade.</p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i119.jpg" alt="FIREMAN FORD AT THE GRAY'S INN ROAD FIRE" /></div> - -<p class="bold">FIREMAN FORD AT THE GRAY'S INN ROAD FIRE.</p> - -<p>About two in the morning of October 7th, 1871, an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> alarm of fire reached -the Holborn station. The call came from Gray's Inn Road; and Ford, who -had charge of the fire-escape, was soon at the scene of action. He found -a fire raging in the house of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> chemist at No. 98 in the road, and the -inmates were crying for help at the windows.</p> - -<p>Placing the escape against the building, he hurried to a window in one -of the upper floors, and, assisted by a policeman, brought down five of -the inhabitants in safety. Still there was one remaining, and frantic -cries from a woman in a window above led him to rush up the escape once -more. He had taken her from the building, and was conveying her down the -escape, when a burst of flame belched out from the first floor and -kindled the canvas "shoot" of the escape. In a second, both the fireman -and the rescued woman were surrounded by fire.</p> - -<p>Unable to hold her any longer, he dropped her to the ground, where she -alighted without suffering any serious injury. But the fireman became -entangled in the wire netting of the machine, and it held him there in -its cruel grasp, in spite of all his struggles, while the fierce fire -roasted him alive.</p> - -<p>At length, by a desperate effort, he broke the netting, apparently by -straining the rungs of the ladder; but he himself fell to the ground so -heavily, that his helmet was quite doubled up, and its brasswork hurt -his head severely. His clothes were burning as he lay on the pavement; -but, happily, they were soon extinguished, and he was removed, suffering -great agony, to the Royal Free Hospital in the Gray's Inn Road. He -lingered until eight o'clock on the evening of the same day, when he -died.</p> - -<p>He was only about thirty years of age, and had been four years in the -brigade, where he bore a good character. A subscription was raised for -his widow and two children, and his funeral was an imposing and solemn -ceremony. The coffin was borne on a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>fire-engine drawn by four horses to -Abney Park Cemetery, and was followed by detachments of firemen and of -police.</p> - -<p>It is a peculiarly sad feature of this case that, after saving so many -lives, he should himself have succumbed, and that the very machine -intended to save life should have been the cause of his death. At the -inquest the jury added to their verdict the remark that, had the canvas -been non-inflammable (means having been discovered to render fabrics -non-inflammable), and had the machine been covered with wire gauze -instead of the netting, Ford's life might have been saved. Considerable -improvements have been made in fire-escapes since then, and machines of -various patterns are in use in the brigade; but, speaking generally, it -may be said that the shoot, when used, is made of copper netting, which -is, of course, non-inflammable.</p> - -<p>Happily, all the brave deeds of the firemen do not meet with personal -disaster. One brilliant summer afternoon in July, 1897, the Duke and -Duchess of York were present at the annual review of the brigade on -Clapham Common, and the Duchess pinned the silver medal for bravery on -the breast of Third-class Fireman Arthur Whaley, and the good service -medal was given to many members of the brigade. Whaley had saved two -little boys from a burning building, and his silver medal is a -highly-prized and honourable memorial of his gallant deed.</p> - -<p>About one o'clock on the early morning of April 26th, 1897, a passer-by -noticed that a coffee-house in Caledonian Road, North London, was on -fire. Several policemen hurried to the spot; but in three minutes from -the first discovery the place was in flames. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> house was full of -people. Mr. Bray, the occupier, was apparently the first inmate to -notice the fire from within, and the others were soon aroused. The -terrified people appeared at the windows, and, impelled by the cruel -fire, threw themselves one after the other into the street below. They -numbered Mr. and Mrs. Bray and four daughters; all except Mr. Bray -appeared to be injured, and were taken to the hospital. Some one also -threw a child into the street, and he was caught by one of the persons -passing by.</p> - -<p>And now up came the firemen with their escape from Copenhagen Street. -Pitching it against the house, they hurried to the upper windows. From -one of these they brought down a young woman, who was sadly burnt about -the face, and she was sent also to the hospital. Penetrating still -farther amid the smoke and flame, Arthur Whaley groped about, and found -two lads asleep, and, bearing them out, saved their lives by means of -the escape.</p> - -<p>The fire did considerable damage before it was finally extinguished; but -when the stand-pipes were got fully to work, the flames were quickly -subdued. One of the daughters died from severe burns soon after her -admission to the hospital, and it was afterwards found that a girl of -fifteen had been unhappily suffocated in bed. But for the bravery of -Whaley, the two little boys might have suffered the same sad fate.</p> - -<p>These true stories of work in the brigade show how various are the -perilous risks to which firemen are liable. Danger, indeed, meets them -at every turn, and in almost every guise. To cope with these risks -requires instant readiness of resource as well as knowledge and skill. -In times when seconds count<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> as hours, it is not enough to know what to -do, but how to do it with the utmost smartness and efficiency.</p> - -<p>Improved appliances will greatly assist the men; and Commander Wells's -horsed escape fully justified expectations soon after its introduction. -It can be hurried through the streets at twelve miles an hour, and the -wonder is that the brigade used the old hand-driven machine with its -slow pace so long. In December, 1898, a horsed escape reached a fire in -Goswell Road in a minute from the alarm signalling in St. John's Square -fire-station, and saved three lives,—an instance of very smart work -that might establish a record, except that great smartness is everywhere -the characteristic of the brigade.</p> - -<p>Let us, then, look at the story of the fire-escape a little more -closely, and also at some of the new improved appliances, such as the -new fire-engine floats and the river-service.</p> - -<hr /> - -<h2><span>CHAPTER XII.</span> <span class="smaller">FIRE-ESCAPES AND FIRE-FLOATS.</span></h2> - -<p>"Very smart indeed."</p> - -<p>The speaker was watching a light van, which had just been whirled into a -yard. Light ladders projected horizontally in front of the van, and -large wheels hung behind, a few inches above-ground. The machine was -glowing in brilliant red paint.</p> - -<p>Off jump five men in shining brass helmets.</p> - -<p>"Stand by to slip!" cries one of the men, who is known as No. 1.</p> - -<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span></p><p>Thereupon, another man casts off some fastenings at the head of the -van, and controls the ladders until the large wheels touch the roadway; -another man eases away certain tackle; and yet another, as by a magical -touch, brings the ladder to an upright position directly the big red -wheels come in contact with the ground, No. 2 man assisting him.</p> - -<p>The whole operation is performed with great smartness, and the -escape—for the machine is one of Commander Wells's new horsed -escapes—is whipped off its van and reared against the house in the -proverbial twinkling of an eye.</p> - -<p>Such a scene may be witnessed any afternoon at the London Fire-Brigade -Headquarters, when the horse-escape drill is being practised; and the -superiority of the new machine over the old seems so obvious, that you -exclaim: "I wonder it has not been done before!"</p> - -<p>The men's positions are all assigned to them. The "crew," as it is -called, consists of four firemen and a coachman. When hurrying to a -fire, No. 1 takes his place on the near side in front, No. 2 is at the -brake on the off side, No. 3 at the brake on the near side, while No. 4 -takes his seat on the off side.</p> - -<p>Arrived at the scene of the fire, each man springs to his appointed -duty. When the escape is quite clear, No. 1 goes to the fire, No. 3 is -seen busy with the gear, and the coachman is occupied with his horses. -He removes them from the van if necessary, and is ready to ride with a -message if required to do so.</p> - -<p>Moreover, the van carries five hundred feet of hose, and all the -necessary gear for using a hydrant at once; so that water can be thrown -on a fire directly, even without the arrival of an engine.</p> - -<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></p><p>Life-saving is, however, the special use of the escape itself; and -looking at it superficially, you will say that the ladder of this -machine is not nearly long enough to reach the upper windows of a high -house.</p> - -<p>But if you watch the men at work, you will see that the ladder can be -cleverly and quickly extended to a much greater height.</p> - -<p>You will observe that the escape is made on the telescopic principle, -and on a sliding carriage; and though when not extended it only measures -about 24 feet over all,—as when riding on the van,—yet when the -extending gear is set to work, it can be made to reach a height of 50 -feet, or more than double its usual length.</p> - -<p>This gear for extending the ladder is fitted to the levers on each side, -and is easily worked by two men. The 50-feet escapes are in three -lengths, the middle ladder being worked by two separate wires, and the -top ladder by one wire.</p> - -<p>The van carrying the escape is specially built for the purpose; and, as -we have seen, the machine can be instantaneously detached, the van being -thus free for other uses if necessary.</p> - -<p>Not long after his appointment as chief officer in November, 1896, -Commander Wells submitted plans which he had designed for new escapes 40 -and 50 feet in length, and ladders 70 feet in length. The 40-feet escape -was in two lengths, and the others in three lengths; and all of them -were designed to be carried on a van of new pattern.</p> - -<p>The County Council authorized the chief officer to obtain patents for -his invention, and also ordered experimental machines to be made. These -proving satisfactory, it was determined to use them; and a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> considerable -number were ordered, the horsed escape being introduced into the brigade -in July, 1897. The appliance is lighter than those hitherto in use, and -can be manipulated by fewer men with even greater ease.</p> - -<p>It has no shoot, or trough, down which a rescued person can be slipped; -and bearing in mind that this operation may prove hazardous, unless the -person have sufficient presence of mind to raise and press his arms -against either side of the shoot so as to break his fall, there is no -reason to regret its absence.</p> - -<p>Further, the machine will now be able to reach the scene of action so -speedily, and is so amply manned, that the firemen should be able to -effect a rescue without the need of a shoot. At the same time, it must -be borne in mind that instruction for various patterns of fire-escapes -is given at headquarters, and the shoot may be seen in use on some -machines there.</p> - -<p>The new horsed escape follows a series of life-saving appliances, -extending over many years. Ladders of various kinds, of course, form an -important feature; but the necessity of some arrangement whereby the -height of the ladders could be rapidly and efficiently extended would, -no doubt, stimulate invention; and various contrivances were devised for -this purpose. Further, the need for conveying the machine rapidly to the -fire would lead to the ladders being placed on wheels.</p> - -<p>Without specifying the various kinds of portable ladders in use, it may -be stated that the Metropolitan Brigade came to use one, consisting of a -main ladder varying from 32 to 36 feet high, and furnished with a canvas -trough along its length. It was doubtless a machine of this sort which -was in use when Fireman Ford lost his life at the Gray's Inn Road fire -in 1871.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> A second ladder, jointed to the first, extended the height 15 -feet; while other ladders in some escapes raised the height to 60 and in -some cases to 70 feet.</p> - -<p>The escape in general use by the brigade in 1889 consisted of a main -ladder, having the sides strengthened by patent wire-rope, and finished -at the back with a shoot or a trough of uninflammable copper-wire -netting. A fly-ladder lay along the main ladder, to which it was -jointed, and was raised, when needed, by levers and ropes. A third -ladder, known as the "first floor," which could be jointed to the -fly-ladder, was placed under the main ladder; while a fourth could be -added, bringing the height up to 60 feet. The fly-ladder could also be -instantly detached for separate use if required.</p> - -<p>The carriage on which this arrangement of ladders was mounted was -comparatively light, and was fitted with springs and high wheels, and -two men could move it anywhere.</p> - -<p>As we have said, drill for various descriptions of escapes is practised -at headquarters; but the general instructions are that, when running the -machine, two men are to be "on the levers," to prevent accident.</p> - -<p>There used to be a society to organize the use of fire-escapes. It was -called the Royal Society for the Protection of Life from Fire, and was -first established in 1836. About seven years later its object was more -fully attained, when it was reorganized, and had six escape-stations in -the metropolis. In 1866, it possessed no fewer than eighty-five -stations, while many lives had been saved, and numerous fires had been -attended.</p> - -<p>But next year, a municipal fire-brigade having been established, the -society handed over its works, and practically made a present of all its -plant to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> Metropolitan Board of Works, the Fire-Brigade Act having -been passed in 1865. And so once more municipal organization took up and -developed what voluntary effort had begun.</p> - -<p>Various devices have also been employed to afford escape from the -interior of the building. Perhaps the simplest, and yet one of the most -effectual, consists of a rope ladder fastened permanently to the -window-sill, and rolled up near it; or a single cord may be used, -knotted at points about a foot apart all along its length. Like the rope -ladder, the cord may be permanently fastened to the window-sill, and -coiled up under the toilet-table, or in any place where it may be out of -the way, and yet convenient to hand.</p> - -<p>Persons may be lowered by this rope, by fastening them at the end—as, -for instance, by tying it under their arms, or placing them in a sack -and fastening the rope to it—and then allowing the rope to gradually -slip through the hands of the person lowering them. Better still, the -rope should be bent round the corner of the window-sill, or round the -corner of a bed-post, when the friction on the hands will not be so -great, and the gradual descent will be safe-guarded.</p> - -<p>In descending alone, a person will find the knots of great assistance in -preventing him from slipping down too fast; and he may increase the -safety of his descent by placing his feet on the wall as he moves his -grip, one hand after the other, on the rope; this arrangement prevents -the friction on the hands, which hurried sliding might cause, with its -attendant danger of falling.</p> - -<p>Permanent fire-escapes are provided in large buildings by means of iron -ladders or staircases at the back or sides of the structure, with -balconies at each<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> story; while poles having baskets attached, ropes -with weights so that they may be thrown into windows, and various -contrivances and combinations of ladders, baskets, nets and ropes, etc., -have all been recommended or brought into use during a long course of -years. They are designed to afford escape, either from within, or from -without, the burning building; several, however, being for private -installation.</p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i129.jpg" alt="STERN OF YARROW'S FIRE-LAUNCH" /></div> - -<p class="bold">STERN OF YARROW'S FIRE-LAUNCH.</p> - -<p>Returning, then, to the public improvements in fire extinction, a new -and remarkable floating fire-engine was designed about the year 1898, by -Messrs. Yarrow & Co. of Poplar, in conjunction with Commander Wells, -chief of the London Brigade. It was intended for use in very shallow -water.</p> - -<p>The plan was cleverly based on the lines of the <i>Heron</i> type of -shallow-draught gunboats constructed for use on tropical rivers. Six of -these vessels were built by Messrs. Yarrow for the Admiralty, and two -went to the Niger and four to China. The new fire-float design provided -for twin-screw propellers fitted in raised pipes, or inverted tunnels, -to ensure very light draught combined with high speed, and the -consequent power of manœuvring quickly quite near to the shore.</p> - -<p>The difficulty of working fire-floats close to the shore in all states -of the tide had long troubled the London Brigade, and rendered the best -type of vessel for this purpose a matter of much concern. Originally,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> -vessels of comparatively large size were used, containing machinery both -for throwing water and for propelling the boat. These vessels, however, -were costly to maintain, and could not be effectively used at all states -of the tide. Captain Shaw, therefore, separated the fire-engine from the -propelling power, using tug-boats which would float in a few feet of -water to haul along fire-engine rafts, which could be used quite near to -the scene of the fire.</p> - -<p>The last of the large vessels disappeared from the brigade in 1890, and -the river-service consisted of tugs and floats, the fire-engines or -rafts being familiarly called by the latter name. This system, however, -did not prove satisfactory; for, as the chief engineer pointed out, just -before the appointment of Commander Wells, tugs being necessary to haul -the floats, double the number of river-craft were employed, and there -was a consequent increase in cost of maintenance. He suggested that both -the propelling and the fire-engine machinery should be united on one -vessel, but that it should be of light draught.</p> - -<p>The new chief officer was consulted. Now, Commander Wells, who was then -thirty-seven years of age, had enjoyed a long experience in the navy; -and, moreover, had been used to torpedo-boats, which of course are -comparatively light craft. Entering the Service in 1873, he was second -in command of a torpedo-boat destroyer in the Egyptian campaign of 1882, -and for three years was second in command of the Torpedo School at -Devonport. At the time of his election to the chief officer's post of -the London Fire-Brigade, he was senior officer of a torpedo-boat -squadron. He had also been second in command of two battleships, and had -partly organized the London Naval Exhibition<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> of 1891. He was, -therefore, likely to be thoroughly conversant with all the latest types -of light-draught navy vessels.</p> - -<p>He pointed out the great disparity existing between the brigade's tugs, -which required nine feet of water, and the fire-engine floats, which -needed only about two feet; and he prepared a rough plan of a craft on -the model of shallow-draught gunboats. The chief engineer approving the -plan, a design was prepared by Messrs. Yarrow & Co., in conjunction with -Commander Wells.</p> - -<p>This design, or one similar to it, is probably destined to revolutionize -river fire-engine service. The class of material used would be the same -as that employed for building light-draught vessels for her Majesty's -Government; and the method of raising the steam would be, of course, by -Yarrow's water tube-boilers, having straight tubes, and raising steam -from cold water in fifteen minutes.</p> - -<p>The design shows a vessel about 100 feet long by 18 feet beam, and the -draught only about 1 foot 7 inches—<i>i.e.</i>, five inches less than the -previous floats, though containing its own propelling power. The -engines, twin-screw and compound, would develop about 180 horse-power, -and the speed range from nine to ten knots an hour, while no doubt much -higher speed could be obtained if desired.</p> - -<p>But the main feature is the ingenious use of the propellers. How can -they work in such shallow water?</p> - -<p>Briefly, the propellers operate in the two inverted tunnels, the upper -parts of which are considerably above the water-line. When the -propellers commence to work, the air is expelled from the tunnels, and -is immediately replaced by water. Thus, a large<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> propeller can be fully -immersed, while the vessel itself is only floating in half or may be a -third of the amount of water in which the propeller is actually working. -The design thus combines maximum speed with minimum draught. Sooner or -latter, it seems likely that some such system must be adopted for -fire-floats used in protecting water-side premises; and so far the -design promises to inaugurate a new era.</p> - -<p>The boilers in the design also operate the fire-engine pumps, which -would probably consist of four powerful duplex "Worthingtons," each -throwing five hundred gallons a minute. They discharge into a pipe -connected with a large air-vessel, whence a series of branches issue -with valves connected with fire-hose.</p> - -<p>But at the top of the large air-vessel stands a water-tower ladder, the -two sides consisting of water-pipes. At the heads of the pipes are -fitted two-inch nozzles, the direction of which can be varied by moving -the water-ladders from the deck. Branch-pipes can also be led underneath -the deck to either side of the vessel. Suitable accommodation is -provided for the crew, and ample deck space is available for working the -craft. She seems likely to give a good account of herself at any -water-side fire to which she might be called.</p> - -<p>Concurrently with this new design, arrangements were made to alter the -London river-stations, and to some extent remodel the river -organization. Previously, there had been five river-stations; but -usually between fifteen and twenty minutes elapsed after a fire-alarm -was received before a tug got under way with its raft or float. This -delay was partly owing to the fact that the men lived at some distance, -and also that a full head of steam was not kept on the tugs.</p> - -<p>The chief officer advised that the staff and appliances<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> of the A and B -stations, and also of the C and D stations, should be amalgamated, and -thus a crew could be always on board and ready to proceed to a fire at a -moment's notice. There would be four river-stations—<i>viz.</i>, at -Battersea, Blackfriars, Rotherhithe, and Deptford—from any of which a -crew with appliances could steam at once. The value of the new -arrangement is obvious. Moreover, the staff of the Blackfriars post are -lodged in the large new fire-engine station at Whitefriars, opened July -21st, 1897, and which is not far from the north of Blackfriars Bridge.</p> - -<p>As, therefore, the nineteenth century closes, we see the London Brigade, -which has formed the model of so many others in the kingdom, straining -every nerve, not only to maintain its high reputation, but to develop -and to improve its elaborate organization and its numerous appliances -for coping with its terrible enemy.</p> - -<p>But, in the meantime, invention has been busy in other directions. Fire -is so terrible a calamity, and its risks so great, that ingenuity has -been taxed to the utmost to master it in every way; and not only to -extinguish it, but to prevent it from occurring at all. Of a fire, -indeed, it may be said that prevention is better than cure.</p> - -<p>What think you of muslin that will not flame, of ceilings that will pour -forth water by themselves, of glass bottles that break and choke the -fire? What think you of chemical fire-engines, some so small as to be -easily carried on a man's back? or of curtains and screens and fabrics -that stubbornly refuse to yield?</p> - -<p>All kinds of contrivances, in short, have been cleverly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> designed. Let -us now see some in operation. Have you ever seen a fire choked in a -minute? and how is it done?</p> - -<hr /> - -<h2><span>CHAPTER XIII.</span> <span class="smaller">CHEMICAL FIRE-ENGINES. FIRE-PROOFING, OR MUSLIN THAT WILL NOT FLAME.</span></h2> - -<p>Which structure will be first extinguished?</p> - -<p>Imagine yourself gazing at two wooden sheds, both quite filled with -combustible materials, and drenched with petroleum and tar. These are to -be fired, and then one is to be extinguished by water, and the other by -an extinctor, or chemical fire-engine.</p> - -<p>"Ready!"</p> - -<p>At the word, the torch is applied, and the first shed bursts into -flames. It soon blazes furiously. A man steps forward, armed with a -hand-pump, such as is used by the Metropolitan Fire-Brigade, and turns a -jet of water upon it.</p> - -<p>Hiss! squish! A cloud of steam rises as the water dashes upon the fire, -and still the stream pours on. Now the fireman pauses to refill his pump -with water, and then again the jet plays on the burning pile.</p> - -<p>The fire dims down to a dull red, the flames cease to shoot upward and -outward, and after about five minutes the conflagration is extinguished. -Bravo! A very smart piece of work!</p> - -<p>But now the second shed is lighted, and blazes fast. Another man hurries -forward. He has a steel cylinder slung on his back, and in a second, -without any pumping, he directs a jet of fluid upon the fire. The -flames<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> die down, the red gives place to blackness, and, in about half -the time taken by the other method, the extinctor has completely -quenched the fire. How is it done?</p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i135.jpg" alt="CHEMICAL EXTINCTOR. SECTION OF CHEMICAL FIRE-ENGINE" /></div> - -<p class="bold"><span class="s3"> </span>CHEMICAL EXTINCTOR.<span class="s3"> </span>SECTION OF CHEMICAL FIRE-ENGINE.</p> - -<p>Within the steel cylinder is suspended a bottle charged with a powerful -acid, probably sulphuric acid—but the secrets of patents must not be -revealed. The bottle can be instantaneously broken by a lever or weight, -and the acid is precipitated into the cylinder, which is filled with an -alkaline fluid—perhaps a solution of carbonate of soda. The mixture of -these fluids rapidly produces large quantities of carbonic acid gas, -which is a great enemy to fire. Moreover, water absorbs the gas easily; -and when generated in the cylinder, the expansion of the gas causes a -propelling power, varying from seventy to a hundred pounds per<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> square -inch. Consequently, a jet of water propelled by the gas shoots out a -distance varying from thirty to fifty feet; and when it reaches the -fire, the heat evaporates the water, and liberates the gas held in -solution, which chokes the fire.</p> - -<p>This is the general principle of most chemical fire-engines. There are -several varieties; but they are, no doubt, chiefly based on the rapid -evolution of carbonic acid gas. If you find the principle difficult to -understand, imagine a soda-water bottle bursting, or the contents -spurting forth if the cork be suddenly removed, and you will not be so -surprised at the stream jetting forth from an extinctor. Soda-water is, -of course, aërated by being charged with carbonic acid gas.</p> - -<p>These chemical extinctors are of all sizes; they range from small -bottles upward, to large double-tank machines, and drawn by horses. The -small bottles contain the necessary materials, so arranged that, when -the bottle is thrown down, the gas is generated and the fire choked. -Both Germany and the United States make large use of chemical -fire-engines, some of which are capable of giving a pressure of a -hundred and forty pounds, and perhaps more, to the square inch.</p> - -<p>Cases filled with sulphur, saltpetre, and other chemicals are sometimes -used, which, being ignited, send forth a choking vapour, stifling all -fire in a confined space; again, other contrivances discharge ammoniacal -gases and hydrochloric acid.</p> - -<p>Extinctors, or fire-annihilators, have been invented or introduced by -several persons. Mr. T. Phillips was responsible for one in 1849, which -generated steam and carbonic acid. Two or three persons seem to have had -a hand in an apparatus developed by Mr. W. B. Dick about twenty years -later, and patented<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> April, 1869. This consisted of an iron cylinder -furnished with tartaric acid, bicarbonate of soda and water, and -generating the carbonic acid gas. The first inventor of this appliance -was a Dr. Carlier, who suggested it, or something like it, a few years -previously.</p> - -<p>About the same time, Mr. James Sinclair introduced his chemical -appliance, the firm now being the Harden Star, Lewis, & Sinclair -Company. British fire-brigades would not touch the extinctors; but the -Americans seized upon them rapidly, and manufactured them largely. At -the present time, it is said that there is scarcely a fire-brigade in -the States that does not use a chemical fire-engine in some shape or -form.</p> - -<p>In Britain, the extinctor, either as the hand-grenade bottle or portable -cylinder, which latter contains about eight gallons, is largely used by -private persons, and is kept in many large establishments. Several -provincial fire-brigades have also adopted the appliances in some form -or other; but, as a rule, the chemical fire-engine has not been used by -the public fire-brigades of the country. Perhaps one reason is, that it -is regarded as more suitable for private use, and not as superior to the -powerful steam-engines, hydrants, etc., operated so efficiently by -trained firemen.</p> - -<p>It will be seen that the claims for chemical fire-engines are twofold in -character: first, that they themselves supply propelling power for the -fluid without pumps—a great consideration for private persons; and, -secondly, that the liquid thrown has far greater fire-quenching powers -than water.</p> - -<p>To the first of these claims, it is possible that fire-brigades, with -their numerous hydrants and powerful steam-engines, would pay but little -regard; while as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> to the second claim, only accomplished chemists and -impartially-minded persons of wide and varied experience can form a -fully-reliable opinion.</p> - -<p>At the time of the great Cripplegate fire in London, November, 1897, -Americans were very keen in their criticism, much of which was unjust -and inaccurate; but one of their points was the absence of chemical -appliances in the London Brigade.</p> - -<p>It is, however, fairly open to argument whether the use of such -apparatus would have mended matters. Even Americans have by no means -abolished the steam fire-engine; and they have sometimes found that the -fire has obtained so firm a hold, that the best they could do was to -prevent the flames from spreading. When quantities of inflammable -substances are crowded in high and comparatively frail buildings in -narrow thoroughfares, you have all the elements of serious fires; and -when once fairly started, it remains to be proved whether a -gas-propelled and gas-laden stream would be more efficient than powerful -and copious jets of water.</p> - -<p>The difficulty would appear to be rather that of directly and quickly -reaching the seat of the fire, than of the more or less fire-quenching -properties of rival fluids. From the evidence of Mr. John F. Dane at the -Cripplegate Fire Enquiry, we may gain some idea why the brigade dislike -the chemical fire-engine. He had been twenty-eight years in the -brigade—though he had then left the service, and was a consulting fire -engineer—but at one fire, where he had found a dense smoke, an hour was -occupied in tracing the fire to its source, it being worked upon by -hand-buckets. Had he used a chemical fire-engine, it would, no doubt, -have been played into the dense<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> smoke, and damaged a thousand pounds' -worth of goods, while, after having exhausted the charge, they would not -have found the fire subdued. Chemical fire-engines could not be trusted -to discharge where wanted.</p> - -<p>Many modern structures at the Cripplegate fire were comparatively frail. -Iron girders and stone were, no doubt, largely used, and you would -naturally think that iron would be fireproof; but, as a matter of fact, -iron may be worse than wood. That is, cast-iron is very liable to split, -if suddenly heated or cooled; and a jet of water playing on a hot -cast-iron girder would most likely cause it to collapse at once, and -bring down everything it supported in a terrible ruin.</p> - -<p>The truth is, therefore, that light iron and stone structures are not -nearly so fireproof as they might appear. The difficulty of building -fireproof structures has not yet been fully solved, though many -suggestions to that end have been made. Wood soaked in a strong solution -of tungstate or silicate of soda is rendered uninflammable and nearly -incombustible. Silicate of soda is, perhaps, the best. It fuses in the -heat, and forms a glaze over the wood, preventing the oxygen in the air -from reaching it. But intense heat will overcome it. Whichcord's plan of -fire-proofing encases metal girders in blocks of fire-clay; other -systems make great use of concrete. Walls, of course, should be built of -brick or stone; while double iron doors are of great value, as in the -case of the warehouses burning at the docks on January 1st, 1866.</p> - -<p>At the enquiry into the Cripplegate fire of 1897, Mr. Hatchett Smith, -F.R.I.B.A., declared that the well-holes or lighting-areas in the -warehouses involved, were a source of danger as constructed, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> he -recommended that such lighting-areas should be confined by party walls, -and sealed with rolled plate-glass or pavement-lights. Windows facing -the street should be glazed with double sashes, and external walls -should be built with a hollow space of about two inches between them and -their plastering, with an automatic water-sprinkler at the top of the -hollow space. Such a plan of construction would, he contended, confine -the fire to the apartment in which it originated, though it would not -extinguish the fire in that room. The flooring Mr. Smith seemed to take -for granted would be of concrete and fireproof.</p> - -<p>Among other fire precautions, the introduction of the electric light in -place of gas may operate as a valuable precautionary measure, especially -in theatres and public places; while a strong iron curtain, to be -quickly dropped down between the stage and the auditorium, is also a -most valuable precaution.</p> - -<p>But all such measures may be largely neutralized by the inflammable -contents of the buildings. Some manufactures are remarkably dangerous in -this respect, and the extensive storage of certain goods renders even -spontaneous combustion probable. Thus, if a well-built fireproof -structure contain large quantities of combustible materials, and these -burn furiously, the heat evolved may be so great as to conquer almost -everything in the building. Indeed, the heat in huge fires is sufficient -to melt iron.</p> - -<p>Nevertheless, the liability to fire and its destructiveness is much -decreased by wise precautionary measures in building, the idea -underlying them being that walls, floorings, doors, or what not should -be so made as to localize the fire to the apartment in which it -originated.</p> - -<p>As with buildings, so with clothing. Here is a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> piece of muslin. Light -it: it will not flame; it slowly smoulders. But even as the problem of -building completely fireproof structures has not been solved, so also -the question of fireproof fabrics has not been completely answered.</p> - -<p>Progress, however, has been made in that direction. Methods have been -adopted whereby the flaming of fabrics can be prevented, and their -burning reduced to smouldering.</p> - -<p>A solution of tungstate of soda is, perhaps, one of the best chemicals -to use for this purpose, for it is believed not to injure the fibre; but -for articles of clothing, borax is better suited, as it does not injure -the appearance of the clothes, and it is very effectual in its -operation, though it weakens the fibre. Alum, common salt, and sulphate -of soda will also diminish or entirely prevent flaming; but they tend to -weaken the fibre.</p> - -<p>A simple experiment illustrates the principle. Any boy who has made -fireworks, or dabbled in chemistry, knows that paper—one of the most -inflammable of substances—after being soaked in a solution of -saltpetre, will not flame, but smoulders quickly at the touch of fire; -hence the name touch-paper, which is used to ignite fireworks.</p> - -<p>Some of these salts, then, prevent the fabric from flaming, and also -reduce the burning to slow smouldering, the explanation being apparently -this,—when the fabric is dipped in solutions of certain salts, tiny -crystals are deposited among the fibres on drying, and the -inflammability is diminished; but the effect of the salt upon the fabric -has to be considered, and some, such as sulphate of ammonia, will -decompose when the goods are ironed with a hot iron.</p> - -<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p><p>This necessary operation of the laundry, however, does not affect -tungstate of soda; and all the dresses of a household could be rendered -non-inflammable and largely incombustible by dipping them in a solution -of this salt. The proportions would be about one pound of the tungstate -to a couple of gallons of water. For starched goods, the best way to use -the tungstate would be to add one part of it to three parts of the -starch, and use the compound in the ordinary manner.</p> - -<p>Various methods have been adopted for fire-proofing wood, the strong -solution of silicate of soda being one of the best. Asbestos paint is -also useful, if it does not peel off, a little trick to which it seems -addicted. By another method, the wood is soaked for three hours in a -mixture of alum, sulphate of zinc, potash, and manganic oxide, with -water and a small quantity of sulphuric acid. But while the -inflammability of wood may be removed, it is questionable if it can be -rendered entirely incombustible. In short, the problem of absolutely -preventing fires by rendering substances perfectly fireproof has yet to -be solved, if, indeed, it is capable of solution.</p> - -<p>But if fire cannot be entirely prevented, could not some method be -devised of automatically quenching the flames directly they break forth?</p> - -<p>Such a method would appear like the prerogative of the good genii of a -fairy fable, and beyond the reach of ordinary mortals. But science and -human ingenuity which tell so many true "fairy tales" have made some -approach to this also. The device is known popularly as "sprinklers," -and is contrived somewhat in this way:—</p> - -<p>Lines of water-pipes are conducted along the ceilings of the building, -and are connected with the water<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> supply through a large tank on the -roof. To these pipes, the sprinklers are attached at distances of about -ten feet. They are, in some cases, jointed with a soft metal, which -melts at a temperature of about 160 degrees; the valve then falls, and -the water is sprayed forth into the apartment.</p> - -<p>Other sprinklers are said to act by a thread, which, it is claimed, will -burn when the heat reaches a certain temperature and release the water. -The essential idea, therefore, is that the heat of the fire shall -automatically set free the water to quench it. Such great importance is -attached to the use of sprinklers by some insurance-offices, that they -offer a large reduction of premiums to those employing them. Again, -other sprinklers are not automatic, but require to be set in operation -by hand.</p> - -<p>Nevertheless, in spite of all these varied precautions, it is -unfortunately a platitude to say that fires do occur; but the point to -be noted is, that but for these efforts, they would probably be greater -in number and more destructive in their results.</p> - -<p>Even when the flames are raging in fury, much may be done by courageous -and well-trained men to preserve goods from injury; and, indeed, much is -done by a body of men whose work is perhaps too little known. They pluck -goods, as it were, out of the very jaws of the fire, and often while the -flames are burning above them. Would you like to know them, and see them -at work?</p> - -<p>Behold, then, the black helmets and the scarlet cars of the London -Salvage Corps.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span></p> - -<h2><span>CHAPTER XIV.</span> <span class="smaller">THE WORK OF THE LONDON SALVAGE CORPS. THE GREAT CRIPPLEGATE FIRE.</span></h2> - -<p>"Where is the fire?"</p> - -<p>"City, sir; warehouses well alight."</p> - -<p>"Off, and away!"</p> - -<p>The horses are harnessed to the scarlet car as quickly as though it were -a fire-engine; the crew of ten men seize their helmets and axes from the -wall beside the car, and mount to their places with their officers; the -coachman shakes the reins; and away dashes the salvage-corps trap to the -scene of action.</p> - -<p>The wheels are broad and strong; they do not skid or stick at trifles; -the massy steel chains of the harness shine and glitter with burnishing, -and might do credit to the Horse Artillery; the stout leather helmets -and sturdy little hand-axes of the men look as fit for service as hand -and mind can make them. Everything was in its right place; everything -was ready for action; and at the word of command the men were on the -spot, and fully equipped in a twinkling.</p> - -<p>The call came from the fire-brigade. The brigade pass on all their calls -to the salvage corps, and the chiefs of the corps have to use their -discretion as to the force they shall send. The public do not as a rule -summon the salvage corps. The public summon the fire-brigade, and away -rush men and appliances to extinguish the flames and to save life. The -primary duty of the salvage corps is to save goods. There is telephonic -connection between the brigade and the corps, and the two bodies work -together with the utmost cordiality.</p> - -<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span></p><p>We will suppose the present call has come from a big City fire. The -chief has to decide at once upon his mode of action. No two fires are -exactly alike, and saving goods from the flames is something like -warfare with savages—you never know what is likely to happen; so he has -to take in the circumstances of the case at a glance, and shape his -course accordingly. Should the occasion require a stronger force, he -sends back a message by the coachman of the car; and in his evidence -concerning the great Cripplegate fire, Major Charles J. Fox, the chief -officer of the salvage corps, stated that he had seventy men at work at -that memorable conflagration.</p> - -<p>But see, here is the fire! Streams of water are being poured on to the -flames, and the policemen have hard work to keep back the excited crowd. -They give way for the scarlet car, and the salvage men have arrived at -the scene of action. Entrance may have to be forced to parts of the -burning building, and doors and windows broken open for this purpose.</p> - -<p>Crash! crash! The axes are at work. And a minute more the men step -within amid the smoke. The firemen may be at work on another floor, and -the water to quench the fire may be pouring downstairs in a stream. The -noises are often extraordinary. There is not only the rush and roar of -the flames, the splashing and gurgling of the water, but the falling of -goods, furniture, and may be even parts of the structure itself.</p> - -<p>Walls, girders, ceilings may fall, ruins clatter about your ears, clouds -of smoke suffocate you, tongues of flame scorch your face; but if you -are a salvage man, in and out of the building you go, while with your -brave brethren of the corps you spread out the strong rubber tarpaulins -you have brought with you in your trap,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> and cover up such goods as you -find, to preserve them from damage. Under these stout coverlets, heaps -of commodities may lie quite safe from injury from water and smoke.</p> - -<p>Overhead you still hear terrible noises. Safes and tanks tumble and -clatter with dreadful din; part of the structure itself, or some heavy -piece of furniture, falls to the ground; dense volumes of water poured -into the windows rain through on to your devoted head. But you stick to -your post, preserving such goods as you can in the manner that the chief -may direct. May be you have to assist in conveying goods out of reach of -the hungry fire, and your training has taught you how to handle -efficiently certain classes of goods. Sometimes quantities of water -collect in the basement, doing much damage; and down there, splash, -splash, you go, to open drains, or find some means of setting the water -free.</p> - -<p>On occasion, the men of the salvage corps find themselves in desperate -straits. At the Cripplegate fire, one of the corps discovered the -staircase in flames, and his retreat quite cut off. With praiseworthy -promptitude, he knotted some ladies' mantles together into a rope, and -by this means escaped from a second-story window to the road below.</p> - -<p>On another occasion, Major Fox himself, the chief of the corps, was -rather badly hurt on the hip, when making his way about a burning -building at a fire in the Borough. The probability of accident is only -too great, and it was no child's play in training or in practice which -enabled the corps to attain such proficiency as to carry off a handsome -silver challenge cup at an International Fire Tournament at the -Agricultural Hall in the summer of 1895.</p> - -<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span></p><p>The duties of the salvage corps do not end even when the fire is -extinguished. They remain in possession of the premises until the -fire-insurance claims are satisfactorily arranged. They do not, however, -know which office is paying the particular claims, and all offices unite -in supporting the corps. It is, in fact, their own institution, though -established under Act of Parliament; and it is not, therefore, like the -London Fire-Brigade, a municipal service.</p> - -<p>When the brigade was handed over to the Metropolitan Board of Works by -the Act of 1865, provision was made for the establishment of a salvage -corps, to be supported by the Fire-Insurance Companies, and to -co-operate with the brigade. The corps has now five stations, the -headquarters—where the chief officer, Major Fox, resides—being at -Watling Street in the City. The eastern station is at Commercial Road, -Whitechapel; the southern, at Southwark; the northern, at Islington; and -the western, at Shaftesbury Avenue.</p> - -<p>The force consists of about a hundred men. Their uniform somewhat -resembles that of the fire-brigade, being of serviceable dark blue -cloth, but with helmets of black leather instead of brass. They are -nearly all ex-navy men, excepting the coachmen, some of whom have seen -service in the army; indeed, candidates now come from the royal navy -direct, but receive a special training for their duties, such as in the -handling of certain classes of goods. Their ranks are divided into -first, second, and third-class men, with coachmen, and foremen, five -superintendents, and one chief officer.</p> - -<p>Their work lies largely outside the public eye. They labour, so to -speak, under the fire; and it is difficult to estimate the immense -quantity of goods they save<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> from damage during the course of the year. -Thousands of pounds' worth were saved at the great Cripplegate fire -alone in November, 1897. That huge conflagration, which was one of the -largest in London since the Great Fire of 1666, may well serve to -illustrate the work of the corps.</p> - -<p>The alarm was raised shortly before one o'clock mid-day on November -19th, and an engine from Whitecross Street was speedily on the spot. As -usual, the salvage corps received their call from the brigade; and in -his evidence at the subsequent enquiry at the Guildhall, Major Fox -stated he received the call at headquarters from the Watling Street -fire-station, a warehouse being alight in Hamsell Street.</p> - -<p>He turned out the trap, and with the superintendent and ten men hurried -to the fire. He also ordered other traps to be sent on from the other -four stations of the corps, and left the station at two minutes past -one.</p> - -<p>The Watling Street fire-engine had preceded him; and when he turned the -corner of Jewin Street out of Aldersgate Street, he saw "a bright cone -of fire with a sort of tufted top." It was very bright, and he was -struck by the absence of smoke. He thought the roof of one of the -warehouses had gone, and the flames had got through.</p> - -<p>Perceiving the fire was likely to be a big affair, he at once started a -coachman back to Watling Street with the expressive instructions to -"send everything."</p> - -<p>The coachman returned at thirteen minutes past one, so the chief and his -party must have arrived at the fire about five minutes past one; that -is, they reached the scene of action in three minutes. The major and -superintendent walked down Hamsell Street, and found<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> upper floors "well -alight," and the fire burning downward as well. It was, in fact, very -fierce; so fierce, indeed, that he remarked to his companion what a late -call they had received. The firemen were getting to work, and he himself -proceeded with his salvage operations.</p> - -<p>Believing that some of the buildings were irrevocably doomed, he did not -send his men into these, for the sufficient reason that he could not see -how he could get the men out again; but they got to work in other -buildings in Hamsell Street and Well Street, though the fire was -spreading very rapidly. Many windows were open, which was a material -source of danger, causing, of course, a draught for the fire. They shut -some of the windows, and removed piles of goods from the glass, so that -the buildings might resist the flames as long as possible. Eventually, -the staff of men, now increased to seventy in number, cleared out a -large quantity of goods, and stacked them on a piece of vacant ground -near Australian Avenue.</p> - -<p>In spite of the heat and smoke and flame, in spite of falling tanks and -safes and walls, the men worked splendidly, and were able to save an -immense quantity of property.</p> - -<p>Meantime, the firemen had been working hard. On arrival, they found the -fire spreading with remarkable rapidity, and the telephone summoned more -and more assistance. Commander Wells was at St. Bartholomew's Hospital -examining the fire appliances when he was informed of the outbreak. He -left at once, and reached Jewin Street about a quarter past one. -Superintendent Dowell was with him; and on entering the street, they -could see from the smoke that the fire was large, and that both Hamsell -Street and Well<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> Street were impassable, as flames even then were -leaping across both the streets.</p> - -<p>Steamers, escapes, and manuals hurried up from all quarters, until about -fifty steamers were playing on the flames. Early in the afternoon, the -girls employed in a mantle warehouse hastened to the roof in great -excitement, and escaped by an adjoining building.</p> - -<p>A staff of men soon arrived from the Gas Company's offices; but the -falls of ruins were already so numerous and so dangerous, that they were -not able to work effectually.</p> - -<p>In fact, the whole of Hamsell Street was before long in flames; and in -spite of all efforts, the fire spread to Redcross Street, Jewin -Crescent, Jewin Street, and Well Street. The brigade had arrived with -their usual promptitude; but before their appliances could bring any -considerable power to bear, the conflagration was extending fast and -fiercely.</p> - -<p>The thoroughfares were narrow, the buildings high, and the contents of a -very inflammable nature, such as stationery, fancy goods, celluloid -articles (celluloid being one of the most inflammable substances known), -feathers, silks, etc., while a strong breeze wafted burning fragments -hither and thither. Windows soon cracked and broke, the fire itself thus -creating or increasing the draught; the iron girders yielded to the -intense heat, the interiors collapsed, and the flames raged -triumphantly.</p> - -<p>In Jewin Crescent, the firemen worked nearly knee-deep in water, and -again and again ruined portions of masonry crashed into the roadway. -Through the afternoon, engines continued to hurry up, until at five -o'clock the maximum number of about fifty was reached. The end of Jewin -Street resembled an <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>immense furnace, while the bare walls of the -premises already burnt out stood gaunt and empty behind, and portions of -their masonry continued to fall.</p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i151.jpg" alt="Illustration" /></div> - -<p>Firemen were posted on surrounding roofs and on fire-escape ladders, -pouring immense quantities of water on the fire, while others were -working hard to prevent the flames from spreading. All around, thousands -of spectators were massed, pressing as near as they could. They -responded readily, however, to the efforts of the police, and order was -well maintained.</p> - -<p>This was the critical period of the fire. It still seemed spreading; in -fact, it appeared as though there were half a dozen outbreaks at once. -But after six, the efforts of the firemen were successful in preventing -it from spreading farther. As darkness fell, huge flames seemed to spurt -upward from the earth, presenting a strikingly weird appearance; they -were caused by the burning gas which the workmen had not been able to -cut off. Crash succeeded crash every few minutes, as tons of masonry -fell; while in Well Street, at one period a huge warehouse, towering -high, seemed wrapped in immense flame from basement to roof.</p> - -<p>An accident occurred by Bradford Avenue. Some firemen, throwing water on -the raging fire, were suddenly surprised by a terrible outburst from -beneath them, and it was seen that the floors below were in flames. To -the excited spectators it seemed for a moment as though the men must -perish; but a fire-escape was pitched for them, and amid tremendous -cheering the scorched and half-suffocated men slid down it in safety.</p> - -<p>Cripplegate Church, too, suffered a narrow escape,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> even as it did in -the Great Fire of 1666. On both occasions, sparks set fire to the roof, -the oak rafters on this occasion being ignited. But the special efforts -made by the firemen to save it were happily crowned by success, though -it sustained some damage. Also Mr. Nein, one of the churchwardens, -assisted by Mr. Morvell and Mr. Capper, posted on the roof, worked hard -with buckets to quench the flames.</p> - -<p>It was late at night before the official "stop" message was circulated, -and eight o'clock next morning before the last engine left. It was found -that the area affected by the fire covered four and a half acres, two -and a half being burnt out; and no fewer than a hundred and six premises -were involved. Fifty-six buildings were absolutely destroyed, and fifty -others burnt out or damaged. Seventeen streets were affected; but -happily no lives were lost, though several firemen were burnt somewhat -severely. The total loss was estimated at two millions sterling, the -insurance loss being put at about half that amount. The verdict, on the -termination of the enquiry at the Guildhall on January 12th, 1898, -attributed the conflagration to the wilful ignition of goods by some one -unknown.</p> - -<p>The quantity of water used at this fire was enormous. Mr. Ernest -Collins, engineer to the New River Water Company, in whose district the -conflagration took place, said that, up to the time when the "stop" -message was received, the total reached to about five million gallons. -No wonder that the firemen were working knee-deep in Jewin Street. The -five million gallons would, he testified, give a depth of about five -feet over the whole area. But, further, a large quantity was used for a -week or so afterwards, until the conflagration was completely subdued. -In addition to the engines,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> it must be remembered that there were fifty -hydrants in the neighbourhood.</p> - -<p>These hydrants can, of course, be brought into use without the turncock; -but, as a matter of fact, that official arrived at two minutes past one, -the same time as the first engine; while the fire was dated in the -company's return as only breaking out at four minutes to one, and the -brigade report their call at two minutes to one.</p> - -<p>The water used came from the company's reservoir in Claremont Square, -Islington. But this receptacle only holds three and a half million -gallons when full. It is, however, connected with another reservoir at -Highgate having a capacity of fifteen million gallons, and with yet -another at Crouch Hill having when full twelve million gallons. As a -matter of fact, these two reservoirs held twenty-five million gallons -between them on the day of the fire, and both were brought into -requisition, as well as the Islington reservoir. The drain was, however, -enormous.</p> - -<p>In the course of the first hour, the water in the Islington reservoir -actually fell four feet. It never fell lower, however; for instructions -were telegraphed to the authorities at other reservoirs to send on more -water, and the supply was satisfactorily maintained,—a striking -contrast, indeed, to the Great Fire of 1666, when the New River -water-pipes were dry!</p> - -<p>It was about nine o'clock when the chief officer of the salvage corps -felt able to leave. During the eight hours he had been on duty, his men -had saved goods to the value of many thousands of pounds. He had known -to some extent the class of goods he would meet with, for the inspectors -of the corps make reports from time to time as to the commodities -stored<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> in various City warehouses, and he is therefore to some extent -prepared. On the following day, the 20th, the corps were occupied in -pulling down the tottering walls of the burned-out warehouses which were -in a dangerous condition.</p> - -<p>This great Cripplegate fire aroused a good deal of attention in the -American papers, and certain discussion also arose in England as to -water-towers and chemical fire-engines. America is very proud of its -well-furnished firemen, and not without cause. Several cities in the -States are, indeed, famous for their well-organized and well-equipped -fire departments. Let us, then, cross the Atlantic, and see something of -the men and their methods in active operation.</p> - -<p>We shall find much to interest and to inform us.</p> - -<hr /> - -<h2><span>CHAPTER XV.</span> <span class="smaller">ACROSS THE WATER.</span></h2> - -<p>"How can the firemen climb up there?"</p> - -<p>The question may well be asked; for the tall New York houses seem to -reach to the sky.</p> - -<p>"Ordinary ladders won't do."</p> - -<p>"I guess not," replies the New Yorker. "Why, as far back as 1885, -fourteen out of every hundred buildings were too high to be scaled that -way. We build tall here."</p> - -<p>"Then, how about the fire-escape?" asks the Englishman.</p> - -<p>"Wa'll, iron ladders or steps are permanently fixed to some of the top -windows. But the firemen bring<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> their hook-and-ladder; that is a most -valuable contrivance."</p> - -<p>Pursuing his enquiries, the Englishman would find that a hook-and-ladder -consisted, briefly, of a strong pole, with steps projecting on either -side, and a long and stout hook at the top. The fireman can crash this -hook through a window, and hang the pole firmly over the window-sill; -the hook, of course, plunging right through into the room.</p> - -<p>Climbing up this pole, with another length in his hand, the fireman can -hang the second length into the window next above, and so on, up to the -very top of the building. He has also a hook in his belt, which he can -fasten to the ladder, when necessary, to steady and secure himself. In -fact, a well-trained and courageous fireman can climb up the tallest -structures by these appliances.</p> - -<p>These hooked poles are made of various lengths, ranging from about 10 to -20 feet and more. Some single ladders and extensions reach to over 80 -feet; but it will be seen at once that a succession of, say, ten- or -twelve-feet hooked-pole ladders can be easily handled to reach from -floor to floor, and that, used by an active and well-trained fireman, it -can become a most important appliance for saving life.</p> - -<p>St. Louis appears to have been the pioneer city in the use of this -apparatus; but New York and other corporations have followed suit. Since -1883 every candidate for the New York Fire Department must undergo a -course of instruction in the use of this and other appliances, and the -thorough learning in this work renders them better men for their -ordinary duties.</p> - -<p>The ladders are wheeled to the fire on a truck<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> 50 feet long, and called -a "hook-and-ladder truck." It carries ladders of different lengths, and -also conveys pickaxes, shovels, battering-rams, fire-extinguishers, -life-lines, etc., and tools for pushing open heavy doors. The majority -of the ladders are placed on rollers, and can be removed at once without -disturbing those resting above them.</p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i158.jpg" alt="AMERICAN FIRE-LADDERS" /></div> - -<p class="bold">AMERICAN FIRE-LADDERS.</p> - -<p>To some extent, therefore, we might say that the hook-and-ladder truck -with its various appliances answers to the horsed escape of the London -Brigade; but, while London firemen make use of the escape as a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> point of -vantage whence they can discharge water on the fire, the Americans -largely adopt the water-tower. Indeed, they appear to regard this -apparatus as indispensable for high business buildings. Briefly, it -consists of lengths of pipe, which can be quickly jointed together, the -lengths being carried on a van, and varying from about 30 to 50 feet. -When jointed, they can rapidly be raised to an upright position, the -topmost length having a flexible pipe and nozzle for the discharge of -the jet of water. This pipe can be turned in any direction by means of a -wire rope descending below, and the tower can be revolved by simple -apparatus-gearing. The whole appliance is so arranged that it can be -controlled by one man when in action. The water is supplied by a hose -fastened to the bottom of the tower.</p> - -<div class="center"><img src="images/i159.jpg" alt="AMERICAN FIRE-LADDERS" /></div> - -<p class="bold">AMERICAN FIRE-LADDERS.</p> - -<p>As in England, hydrants are largely used in the States, and the steam -fire-engine is also, of course, a very important appliance. The average -American steam fire-engine generally weighs about three tons, with water -in boiler and men in their seats on the machine. The water in the boiler -is kept at steaming-point by a pipe full of steam passing through it, or -boiling water is supplied from a stationary boiler,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> so that on arriving -at a fire a working-pressure is obtained. The steam-heating pipe, -however, is capable of being instantly disconnected at the sound of the -fire-alarm.</p> - -<p>The alarm, moreover, is so arranged that the first beat of the gong -draws a bolt fastening the horse's halter to the stall. The animals rush -to their posts, the firemen slide down poles from the upper stories to -the lower, through holes in the floors made for the purpose, and, every -one smartly doing his duty, the horses are harnessed, and the engine or -apparatus-van is fully ready to start through the open doors before the -gong has finished striking—unless it be a very brief alarm.</p> - -<p>Four snaps harness the horses.</p> - -<p>The animals stand on the ground-floor by the sidewalls, facing the -wheels of the engines and trucks. The harness is hung over the -pole-shaft exactly above the place where the horses will stand, the -traces being fastened to the truck; the hinged collar is snapped round -the animal's neck, the shaft-chain is fastened with a snap, and two -snaps fix the reins. One shake of the reins by the coachman detaches the -harness from the suspenders, and away fly the horses.</p> - -<p>Arriving at the fire, the engine is attached to the nearest hydrant, and -the delivery-hose is led off to the burning building. The hydrant is -probably of the upright kind, standing up above the roadway level, -though some cities use the hydrant below-ground, and covered with an -iron plate.</p> - -<p>But, the water obtained and the engine ready, the method of attacking -the fire at close quarters and inside the edifice is adopted if -practicable; and, to accomplish this purpose, the firemen have to fight -through<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> blinding and suffocating smoke. For hours they may struggle, -well-nigh choked and scorched, though scarce a flash of flame may be -visible. To reach the seat of fire, doors are broken down, and even iron -shutters opened; while hose is led upstairs, or down into cellars, in -order to quench the flames at their source.</p> - -<p>Sometimes, however, on arrival at a fire, the chiefs realize that the -conflagration has gained such hold that the firemen's efforts will be -most usefully directed to prevent it from spreading. When the water has -done its work, the fireman can usually turn it off by a relief-valve -without recourse to the engineer, the complete control thus gained -tending to prevent unnecessary damage by water.</p> - -<p>The American fire-brigades—or departments, as they are called—may be -broadly divided into two classes: those of great cities, consisting of a -paid staff of officers and men, devoting all their time to the service; -and, secondly, those of smaller places, consisting of a staff of unpaid -volunteers, pursuing their usual daily avocations, but agreeing to -respond to fire-alarms;—these men, though unpaid, are generally exempt -from service as jurymen and militiamen, and sometimes are permitted a -slight abatement of taxation. Some brigades, again, consist partly of -fully-paid firemen, and partly of volunteers.</p> - -<p>Many of these organizations are not only charged with the extinguishment -of fires, but also with the regulation of the storage and sale of -combustibles, and in some cities with the supervision of building -construction. It is claimed that this arrangement has led to a much more -economical and efficient administration of this department; and -undoubtedly the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>fire-brigade has a very lively interest in the security -and stability of buildings. The firemen's efforts to improve them rank -as valuable precautions and preventives of fire.</p> - -<p>It is also claimed that some of the American fire departments, as, for -instance, that of New York, are among the best in the world, and their -engines superior in size and capacity and greater in number than those -of other lands. On the other hand, the laws regulating the prevention of -fires are said to have been less stringent than those obtaining in some -other countries.</p> - -<p>The terrible fire in New York in 1835, when the loss reached three -million pounds, led to the development of the fire-service and of -apparatus; and prizes were offered for designs for steam fire-engines. -Cincinnati appears to have taken the lead at first; but the New York -Fire Department is now regarded as one of the most perfect. It is under -the control of three commissioners, whom the mayor appoints; and it has -substantially a military organization.</p> - -<p>The paid brigades are usually divided into companies, varying from six -to twelve individuals, including both officers and men. A company may be -supplied with a steam fire-engine and tender for hose, or with a -chemical fire-engine, such being called "engine companies"; or with a -hook-and-ladder truck and horses, called "hook-and-ladder companies"; or -with hose-cart only and horses, called "hose companies." A hose-cart -will carry nearly a thousand feet of hose, as well as tools for use at -fires and half a dozen firemen; while some of them also convey short -scaling-ladders.</p> - -<p>A water-tower is sometimes placed with an engine or a hook-and-ladder -company; and, again, these two companies are occasionally brigaded -together. Further,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> many cities are arranged into company districts, the -captain of each company taking general control over all material, and -the enforcement of the laws connected with his department. In some -cities, the companies are combined into battalions under a chief of -battalion, the highest officer commanding the whole being known as the -chief of the department, or may be rejoicing in the imposing title of -the Fire-Marshal.</p> - -<p>Some of the larger cities have shown their wisdom in appointing their -firemen for life, including the highest officers, dismissal only taking -place on misconduct; but in others the baneful practice is followed of -dismissing at least the chief officials after a change in local -politics—a plan which does not conduce to great efficiency and -discipline. New York has abandoned this policy since 1867.</p> - -<p>In arranging sites for the fire companies, the principle pursued is to -distribute small companies with different appliances over as wide an -area as possible, instead of concentrating men and appliances at certain -central points. By thus placing companies separately, it is believed -that a larger area is served in the same time than by concentrating them -together. On the occurrence of large fires, when many companies are -called out, distant companies are called from various points, like -reserves, to take the places of some of those in action, to meet calls -that may arise in the same districts; while at some stations, or company -houses, the men are divided into two sections with duplicate apparatus, -so that, while one responds instantly to the first call, the second at -once prepares to answer any subsequent alarm.</p> - -<p>Among the apparatus used is the jumping-sheet, designed as a last -attempt to save life; circular rope<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> nets some 15 feet in diameter being -carried on the tenders and trucks in New York; while their canvas sheets -have rope handles. Light chemical fire-engines are also largely used in -small places and in the suburbs of large cities, the lightness of the -machine being, no doubt, a great recommendation. An efficient pattern is -the double-tank engine, one tank of which can be replenished while the -other is being discharged. The tanks contain a mixture producing -carbonic acid gas, which is a great foe to fire. The gas is absorbed by -water, and as it expands causes a great pressure, sufficient to force -the fluid through hose, and throw it a distance of about a hundred and -fifty feet. When the water reaches the flames, the gas held in solution -is liberated by the heat and chokes the fire. The mixture will not -freeze, even when the temperature falls to zero; it is thus always -ready. The machine is light, and contains its own propulsive force for -the water; so that we cannot wonder it is widely adopted.</p> - -<p>Similar apparatus throws hydrochloric acid and ammoniacal gases, but -opinions differ as to their utility; for though efficient -fire-quenchers, yet a small portion only of the gas appears to be -carried by the fluid and actually reaches the flames.</p> - -<p>Another piece of apparatus is a hose-hoister. For using hose on very -high buildings, and also, indeed, for hoisting ladders to great heights, -a simple appliance has been devised, consisting essentially of a couple -of rollers in a frame; the rope, of course, runs over the rollers to -hoist the hose, but the frame is shaped to adjust itself to the coping -or cornice of the wall.</p> - -<p>For cities on rivers, fire-boats are in use, some being fitted with -twin-screw propellers, and the crew being sometimes berthed on shore; -while, lastly, as in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> England, the fire-alarm telegraph forms a marked -feature of the American system. The alarms are fitted with keyless -doors, and the telephone is also largely in use. When, however, the -keyless door of the alarm is opened by its handle, a gong sounds on the -spot, attracting attention, and preventing, it is intended, wrongful -interference with the alarm. When the door is opened, the call for the -fire company is then sent.</p> - -<p>As for the horses, they are regularly trained in New York. They are -accepted on trial at the dealer's risk, and placed in a training-stable; -here they grow accustomed to the startling clang of the alarm-gong, to -the use of the harness, and to being driven in an engine or -ladder-truck.</p> - -<p>Passing through these trials satisfactorily, the animal is promoted to -service in a company; and if, after a time, a good report is forthcoming -as to activity, intelligence, etc., it is bought in and placed on the -regular staff. Then it is given a registered number, which is stamped in -lead, and worn round the creature's neck. A record is kept of each -horse, the average term of service working out at about six years.</p> - -<p>Some horses are so highly trained that they will stand in their stalls -unfastened; others are simply tethered by a halter-strap, a bolt in the -stall-side holding a ring in the strap. It is this bolt which is -withdrawn by the first beat of the fire-alarm, instantly releasing the -horse.</p> - -<p>Fire-horses often develop heart disease, as a result of the excitement -of their work, and sudden deaths sometimes occur. When beginning to show -signs of varying powers or of unfitness for their exciting duties, the -horses are sold out of the service, being still useful for many other -purposes.</p> - -<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span></p><p>It was of one such that Will Carleton wrote in stirring verse. The old -fire-horse was sold to a worthy milkman, and instead of the exciting -business of rushing to fires came the useful occupation of taking around -milk.</p> - -<p>But one day the old horse heard the exciting cry it knew so well. The -rush of the fire-horses sounded near; the engine rattled past. The -influence was too strong. Regardless of the milk, the old fire-horse -started forward; his eye gleamed with the old excitement; no effort -could restrain him, and he swept along to the fire, with the lumbering -milkcart behind. Over fell the cans; the milk splashed all over the -streets; but on and on tore the steed, until he actually came in front -of the fire-horses, and kept the lead. Then, when he reached the fire, -he halted, moped, and presently fell in the street, and died. He was -game to the last.</p> - -<p>This glance at the American fire departments indicates the great -excellence which many of them have reached. The remarkable efficiency is -found both in organization and in appliances, and it no doubt invites -comparison with British fire-brigades. If so, Britain has nothing to -fear. Such comparison, if superficial, is little worth; and if -exhaustive, would consider all the varying circumstances of each -country, and would discover great merit on both sides.</p> - -<p>Thus, the immense height of the American edifices, no doubt, renders the -hook-and-ladder a most valuable appliance; but buildings in Britain, -under the present Acts, are not likely to tower so high; and the -improved fire-escapes so deftly handled by British firemen yield as -good, or even better, results for the work they have to do. The question -of the chemical<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> fire-engine is for experts and experience to decide; -and whether, with its fumes and its gases, it is really superior under -all circumstances, and whether it will ever supersede the water-engine -for all purposes, the twentieth century may reveal.</p> - -<p>We conclude that absolute superiority cannot be claimed by any one -country. The truth is, that the means of fighting fire have been -developed to very great excellence in many places; and when we consider -the high courage and efficient training of the men, and the valuable -improvements and great usefulness of the various engines and appliances -employed, we may truly regard this immense development as one of the -wonders of the modern world.</p> - -<p class="center space-above">THE END.</p> - -<hr class="smler" /> - -<p class="center">Printed by Hazell, Watson, & Viney, Ld., London and Aylesbury.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span></p> - -<h2>IN THE SAME SERIES.</h2> - -<hr class="smler" /> - -<p><span class="smcap">The World's Wonders Series</span> <i>of Popular Books treats of the present-day -wonders of Science and Art. They are well written, printed on good -paper, and fully illustrated. Crown 8vo, 160 pages. Handsome Cloth -Cover.</i> <b>1s. 6d.</b> <i>each</i>.</p> - -<p> -<b>MARVELS OF ANT LIFE.</b><br /> -By <span class="smcap">W. F. Kirby</span>, F.L.S., F.E.S., of the Natural History Museum, -South Kensington.<br /> -<br /> -<b>THE ROMANCE OF THE SAVINGS BANKS.</b><br /> -By Arch. <span class="smcap">G. Bowie</span>.<br /> -<br /> -<b>THE ROMANCE OF THE POST OFFICE</b>: Its Inception and Wondrous Development.<br /> -By Arch. <span class="smcap">G. Bowie</span>.<br /> -<br /> -<b>THE ROMANCE OF GLASS-MAKING</b>: A Sketch of the History of Ornamental Glass.<br /> -By <span class="smcap">W. Gandy</span>.<br /> -<br /> -<b>TRIUMPHS OF THE PRINTING PRESS.</b><br /> -By <span class="smcap">Walter Jerrold</span>.<br /> -<br /> -<b>ASTRONOMERS AND THEIR OBSERVATIONS.</b><br /> -By <span class="smcap">Lucy Taylor</span>. With Preface by <span class="smcap">W. Thynne Lynn</span>, B.A., F.R.A.S.<br /> -<br /> -<b>MARVELS OF METALS.</b><br /> -By <span class="smcap">F. M. Holmes</span>.<br /> -<br /> -<b>MINERS AND THEIR WORKS UNDERGROUND.</b><br /> -By <span class="smcap">F. M. Holmes</span>.<br /> -<br /> -<b>CELEBRATED MECHANICS AND THEIR ACHIEVEMENTS.</b><br /> -By <span class="smcap">F. M. Holmes</span>.<br /> -<br /> -<b>CHEMISTS AND THEIR WONDERS.</b><br /> -By <span class="smcap">F. M. Holmes</span>.<br /> -<br /> -<b>ENGINEERS AND THEIR TRIUMPHS.</b><br /> -By <span class="smcap">F. M. Holmes</span>.<br /> -<br /> -<b>ELECTRICIANS AND THEIR MARVELS.</b><br /> -By <span class="smcap">Walter Jerrold</span>.<br /> -<br /> -<b>MUSICIANS AND THEIR COMPOSITIONS.</b><br /> -By <span class="smcap">J. R. Griffiths</span>.<br /> -<br /> -<b>NATURALISTS AND THEIR INVESTIGATIONS.</b><br /> -By <span class="smcap">George Day</span>, F.R.M.S.</p> - -<hr class="smler" /> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">London</span>: S. W. PARTRIDGE & CO., 8 & 9, <span class="smcap">Paternoster Row</span>.</p> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Firemen and their Exploits: -with some account of the rise and development of fire-brigades, of -various appliances for saving life at fires and extinguishing -the flames., by F. M. 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