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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..541e463 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #50582 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/50582) diff --git a/old/50582-0.txt b/old/50582-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 4c34034..0000000 --- a/old/50582-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6552 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Story of the Submarine, by Farnham Bishop - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Story of the Submarine - -Author: Farnham Bishop - -Release Date: November 30, 2015 [EBook #50582] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF THE SUBMARINE *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Charlie Howard, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - -THE STORY OF THE SUBMARINE - -[Illustration: - - Courtesy of the Electric Boat Company. - -U. S. Submarine _M-1_.] - - - - - THE STORY OF - THE SUBMARINE - - - BY - FARNHAM BISHOP - Author of “Panama, Past and Present,” etc. - - _ILLUSTRATED WITH PHOTOGRAPHS - AND DRAWINGS_ - - - [Illustration] - - - NEW YORK - THE CENTURY CO. - 1916 - - - - - Copyright, 1916, by - THE CENTURY CO. - - _Published, February, 1916_ - - - - - To - MY MOTHER - - - - -PREFACE - - -This book has been written for the nontechnical reader--for the man or -boy who is interested in submarines and torpedoes, and would like to -know something about the men who invented these things and how they -came to do it. Much has been omitted that I should have liked to have -put in, for this is a small book and the story of the submarine is much -longer than most people realize. It is perhaps astonishing to think -of the launching of an underseaboat in the year the Pilgrims landed -at Plymouth Rock, or George Washington watching his submarine attack -the British fleet in 1776. But are these things as astonishing as the -thought of European soldiers wearing steel helmets and fighting with -crossbows and catapults in 1916? - -The chapter on “A Trip in a Modern Submarine” is purely imaginative. -There is no such boat in our submarine flotilla as the _X-4_. We ought -to have plenty of big, fast, sea-going submarines, with plenty of big, -fast sea-planes and battle-cruisers, so that if an invading army ever -starts for this country we can meet it and smash it while it is cooped -up on transports somewhere in mid-ocean. There, and not in shallow, -off-shore waters, cumbered with nets and mines, is the true battlefield -of the submarine. - -The last part of this book has a broken-off and fragmentary -appearance. This is almost unavoidable at a time when writing history -is like trying to make a statue of a moving-picture. I have tried to do -justice to both sides in the present war. - -I wish to express my thanks to those whose kindness and courtesy have -made it possible for me to write this book. To Mr. Kelby, Librarian of -the New York Historical Society, I am indebted for much information -about Bushnell’s _Turtle_, and to Mrs. Daniel Whitney, of Germantown, -Pa., a descendant of Ezra Lee, for the portrait of her intrepid -ancestor. Both the Electric Boat Company and Mr. Simon Lake have -supplied me most generously with information and pictures. The Bureau -of Construction, United States Navy, E. P. Dutton & Company, publishers -of Mr. Alan H. Burgoyne’s “Submarine Navigation Past and Present”; -the American Magazine, Flying, International Marine Engineering, -the _Scientific American_, and the _New York Sun_ have cheerfully -given permission for the reproduction of many pictures of which they -hold the copyright. Albert Frank & Company have given the cut of the -advertisement of the last sailing of the _Lusitania_. Special thanks -are due to Mr. A. Russell Bond, Associate Editor of the _Scientific -American_, for expert advice and suggestion. - -Some well-known pictures of submarines are herein credited for the -first time to the man who made them: Captain Francis M. Barber, -U. S. N. (retired). This officer published a little pink-backed -pamphlet on submarine boats--the first book devoted exclusively to this -subject--in 1875. - -“The last time I heard of that pink pamphlet,” writes Captain Barber -from Washington, “was when I was Naval Attache at Berlin in 1898. -Admiral von Tirpitz was then head of the Torpedo Bureau in the Navy -Department, and he was good enough to say that it was the foundation -of his studies--and look what we have now in the terrible German -production.” - - FARNHAM BISHOP. - - New York, - January, 1916. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I IN THE BEGINNING 3 - - II DAVID BUSHNELL’S “TURTLE” 12 - - III ROBERT FULTON’S “NAUTILUS” 26 - - IV SUBMARINES IN THE CIVIL WAR 36 - - V THE WHITEHEAD TORPEDO 43 - - VI FREAKS AND FAILURES 56 - - VII JOHN P. HOLLAND 69 - - VIII THE LAKE SUBMARINES 82 - - IX A TRIP IN A MODERN SUBMARINE 100 - - X ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY DEVICES 124 - - XI MINES 139 - - XII THE SUBMARINE IN ACTION 156 - - XIII THE SUBMARINE BLOCKADE 177 - - XIV THE SUBMARINE AND NEUTRALS 189 - - INDEX 207 - - - - -List of Illustrations - - - PAGE - - U. S. Submarine _M-1_ _Frontispiece_ - - Cornelius Van Drebel 5 - - The _Rotterdam Boat_ 8 - - Symons’s Submarine 10 - - The Submarine of 1776 13 - - The Best-known Picture of Bushnell’s _Turtle_ 16 - - Another Idea of Bushnell’s _Turtle_ 19 - - Ezra Lee 21 - - The _Nautilus_ Invented by Robert Fulton 28 - - Destruction of the _Dorothea_ 33 - - Views of a Confederate _David_ 37 - - C. S. S. _Hundley_ 38 - - Cross-section of a Whitehead Torpedo 51 - - Davis Gun-torpedo After Discharge, Showing Eight-inch Gun - Forward of Air-flask 53 - - Effect of Davis Gun-torpedo on a Specially-constructed Target 54 - - The _Intelligent Whale_ 58 - - _Le Plongeur_ 59 - - Steam Submarine _Nordenfeldt II_, at Constantinople, 1887 62 - - Bauer’s Submarine Concert, Cronstadt Harbor, 1855 65 - - Apostoloff’s Proposed Submarine 67 - - The _Holland No. 1_ 70 - - The _Fenian Ram_ 73 - - U. S. S. _Holland_, in Drydock with the Russian Battleship - _Retvizan_ 77 - - John P. Holland 80 - - Lake 1893 Design as Submitted to the U. S. Navy Department 83 - - The _Argonaut Junior_ 84 - - _Argonaut_ as Originally Built 87 - - _Argonaut_ as Rebuilt 90 - - The Rebuilt _Argonaut_, Showing Pipe-masts and Ship-shaped - Superstructure 93 - - Cross-section of Diving-compartment on a Lake Submarine 94 - - Cross-section of the _Protector_ 97 - - Mr. Simon Lake 98 - - U. S. Submarine _E-2_ 101 - - A Submarine Cruiser, or Fleet Submarine (Lake Type) 105 - - Auxiliary Switchboard and Electric Cook-stove, in a U. S. - Submarine 107 - - Forward Deck of a U. S. Submarine, in Cruising Trim 109 - - Same, Preparing to Submerge 110 - - Depth-control Station, U. S. Submarine 113 - - Cross-section of a Periscope 114 - - Forward Torpedo-compartment, U. S. Submarine 117 - - Fessenden Oscillator Outside the Hull of a Ship 120 - - Professor Fessenden Receiving a Message Sent Through Several - Miles of Sea-water by His “Oscillator” 121 - - Side-elevation of a Modern Submarine 127 - - One Type of Safety-jacket 131 - - The _Vulcan_ Salvaging the _U-3_ 134 - - Fulton’s Anchored Torpedoes 140 - - Sinking of the U. S. S. _Tecumseh_, by a Confederate Mine, in - Mobile Bay 143 - - A Confederate “Keg-torpedo” 144 - - First Warship Destroyed by a Mine 145 - - A Confederate “Buoyant Torpedo” or Contact-mine 146 - - Modern Contact-mine 150 - - U. S. Mine-planter _San Francisco_ 153 - - English Submarine Rescuing English Sailors 157 - - Engagement Between the _Birmingham_ and the _U-15_ 159 - - Sinking of the _Aboukir_, _Cressy_, and _Hogue_ 163 - - Tiny Target Afforded by Periscopes in Rough Weather 167 - - Photograph of a Submarine, Twenty Feet Below the Surface, - Taken from the Aeroplane, Whose Shadow Is Shown in the - Picture 173 - - German Submarine Pursuing English Merchantman 182 - - British Submarine, Showing One Type of Disappearing Deck-gun - Now in Use 190 - - - - -THE STORY OF THE SUBMARINE - - - - -CHAPTER I - -IN THE BEGINNING - - -If you had been in London in the year 1624, and had gone to the -theater to see “The Staple of News,” a new and very dull comedy by -Shakespeare’s friend Ben Jonson, you would have heard, in act III, -scene i, the following dialogue about submarines: - - THOMAS - - They write hear one Cornelius’ son - Hath made the Hollanders an invisible eel - To swim the haven at Dunkirk and sink all - The shipping there. - - PENNYBOY - - But how is’t done? - - GRABAL - - I’ll show you, sir, - It is an automa, runs under water - With a snug nose, and has a nimble tail - Made like an auger, with which tail she wriggles - Betwixt the costs of a ship and sinks it straight. - - PENNYBOY - - Whence have you this news? - - FITTON - - From a right hand I assure you. - The eel-boats here, that lie before Queen-hythe - Came out of Holland. - - PENNYBOY - - A most brave device - To murder their flat bottoms. - -The idea of submarine navigation is much older than 1624. Crude diving -bells, and primitive leather diving helmets, with bladders to keep the -upper end of the air tube afloat on the surface of the water, were -used as early as the fourteenth century. William Bourne, an Englishman -who published a book on “Inventions or Devices” in 1578, suggested the -military value of a boat that could be sailed just below the surface -of the water, with a hollow mast for a ventilator. John Napier, Laird -of Merchiston, the great Scotch mathematician who invented logarithms, -wrote in 1596 about his proposed “Devices of sailing under the water, -with divers other devices and stratagems for the burning of enemies.” - -But the first man actually to build and navigate a submarine was a -Dutchman: the learned Doctor Cornelius Van Drebel.[1] He was “a native -of Alkmaar, a very fair and handsome man, and of very gentle manners.” -Both his pleasing personality and his knowledge of science--which -caused many to suspect him of being a magician--made the Netherlander -an honored guest at the court of his most pedantic Majesty, King James -I of England. - -Van Drebel was walking along the banks of the Thames, one pleasant -evening in the year 1620, when he “noticed some sailors dragging -behind their barques baskets full of fish; he saw that the barques -were weighed down in the water, but that they rose a little when the -baskets allowed the ropes which held them to slacken a little. The idea -occurred to him that a ship could be held under water by a somewhat -similar method and could be propelled by oars and poles.”[2] - -[Illustration: Cornelius Van Drebel. - - Reproduced from “Submarine Navigation, Past and Present” by Alan H. - Burgoyne, by permission of E. P. Dutton & Company. -] - -Lodged by the king in Eltham Palace, and supplied with funds from the -royal treasury, Van Drebel designed and built three submarine boats, -between 1620 and 1624. They were simply large wooden rowboats, decked -over and made water-tight by a covering of thick, well-greased leather. -Harsdoffer, a chronicler of the period, declared that - -“King James himself journeyed in one of them on the Thames. There were -on this occasion twelve rowers besides the passengers, and the vessel -during several hours was kept at a depth of twelve to fifteen feet -below the surface.” - -Another contemporary historian, Cornelius Van der Wonde, of Van -Drebel’s home town, said of him: - -“He built a ship in which one could row and navigate under water from -Westminster to Greenwich, the distance of two Dutch miles; even five -or six miles or as far as one pleased. In this boat a person could see -under the surface of the water and without candle-light, as much as -he needed to read in the Bible or any other book. Not long ago this -remarkable ship was yet to be seen lying in the Thames or London river.” - -The glow of phosphorescent bodies, suggested by the monk Mersenne for -illuminating the interior of a submarine, later in the seventeenth -century and actually so used by Bushnell in the eighteenth, might have -furnished sufficient light for Bible- and compass-reading on this -voyage. But how did King James--the first and last monarch to venture -on an underwater voyage--the other passengers, and the twelve rowers -get enough air? - -“That deservedly Famous Mechanician and Chymist, Cornelius Drebell ... -conceived, that ’tis not only the whole body of the air but a certain -Quintessence (as Chymists speake) or spirituous part that makes it fit -for respiration ... so that (for aught I could gather) besides the -Mechanicall contrivance of his vessel he had a Chymicall liquor, which -he accounted the chief secret of his Submarine Navigation. For when -from time to time he perceived that the finer and purer part of the air -was consumed or over-clogged by the respiration and steames of those -that went in his ship, he would, by unstopping a vessel full of liquor -speedily restore to the troubled air such a proportion of vital parts -as would make it again for a good while fit for Respiration.”[3] - -Did Van Drebel anticipate by one hundred and fifty years the discovery -of oxygen: the life-giving “Quintessence” of air? Even if he did, it -is incredible that he should have found a liquid, utterly unknown to -modern chemistry, capable of giving off that gas so freely that a few -gallons would restore the oxygen to a confined body of air as fast -as fifteen or twenty men could consume it by breathing. Perhaps his -“Chymicall liquor” instead of producing oxygen directly, increased the -proportion of it in the atmosphere by absorbing the carbonic acid gas. - -The Abbé de Hautefeullie, who wrote in 1680 on “Methods of breathing -under water,” made the following shrewd guess at the nature of the -apparatus: - -“Drebel’s secret was probably the machine which I had imagined, -consisting of a bellows with two valves and two tubes resting on the -surface of the water, the one bringing down air and the other sending -it back. By speaking of a volatile essence which restored the nitrous -parts consumed by respiration, Drebel evidently wished to disguise his -invention and prevent others from finding out its real nature.” - -[Illustration: - - Courtesy of the Scientific American. - -The _Rotterdam Boat_.] - -It is a very great pity that we know no more about these earliest -submarines. Cornelius Van Drebel died in 1634, at the age of sixty-two, -without leaving any written notes or oral descriptions. We must not -think too hardly of this inventor of three centuries ago, unguarded -by patent laws, for making a mystery of his discoveries. He had to -be a showman as well as a scientist, or his noble patrons would have -lost all interest in his “ingenious machines,” and mystery is half -of the showman’s game. Besides his “eel-boats,” Van Drebel is said -to have invented a wonderful globe with which he imitated perpetual -motion and illustrated the course of the sun, moon, and stars; an -incubator, a refrigerator, “Virginals that played of themselves,” and -other marvels too numerous to mention. Half scientist, half charlatan, -wholly medieval in appearance, with his long furred gown and long, fair -beard, Cornelius Van Drebel marches picturesquely at the head of the -procession of inventors who have made possible the modern submarine. - -Eighteen years after Van Drebel’s death, a Frenchman named Le Son -built a submarine at Rotterdam. This craft, which is usually referred -to as the _Rotterdam Boat_, was 72 feet long, 12 feet high, and of 8 -foot beam. It was built of wood, with sharply tapering ends, and had -a superstructure whose sloping sides were designed to deflect cannon -balls that might be fired at the boat while traveling on the surface, -while iron-shod legs protected the hull when resting on the sea bottom. -A single paddle-wheel amidships was to propel the boat,--just how, the -inventor never revealed. Like so many other submarines, the _Rotterdam -Boat_ was built primarily to be used against the British fleet. But it -failed to interest either the Dutch or French minister of marine, and -never went into action. - -The earliest known contemporary picture of a submarine vessel appeared -in the “Gentleman’s Magazine,” in 1747. It showed a cross section of an -underwater boat built and navigated on the Thames by one Symons. This -was a decked-over row-boat, propelled by four pairs of oars working -in water-tight joints of greased leather. To submerge his vessel, -Symons admitted water into a number of large leather bottles, placed -inside the hull with their open mouth passing through holes in the -bottom. When he wished to rise, he would squeeze out the water with a -lever and bind up the neck of each emptied bottle with string. This -ingenious device was not original with Mr. Symons, but was invented by -a Frenchman named Borelli in 1680. - -Submarine navigation was a century and a half old before it claimed -its first victim. J. Day, an English mechanic, rebuilt a small boat so -that he was able to submerge it in thirty feet of water, with himself -on board, and remain there for twenty-four hours with no ill effect. -At the end of this time, Day rose to the surface, absolutely certain -of his ability to repeat the experiment at any depth. But how could he -turn this to practical account? - -[Illustration: Symons’s Submarine.] - -It was an age of betting, when gentlemen could always be found to risk -money on any wager, however fantastic. Day found a financial backer in -a Mr. Blake, who advanced him the money to buy a fifty-ton sloop and -fit it with a strong water-tight compartment amidships. Ten tons of -ballast were placed in the hold and twenty more hung outside the hull -by four iron rods passing through the passenger’s compartment. When the -rest of the boat was filled with water, it would sink to the bottom, -to rise again when the man inside released the twenty tons of outer -ballast. - -Shut in the water-tight compartment of this boat, Day sank to the -bottom of Plymouth Harbor, at 2 P.M., Tuesday, June 28, 1774, to decide -a bet that he could remain twelve hours at a depth of twenty-two -fathoms (132 feet). When, at the expiration of this time, the submarine -failed to reappear, Mr. Blake called on the captain of a near-by -frigate for help. Bluejackets from the warship and workmen from the -dockyard were set to work immediately to grapple for the sunken craft -and raise her to the surface, but to no avail. The great pressure -of water at that depth--150 feet is the limit of safety for many -modern submarines--must have crushed in the walls of the water-tight -compartment without giving Day time enough to release the outer ballast -and rise to safety. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -DAVID BUSHNELL’S “TURTLE” - - -In the first week of September, 1776, the American army defending New -York still held Manhattan Island, but nothing more. Hastily improvised, -badly equipped, and worse disciplined, it had been easily defeated by a -superior invading force of British regulars and German mercenaries in -the battle of Long Island. Brooklyn had fallen; from Montauk Point to -the East River, all was the enemy’s country. Staten Island, too, was -an armed and hostile land. After the fall of the forts on both sides -of the Narrows, the British fleet had entered the Upper Bay, and even -landed marines and infantry on Governor’s Island. Grimly guarding the -crowded transports, the ship-of-the-line _Asia_ and the frigate _Eagle_ -lay a little above Staten Island, with their broadsides trained on the -doomed city. - -In the mouth of the North River, not a biscuit-toss from the Battery, -floated the brass conning-tower of an American submarine. - -It was the only submarine in the world and its inventor called it -the _Turtle_. He called it that because it looked like one: a turtle -floating with its tail down and a conning-tower for a head. It has -also been compared to a modern soldier’s canteen with an extra-large -mouthpiece, or a hardshell clam wearing a silk hat. It was deeper than -it was long and not much longer than it was broad. It had no periscope, -torpedo tubes, or cage of white mice. But the _Turtle_ was a submarine, -for all that. - -Its inventor was a Connecticut Yankee, Mr. David Bushnell, later -Captain Bushnell of the corps of sappers and miners and in the opinion -of his Excellency General Washington “a man of great mechanical powers, -fertile in invention and master of execution.” Bushnell was born in -Saybrook and educated at Yale, where he graduated with the class of -1775. During his four years as an undergraduate, he spent most of his -spare time solving the problem of exploding gunpowder under water. A -water-tight case would keep his powder dry, but how could he get a -spark inside to explode it? Percussion caps had not yet been invented, -but Bushnell took the flintlock from a musket and had it snapped by -clockwork that could be wound up and set for any desired length of time. - -[Illustration: The Submarine of 1776. - -(As described by its operator.)] - -“The first experiment I made,” wrote Bushnell in a letter to Thomas -Jefferson when the latter was American minister to France in 1789, “was -with about 2 ounces of powder, which I exploded 4 feet under water, to -prove to some of the first personages in Connecticut that powder would -take fire under water. - -“The second experiment was made with 2 lb. of powder enclosed in a -wooden bottle and fixed under a hogshead, with a 2-inch oak plank -between the hogshead and the powder. The hogshead was loaded with -stones as deep as it could swim; a wooden pipe, descending through the -lower head of the hogshead and through the plank into the bottle, was -primed with powder. A match put to the priming exploded the powder, -which produced a very great effect, rending the plank into pieces, -demolishing the hogshead, and casting the stones and the ruins of -the hogshead, with a body of water, many feet into the air, to the -astonishment of the spectators. This experiment was likewise made for -the satisfaction of the gentlemen above mentioned.” - -Governor Trumbull of Connecticut was among the “first personages” -present at these experiments, which so impressed him and his council -that they appropriated enough money for Bushnell to build the _Turtle_. -The Nutmeg State was thus the first “world-power” to have a submarine -in its navy.[4] - -The hull of the _Turtle_ was not made of copper, as is sometimes -stated, but was “built of oak, in the strongest manner possible, -corked and tarred.”[5] The conning-tower was of brass and also served -as a hatch-cover. The hatchway was barely big enough for the one man -who made up the entire crew to squeeze through. Once inside, the -operator could screw the cover down tight, and look out through “three -round doors, one directly in front and one on each side, large enough -to put the hand through. When open they admitted fresh air.” On top of -the conning-tower were two air-pipes “so constructed that they shut -themselves whenever the water rose near their tops, so that no water -could enter through them and opened themselves immediately after they -rose above the water. - -“The vessel was chiefly ballasted with lead fixed to its bottom; when -this was not sufficient a quantity was placed within, more or less -according to the weight of the operator; its ballast made it so stiff -that there was no danger of oversetting. The vessel, with all its -appendages and the operator, was of sufficient weight to settle it very -low in the water. About 200 lb. of lead at the bottom for ballast could -be let down 40 or 50 feet below the vessel; this enabled the operator -to rise instantly to the surface of the water in case of accident.” - -The operator sat on an oaken brace that kept the two sides of the -boat from being crushed in by the water-pressure, and did things with -his hands and feet. He must have been as busy as a cathedral organist -on Easter morning. With one foot he opened a brass valve that let -water into the ballast tanks, with the other he worked a force pump to -drive it out. When he had reached an approximate equilibrium, he could -move the submarine up or down, or hold it at any desired depth, by -cranking a small vertical-acting propellor placed just forward of the -conning-tower on the deck above. Before him was the crank of another -propellor, or rather tractor, for it drew, not pushed, the vessel -forward. Behind him was the rudder, which the operator controlled with -a long curved tiller stuck under one arm. - -[Illustration: The Best-known Picture of Bushnell’s _Turtle_. - -Drawn by Lieutenant F. M. Barber, U. S. N., in 1875.] - -Bushnell, in his letter to Jefferson, calls each of these propellors -“an oar, formed upon the principle of the screw,” and the best-known -picture of the _Turtle_ shows a bearded gentleman in nineteenth-century -clothes boring his way through the water with two big gimlets. -But Sergeant Ezra Lee of the Connecticut Line, who did the actual -operating, described the submarine’s forward propellor (he makes no -mention of the other) as having two wooden blades or “oars, of about -12 inches in length and 4 or 5 in width, shaped like the arms of a -windmill.” Except in size, this device must have looked very much like -the wooden-bladed tractor of a modern aeroplane. - -“These oars,” noted Judge Griswold on the letter before forwarding it -to General Humphrey, “were fixed on the end of a shaft like windmill -arms projected out forward, and turned at right angles with the -course of the machine; and upon the same principles that wind-mill -arms are turned by the wind, these oars, when put in motion as the -writer describes, draw the machine slowly after it. This moving power -is small, and every attendant circumstance must coöperate with it to -answer the purpose--calm waters and no current.” - -“With hard labor,” said Lee, “the machine might be impelled at the rate -of ‘3 nots’ an hour for a short time.” - -Sergeant Lee volunteered “to learn the ways and mystery of this new -machine” because the original operator, Bushnell’s brother, “was taken -sick in the campaign of 1776 at New York before he had an opportunity -to make use of his skill, and never recovered his health sufficiently -afterwards.” While Lee was still struggling with the “mystery” in -practice trips on Long Island Sound, the British fleet entered New -York Harbor. The submarine was at once hurried to New Rochelle, carted -overland to the Hudson, and towed down to the city. - -At slack tide on the first calm night after his arrival, Lee screwed -down the conning-tower of the _Turtle_ above his head and set out to -attack the British fleet.[6] Two whaleboats towed him as near as they -dared and then cast off. Running awash, with not more than six or seven -inches of the conning-tower exposed, the submarine crept, silent and -unseen, down the bay and up under the towering stern of his Britannic -Majesty’s 64-gun frigate _Eagle_. - -“When I rowed under the stern of the ship,” wrote Sergeant Lee in after -years, “I could see the men on deck and hear them talk. I then shut -down all the doors, sunk down and came under the bottom of the ship.” - -Up through the top of the submarine ran a long sharp gimlet, not for -boring a hole through the bottom of a ship, but to be screwed into -the wooden hull and left there, to serve as an anchor for a mine. -Tied to the screw and carried on the after-deck of the _Turtle_ was -an egg-shaped “magazine,” made of two hollowed-out pieces of oak and -containing one hundred and fifty pounds of gunpowder, with a clockwork -time-fuse that would begin to run as soon as the operator cast off -the magazine after making fast the screw. Everything seemed ready for -Sergeant Lee to anticipate Lieutenant Commander Von Weddigen by one -hundred and thirty-eight years. - -But no matter how hard the strong-wristed sergeant turned the handle, -he could not drive the screw into the frigate’s hull. The _Eagle_ was -copper-sheathed![7] - -“I pulled along to try another place,” said Lee, “but deviated a -little to one side and immediately rose with great velocity and came -above the surface 2 or 3 feet, between the ship and the daylight, -then sunk again like a porpoise. I hove about to try again, but on -further thought I gave out, knowing that as soon as it was light the -ships’ boats would be rowing in all directions, and I thought the best -generalship was to retreat as fast as I could, as I had 4 miles to go -before passing Governor’s Island. So I jogg’d on as fast as I could.” - -To enable him to steer a course when submerged, Lee had before him a -compass, most ingeniously illuminated with phosphorescent pieces of -rotten wood. But for some reason this proved to be of no use. - -[Illustration: Another Idea of Bushnell’s _Turtle_.] - -“I was obliged to rise up every few minutes to see that I sailed in -the right direction, and for this purpose keeping the machine on the -surface of the water and the doors open. I was much afraid of getting -aground on the island, as the tide of the flood set on the north point. - -“While on my passage up to the city, my course, owing to the above -circumstances, was very crooked and zig-zag, and the enemy’s attention -was drawn towards me from Governor’s Island. When I was abreast of the -fort on the island, 3 or 400 men got upon the parapet to observe me; -at length a number came down to the shore, shoved off a 12 oar’d barge -with 5 or 6 sitters and pulled for me. I eyed them, and when they had -got within 50 or 60 yards of me I let loose the magazine in hopes that -if they should take me they would likewise pick up the magazine, and -then we should all be blown up together. But as kind Providence would -have it, they took fright and returned to the island to my infinite -joy. I then weathered the island, and our people seeing me, came off -with a whaleboat and towed me in. The magazine, after getting a little -past the island, went off with a tremendous explosion, throwing up -large bodies of water to an immense height.” - -A few days afterwards, the British forces landed on Manhattan Island -at what is now the foot of East Thirty-fourth Street, and Washington’s -army hastily withdrew to the Harlem Heights, above One Hundred and -Twenty-fifth Street. A British frigate sailed up the Hudson and -anchored off Bloomingdale, or between Seventy-second and One Hundred -and Tenth Streets, in the same waters where our Atlantic fleet lies -whenever it comes to town. Here Sergeant Lee in the _Turtle_ made two -more attempts. But the first time he was discovered by the watch, -and when he approached again, submerged, the phosphorus-painted cork -that served as an indicator in his crude but ingenious depth-gage, -got caught and deceived him so that he dived completely under the -warship without touching her. Shortly after this, the frigate came -up the river, overhauled the sloop on which the _Turtle_ was being -transported, and sent it to the bottom, submarine and all. - -[Illustration: Ezra Lee. - -Born at Lyme, Conn., Jan. 21, 1749, - -Died at Lyme, Conn., Oct. 29, 1821. - - From original painting in possession of his descendant, Mrs. Daniel - Whitney, 5117 Pulaski Avenue, Germantown, Pa. -] - -“Though I afterwards recovered the vessel,” Bushnell wrote to -Jefferson, “I found it impossible at that time to prosecute the design -any further. I had been in a bad state of health from the beginning -of my undertaking, and was now very unwell; the situation of public -affairs was such that I despaired of obtaining the public attention -and the assistance necessary. I was unable to support myself and the -persons I must have employed had I proceeded. Besides, I found it -absolutely necessary that the operators should acquire more skill in -the management of the vessel before I could expect success, which would -have taken up some time, and no small additional expense. I therefore -gave over the pursuit for that time and waited for a more favorable -opportunity, which never arrived. - -“In the year 1777 I made an attempt from a whaleboat against the -_Cerberus_ frigate, then lying at anchor between Connecticut River and -New London, by drawing a machine against her side by means of a line. -The machine was loaded with powder, to be exploded by a gun-lock, which -was to be unpinioned by an apparatus to be turned by being brought -alongside of the frigate. This machine fell in with a schooner at -anchor astern of the frigate, and concealed from my sight. By some -means or other it was fired, and demolished the schooner and three men, -and blew the only one left alive overboard, who was taken up very much -hurt.[8] - -“After this I fixed several kegs under water, charged with powder, to -explode upon touching anything as they floated along with the tide. -I set them afloat in the Delaware, above the English shipping at -Philadelphia, in December, 1777. I was unacquainted with the river, and -obliged to depend upon a gentleman very imperfectly acquainted with -that part of it, as I afterwards found. We went as near the shipping as -we durst venture; I believe the darkness of the night greatly deceived -him, as it did me. We set them adrift to fall with the ebb upon the -shipping. Had we been within sixty rods I believe they must have fallen -in with them immediately, as I designed; but, as I afterwards found, -they were set adrift much too far distant, and did not arrive until, -after being detained some time by frost, they advanced in the day-time -in a dispersed situation and under great disadvantages. One of them -blew up a boat with several persons in it who imprudently handled it -too freely, and thus gave the British the alarm which brought on the -battle of the kegs.” - -The agitated redcoats lined the banks and blazed away at every bit -of drifting wreckage in the river, as described by a sarcastic -Revolutionary poet in “The Battle of the Kegs.” - - Gallants attend, and hear a friend - Troll forth harmonious ditty, - Strange things I’ll tell that once befell - In Philadelphia city. - - ’Twas early day, as poets say, - Just as the sun was rising, - A soldier stood on a log of wood - And saw a thing surprising. - - As in amaze he stood to gaze, - The truth can’t be denied, sir, - He spied a score of kegs or more - Come floating down the tide, sir. - - * * * * * - - These kegs, I’m told, the rebels hold - Packed up like pickled herring, - And they’re coming down to attack the town, - In this new way of ferrying. - - * * * * * - - Therefore prepare for bloody war, - The kegs must all be routed, - Or surely we despised shall be - And British valor doubted. - - The royal band now ready stand - All ranged in dread array, sir, - With stomach stout to see it out - And make a bloody day, sir. - - The cannon roar from shore to shore, - The small arms make a rattle, - Since wars began, I’m sure no man - E’er saw so strange a battle. - - The kegs, ’tis said, though strongly made, - Of rebel staves and hoops, sir, - Could not oppose their powerful foes, - The conquering British troops, sir. - -David Bushnell was later captured by the British, who failed to -recognize him and soon released him as a harmless civilian. After the -Revolution he went to France, and then to Georgia, where disgusted with -the Government’s neglect of himself and his invention he changed his -name to “Dr. Bush.” He was eighty-four years old when he died in 1826. -His identity was then revealed in his will. - -Bushnell found the submarine boat a useless plaything and made it a -formidable weapon. To him it owes the propellor, the conning-tower, -and the first suggestion of the torpedo. The _Turtle_ was not only the -first American submarine but the forerunner of the undersea destroyer -of to-day. - -“I thought and still think that it was an effort of genius,” declared -George Washington to Thomas Jefferson, “but that too many things were -necessary to be combined to expect much against an enemy who are always -on guard.” - - - - -CHAPTER III - -ROBERT FULTON’S “NAUTILUS” - - -Robert Fulton was probably the first American who ever went to Paris -for the purpose of selling war-supplies to the French government. -Unlike his compatriots of to-day, he found anything but a ready market. -For three years, beginning in 1797, Fulton tried constantly but vainly -to interest the Directory in his plans for a submarine. Though a -commission appointed to examine his designs reported favorably, the -minister of marine would have nothing to do with them. Fulton built a -beautiful little model submarine of mahogany and exhibited it, but with -no results. He made an equally fruitless attempt to sell his invention -to Holland, then called the Batavian Republic. Nobody seemed to have -the slightest belief or interest in submarines. - -But Fulton was a persistent man or he would never have got his name -into the history books. He stayed in Paris, where his friend Joel -Barlow was American minister, and supported himself by inventing and -exhibiting what he called “the pictures”: the first moving pictures -the world had ever seen. These were panoramas, where the picture was -not thrown on the screen by a lantern but painted on it, and the long -roll of painted canvas was unrolled like a film between two large -spools on opposite sides of the stage. Very few people remember that -Robert Fulton invented the panorama, though only a generation ago the -great panorama of the battle of Gettysburg drew and thrilled as large -audiences as a film like “The Birth of a Nation” does to-day. Fulton -painted his own panoramas himself, for he was an artist before he was -an engineer. He made three of them and had to build a separate little -theater to show each one in. The Parisians were so well pleased with -this novelty that they made up a song about the panoramas, and the -street where the most popular of the three was shown is still called -“La Rue Fulton.” The picture that won the inventor this honor was a -panorama of the burning of Moscow--not the burning of the city to -drive out Napoleon, for that came a dozen years later, but an earlier -conflagration, some time in the eighteenth century. - -Napoleon overthrew the Directory and became First Consul and absolute -ruler of France in 1800. He appointed three expert naval engineers to -examine Fulton’s plans, and on their approval, Napoleon advanced him -10,000 francs to build a submarine. - -Construction was begun at once and the boat was finished in May, 1801. -She was a remarkably modern-looking craft, and a great improvement on -everything that had gone before. She was the first submarine to have a -fish-shaped, metal hull. It was built of copper plating on iron ribs, -and was 21 feet 3 inches long and 6 feet 5 inches in diameter at the -thickest point, which was well forward. A heavy keel gave stability and -immediately above it were the water-ballast tanks for submerging the -vessel. Two men propelled the boat when beneath the surface by turning -a hand-winch geared to the shaft of a two-bladed, metal propellor. -(Fulton called the propellor a “fly,” and got the idea of it from the -little windmill-shaped device placed in the throat of an old-fashioned -fireplace to be revolved by the hot air passing up the chimney and used -to turn the roasting-spit in many a French kitchen for centuries past.) -The third member of the crew stood in the dome-shaped conning-tower -and steered, while Fulton himself controlled the pumps, valves, and -the diving-planes or horizontal rudders that steered the submarine up -and down. Instead of forcing his boat under with a vertical-acting -screw, like Bushnell and Nordenfelt (see pages 16 and 62), Fulton, -like Holland, made her dive bow-foremost by depressing her nose with -the diving-planes and shoving her under by driving her ahead. Fulton -was also the first to give a submarine separate means of propulsion -for above and below the surface. Just as a modern undersea boat uses -oil-engines whenever it can and saves its storage batteries for use -when submerged, Fulton spared the strength of his screw by rigging -the _Nautilus_ with a mast and sail. By pulling a rope from inside -the vessel, the sail could be shut up like a fan, and the hinged mast -lowered and stowed away in a groove on deck. Later a jib was added to -the mainsail, and the two combined gave the _Nautilus_ a surface speed -of two knots an hour. She is the only submarine on record that could go -faster below the water than above it, for her two-man-power propellor -bettered this by half a knot. - -[Illustration: The _Nautilus_, Invented by Robert Fulton. - - A-B, Hull; C-D, Keel; E-E, Pumps; F, Conning Tower; G, Bulkhead; - H, Propellor; I, Vertical Rudder; L, Horizontal Rudder - (diving-plane); M, Pivot attaching horizontal to vertical - rudder; N, Gear controlling horizontal rudder; O, “Horn of the - _Nautilus_;” P, Torpedo; Q, Hull of vessel attacked; X, Anchor; - Y, Mast and sail for use on surface. -] - -Her method of attack was the same as the _Turtle’s_. Up through the -top of the conning-tower projected what Fulton called the “Horn of the -Nautilus.” This was an eyeleted spike, to be driven into the bottom of -a hostile ship and left there. From a windlass carried in a water-tight -forward compartment of the submarine, a thin, strong tow-rope ran -through the eyehole in the spike to the trigger of a flintlock inside -a copper case nearly full of gunpowder, which was not carried on deck, -as on the _Turtle_, but towed some distance astern. As soon as this -powder-case came to a full stop against the spike, the tow-rope would -pull the trigger. - -Robert Fulton felt the lack of a distinctive name for such an -under-water charge of explosives, till he thought of its likeness to -the electric ray, that storage battery of a fish that gives a most -unpleasant shock to any one touching it. So he took the first half of -this creature’s scientific name: _Torpedo electricus_. Fulton had a -knack for picking good names. He called his submarine the _Nautilus_ -because it had a sail which it opened and folded away even as the -beautiful shellfish of that name was supposed to furl and unfurl its -large, sail-like membrane. - -On her first trial on the Seine at Paris, in May, 1801, the _Nautilus_ -remained submerged for twenty minutes with Fulton and one other -man on board, and a lighted candle for them to navigate by. This -consumed too much air, however, so a small glass window was placed -in the conning-tower, and gave light enough instead. Four men were -then able to remain under for an hour. After that, Fulton made the -first compressed-air tank, a copper globe containing a cubic foot -of compressed air, by drawing on which the submarine’s crew could -stay under for six hours. This was in the harbor of Brest, where the -_Nautilus_ had been taken overland. A trial attack was made on an old -bulk, which was successfully blown up. The submarine also proved its -ability either to furl its sails and dive quickly out of sight, or to -cruise for a considerable distance on the surface. Once it sailed for -seventy miles down the English Channel. - -Fulton had planned a submarine campaign for scaring the British navy -and merchant marine out of the narrow seas and so bringing Great -Britain to her knees, more than a century before the German emperor -proclaimed his famous “war zone” around the British Isles. In one of -his letters to the Directory, the American inventor declared that: - -“The enormous commerce of England, no less than its monstrous -Government, depends upon its military marine. Should some vessels of -war be destroyed by means so novel, so hidden, and so incalculable, the -confidence of the seamen will vanish and the fleet will be rendered -useless from the moment of the first terror.” - -To a friend in America, Fulton wrote from Paris on November 20, 1798: - -“I would ask any one if all the American difficulties during this war -are not owing to the naval systems of Europe and a licensed robbery -on the ocean? How then is America to prevent this? Certainly not by -attempting to build a fleet to cope with the fleets of Europe, but if -possible by rendering the European fleets useless.” - -Fulton began his campaign by an attack on two brigs, the nearest -vessels of the English blockading fleet. But whenever the _Nautilus_ -left port for this purpose, both brigs promptly stood out to sea and -remained there till the submarine went home. Unknown to Fulton, his -actions were being closely watched by the English secret service, whose -spies were always able to send a timely warning to the British fleet. -During the day time, when the _Nautilus_ was about, the warships were -kept under full sail, with lookouts in the crosstrees watching with -telescopes for the first glimpse of its sail or conning-tower. At -night, the frigates and ships-of-the-line were guarded by picket-boats -rowing round and round them, just as modern dreadnoughts are guarded by -destroyers. - -Disappointed by the lack of results, the French naval authorities -refused either to let Fulton build a larger and more efficient -submarine, or to grant commissions in the navy to him and his crew. He -wanted some assurance that in case they were captured they would not -be hanged by the British, who then as now denounced submarine warfare -by others as little better than piracy. To guarantee their own safety, -Fulton proposed that the French government threaten to retaliate by -hanging an equal number of English prisoners, but it was pointed out -to him that this would only lead to further executions by the British, -who had many more French prisoners of war than there were captive -Englishmen in France. - -Napoleon had lost faith in the submarine, nor could Fulton interest -him in a steamboat which he now built and operated on the Seine, till -it was sunk by the weight of the machinery breaking the hull in two. -So Fulton quit France and crossed over to England, where Mr. Pitt, the -prime minister, was very much interested in his inventions. - -Fulton succeeded in planting one of his torpedoes under an old empty -Danish brig, the _Dorothea_, in Deal Harbor, in front of Walmer Castle, -Pitt’s own residence, on October 15, 1805. The prime minister had had -to hurry back to London, but there were many naval officers present, -and one of them declared loudly that he would be quite unconcerned -if he were sitting at dinner at that moment in the cabin of the -_Dorothea_. Ten minutes later the clockwork ran out and the torpedo -exploded, breaking the brig in two amidships and hurling the fragments -high in the air. The success of this experiment was not entirely -pleasing to the heads of the British navy. Their opinion was voiced by -Admiral Lord St. Vincent, who declared that: - -“Pitt was the greatest fool that ever existed, to encourage a mode -of war which they who command the seas did not want and which if -successful would deprive them of it.” - -[Illustration: Destruction of the _Dorothea_. - -From a woodcut by Robert Fulton.] - -Six days after the destruction of the _Dorothea_, the sea-power of -France was broken by Nelson at the battle of Trafalgar. Napoleon now -gave up all hope of gaining the few hours’ control of the Channel that -would have enabled him to invade England, and broke up the camp of -his Grand Army that had waited so long at Boulogne. With this danger -gone, England was no longer interested in submarines and torpedoes. So -Fulton returned to America, to build the _Clairmont_ and win his place -in history. But to him, steam navigation was far less important than -submarine warfare. In the letter to his old friend Joel Barlow, dated -New York, August 22, 1807, in which he described the first voyage of -the _Clairmont_ up the Hudson, Fulton said: - -“However, I will not admit that it is half so important as the torpedo -system of defense or attack, for out of this will grow the liberty of -the seas--an object of infinite importance to the welfare of America -and every civilized country. But thousands of witnesses have now seen -the steamboat in rapid movement and they believe; but they have not -seen a ship of war destroyed by a torpedo, and they do not believe. We -cannot expect people in general to have knowledge of physics or power -to reason from cause to effect, but in case we have war and the enemy’s -ships come into our waters, if the government will give me reasonable -means of action, I will soon convince the world that we have surer and -cheaper modes of defense than they are aware of.” - -Fulton had been having his troubles with the navy department. Soon -after his return to this country he had made his usual demonstration -of torpedoing a small anchored vessel, but it was not until 1810 that -he was given the opportunity to make a test attack on a United States -warship. But stout old Commodore Rogers, who had been entrusted with -the defense of the brig _Argus_, under which Fulton was to plant a -torpedo, anchored the vessel in shallow water, stretched a tight wall -of spars and netting all round her, and successfully defied the -inventor to blow her up. Even a modern destroyer or submarine would -be puzzled to get past this defense. Though compelled to admit his -failure, Fulton pointed out that “a system then in its infancy, which -compelled a hostile vessel to guard herself by such extraordinary -means, could not fail of becoming a most important mode of warfare.” - -It was a great triumph for conservatism--the same spirit of -conservatism that threatens to send our navy into its next war with -no battle-cruisers, too few scouts and sea-planes, and the slowest -dreadnoughts in the world. Though Fulton published a wonderful -little book on “Torpedo War and Submarine Explosions” in New York in -1810, the United States navy made no use of it in the War of 1812. -A privateer submarine from Connecticut made three dives under the -British battleship _Ramillies_ off New London, but failed to attach -a torpedo for the old reason: copper sheathing. Further attacks were -prevented by the captain of the _Ramillies_, who gave notice that he -had had a number of American prisoners placed on board as hostages. -Fulton himself was hard at work superintending the building both of the -_Demologos_, the first steam-propelled battleship, and the _Mute_, a -large armored submarine that was to carry a silent engine and a crew of -eighty men, when he died in 1815. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -SUBMARINES IN THE CIVIL WAR - - -The most powerful battleship in the world, half a century ago, was the -U.S.S. _New Ironsides_. She was a wooden-hulled, ship-rigged steamer -of 3486 tons displacement--about one tenth the size of a modern -superdreadnought--her sides plated with four inches of iron armor, and -carrying twenty heavy guns. On the night of October 5, 1863, the _New -Ironsides_ was on blockade duty off Charleston Harbor, when Ensign -Howard, the officer of the deck, saw something approaching that looked -like a floating plank. He hailed it, and was answered by a rifle ball -that stretched him, mortally wounded, on the deck. An instant later -came the flash and roar of a tremendous explosion, a column of water -shot high into the air alongside, and the _New Ironsides_ was shaken -violently from stem to stern. - -The Confederate submarine _David_ had crept up and driven a -spar-torpedo against Goliath’s armor. - -But except for a few splintered timbers, a flooded engine-room, and a -marine’s broken leg, no damage had been done. As the Confederate craft -was too close and too low in the water for the broadside guns to bear, -the crew of the ironclad lined the rail and poured volley after volley -of musketry into their dimly seen adversary till she drifted away into -the night. Her crew of seven men had dived overboard at the moment of -impact, and were all picked up by different vessels of the blockading -fleet, except the engineer and one other, who swam back to the _David_, -started her engine again, and brought her safely home to Charleston. - -[Illustration: Views of a Confederate _David_. - -From Scharf’s History of the Confederate States Navy.] - -The _David_ was a cigar-shaped steam launch, fifty-four feet long -and six feet broad at the thickest point. Projecting from her bow -was a fifteen-foot spar, with a torpedo charged with sixty pounds of -gunpowder at the end of it. This was exploded by the heat given off by -certain chemicals, after they were shaken up together by the impact -of the torpedo against the enemy’s ship. The _David_, steaming at her -full speed of seven knots an hour, struck squarely against the _New -Ironsides_ at the water-line and rebounded to a distance of seven or -eight feet before this clumsy detonator could do its work. When the -explosion came, the intervening body of water prevented it from doing -any great damage. - -The _David_ was not a true submarine but a surface torpedo boat, that -could be submerged till only the funnel and a small pilot-house were -exposed. A number of other _Davids_ were built and operated by the -Confederate States navy, but the first of them was the only one to -accomplish anything. - -[Illustration: C. S. S. _Hundley_. - -The Only Submarine to sink a Hostile Warship before the Outbreak of the -Present War.] - -The one real submarine possessed by the Confederacy was not a _David_, -though she is usually so called. This was the C.S.S. _Hundley_, a -hand-power “diving-boat” not unlike Fulton’s _Nautilus_, but very -much clumsier and harder to manage. She had ballast tanks and a pair -of diving-planes for steering her up and down, and she was designed -to attack an enemy’s ship by swimming under it, towing a torpedo that -would explode on striking her opponent’s keel. - -The _Hundley_ was built at Mobile, Alabama, by the firm of Hundley and -McKlintock, named for the senior partner, and brought to Charleston on -a flatcar. There she was manned by a crew of nine volunteers, eight of -whom sat in a row and turned the cranks on the propellor-shaft, while -the ninth man steered. There was no conning-tower and the forward -hatchway had to be left open for the helmsman to look out of while -running on the surface. On the _Hundley’s_ first practice cruise, -the wash from the paddle-wheels of a passing steamer poured suddenly -down the open hatchway. Only the steersman and commanding officer, -Lieutenant Payne, had time to save himself before the submarine sank, -drowning the rest of her crew. - -The boat was raised and Payne took her out with a new crew. This time -a sudden squall sank her before they could close the hatches, and -Payne escaped, with two of his men. He tried a third time, only to be -capsized off Fort Sumter, with the loss of four of his crew. On the -fourth trip, the hatches were closed, the tanks filled, and an attempt -was made to navigate beneath the surface. But the _Hundley_ dived too -suddenly, stuck her nose deep into the muddy bottom, and stayed there -till her entire crew were suffocated. On the fifth trial she became -entangled in the cable of an anchored vessel, with the same result. - -By this time the submarine’s victims numbered thirty-five, and the -Confederates had nicknamed her the “Peripatetic Coffin.” But at the -sixth call for volunteers, they still came forward. It was decided to -risk no more lives on practice trips but to attack at once. In spite of -the protests of Mr. Hundley, the designer of the craft, her latest and -last commander, Lieutenant Dixon of the 21st South Carolina Infantry, -was ordered by General Beauregard to use the vessel as a surface -torpedo-boat, submerged to the hatch-coaming and with the hatches -open. A spar-torpedo, to be exploded by pulling a trigger with a light -line running back into the boat, was mounted on the bow. Thus armed, -and manned by Lieutenant Dixon, Captain Carlson, and five enlisted -men of their regiment, the little _Hundley_ put out over Charleston -bar on the night of February 17, 1864, to attack some vessel of the -blockading fleet. This proved to be the U.S.S. _Housatonic_, a fine new -thirteen-gun corvette of 1264 tons. What followed is best described by -Admiral David Porter in his “Naval History of the Civil War.” - -“At about 8.45 P.M., the officer of the deck on board the unfortunate -vessel discovered something about 100 yards away, moving along the -water. It came directly towards the ship, and within two minutes of -the time it was first sighted was alongside. The cable was slipped, -the engines backed, and all hands called to quarters. But it was too -late--the torpedo struck the _Housatonic_ just forward of the mainmast, -on the starboard side, on a line with the magazine. The man who steered -her (the _Hundley_) knew where the vital spots of the steamer were and -he did his work well. When the explosion took place the ship trembled -all over as if by the shock of an earthquake, and seemed to be lifted -out of the water, and then sank stern-foremost, heeling to port as she -went down.” - -The _Hundley_ was not seen after the explosion, and it was supposed -that she had backed away and escaped. But when peace came, and -Charleston Harbor was being cleared of the wrecks with which war had -clogged it, the divers sent down to inspect the _Housatonic_ found the -_Hundley_ lying beside her. Sucked in by the rush of the water through -the hole her torpedo had made, she had been caught and dragged down by -her own victim. All the _Hundley’s_ crew were found dead within her. So -perished the first and last submarine to sink a hostile warship, before -the outbreak of the present war. A smaller underwater boat of the same -type was privately built at New Orleans at the beginning of the war, -lost on her trial trip, and not brought up again till after peace was -declared. - -The North had a hand-power submarine, that was built at the Georgetown -Navy Yard in 1862. It was designed by a Frenchman, whose name is now -forgotten but who might have been a contemporary of Cornelius Van -Drebel. Except that its hull was of steel instead of wood and greased -leather, this first submarine of the United States navy was no better -than an eel-boat of the seventeenth century. It was propelled by eight -pairs of oars, with hinged blades that folded up like a book on the -return stroke. The boat was thirty-five feet long and six in diameter, -and was rowed by sixteen men. It was submerged by flooding ballast -tanks. There was an oxygen tank and an apparatus for purifying the -used air by blowing it over lime. A spar-torpedo was to be run out on -rollers in the bow. - -Ten thousand dollars was paid to the inventor of this medieval -leftover, and he prudently left the country before he could be called -on to operate it, though he had been promised a reward of five thousand -dollars for every Confederate ironclad he succeeded in blowing up. Like -the first _Monitor_, this nameless submarine was lost in a storm off -Cape Hatteras, while being towed by a steamer. - -After the loss of the _Housatonic_, the North built two -semi-submersible steam torpedo-boats on the same idea as the _David_, -but larger and faster. Both were armed with spar-torpedoes and fitted -with ballast tanks to sink them very low in the water when they -attacked. The smaller of the two, the _Stromboli_, could be submerged -till only her pilot-house, smoke-stack, and one ventilator showed above -the water. The other boat was called the _Spuyten Duyvil_. She could -be sunk till her deck, which was covered with three inches of iron -armor, was level with the water, but she bristled with masts, funnels, -conning-towers, ventilators, and other excrescences that sprouted out -of her hull at the most unexpected places. Neither of these craft was -ever used in action. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE WHITEHEAD TORPEDO - - -How best to float a charge of explosives against the hull of an enemy’s -ship and there explode it is the great problem of torpedo warfare. -The spar-torpedo, that did such effective work in the Civil War, was -little more than a can of gunpowder on the end of a stick. This stick -or spar was mounted usually on the bow of a steam-launch, either -partially submerged, like the _David_, or boldly running on the surface -over log-booms and through a hail of bullets and grapeshot, as when -Lieutenant Cushing sank the Confederate ironclad _Albemarle_. Once -alongside, the spar-torpedo was run out to its full length, raised, -depressed, and finally fired by pulling different ropes. So small was -the chance of success and so great the danger to the launch’s crew that -naval officers and inventors all the world over sought constantly for -some surer and safer way. - -Early in the sixties, an Austrian artillery officer attached to the -coast defenses conceived the idea of sending out the launch without a -crew. He made some drawings of a big toy boat, to be driven by steam or -hot air or even by clockwork, and steered from the shore by long ropes. -As it would have no crew, this boat could carry the explosives in its -hull, and the spars which were to project from it in all directions -would carry no torpedoes themselves but would serve to explode the -boat’s cargo of guncotton by firing a pistol into it, as soon as one of -the spars came into contact with the target. Before he could carry out -his ideas any further, this officer died and his plans were turned over -to Captain Lupuis of the Austrian navy. Lupuis experimented diligently -with surface torpedoes till 1864, but found that he would have to -discover some better steering-device than ropes from the shore and some -other motive-power than steam or clockwork. So he consulted with Mr. -Whitehead, the English manager of a firm of engine manufacturers at the -seaport of Fiume. - -Whitehead gave the torpedo a fish-shaped hull, so that it could run -beneath instead of on the surface. For motive-power he used compressed -air, which proved much superior to either steam or clockwork. And by -improving its rudders, he enabled the little craft to keep its course -without the aid of guide-ropes from the shore. The chief defect of the -first Whitehead torpedoes, which were finished and tried in 1866, was -that they kept bobbing to the surface, or else they would dive too -deep and pass harmlessly under the target. To correct this defect, -Whitehead invented by 1868 what he called the “balance chamber.” Then, -as now, each torpedo was divided into a number of separate compartments -or chambers, and in one of these the inventor placed a most ingenious -device for keeping the torpedo at a uniform depth. The contents of the -balance-chamber was Whitehead’s great secret, and it was not revealed -to the public for twenty years. - -The automobile or, as it was then called, the “submarine locomotive” -torpedo was now a practicable, though by no means perfected, weapon, -and the Austrian naval authorities gave it a thorough trial at Fiume -in 1868. Whitehead rigged up a crude ejecting tube on the bow of a -gunboat, and successfully discharged two of his torpedoes at a yacht. -The Austrian government promptly adopted the weapon, but could not -obtain a monopoly of it, for Whitehead was a patriotic Englishman. -The British admiralty invited him to England two years later, and -after careful trials of its own, induced the English government to buy -Whitehead’s secret and manufacturing rights for $45,000. Other nations -soon added “Whiteheads” to their navies, and in 1873 there was built in -Norway a large, fast steam launch for the express purpose of carrying -torpedoes and discharging them at an enemy. Every one began to build -larger and swifter launches, till they evolved the torpedo-boat and the -destroyer of to-day. - -The torpedo itself has undergone a similar development in size and -efficiency. The difference between the Whiteheads of forty-five years -ago and those of to-day is strikingly shown in the following table: - - BRITISH NAVAL TORPEDOES OF 1870 - - _Length, _Diameter, _Charge, _Range, _Speed, - Feet_ Inches_ Pounds_ Yards_ Knots_ - - Large 14 16 67 600 7.5 - guncotton - - Small 13 10.58 in. 14 18 200 8.5 - dynamite - - BRITISH NAVAL TORPEDOES OF 1915 - - Large 21 21 330 12,000 48 - guncotton - - Small 18 18 200 16,000 36 - guncotton - -The length of a large modern torpedo, it will be observed, is only -three inches less than that of Fulton’s famous submarine boat of 1801. -A Whitehead torpedo is really a small automatic submarine, steered and -controlled by the most ingenious and sensitive machinery, as surely as -if it were manned by a crew of Lilliputian seamen. - -Projecting from the head is the “striker,” a rod which, when the -torpedo runs into anything hard, is driven back in against a detonator -or “percussion-cap” of fulminate of mercury. Just as the hammer of -a toy “cap-pistol” explodes a paper cap, so the sudden shock of the -in-driven striker explodes the fulminate, which is instantly expanded -to more than two thousand times its former size. This, in turn, gives a -severe blow to the surrounding “primer” of dry guncotton. The primer is -exploded, and by its own expansion sets off the main charge of several -hundred pounds of wet guncotton. - -The reason for this is that though wet guncotton is safe to handle -because a very great shock is required to make it explode, dry -guncotton is much less so, while a shell or torpedo filled with -fulminate of mercury would be more dangerous to its owners than to -their enemies, because the slightest jar might set it off prematurely. -Every precaution is taken to prevent a torpedo’s exploding too soon and -damaging the vessel from which it is fired. - -When the torpedo is shot out of the tube, by compressed air, like a pea -from a pea-shooter, the striker is held fast by the “jammer”: a small -propellor-shaped collar, whose blades begin to revolve as soon as they -strike the water, till the collar has unscrewed itself and dropped off -after the torpedo has traveled about forty feet. A copper pin that runs -through the striker-rod is not removed but must be broken short off by -a blow of considerable violence, such as would be given by running into -a ship’s hull. As a third safeguard, there is a strong safety-catch, -that must be released by hand, just before the torpedo is placed in the -tube. - -The explosive charge of two or three hundred pounds of wet guncotton -is called the “war-head.” In peace and for target-practice it is -replaced by a dummy head of thick steel. The usual target is the space -between two buoys moored a ship’s length or less apart. At the end -of a practice run, the torpedo rises to the surface, where it can be -recovered and used again. This is distinctly worth while, for a modern -torpedo costs more than seven thousand dollars. - -Back of the war-head is the air-chamber, that contains the motive-power -of this miniature submarine. The air is either packed into it by -powerful pumps, on shore or shipboard, or else drawn from one of the -storage flasks of compressed air, a number of which are carried on -every submarine. The air-chamber of a modern torpedo is charged at a -pressure of from 2000 to 2500 pounds per square inch. As the torpedo -leaves the tube, a lever on its back is struck and knocked over by -a little projecting piece of metal, and the starting-valve of the -air-chamber is opened. But if the compressed air were allowed to -reach and start the engines at once, they would begin to revolve the -propellors while they were still in the air inside the tube. This would -cause the screws to “race,” or spin round too rapidly and perhaps -break off. So there is a “delaying-valve,” which keeps the air away -from the engines till another valve-lever is swung over by the impact -of the water against a little metal flap. - -As the compressed air rushes through the pipe from the chamber to the -engine-room, it passes through a “reducing-valve,” which keeps it from -spurting at the start and lagging at the finish. By supplying the air -to the engines at a reduced but uniform pressure, this device enables -the torpedo to maintain the same speed throughout the run. At the same -time the compressed air is heated by a small jet of burning oil, with a -consequent increase in pressure, power, and speed, estimated at 30 per -cent. All these devices are kept not in the air-chamber itself but in -the next compartment, the balance-chamber. - -Here is the famous little machine, once a close-kept secret but now -known to all the world, that holds the torpedo at any desired depth. -Think of a push-button, working in a tube open to the sea, with the -water pressure pushing the button in and a spiral spring inside shoving -it out. This push-button--called a “hydrostatic valve”--is connected -by a system of levers with the two diving-planes or horizontal rudders -that steer the torpedo up or down. By turning a screw, the spring -can be adjusted to exert a force equal to the pressure of the water -at any given depth. If the torpedo dives too deep, the increased -water-pressure forces in the valve, moves the levers, raises the -diving-planes, and steers the torpedo towards the surface. As the water -pressure grows less, the spring forces out the valve, depresses the -diving-planes, and brings the miniature submarine down to its proper -depth again. When his torpedoes grew too big to be controlled by the -comparatively feeble force exerted by the hydrostatic valve, Whitehead -invented the “servo-motor”: an auxiliary, compressed-air engine, less -than five inches long, sensitive enough to respond to the slightest -movement of the valve levers but strong enough to steer the largest -torpedo, exactly as the steam steering-gear moves the huge rudder of an -ocean liner. - -There is also a heavy pendulum, swinging fore and aft and attached to -the diving-planes, that checks any sudden up-or-down movement of the -torpedo by inclining the planes and restoring the horizontal position. - -Next comes the engine-room, with its three-cylinder motor, capable of -developing from thirty-five to fifty-five horse-power. The exhaust air -from the engine passes out through the stern in a constant stream of -bubbles, leaving a broad white streak on the surface of the water as -the torpedo speeds to its mark. - -The aftermost compartment is called the buoyancy chamber. Besides -adding to the floatability of the torpedo, this space also holds the -engine shaft and the gear attaching it to the twin propellors. The -first Whiteheads were single-screw boats. But the revolution of the -propellor in one direction set up a reaction that caused the torpedo -itself to partially revolve or heel over in the other, disturbing its -rudders and swerving it from its course. This reaction is neutralized -by using two propellers, one revolving to the right, the other to the -left. Instead of being placed side by side, as on a steamer, they are -mounted one behind the other, with the shaft of one revolving inside -the hollow shaft of the other, and in the opposite direction. - -Long after they could be depended on to keep a proper depth, the -Whiteheads and other self-propelled torpedoes were liable to swing -suddenly to port or starboard, or even turn completely round. During -the war between Chile and Peru, in 1879, the Peruvian ironclad -_Huascar_ discharged an automobile torpedo that went halfway to the -target, changed its mind, and was coming back to blow up its owners -when an officer swam out to meet it and succeeded in turning it aside, -for the torpedoes of that time were slow and small as well as erratic. - -Nowadays a torpedo is kept on a straight course by a gyroscope placed -in the buoyancy chamber. Nearly every boy knows the gyroscopic top, -like a little flywheel, that you can spin on the edge of a tumbler. -The upper part of this toy is a heavy little metal wheel, and if you -try to push it over while it is spinning, it resists and pushes back, -as if it were alive. A similar wheel, weighing about two pounds, is -placed in the buoyancy chamber of a Whitehead. When the torpedo starts, -it releases either a powerful spring or an auxiliary compressed air -engine that sets the gyroscope to spinning at more than two thousand -revolutions a minute. It revolves vertically, in the fore-and-aft line -of the torpedo, and is mounted on a pivoted stand. If the torpedo -deviates from its straight course, the gyroscope does not, and the -consequent change in their relative positions brings the flywheel into -contact with a lever running to the servo-motor that controls the two -vertical rudders, which soon set the torpedo right again. - -[Illustration: Cross-section of a Whitehead Torpedo. - -Redrawn from the Illustrated London News. - - A, Striker which, when driven in, fires the charge; B, Safety - pin, which is removed just before the torpedo is discharged; - C, Detonating charge; D, Explosive-head, or war-head; filled - with guncotton; E, Primer charge of dry guncotton in cylinder; - F, Balance chamber; G, Starting pin; H, Buoyancy chamber; - I, Propellor shaft; J, Vertical rudder; K, Twin screws; L, - Horizontal rudder; M, Gyroscope controlling torpedo’s course; - N, Engines propelling machinery; O, Pendulum acting on the - horizontal rudder which controls the depth of submergence; P, - Hydrostatic valve; Q, Air-chamber, filled with compressed air; - provides motive-power for the engines; R, “Jammer” or release - propellor. -] - -Thus guided and driven, a modern torpedo speeds swiftly and surely to -its target, there to blow itself into a thousand pieces, with a force -sufficient to sink a ship a thousand times its size. - -The Whitehead is used by every navy in the world except the German, -which has its own torpedo: the “Schwartzkopf.” This, however, is -practically identical with the Whitehead, except that its hull is -made of bronze instead of steel and its war-head is charged with -trinitrotuluol, or T.N.T., a much more powerful explosive than -guncotton. - -After the Russo-Japanese War, when several Russian battleships kept -afloat although they had been struck by Japanese torpedoes, many naval -experts declared that an exploding war-head spent most of its energy in -throwing a great column of water up into the air, instead of blowing -in the side of the ship. So Commander Davis of the United States navy -invented his “gun-torpedo.” This is like a Whitehead in every respect -except that instead of a charge of guncotton it carries in its head -a short eight-inch cannon loaded with an armor-piercing shell and a -small charge of powder. In this type of torpedo, the impact of the -striker against the target serves to fire the gun. The shell then -passes easily through the thin side of the ship below the armor-belt -and through any protecting coal-bunkers and bulkheads it may encounter, -till it reaches the ship’s vitals, where it is exploded by the delayed -action of an adjustable time-fuse. What would happen if it burst in -a magazine or boiler-room is best left to the imagination. Several -Davis gun-torpedoes have been built and used against targets with very -satisfactory results, but they have not yet been used in actual warfare. - -[Illustration: - - Courtesy of the Electric Boat Company. - -Davis Gun-Torpedo after discharge, showing eight-inch gun forward of -air-flask.] - -Mr. Edward F. Chandler, M.E., one of the foremost torpedo-experts in -America, is dissatisfied with the compressed-air driven gyroscope, -both because it does not begin to revolve till after the torpedo has -been launched and perhaps deflected from its true course, and because -it cannot be made to spin continuously throughout the long run of a -modern torpedo. He proposes to remove the compressed-air servo-motors, -both for this purpose and for controlling the horizontal rudders by -the hydrostatic valve, and replace them with an electrical-driven -gyroscope and depth-gear. The increased efficiency of the latter would -enable him to get rid of the heavy, uncertain pendulum, thus allowing -for the weight of the storage batteries. Mr. Chandler declares that -his electrically-controlled torpedo can be lowered over the side of a -small boat, headed in any desired direction, and started, without any -launching-tube.[9] - -[Illustration: - - Courtesy of the Electric Boat Company. - -Effect of Davis Gun-Torpedo on a specially-constructed target.] - -Though the automobile torpedo has been brought to so high a state -of perfection, the original idea of steering from the shore has not -been abandoned. The Brennan and Sims-Edison controllable torpedoes -were driven and steered by electricity, receiving the current through -wires trailed astern and carrying little masts and flags above the -surface to guide the operator on shore. But these also served as a -warning to the enemy and gave him too good a chance either to avoid the -torpedo or destroy it with machine-gun fire. Then, too, the trailing -wires reduced its speed and were always liable to get tangled in the -propellors. Controllable torpedoes of this type were abandoned before -the outbreak of the present war and will probably never be used in -action. - -A new and more promising sort of controllable torpedo was immediately -suggested by the invention of wireless telegraphy. Many inventors have -been working to perfect such a weapon, and a young American engineer, -Mr. John Hays Hammond, Jr., seems to have succeeded. From his wireless -station on shore, Mr. Hammond can make a small, crewless electric -launch run hither and yon as he pleases about the harbor of Gloucester, -Massachusetts. The commander and many of the officers of the United -States coast artillery corps have carefully inspected and tested this -craft, which promises to be the forerunner of a new and most formidable -species of coast defense torpedo. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -FREAKS AND FAILURES - - -During the half-century following the death of Fulton, scarcely a -year went by without the designing or launching of a new man-power -submarine. Some of these boats, notably those of the Bavarian Wilhelm -Bauer, were surprisingly good, others were most amazingly bad, but none -of them led to anything better. Inventor after inventor wasted his -substance discovering what Van Drebel, Bushnell, and Fulton had known -before him, only to die and have the same facts painfully rediscovered -by some one on the other side of the earth. - -A striking example of this lack of progress is Halstead’s _Intelligent -Whale_. Built for the United States navy at New York, in the winter -of 1864-5, this craft is no more modern and much less efficient -than Fulton’s _Nautilus_ of 1801. The _Intelligent Whale_ is a fat, -cigar-shaped, iron vessel propelled by a screw cranked by manpower and -submerged by dropping two heavy anchors to the bottom and then warping -the boat down to any desired depth. A diver can then emerge from a -door in the submarine’s bottom, to place a mine under a hostile ship. -It was not until 1872 that the _Intelligent Whale_ was sent on a trial -trip in Newark Bay. Manned by an utterly inexperienced and very nervous -crew, the clumsy submarine got entirely out of control and had to be -hauled up by a cable that had been thoughtfully attached to her before -she went down. Fortunately no lives had been lost, but the wildest -stories were told and printed, till the imaginary death-roll ran up to -forty-nine. The _Intelligent Whale_ was hauled up on dry land and can -still be seen on exhibition at the corner of Third Street and Perry -Avenue in the Brooklyn Navy Yard. - -Lack of motive-power was the reason why man-sized submarines lagged -behind their little automatic brethren, the Whitehead torpedoes. -Compressed air was just the thing for a spurt, but when two Frenchmen, -Captain Bourgois and M. Brun, built the _Plongeur_, a steel submarine -146 feet long and 12 feet in diameter, at Rochefort in 1863, and fitted -it with an eighty-horse-power, compressed-air engine, they discovered -that the storage-flasks emptied themselves too quickly to permit a -voyage of any length. - -The _Plongeur_ also proved that while you can sink a boat to the -bottom by filling her ballast-tanks or make her rise to the surface by -emptying them, you cannot make her float suspended between two bodies -of water except by holding her there by some mechanical means. Without -anything of the kind, the _Plongeur_ kept bouncing up and down like a -rubber ball. Once her inventors navigated her horizontally for some -distance, only to find that she had been sliding on her stomach along -the soft muddy bottom of a canal. Better results were obtained after -the _Plongeur_ was fitted with a crude pair of diving-planes. But the -inefficiency of her compressed-air engine caused her to be condemned -and turned into a water tank. - -[Illustration: The _Intelligent Whale_. - -Drawn by Lieutenant F. M. Barber, U. S. N., in 1875.] - -Electricity was first applied in 1861 by another Frenchman, named -Olivier Riou. This is the ideal motive-power for underwater boats, and -it was at this time that Jules Verne described the ideal submarine in -his immortal story of “Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea.” But -before we can have a _Nautilus_ like Captain Nemo’s we must discover an -electric storage battery of unheard-of lightness and capacity. - -[Illustration: _Le Plongeur._] - -There was a great revival of French interest in electric submarines -after Admiral Aube, who was a lifelong submarine “fan,” became minister -of marine in 1886. In spite of much ridicule and opposition, he -authorized the construction of a small experimental vessel of this type -called the _Gymnote_. She was a wild little thing that did everything -short of turning somersaults when she dived, but she was enough of -a success to be followed by a larger craft named, after the great -engineer who had designed her predecessor, the _Gustave Zédé_. - -“The history of the _Gustave Zédé_ shows how much in earnest the French -were in the matter of submarines. When she was first launched she was -a failure in almost every respect, and it was only after some years, -during which many alterations and improvements were carried out, that -she became a serviceable craft. At first nothing would induce the -_Gustave Zédé_ to quit the surface, and when at last she did plunge she -did it so effectually that she went down to the bottom in 10 fathoms -of water at an angle of 30 degrees. The committee of engineers were on -board at the time, and it speaks well for their patriotism that they -did not as a result of their unpleasant experience condemn the _Gustave -Zédé_ and advise the government to spend no more money on submarine -craft.”[10] - -Twenty-nine other electric submarines were built for the French navy -between 1886 and 1901. During the same period, a French gentleman -named M. Goubet built and experimented with two very small electric -submarines, each of which was manned by two men, who sat back to back -on a sort of settee stuffed with machinery. Little or big, all these -French boats had the same fatal defect: lack of power. Their storage -batteries, called on to propel them above, as well as below, the -surface, became exhausted after a few hours’ cruising. They were as -useless for practical naval warfare as an electric run-about would be -to haul guns or carry supplies in Flanders. - -But if compressed-air and electricity were too quickly exhausted, -gasoline or petroleum was even less practicable for submarine -navigation. To set an oil-engine, that derives its power from the -explosion of a mixture of oil-vapor and air, at work in a small -closed space like the interior of a submarine, would soon make it -uninhabitable. While Mr. Holland was puzzling how to overcome -this difficulty, in the middle eighties, a Swedish inventor named -Nordenfeldt was building submarines to be run by steam-power. - -Mr. Nordenfeldt, who is remembered to-day as the inventor of the famous -gun that bears his name, had taken up the idea of an English clergyman -named Garett, who in 1878 had built a submarine called the _Resurgam_, -or “I Shall Rise.” Garett’s second boat, built a year later, had a -steam-engine. When the vessel was submerged, the smoke-stack was closed -by a sliding panel, the furnace doors were shut tight, and the engine -run by the steam given off by a big tank full of bottled-up hot water. -Nordenfeldt improved this system till his hot-water tanks gave off -enough steam to propel his boat beneath the surface for a distance of -fourteen miles. - -He also rediscovered and patented Bushnell’s device for submerging a -boat by pushing it straight down and holding it under with a vertical -propellor. His first submarine had two of these, placed in sponsons or -projections on either side of the center of the hull. The Nordenfeldt -boats, with their cigar-shaped hulls and projecting smoke-stacks, -looked like larger editions of the Civil War _Davids_, and like them, -could be submerged by taking in water-ballast till only a strip of deck -with the funnel and conning-tower projected above the surface. Then the -vertical propellors would begin to revolve and force the boat straight -down on an even keel. Mr. Nordenfeldt insisted with great earnestness -that this was the only safe and proper way to submerge a submarine. If -you tried to steer it downward with any kind of driving-planes, he -declared, then the boat was liable to keep on descending, before you -could pull its head up, till it either struck the bottom or was crushed -in by the pressure of too great a depth of water. There was a great -deal of truth in this, but Mr. Nordenfeldt failed to realize that if -one of his vertical propellors pushed only a little harder than the -other, then the keel of his own submarine was going to be anything but -even. - -[Illustration: Steam Submarine _Nordenfeldt II_, at Constantinople, -1887. Observe vertical-acting propellors on deck. - -Reproduced from “Submarine Navigation, Past and Present” by Alan H. -Burgoyne, by permission of E. P. Dutton & Company.] - -The first Nordenfeldt boat was launched in 1886 and bought by Greece, -after a fairly successful trial in the Bay of Salamis. Two larger and -more powerful submarines: _Nordenfeldt II_ and _III_, were promptly -ordered by Greece’s naval rival Turkey. Each of these was 125 feet -long, or nearly twice the length of the Greek boat, and each carried -its two vertical propellors on deck, one forward and the other aft. -Both boats were shipped in sections to Constantinople in 1887, but -only _Nordenfeldt II_ was put together and tried. She was one of the -first submarines to be armed with a bow torpedo-tube for discharging -Whiteheads, and as a surface torpedo-boat, she was a distinct success. -But when they tried to navigate her under water there was a circus. - -No sooner did one of the crew take two steps forward in the engine-room -than down went the bow. The hot water in the boilers and the cold -water in the ballast-tanks ran downhill, increasing the slant still -further. English engineers, Turkish sailors, monkey-wrenches, hot -ashes, Whitehead torpedoes, and other movables came tumbling after, -till the submarine was nearly standing on her head, with everything -inside packed into the bow like toys in the toe of a Christmas -stocking. The little vertical propellors pushed and pulled and the -crew clawed their way aft, till suddenly up came her head, down went -her tail, and everything went gurgling and clattering down to the -other end. _Nordenfeldt II_ was a perpetual see-saw, and no mortal -power could keep her on an even keel. Once they succeeded in steadying -her long enough to fire a torpedo. Where it went to, no man can tell, -but the sudden lightening of the bow and the recoil of the discharge -made the submarine rear up and sit down so hard that she began to -sink stern-foremost. The water was blown out of her ballast tanks by -steam-pressure, and the main engine started full speed ahead, till -she shot up to the surface like a flying-fish. The Turkish naval -authorities, watching the trials from the shores of the Golden Horn, -were so impressed by these antics that they bought the boat. But it was -impossible to keep a crew on her, for every native engineer or seaman -who was sent on board prudently deserted on the first dark night. So -the _Nordenfeldt II_ rusted away till she fell to pieces, long before -the Allied fleets began the forcing of the Dardanelles. - -Fantastic though their performances seem to us to-day, these submarines -represent the best work of some of the most capable inventors and naval -engineers of the nineteenth century. With them deserve to be mentioned -the boats of the Russian Drzewiecki and the Spaniard Peral. Failures -though they were, they taught the world many valuable lessons about the -laws controlling the actions of submerged bodies. - -[Illustration: Bauer’s Submarine Concert, Cronstadt Harbor, 1855. See -footnote, page 120 - -An original drawing by the author, Alan H. Burgoyne; reproduced from -“Submarine Navigation, Past and Present,” by permission of E. P. Dutton -& Company.] - -But many of the underwater craft invented between 1850 and 1900 can be -classified only as freaks. Most of them, fortunately, were designed -but never built, and those that were launched miraculously refrained -from drowning any of their crews. There were submarines armed with -steam-driven gimlets: the - - “nimble tail, - Made like an auger, with which tail she wriggles, - Betwixt the ribs of a ship and sinks it straight,” - -that Ben Jonson playfully ascribed to Van Drebel. Dr. Lacomme, in -1869, proposed a submarine railroad from Calais to Dover, with tracks -laid on the bottom of the Channel and cars that could cast off their -wheels and rise to the surface in case of accident. Lieutenant André -Constantin designed, during the siege of Paris, a boat to be submerged -by drawing in pistons working in large cylinders open to the water. A -vessel was actually built on this principle in England in 1888, and -submerged in Tilbury Docks, where the soft mud at the bottom choked -the cylinders so that the pistons could not be driven out again and -the boat was brought up with considerable difficulty. Two particularly -delirious inventors claimed that their submarines could also be used as -dirigible balloons. Boucher’s underwater boat of 1886 was to have gills -like a fish, so that it need never rise to the surface for air, and was -further adorned with spring-buffers on the bottom, oars, a propellor -under the center of the keel, and a movable tail for sculling the -vessel forward. There were submarines with paddle-wheels, submarines -with fins, and submarines with wings. A Venezuelan dentist, Señor -Lacavalerier, invented a double-hulled, cigar-shaped boat, whose outer -hull was threaded like a screw, and by revolving round the fixed inner -hull, bored its way through the water. But he had been anticipated and -outdone by Apostoloff, a Russian, who not only designed a submarine on -the same principle but intended it to carry a large cabin suspended on -davits above the surface of the water, and declared that his vessel -would cross the Atlantic at an average speed of 111 knots an hour. - -[Illustration: Apostoloff’s Proposed Submarine. - -An original drawing by the author, Alan H. Burgoyne; reproduced from -“Submarine Navigation, Past and Present,” by permission of E. P. Dutton -& Company.] - -As late as 1898 the Spanish government, neglecting the promising -little electric boat built ten years before by Señor Peral, was -experimenting with two highly impossible submarines, one of which was -to be propelled by a huge clock-spring, while the other was perfectly -round. Needless to say, neither the sphere nor the toy boat ever -encountered the American fleet. - -At the same time, the United States government declined to accept the -war services of the already practicable boats of the two American -inventors who were about to usher in the present era of submarine -warfare: Simon Lake and John P. Holland. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -JOHN P. HOLLAND - - -When the _Merrimac_ rammed the _Cumberland_, burned the _Congress_, and -was fought to a standstill next day by the little _Monitor_, all the -world realized that there had been a revolution in naval warfare. The -age of the wooden warship was gone forever, the day of the ironclad -had come. And a twenty-year-old Irish school-teacher began to wonder -what would be the next revolution; what new craft might be invented -that would dethrone the ironclad. This young Irishman’s name was John -P. Holland, and he decided to devote his life to the perfection of the -submarine. - -Like Robert Fulton, Admiral Von Tirpitz, and the Frenchman who built -the _Rotterdam Boat_ in 1652, Holland relied on submarines to break -the power of the British fleet. Though born a British subject, in the -little village of Liscannor, County Clare in the year 1842, he had -seen too many of his fellow countrymen starved to death or driven into -exile not to hate the stupid tyranny that characterized England’s -rule of Ireland in those bitter, far-off days. He longed for the day -of Ireland’s independence, and that day seemed to be brought much -nearer by the American Civil War. Not only had many thousand brave -Irish-Americans become trained veterans but Great Britain and the -United States had been brought to the verge of war by the sinking of -American ships by the _Alabama_ and other British-built, Confederate -commerce-destroyers. When that Anglo-American war broke out, there -would be an army ready to come over and free Ireland--if only the -troublesome British navy could be put out of the way. And already the -English were launching ironclad after ironclad to replace their now -useless steam-frigates and ships-of-the-line. It is no use trying to -outbuild or outfight the British navy above water, and John P. Holland -realized this in 1862, as several kings and emperors have, before or -since. - -[Illustration: The _Holland No. 1_. Designed to carry a torpedo and -fix it to the bottom of a ship, on the general principle of Bushnell’s -_Turtle_. - -Drawn by Lieutenant F. M. Barber, U. S. N., in 1875.] - -Though his friends in Cork kept laughing at him, Holland worked -steadily on his plans for a submarine boat, throughout the sixties. -Presently he came to America and obtained a job as school-teacher in -Paterson, New Jersey. There he built and launched his first submarine -in 1875. It was a sharp-pointed, little, cigar-shaped affair, only -sixteen feet long and two feet in diameter amidships. This craft was -designed to carry a torpedo and fix it to the bottom of a ship, on the -general principle of Bushnell’s _Turtle_. It was divided into four -compartments, with air-chambers fore and aft. Air-pipes led to where -Holland sat in the middle, with his head in a respirator shaped like a -diver’s helmet, and his feet working pedals that turned the propellor. - -There was nothing revolutionary about this _Holland No. 1_. A similar -underwater bicycle is said to have been invented by Alvary Templo in -1826, and Drzewiecki used one at Odessa in 1877. But Holland used -his to teach himself how to build something better. Just as the -Wright brothers learned how to build and fly aeroplanes by coasting -down through the air from the tops of the Kitty Hawk sand-hills in -their motorless “glider,” so John P. Holland found how to make and -navigate submarines by diving under the surface of the Passaic River -and adjacent waters, and swimming around there in his _No. 1_ and her -successors. - -The _Holland No. 2_ was launched in 1877 and became immediately and -prophetically stuck in the mud. She had a double hull, the space -between being used as a ballast-tank, whose contents leaked constantly -into the interior, and she was driven intermittently by a four -horse-power petroleum engine of primitive design. After a series of -trials that entertained his neighbors and taught the inventor that the -best place for a single horizontal rudder is the stern, Holland took -the engine out of the boat and sank her under the Falls Bridge, where -she lies to this day. - -He then entered into negotiations with the Fenian Brotherhood, a secret -society organized for the purpose of setting up an Irish republic by -militant methods. Though not a Fenian himself, Holland was thoroughly -in sympathy with the brotherhood, and offered to show them how they -could get round, or rather under, the British navy. You may have seen a -once-familiar lithograph of a green-painted superdreadnought of strange -design flying the Crownless Harp, and named the Irish battleship -_Emerald Isle_. The only real Irish warships of modern times, however, -were the two submarines Holland persuaded the Fenians to have him build -at their expense. - -Rear-Admiral Philip Hichborn, former Chief Constructor, U.S.N., said of -these two boats: - -“She (the earlier one) was the first submarine since Bushnell’s time -employing water ballast and always retaining buoyancy, in which -provision was made to insure a fixed center of gravity and a fixed -absolute weight. Moreover, she was the first buoyant submarine to be -steered down and up in the vertical plane by horizontal-rudder action -as she was pushed forward by her motor, instead of being pushed up -and down by vertical-acting mechanism.[11] Her petroleum engine, -provided for motive-power and for charging her compressed-air flasks, -was inefficient, and the boat therefore failed as a practical craft; -but in her were demonstrated all the chief principles of successful, -brain-directed, submarine navigation. In 1881, Holland turned out a -larger and better boat in which he led the world far and away in the -solution of submarine problems, and for a couple of years demonstrated -that he could perfectly control his craft in the vertical plane. -Eventually, through financial complications, she was taken to New -Haven, where she now is.” - -[Illustration: - - Photo by Brown Bros. - -The _Fenian Ram_. - -(Photographed by Mr. Simon Lake, in the shed at New Haven.)] - -Political as well as financial complications caused the internment of -this submarine, which a New York reporter, with picturesque inaccuracy, -called the _Fenian Ram_. The Irish at home were by this time thinking -less of fighting for independence and more for peacefully obtaining -home rule, while the arbitration and payment of the “Alabama claims” by -Great Britain had removed all danger of a war between that country and -the United States. Under these circumstances, many of the Fenians felt -that it was wasted money for their society to spend any more of its -funds on warships it could never find use for. This led to dissensions -which culminated in a party of Fenians seizing the _Ram_ and taking it -to a shed on the premises of one of their members at New Haven, where -it has remained ever since. - -But the construction and performances of this submarine, and of -several others which he soon afterwards built for himself, won Holland -such a reputation that when Secretary Whitney decided in 1888 that -submarines would be a good thing for the United States navy, the great -Philadelphia ship-building firm of Cramps submitted two designs: -Holland’s and Nordenfeldt’s, and the former won the award. But after -nearly twelve months had been spent in settling preliminary details, -and when a contract for building an experimental boat was just about to -be awarded, there came a change of administration and the matter was -dropped. - -This was a great disappointment for Holland, and the next four or five -years were lean ones for the inventor. He had built five boats and -designed a sixth without their having brought him a cent of profit. -It was not until March 3, 1893, that Congress appropriated the money -for the construction of an experimental submarine, and inventors were -invited to submit their designs. By this time John P. Holland had -not only spent all his own money, but all he could borrow from his -relatives and friends. To make matters worse, the country was then -passing through a financial panic, when very few people had any money -to lend or invest. And all the security Holland could offer was his -faith in the future of the submarine, which at that time was a stock -joke of the comic papers, together with those other two crack-brained -projects, the flying-machine and the horseless carriage. - -“I know I can win that competition and build that boat for the -Government,” said Holland to a young lawyer whom he had met at lunch in -a downtown New York restaurant, “if I can only raise the money to pay -the fees and other expenses. I need exactly $347.19.” - -“What do you want the nineteen cents for?” asked the other. - -“To buy a certain kind of ruler I need for drawing my plans.” - -“If you’ve figured it out as closely as all that,” replied the lawyer, -“I’ll take a chance and lend you the money.” - -He did so, receiving in exchange a large block of stock in the -new-formed Holland Torpedo-boat Company. To-day his stock is worth -several million dollars. - -Mr. Holland won the competition and after two years’ delay his -company began the construction of the _Plunger_. This submarine -was to be propelled by steam while running on the surface and by -storage-batteries when submerged. Double propulsion of this type had -been first installed by a Southerner named Alstitt on a submarine he -built at Mobile, Alabama, in 1863, and theoretically discussed in a -book written in 1887 by Commander Hovgaard of the Danish navy. Though -a great improvement on any type of single propulsion, this system had -many drawbacks, the chief of which was the length of time--from fifteen -to thirty minutes--that it took for the oil-burning surface engine -to cool and rid itself of hot gases before it was safe to seal the -funnel and dive. Though the _Plunger_ was launched in 1897, she was -never finished, for Mr. Holland foresaw her defects. He persuaded the -Government to let his company pay back the money already spent on the -_Plunger_ and build an entirely new boat. - -_Holland No. 8_ was built accordingly, but failed to work properly. -Finally came the ninth and last of her line, the first of the modern -submarines, the world-famous _Holland_. - -She was a chunky little porpoise of a boat, 10 feet 7 inches deep and -only 53 feet 10 inches long, and looking even shorter and thicker than -she was because of the narrow, comb-like superstructure running fore -and aft along the deck. But her shape and dimensions were the results -of twenty-five years’ experience. Built at Mr. Lewis Nixon’s shipyards -at Elizabethport, New Jersey, the _Holland_ was launched in the early -spring of 1898, between the blowing-up of the _Maine_ and the outbreak -of the Spanish-American War. But though John P. Holland repeatedly -begged to be allowed to take his submarine into Santiago Harbor and -torpedo Cervera’s fleet, the naval authorities at Washington were too -conservative-minded to let him try. - -“United States warship goes down with all hands!” the small boys (I was -one of them) used to shout at this time, and then explain that it was -only another dive of the “Holland submarine.” Strictly speaking, the -_Holland_ was not a United States warship till October 13, 1900, when -she was formally placed in commission under the command of Lieutenant -Harry H. Caldwell, who had been on her during many of the exhaustive -series of trials in which the little undersea destroyer proved to -even the most conservative officers of our navy that the day of the -submarine had come at last. - -[Illustration: - - Courtesy of the Electric Boat Company - -U. S. S. _Holland_, in Drydock with the Russian Battleship _Retvizan_.] - -Propelled on the surface by a fifty horse-power gasoline motor, the -_Holland_ had a cruising radius of 1500 miles at a speed of seven knots -an hour. Submerged, she was driven by electric storage-batteries. This -effective combination of oil-engines with an electric motor is one of -John P. Holland’s great discoveries, and is used in every submarine -to-day. When her tanks were filled till her deck was flush with the -water, and the two horizontal rudders at the stern began to steer her -downwards, the _Holland_ could dive to a depth of twenty-eight feet -in five seconds. She had no periscope, for that instrument was then -crude and unsatisfactory. To take aim, the captain of the _Holland_ -had to make a quick “porpoise dive,” up to the surface and down again, -exposing the conning-tower for the few seconds needed to take aim and -judge the distance to the target. Though by this means the _Holland_ -succeeded in getting within striking-distance of the _Kearsarge_ and -the _New York_ without being detected, during the summer manœuvers of -the Atlantic fleet off Newport in 1900, it has proved fatal to the only -submarine that has tried it in actual warfare (see page 160). - -Less than half the length of the _Nordenfeldt II_, the _Holland_ did -not pitch or see-saw when submerged. Each of her crew of six sat on -a low stool beside the machinery he was to operate, and there was no -moving about when below the surface. Neither did the boat stand on her -tail when a torpedo was discharged from the bow-tube, for the loss of -weight was immediately compensated by admitting an equivalent amount of -water into a tank. Originally the _Holland_ had a stern torpedo-tube as -well, besides a pneumatic gun for throwing eighty pounds of dynamite -half a mile through the air, but these were later removed. - -How the _Holland_ impressed our naval officers at that time is best -shown in the oft-quoted testimony of Admiral Dewey before the naval -committee of the House of Representatives in 1900. - -“Gentlemen, I saw the operation of the boat down off Mount Vernon the -other day. Several members of this committee were there. I think we -were all very much impressed with its performance. My aid, Lieutenant -Caldwell, was on board. The boat did everything that the owners -proposed to do. I said then, and I have said it since, that if they had -had two of those things at Manila, I could never have held it with the -squadron I had. The moral effect--to my mind, it is infinitely superior -to mines or torpedoes or anything of the kind. With those craft moving -under water it would wear people out. With two of those in Galveston -all the navies of the world could not blockade the place.” - -[Illustration: - - Photo by Brown Bros. - -John P. Holland.] - -The _Holland_ was purchased by the United States Government on April -11, 1900, for $150,000. She had cost her builders, exclusive of any -office expenses or salaries of officers, $236,615.43. But it had -been a profitable investment for the Holland Torpedo-boat Company, -for on August 25, the United States navy contracted with it for the -construction of six more submarines. And in the autumn of the same -year, though it was not announced to the public till March 1, 1901, -five other _Hollands_ were ordered through the agency of Vickers Sons, -and Maxim by the British admiralty. Soon every maritime nation was -either buying _Hollands_ or paying royalties on the inventor’s patents, -and building bigger, faster, better submarines every year. - -The original _Holland_ had outlived her fighting value when she was -condemned by Secretary Daniels in June, 1915, to be broken up and -sold as junk. There is still room in the Brooklyn Navy Yard for that -worthless and meaningless relic, the _Intelligent Whale_, but there was -none for the _Holland_ submarine, whose place in history is with the -_Clairmont_ and the _Monitor_. - -John P. Holland withdrew in 1904 from the Holland Torpedo-boat Company, -which has since become merged with the Electric Boat Company, that -builds most of the submarines for the United States navy, and many for -the navies of foreign powers. Like most other great inventive geniuses, -Holland was not a trained engineer, and it was perhaps inevitable that -disputes should have arisen between him and his associates as to the -carrying out of his ideas. His last years were embittered by the belief -that the submarines of to-day were distorted and worthless developments -of his original type. Whether or not he was mistaken, only time can -tell. That to John P. Holland, more than to any other man since David -Bushnell and Robert Fulton, the world owes the modern submarine, cannot -be denied. His death, on August 12, 1914, was but little noticed in the -turmoil and confusion of the first weeks of the great European War. But -when the naval histories of that war are written, his name will not be -forgotten. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -THE LAKE SUBMARINES - - -John P. Holland was not the only inventor who responded to the -invitation of the United States navy department to submit designs for -a proposed submarine boat in 1893. That invitation had been issued and -an appropriation of $200,000 made by Congress on the recommendation -of Commander Folger, chief of ordnance, after he had seen a trial -trip on Lake Michigan of an underwater boat invented by Mr. George C. -Baker. This was an egg-shaped craft, propelled by a steam engine on the -surface and storage-batteries when submerged, and controlled by two -adjustable propellers, mounted on either side of the boat on a shaft -running athwartship. These screws could be turned in any direction, -so as to push or pull the vessel forward, downward, or at any desired -angle. Mr. Baker submitted designs for a larger boat of the same kind, -but they were not accepted. - -The third inventor who entered the 1893 competition was Mr. Simon -Lake, then a resident of Baltimore. He sent in the plans of the most -astonishing-looking craft that had startled the eyes of the navy -department since Ericsson’s original monitor. It had two cigar-shaped -hulls, one inside the other, the space between being used for -ballast-tanks. It had no less than five propellors: twin screws aft -for propulsion, a single screw working in an open transverse tunnel -forward,[12] to “swing the vessel at rest to facilitate pointing her -torpedos,” and two downhaul or vertical-acting propellers “for holding -vessel to depth when not under way.” These were not placed on deck, -as on the _Nordenfeldt II_, but in slots in the keel. Other features -of the bottom were two anchor weights, a detachable “emergency keel,” -and a diving compartment. On deck were a folding periscope and a “gun -arranged in water-tight, revolving turret for defense purposes or -attack on unarmored surface craft.” There were four torpedo tubes, -two forward and two aft, according to the modern German practice. -The motive-power was the then usual combination of steam and storage -batteries. But the two remaining features of the 1893 model Lake -submarine were extremely unusual. - -[Illustration: - - Courtesy International Marine Engineering. - -Lake 1893 Design as Submitted to the U. S. Navy Department.] - -Instead of one pair of horizontal rudders, there were four pairs, two -large and two small. The latter, placed near the bow and stern, were -“levelling vanes, designed automatically to hold the vessel on a level -keel when under way”; while the larger ones were called “hydroplanes” -and so located and designed as to steer the submarine under, not by -making it dive bow-foremost but by causing it to submerge on an even -keel. How this was to be accomplished will be explained presently. The -other new thing about the Lake boat was that it was mounted on wheels -for running along the sea-bottom. There were three of these wheels: a -large pair forward on a strong axle for bearing the vessel’s weight, -and a small steering-wheel on the bottom of the rudder. - -[Illustration: - - Courtesy of Mr. Simon Lake. - -The _Argonaut Junior_.] - -This submarine was never built, however, for the congressional -appropriation was awarded to the Holland Torpedo-boat Company and Mr. -Lake had at that time no means for building so elaborate a vessel -by himself. What he did build was the simplest and crudest little -submarine imaginable: the _Argonaut Jr._ She was a triangular box of -yellow pine, fourteen feet long and five feet deep, mounted on three -solid wooden wheels. She was trundled along the bottom of Sandy Hook -Bay by one or two men cranking the axle of the two driving wheels. The -boat was provided with an air-lock and diver’s compartment “so arranged -that by putting an air pressure on the diver’s compartment equal to -the water pressure outside, a bottom door could be opened and no water -would come into the vessel. Then by putting on a pair of rubber boots -the operator could walk around on the sea bottom and push the boat -along with him and pick up objects, such as clams, oysters, etc., from -the sea bottom.”[13] - -Enough people were convinced by the performances of this simple -craft of the soundness of Mr. Lake’s theories that the inventor was -able to raise sufficient capital to build a larger submarine. This -boat, which was designed in 1895 and built at Baltimore in 1897, was -called the _Argonaut_. When launched, she had a cigar-shaped hull -thirty-six feet long by nine in diameter, mounted on a pair of large -toothed driving-wheels forward and a guiding-wheel on the rudder. The -driving-wheels could be disconnected and left to revolve freely while -the boat was driven by its single-screw propeller. There was a diver’s -compartment in the bottom and a “lookout compartment in the extreme -bow, with a powerful searchlight to light up a pathway in front of her -as she moved along over the waterbed. The searchlight I later found of -little value except for night work in clear water. In clear water the -sunlight would permit of as good vision without the use of the light -as with it, while if the water was not clear, no amount of light would -permit of vision through it for any considerable distance.” - -Storage batteries were carried only for working the searchlight and -illuminating the interior of the boat. The _Argonaut_ was propelled, -both above and below the surface, by a thirty horse-power gasoline -engine, the first one to be installed in a submarine. There was enough -air to run it on, even when submerged, because the _Argonaut_ was -ventilated through a hose running to a float on the surface: a device -later changed to two pipe masts long enough to let her run along the -bottom at a depth of fifty feet. - -[Illustration: - - Courtesy of International Marine Engineering. - -_Argonaut_ as Originally Built.] - -The _Argonaut_ had no hydroplanes or horizontal rudders of any kind. -She was submerged, like the _Intelligent Whale_, by “two anchor -weights, each weighing 1000 pounds, attached to cables, and capable of -being hauled up or lowered by a drum and mechanism within the boat.... -When it is desired to submerge the vessel the anchor weights are first -lowered to the bottom; water is then allowed to enter the water-ballast -compartments until her buoyancy is less than the weight of the two -anchors, say 1500 pounds; the cables connecting with the weights are -then hauled in, and the vessel is thus hauled to the bottom, until she -comes to rest on her three wheels. The weights are then hauled into -their pockets in the keel, and it is evident that she is resting on -the wheels with a weight equal to the difference between her buoyancy -with the weights at the bottom, and the weights in their pockets, or -500 pounds. Now this weight may be increased or diminished, either -by admitting more water into the ballast tanks or by pumping some -out. Thus it will be seen that we have perfect control of the vessel -in submerging her, as we may haul her down as fast or as slow as we -please, and by having her rest on the bottom with sufficient weight to -prevent the currents from moving her out of her course we may start up -our propeller or driving-wheels and drive her at will over the bottom, -the same as a tricycle is propelled on the surface of the earth in the -upper air. In muddy bottoms, we rest with a weight not much over 100 -pounds; while on hard bottoms, or where there are strong currents, -we sometimes rest on the bottom with a weight of from 1000 to 1500 -pounds.... - -“In the rivers we invariably found a muddy bed; in Chesapeake Bay we -found bottoms of various kinds, in some places so soft that our divers -would sink up to their knees, while in other places the ground would -be hard, and at one place we ran across a bottom which was composed of -a loose gravel, resembling shelled corn. Out in the ocean, however, -was found the ideal submarine course, consisting of a fine gray sand, -almost as hard as a macadamized road, and very level and uniform.” - -During this cruise under the waters of Chesapeake Bay, the _Argonaut_ -came on the wrecks of several sunken vessels, which Mr. Lake or some -member of his crew examined through the open door in the bottom of the -diving-compartment. The air inside was kept at a sufficiently high -pressure to keep the water from entering, and the man in the submarine -could pull up pieces of the wreck with a short boathook, or even reach -down and place his bare hand on the back of a big fish swimming past. -Sometimes members of the crew would put on diving-suits and walk out -over the bottom, keeping in communication with the boat by telephone. -Telephone stations were even established on the bottom of the bay, with -cables running to the nearest exchange on shore, and conversations -were held with people in Baltimore, Washington, and New York. (Perhaps -the commanders of German submarines in British waters to-day are using -this method to communicate with German spies in London, Dublin, and -Liverpool.) - -The Spanish-American War was being fought while Mr. Lake was making -these experiments. The entrance to Hampton Roads was planted with -electric mines, but though he was forbidden to go too near them, the -inventor proved that nothing would be easier than to locate the cable -connecting them with the shore, haul it up into the diver’s compartment -of the _Argonaut_ and cut it. He did this with a dummy cable of his -own, and then repeatedly begged the navy department to let him take the -_Argonaut_ into the harbor of Santiago de Cuba and disable the mines -that were keeping Admiral Sampson’s fleet from going in and smashing -the Spanish squadron there. But his offer, like that of John P. -Holland, was refused. - -“In 1898, also,” says Mr. Lake, “the _Argonaut_ made the trip from -Norfolk to New York under her own power and unescorted. In her original -form she was a cigar-shaped craft with only a small percentage of -reserve buoyancy in her surface cruising condition. We were caught -out in the severe November northeast storm of 1898 in which over two -hundred vessels were lost and we did not succeed in reaching a harbor -in the ‘horseshoe’ back of Sandy Hook until three o’clock in the -morning. The seas were so rough they would break over her conning-tower -in such masses I was obliged to lash myself fast to prevent being swept -overboard. It was freezing weather and I was soaked and covered with -ice on reaching harbor.” - -[Illustration: - - Courtesy of International Marine Engineering. - -_Argonaut_ as Rebuilt.] - -Mr. Lake then sent the _Argonaut_ to a Brooklyn shipyard, where her -original cigar-shaped hull was cut in half, and lengthened twenty -feet, after which a light ship-shaped superstructure was built over -her low sloping topsides. To keep it from being crushed in by water -pressure when submerged, scupper-like openings were cut in the thin -plating where it joined the stout, pressure-resisting hull, so that -the superstructure automatically filled itself with sea-water on -submerging and drained itself on rising again. Though uninhabitable, -its interior supplied useful storage space, particularly for the -gasoline fuel tanks, which, as Mr. Lake had already discovered, gave -off fumes that soon rendered the air inside the submarine unbreathable, -unless the tanks were kept outside instead of inside the hull. The -swan-bow and long bowsprit of the new superstructure, together with -the two ventilator-masts, gave the rebuilt _Argonaut_ a schooner-like -appearance, and her bowsprit has been compared to the whip-socket on -the dashboard of the earliest automobiles. But Mr. Lake declares that -this was no useless leftover but a practicable spring-buffer to guard -against running into submerged rocks, while the bobstay helped the -_Argonaut_ to climb over the obstruction, as she could over anything -on the sea-bottom she could get her bows over. - -Primarily, the superstructure served to make the submarine more -seaworthy as a surface craft. Until then, most inventors and designers -of undersea boats had confined their attentions to the problems of -underwater navigation only, because, as had been pointed out by the -monk Mersenne before 1648, even during the most violent storms the -disturbance is felt but a little distance below the surface. But Mr. -Lake realized that a submarine, like every other kind of boat, spends -most of its existence on top of the water and that it is not always -desirable to submerge whenever a moderate-sized wave sweeps over one -of the old-fashioned, low-lying, cigar-shaped vessels. With her new -superstructure, the _Argonaut_ rode the waves as lightly as any yacht -and ushered in the era of the sea-going submarine. - -It was not until a year later that the _Narval_, a large double-hulled -submarine with a ship-shaped outer shell of light, perforated plating, -was launched in France. She was propelled by steam on the surface and -by storage batteries when submerged. To distinguish this sea-going -torpedo-boat, that could be submerged, from the earlier and simpler -submarines designed and engined for underwater work only, her designer, -M. Labeuf, called the _Narval_ a “submersible.” As the old type of -boat soon became extinct, the distinction was not necessary and the -old name “submarine” is still applied to all underwater craft. That -Simon Lake and not M. Labeuf first gave the modern sea-going submarine -its characteristic and essential superstructure is easily proved by -dates. The _Narval_ was launched in October, 1899, the _Argonaut_ was -remodeled in December, 1898, and on April 2, 1897, Mr. Lake applied for -and was presently granted the pioneer patent on a “combined surface -and submarine vessel,” the space between its cylindrical hull and the -superstructure “being adapted to be filled with water when the vessel -is submerged and thus rendered capable of resisting the pressure of the -water.” - -But though in her remodeled form she became the forerunner of the -long grim submarine cruisers of to-day, the _Argonaut_ herself had -been built to serve not as a warship but as a commercial vessel. Like -her namesakes who followed Jason in the _Argo_ to far-off Colchis for -the Golden Fleece, she was to go forth in search of hidden treasure. -She was to have been the first of a fleet of wheeled bottom-workers, -salvaging the cargoes of wrecked ships; from the mail-bags of the -latest lost liner to ingots and pieces-of-eight from the sand-clogged -hulks of long-sunk Spanish galleons, or bringing up sponges, coral, and -pearls from the depths of the tropic seas. But though he investigated a -few wrecks and ingeniously transferred a few tons of coal from one into -a submarine lighter by means of a pipe-line and a powerful force-pump, -Mr. Lake has done nothing more to develop the fascinating commercial -possibilities of the submarine since 1901, because he has been kept too -busy building undersea warships for the United States and other naval -powers. - -[Illustration: - - Courtesy of International Marine Engineering. - -The Rebuilt _Argonaut_, Showing Pipe-masts and Ship-shaped -Superstructure.] - -Mr. Lake declares that one of his up-to-date wheeled submarines could -enter a harbor-mouth defended by booms and nettings that would keep out -either surface torpedo boats or ordinary submarines. The smooth-backed -bottom-worker of this special type would slip under the netting like a -cat under a bead portière. If the netting were fastened down, a diver -would step out through the door in the bottom of the submarine and -either cut the netting from its moorings or attach a bomb to blow a -hole for the bottom-worker to go in through. An ordinary submarine, -entering a hostile harbor, would be in constant danger of running -aground in shallow water and either sticking there or rebounding to the -surface, to be seen and fired at by the enemy. Even if its commander -succeeded in keeping to the deep channel by dead reckoning--a process -akin to flying blindfolded in an aeroplane up a crooked ravine and -remembering just when and where to turn--even if he dodged the rocks -and sand bars, he would be liable to bump the nose of his boat against -an anchored contact mine (see Chapter XI). But the Lake bottom-worker -would trundle steadily along, sampling the bottom to find where it was, -and passing safely under the mines floating far above it. The divers -would make short work of cutting the mine cables, or they might plant -mines of their own under the ships in the harbor and blow them up as -Bushnell tried to. Using electric motors and storage air-flasks, with -no pipe masts or other “surface-indications” to betray its presence, -one of these boats could remain snugly hid at the bottom of an enemy’s -harbor as long as its supplies held out. - -[Illustration: - - Courtesy of Mr. Simon Lake. - -Cross-section of Diving-compartment on a Lake Submarine.] - -As yet, however, we have not heard of any such exploits in the present -war, though they seem perfectly feasible. Mr. Lake sold a boat designed -for this sort of work and called the _Protector_ to Russia in 1906. - -The most characteristic feature of the Lake submarines is not the -wheels, which are found only on those specially designed for bottom -working, but the hydroplanes. These are horizontal rudders that are -so placed and designed as to steer the boat forward and downward, but -at the same time keeping it on an even keel. Bushnell and Nordenfeldt -forced their boats straight up and down like buckets in a well, John -P. Holland made his tip up its tail and dive like a loon, but Mr. -Lake conceived the idea of having his boat descend like a suitcase -carried by a man walking down-stairs: the suitcase moves steadily -forward and downward towards the front door but it remains level. The -first method with its vertical propellers wasted too much energy, the -second incurred the risk of diving too fast and too deep, no matter -whether the single pair of horizontal rudders were placed on the bow, -or amidships, or on the stern. So Mr. Lake used two pairs of horizontal -rudders “located at equal distances forward and aft of the center of -gravity and buoyancy of the vessel when in the submerged condition, so -as not to disturb the trim of the vessel when the planes were inclined -down or up to cause the vessel to submerge or rise when under way.” -These he called hydroplanes, to distinguish them from another set of -smaller horizontal rudders, which at first he called “leveling-vanes” -and which were not used to steer the submarine under but manipulated -to keep her at a constant depth and on a level keel while running -submerged. - -In theory, the early Lake boats were submerged on an even keel; in -practice, they went under at an angle of several degrees. But they made -nothing like the abrupt dives of the _Holland_. - -“As the Electric Boat Company’s boats (Holland type) increased in -size,” declares Chief Constructor D. W. Taylor, U.S.N., “bow rudders -were fitted, and nowadays all submarines of this type in our navy -are fitted with bow rudders as well as stern rudders. The Lake type -submarines are still fitted with hydroplanes. But as you may see, means -for effecting submergence have approached each other very closely: in -fact, speaking generally, submarines all over the world now have two or -more sets of diving-rudders; the most general arrangement is one pair -forward and one pair aft; in some types three pairs are fitted, but -this arrangement is more unusual. - -“In general it may be said then that modern submarines of both types -submerge in practically the same way. They assume a very slight angle -of inclination, say a degree and a half or two degrees, and submerge at -this angle. This may be said to be practically on an even keel.” - -[Illustration: - - Courtesy of International Marine Engineering. - -Cross-section of the _Protector_, showing wheels stowed away when not -running on the sea bottom.] - -The credit of originating this now world-wide practice of “level-keel -submergence” obviously belongs, as “Who’s Who in America” gives it, to - -“Lake, Simon, naval architect, mechanical engineer. Born at -Pleasantville, New Jersey, September 4, 1866; son of John Christopher -and Miriam M. (Adams) Lake; educated at Clinton Liberal Institute, -Fort Plain, New York, and Franklin Institute, Philadelphia; married -Margaret Vogel of Baltimore, June 9, 1890. Inventor of even keel type -of submarine torpedo boats; built first experimental boat, 1894; -built _Argonaut_, 1897 (first submarine to operate successfully in the -open sea); has designed and built many submarine torpedo boats for the -United States and foreign countries; spent several years in Russia, -Germany, and England, designing, building, and acting in an advisory -capacity in construction of submarine boats. Also inventor of submarine -apparatus for locating and recovering sunken vessels and their cargoes; -submarine apparatus for pearl and sponge fishing, heavy oil internal -combustion engine for marine propulsion, etc. Member of the Society of -Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, American Society of Mechanical -Engineers, American Society of Naval Engineers, Institute of Naval -Architects (London), Schiffsbautechnische Gesellschaft (Berlin). Mason. -_Clubs_, Engineers’ (New York), Algonquin, (Bridgeport, Connecticut). -_Home_, Milford, Connecticut. _Office_, Bridgeport, Connecticut.” - -[Illustration: Mr. Simon Lake.] - -When the Krupps first took up the idea of constructing submarines for -the German and Russian governments, the great German firm consulted -with Mr. Lake, who was at that time living in Europe. An elaborate -contract was drawn up between them. The Krupps agreed to employ Mr. -Lake in an advisory capacity and to build “Lake type” boats, both in -Russia, where they were to erect a factory and share the profits with -him, and in Germany, on a royalty basis. Before he could sign this -contract, Mr. Lake had to obtain the permission of the directors of -his own company in Bridgeport. In the meanwhile, he gave the German -company his most secret plans and specifications. But the Krupps never -signed the contract, withdrew from going into Russia, and their lawyer -coolly told Mr. Lake that, as he had failed to patent his inventions -in Germany, his clients were perfectly free to build “Lake type” -submarines there without paying him anything and were going to do so. - -The famous Krupp-built German submarines that are playing so prominent -a part in the present war are therefore partly of American design. -Whenever Mr. Lake reads that another one of them has been destroyed by -the Allies, his emotions must be rather mixed. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -A TRIP IN A MODERN SUBMARINE - - -Lieutenant Perry Scope, commanding the X-class flotilla, was sitting -in his comfortable little office on the mother-ship _Ozark_, when -I entered with a letter from the secretary of the navy, giving me -permission to go on board a United States submarine. Without such -authorization no civilian may set foot on the narrow decks of our -undersea destroyers, though he may visit a battleship with no more -formality than walking into a public park. - -“We’re too small and full of machinery to hold a crowd,” explained the -lieutenant, “and the crowd wouldn’t enjoy it if they came. No nice -white decks for the girls to dance on or fourteen-inch guns for them -to sit on while they have their pictures taken. Besides, everything’s -oily--you’d better put on a suit of overalls instead of those white -flannels.” - -There were plenty of spare overalls on the _Ozark_, for she was the -mother-ship of a family of six young submarines. Built as a coast -defense monitor shortly after the Spanish War, she had long since been -retired from the fighting-line, and was now the floating headquarters, -dormitory, hospital, machine-shop, bakery, and general store for the -six officers and the hundred and fifty men of the flotilla. - -[Illustration: - - Photo by Brown Bros. - -U. S. Submarine _E-2_. - -Note wireless, navigating-bridge, and openings for flooding -superstructure when submerging.] - -Moored alongside the parent-ship, the submarine _X-4_ was filling her -fuel-tanks with oil through a pipe-line, in preparation for the day’s -cruise and target-practice I was to be lucky enough to witness. Two -hundred and fifty feet long, flat-decked and straight-stemmed, she -looked, except for the lack of funnels, much more like a surface-going -torpedo-boat than the landsman’s conventional idea of a submarine. - -“I thought she would be cigar-shaped,” I said as we went on board. - -“She is--underneath,” answered Lieutenant Scope. “What you see is only -a light-weight superstructure or false hull built over the real one. -See those holes in it, just above the water line? They are to flood the -superstructure with whenever we submerge, otherwise the water pressure -would crush in these thin steel plates like veneering. But it makes -us much more seaworthy for surface work, gives us a certain amount of -deckroom, and stowage-space for various useful articles, such as this.” - -Part of the deck rose straight up into the air, like the top of a -freight-elevator coming up through the sidewalk. Beneath the canopy -thus formed was a short-barreled, three-inch gun. - -“Fires a twelve-pound shell, like the field-pieces the landing-parties -take ashore from the battleships,” explained the naval officer, as -he trained the vicious-looking little cannon all around the compass. -“Small enough to be handy, big enough to sink any merchant ship afloat, -or smash anything that flies.” - -Here he pointed the muzzle straight up as if gunning for hostile -aeroplanes. - -“And please observe,” he concluded, as the gun sank down into its -lair again, “how that armored hatch-cover protects the gun-crew from -shrapnel or falling bombs.” - -I followed him to the conning-tower, or, as he always spoke of it, -the turret. The little round bandbox of the _Holland_ has developed -into a tall, tapering structure, sharply pointed fore and aft to -lessen resistance when running submerged. Above the turret was a small -navigating-bridge, screened and roofed with canvas, where a red-haired -quartermaster stood by the steering-wheel, and saluted as we came -up the ladder. The lieutenant put the engine-room telegraph over to -“Start,” and a mighty motor throbbed underneath our feet. Then the -mooring was cast off, the telegraph put over to “Slow Ahead,” and the -_X-4_ put out to sea. - -“How long a cruise could she make?” I asked. - -“Four thousand miles is her radius,” answered her commander. “Back in -1915, ten American-designed submarines crossed from Canada to England -under their own power.” - -“Yet it is only a few years since we were told that submarines could -only be used for coast defense, unless they were carried inside their -mother-ships and launched near the scene of battle,” I remarked. “Or -that each battleship should carry a dinky little submarine on deck and -lower it over the side like a steam-launch.” - -“People said the same thing about torpedo-boats,” agreed the -lieutenant; “they began as launches--now look at the size of that -destroyer smoking along over there. Ericsson thought that any ironclad -bigger than a Civil War monitor would be an unwieldy monster. Even -John P. Holland fought tooth and nail against increasing the length of -his submarines. This boat of mine is five times the length of the old -_Holland_, but she’s only a primitive ancestor of the perfect submarine -of the future.” - -“She isn’t a submarine at all,” I replied presently, as the _X-4_ swept -on down the coast at a good twenty-two knots, her foredeck buried in -foam and the sea-breeze singing through the antennæ of her wireless. -“She’s nothing but a big motor-boat.” - -“And she’s got some big motors,” replied the lieutenant. “Better step -below and have a look at them.” - -I went down through the open hatchway to the interior of the boat -and aft to the engine-room. There I found two long, many-cylindered -oil-engines of strange design, presided over by a big blond engineer -whose grease-spotted dungarees gave no hint as to his rating. - -“What kind of machines are these?” I shouted above the roar they made. -“And why do you need two of them?” - -“Diesel heavy-oil engines,” he answered. “One for each propeller.” - -“What is the difference between one of these and the gasoline engine of -a motor-car? I know a little about that.” - -“Do you know what the carburetor is?” asked the engineer. - -[Illustration: - - Courtesy of International Marine Engineering. - -A Submarine Cruiser, or Fleet Submarine (Lake Type). - - The parts indicated by numbers in this illustration are as follows: - 1, main ballast tanks; 2, fuel tanks; 3, keel; 4, safety drop - keel; 5, habitable superstructure; 6, escape and safety chambers; - 7, disappearing anti-air craft guns; 8, rapid fire gun; 9, - torpedo tubes; 10, torpedoes; 11, twin deck torpedo tubes; 12, - torpedo firing tank; 13, anchor; 14, periscopes; 15, wireless; - 16, crew’s quarters; 17, officers’ quarters; 18, war-head - stowage; 19, torpedo hatch; 20, diving chamber; 21, electric - storage battery; 22, galley; 23, steering gear; 24, binnacle; 25, - searchlight; 26, conning-tower; 27, diving station; 28, control - tank; 29, compressed air flasks; 30, forward engine room and - engines; 31, after engine room and engines; 32, central control - compartment; 33, torpedo room; 34, electric motor room; 35, - switchboard; 36, ballast pump; 37, auxiliary machinery room; 38, - hydroplane; 39, vertical rudders; 40, signal masts. -] - -“That’s where the gasoline is mixed with air, before it goes into the -cylinder.” - -The engineer nodded. - -“The mixture is sucked into the cylinder by the down-stroke of the -piston. The up-stroke compresses it, and then the mixture is exploded -by an electric spark from the spark-plug. The force of the explosion -drives the piston down, and the next stroke up drives out the refuse -gases. That’s how an ordinary, four-cycle gasoline motor works. - -“But the Diesel engine,” he continued, “doesn’t need any carburetor -or spark-plug. When the piston makes its first upward or -compression-stroke, there is nothing in the cylinder but pure air. This -is compressed to a pressure of about 500 pounds a square inch--and when -you squeeze anything as hard as that, you make it mighty hot--” - -“Like a blacksmith pounding a piece of cold iron to a red heat?” I -suggested. The engineer nodded again. - -“That compressed air is so hot that the oil which has been spurted in -through an injection-valve is exploded, and drives the piston down on -the power-stroke. The waste gases are then blown out by compressed air. -There are an air-compressor and a storage tank just for scavenging, or -blowing the waste gases out of every three power-cylinders.” - -“What are the advantages of the Diesel over the gasoline engine?” - -[Illustration: - - Courtesy of the Electric Boat Company. - -Auxiliary Switchboard and Electric Cook-stove, in a U. S. Submarine.] - -“In the first place, it gives more power. You see, three out of every -four strokes made by the piston of a gasoline engine--suction-stroke, -compression-stroke, and scavenging-stroke--waste power instead of -producing it. But the Diesel is what we call a two-cycle engine; its -piston makes only two trips for each power-stroke. In the second -place, it is cheaper, because instead of gasoline it uses heavy, -low-price oil. And this makes it much safer, for the heavy oil does -not vaporize so easily. The air in some of the old submarines that -used gasoline motors would get so that it was like trying to breathe -inside a carburetor, and there was always the chance of a spark from -the electric motors exploding the whole business, and your waking up to -find the trained nurse changing your bandages. The German navy refused -to build a submarine as long as there was nothing better than gasoline -to propel it on the surface. They didn’t launch their _U-1_ till -1906, after Dr. Diesel had got his motor into practicable shape. It -cost him twenty years of hard work, but without his motor we couldn’t -have the modern submarine. And they’re using it more and more in ocean -freighters. There’s a line of motor-ships running to-day between -Scandinavia and San Francisco, through the Panama Canal. - -“Aft of the Diesel, here,” continued the engineer, “is our electric -motor, for propelling her when submerged. Reverse it and have it driven -by the Diesel engine, and the motor serves as a dynamo to generate -electricity for charging the batteries. As long as we can get oil and -come to the surface to use it, we can never run short of ‘juice.’[14] - -“Besides turning the propeller, the electricity from the batteries -lights the boat, and turns the ventilating fans, works the -air-compressor for the torpedo-tubes, drives all the big and little -pumps, runs a lot of auxiliary motors that haul up the anchor, turn the -rudders, and do other odd jobs, it heats the boat in cold weather--” - -“And cooks the grub all the year round, don’t forget that, Joe,” said -another member of the crew. “Luncheon is served in the palm room.” - -We ate from a swinging table let down from the ceiling of the main- or -living-compartment of the submarine, that extended forward from the -engine-room to the tiny officers’ cabin and the torpedo room in the -bows. Tiers of canvas bunks folded up against the walls showed where -the crew slept when on a cruise. For lunch that day we had bread baked -on the mother-ship, butter out of a can, fried ham, fried potatoes, -and coffee hot from a little electric stove such as you can see -in the kitchenette of a light-housekeeping apartment on shore. The -lieutenant’s lunch was carried up to him on the bridge. When the meal -was over, most of the men went on deck, and my friend the engineer put -a large cigar in his mouth. I took out a box of matches and was about -to strike one for his benefit when he stopped me, saying, - -“Don’t ever strike a light in a submarine or a dynamite factory. It’s -unhealthy.” - -[Illustration: - - Courtesy of the Electric Boat Company. - -Forward deck of a U. S. Submarine, in cruising trim.] - -I apologized profusely. - -“The air is so much better than I had expected that I forgot where I -was.” - -“Yes,” said the engineer, chewing his unlighted cigar, “there is plenty -of good air in a big modern boat like this, running on the surface in -calm weather and with the main hatch and all ventilators open. But -come with us when we’re bucking high seas or running submerged on a -breathing-diet of canned air flavored with oil, and you’ll understand -why so many good men have been invalided out of the flotilla with -lung-trouble. We’re the only warships without any dogs or parrots -or other mascots on board, for no animal could endure the air in a -submarine.” - -[Illustration: - - Courtesy of the Electric Boat Company. - -Same, preparing to submerge. Railing stowed away and bow-rudders -extended.] - -“I thought every submarine carried a cage of white mice, because they -began to squeak as soon as the air began to get bad and so warned the -crew.” - -“That was a crude device of the early days,” replied the engineer. “We -don’t carry white mice any more, though I believe they still use them -in the British navy.” - -I went up on deck, to find that the _X-4_ had reached the -practice-grounds and was being made ready for a dive. Her crew -were busy dismantling and stowing away the bridge and the light -deck-railing, hauling down the flag, and closing all ventilators and -other openings. - -“How long has it taken you to get ready?” I asked Lieutenant Scope. - -“Twenty minutes,” he answered. “But the real diving takes only two -minutes. We’ll go below now, sink her to condition, and run her under -with the diving rudders.” - -“What are those things unfolding themselves on either side of the -bows?” I asked. “I thought the diving rudders were carried astern.” - -“Modern submarines are so long that they need them both fore and aft,” -replied the lieutenant. “As you see, the diving rudders fold flat -against the side of the boat where they will be out of harm’s way when -we are running on the surface or lying alongside the mother-ship. -Better come below now, for we’re going to dive.” - -We descended into the turret and the hatch was closed. The Diesel -engines had already been stopped and the electric motors were now -turning the propellers. - -“Why are those big electric pumps working down there?” I asked. - -“Pumping water into the ballast-tanks.” - -“But doesn’t the water run into the tanks anyhow, as soon as you open -the valves?” I asked the lieutenant. - -“Turn a tumbler upside down and force it down into a basin of water,” -he replied, “and you trap some air in the top of the tumbler, which -prevents the water from rising beyond a certain point. The same thing -takes place in our tanks, and to fill them we have to force in the -water with powerful pumps that compress the air in the tanks to a very -small part of its original bulk. This compressed air acts as a powerful -spring to drive the water out of the tanks again when we wish to rise. -By blowing out the tanks, a submarine can come to the surface in twenty -seconds or one sixth the time it takes to submerge.” - -“When are we going under?” I asked him. The lieutenant looked at his -watch and answered, - -“We have been submerged for the last four minutes.” - -I experienced a feeling of the most profound disappointment. Ever since -I had been a very small boy I had been looking forward to the time when -I should go down in a submarine boat, and now that time had passed -without my realizing it. - -“But why didn’t I feel the boat tilt when she dived?” I demanded. - -“Because she went down a very gentle slope, between two and three -degrees at the steepest. The only way you could have noticed it would -have been to watch these gages.” - -Large dials on the wall of the turret indicated that the _X-4_ was -running on what was practically an even keel at a depth of sixteen feet -and under a consequent water-pressure of 1024 pounds on every square -foot of her hull. - -“How deep could she go?” - -“One hundred and fifty feet--if she had to. The strong inner hull of a -modern submarine is built up of three quarter inch plates of the best -mild steel and well braced and strengthened from within. But as a rule -there is no need of our diving below sixty feet at the deepest, or far -enough to clear the keel of the largest ship. You will notice how the -depth-control man is holding her steady by manipulating the forward -horizontal rudders, just as an aviator steadies his aeroplane.” - -[Illustration: - - Courtesy of the Electric Boat Company. - -Depth-control Station, U. S. Submarine. - -Wheel governing horizontal rudders, gages showing depth, trim, etc.] - -“He must be a strong man to handle those two big horizontal rudders.” - -“He has an electric motor to do the hard work for him, as has the -quartermaster steering the course here with the vertical rudder.” - -The same red-headed petty officer that I had noticed on the bridge now -grasped the spokes of a smaller steering-wheel inside the conning-tower. - -“What is that queer-looking thing whirling round and round in front of -him?” I asked. - -“A Sperry gyroscopic compass,” replied the lieutenant. “An ordinary -magnetic compass could not be relied on to point in any particular -direction if it was shut up in a steel box full of charged electric -wires, like the turret of a submarine. We tried to remedy this by -building conning-towers of copper, till Mr. Sperry perfected a compass -that has no magnetic needle, but operates on the principle of the -gyroscope. You know that a heavy, rapidly rotating wheel resists any -tendency to being shifted relative to space?” - -“Yes.” - -[Illustration: Cross-section of a Periscope.] - -“The earth, revolving on its axis, is nothing but a big gyroscope--that -is why it stays put. The little gyroscope on this compass spins at -right angles to the revolution of the earth and so keeps in a due north -and south line. But the frame it is mounted on turns with the ship, -so the relative positions of the frame and the gyro-axis show in what -direction the submarine is heading.” - -“And you can see what’s ahead of you through the periscope. Who -invented that?” - -“The idea is a very old one. Certain French and Dutch inventors -designed submarines with periscopes as long ago as the eighteen-fifties. -In the Civil War, the light-draft river-monitor _Osage_ had attached to -her turret a crude periscope made by her chief engineer, Thomas Doughty, -out of a piece of three-inch steam-pipe with holes cut at each of its -ends at opposite sides, and pieces of looking-glass inserted as -reflectors. By means of this instrument her captain, now Rear-Admiral, -Thomas O. Selfridge, was able to look over the high banks of the Red -River when the _Osage_ had run aground in a bend and was being attacked -by three thousand dismounted Confederate cavalry, who were repulsed with -the loss of four hundred killed or wounded by the fire of the monitor’s -11-inch guns, directed through the periscope.[15] - -“But as late as 1900 the periscope was so crude and unsatisfactory an -instrument that John P. Holland would have nothing to do with it. The -credit for bringing it to its present efficiency belongs chiefly to -the Germans, who kept many of their scientists working together on the -solution of the difficult problems of optics that were involved. - -“By turning this little crank,” the lieutenant continued, “I can -revolve the reflector at the top of the tube. This reflector contains -a prism which reflects the image of the object in view down through a -system of lenses in the tube to another prism here at the bottom, where -the observer sees it through an eyepiece and telescope lenses.” - -I looked into the eyepiece, which was so much like that of an -old-fashioned stereoscope that I felt that it, too, ought to work back -and forth after the manner of a slide trombone. I found myself looking -out over the broad blue waters of a sunlit bay. I noticed a squall -blackening the surface of the water, a catboat running before it, and -the gleam of the brass instruments of the band playing on the after -deck of a big white excursion steamer half a mile away. - -“I can almost imagine I can hear the music of that band,” I exclaimed. -“The optical illusion is perfect.” - -“It has to be,” rejoined the lieutenant. “If the image were in the -least distorted or out of perspective, we couldn’t aim straight.” - -“What do you do when the periscope is wet with spray?” I asked him. - -“Wash the glass with a jet of alcohol and dry it from the inside with -a current of warm air passing up and down the tube. A periscope-tube -is double: the outer one passing through a stuffing-box in the hull, -and the inner tube revolving inside it. The old-fashioned single tubes -were too hard to revolve and the resistance of the water used to bend -them aft and cause leakage. We can raise and lower the periscopes at -will, and all our larger boats have two of them, so that they can keep -a lookout in two directions at once, besides having a spare eye in case -the first is put out.” - -“What are those two little things that big naval tug is towing over -there?” I inquired. - -“The target for our torpedo practice,” replied Lieutenant Scope. “We -shall try to put four Whiteheads between those two buoys as the tug -tows them past at an unknown range and speed. If you step forward to -the torpedo room you can see them loading the tubes.” - -As I walked forward it occurred to me that the twenty-odd men on board -the _X-4_ seemed to be moving about inside her with perfect freedom, -without disturbing her trim. I mentioned this to one of the crew. - -[Illustration: - - Courtesy of the Electric Boat Company. - - Forward torpedo-compartment, U. S. Submarine, showing - breech-mechanism of four tubes. Round opening above is the - escape-hatch. -] - -“It’s the trimming-tanks that keep her level,” he explained. “As we’re -walking forward, our weight in water is being automatically pumped from -the trimming-tank in the bow to the one astern. A submarine is just one -blamed tank after another. Stand clear of that chain-fall, sir; they’re -loading No. 1 tube.” - -Stripped to the waist like an old-time gun-crew, four beautifully -muscled young gunner’s mates were hoisting, with an ingenious -arrangement of chains and pulleys, a torpedo from the magazine. The -breach of the tube was opened and the long Whitehead thrust in, two -flanges on its sides being fitted into deep grooves in the sides of -the tube, so that the torpedo would not spin like a rifle-bullet but be -launched on an even keel. The breach was closed, and the men stood by -expectantly. - -“Skipper’s up in the conning-tower, taking aim through the periscope,” -explained the man who had told me about trimming-tanks. “The tubes -being fixed in the bow, he has to train the whole boat like a gun. -Likewise he’s got to figure out how far it is to the target and how -fast the tug is towing it, how many seconds it’s going to take the -torpedo to get there, and how much he’s got to allow for its being -carried off its course by tide and currents. When he gets good and -ready, the lieutenant’ll press a little electric button and you’ll -hear--” - -“THUD!” went the compressed air in the tube, and the submarine -shuddered slightly with the shock of the recoil. But that was all. - -“There she goes!” said my friend the tank-expert. “As soon as the -Whitehead was expelled, a compensation-tank just above the tube was -flooded with enough water to make good the loss in weight.” - -“What keeps the sea-water from rushing into the tube after the torpedo -leaves it?” I asked. - -“A conical-shaped cap on the bow of the boat keeps both tubes closed -except when you want to fire one of them. Then the cap, which is -pivoted on its upper edge, swings to port or starboard just long enough -for the torpedo to get clear and swings back before the water can get -in.” - -Four of the ten torpedoes carried in the magazine were sped on their -way to the unseen target. I returned to the turret as the wireless -operator entered and handed a typewritten slip to Lieutenant Scope, who -smiled happily and said to me, - -“The captain of the tug reports that all four shots were hits and all -four torpedoes have been safely recovered.” - -I was too astonished to congratulate him on his marksmanship, as I -should have done. - -“How in the name of miracles!” I gasped. “Can you receive a wireless -telegram under the sea?” - -“By the Fessenden oscillator,” he replied, and added to the wireless -man, - -“Take this gentleman below and show him how it works.” - -“Did you ever have another chap knock two stone together under water -when you were taking a dive?” asked the operator. I nodded in vivid -recollection. - -“Then you have some idea how sounds are magnified under water. It is an -old idea to put submarine bells down under lighthouses and fit ships -with some kind of receiver so that the bells can be heard and warning -given when it is too foggy to see the light. The advantage over the -old-style bell-buoy lies in the fact that sound travels about four -times as fast through water as through air,[16] and goes further and -straighter because it isn’t deflected by winds or what the aviators -call ‘air-pockets.’ The man who knows most about these things is -Professor Fessenden, of the Submarine Signal Company of Boston, who -first realized the possibility of telegraphing through water.[17] - -[Illustration: - - Courtesy of the American Magazine. - -Fessenden oscillator outside the hull of a ship. The “ear” of a modern -vessel.] - -“Fastened outside the hull of this boat is one of the Fessenden -oscillators: a steel disk eighteen inches in diameter, that can be -vibrated very rapidly by electricity. These vibrations travel through -the water, like wireless waves through the ether, till they strike the -oscillator on another vessel and set it to vibrating in sympathy. To -send a message, I start and stop the oscillator with this key so as -to form the dots and dashes of the Morse code. To receive, I sit here -with these receivers over my ears and ‘listen in,’ just like a wireless -operator, till I pick up our call ‘X-4,’ ‘X-4.’” - -“How far can you send a message under water?” - -“Ten miles is the furthest I’ve ever sent one. Professor Fessenden has -sent messages more than thirty miles. The invention only dates back to -1913 and what it will do in the future, there is no telling.” - -[Illustration: - - Courtesy of the American Magazine. - -Professor Fessenden receiving a message sent through several miles of -sea-water by his “Oscillator.”] - -“Even now, couldn’t a surface vessel act as eyes for a whole flotilla -of submarines and tell them where to go and when to strike by coaching -them through the Fessenden oscillator?” - -The operator nodded. - -“We’re doing it to-day, in practice. But don’t forget that an enemy’s -ship carrying a pair of oscillators can hear a submarine coming two -miles away. You can make out the beat of a propeller at that distance -every time.” - -“But how can you tell how far away and in what direction it is?” - -“I can’t, with a single oscillator like ours. But a ship carries two -of them, one on each side of the hull, like the ears on a man’s head. -And just as a man knows whether a shout he hears comes from the right -or left, because he hears it more with one ear than the other, so the -skipper of a surface craft can look at the indicator that registers the -relative intensity of the vibrations received by the port and starboard -oscillators and say, - -“‘There’s somebody three points off the starboard bow, mile and three -quarters away, and heading for us. Nothing in sight, so it must be one -of those blamed submarines.’ - -“And away he steams, full speed ahead and cutting zigzags. Or maybe -he gets his rapid-fire guns ready and watches for Mr. Submarine to -rise--like the _X-4_’s doing now.” - -Freed of the dead weight of many tons of sea water blown from her -ballast-tanks by compressed air, the submarine rose to the surface like -a balloon. Ventilators and hatch-covers were thrown open and we swarmed -up on deck to fill our grateful lungs with the good sea air. Three -motor-boats from the tug throbbed up alongside with the four torpedoes -we had discharged. - -“Those boats wait, one this side of the target, one near it and the -third over on the far side, to mark the shots and catch the torpedoes -after they rise to the surface at the end of their run,” said -Lieutenant Scope. “We very seldom lose a torpedo nowadays. They tell a -story about one that dived to the bottom and was driven by the force of -its own engines into forty feet of soft mud, where it stayed till it -happened to be dug up by a dredger.” - -The four torpedoes were hoisted aboard, drained of the sea water that -had flooded their air-chambers, cleaned and lowered through the torpedo -hatch forward down into the magazine. By this time the bridge and -railing were again in place and the flags fluttering over the taffrail -as the _X-4_, her day’s work done, sped swiftly up the coast to home -and mother-ship. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY DEVICES - - -The following submarines, with all or part of their crews, have been -accidentally lost in time of peace: - - _Date_ _Name_ _Nationality_ _Men Lost_ - March 18, 1904 A-1 British 11 - June 20, 1904 Delfin Russian 26 - June 8, 1905 A-8 British 14 - July 6, 1905 Farfadet French 14 - October 16, 1906 Lutin French 13 - April 26, 1909 Foca Italian 13 - June 12, 1909 Kambala Russian 20 - July 14, 1909 C-11 British 13 - April 15, 1910 No. 6. Japanese 14 - May 26, 1910 Pluviôse French 26 - January 17, 1911 U-3 German 3 - February 2, 1912 A-3 British 14 - June 8, 1912 Vendémiaire French 24 - October 4, 1912 B-2 British 15 - June 8, 1913 E-5 British 3 - December 10, 1913 C-14 British none - January 16, 1914 A-7 British 11 - March 25, 1915 F-4 American 21 - -The _A-1_ was engaged in manœuvers off Spithead, England, when she rose -to the surface right under the bows of the fast-steaming Union Castle -Liner _Berwick Castle_. Before anything could be done, the sharp prow -of the steamer had cut a great gash in the thin hull of the submarine -and sent her to the bottom with all her crew. This was in broad -daylight; her sister-ship _C-11_ was rammed and sunk by another liner -three years later, at night. The _Pluviôse_ of the French navy escaped -the bow of an on-coming cross-channel steamer when the submarine came -up at the entrance to Calais Harbor, only to have her topsides crushed -in by a blow from one of the paddle-wheels. Collisions like these are -less likely to happen nowadays, for the navigating officer of a modern -submarine can take a look round the horizon through the periscope from -a depth sufficient to let most steamers pass harmlessly over him, and -in case of darkness or fog, he can detect the vibrations of approaching -propellers by means of the Fessenden oscillator or some similar device. -Yet the frequency with which submarines have been intentionally rammed -and sunk in the present war shows that they would still be liable to -rise blindly to their destruction in time of peace. - -The vapor from a leaking fuel-tank, making an explosive mixture with -the air inside the submarine and set off by a spark from the electrical -machinery, has caused many accidents of another kind. Such an explosion -took place on the original _Holland_, shortly after she was taken into -the government service, but fortunately without killing any one. As the -crew of the British _A-5_ were filling the fuel tanks of their vessel -with gasoline, some of them were blown up through the open hatchway -and into the sea by a burst of flaming vapor that killed six men and -terribly injured twelve more. A rescue party that entered the boat to -save the men still left aboard had several of its own members disabled -by a second explosion. The vessel itself, however, was almost unharmed. -But not long afterwards, another submarine of the same ill-fated -class, the _A-8_, was lying off Plymouth breakwater with her hatches -open, when the people on shore heard three distinct explosions on board -her and saw her suddenly submerge. Her crew evidently got the hatches -closed before she went down, as they sent up signals that they were -alive but unable to rise. Two hours later a fourth explosion took place -and all hope was abandoned. - -This danger has been guarded against by better construction of tanks -and valves, and very greatly lessened by the substitution of the -heavy oil used in the Diesel engines for the more costly and volatile -gasoline. - -Besides igniting explosive oil vapors with their sparks, the -old-fashioned sulphuric acid and lead storage batteries still used in -many submarines are a great source of danger in themselves. The jars -are too easily broken, and the leaking acid eats into the steel plating -of the boat, weakening it if not actually letting in the sea water. -And if salt water comes in contact with a battery of this type, then -chlorin gas--the same poisonous gas that the Germans use against the -Allies’ trenches--is generated and the crew are in very great danger -of suffocation. The new Edison alkali storage battery, besides being -lighter and more durable, uses no acid and cannot give off chlorin when -saturated with sea water. - -[Illustration: - - Redrawn from the London Sphere. - -Side-elevation of a Modern Submarine, - -A, Running on the surface; B, In awash condition; C, Submerging; D, -Exposing periscope; E, Fully submerged; F, Resting on the bottom.] - -The remaining great danger is that a submarine may get out of control -and submerge too quickly, so that it either strikes the bottom, at -the risk of being crushed in or entangled, or descends to so great -a depth that its sides are forced in by the pressure of the water -outside, which also prevents the submarine from discharging the water -in its ballast tanks and escaping to the surface. Detachable safety -weights and keels to lighten the boat in such an emergency date back -to the time of Bushnell and J. Day. A more modern device is to have a -hydrostatic valve (see page 51) set to correspond with the pressure of -a certain depth of water, so that if the submarine goes below this the -valve will be forced in and automatically “blow the tanks.” - -A submarine that sank too deep was the _No. 6_, of the Imperial -Japanese navy, which disappeared while manœuvering in Hiroshima Bay, on -April 15, 1910. When she was found, her entire crew lay dead at their -stations, and in the conning-tower, beside the body of the commander, -was the following letter written by that officer, Lieutenant Takuma -Faotomu: - -“Although there is indeed no excuse to make for the sinking of his -Imperial Majesty’s boat, and for the doing away of subordinates through -my heedlessness, all on board the boat have discharged their duties -well and in everything acted calmly until death. Although we are dying -in the pursuance of our duty to the State, the only regret we have is -due to anxiety lest the men of the world misunderstand the matter, -and that thereby a blow may be given to the future development of the -submarine. - -“Gentlemen, we hope you will be increasingly diligent and not fail -to appreciate the cause of the accident, and that you will devote -your entire energy to investigate everything and so secure the future -development of submarines. If this be done we have nothing to regret. - -“While going through gasoline submerged exercises we submerged too far, -and when we attempted to shut the sluice-valve, the chain broke. - -“Then we tried to close the sluice-valve by hand, but it was too late, -for the afterpart was full of water, and the boat sank at an angle -of about twenty-five degrees. The boat came to rest at an incline of -about twelve degrees, pointing towards the stern. The switchboard being -under water the electric lights went out. Offensive gas developed and -breathing became difficult. The boat sank about 10 A.M. on the 15th, -and though suffering at the time from this offensive gas, we endeavored -to expel the water by hand pumps. As the vessel went down we expelled -the water from the main tank. As the light has gone out the gage cannot -be seen, but we know the water has been expelled from the main tank. - -“We cannot use the electric current at all. The battery is leaking but -no salt water has reached it and chlorin gas has not developed. We only -rely on the hand pump now. - -“The above was written under the light of the conning-tower, at about -11.45 o’clock. We are now soaked by the water that has made its way -in. Our clothes are wet and we feel cold. I had been accustomed to -warn my shipmates that their behavior (in an emergency) should be calm -and deliberate, as well as brave, yet not too deliberate, lest work be -retarded. People may be tempted to ridicule this after this failure, -but I am perfectly confident that my words have not been mistaken. - -“The depth gage of the conning-tower indicates 52 feet, and despite our -efforts to expel the water the pump stopped and would not work after 12 -o’clock. The depth in this neighborhood being ten fathoms, the reading -may be correct. - -“The officers and men of submarines should be chosen from the bravest -of the brave or there will be annoyances in cases like this. Happily -all the members of this crew have discharged their duties well and I am -satisfied. I have always expected death whenever I left my home, and -therefore my will is already in the drawer at Karasaki. (This remark -applies only to my private affairs and is really superfluous. Messrs. -Taguchi and Asami will please inform my father of this.) - -“I respectfully request that none of the families left by my -subordinates suffer. The only thing I am anxious about is this. - -“Atmospheric pressure is increasing and I feel as if my tympanum were -breaking. - -“12.30 o’clock. Respiration is extraordinarily difficult. I mean I am -breathing gasoline. I am intoxicated with gasoline. - -“It is 12.40 o’clock.” - -Those were the last words written by Lieutenant Takuma Faotomu, bravest -of the brave. - -Very many ingenious devices have been invented to enable the crew of -a stranded submarine to escape. The best-known and most widely used -is some form of the air-lock or diver’s chamber, as described in the -chapter on the Lake boats. Through this the crew can pass in succession -to the water outside and swim to the surface. If the depth is so great -that an unprotected swimmer would be crushed by the weight of water -above him, there is a great variety of safety-helmets, and of jackets -with mouth-pieces leading to tanks containing enough air under moderate -pressure to inflate the lungs and cheeks so that the internal pressure -of the body will counteract that of the water. An escaping seaman, -burdened with such a device, cannot rise unaided to the surface but -must climb or be hauled up by a rope let down from above. Moreover, -he must not ascend too rapidly, or the pressure within his body will -dangerously exceed that without, as if he had been suddenly picked up -at the seashore and carried to the top of the Andes. The human body is -too delicate and elaborate a structure to be carelessly turned into -a compressed-air tank. The surplus oxygen forms bubbles which try to -force their way out through the tissues of the body, causing intense -pain, and possibly paralysis or death. To avoid this, divers are -brought up from any great depth by slow and careful stages, unless they -can be placed at once in specially-constructed tanks on shore, where -the pressure they are under can be gradually reduced to normal. - -[Illustration: - - Courtesy of the Scientific American. - -One Type of Safety-jacket.] - -A covered lifeboat carried in a socket on the submarine’s deck, so that -in case of accidental stranding the crew could get into the small boat -from below, close the hatch cover, release the lifeboat from within, -and rise safely and comfortably to the surface, was an attractive -feature of the _Plongeur_ in 1863, and of many projected but unbuilt -submarines since then. A detachable conning-tower, containing a small -lifeboat that could be launched after the safety compartment had risen -to the surface, has also been designed and patented more than once. -Theoretically, these devices seem admirable but naval architects will -have none of them. The reason for this is very simple. A submarine is -primarily a warship, an instrument of destruction, and its carrying -capacity is too limited to permit several hundredweight of torpedoes or -supplies being crowded out by a lifeboat or a score of safety-helmets. -A divers’ compartment and one or two ordinary diving-suits--for these -things are of military value--and a buoy that can be sent up to mark -the spot where the boat has gone down are as much as you can expect to -find in the average naval submarine. - -One of the most instructive accidents that ever happened to an undersea -boat was the loss and rescue of the German _U-3_. She sank to the -bottom of Kiel Harbor on January 17, 1911. A small spherical buoy -was released and rose to the surface, where it was picked up and a -telephone attached to the end of the thin wire cable. - -“Hello!” - -“Hello! This is the captain of the _U-3_ speaking. We cannot rise, but -we are resting easy and have air enough to last forty-eight hours.” - -“Good. The steam salvage-dock _Vulcan_ has been sent for and will be -here before then, Herr Kapitan.” - -But before the _Vulcan_ arrived, it occurred to some one in authority -to attempt to raise the _U-3_ with a large floating crane then -available. The strong steel chain ready coiled at the lower end of the -buoy-line was drawn up and made fast to the crane, which could not -lift the 300-ton submarine bodily, but succeeded in hauling up its bow -sufficiently for the twenty-seven petty officers and seamen on board -the _U-3_ to be shot up through the torpedo tube to the surface. The -captain and his two lieutenants chose to remain. Shortly afterwards -the chain slipped and broke off one of the boat’s ventilators, letting -water into the hull and drowning all three officers. - -Then the sea-going, steam salvage-dock _Vulcan_ reached the scene and -brought the _U-3_ to the surface in three hours. - -“The _Vulcan_ is a double-hulled vessel, 230 feet in length with a -lifting capacity of 500 tons. The width between the two hulls is -sufficient to admit with good clearance the largest submarines. At -a suitable height a shelf is formed along each wall of the interior -opening, and upon this rests the removable floor of the dock. The two -hulls of the ship are each built with water-tight compartments of large -capacity, similar to those which are found in the side walls of the -ordinary floating dock. When a sunken submarine is to be raised, the -_Vulcan_ steams to the wreck and is moored securely in position above -it. Spanning the well between the two hulls are two massive gantry -cranes, each provided with heavy lifting tackle driven by electric -motors. The first operation is to fill the compartments until the -vessel has sunk to the required depth. The floor of the dock is then -moved clear of the well. The lifting tackles are now lowered and made -fast, either to chains which have been slung around the body of the -submarine, or to two massive eyebolts which are permanently riveted -into the submarine’s hull. At the order to hoist away, the submarine -is lifted free from the mud and drawn up within the well, until its -bottom is clear of the supporting shelves on the inner faces of the two -hulls, above referred to. The dock floor is then placed in position on -the shelves, the water is pumped out of the two hulls, and the _Vulcan_ -rises, lifting the submarine and the dock floor clear of the water.”[18] - -[Illustration: - - Courtesy of the Scientific American. - -The _Vulcan_ salvaging the _U-3_.] - -A similar vessel was built by the French government as a result of -public indignation over the delay in raising the sunken _Pluviôse_. -Great Britain has a salvage dock with a lifting capacity of 1000 -tons. But the most remarkable craft of this kind belongs to Italy and -was designed by the famous engineer Major Cesare Laurenti, technical -director of the Fiat-San Giorgio works, builders of some of the world’s -best submarines. She is a twin-hulled vessel, fitted not only to pick -a sunken submarine from the sea bottom, but to care for it in every -way, for she is also a floating dry-dock, capable of repairing two of -the largest submarines, besides being a fully equipped mother-ship for -a flotilla of six. With the ends of her central tunnel closed by a -false stem and stern, and propelled by twin screws driven by powerful -Diesel engines, she is a fast and seaworthy vessel, capable of keeping -company with her flotilla on a surface cruise. She carries a sufficient -armament of quick-firing guns to beat off a hostile destroyer. But the -most noteworthy feature of the Laurenti dock is a long steel cylinder, -capable of enduring great pressure from within, that is used to test -the resisting strength of new submarines. A new boat, or a section of a -proposed new type, is placed in this tube, which is filled with water -that is then compressed by pumps, reproducing the effect of submergence -to any desired depth. - -The United States navy tests each new submarine built for it by -actually lowering the boat, with no one in it, to a depth of 200 feet. -We have no Laurenti dock, no _Vulcan_, no sea-going salvage dock of any -kind. The tender _Fulton_ has a powerful crane, but she cannot be on -the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and in the Far East, simultaneously. - -“The difficulties encountered in raising the sunken British submarine -_A-3_,” wrote Mr. R. G. Skerrett in the “Scientific American” some -years ago, “have in them a note of warning for us. We are steadily -adding to our flotilla of under-water boats, and yet we have no proper -facilities in the government service for the prompt salvage of any of -these boats should they be carried suddenly to the bottom. We have been -fortunate so far in escaping serious accidents, but that is no reason -for assuming that we are any more likely to be immune from disaster -than any other naval service. We should profit by the catastrophes -which have befallen England, Russia, France, Germany, and Japan, and no -longer continue unprepared for kindred mishaps.”[19] - -We refused to profit and we continued unprepared. Then came a brief -official cablegram from Hawaii, “Honolulu, March 25, 1915. U. S. -submarine _F-4_ left tender at 9 A.M. for submerged run. Failed to -return to surface.” - -The other two submarines on the station and motor-boats from the -tender _Alert_ cruised about till they found the spot where oil and -air-bubbles were coming to the surface. Two tugs then swept the bottom -with a two-thousand foot sweep of chains and wire cables, which caught -early the next morning on what proved to be the lost submarine, in -three hundred feet of water, about a mile and a half outside the -entrance to Honolulu Harbor. - -For twenty-four hours or so the navy department held out the hope -that the men on board her were still alive and might be rescued. But -there was nothing ready to rescue them with. Three weeks were spent -in building the windlasses for an improvised salvage-dock made out of -two mud scows. In the meanwhile, a detachment of the department’s most -skilled divers were sent out from the Brooklyn Navy Yard. With their -aid, strong wire cables were passed under the submarine’s hull. While -engaged on this work, one of the divers, Chief Gunner’s Mate Frank -Crilley, broke all deep submergence records by descending to a depth -of 288 feet. As a result, his lungs were severely injured and he soon -afterwards developed pneumonia. - -The wire ropes chafed through and were replaced by chains. Then the -_F-4_ was lifted from the bottom and towed inshore to a depth of fifty -feet. Here a heavy storm set in and the lines had to be cast off. Six -big cylindrical-shaped pontoons were then built at San Francisco and -brought out to Honolulu on the cruiser _Maryland_. Divers passed fresh -chains under the _F-4_, the pontoons were sunk on either side of her, -and coupled together. Then the water was blown out of the pontoons -by compressed-air piped down from above, the _F-4_ was raised to the -surface, and towed into dry dock. - -No decipherable written record was discovered inside her hull, which -was filled with sand washed in through a large hole made in the plating -by the chafing of the chains. But the story of the disaster was written -in the plates and rivets of the vessel herself, and skilfully deduced -and reconstructed by a board of inquiry, headed by Rear-Admiral -Boush. Their report, which was not made public till October 27, told -dramatically how the corroded condition of the lead lining in the -battery tanks had let the acid eat away the rivets in the port wall -of the forward tank. Salt water thus entered part of the battery, -producing chlorin gas, which exploded violently, admitting more water, -till the submarine began to sink by the head, in spite of the raising -of her diving-rudders. - -“Automatic blow was tripped, and blow valve on auxiliary tank opened -in the endeavor to check downward momentum. Manœuvering with propellers -probably took place. The appreciable length of time requisite for air -to build up in ballast tanks for the expulsion of sufficient quantities -of water resulted in the vessel reaching crushing depth. - -“Seams of the vessel began to open, and probably through open torpedo -tubes and seams water entered the vessel and a condition of positive -buoyancy was never attained. - -“There followed actual disaster. The vessel began filling with water. -The personnel abandoned stations and many sought refuge in the engine -room, closing the door. Under great pressure the engine room bulkhead -failed suddenly, leaving the vessel on the bottom, completely flooded.” - -All the boats of the “F” class had already been withdrawn from the -service, by order of Secretary Daniels. Their place at Honolulu was -taken by four boats of the “K” class, which made the 2100 mile voyage -out from San Francisco under their own power. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -MINES - -THE MINE SWEEPERS - - “‘Ware mine!” - “Starboard your helm.”... “Full speed ahead!” - The squat craft duly swings-- - A hand’s breadth off, a thing of dread - The sullen breaker flings. - - Carefully, slowly, patiently, - The men of Grimsby Town - Grope their way on the rolling sea-- - The storm-swept, treacherous, gray North Sea-- - Keeping the death-rate down. - - --H. INGAMELLS, in the “London Spectator.” - - -A mine is a torpedo that has no motive-power of its own but is either -anchored or set adrift in the supposed path of an enemy’s ship. We have -already seen how Bushnell used drifting mines at Philadelphia in 1777. -Anchored mines are among the many inventions of Robert Fulton. The -following description of the original type, illustrated by an engraving -made by himself, is taken from Fulton’s “Torpedo War and Submarine -Explosions.” - -[Illustration: Fulton’s Anchored Torpedoes.] - -“Plate II represents the anchored torpedo, so arranged as to blow -up a vessel which should run against it; _B_ is a copper case two -feet long, twelve inches diameter, capable of containing one hundred -pounds of powder. _A_ is a brass box, in which there is a lock similar -to a common gun lock, with a barrel two inches long, to contain a -musket charge of powder: the box, with the lock cocked and barrel -charged, is screwed to the copper case _B_. _H_ is a lever which has a -communication to the lock inside of the box, and in its present state -holds the lock cocked and ready to fire. _C_ is a deal box filled with -cork, and tied to the case _B_. The object of the cork is to render -the torpedo about fifteen or twenty pounds specifically lighter than -water, and give it a tendency to rise to the surface. It is held down -to any given depth under water by a weight of fifty or sixty pounds -as at _F_: there is also a small anchor _G_, to prevent a strong tide -moving it from its position. With torpedoes prepared, and knowing -the depth of water in all our bays and harbors, it is only necessary -to fix the weight _F_ at such a distance from the torpedo, as when -thrown into the water, _F_ will hold it ten, twelve, or fifteen feet -below the surface at low water, it will then be more or less below the -surface at high water, or at different times of the tide; but it should -never be so deep as the usual draft of a frigate or ship-of-the-line. -When anchored, it will, during the flood tide, stand in its present -position; at slack water it will stand perpendicular to the weight _F_, -as at _D_; during the ebb it will be at _E_. At ten feet under water -the waves, in boisterous weather, would have little or no tendency to -disturb the torpedo; for that if the hollow of a wave should sink ten -feet below what would be the calm surface, the wave would run twenty -feet high, which I believe is never the case in any of our bays and -harbors. All the experience which I have on this kind of torpedo is, -that in the month of October, 1805, I had one of them anchored nine -feet under water, in the British Channel near Dover; the weather was -severe, the waves ran high, it kept its position for twenty-four hours, -and, when taken up, the powder was dry and the lock in good order. The -torpedo thus anchored, it is obvious, that if a ship in sailing should -strike the lever _H_, the explosion would be instantaneous, and she -be immediately destroyed; hence, to defend our bays or harbors, let -a hundred, or more if necessary, of these engines be anchored in the -channel, as for example, the Narrows, to defend New York. - -“The figure to the right of the plate is an end view of the torpedo. -_H-H_ shews its lever forked, to give the better chance of being struck. - -“Having described this instrument in a way which I hope will be -understood,” continues Fulton, “I may be permitted to put the following -question to my reader, which is: Knowing that the explosion of one -hundred pounds of powder, or more if required, under the bottom of a -ship-of-the-line, would destroy her, and seeing, that if a ship in -sailing should strike the lever of an anchored torpedo, she would be -blown up, would he have the courage, or shall I say the temerity, -to sail into a channel where one or more hundred of such engines -were anchored? I rely on each gentleman’s sense of prudence and -self-preservation, to answer this question to my satisfaction. Should -the apprehension of danger become as strong on the minds of those who -investigate this subject as it is on mine, we may reasonably conclude -that the same regard to self-preservation will make an enemy cautious -in approaching waters where such engines are placed; for however brave -sailors may be, there is no danger so distressing to the mind of a -seaman, or so calculated to destroy his confidence, as that which is -invisible and instantaneous destruction.” - -But Admiral Farragut at Mobile Bay, half a century later, did have the -“temerity to sail into a channel where one or more hundred of such -engines were anchored.” The monitor _Tecumseh_ struck and exploded a -mine that sent her to the bottom with almost her entire crew. The -rest of the fleet began to waver when, from the main-rigging of the -_Hartford_ Farragut shouted his immortal command: - -“Full steam ahead! Damn the torpedoes!” - -[Illustration: Sinking of the U. S. S. _Tecumseh_, by a Confederate -mine, in Mobile Bay.] - -As the flagship led the way through the mine-field, those on board -heard mine after mine bump against her bottom, but though the levers -were struck and the primers snapped, the powder-charges failed to -explode. Hastily improvised out of beer-kegs and other receptacles, -with tin or iron covers that became rusty and useless soon after they -were placed under water, many of the Confederate mines were in this -respect inferior to the well-built copper torpedoes of Fulton. Yet -crude as they were, they destroyed more than forty Northern warships, -transports, and supply vessels. - -[Illustration: - - From Scharf’s History of the Confederate States Navy. - -A Confederate “Keg-Torpedo.”] - -Percussion-caps instead of flintlocks were now used to explode contact -mines. A new type of anchored torpedo, set off by an electric spark -through a wire running to an operator on shore, was also a favorite -with the Confederates. Because they are exploded not by contact with -the ship’s hull but by the closing of the circuit by the operator -when he observes an enemy’s vessel to be above one of them, these are -called “observation mines.” In the Civil War, many effective mines -of this sort were made out of whisky demijohns. One of these blew up -the gunboat _Cairo_, in the Yazoo River, in the autumn of 1862. The -double-ended, river gunboat _Commodore Jones_ was blown to pieces by an -observation mine, whose operator was subsequently captured and tied to -the cut-water of another Federal gunboat as a warning and a hostage. -During the bombardment of Fort Sumter by the United States fleet in -1863, the _New Ironsides_ lay for an hour directly above an observation -mine made of boiler iron and containing a ton of gunpowder but which -failed to explode despite all the efforts of the operator. He was -naturally accused of treachery and it would have gone hard with him had -it not been discovered, soon after the _New Ironsides_ ceased firing -and stood out to sea, that the shore end of the wire had been severed -by the wheel of an ammunition wagon. - -[Illustration: U. S. IRON-CLAD “CAIRO” (BLOWN UP BY CONFEDERATE -TORPEDO). - - From Scharf’s History of the Confederate States Navy. - -First Warship Destroyed by a Mine.] - -During the Franco-Prussian War, the powerful French fleet blockaded the -German coast but did not attack the shore batteries, which were well -protected by mines. After peace was declared the foreign consuls at one -of the North German seaports congratulated the burgomaster on having -planted and taken up so many mines without a single accident. Unknown -to any one, the prudent burgomaster had unloaded them first, and they -kept the French away just as well. - -In the Spanish-American War, Admiral Dewey was able to enter Manila -Bay and destroy the Spanish squadron there because its commander “had -repeatedly asked for torpedoes (mines) from Madrid, but had received -none and his attempts to make them had been failures.”[20] It was the -mine-fields and not the feeble shore batteries that kept Sampson’s -fleet out of Havana and Santiago. At Guantanamo, now a United States -naval station, the _Texas_ and the _Marblehead_ each “struck her -propeller against a contact mine, which failed to explode only because -it was incrusted with a thick growth of barnacles. Gratitude for the -vessels’ escape may fairly be divided between divine care to which the -gallant and devout Captain Philip attributed it in his report, and the -Spaniards’ neglect to maintain a proper inspection of these defenses. -A number of these torpedoes, which were of French manufacture, and -contained forty-six and a half kilograms (one hundred and two pounds) -of guncotton, were afterward dragged up in the channel.”[21] - -[Illustration: - - From Scharf’s History of the Confederate States Navy. - -A Confederate “Buoyant Torpedo” or Contact-mine.] - -At the siege of Port Arthur in 1904, the Japanese fleet planted mines -outside the harbor to keep the Russians in, and the Russians came out -and planted mines of their own to entrap the blockaders. While engaged -in this work, the Russian mine-layer _Yenisei_ had a mine which -had just been lowered through her specially constructed sternports -thrown by a wave against her rudder, and was blown to atoms by the -consequent explosion of three hundred more in her hold. The flagship -_Petropavlosk_, returning from a sortie on April 13, struck a Japanese -contact-mine and went down with the loss of six hundred men, including -Vereshchagin, the famous painter of war-scenes, and Admiral Makaroff, -who was not only the commander but the heart and soul of the Russian -fleet.[22] A month later, another mine cost the Japanese their finest -battleship, the _Hatsuse_. Nor was the loss confined either to the -belligerents or to the duration of the war. Nearly one hundred Chinese -and other neutral merchant vessels were sunk by some of the many mines -torn loose from their anchors by storms to drift, the least noticeable -and most terrible of derelicts, over all the seas of the Far East, long -after peace was declared. - -The same thing on a larger scale will doubtless take place as a result -of the present European War. From the Baltic to the Dardanelles, both -sides have sown the waters thick with contact mines, hundreds of which -have already broken loose and been cast up on the shores of Denmark, -Holland, and other neutral lands. How many more have been picked up -on the coasts of the different belligerent countries, the military -censors have naturally kept a close secret; how many of these infernal -machines are now drifting about the North Sea, the North Atlantic, and -the Mediterranean it is impossible to compute. Scarcely a week passes -without the publication of such news items as the following extracts -from “Current events in Norway,” in the “American-Scandinavian Review” -for July-August, 1915: - -“One hundred and fifty mines had been brought into Bergen up to April -12. The steamer _Caprivi_ of Bergen, which sank after being struck -by a mine off the coast of Ireland, was on its way from Baltimore -with a cargo of 4150 tons of grain, the property of the Norwegian -government.... The German government has declared its willingness to -comply with the demand of the Norwegian government for compensation for -the _Belridge_, provided it be proved that the sinking of the steamer -was the result of a German torpedo. The pieces of the shell found in -the side of the vessel are to be sent to the German government, and -in case there should be any disagreement about the facts they will be -submitted to arbitration.” - -Unfortunately in most cases where a neutral ship is so sunk, the -exploding mine automatically destroys all evidence of its own origin, -and each belligerent promptly and positively declares that it must have -been planted, if not deliberately set adrift, by the other side. The -neutral is left to get what satisfaction he can out of the ruling of -the last Hague Conference that all contact mines must be so constructed -as to become harmless after breaking loose from their moorings. There -is nothing mechanically difficult about installing such a safety -device, and all the great powers now at war with each other solemnly -pledged themselves to do so. But the temptation of perhaps destroying a -hostile battleship as the _Hatsuse_ was destroyed, by a drifting mine, -has apparently been too great. - -Premature explosion of the mine during handling and planting, such -as caused the destruction of the _Yenisei_ is, of course, carefully -guarded against. One of the simplest and most effective safety devices -is that used in the British navy, where the external parts of the -exploding apparatus are sealed with a thick layer of sugar, which is -dissolved by the sea-water after being submerged for a few minutes. -By then the mine-laying vessel has had time to get safely out of the -neighborhood. - -Modern mines are of various shapes and sizes but are as a rule either -spherical or shaped like a pear with the stem down. The anchor is a -hollow, flat-bottomed cylinder, containing its own anchor cable wound -on a windlass, and making a convenient base or stand for the explosive -chamber or mine proper, so that the whole apparatus can be stood or -trundled about the deck of a mine-layer like a barrel. Once placed in -the water either by being dropped through the overhanging stern-ports -of a large sea-going mine-planter like the U.S.S. _San Francisco_, or -lowered over the side of a smaller craft by a derrick boom, the weight -of its anchor causes the mine to assume an upright position. This -releases a small weight or plummet at the end of a short line attached -to a spring that keeps the windlass inside the anchor from revolving. -When the plummet has sunk to the end of its cord, its weight pulls -down the spring, and the windlass begins to revolve and unreel the -cable, the end of which is, of course, made fast to the bottom of the -mine. This causes the anchor, which has been held up by the buoyancy -of the mine, to sink, and follows the plummet till the latter touches -the bottom. Freed of the plummet’s weight, the spring now flies up and -stops the windlass. But the hollow anchor is now filled with water, -whose additional weight drags the mine under. When the anchor rests on -the bottom, the mine will be at the same distance beneath the surface -of the water as the anchor had to sink after the windlass stopped, or -the length of the plummet’s line. By regulating that, a mine can be -made automatically to set itself at any desired depth. - -[Illustration: - - (Redrawn from the London Sphere.) - -Modern Contact-Mine. - - A, Mine-Planter; B, Mine being dropped overboard; C, Plummet-line - extended; D, Anchor sinking; E, Plummet touching bottom; F, Mine - submerged and anchored; G, Battleship striking mine; 1, The - “Striker”; 2, Charge of Explosives; 3, Air-space, for Buoyancy; - 4, Mine-case; 5, Anchor; 6, Plummet. -] - -Mines are almost never laid singly but in groups, the area of water so -planted being called a “mine field.” A secret, zigzag channel is often -left clear for the benefit of friendly craft. The rows of mines are -usually “staggered” or placed like the men on a checker-board, so that -if a hostile vessel passes through an opening in the first row she will -strike a mine in the second. Another device is to couple together the -mooring cables of two or more mines so that a ship passing between them -will draw them in against her sides. - -Contact may cause explosion in any one of several different ways. The -head or sides of the mine may be studded with projecting rods like the -striker on the nose of a Whitehead, to be either driven directly in -against a detonating charge of fulminate or else open the jaws of a -clutch and release the spring of a firing-pin. Such external movable -parts, however, are too prone to become overgrown and clogged with -barnacles and the like. A more modern way is to have the shock of the -collision with the ship’s hull dislodge a heavy ball held in a cup -inside the mine. The fall of this weight sets in motion machinery which -fires the detonating charge. Or the device may not be mechanical but -electrical, as in the type of mine that, when drawn far enough over -to one side by a vessel passing over it, spills a cupful of mercury. -This stream of liquid metal closes an electric circuit, so that an -electric current passes through a piece of platinum wire embedded in -fulminate and heats it red-hot, with obvious results. This current may -be obtained either from a storage-battery carried in the mine itself, -or through a wire running down the mooring cable and over the bottom -to the shore. Most shore-control mines are so designed that they can -either be fired by observation, or else turned into electro-contact -mines of the above-mentioned type by arranging the switches in the -controlling station. It is also possible to have the contact serve -to warn the operator on shore by ringing a bell and indicating the -position of the intruding ship in the mine-field. - -Just as barbed-wire entanglements on land are blown out of the way by -small charges of high explosives, so mined areas of the sea can be -cleared by “counter-mining.” One or more strings of linked-together -mines, of a small, easily-handled type, are carefully placed by -light-draft vessels in the waters already planted by the enemy. -When these are exploded together, the concussion is enough to -destroy any anchored mines near at hand, either by setting off their -exploding-devices or causing their cases to leak, so that they will be -filled with water and sink harmlessly to the bottom. Or a channel may -be cleared by “sweeping” it with a drag-rope towed along the bottom -by two small steamers, exploding the mines or tearing them up by the -roots. Very effective work of this kind has been done by the small -steam-trawlers used by the North Sea fishermen, and if anything of the -sort is ever necessary in American waters we may be thankful for the -powerful sea-going tugs now towing strings of barges up and down our -coasts. - -[Illustration: U. S. Mine-planter _San Francisco_.] - -But even a light field-piece on shore can shell and sink the sort -of small, unarmored craft that must be used for mine-sweeping. When -a fleet attacks a channel or harbor entrance properly defended by -both mine-fields and batteries, each supporting the other, there -comes a time when the naval forces must wait till troops can be -landed to drive away the forces protecting the rear of the batteries, -so that the mine-sweepers can advance and clear a channel for the -superdreadnoughts. The most striking example of this is the holding of -the Allied fleet by the Turks at the Dardanelles. - -There, too, effective use is being made of the latest, which is an -adaptation of the oldest type of torpedo: the drifting mine.[23] This -twentieth-century improvement on Bushnell’s “kegs charged with powder” -floats upright, with a vertical-acting propeller on top and another on -its bottom, and a hydrostatic valve set to maintain it at any desired -depth. Should it rise or sink, the change in pressure will cause the -valve to act on the principle already explained in connection with -the Whitehead torpedo (see page 44). Controlled by the valve, the -little compressed-air motor attached to the vertical propellers will -cause them to make a few revolutions, just enough to keep the mine -at a constant depth beneath the surface of the Dardanelles, as the -four-mile-an-hour current carries it down against the Anglo-French -fleet. Within a few hours of each other, during the furious bombardment -of the forts on March 18, 1915, the French battleship _Bouvet_ was -struck by one of these drifting mines and went down stern-foremost, -then H.M.S. _Ocean_ was sunk by another, and the _Irresistible_ forced -to run ashore to escape sinking, only to be pounded to pieces by the -guns of the forts. A feature of this type of mine is that its size and -shape enable it to be launched through a torpedo tube, either from a -surface craft or from a submarine. - -Ordinary contact-mines, without anchors and attached to floats that -held them a few feet below the surface of the water, are sometimes -dropped overboard from a vessel closely pursued by an enemy. A small -mine so dropped by a German light cruiser returning from an attempted -raid on the English coast, early in the war, was struck by the pursuing -British submarine _D-5_ and sent her to the bottom. The _D-5_ was -running awash at the time and only two officers and two seamen were -saved. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -THE SUBMARINE IN ACTION - - “Hit and hard hit! The blow went home - The muffled knocking stroke, - The steam that overrides the foam, - The foam that thins to smoke, - The smoke that cloaks the deep aboil, - The deep that chokes her throes, - Till, streaked with ash and sleeked with oil, - The lukewarm whirlpools close!” - - --KIPLING. - - -The first submarine in history to sink a hostile warship without also -sinking herself is the _E-9_ of the British navy. Together with most -of her consorts, she was sent, at the outbreak of the present war, to -explore and reconnoiter off the German coast and the island fortress -of Heligoland to find where the enemy’s ships were lying, how they -were protected and how they might be attacked. After six weeks of -such work, the _E-9_ entered Heligoland Bight on September 13, 1914, -and discharged two torpedoes at the German light cruiser _Hela_. One -exploded against her bow and the other amidships, and the cruiser went -down almost immediately, drowning many of her crew. - -[Illustration: - - Copyright, London Sphere & N. Y. Herald. - -English Submarine Rescuing English Sailors.] - -Another British submarine had already appeared in action off Heligoland -but as a saver instead of a destroyer of human life. On the 28th -of August a number of German torpedo-craft and light cruisers -were decoyed out to sea by the appearance and pretended flight of -some English destroyers. (It has been declared but not officially -confirmed that the “bait” consisted not of destroyers but two British -submarines, which rose to the surface where one of them pretended to -be disabled and was slowly towed away by the other till their pursuers -were almost within range, when the line was cast off and both boats -dived to safety.) The Germans found themselves attacked by a larger -British flotilla and a confused sort of battle followed. During the -mêlée, an English cruiser lowered a whaleboat that picked up several -survivors of a sunken German vessel. The cruiser was then driven away -by a more powerful German ship, and the crew of the whaleboat found -themselves left in the enemy’s waters without arms, food, or navigating -instruments. Suddenly a periscope rose out of the water alongside, -followed by the conning-tower and hull of the British submarine _E-4_, -which took the Englishmen on board and left the Germans the whaleboat, -after which both parties went home rejoicing. - -Shortly after this, the German submarine _U-15_ boldly attacked a -British squadron, but revealed herself by the white wake of her -periscope as it cut through the calm water. A beautifully aimed shot -from the cruiser _Birmingham_ smashed the periscope. The submarine -dived, temporarily safe but blinded, for she was an old-fashioned craft -with only one observation instrument. Her commander now essayed a swift -“porpoise dive” up to the surface and down again, exposing only the -conning-tower for a very few seconds. But a broadside blazed from the -_Birmingham_, a shell struck squarely against the conning-tower, and -the sea poured in through the ragged death-wound in the deck of the -_U-15_. - -[Illustration: Copyright, London Sphere & N. Y. Herald. - -Engagement between the _Birmingham_ and the _U-15_. - - 1. Submarine’s periscope shot away. - 2. Submarine dives, temporarily safe but blinded. - 3. Submarine exposes conning-tower. - 4. Conning-tower shot away, _U-15_ sinking. -] - -But these early affairs were now overshadowed as completely as the -first Union victories in West Virginia were overshadowed by Bull Run. -Another British squadron encountered another German submarine and this -time the periscope was not detected. Lieutenant-Commander Otto von -Weddigen had had ample time to take up an ideal position beside the -path of his enemies, who passed in slow and stately procession before -the bow torpedo-tubes of the _U-9_. The German officer pressed a button -and saw through his periscope the white path of the “Schwartzkopf” as -it sped straight and true to the tall side of the _Aboukir_. He saw -the cruiser heaved into the air by the shock of the bursting war-head, -then watched her settle and go down. Round swung her nearest consort -to the rescue, lowering her lifeboats as she came. But scarcely had -the survivors of the _Aboukir’s_ company set foot on the deck of the -_Hogue_ than she, too, was torpedoed, and the half-naked men of both -crews went tumbling down the slope of the upturned side as she rolled -over and sank. Up steamed the _Cressy_, her gun-crews standing by their -useless pieces, splendid in helpless bravery. Half reluctantly, von -Weddigen sent his remaining foe to the bottom and slipped away under -the waves, the victor of the strangest naval battle in history. - -Not a German had received the slightest injury; fourteen hundred -Englishmen had been killed. It was the loss of these trained officers -and seamen, and not that of three old cruisers that would soon have -been sent to the scrap heap, that was felt by the British navy. -Realizing that no fears for their own lives would keep the officers of -a British ship from attempting to rescue the drowning crew of another, -the Admiralty issued the following order: - -“It has been necessary to point out for the future guidance of his -Majesty’s ships that the conditions that prevail when one vessel of -a squadron is injured in a mine-field or exposed to submarine attack -are analogous to those which occur in an action and that the rule of -leaving disabled ships to their own resources is applicable, so far at -any rate as large vessels are concerned. No act of humanity, whether to -friend or foe, should lead to a neglect of the proper precautions and -dispositions of war, and no measures can be taken to save life which -prejudice the military situation.” - -Another old cruiser, the _Hermes_, that had been turned into a floating -base for sea-planes, was torpedoed off Dunkirk by a German submarine, -most of the crew being rescued by French torpedo boats. On New Year’s -day, 1915, the battleship _Formidable_ was likewise sent to the -bottom of the English Channel. She too was a rather old ship, of the -same class as the _Bulwark_, which had been destroyed by an internal -explosion two weeks earlier in the Medway, and the _Irresistible_, -afterwards sunk by a mine in the Dardanelles. - -But there was nothing small or old about the _Audacious_. She was--or -is--a 24,800 ton superdreadnought, launched in 1911 and carrying ten -thirteen-and-a-half-inch guns. This stupendous war-engine was found -rolling helpless in the Irish Sea, her after compartments flooded by -a great hole made either by a drifting mine or, what is more likely -considering its position, by a torpedo from a German submarine. The -White Star liner _Olympic_, which had been summoned by wireless, -took the disabled warship in tow for several hours, after which the -_Audacious_ was cast off and abandoned. A photograph taken by one of -the _Olympic’s_ passengers and afterwards widely circulated shows -the huge ironclad down by the stern, listing heavily to one side, -and apparently on the point of sinking. But her loss has never been -admitted by the British Admiralty, and it has been repeatedly declared -by reputable persons that the _Audacious_ was kept afloat till the -_Olympic_ was out of sight, and was then towed by naval vessels into -Belfast, where she was drydocked and repaired at Harland and Wolff’s -shipyard to be sent back to the fighting line. Her fate is one of the -most interesting of the many mysteries of the war and will probably not -be made clear till peace has come. The silence of the British Admiralty -is explained by the standing orders forbidding the revealing of the -whereabouts of any of his Majesty’s ships, particularly when helpless -and disabled. It should be noted in this connection that the German -government has never admitted the loss of the battleship _Pommern_ -which the Russians insist was sunk by one of their submarines in the -Baltic. - -[Illustration: - - Copyright, Illustrated London News & N. Y. Sun. - -Sinking of the _Aboukir_, _Cressy_, and _Hogue_.] - -Because the overwhelming strength of the Allied fleet has kept -the German and Austrian battleships safely locked up behind shore -batteries, mine-fields and nettings, the Allies’ submarines have had -comparatively few targets to try their skill on. The activity of -the British submarines in the North Sea at the outbreak of the war -has already been referred to, and a year later they found another -opportunity in the Baltic. There the German fleet had the same -preponderance over the Russian as the English had over the German -battleships in the North Sea, but the British dreadnoughts could not be -sent through the long tortuous passage of the Skagerrack and Cattegat, -thick-sown with German mines, without cutting the British fleet in half -and giving the Germans a splendid chance to defeat either half and then -slip back through the Kiel Canal and destroy the other. So England -sent some of her submarines instead. One of these joined the Russian -squadron defending the Gulf of Riga against a German fleet and decided -the fight by disabling the great battle-cruiser _Moltke_. Another, -the _E-13_, ran ashore on the Danish island of Saltholm on August 19, -1915, and was warned by the commander of a Danish torpedo-boat that she -would be allowed twenty-four hours to get off. Before the time-limit -had expired and while three Danish torpedo-boats were standing by, two -German destroyers steamed up, torpedoed the _E-13_, and killed half her -crew by gun-fire: an outrageous violation of Denmark’s neutrality.[24] - -Daredevil deeds have been done by the submarines of both sides in the -Dardanelles. The little _B-11_ swam up the straits, threading her way -through mine-field after mine-field, her captain keeping his course by -“dead-reckoning” with map and compass and stop watch. To have exposed -his periscope would have drawn the fire of the many shore batteries, to -have dived a few feet too far in those shallow waters would have meant -running aground, to have misjudged the swirling, changing currents -might have meant annihilation. But Commander Holbrook brought his -vessel safely through, torpedoed and sank the guard-ship _Messudieh_, -a Turkish ironclad of the vintage of 1874, and returned to receive -the Victoria Cross from his king and a gigantic “Iron Cross” from his -brother officers. The _E-11_ went up even to Constantinople, torpedoed -a Turkish transport within sight of the city and threw the whole -waterfront into a panic. More transports and store-ships were sunk or -driven on shore in the Sea of Marmora, a gunboat was torpedoed, and -then the _Kheyr-el-din_, an old 10,000 ton battleship that had been the -_Kurfürst Freiderich Wilhelm_ before the kaiser sold her to Turkey, -was sent to the bottom of the same waters by British submarines. One -of them the _E-15_ ran aground in the Dardanelles and was forced to -surrender to the Turks, but before they could float her off and make -use of her, two steam launches dashed upstream through the fire of the -shore batteries and torpedoed the stranded submarine as Cushing blew -up the _Albemarle_. - -But on the same day as the _E-11’s_ first exploit--May 25, 1915, the -British battleship _Triumph_ went down with most of her crew off -Gallipoli, torpedoed by a German submarine. The _U-51_ had made the -2400 mile trip from the North Sea, using as tenders a number of small -tank steamers flying the Spanish flag. These vessels intentionally -drew the attention of the cordon of British destroyers drawn across -the Straits of Gibraltar and were captured, while the submarine swam -safely through and traversed the Mediterranean to the Dardanelles. -Two days after her first exploit, the _U-51_ or perhaps one of her -Austrian consorts, sank another British battleship, the _Majestic_, off -Gallipoli. The _U-51_ has been reported sunk by Russian warships in the -Black Sea. - -[Illustration: - - Copyright, London Sphere & N. Y. Herald. - -Tiny target afforded by Periscopes in rough weather.] - -If they could sink two battleships in three days, why didn’t the German -undersea boats sink a dozen or so more and raise the siege of the -Dardanelles? Enver Pasha, the Turkish minister of war, declared that -“the presence of the submarines destroyed all hopes of Russia’s ever -effectively landing troops on the coast north of Constantinople.” Then -why did they permit the landing of British, Australian, New Zealand, -and French troops on the Gallipoli Peninsula and the plains of ancient -Troy? It was not until August, 1915, that the transport _Royal Edward_ -was sunk in the Mediterranean by an Austrian submarine. Perhaps before -this war is over some British transport may be torpedoed in the North -Sea or the English Channel, but for more than a year and a half since -its outbreak, troop-ships and store-ships have been crossing to -France as if there were not a hostile “U-boat” in the world. Equally -mysterious has been the immunity of the light-draft monitors and -obsolescent gunboats off the Flemish coast, where their heavy guns did -so much to check the first German drive on Calais, and have harassed -the invaders’ right flank ever since. Many of these are mere floating -platforms for one or two modern guns, all are slow-steaming, and they -are not always in water too shallow for an undersea boat to swim in, -yet none have been sunk by a submarine since the loss of the _Hermes_, -in the autumn of 1914. Zeebrugge, the Belgian port that has been made -the headquarters for German submarines in the North Sea, has been -several times bombarded by the British fleet and, according to reports -from Amsterdam, half-built submarines on the shore there have been -destroyed by shell-fire. Why did the completed undersea boats in the -harbor fail to come out and torpedo or drive away the attacking fleet? -We have been shown what modern submarines can do; what prevents them -from doing much more? - -Shortly after von Weddigen’s great exploit, a German submarine rose -to the surface so near the British destroyer _Badger_ that before the -undersea boat could submerge again she was rammed, cut open and sunk. -One of the most picturesque and least expected features of this war has -been the revival of old ways; soldiers are again wearing breastplates -and metal helmets and fighting with crossbows and catapults, while -against the modern submarine, seamen are effectively using the most -ancient of all naval weapons: the ram. It takes two minutes for the -average undersea boat to submerge, during which time a thirty-knot -destroyer can come charging up from a mile away, with a good chance -of scoring a hit with her forward 3- or 4-inch gun, even if she gets -there too late to ram. In the case of the _U-12_, the submarine dived -deep enough to get her hull and superstructure out of harm’s way, only -to have the top of her conning-tower crushed in by the destroyer as it -passed over her. When the inrush of water forced the _U-12_ to rise -to the surface and surrender, her crew discovered that the main hatch -could not be opened because one of the periscopes had been bent down -across it. Some of them succeeded in climbing out of the torpedo-hatch -and jumping overboard before the _U-12_ went down for good. As she sank -stern-foremost, it was observed that both of her bow-tubes were empty; -evidence that she had vainly launched two torpedoes at the British -flotilla that were hunting her down. Though several British destroyers -and torpedo-boats have been sent to the bottom by German submarines, -and the English _E-9_ has sunk the German destroyer _S-126_, yet the -nimble surface torpedo-craft have usually proved too difficult for -the undersea boats to hit with their fixed tubes that can only fire -straight ahead or astern. - -It has been pointed out that the _Aboukir_, _Cressy_ and _Hogue_, the -_Formidable_, and the _Audacious_ were all moving slowly and unescorted -by any destroyers when they were attacked and sunk. The same was -true of the _Leon Gambetta_ and the _Giuseppe Garibaldi_, when they -were sent to the bottom of the Mediterranean by Austrian submarines. -Under modern conditions, such isolated big ships are in much the -same perilous position as would have been a lonely battery of Union -artillery marching through a country swarming with Confederate cavalry. -While an escort of destroyers is no sure guarantee against submarine -attack, their presence certainly seems to act as a powerful deterrent. - -Waters suspected of containing hostile submarines are swept, very much -as they would be for mines, by pairs of destroyers or steam trawlers, -dragging an arrangement of strong cables between them. Sometimes this -is festooned with explosives to blow in the side of any undersea boat -it may touch. Usually the vessels engaged in this work use a large net. -When they feel the weight of a catch, it is said that they let go the -ends and leave it to the submarine’s own twin propellers to entangle -themselves thoroughly. An undersea boat so entrapped is helpless to do -anything but either sink or else empty her tanks and try to rise and -surrender. A submarine in trouble usually sends up notification in the -form of large quantities of escaping oil and gas. - -Inventors have been busy devising new kinds of traps, snares, and -exaggerated lobster-pots to be placed in the waters about the British -Isles. How many German submarines have poked their noses into these -devices probably not even the British Admiralty could tell, if it -was so minded, but the traps are said to have been put down very -plentifully and most of the published designs are extremely ingenious. - -Individual torpedo-nets for ships have rather gone out of fashion, but -the most effective way of keeping submarines out of a harbor is to -close its entrance with booms and nettings. The principal naval bases -on both sides are undoubtedly so protected. It has been persistently -reported that the immunity of British transports crossing the channel -is due to a double line of booms, nets and mines stretching from one -shore to the other, and enclosing a broad, safe channel outside which -the “U-boats” roam hungrily. There would seem to be no great difficulty -in building such a barrier, but it would be extremely difficult to keep -intact in heavy weather and for that reason most of our naval officers -are skeptical of its existence. - -Microphones which have been placed under water off the coasts of -France, Great Britain, and Ireland have succeeded in detecting the -presence of submarines at a distance of fifty-five miles. This device -has been perfected by the joint labors of an American electrical -engineer, Mr. William Dubilier, and Professor Tissot of the French -Academy of Science. These two gentlemen, experimenting with microphones -and a submarine placed at their disposal by the French government, -“discovered in the course of the tests that the underwater craft were -sources of sound waves of exceedingly high frequency, quite distinctive -from any other subaqueous sounds. While the cause of the high-pitched -sound is known to the inventors, it cannot be divulged since it would -then be possible for German submarine constructors to eliminate the -source of the tell-tale sound waves, and thus render void the purpose -of the detector installation.”[25] - -These microphones, it is believed, are usually arranged in a -semicircle. Each instrument records sound waves best when they come -from one particular direction. The operator on shore, listening to -a device that eliminates all other sounds coming in from under the -sea, can tell by the way a passing submarine affects the different -microphones in the semicircle how far off and in what direction it is -moving, and so warns and summons the ever-watchful patrol boats. - -Air craft are doubtless being much used in the hunt for submarines, -for an aviator at a height of several hundred feet can distinctly see -a submarine swimming beneath him in clear water with a good light -reflected from the bottom. Early in the war, the pilot and observer -of a “Taube” that was brought down in the North Sea were rescued by -a British submarine. In the attack on Cuxhaven a combined force of -submarines, sea-planes, and light cruisers was resisted by the German -shore-batteries, destroyers, “U-boats”, aeroplanes and Zeppelins. As -the British sea-planes returned from dropping bombs on the Cuxhaven -navy yard or taking observations above the Kiel Canal, some of them -were shot down by the Germans but the aviators were picked up, as had -been arranged beforehand, by English submarines. In the spring of 1915 -there was an engagement between a Zeppelin and a British submarine in -which each side claimed the victory. On August 26 of the same year the -secretary of the British Admiralty announced: - -“Squadron Commander Arthur Bigsworth, R.N., destroyed single-handed a -German submarine this morning by bombs dropped from an aeroplane. The -submarine was observed to be completely wrecked, and sank off Ostend. - -[Illustration: - - Copyright, Illustrated London News & Flying. - -Photograph of a submarine, twenty feet below the surface, taken from -the aeroplane, whose shadow is shown in the picture.] - -“It is not the practice of the Admiralty to publish statements -regarding the losses of German submarines, important though they have -been, in cases where the enemy has no other source of information as -to the time and place at which these losses have occurred. In the case -referred to above, however, the brilliant feat of Squadron Commander -Bigsworth was performed in the immediate neighborhood of the coast in -occupation of the enemy and the position of the sunken submarine has -been located by a German destroyer.” - -“This is inexact,” replied the German Admiralty. “The submarine was -attacked but not hit and returned to port undamaged. One of our -submarines on August 16 destroyed by gunfire the benzol factory with -the attached benzol warehouses and coke furnaces near Harrington, -England. The statement of the English press that the submarine attacked -the open towns of Harrington, Parton, and Whitehaven is inexact.” - -Equally interesting but unfortunately lacking in details are the -reports from the Adriatic of submarines fighting submarines. There have -been three such duels, in one an Austrian sank an Italian submarine, -in another the Italian was victorious, while after the third both were -found lying on the bottom, each torn open by the other’s torpedo. -As it is a physical impossibility for the pilot of one submarine to -see another under the water, it would seem as if at least one of the -combatants in each of these fights must have been running on the -surface at the time. - -Both Mr. Simon Lake and the late John P. Holland were absolutely -confident that submarines could not fight submarines, that surface -craft would be utterly unable to injure or resist them, and that -therefore the submarine boat would make naval warfare impossible and do -more than anything else to bring about permanent peace. - -All that can be said at present is that the actual situation is much -more complex than had been expected. Submarines have sunk many surface -warships but have suffered heavily themselves. The German government -has admitted the loss of over a dozen “U-boats,” while the unofficial -estimates of their enemies’ run as high as thirty-five or fifty German -submarines destroyed or captured. Admiral Beatty’s victorious squadron, -pursuing the German battle-cruisers after the second North Sea fight, -turned and retreated at the wake of a single torpedo and the glimpse of -hostile periscopes. But the submarine has not yet driven the surface -warship from the seas and it has signally failed against transports. -Its moral effect has been very great: British submarines have -terrorized the citizens of Constantinople; while the victories of their -beloved “U-boats” have cheered the German people as the victories of -our frigates cheered us in 1812, and have been a somewhat similar shock -to the nerves of the British navy. But that sturdy organization has -recovered from more than one attack of nerves. And as the war goes on, -it becomes increasingly clear that it is unfair to expect unsupported -submarines, any more than unsupported frigates a century ago, to do the -work of an entire navy. Like the aeroplane, the submarine was first -derided as useless, next hailed as a complete substitute for all other -arms, then found to be an indispensable auxiliary, whose scope and -value are now being determined. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -THE SUBMARINE BLOCKADE - - “It is true that submarine boats have improved, but they are - as useless as ever. Nevertheless, the German navy is carefully - watching their progress, though it has no reason to make - experiments itself.” - - ADMIRAL VON TIRPITZ, in 1901. - - “DANGER! - - Being the Log of Captain John Sirius - by - Sir Arthur Conan Doyle.” - - -If you have not read the above-mentioned story by the author of -Sherlock Holmes, I advise you to go to the nearest public library and -ask for it. For those that cannot spare the time to do this, here are a -brief outline and a few quotations. - -Captain John Sirius is supposed to be chief of submarines in the navy -of Norland, a small European kingdom at war with England. With only -eight submarines, he establishes a blockade of Great Britain and begins -sinking all ships bringing in food. He enters a French harbor, though -France is at peace with his country, and sinks three British ships that -have taken refuge there. - -“I suppose,” says the captain, “they thought they were safe in French -waters but what did I care about three-mile limits and international -law! The view of my government was that England was blockaded, food -contraband, and vessels carrying it to be destroyed. The lawyers could -argue about it afterwards. My business was to starve the enemy any way -I could.” - -Presently he overtook an American ship and sank her by gunfire as her -skipper shouted protests over the rail. - -“It was all the same to me what flag she flew so long as she was -engaged in carrying contraband of war to the British Isles.... Of -course I knew there would be a big row afterwards and there was.” - -“The terror I had caused had cleared the Channel.” - -“There was talk of a British invasion (of Norland) but I knew this to -be absolute nonsense, for the British had learned by this time that it -would be sheer murder to send transports full of soldiers to sea in the -face of submarines. When they have a Channel tunnel, they can use their -fine expeditionary force upon the Continent but until then it might not -exist so far as Europe is concerned.” - -“Heavens, what would England have done against a foe with thirty or -forty submarines?” - -The British navy could do nothing to stop Captain John Sirius. One -of his submarines was sunk by an armed liner, but with the remaining -seven he sank the _Olympic_ and so many other vessels that no one -dared try to bring food into Great Britain. At the end of six weeks, -fifty thousand people there had died of starvation and the British -government had to make peace with Norland and pay for all the damage -the submarines had done to neutrals. - -As a warning to his countrymen, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle wrote this -story in May, 1914. Before it was published,[26] England was at war -with Germany. On February 4, 1915, the famous “War Zone Decree” was -published in Berlin. - -“The waters around Great Britain, including the whole of the English -Channel, are declared hereby to be included within the zone of war, and -after the 18th inst, all enemy merchant vessels encountered in these -waters will be destroyed, even if it may not be possible always to save -their crews and passengers. - -“Within this war-zone neutral vessels are exposed to danger since, in -view of the misuse of the neutral flags ordered by the government of -Great Britain on the 31st ult., and of the hazards of naval warfare, -neutral ships cannot always be prevented from suffering from the -attacks intended for enemy ships. - -“The routes of navigation around the north of the Shetland Islands in -the eastern part of the North Sea and in a strip thirty miles wide -along the Dutch coast are not open to the danger-zone.” - -But those routes had been closed three months before by the British -government, which declared that it had had the North Sea planted with -anchored contact mines, but that all ships trading to neutral ports -would, if they first called at some British port, be given safe conduct -to Holland or Scandinavia, by way of the English Channel. This way -would run through the proposed “war-zone.” - -International law says nothing about either “war-zones” or submarines. -In all probability, special rules for undersea warfare will be drawn -up by a conference of delegates from the leading countries of the -world soon after the end of the present war. But till then, no such -conference can be held, and the United States has always maintained, -even when it has been to its disadvantage to do so, that no one nation -can change international law to suit herself. We insist that the game -be played according to the rules. A submarine has no more rights than -any other warship. It may sink a merchantman if the latter tries -to fight or escape. If the captured vessel is found to be carrying -contraband to the enemy’s country, the warship may either take her into -port as a prize or, if this is impracticable, sink her. But before an -unarmed and unresisting merchant vessel can be sunk, the passengers and -crew must be given time and opportunity to escape. - -President Wilson gave notice on February 10, 1915, that if, by act of -the commander of any German warship, an American vessel or the lives of -American citizens should be lost on the high seas, the United States -“would be constrained to hold the Imperial government of Germany to -a strict accountability for such acts of their naval authorities and -to take any steps that might be necessary to safeguard American lives -and property and to secure to American citizens the full enjoyments of -their acknowledged rights on the high seas.” - -On the same day, a note to Great Britain voiced our objection to the -“explicit sanction by a belligerent government for its merchant ships -generally to fly the flag of a neutral power within certain portions -of the high seas which are presumed to be frequented with hostile -warships.” - -To this Sir Edward Grey replied that “the British government have no -intention of advising their merchant shipping to use foreign flags as a -general practice or resort to them otherwise than for escaping capture -or destruction.” - -Such “sailing under false colors” to fool the enemy’s cruisers is an -old and well-established right of merchantmen of belligerent countries. -Its abuse, under present-day conditions, however, might have given the -German submarine commanders a plausible excuse for sinking neutral -vessels. To avoid this, neutral shipowners began to paint the name, -port, and national colors on the broadside of each of their steamers, -plain enough to be read from afar through a periscope. - -Then the time came for the war-zone decree to be put into effect, and -the world watched with great interest and no little apprehension to see -what the submarine blockaders could do. - -[Illustration: - - Copyright, London Sphere & N. Y. Herald. - -German Submarine Pursuing English Merchantman. - -(Note stern torpedo-tubes, and funnel for carrying off exhaust from -Diesel engine.)] - -Seven British ships were sunk during the first six days. Then came -a lull, followed by the announcement by the British Admiralty that -between February 23 to March 3, 3805 transoceanic ships had arrived -at British ports, 669 had cleared and none had been lost, while two -German submarines had been sunk. During the eleven weeks between the -establishing of the blockade and the sinking of the _Lusitania_, -forty-two oversea vessels and twenty-eight fishing boats of British -registry had been sunk by the submarines, but 16,190 liners and -freighters had safely run the blockade. The largest number of vessels -sunk by the “U-boats” in any one week was thirty-six, between June 23 -and 30; while nineteen British merchantmen, with a total tonnage of -76,000, and three fishing vessels were destroyed either by submarines -or mines during the week ending August 25. The total number sunk in -the first six months was 485. But with more than fifteen hundred ships -coming and going every week, the submarine blockade of the British -Isles was obviously a failure. - -It was a costly failure from the military point of view. The -expenditure of torpedoes alone must have been considerable and a modern -Whitehead or Schwartzkopf costs from five to eight thousand dollars and -takes several months to build. How many of the “U-boats” themselves -have fallen prey to the British patroling craft, traps, mines, and -drag-nets cannot be computed with any accuracy, but by the first of -September, 1915, the number declared to be lost “on the authority of -a high official in the British Admiralty” ran anywhere from thirty to -fifty. Even if she has been completing a new submarine every week since -the war began, Germany cannot afford the loss of so much material, -and still, less, of so many trained men. Captain Persius, one of -the foremost German writers on naval affairs, pointed this out in a -newspaper article that brought a hurricane of angry criticism about -his ears. How great has been the wear and tear on the nervous systems -of the submarine crews is shown by the following extract from the -statement of Captain Hansen of the captured _U-16_. - -“It is fearfully trying on the nerves. Not every man can endure it. -While running under the sea there is deathlike stillness in the boats, -as the electrical machinery is noiseless.... As the air becomes heated -it gets poor and mixed with the odor of oil from the machinery. The -atmosphere becomes fearful. An overpowering sleepiness often attacks -new men and one requires the utmost will power to keep awake. I have -had men who did not want to eat during the first three days out because -they did not want to lose that amount of time from sleep. Day after day -spent in such cramped quarters, where there is hardly room to stretch -your legs, and remaining constantly on the alert, is a tremendous -strain on the nerves.” - -But if there is discomfort below the surface there is peril of death -above. Yet a submarine must spend as much time as possible on top of -the water, even off the enemy’s coast, to spare the precious storage -batteries and let the Diesel engines grind oil into electricity -by using the electric motor as a dynamo. If she could renew her -batteries under water or pick up a useable supply of current as she -can pick up a drum of oil from a given spot on the sea-bottom, then -the modern submarine would indeed be a hard fish to catch. As it is, -great ingenuity has been shown by the German skippers in minimizing -the dangers of surface cruising and at the same time stalking their -prey. One big submarine masqueraded as a steamer, with dummy masts and -funnel. Innocent-looking steam trawlers flying neutral flags acted as -screens and lookouts, besides carrying supplies. One of these boldly -entered a British harbor, where it was noticed that her decks were -cumbered with very many coils of rope. The authorities investigated -and found snugly stowed in the center of each a large can of fuel-oil. -Another trawler, flying the Dutch flag, was stopped in the North Sea -by a British cruiser and searched by a boarding-party. They were going -back into their boat, after finding everything apparently as it should -be, when one of the Englishmen noticed a mysterious pipe sticking out -of the trawler’s side. They swarmed on board again and discovered -that the fishing-boat had a complete double hull, the space between -being filled with oil. The trawler’s crew were removed to the cruiser -and a strong detachment of bluejackets left in their place. A few -hours afterwards, there was a swirl of water alongside and a German -submarine came up for refreshments. It was promptly captured and so was -another that presently followed it: a good day’s catch for one small -fishing-boat. - -Because of the uncertainty and danger of depending on underwater caches -and tenders, each blockader usually returned at the end of two or three -weeks to Heligoland, Zeebruge, Ostend, or some other base to take on -supplies, report progress and rest the crew. This of course reduces -the number of submarines actually on guard. How large that number may -have been at any particular time since the blockade began is unknown to -everybody except a few persons in Berlin. At the outbreak of the war, -Germany had between twenty and twenty-five submarines in commission -and a dozen or so under construction. If, as is claimed, the Germans -have been completing a new undersea boat every week since the war -began, that would have given them by August 1, 1915, a flotilla of -seventy-seven, exclusive of losses. If only thirty had been lost, that -would have left fewer than fifty submarines to blockade more than -fifty seaports, great and small, scattered over more than twenty-five -hundred miles of coast. - -Moreover, these widely scattered blockaders would have to be on duty -by night as well as by day. But at night or in fog the periscope is -useless; to intercept an incoming steamer, running swiftly and without -lights, the submarine must rise and cruise on the surface. It cannot -use a searchlight to locate the blockade-runner without consuming -much precious voltage and at the same time attracting the nearest -patrol-boat. - -The same disadvantages apply to sending wireless messages from one -blockading submarine to another. And as the wireless apparatus of an -undersea boat is necessarily low-powered and has a narrow radius, while -“oscillators,” bells, and other underwater signaling devices are still -in their infancy, it would seem as if the German “U-boats” in British -waters must have been suffering from lack of coöperation and team-play. -If the captain of a Union gunboat, lying off Charleston during the -Civil War, caught a glimpse of a blockade runner, he could alarm the -rest of the fleet with rockets and signal guns, but the commander of -the _U-99_ off Queenstown cannot count on his consorts if he himself -fails to sink an approaching liner. - -Perhaps the most notable shortcoming of the submarine blockade has -been its failure to inspire terror. Contrary to the expectations of -nearly every forecaster from Robert Fulton to Conan Doyle, the sinking -of the first merchant vessels by submarines failed to frighten away -any others. Cargo rates are high in war-time and insurance covers the -owners’ risk, so few sailing orders were canceled. As for the captains, -they are not noted for timidity, and professional pride is strong among -them; most of them have families to provide for, and every one of -them knows that behind him stands an eager young mate with a master’s -ticket, ready to take the risk and take out the ship if the skipper -quits. So the merchant marine accepted the submarine as one of the -risks of the trade. - -When a big German submarine rose up off the Irish coast within easy -gunshot of the homeward-bound British steamer _Anglo-Californian_ and -signaled for her to heave to, the plucky English skipper slammed his -engine-room telegraph over to “Full speed ahead.” Away dashed the -steamer and after her came the submarine,[27] making good practice -with her 8.8 centimeter gun. Twenty shrapnel shells burst over the -_Anglo-Californian_, riddling her upper works, slaughtering thirty of -her cargo of horses, killing seven of her crew and wounding eight more. -Steering with his own hands, Captain Archibald Panlow held his vessel -on her course till a shrapnel bullet killed him, when the wheel was -taken by his son, the second mate, who brought the _Anglo-Californian_ -safely into Queenstown. It is men of this breed who have kept Admiral -von Tirpitz from saying, in the words of the fictitious Captain John -Sirius, - -“The terror I had caused had cleared the channel.” - -But because the “Campaign of Frightfulness” has failed and a few score -of unsupported submarines have been unable to blockade the British -Isles, it is stupid to pretend that there has been no progress since -1901 and say as Admiral von Tirpitz said then, - -“Submarines are as useless as ever.” - -Like every other type of naval craft, submarines are useful but not -omnipotent. We have seen what they can do in action and what they have -failed to do. As scouts in the enemy’s waters they are invaluable. As -commerce destroyers, they do the work of the swift-sailing privateers -of a century ago. In the fall of 1915, British submarines in the -Baltic almost put a stop to the trade between Germany and Sweden. But -to blockade a coast effectively, submarines must have tenders, which -must have destroyers and light cruisers to defend them, which in turn -require the support of battle-cruisers and dreadnoughts, with their -attendant host of colliers, hospital ships and air-scouts. Nor can a -coast be long defended by submarines, mine-fields and shore-batteries, -if there are not enough trained troops to keep the enemy, who can -always land at some remote spot, from marching round to the rear of -the coast-defenses. This war is simply repeating the old, old lesson -that there are no cheap and easy substitutes for a real army and a real -navy. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -THE SUBMARINE AND NEUTRALS - - -Both Admiral von Tirpitz and the Austrian Admiralty seem to have begun -their submarine campaigns after the method of Captain John Sirius: to -starve the enemy any way they could and let the lawyers argue about it -afterwards. From the beginning of the blockade, Scandinavian, Dutch, -and Spanish vessels, even when bound from one neutral port to another, -were torpedoed and sunk without warning by the German submarines. Their -governments protested vigorously but without effect. Then came the turn -of the United States. - -The _Falaba_, a small British passenger steamer outward bound from -Liverpool to the west coast of Africa was pursued and overtaken off -the coast of Wales on March 28, 1915, by the fast German submarine -_U-28_. Realizing that their vessel would be sunk but expecting that -their lives would be spared, the crew and passengers began filling -and lowering away the boats as rapidly as possible but without panic. -The wireless operator had been sending calls for help but ceased when -ordered to by the captain of the _U-28_. No patrol boats were in sight -and the submarine was standing by on the surface, with both gun and -torpedo-tubes trained on the motionless steamer and in absolute command -of the situation. Without the slightest excuse or warning, a torpedo -was then discharged and exploded against the _Falaba’s_ side, directly -beneath a half-lowered and crowded lifeboat. The lifeboat was blown to -pieces and the steamer sunk, with the loss of one hundred and twelve -lives, including that of an American citizen, Mr. Leon C. Thrasher, of -Hardwick, Massachusetts. - -[Illustration: - - _Photo by Brown Bros._ - -British Submarine, showing one type of disappearing deck-gun now in -use.] - -This cold-blooded slaughter of the helpless horrified the rest of the -world and did Germany’s cause an incalculable amount of harm. The -German people were in no state of mind to realize this, for they had -gone literally submarine-mad. They rejoiced in the cartoons depicting -John Bull marooned on his island or dragged under and drowned by the -swarming “U-boats.” They sincerely believed that within a few months -the power of the British navy would be broken forever and that in -the meanwhile the German submarines could do no wrong. This feeling -was presently intensified by the loss of their hero, the gallant von -Weddigen. Decorated, together with every man of his crew, with the Iron -Cross and promoted to the command of a fine new submarine, the _U-29_, -he did effective work as a blockader and captured and sank several -prizes, but only after carefully removing those on board. Then the -_U-29_ was sunk with all hands, by an armed patrol boat, the British -declare: treacherously, the German people believe, by a merchant ship -whose crew von Weddigen was trying to spare.[28] - -No attempt was made to warn the American tank steamer _Gulflight_, -bound for Rouen, France, with a contraband cargo of oil, when she was -torpedoed by a German submarine on May 1. The vessel stayed afloat but -the wireless operator and one of the sailors, terrified by the shock, -jumped overboard and were both drowned, while the captain died of heart -failure a few hours later on board the British patrol boat that took -off the crew and brought the _Gulflight_ into port. - -On the same day that the _Gulflight_ was torpedoed, these two -advertisements appeared together in the New York newspapers: - -[Illustration: - - OCEAN STEAMSHIPS. - - CUNARD - - EUROPE VIA LIVERPOOL - - LUSITANIA - - Fastest and Largest Steamer - now in Atlantic Service Sails - SATURDAY, MAY 1, 10 A. M. - - Transylvania, Fri., May 7, 5 P. M. - Orduna, Tues., May 18, 10 A. M. - Tuscania, Fri., May 21, 5 P. M. - LUSITANIA, Sat., May 29, 10 A. M. - Transylvania, Fri., June 4, 5 P. M. - - Gibraltar--Genoa--Naples--Piraeus - S.S. Carpathia, Thur., May 13, Noon. - - ROUND THE WORLD TOURS - - Through bookings to all principal Ports of the World. - Company’s Office, 21-24 State St., N. Y. - - NOTICE! - - TRAVELERS intending to embark on the Atlantic voyage are - reminded that a state of war exists between Germany and - her allies and Great Britain and her allies; that the - zone of war includes the waters adjacent to the British - isles; that, in accordance with formal notice given by - the Imperial German Government, vessels flying the flag - of Great Britain, or of any of her allies, are liable to - destruction in those waters and that travelers sailing in - the war zone on ships of Great Britain or her allies do - so at their own risk. - - IMPERIAL GERMAN EMBASSY, - WASHINGTON, D. C., APRIL 22, 1915 -] - -This warning was not taken seriously. It was pointed out that the -German submarines had sunk only comparatively small and slow steamers, -and generally believed that it would be impossible for them to hit a -fast-moving vessel. Not a single passenger canceled his passage on the -_Lusitania_, though all admitted that the Germans would have a perfect -right to sink her if they could, as she was laden with rifle-cartridges -and shell-cases for the Allies. But every passenger knew that he had a -perfect right to be taken off first, and trusted to the Government that -had given him his passports to maintain it. - -The _Lusitania_ left New York on the first of May. At two o’clock -on the afternoon of Friday, May 7, she was about ten miles from the -Irish coast, off the Old Head of Kinsale, and running slowly to avoid -reaching Queenstown at an unfavorable turn of the tide, when Captain -Turner and many others saw a periscope rise out of the water about half -a mile away. - -“I saw a torpedo speeding toward us,” declared the captain afterwards, -“and immediately I tried to change our course, but was unable to -manœuver out of the way. There was a terrible impact as the torpedo -struck the starboard side of the vessel, and a second torpedo followed -almost immediately. This one struck squarely over the boilers. - -“I tried to turn the _Lusitania_ shoreward, hoping to beach her, but -her engines were crippled and it was impossible. - -“There has been some criticism because I did not order the lifeboats -out sooner, but no matter what may be done there are always some to -criticize. Until the _Lusitania_ came to a standstill it was absolutely -impossible to launch the boats--they would have been swamped.” - -The great ship heeled over to port so rapidly that by the time she -could be brought to a stop it was no longer possible to lower the boats -on the starboard side. There was no panic-stricken rush for the boats -that could be lowered; all was order and seemliness and quiet heroism. -Alfred Vanderbilt stripped off the lifebelt that might have saved him -and buckled it about a woman; Lindon Bates, Jr., was last seen trying -to save three children. Elbert Hubbard, Charles Klein, Justus Miles -Forman, and more than a hundred other Americans died, and died bravely. -As the _Lusitania_ went down beneath them, Charles Frohman smiled at -his companion and said: - -“Why fear death? It is the most beautiful adventure of life.” - -“I turned around to watch the great ship heel over,” said a passenger -who had dived overboard and swum to a safe distance. - -“The monster took a sudden plunge, and I saw a crowd still on her -decks, and boats filled with helpless women and children glued to her -side. I sickened with horror at the sight. - -“There was a thunderous roar, as of the collapse of a great building -on fire; then she disappeared, dragging with her hundreds of -fellow-creatures into the vortex. Many never rose to the surface, but -the sea rapidly grew thick with the figures of struggling men and women -and children.” - -The total number of deaths was more than a thousand. - -The most fitting comment on the sinking of the _Lusitania_ were the -words of Tinkling Cloud, a full-blooded Sioux Indian: - -“Now you white men can never call us red men savages again.” - -Resting its case on “Many sacred principles of justice and humanity,” -refusing to accept the warning published in the advertising columns -of the newspapers by the German embassy either “as an excuse or -palliation,” and assuming that the commanders of submarines guilty of -torpedoing without warning vessels carrying non-combatants had acted -“under a misapprehension of orders,” the United States concluded its -note to Germany, six days after the sinking of the _Lusitania_, with -these words of warning: - -“The Imperial German government will not expect the government of the -United States to omit any word or act necessary to the performance of -its sacred duty of maintaining the rights of the United States and its -citizens and of safeguarding their free exercise and enjoyment.” - -Before any reply had been made to this, a German submarine torpedoed -without warning the American freight steamer _Nebraskan_, on May 25, -a few hours after she had left Liverpool in ballast for the United -States. Fortunately no lives were lost, and although the _Nebraskan’s_ -bows had been blown wide open by the explosion, she remained afloat -and was brought back to Liverpool under her own steam. The attack was -tardily admitted by Germany and explained by the fact that it had been -made at dusk, when the commander of the submarine had been unable to -recognize the steamer’s nationality. - -On the last day of May, Germany’s answer was received. The Imperial -government declared that the _Lusitania_ had not been an unarmed -merchantman but an auxiliary cruiser of the British navy. That she -had had masked guns mounted on her lower deck, that she had Canadian -troops among her passengers, and that in violation of American law she -had been laden with high explosives which were the real cause of her -destruction because they were set off by the detonation of the single -torpedo that had been discharged by the submarine. - -To these allegations, unaccompanied by the slightest proof and -contradicted by the testimony both of British and American -eye-witnesses, the United States replied calmly and categorically. It -was pointed out that if the German ambassador at Washington or the -German consul at New York had complained to the Federal authorities -before the _Lusitania_ sailed and either guns or troops had been found -concealed on her, she would have been interned. The statement of Mr. -Dudley Field Malone, collector of the Port of New York, that the -_Lusitania_ was not armed, may be accepted as final. Gustav Stahl, the -German reservist who signed an affidavit that he had seen guns on board -her, later pleaded guilty to a charge of perjury and was sentenced to -eighteen months in a Federal penitentiary. As for her cargo, every -passenger train and steamer in this country is allowed to transport -boxes of revolver and rifle cartridges--the only explosives carried -on the _Lusitania_--because it is extremely difficult to set off any -number of them together, either by heat or concussion. - -Dropping these points, Germany then pledged the safety of American -ships in the war zone, if distinctly marked, and to facilitate American -travel offered to permit the United States to hoist its flag on four -belligerent passenger steamers. This, if accepted, would by implication -have made Americans fair game anywhere else on the high seas, and was -accordingly rejected in the strong American note of July 21. - -“The rights of neutrals in time of war,” declared President Wilson -through the medium of Secretary Lansing, “are based upon principle, not -upon expediency, and the principles are immutable. It is the duty and -obligation of belligerents to find a way to adapt the new circumstances -to them. - -“The events of the past two months have clearly indicated that it is -possible and practicable to conduct such submarine operations as have -characterized the activity of the Imperial German naval commanders -within the so-called war-zone in substantial accord with the accepted -practices of regulated warfare. The whole world has looked with -interest and increasing satisfaction at the demonstration of that -possibility by German naval commanders. It is manifestly possible, -therefore, to lift the whole practice of submarine attack above the -criticism which it has aroused and remove the chief causes of offense.” - -Repetition by the commanders of German naval vessels of acts -contravening neutral rights “must be regarded by the Government of the -United States, where they effect American citizens, as deliberately -unfriendly.” - -On July 9, a German submarine discharged a torpedo at the west-bound -Cunard liner _Orduna_, narrowly missed her, rose to the surface -and fired some twenty shells before the steamer got out of range. -Fortunately, none of these took effect. There were American passengers -on board and nothing but bad marksmanship averted another _Lusitania_ -horror. - -Three days later, another German submarine stopped an American freight -steamer, the _Leelanlaw_, and had her visited and searched by a -boarding party, who reported that she was carrying contraband to Great -Britain. Because the vessel could not be taken into a German port and -there was no time to throw her cargo overboard, the crew were taken off -and she was sunk. - -Here was a perfectly proper procedure, where no neutral lives had been -endangered and the question of the damage to property could be settled -amicably in a court of law. It was to the practice in the _Leelanlaw_ -case that President Wilson referred to so hopefully in his note of -July 21. Though the weeks went by without any answer from Germany, it -was hoped that the Imperial government had quietly amended the orders -to its submarine commanders and that no more passenger ships would be -attacked without warning. - -But on the 19th of August, the White Star liner _Arabic_ sighted and -went to the rescue of a sinking ship. This proved to be the British -steamer _Dunsley_, which had been torpedoed by a German submarine. -As the _Arabic_ came up and prepared to lower her boats, another -torpedo from the same submarine exploded against the liner’s side, -killing several of her crew and sending her to the bottom in eleven -minutes. She went down within fifty miles of the resting place of the -_Lusitania_. She was sunk without warning and without cause, for she -had been bound to New York, with neither arms nor ammunition on board, -nor had she made the slightest attempt either to escape or attack -the submarine. She carried one hundred and eighty-one passengers, -twenty-five of whom were Americans. Two Americans were drowned. - -The German government at once asked for time in which to explain, and -the Imperial chancellor hinted that the commander of the submarine that -sank the _Arabic_ might have “gone beyond his instructions, in which -case the Imperial government would not hesitate to give such complete -satisfaction to the United States as would conform to the friendly -relations existing between both governments.” - -Great was the rejoicing on the first of September, when Ambassador von -Bernstorff declared himself authorized to say to the State Department -that: - -“Liners will not be sunk by our submarines without warning and without -safety of the lives of non-combatants, provided that the liners do not -try to escape or offer resistance.” - -But only three days afterwards, the west-bound Canadian liner -_Hesperian_ was sunk by the explosion of what seemed to have been a -torpedo launched without warning from a hostile submarine. And on top -of this disturbing incident came the German note on the sinking of the -_Arabic_, the perusal of which sent a chill through every peace-lover -in America. Affirming that the captain of the _Arabic_ had tried to -ram the submarine, the note declared that orders had been issued to -commanders of German submarines not to sink liners without provocation, -but added that if by mistake or otherwise liners were sunk without -provocation, Germany would not be responsible. - -“The German government,” it ran, “is unable to acknowledge any -obligation to grant indemnity in the matter, even if the commander -should have been mistaken as to the aggressive intention of the -_Arabic_. - -“If it should prove to be the case that it is impossible for the German -and American governments to reach a harmonious opinion on this point, -the German government would be prepared to submit the difference -of opinion, as being a question of international law, to The Hague -Tribunal for arbitration.... - -“In so doing, it assumes that, as matter of course, the arbitral -decision shall not be admitted to have the importance of a general -decision on the permissibility ... under international law of German -submarine warfare.” - -Assuming that this extraordinary stand was based on a misapprehension -of the facts, the United States submitted to Germany the testimony of -American passengers on the _Arabic_, and the sworn affidavits of her -officers, that the submarine had not been sighted from the steamer and -that no attempt had been made to ram the undersea boat or do anything -but rescue the crew of the _Dunsley_. - -By this time a change had come over the spirit of the Imperial German -government. It realized that the submarine blockade of the British -Isles had broken down, and that further examples of “Frightfulness” on -the high seas would do Germany no good and would probably force the -United States into the ranks of Germany’s enemies. The sensible and -obvious thing to do was to take the easy and honorable way out the -American government was holding open. On October 6, Ambassador von -Bernstorff gave out the following statement: - -“Prompted by the desire to reach a satisfactory agreement with regard -to the _Arabic_ incident, my government has given me the following -instructions: - -“The order issued by His Majesty the Emperor to the commanders of the -German submarines, of which I notified you on a previous occasion, has -been made so stringent that the recurrence of incidents similar to the -_Arabic_ case is considered out of the question. - -“According to the report of Commander Schneider of the submarine which -sank the _Arabic_, and his affidavit, as well as those of his men, -Commander Schneider was convinced that the _Arabic_ intended to ram the -submarine. - -“On the other hand, the Imperial government does not doubt the good -faith of the affidavit of the British officers of the _Arabic_, -according to which the _Arabic_ did not intend to ram the submarine. -The attack of the submarine was undertaken against the instructions -issued to the commander. The Imperial government regrets and disavows -this act, and has notified Commander Schneider accordingly. - -“Under these circumstances, my government is prepared to pay an -indemnity for American lives which, to its deep regret, have been lost -on the _Arabic_. I am authorized to negotiate with you about the amount -of this indemnity.” - -In the meantime, fragments of the metal box of high explosives that had -blown in the side of the _Hesperian_ had been picked up on her deck, -and forwarded by the British government to America. United States naval -experts examined the twisted bits of metal and declared them to have -been pieces, not of a mine, as the German government insists, but of an -automobile torpedo. However, in view of the fact that the _Hesperian_ -was armed with a 4.7 gun, and because of the happy outcome of the -_Arabic_ affair, it seems unlikely that anything will be done about it. - -But only a month later there was begun another “Campaign of -Frightfulness,” this time by Austrian submarines in the Mediterranean. -As the passengers on the Italian liner _Ancona_, one day out from -Naples to New York, were sitting at luncheon on November 7th, -they “felt a tremor through the ship as her engines stopped and -reversed.”[29] Then, while we were stopping, there was an explosion -forward. A shell had struck us. - -“When I reached the deck,” continues Dr. Greil, “shell was fairly -pouring into us from the submarine, which we could see through the fog, -about 100 yards away. I hurried below to pack a few things in my trunk. -As I was standing over it, a shell came through the porthole and struck -my maid, who was standing at my side. It tore away her scalp and part -of her skull and went on through the wall, bursting somewhere inside -the ship. - -“When I went on deck again I found the wildest excitement. It was like -the old-time stories one used to read of shipwrecks at sea. I will not -say anything about the crew because I could not say anything good. -They launched fifteen boats but only eight got away. I was in one of -these.... I do not believe the submarine fired deliberately on the -lifeboats. They were trying to sink the _Ancona_ with shells, but they -finally used a torpedo to send her to the bottom. I looked at my watch -when she took her last plunge. It was 12.45. We were picked up by the -French cruiser _Pluton_ about midnight.” - -The commander of the submarine declared, in his official report, that -he had fired only because the _Ancona_ had tried to escape, that he had -ceased firing as soon as she came to a stop, that the loss of life was -due to the incompetence of the panic-stricken crew of the liner, whom -the Austrian officer allowed forty-five minutes in which to launch the -lifeboats. He admitted, however, that at the expiration of this time he -had torpedoed and sunk the _Ancona_, while there were still a number of -people on her decks. - -About two hundred of the passengers and crew were drowned or killed by -shellfire. Among them were several American citizens. - -“The conduct of the commander,” declared the strongly-worded American -note of December 6th, “can only be characterized as wanton slaughter -of defenseless non-combatants.”... The government of the United States -is unwilling ... to credit the Austro-Hungarian government with an -intention to permit its submarines to destroy the lives of helpless -men, women, and children. It prefers to believe that the commander of -the submarine committed this outrage without authority and contrary to -the general or special instructions which he had received. - -“As the good relations of the two countries must rest upon a common -regard for law and humanity, the government of the United States -cannot be expected to do otherwise than to denounce the sinking of -the _Ancona_ as an illegal and indefensible act, and to demand that -the officer who perpetrated the deed be punished, and that reparation -by the payment of an indemnity be made for the citizens of the United -States who were killed or injured by the attack on the vessel.” - -This undiplomatic language caused no little resentment in Vienna. But -after a restatement of the Austrian case, and a much milder rejoinder -from Washington, the American demands were apparently acceded to. In -the second Austro-Hungarian note, which was published in America on -January 1st, 1915, the government of the Dual-Monarchy disavowed the -act of its submarine commander, declared that he had acted in violation -of his orders and would be punished therefore, and agreed to pay an -indemnity for the American citizens who had been killed or injured. - -“The Imperial and Royal Government,” the note continued, “agrees -thoroughly with the American Cabinet that the sacred commandments -of humanity must be observed also in war.... The Imperial and Royal -Government can also substantially concur in the principle expressed -... that private ships, in so far as they do not attempt to escape or -offer resistance, may not be destroyed without the persons aboard being -brought into safety.” - -Like the settlement of the _Arabic_ case, this was hailed as a great -diplomatic victory for the United States. Unlike it, there was no -question of sharing the credit with the anti-submarine activities -of the Allies, whose merchant ships in the Mediterranean were being -torpedoed with startling frequency. On December 21st, the new 12,000 -ton Japanese liner _Yasaka Maru_ was sunk without warning, near Port -Said. Thanks to the splendid discipline of her crew, no lives were -lost. There was an alleged American on board, but there was some -irregularity about his citizenship papers. Nor were there any Americans -aboard the French passenger ship _Ville de la Ciotat_, torpedoed on -Christmas Eve, with the loss of seventy lives. There was nothing to mar -the smug satisfaction of the American people on New Year’s Day. - -Then came the news of the sinking of the Peninsular and Oriental liner -_Persia_, on December 30th, off the Island of Crete. - -“I was in the dining room of the _Persia_ at 1.05 P.M.,” declares Mr. -Charles Grant of Boston, who was one of the two Americans on board. “I -had just finished my soup, and the steward was asking me what I would -take for my second course, when a terrific explosion occurred. - -“The saloon became filled with smoke, broken glass and steam from the -boiler, which appeared to have burst. There was no panic on board. We -went on deck as though we were at drill, and reported at the lifeboats -on the starboard side, as the vessel had listed to port.... - -“The last I saw of the _Persia_, she had her bow in the air, five -minutes after the explosion.... - -“Robert McNeely, American Consul at Aden, sat at the same table with me -on the voyage. He was not seen, probably because his cabin was on the -port side. - -“It was a horrible scene. The water was black as ink. Some passengers -were screaming, others were calling out good-by. Those in one boat sang -hymns.” - -The _Persia_ was apparently torpedoed, without warning. Like the -_Hesperian_, she was armed with a 4.7 gun. One of the ship’s officers -saw the white wake of the torpedo. But no one saw the submarine. - -The commander of that submarine evidently believed, like Captain -Sirius, in striking first and letting the lawyers talk about it -afterwards. - - - - -INDEX - - - _A-1_, 124. - - _A-3_, 124, 135. - - _A-5_, 125. - - _A-7_, 124. - - _A-8_, 124, 126. - - _Aboukir_, 160, 169. - - Accidents, 124. - - Aeroplanes, 17, 71, 172. - - Air-chamber, 47. - - _Alabama_, 70. - - _Albemarle_, 43, 166. - - _Alert_, 136. - - Alkmaar, 4. - - Alstitt’s submarine, 75. - - _Ancona_, 202. - - _Anglo-Californian_, 187. - - Apostoloff’s submarine, 66. - - _Arabic_, 198, 205. - - _Argo_, 92. - - _Argonaut_, 85, 92, 98. - - _Argonaut Jr._, 85. - - _Argus_, 34. - - _Asia_, 12. - - Aube, Admiral, 59. - - _Audacious_, 161, 169. - - Awash condition, 127. - - - _B-2_, 124. - - _B-11_, 165. - - _Badger_, 168. - - Baker’s submarine, 82. - - Balance-chamber, 44, 48. - - Ballast-tanks, 16, 38, 57, 82, 111, 138. - - _Baralong_ case, 164, note. - - Barber, Lieutenant F. M., 16. - - Barlow, Joel, 26, 34. - - Bates, Jr., Lindon, 194. - - “Battle of the Kegs,” 23. - - Bauer, Wilhelm, 56, 65, 120, note. - - Beatty, Admiral, 175. - - Beauregard, General, 39. - - _Belridge_, 148. - - _Berwick Castle_, 124. - - Bigskorth, Squadron Commander, 172. - - _Birmingham_, 159. - - Blake, Mr., 10. - - Blockade, 177 _et seq._ - - “Blowing the tanks,” 63, 112, 122, 128. - - Booms, 92, 171. - - Borelli, 10. - - Boucher’s submarine, 66. - - Bourgois, Captain, 57. - - Bourne, William, 4. - - Boush, Rear-Admiral, 137. - - _Bouvet_, 154. - - Boyle, Robert, 7. - - British Hollands, 80. - - British Navy, 30, 70, 72, 175, 178. - - Brun, Monsieur, 57. - - _Bulwark_, 161. - - Buoyancy chamber, 49. - - Bushnell, David, 6, 13 to 25, 28, 95, 128, 154. - - - _C-11_, 124. - - _C-14_, 124. - - Cable-cutting, 89, 95. - - _Cairo_, 144. - - Caldwell, Lieutenant H. C., 78, 79. - - _Caprivi_, 148. - - Carlson, Captain, 40. - - _Cerberus_, 22. - - Chandler, Mr. Edward F., 53. - - Chlorin gas, 126, 129, 137. - - _Clairmont_, 34, 81. - - _Commodore Jones_, 144. - - Compass, 18, 113. - - Compensation-tank, 79, 118. - - Compressed-air tank, 30, 57, 131. - - Conning-tower, 12, 15, 28, 78, 103, 113. - - Constantin’s submarine, 66. - - Cooking, 108. - - Copper sheathing, 18, 35. - - _Cressy_, 160, 169. - - Crilley, Frank, 137. - - Cushing, Lieutenant, 43, 166. - - - _D-5_, 155. - - Daniels, Secretary, 81, 138. - - Dardanelles, the, 64, 147, 154, 165. - - _David_, 36, 43, 61. - - Davis, Commander, 52. - - Day, J., 10, 128. - - Delaying-valve, 47. - - _Demologos_, 35. - - Depth-control, 113. - - Destroyers, 35, 104, 168, 170. - - _Delfin_, 124. - - Dewey, Admiral, 79, 145. - - _Diable Marin_, 65, 120, note. - - Diesel, Dr., 108. - - Diesel engines, 104, 135, 184. - - Divers, 14, 40, 56, 136. - - Diving-bells, 4. - - Diving compartment, 83, 88, 94, 130, 132. - - Diving-planes, 28, 38, 48, 71, 72, 78, 111. - - Dixon, Lieutenant, 40. - - _Dorothea_, 32. - - Doughty, Thomas, 115. - - Doyle, Sir Arthur Conan, 178, 186. - - Drzewiecki, 64, 71. - - _Dunsely_, 198. - - Dubilier, Mr. W., 171. - - - _E-4_, 160. - - _E-5_, 124. - - _E-9_, 156. - - _E-11_, 165. - - _E-13_, 164. - - _E-15_, 165. - - _Eagle_, 12, 18. - - Edison battery, 126. - - Eel-boats, 4, 14. - - Electric Boat Company, 81, 96. - - Electric motors, 108, 184. - - Electric submarines, 59, 60, 66, 83, note. - - _Emerald Isle_, 72. - - Emergency drop-keel, 10, 15, 83, 128. - - Enver Pasha, 166. - - Ericsson, John, 82, 104. - - Escape from sunken submarine, 130. - - Even-keel submergence, 61, 96. - - - _F-4_, 124, 136. - - _Falaba_, 189. - - Faotomu, Lieutenant Takuma, 128. - - _Farfadet_, 124. - - Farragut, Admiral, 142. - - Fenian Brotherhood, 71. - - _Fenian Ram_, 73. - - Fessenden oscillator, 119, 125. - - Fishing for submarines, 170, 183. - - _Foca_, 124. - - Folger, Commander, 82. - - Forman, Justus Miles, 194. - - _Formidable_, 162, 169. - - Frohman, Charles, 194. - - _Fulton_, 135. - - Fulton, Robert, 26 to 35, 69, 139, 186. - - - Gages, 20, 112, 129. - - Garett, Rev. Mr., 61. - - Gasoline engines, 86, 105. - - Gasoline fumes, 90, 107, 125. - - German contributions, 107, 115. - - Gimlets, 16, 18, 64. - - Goubet submarines, 60. - - Grant, Charles, 205. - - Greased leather, 6, 9. - - Greil, Dr. Cecile L., 202. - - _Giuseppe Garibaldi_, 169. - - _Gulflight_, 191. - - Guns, 83, 102, 174, 187, 202. - - Guncotton, 46. - - _Gustave Zédé_, 59. - - _Gymnote_, 59. - - Gyroscope, 50, 53, 114. - - Gyroscopic compass, 113. - - - Hague Tribunal, 148, 200. - - Halstead, 56. - - Hammond, Jr., Mr. John Hays, 55. - - Hanson, Captain, 183. - - Harsdoffer, 5, 6. - - _Hatsuse_, 147. - - Hautefeullie, Abbé de, 7. - - _Hela_, 155. - - _Hermes_, 161, 168. - - _Hesperian_, 199, 202, 206. - - _Hogue_, 160, 169. - - Holbrook, Commander, 165. - - Holland, John P., 68 to 81, 95, 104, 115, 175. - - _Holland_, 76 to 81, 86, 103, 104, 125. - - _Holland No. 1_, 70. - - _Holland No. 2_, 71. - - _Holland No. 8_, 76. - - Holland Torpedo-boat Company, 75, 79, 81. - - “Horn of the Nautilus,” 29. - - _Housatonic_, 40. - - Howard, Ensign, 36. - - Hovgaard, Commander, 75. - - _Huascar_, 50. - - Hubbard, Elbert, 194. - - _Hundley_, 38 to 41. - - Hydroplanes, 84, 95. - - Hydrostatic valve, 48, 128, 154. - - - _Intelligent Whale_, 56, 81, 86. - - International law, 178, 179, 200. - - _Irresistible_, 154, 161. - - - James I, 5. - - “Jammer,” the, 46. - - Jefferson, Thomas, 14, 16, 22, 25. - - Jonson, Ben, 3, 64. - - - _K_-class, 138. - - _Kambala_, 124. - - _Kearsarge_, 78. - - _Kheyr-el-din_, 165. - - Klein, Charles, 194. - - Krupps, the, 99. - - - Labeuf, Monsieur, 91. - - Lacavalerier, Señor, 66. - - Lacomme, Dr., 64. - - Lake, Mr. Simon, 82 to 99, 175. - - Laurenti, Major Cesare, 134. - - Laurenti dock, 134. - - Le Son, 9. - - Lee, Ezra, 15 to 22. - - _Leelanlaw_, 198. - - _Leon Gambetta_, 169. - - Leveling-vanes, 96. - - Lifeboats, 131. - - List, Carl Frank, 187, 191. - - Lord St. Vincent, Admiral, 32. - - Lupuis, Captain, 44. - - _Lusitania_, 181, 192 to 198. - - _Lutin_, 124. - - - McNeely, Robert, 206. - - _Maine_, 76. - - _Majestic_, 166. - - Makaroff, Admiral, 147. - - Malone, Mr. Dudley Field, 196. - - _Marblehead_, 146. - - _Maryland_, 137. - - _Merrimac_, 69. - - Mersenne, 6, 91. - - _Messudieh_, 165. - - Microphones, 171. - - Mines, Confederate, 143, 154, note. - contact, 139, 144, 148 to 155, 179. - drifting, 23, 139, 154. - electric, 89, 144, 151. - observation, 144. - - Mine-field, 151, 165. - - Mine-planter, 146, 149. - - Mine-sweeping, 139, 152. - - _Moltke_, 164. - - _Monitor_, 42, 69, 81. - - Mother-ship, 100, 111, 135. - - _Mute_, 35. - - - Napier, John, 4. - - Napoleon, 27, 32, 33. - - _Narval_, 91. - - _Nautilus_, Fulton’s, 27 to 31, 56, 72. - - _Nautilus_, Jules Verne’s, 59. - - Navigating bridge, 103, 111. - - _Nebraskan_, 195. - - Nemo, Captain, 59. - - _New Ironsides_, 36, 144. - - _New York_, 78. - - Nordenfeldt, 28, 61, 74, 95. - - _Nordenfeldt II_, 62, 78, 83. - - Notes, American, 180, 195 to 197, 200, 203. - Austrian, 204. - British, 181. - German, 191, 199. - - _No. 6_, 124, 128. - - - Oars, 6, 9, 16, 17, 66. - - _Ocean_, 154. - - Oil-engine, 60, 78, 104. - - _Olympic_, 162, 178. - - _Orduna_, 198. - - _Osage_, 115. - - Oxygen, 7, 131. - - _Ozark_, 100. - - - Panlow, Captain Archibald, 187. - - Panoramas, 26. - - Payne, Lieutenant, 39. - - Pendulum, 49, 53. - - _Peral_, 64, 66. - - “Peripatetic Coffin,” 39. - - _Persia_, 205. - - Persius, Captain, 183. - - Periscope, 78, 83, 114, 125, 186. - - _Petropavlosk_, 147. - - Philip, Captain, 146. - - Phosphorescence, 6, 19. - - Pipe-masts, 86, 95. - - Pitt, 32. - - _Plongeur_, 57, 132. - - _Plunger_, 75. - - _Pluton_, 203. - - _Pluviôse_, 124, 125, 134. - - Pneumatic gun, 79. - - _Pommern_, 163. - - “Porpoise dive,” 78, 160. - - Porter, Admiral David, 40. - - “Primer,” the, 46. - - Propellers, adjustable, 82. - primitive, 16, 28. - transverse, 83. - vertical-acting, 16, 28, 61, 83, 95 154. - - _Protector_, 95. - - Pumps, 16, 28, 111. - - - _Ramillies_, 35. - - Ramming, 124, 168, 200. - - Reducing-valve, 48. - - Rescuing, 125, 156. - - _Resurgam_, 61. - - Riou, Olivier, 59. - - Rogers, Commodore, 34. - - _Rotterdam Boat_, 9, 14, 69. - - _Royal Edward_, 166. - - Rudders, bow, 96, 111. - horizontal (see diving-planes). - - - _S-126_, 169. - - _San Francisco_, 149. - - Safety-buoy, 132. - catch, 47. - helmets, 130. - jackets, 130. - - Sails, 29, 31. - - Salvage docks, 134. - - Sampson, Admiral, 89, 146. - - Schneider, Commander, 201. - - Scope, Lieutenant Perry, 100. - - Searchlight, 86, 186. - - Selfridge, Rear-admiral, 115. - - Servo-motor, 49, 53. - - Sirius, Captain John, 177, 187, 189, 206. - - Skerrett, Mr. R. G., 135. - - _Spuyten Duyvil_, 42. - - Stahl, Gustav, 196. - - “Staple of News, the,” 3. - - Steam submarine, 61. - - Steamboat, 32, 34. - - Storage-batteries, 59, 126, 184. - - “Striker,” the, 46. - - _Stromboli_, 42. - - Submarine fighting submarine, 174. - - Submarine railroad, 64. - - Submersible, 91. - - Superstructure, 90, 102. - - Symons’s submarine, 9. - - - Taylor, D. W., Chief Constructor, U. S. N., 96. - - Telephoning from submarines, 88, 132. - - _Tecumseh_, 142. - - Templo, Alvary, 71. - - _Texas_, 146. - - Thrasher, Leon C., 190. - - Tinkling Cloud, 195. - - Tissot, Professor, 171. - - Torpedo, automobile, 44 to 55. - boats, 45, 103. - Brennan, 59. - Chandler, 53. - controllable, 43, 54, 55. - cost of, 47, 103. - Davis gun-, 52. - Fulton’s anchored, 139. - Hammond wireless, 55. - Torpedo-nets, 34, 170. - origin of name, 29. - practice, 116. - recovering, 47, 123. - Schwartzkopf, 52, 160. - Sims-Edison, 54. - spar, 37, 43. - tubes, 45, 46, 63, 117, 118, 133, 138. - wake of, 49, 206. - - “Torpedo War and Submarine Explosions,” 35, 139. - - Torpedo, Whitehead, 44 to 52, 117. - - Transports, 166, 171, 178. - - Trim, 96. - - Trimming-tanks, 117. - - Trinitrotuluol, 52. - - _Triumph_, 166. - - Trumbull, Governor, 14. - - Turner, Captain, 193. - - _Turtle_, 12, 14 to 22. - - - _U-1_, 108. - - _U-3_, 124, 132. - - _U-9_, 160. - - _U-12_, 169. - - _U-15_, 159. - - _U-16_, 183. - - _U-28_, 189. - - _U-29_, 191. - - _U-39_, 187, note. - - _U-51_, 166. - - - Vanderbilt, Alfred, 194. - - Vand der Wonde, Cornelius, 6. - - Van Drebel, Cornelius, 4 to 9, 41. - - _Vendémiaire_, 124. - - Vereshchagin, 147. - - Vickers Sons & Maxim, 80. - - _Ville de la Ciotat_, 205. - - Von Weddigen, Lieutenant-commander, 18, 160, 191. - - Von Bernstorff, Ambassador, 199. - - Von Tirpitz, Admiral, 69, 177, 187, 189. - - _Vulcan_, 132. - - - Waddington, Mr. J. F., 83, note. - - War-head, 47, 52. - - War Zone, 30, 179. - - Washington, George, 13, 17, 25. - - Wheeled submarines, 84. - - White mice, 13, 110. - - Whitehead, Mr., 44. - - Whitney, Secretary, 74. - - Wilson, President, 180, 197, 198. - - Wright brothers, 71. - - - _X-4_, 102 to 123. - - - _Yasaka Maru_, 205. - - _Yenisei_, 146. - - - Zeppelins, 172. - - - - -FOOTNOTES - - -[1] Also spelled Van Drebbel, Drebell, Dreble, and Trebel. He is the -man Ben Jonson calls “Cornelius’ son.” - -[2] Harsdoffer. - -[3] “New Experiments touching the Spring of the Air and its Effects,” -by Robert Boyle, Oxford, 1662, p. 188. - -[4] The only submarine built before this for military purposes, -the _Rotterdam Boat_, remained private property, and King James’s -“eel-boats” were merely pleasure craft. - -[5] Sergeant Ezra Lee’s letter to Gen. David Humphreys, written in -1815. Published in the “Magazine of American History,” Vol. 29, p. 261. - -[6] “General Washington and his associates in the secret took their -stations upon a house in Broadway, anxiously awaiting the result.” From -Ezra Lee’s obituary, New York “Commercial Advertiser,” November 15, -1821. - -[7] According to Bushnell, the screw struck an iron bar securing the -rudder. - -[8] This survivor was examined by the captain of the _Cerberus_, who -reported that the schooner’s crew had drawn the machine on board and by -rashly tampering with its mechanism caused it to explode. - -[9] See the “Scientific American,” August 7, 1915. - -[10] Herbert C. Fyfe, “Submarine Warfare,” p. 269. - -[11] But Fulton’s _Nautilus_ could not possibly have made the dives -with which she is credited except by the use of the horizontal rudders -which she possessed in conjunction with the push of her man-power -propellor. Holland had carefully studied the plans and letters of -Bushnell and Fulton. - -[12] Mr. J. F. Waddington used vertical propellers in tubes through the -vessel for keeping her on an even keel or submerging when stationary, -on a small electric submarine he invented, built and demonstrated at -Liverpool in 1886. - -[13] Quotations in this chapter are from Mr. Lake’s articles published -in “International Marine Engineering,” and are here reprinted by his -kind permission. - -[14] Electric current. - -[15] From an article by Admiral Selfridge in the “Outlook.” - -[16] The velocity of sound in dry air at a temperature of 32 degrees -Fahrenheit is about 1087 feet a second, in water at 44 degrees, about -4708 feet a second. - -[17] The sound of the first gun of the salute fired by the Russian -fleet in Cronstadt harbor to celebrate the coronation of Alexander II -in 1855 was the signal for the crew of the submerged submarine _Le -Diable Marin_ to begin singing the National Anthem. Their voices, -accompanied by a band of four pieces, were distinctly heard above -the surface. This novel concert had been planned by Wilhelm Bauer, -the designer of the submarine and one of the earliest students of -under-water acoustics. He succeeded in signaling from one side of the -harbor to another by striking a submerged piece of sheet-iron with a -hammer. - -[18] “Scientific American,” January 28, 1911, page 87. - -[19] “Scientific American,” November 23, 1912. - -[20] Titherington’s History of the Spanish-American War, p. 139. - -[21] _Ibid._, page 202. - -[22] He had done notable work with mines himself, during the -Russo-Turkish War of 1878. - -[23] This was a very popular type with the Confederate Torpedo Service -in the Civil War. - -[24] London, Jan. 4.--A British official statement issued to-day says: - -“Sir Edward Grey, secretary for foreign affairs, has answered the -complaint by the Germans through the American embassies regarding the -destruction off the coast of Ireland of a German submarine and crew, -by the British auxiliary _Baralong_, by referring to various German -outrages. - -“Sir Edward Grey offers to submit such incidents, including the -_Baralong_ case, to an impartial tribunal composed, say, of officers of -the United States navy. - -“The Foreign Office has presented to the House of Commons the full -correspondence between Ambassador Page and Sir Edward Grey concerning -the case. A memorandum from Germany concerning the sinking of the -submarine includes affidavits from six Americans who were muleteers -aboard the steamer _Nicosian_ and witnessed the _Baralong’s_ -destruction of the submarine. A further affidavit from Larimore -Holland, of Chattanooga, Tennessee, who was a member of the crew of the -_Baralong_, was submitted. All the affidavits speak of the _Baralong_ -as disguised and flying the American flag.” - -[25] “Scientific American,” October 16, 1915. - -[26] In “Collier’s Weekly,” August 22, and 29, 1914. - -[27] This submarine was the _U-39_. On board her was an American boy, -Carl Frank List, who was taken off a Norwegian ship and spent eleven -days on the _U-39_, during which time she sank eleven ships. In each -case the crew were given ample time to take to the boats. List’s -intensely interesting narrative appeared in the “New York American” for -September 3, 5, and 7, 1915. - -[28] “Von Weddigen, I was told, met his death chasing an armed British -steamer. Commanding the _U-29_, he went after a whale of a British -freighter in the Irish Sea, signaled her to stop. She stopped but -hoisted the Spanish flag. As he came alongside, the steamer let -drive with her two four-point-sevens at the submarine, sinking it -immediately.” Statement of Carl Frank List. - -[29] Statement of Dr. Cecile L. Greil, the only native-born American on -board. - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes - - -Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a -predominant preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not -changed. - -Words spelled differently in quoted passages than in the author’s own -text have not been changed. - -Simple typographical errors were silently corrected; occasional -unbalanced quotation marks retained. - -Chapter II’s footnotes originally skipped number “3”. The omission is -not apparent in this eBook, in which all footnotes are in a single -ascending sequence. - -Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained. - -For consistency, all occurrences of “bow-foremost” and “stern-foremost” -are hyphenated in this eBook. - -Index not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references. - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The Story of the Submarine, by Farnham Bishop - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF THE SUBMARINE *** - -***** This file should be named 50582-0.txt or 50582-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/0/5/8/50582/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Charlie Howard, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Story of the Submarine - -Author: Farnham Bishop - -Release Date: November 30, 2015 [EBook #50582] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF THE SUBMARINE *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Charlie Howard, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class="transnote covernote"> -<p class="center">Cover created by Transcriber and placed in the Public Domain.</p> -</div> - -<h1>THE STORY OF THE<br /> -SUBMARINE</h1> - -<div id="ip_1" class="newpage p4 figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_001.jpg" width="600" height="333" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Courtesy of the Electric Boat Company.</div> - <div class="caption">U. S. Submarine <i>M-1</i>.</div> -</div> - -<p class="newpage p4 center xxlarge gesperrt"> -THE STORY OF<br /> -THE SUBMARINE</p> - -<p class="p2 center"><span class="larger">BY</span><br /> -<span class="large">FARNHAM BISHOP</span><br /> -Author of “Panama, Past and Present,” etc.</p> - -<p class="p2 center larger"><i>ILLUSTRATED WITH PHOTOGRAPHS<br /> -AND DRAWINGS</i></p> - -<div id="ip_2" class="figcenter" style="width: 75px;"> - <img src="images/i_002.jpg" width="75" height="74" alt="" /></div> - -<p class="p2 center larger">NEW YORK<br /> -<span class="larger">THE CENTURY CO.</span><br /> -1916 -</p> - -<hr /> - -<p class="newpage p4 center larger"> -Copyright, 1916, by<br /> -<span class="smcap">The Century Co.</span><br /> -<br /> -<i>Published, February, 1916</i> -</p> - -<hr /> - -<p class="newpage p4 center larger"> -To<br /> -MY MOTHER -</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vii">vii</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE</h2> -</div> - -<p>This book has been written for the nontechnical reader—for -the man or boy who is interested in submarines -and torpedoes, and would like to know something about -the men who invented these things and how they came -to do it. Much has been omitted that I should have -liked to have put in, for this is a small book and the -story of the submarine is much longer than most people -realize. It is perhaps astonishing to think of the launching -of an underseaboat in the year the Pilgrims landed -at Plymouth Rock, or George Washington watching his -submarine attack the British fleet in 1776. But are -these things as astonishing as the thought of European -soldiers wearing steel helmets and fighting with crossbows -and catapults in 1916?</p> - -<p>The chapter on “A Trip in a Modern Submarine” is -purely imaginative. There is no such boat in our submarine -flotilla as the <i>X-4</i>. We ought to have plenty of -big, fast, sea-going submarines, with plenty of big, fast -sea-planes and battle-cruisers, so that if an invading army -ever starts for this country we can meet it and smash it -while it is cooped up on transports somewhere in mid-ocean. -There, and not in shallow, off-shore waters, -cumbered with nets and mines, is the true battlefield of -the submarine.</p> - -<p>The last part of this book has a broken-off and fragmentary<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_viii">viii</a></span> -appearance. This is almost unavoidable at a -time when writing history is like trying to make a statue -of a moving-picture. I have tried to do justice to both -sides in the present war.</p> - -<p>I wish to express my thanks to those whose kindness -and courtesy have made it possible for me to write this -book. To Mr. Kelby, Librarian of the New York Historical -Society, I am indebted for much information about -Bushnell’s <i>Turtle</i>, and to Mrs. Daniel Whitney, of Germantown, -Pa., a descendant of Ezra Lee, for the portrait -of her intrepid ancestor. Both the Electric Boat -Company and Mr. Simon Lake have supplied me most -generously with information and pictures. The Bureau -of Construction, United States Navy, E. P. Dutton & -Company, publishers of Mr. Alan H. Burgoyne’s “Submarine -Navigation Past and Present”; the American -Magazine, Flying, International Marine Engineering, the -<i>Scientific American</i>, and the <i>New York Sun</i> have cheerfully -given permission for the reproduction of many pictures -of which they hold the copyright. Albert Frank -& Company have given the cut of the advertisement of -the last sailing of the <i>Lusitania</i>. Special thanks are due -to Mr. A. Russell Bond, Associate Editor of the <i>Scientific -American</i>, for expert advice and suggestion.</p> - -<p>Some well-known pictures of submarines are herein -credited for the first time to the man who made them: -Captain Francis M. Barber, U. S. N. (retired). This -officer published a little pink-backed pamphlet on submarine -boats—the first book devoted exclusively to this -subject—in 1875.</p> - -<p>“The last time I heard of that pink pamphlet,” writes<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ix">ix</a></span> -Captain Barber from Washington, “was when I was -Naval Attache at Berlin in 1898. Admiral von Tirpitz -was then head of the Torpedo Bureau in the Navy Department, -and he was good enough to say that it was the -foundation of his studies—and look what we have now -in the terrible German production.”</p> - -<p class="sigright"><span class="smcap">Farnham Bishop.</span></p> - -<p class="in0"> -New York,<br /> -<span class="in2">January, 1916.</span></p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xi">xi</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - -<table summary="Contents"> - <tr class="small"> - <td class="tdr">CHAPTER</td> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdr">PAGE</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">I</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">In the Beginning</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">3</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">II</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">David Bushnell’s “Turtle”</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">12</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">III</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Robert Fulton’s “Nautilus”</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">26</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">IV</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Submarines in the Civil War</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">36</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">V</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Whitehead Torpedo</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">43</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">VI</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Freaks and Failures</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">56</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">VII</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">John P. Holland</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">69</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">VIII</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Lake Submarines</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">82</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">IX</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Trip in a Modern Submarine</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">100</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">X</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Accidents and Safety Devices</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">124</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">XI</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Mines</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">139</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">XII</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Submarine in Action</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">156</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">XIII</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Submarine Blockade</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">177</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">XIV</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Submarine and Neutrals</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">189</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#INDEX">207</a></td></tr> -</table> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xiii">xiii</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a id="List_of_Illustrations"></a>List of Illustrations</h2> -</div> - -<table summary="List of Illustrations"> - <tr class="small"> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdr">PAGE</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">U. S. Submarine <i>M-1</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_1"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Cornelius Van Drebel</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_5">5</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The <i>Rotterdam Boat</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_8">8</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Symons’s Submarine</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_10">10</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Submarine of 1776</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_13">13</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Best-known Picture of Bushnell’s <i>Turtle</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_16">16</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Another Idea of Bushnell’s <i>Turtle</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_19">19</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Ezra Lee</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_21">21</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The <i>Nautilus</i> Invented by Robert Fulton</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_28">28</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Destruction of the <i>Dorothea</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_33">33</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Views of a Confederate <i>David</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_37">37</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">C. S. S. <i>Hundley</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_38">38</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Cross-section of a Whitehead Torpedo</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_51">51</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Davis Gun-torpedo After Discharge, Showing Eight-inch Gun Forward of Air-flask</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_53">53</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Effect of Davis Gun-torpedo on a Specially-constructed Target</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_54">54</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The <i>Intelligent Whale</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_58">58</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Le Plongeur</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_59">59</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Steam Submarine <i>Nordenfeldt II</i>, at Constantinople, 1887</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_62">62</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Bauer’s Submarine Concert, Cronstadt Harbor, 1855</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_65">65</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Apostoloff’s Proposed Submarine</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_67">67</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The <i>Holland No. 1</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_70">70</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The <i>Fenian Ram</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_73">73</a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xiv">xiv</a></span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">U. S. S. <i>Holland</i>, in Drydock with the Russian Battleship <i>Retvizan</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_77">77</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">John P. Holland</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_80">80</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Lake 1893 Design as Submitted to the U. S. Navy Department</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_83">83</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The <i>Argonaut Junior</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_84">84</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Argonaut</i> as Originally Built</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_87">87</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Argonaut</i> as Rebuilt</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_90">90</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Rebuilt <i>Argonaut</i>, Showing Pipe-masts and Ship-shaped Superstructure</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_93">93</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Cross-section of Diving-compartment on a Lake Submarine</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_94">94</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Cross-section of the <i>Protector</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_97">97</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Mr. Simon Lake</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_98">98</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">U. S. Submarine <i>E-2</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_101">101</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">A Submarine Cruiser, or Fleet Submarine (Lake Type)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_105">105</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Auxiliary Switchboard and Electric Cook-stove, in a U. S. Submarine</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_107">107</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Forward Deck of a U. S. Submarine, in Cruising Trim</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_109">109</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Same, Preparing to Submerge</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_110">110</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Depth-control Station, U. S. Submarine</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_113">113</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Cross-section of a Periscope</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_114">114</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Forward Torpedo-compartment, U. S. Submarine</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_117">117</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Fessenden Oscillator Outside the Hull of a Ship</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_120">120</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Professor Fessenden Receiving a Message Sent Through Several Miles of Sea-water by His “Oscillator”</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_121">121</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Side-elevation of a Modern Submarine</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_127">127</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">One Type of Safety-jacket</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_131">131</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The <i>Vulcan</i> Salvaging the <i>U-3</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_134">134</a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xv">xv</a></span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Fulton’s Anchored Torpedoes</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_140">140</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Sinking of the U. S. S. <i>Tecumseh</i>, by a Confederate Mine, in Mobile Bay</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_143">143</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">A Confederate “Keg-torpedo”</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_144">144</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">First Warship Destroyed by a Mine</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_145">145</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">A Confederate “Buoyant Torpedo” or Contact-mine</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_146">146</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Modern Contact-mine</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_150">150</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">U. S. Mine-planter <i>San Francisco</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_153">153</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">English Submarine Rescuing English Sailors</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_157">157</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Engagement Between the <i>Birmingham</i> and the <i>U-15</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_159">159</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Sinking of the <i>Aboukir</i>, <i>Cressy</i>, and <i>Hogue</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_163">163</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Tiny Target Afforded by Periscopes in Rough Weather</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_167">167</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Photograph of a Submarine, Twenty Feet Below the Surface, Taken from the Aeroplane, Whose Shadow Is Shown in the Picture</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_173">173</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">German Submarine Pursuing English Merchantman</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_182">182</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">British Submarine, Showing One Type of Disappearing Deck-gun Now in Use</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_190">190</a></td></tr> -</table> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3">3</a></span></p> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><span class="larger">THE STORY OF THE SUBMARINE</span></h2> -</div> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I<br /> - -<span class="subhead">IN THE BEGINNING</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">If</span> you had been in London in the year 1624, and had -gone to the theater to see “The Staple of News,” -a new and very dull comedy by Shakespeare’s friend Ben -Jonson, you would have heard, in act <span class="smcap">III</span>, scene i, the -following dialogue about submarines:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4">4</a></span></p><div class="poem-container b1"> -<div class="poem"> - -<div class="p1 center"><span class="smcap">Thomas</span></div> -<div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">They write hear one Cornelius’ son<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Hath made the Hollanders an invisible eel<br /></span> -<span class="i0">To swim the haven at Dunkirk and sink all<br /></span> -<span class="i0">The shipping there.<br /></span> -</div> - -<div class="p1 center"><span class="smcap">Pennyboy</span><br /></div> -<div class="stanza"> -<span class="i20">But how is’t done?<br /></span> -</div> - -<div class="p1 center"><span class="smcap">Grabal</span><br /></div> -<div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">I’ll show you, sir,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">It is an automa, runs under water<br /></span> -<span class="i0">With a snug nose, and has a nimble tail<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Made like an auger, with which tail she wriggles<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Betwixt the costs of a ship and sinks it straight.<br /></span> -</div> - -<div class="p1 center"><span class="smcap">Pennyboy</span><br /></div> -<div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">Whence have you this news?<br /></span> -</div> - -<div class="p1 center"><span class="smcap">Fitton</span><br /></div> -<div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">From a right hand I assure you.<br /></span> -<span class="i0">The eel-boats here, that lie before Queen-hythe<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Came out of Holland.<br /></span> -</div> - -<div class="p1 center"><span class="smcap">Pennyboy</span><br /></div> -<div class="stanza"> -<span class="i22">A most brave device<br /></span> -<span class="i0">To murder their flat bottoms.<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>The idea of submarine navigation is much older than -1624. Crude diving bells, and primitive leather diving -helmets, with bladders to keep the upper end of the air -tube afloat on the surface of the water, were used as early -as the fourteenth century. William Bourne, an Englishman -who published a book on “Inventions or Devices” -in 1578, suggested the military value of a boat that could -be sailed just below the surface of the water, with a -hollow mast for a ventilator. John Napier, Laird of -Merchiston, the great Scotch mathematician who invented -logarithms, wrote in 1596 about his proposed “Devices -of sailing under the water, with divers other devices and -stratagems for the burning of enemies.”</p> - -<p>But the first man actually to build and navigate a submarine -was a Dutchman: the learned Doctor Cornelius -Van Drebel.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> He was “a native of Alkmaar, a very -fair and handsome man, and of very gentle manners.” -Both his pleasing personality and his knowledge of science—which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5">5</a></span> -caused many to suspect him of being a -magician—made the Netherlander an honored guest -at the court of his most pedantic Majesty, King James I -of England.</p> - -<p>Van Drebel was -walking along the -banks of the -Thames, one pleasant -evening in the -year 1620, when he -“noticed some sailors -dragging behind -their barques baskets -full of fish; he saw -that the barques were -weighed down in the -water, but that they -rose a little when the -baskets allowed the -ropes which held -them to slacken a -little. The idea occurred -to him that a -ship could be held -under water by a -somewhat similar method and could be propelled by oars -and poles.”<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a></p> - -<div id="ip_5" class="figcenter" style="width: 414px;"> - <img src="images/i_005.jpg" width="414" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Cornelius Van Drebel.</div> - - <div class="caption smaller notbold">Reproduced from “Submarine Navigation, - Past and Present” by Alan H. Burgoyne, - by permission of E. P. Dutton & Company.</div> -</div> - -<p>Lodged by the king in Eltham Palace, and supplied -with funds from the royal treasury, Van Drebel designed -and built three submarine boats, between 1620 and 1624.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6">6</a></span> -They were simply large wooden rowboats, decked over -and made water-tight by a covering of thick, well-greased -leather. Harsdoffer, a chronicler of the period, -declared that</p> - -<p>“King James himself journeyed in one of them on -the Thames. There were on this occasion twelve rowers -besides the passengers, and the vessel during several -hours was kept at a depth of twelve to fifteen feet below -the surface.”</p> - -<p>Another contemporary historian, Cornelius Van der -Wonde, of Van Drebel’s home town, said of him:</p> - -<p>“He built a ship in which one could row and navigate -under water from Westminster to Greenwich, the distance -of two Dutch miles; even five or six miles or as far as -one pleased. In this boat a person could see under the -surface of the water and without candle-light, as much -as he needed to read in the Bible or any other book. Not -long ago this remarkable ship was yet to be seen lying in -the Thames or London river.”</p> - -<p>The glow of phosphorescent bodies, suggested by the -monk Mersenne for illuminating the interior of a submarine, -later in the seventeenth century and actually so -used by Bushnell in the eighteenth, might have furnished -sufficient light for Bible- and compass-reading on this -voyage. But how did King James—the first and last -monarch to venture on an underwater voyage—the other -passengers, and the twelve rowers get enough air?</p> - -<p>“That deservedly Famous Mechanician and Chymist, -Cornelius Drebell ... conceived, that ’tis not only the -whole body of the air but a certain Quintessence (as -Chymists speake) or spirituous part that makes it fit for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7">7</a></span> -respiration ... so that (for aught I could gather) besides -the Mechanicall contrivance of his vessel he had a -Chymicall liquor, which he accounted the chief secret -of his Submarine Navigation. For when from time to -time he perceived that the finer and purer part of the air -was consumed or over-clogged by the respiration and -steames of those that went in his ship, he would, by -unstopping a vessel full of liquor speedily restore to the -troubled air such a proportion of vital parts as would -make it again for a good while fit for Respiration.”<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">3</a></p> - -<p>Did Van Drebel anticipate by one hundred and fifty -years the discovery of oxygen: the life-giving “Quintessence” -of air? Even if he did, it is incredible that he -should have found a liquid, utterly unknown to modern -chemistry, capable of giving off that gas so freely that -a few gallons would restore the oxygen to a confined body -of air as fast as fifteen or twenty men could consume it -by breathing. Perhaps his “Chymicall liquor” instead -of producing oxygen directly, increased the proportion -of it in the atmosphere by absorbing the carbonic acid -gas.</p> - -<p>The Abbé de Hautefeullie, who wrote in 1680 on -“Methods of breathing under water,” made the following -shrewd guess at the nature of the apparatus:</p> - -<p>“Drebel’s secret was probably the machine which I -had imagined, consisting of a bellows with two valves -and two tubes resting on the surface of the water, the one -bringing down air and the other sending it back. By -speaking of a volatile essence which restored the nitrous<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8">8</a></span> -parts consumed by respiration, Drebel evidently wished -to disguise his invention and prevent others from finding -out its real nature.”</p> - -<div id="ip_8" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_008.jpg" width="600" height="275" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Courtesy of the Scientific American.</div> - <div class="caption">The <i>Rotterdam Boat</i>.</div></div> - -<p>It is a very great pity that we know no more about -these earliest submarines. Cornelius Van Drebel died -in 1634, at the age of sixty-two, without leaving any -written notes or oral descriptions. We must not think -too hardly of this inventor of three centuries ago, unguarded -by patent laws, for making a mystery of his -discoveries. He had to be a showman as well as a scientist, -or his noble patrons would have lost all interest in -his “ingenious machines,” and mystery is half of the -showman’s game. Besides his “eel-boats,” Van Drebel -is said to have invented a wonderful globe with which -he imitated perpetual motion and illustrated the course -of the sun, moon, and stars; an incubator, a refrigerator, -“Virginals that played of themselves,” and other marvels -too numerous to mention. Half scientist, half charlatan,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9">9</a></span> -wholly medieval in appearance, with his long furred gown -and long, fair beard, Cornelius Van Drebel marches picturesquely -at the head of the procession of inventors who -have made possible the modern submarine.</p> - -<p>Eighteen years after Van Drebel’s death, a Frenchman -named Le Son built a submarine at Rotterdam. This -craft, which is usually referred to as the <i>Rotterdam -Boat</i>, was 72 feet long, 12 feet high, and of 8 foot beam. -It was built of wood, with sharply tapering ends, and had -a superstructure whose sloping sides were designed to -deflect cannon balls that might be fired at the boat while -traveling on the surface, while iron-shod legs protected -the hull when resting on the sea bottom. A single paddle-wheel -amidships was to propel the boat,—just how, the -inventor never revealed. Like so many other submarines, -the <i>Rotterdam Boat</i> was built primarily to be -used against the British fleet. But it failed to interest -either the Dutch or French minister of marine, and never -went into action.</p> - -<p>The earliest known contemporary picture of a submarine -vessel appeared in the “Gentleman’s Magazine,” -in 1747. It showed a cross section of an underwater -boat built and navigated on the Thames by one Symons. -This was a decked-over row-boat, propelled by four pairs -of oars working in water-tight joints of greased leather. -To submerge his vessel, Symons admitted water into a -number of large leather bottles, placed inside the hull -with their open mouth passing through holes in the bottom. -When he wished to rise, he would squeeze out -the water with a lever and bind up the neck of each -emptied bottle with string. This ingenious device was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10">10</a></span> -not original with Mr. Symons, but was invented by a -Frenchman named Borelli in 1680.</p> - -<p>Submarine navigation was a century and a half old -before it claimed its first victim. J. Day, an English -mechanic, rebuilt a small boat so that he was able to -submerge it in thirty feet of water, with himself on -board, and remain there for twenty-four hours with no -ill effect. At the end of this time, Day rose to the surface, -absolutely certain of his ability to repeat the experiment -at any depth. But how could he turn this to -practical account?</p> - -<div id="ip_10" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_010.jpg" width="600" height="297" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Symons’s Submarine.</div></div> - -<p>It was an age of betting, when gentlemen could always -be found to risk money on any wager, however fantastic. -Day found a financial backer in a Mr. Blake, who -advanced him the money to buy a fifty-ton sloop and -fit it with a strong water-tight compartment amidships. -Ten tons of ballast were placed in the hold and twenty -more hung outside the hull by four iron rods passing -through the passenger’s compartment. When the rest<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11">11</a></span> -of the boat was filled with water, it would sink to the -bottom, to rise again when the man inside released the -twenty tons of outer ballast.</p> - -<p>Shut in the water-tight compartment of this boat, Day -sank to the bottom of Plymouth Harbor, at 2 <span class="smcap smaller">P.M.</span>, Tuesday, -June 28, 1774, to decide a bet that he could remain -twelve hours at a depth of twenty-two fathoms (132 -feet). When, at the expiration of this time, the submarine -failed to reappear, Mr. Blake called on the captain -of a near-by frigate for help. Bluejackets from the -warship and workmen from the dockyard were set to -work immediately to grapple for the sunken craft and -raise her to the surface, but to no avail. The great -pressure of water at that depth—150 feet is the limit -of safety for many modern submarines—must have -crushed in the walls of the water-tight compartment without -giving Day time enough to release the outer ballast -and rise to safety.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12">12</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II<br /> - -<span class="subhead">DAVID BUSHNELL’S “TURTLE”</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">In</span> the first week of September, 1776, the American -army defending New York still held Manhattan Island, -but nothing more. Hastily improvised, badly -equipped, and worse disciplined, it had been easily defeated -by a superior invading force of British regulars -and German mercenaries in the battle of Long Island. -Brooklyn had fallen; from Montauk Point to the East -River, all was the enemy’s country. Staten Island, too, -was an armed and hostile land. After the fall of the -forts on both sides of the Narrows, the British fleet -had entered the Upper Bay, and even landed marines and -infantry on Governor’s Island. Grimly guarding the -crowded transports, the ship-of-the-line <i>Asia</i> and the -frigate <i>Eagle</i> lay a little above Staten Island, with their -broadsides trained on the doomed city.</p> - -<p>In the mouth of the North River, not a biscuit-toss -from the Battery, floated the brass conning-tower of an -American submarine.</p> - -<p>It was the only submarine in the world and its inventor -called it the <i>Turtle</i>. He called it that because it -looked like one: a turtle floating with its tail down and -a conning-tower for a head. It has also been compared -to a modern soldier’s canteen with an extra-large mouthpiece, -or a hardshell clam wearing a silk hat. It was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13">13</a></span> -deeper than it was long and not much longer than it -was broad. It had no periscope, torpedo tubes, or cage -of white mice. But the <i>Turtle</i> was a submarine, for all -that.</p> - -<p>Its inventor was a Connecticut Yankee, Mr. David -Bushnell, later Captain -Bushnell of the corps -of sappers and miners -and in the opinion of -his Excellency General -Washington “a man -of great mechanical -powers, fertile in invention -and master of -execution.” Bushnell -was born in Saybrook -and educated at Yale, -where he graduated -with the class of 1775. -During his four years -as an undergraduate, -he spent most of his -spare time solving the -problem of exploding -gunpowder under water. -A water-tight case would keep his powder dry, but -how could he get a spark inside to explode it? Percussion -caps had not yet been invented, but Bushnell took the -flintlock from a musket and had it snapped by clockwork -that could be wound up and set for any desired length -of time.</p> - -<div id="ip_13" class="figcenter" style="width: 380px;"> - <img src="images/i_013.jpg" width="380" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption vspace">The Submarine of 1776.<br /> - <span class="smaller">(As described by its operator.)</span></div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14">14</a></span> -“The first experiment I made,” wrote Bushnell in a -letter to Thomas Jefferson when the latter was American -minister to France in 1789, “was with about 2 ounces -of powder, which I exploded 4 feet under water, to prove -to some of the first personages in Connecticut that -powder would take fire under water.</p> - -<p>“The second experiment was made with 2 lb. of -powder enclosed in a wooden bottle and fixed under a -hogshead, with a 2-inch oak plank between the hogshead -and the powder. The hogshead was loaded with -stones as deep as it could swim; a wooden pipe, descending -through the lower head of the hogshead and through -the plank into the bottle, was primed with powder. A -match put to the priming exploded the powder, which -produced a very great effect, rending the plank into -pieces, demolishing the hogshead, and casting the stones -and the ruins of the hogshead, with a body of water, -many feet into the air, to the astonishment of the spectators. -This experiment was likewise made for the satisfaction -of the gentlemen above mentioned.”</p> - -<p>Governor Trumbull of Connecticut was among the -“first personages” present at these experiments, which -so impressed him and his council that they appropriated -enough money for Bushnell to build the <i>Turtle</i>. The -Nutmeg State was thus the first “world-power” to have -a submarine in its navy.<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a></p> - -<p>The hull of the <i>Turtle</i> was not made of copper, as is -sometimes stated, but was “built of oak, in the strongest<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15">15</a></span> -manner possible, corked and tarred.”<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> The conning-tower -was of brass and also served as a hatch-cover. -The hatchway was barely big enough for the one man -who made up the entire crew to squeeze through. Once -inside, the operator could screw the cover down tight, -and look out through “three round doors, one directly -in front and one on each side, large enough to put the -hand through. When open they admitted fresh air.” -On top of the conning-tower were two air-pipes “so constructed -that they shut themselves whenever the water -rose near their tops, so that no water could enter through -them and opened themselves immediately after they rose -above the water.</p> - -<p>“The vessel was chiefly ballasted with lead fixed to its -bottom; when this was not sufficient a quantity was -placed within, more or less according to the weight of -the operator; its ballast made it so stiff that there was -no danger of oversetting. The vessel, with all its appendages -and the operator, was of sufficient weight to settle -it very low in the water. About 200 lb. of lead at -the bottom for ballast could be let down 40 or 50 feet -below the vessel; this enabled the operator to rise instantly -to the surface of the water in case of accident.”</p> - -<p>The operator sat on an oaken brace that kept the two -sides of the boat from being crushed in by the water-pressure, -and did things with his hands and feet. He -must have been as busy as a cathedral organist on Easter -morning. With one foot he opened a brass valve that let<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16">16</a></span> -water into the ballast tanks, with the other he worked -a force pump to drive it out. When he had reached an -approximate equilibrium, he could move the submarine -up or down, or hold it at any desired depth, by cranking -a small vertical-acting propellor placed just forward of -the conning-tower on the deck above. Before him was -the crank of another propellor, or rather tractor, for it -drew, not pushed, the vessel forward. Behind him was -the rudder, which the operator controlled with a long -curved tiller stuck under one arm.</p> - -<div id="ip_16" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_016.jpg" width="600" height="227" alt="" /> - <div class="caption vspace">The Best-known Picture of Bushnell’s <i>Turtle</i>.<br /> - <span class="smaller">Drawn by Lieutenant F. M. Barber, U. S. N., in 1875.</span></div></div> - -<p>Bushnell, in his letter to Jefferson, calls each of these -propellors “an oar, formed upon the principle of the -screw,” and the best-known picture of the <i>Turtle</i> shows -a bearded gentleman in nineteenth-century clothes boring -his way through the water with two big gimlets. But -Sergeant Ezra Lee of the Connecticut Line, who did the -actual operating, described the submarine’s forward propellor -(he makes no mention of the other) as having two -wooden blades or “oars, of about 12 inches in length -and 4 or 5 in width, shaped like the arms of a windmill.”<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17">17</a></span> -Except in size, this device must have looked very -much like the wooden-bladed tractor of a modern aeroplane.</p> - -<p>“These oars,” noted Judge Griswold on the letter -before forwarding it to General Humphrey, “were fixed -on the end of a shaft like windmill arms projected out -forward, and turned at right angles with the course of -the machine; and upon the same principles that wind-mill -arms are turned by the wind, these oars, when put in -motion as the writer describes, draw the machine slowly -after it. This moving power is small, and every attendant -circumstance must coöperate with it to answer the -purpose—calm waters and no current.”</p> - -<p>“With hard labor,” said Lee, “the machine might be -impelled at the rate of ‘3 nots’ an hour for a short -time.”</p> - -<p>Sergeant Lee volunteered “to learn the ways and mystery -of this new machine” because the original operator, -Bushnell’s brother, “was taken sick in the campaign of -1776 at New York before he had an opportunity to make -use of his skill, and never recovered his health sufficiently -afterwards.” While Lee was still struggling with the -“mystery” in practice trips on Long Island Sound, the -British fleet entered New York Harbor. The submarine -was at once hurried to New Rochelle, carted overland to -the Hudson, and towed down to the city.</p> - -<p>At slack tide on the first calm night after his arrival, -Lee screwed down the conning-tower of the <i>Turtle</i> above -his head and set out to attack the British fleet.<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">6</a> Two<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18">18</a></span> -whaleboats towed him as near as they dared and then -cast off. Running awash, with not more than six or -seven inches of the conning-tower exposed, the submarine -crept, silent and unseen, down the bay and up under the -towering stern of his Britannic Majesty’s 64-gun frigate -<i>Eagle</i>.</p> - -<p>“When I rowed under the stern of the ship,” wrote -Sergeant Lee in after years, “I could see the men on -deck and hear them talk. I then shut down all the -doors, sunk down and came under the bottom of the -ship.”</p> - -<p>Up through the top of the submarine ran a long sharp -gimlet, not for boring a hole through the bottom of a -ship, but to be screwed into the wooden hull and left there, -to serve as an anchor for a mine. Tied to the screw and -carried on the after-deck of the <i>Turtle</i> was an egg-shaped -“magazine,” made of two hollowed-out pieces of oak -and containing one hundred and fifty pounds of gunpowder, -with a clockwork time-fuse that would begin -to run as soon as the operator cast off the magazine after -making fast the screw. Everything seemed ready for -Sergeant Lee to anticipate Lieutenant Commander Von -Weddigen by one hundred and thirty-eight years.</p> - -<p>But no matter how hard the strong-wristed sergeant -turned the handle, he could not drive the screw into the -frigate’s hull. The <i>Eagle</i> was copper-sheathed!<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">7</a></p> - -<p>“I pulled along to try another place,” said Lee, “but -deviated a little to one side and immediately rose with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19">19</a></span> -great velocity and came above the surface 2 or 3 feet, -between the ship and the daylight, then sunk again like -a porpoise. I hove about to try again, but on further -thought I gave out, knowing that as soon as it was light -the ships’ boats would be rowing in all directions, and I -thought the best generalship was to retreat as fast as I -could, as I had 4 miles to go before passing Governor’s -Island. So I jogg’d on as fast as I could.”</p> - -<p>To enable him to steer a course when submerged, Lee -had before him a compass, most ingeniously illuminated -with phosphorescent pieces of rotten wood. But for -some reason this proved to be of no use.</p> - -<div id="ip_19" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_019.jpg" width="600" height="256" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Another Idea of Bushnell’s <i>Turtle</i>.</div></div> - -<p>“I was obliged to rise up every few minutes to see -that I sailed in the right direction, and for this purpose -keeping the machine on the surface of the water and the -doors open. I was much afraid of getting aground on -the island, as the tide of the flood set on the north point.</p> - -<p>“While on my passage up to the city, my course, owing -to the above circumstances, was very crooked and zig-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20">20</a></span>zag, -and the enemy’s attention was drawn towards me -from Governor’s Island. When I was abreast of the -fort on the island, 3 or 400 men got upon the parapet to -observe me; at length a number came down to the shore, -shoved off a 12 oar’d barge with 5 or 6 sitters and pulled -for me. I eyed them, and when they had got within 50 -or 60 yards of me I let loose the magazine in hopes that -if they should take me they would likewise pick up the -magazine, and then we should all be blown up together. -But as kind Providence would have it, they took fright -and returned to the island to my infinite joy. I then -weathered the island, and our people seeing me, came off -with a whaleboat and towed me in. The magazine, after -getting a little past the island, went off with a tremendous -explosion, throwing up large bodies of water to an immense -height.”</p> - -<p>A few days afterwards, the British forces landed on -Manhattan Island at what is now the foot of East Thirty-fourth -Street, and Washington’s army hastily withdrew -to the Harlem Heights, above One Hundred and Twenty-fifth -Street. A British frigate sailed up the Hudson and -anchored off Bloomingdale, or between Seventy-second -and One Hundred and Tenth Streets, in the same waters -where our Atlantic fleet lies whenever it comes to town. -Here Sergeant Lee in the <i>Turtle</i> made two more attempts. -But the first time he was discovered by the watch, and -when he approached again, submerged, the phosphorus-painted -cork that served as an indicator in his crude but -ingenious depth-gage, got caught and deceived him so -that he dived completely under the warship without touching -her. Shortly after this, the frigate came up the river, -overhauled the sloop on which the <i>Turtle</i> was being transported, -and sent it to the bottom, submarine and all.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21">21</a></span></p> - -<div id="ip_21" class="figcenter" style="width: 471px;"> - <img src="images/i_021.jpg" width="471" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Ezra Lee.<br /> - Born at Lyme, Conn., Jan. 21, 1749,<br /> - Died at Lyme, Conn., Oct. 29, 1821.</div> - - <div class="captionh">From original painting in possession of his descendant, Mrs. Daniel -Whitney, 5117 Pulaski Avenue, Germantown, Pa.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22">22</a></span> -“Though I afterwards recovered the vessel,” Bushnell -wrote to Jefferson, “I found it impossible at that time -to prosecute the design any further. I had been in a bad -state of health from the beginning of my undertaking, -and was now very unwell; the situation of public affairs -was such that I despaired of obtaining the public attention -and the assistance necessary. I was unable to support -myself and the persons I must have employed had I -proceeded. Besides, I found it absolutely necessary that -the operators should acquire more skill in the management -of the vessel before I could expect success, which -would have taken up some time, and no small additional -expense. I therefore gave over the pursuit for that time -and waited for a more favorable opportunity, which never -arrived.</p> - -<p>“In the year 1777 I made an attempt from a whaleboat -against the <i>Cerberus</i> frigate, then lying at anchor -between Connecticut River and New London, by drawing -a machine against her side by means of a line. The machine -was loaded with powder, to be exploded by a gun-lock, -which was to be unpinioned by an apparatus to be -turned by being brought alongside of the frigate. This -machine fell in with a schooner at anchor astern of the -frigate, and concealed from my sight. By some means -or other it was fired, and demolished the schooner and -three men, and blew the only one left alive overboard, -who was taken up very much hurt.<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">8</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23">23</a></span> -“After this I fixed several kegs under water, charged -with powder, to explode upon touching anything as they -floated along with the tide. I set them afloat in the -Delaware, above the English shipping at Philadelphia, in -December, 1777. I was unacquainted with the river, and -obliged to depend upon a gentleman very imperfectly -acquainted with that part of it, as I afterwards found. -We went as near the shipping as we durst venture; I believe -the darkness of the night greatly deceived him, as -it did me. We set them adrift to fall with the ebb upon -the shipping. Had we been within sixty rods I believe -they must have fallen in with them immediately, as I -designed; but, as I afterwards found, they were set adrift -much too far distant, and did not arrive until, after being -detained some time by frost, they advanced in the day-time -in a dispersed situation and under great disadvantages. -One of them blew up a boat with several persons -in it who imprudently handled it too freely, and thus gave -the British the alarm which brought on the battle of the -kegs.”</p> - -<p>The agitated redcoats lined the banks and blazed away -at every bit of drifting wreckage in the river, as described -by a sarcastic Revolutionary poet in “The Battle -of the Kegs.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24">24</a></span></p><div class="poem-container"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">Gallants attend, and hear a friend<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Troll forth harmonious ditty,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Strange things I’ll tell that once befell<br /></span> -<span class="i0">In Philadelphia city.<br /></span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">’Twas early day, as poets say,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Just as the sun was rising,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">A soldier stood on a log of wood<br /></span> -<span class="i0">And saw a thing surprising.<br /></span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">As in amaze he stood to gaze,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">The truth can’t be denied, sir,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">He spied a score of kegs or more<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Come floating down the tide, sir.<br /></span> -</div> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">These kegs, I’m told, the rebels hold<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Packed up like pickled herring,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">And they’re coming down to attack the town,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">In this new way of ferrying.<br /></span> -</div> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">Therefore prepare for bloody war,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">The kegs must all be routed,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Or surely we despised shall be<br /></span> -<span class="i0">And British valor doubted.<br /></span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">The royal band now ready stand<br /></span> -<span class="i0">All ranged in dread array, sir,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">With stomach stout to see it out<br /></span> -<span class="i0">And make a bloody day, sir.<br /></span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">The cannon roar from shore to shore,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">The small arms make a rattle,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Since wars began, I’m sure no man<br /></span> -<span class="i0">E’er saw so strange a battle.<br /></span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">The kegs, ’tis said, though strongly made,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Of rebel staves and hoops, sir,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Could not oppose their powerful foes,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">The conquering British troops, sir.<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>David Bushnell was later captured by the British, who -failed to recognize him and soon released him as a harmless<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25">25</a></span> -civilian. After the Revolution he went to France, -and then to Georgia, where disgusted with the Government’s -neglect of himself and his invention he changed -his name to “Dr. Bush.” He was eighty-four years old -when he died in 1826. His identity was then revealed -in his will.</p> - -<p>Bushnell found the submarine boat a useless plaything -and made it a formidable weapon. To him it owes the -propellor, the conning-tower, and the first suggestion of -the torpedo. The <i>Turtle</i> was not only the first American -submarine but the forerunner of the undersea destroyer -of to-day.</p> - -<p>“I thought and still think that it was an effort of -genius,” declared George Washington to Thomas Jefferson, -“but that too many things were necessary to be -combined to expect much against an enemy who are always -on guard.”</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26">26</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III<br /> - -<span class="subhead">ROBERT FULTON’S “NAUTILUS”</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap b"><span class="smcap1">Robert</span> Fulton was probably the first American -who ever went to Paris for the purpose of selling -war-supplies to the French government. Unlike his compatriots -of to-day, he found anything but a ready market. -For three years, beginning in 1797, Fulton tried constantly -but vainly to interest the Directory in his plans -for a submarine. Though a commission appointed to -examine his designs reported favorably, the minister of -marine would have nothing to do with them. Fulton -built a beautiful little model submarine of mahogany and -exhibited it, but with no results. He made an equally -fruitless attempt to sell his invention to Holland, then -called the Batavian Republic. Nobody seemed to have -the slightest belief or interest in submarines.</p> - -<p>But Fulton was a persistent man or he would never -have got his name into the history books. He stayed in -Paris, where his friend Joel Barlow was American minister, -and supported himself by inventing and exhibiting -what he called “the pictures”: the first moving pictures -the world had ever seen. These were panoramas, where -the picture was not thrown on the screen by a lantern but -painted on it, and the long roll of painted canvas was -unrolled like a film between two large spools on opposite<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27">27</a></span> -sides of the stage. Very few people remember that -Robert Fulton invented the panorama, though only a -generation ago the great panorama of the battle of -Gettysburg drew and thrilled as large audiences as a -film like “The Birth of a Nation” does to-day. Fulton -painted his own panoramas himself, for he was an artist -before he was an engineer. He made three of them and -had to build a separate little theater to show each one in. -The Parisians were so well pleased with this novelty that -they made up a song about the panoramas, and the street -where the most popular of the three was shown is still -called “La Rue Fulton.” The picture that won the inventor -this honor was a panorama of the burning of -Moscow—not the burning of the city to drive out Napoleon, -for that came a dozen years later, but an earlier -conflagration, some time in the eighteenth century.</p> - -<p>Napoleon overthrew the Directory and became First -Consul and absolute ruler of France in 1800. He appointed -three expert naval engineers to examine Fulton’s -plans, and on their approval, Napoleon advanced him -10,000 francs to build a submarine.</p> - -<p>Construction was begun at once and the boat was finished -in May, 1801. She was a remarkably modern-looking -craft, and a great improvement on everything -that had gone before. She was the first submarine to -have a fish-shaped, metal hull. It was built of copper -plating on iron ribs, and was 21 feet 3 inches long and -6 feet 5 inches in diameter at the thickest point, which -was well forward. A heavy keel gave stability and immediately -above it were the water-ballast tanks for submerging -the vessel. Two men propelled the boat when<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28">28</a></span> -beneath the surface by turning a hand-winch geared to -the shaft of a two-bladed, metal propellor. (Fulton -called the propellor a “fly,” and got the idea of it from -the little windmill-shaped device placed in the throat of -an old-fashioned fireplace to be revolved by the hot air -passing up the chimney and used to turn the roasting-spit -in many a French kitchen for centuries past.) The -third member of the crew stood in the dome-shaped conning-tower -and steered, while Fulton himself controlled -the pumps, valves, and the diving-planes or horizontal -rudders that steered the submarine up and down. Instead -of forcing his boat under with a vertical-acting -screw, like Bushnell and Nordenfelt (see pages 16 and 62),<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29">29</a></span> -Fulton, like Holland, made her dive bow-foremost by depressing -her nose with the diving-planes and shoving her -under by driving her ahead. Fulton was also the first -to give a submarine separate means of propulsion for -above and below the surface. Just as a modern undersea -boat uses oil-engines whenever it can and saves its -storage batteries for use when submerged, Fulton spared -the strength of his screw by rigging the <i>Nautilus</i> with -a mast and sail. By pulling a rope from inside the -vessel, the sail could be shut up like a fan, and the -hinged mast lowered and stowed away in a groove on -deck. Later a jib was added to the mainsail, and the -two combined gave the <i>Nautilus</i> a surface speed of two -knots an hour. She is the only submarine on record -that could go faster below the water than above it, for -her two-man-power propellor bettered this by half a knot.</p> - -<div id="ip_28" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_028.jpg" width="600" height="529" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">The <i>Nautilus</i>, Invented by Robert Fulton.</div> - - <div class="captionh j">A-B, Hull; C-D, Keel; E-E, Pumps; F, Conning Tower; G, Bulkhead; H, Propellor; -I, Vertical Rudder; L, Horizontal Rudder (diving-plane); M, -Pivot attaching horizontal to vertical rudder; N, Gear controlling horizontal -rudder; O, “Horn of the <i>Nautilus</i>;” P, Torpedo; Q, Hull of vessel attacked; -X, Anchor; Y, Mast and sail for use on surface. -</div></div> - -<p>Her method of attack was the same as the <i>Turtle’s</i>. -Up through the top of the conning-tower projected what -Fulton called the “Horn of the Nautilus.” This was -an eyeleted spike, to be driven into the bottom of a hostile -ship and left there. From a windlass carried in a water-tight -forward compartment of the submarine, a thin, -strong tow-rope ran through the eyehole in the spike to -the trigger of a flintlock inside a copper case nearly full -of gunpowder, which was not carried on deck, as on the -<i>Turtle</i>, but towed some distance astern. As soon as this -powder-case came to a full stop against the spike, the -tow-rope would pull the trigger.</p> - -<p>Robert Fulton felt the lack of a distinctive name for -such an under-water charge of explosives, till he thought -of its likeness to the electric ray, that storage battery<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30">30</a></span> -of a fish that gives a most unpleasant shock to any one -touching it. So he took the first half of this creature’s -scientific name: <i>Torpedo electricus</i>. Fulton had a knack -for picking good names. He called his submarine the -<i>Nautilus</i> because it had a sail which it opened and folded -away even as the beautiful shellfish of that name was -supposed to furl and unfurl its large, sail-like membrane.</p> - -<p>On her first trial on the Seine at Paris, in May, 1801, -the <i>Nautilus</i> remained submerged for twenty minutes -with Fulton and one other man on board, and a lighted -candle for them to navigate by. This consumed too -much air, however, so a small glass window was placed -in the conning-tower, and gave light enough instead. -Four men were then able to remain under for an hour. -After that, Fulton made the first compressed-air tank, -a copper globe containing a cubic foot of compressed -air, by drawing on which the submarine’s crew could -stay under for six hours. This was in the harbor of -Brest, where the <i>Nautilus</i> had been taken overland. A -trial attack was made on an old bulk, which was successfully -blown up. The submarine also proved its ability -either to furl its sails and dive quickly out of sight, or to -cruise for a considerable distance on the surface. Once -it sailed for seventy miles down the English Channel.</p> - -<p>Fulton had planned a submarine campaign for scaring -the British navy and merchant marine out of the narrow -seas and so bringing Great Britain to her knees, more -than a century before the German emperor proclaimed -his famous “war zone” around the British Isles. In -one of his letters to the Directory, the American inventor -declared that:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31">31</a></span> -“The enormous commerce of England, no less than its -monstrous Government, depends upon its military marine. -Should some vessels of war be destroyed by means so -novel, so hidden, and so incalculable, the confidence of -the seamen will vanish and the fleet will be rendered useless -from the moment of the first terror.”</p> - -<p>To a friend in America, Fulton wrote from Paris on -November 20, 1798:</p> - -<p>“I would ask any one if all the American difficulties -during this war are not owing to the naval systems of -Europe and a licensed robbery on the ocean? How then -is America to prevent this? Certainly not by attempting -to build a fleet to cope with the fleets of Europe, but if -possible by rendering the European fleets useless.”</p> - -<p>Fulton began his campaign by an attack on two brigs, -the nearest vessels of the English blockading fleet. But -whenever the <i>Nautilus</i> left port for this purpose, both -brigs promptly stood out to sea and remained there till -the submarine went home. Unknown to Fulton, his actions -were being closely watched by the English secret -service, whose spies were always able to send a timely -warning to the British fleet. During the day time, when -the <i>Nautilus</i> was about, the warships were kept under full -sail, with lookouts in the crosstrees watching with telescopes -for the first glimpse of its sail or conning-tower. -At night, the frigates and ships-of-the-line were guarded -by picket-boats rowing round and round them, just as -modern dreadnoughts are guarded by destroyers.</p> - -<p>Disappointed by the lack of results, the French naval -authorities refused either to let Fulton build a larger -and more efficient submarine, or to grant commissions in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32">32</a></span> -the navy to him and his crew. He wanted some assurance -that in case they were captured they would not be -hanged by the British, who then as now denounced submarine -warfare by others as little better than piracy. To -guarantee their own safety, Fulton proposed that the -French government threaten to retaliate by hanging an -equal number of English prisoners, but it was pointed out -to him that this would only lead to further executions -by the British, who had many more French prisoners of -war than there were captive Englishmen in France.</p> - -<p>Napoleon had lost faith in the submarine, nor could -Fulton interest him in a steamboat which he now built -and operated on the Seine, till it was sunk by the weight -of the machinery breaking the hull in two. So Fulton -quit France and crossed over to England, where Mr. -Pitt, the prime minister, was very much interested in his -inventions.</p> - -<p>Fulton succeeded in planting one of his torpedoes under -an old empty Danish brig, the <i>Dorothea</i>, in Deal Harbor, -in front of Walmer Castle, Pitt’s own residence, on October -15, 1805. The prime minister had had to hurry -back to London, but there were many naval officers -present, and one of them declared loudly that he would -be quite unconcerned if he were sitting at dinner at that -moment in the cabin of the <i>Dorothea</i>. Ten minutes later -the clockwork ran out and the torpedo exploded, breaking -the brig in two amidships and hurling the fragments -high in the air. The success of this experiment -was not entirely pleasing to the heads of the British navy. -Their opinion was voiced by Admiral Lord St. Vincent, -who declared that:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33">33</a></span> -“Pitt was the greatest fool that ever existed, to encourage -a mode of war which they who command the -seas did not want and which if successful would deprive -them of it.”</p> - -<div id="ip_33" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_033.jpg" width="600" height="562" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Destruction of the <i>Dorothea</i>.</p> - -<p class="smaller">From a woodcut by Robert Fulton.</p></div></div> - -<p>Six days after the destruction of the <i>Dorothea</i>, the sea-power -of France was broken by Nelson at the battle -of Trafalgar. Napoleon now gave up all hope of gaining -the few hours’ control of the Channel that would -have enabled him to invade England, and broke up the -camp of his Grand Army that had waited so long at<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34">34</a></span> -Boulogne. With this danger gone, England was no -longer interested in submarines and torpedoes. So Fulton -returned to America, to build the <i>Clairmont</i> and win -his place in history. But to him, steam navigation was -far less important than submarine warfare. In the letter -to his old friend Joel Barlow, dated New York, August -22, 1807, in which he described the first voyage of the -<i>Clairmont</i> up the Hudson, Fulton said:</p> - -<p>“However, I will not admit that it is half so important -as the torpedo system of defense or attack, for out of this -will grow the liberty of the seas—an object of infinite -importance to the welfare of America and every civilized -country. But thousands of witnesses have now seen the -steamboat in rapid movement and they believe; but they -have not seen a ship of war destroyed by a torpedo, and -they do not believe. We cannot expect people in general -to have knowledge of physics or power to reason from -cause to effect, but in case we have war and the enemy’s -ships come into our waters, if the government will give -me reasonable means of action, I will soon convince the -world that we have surer and cheaper modes of defense -than they are aware of.”</p> - -<p>Fulton had been having his troubles with the navy department. -Soon after his return to this country he had -made his usual demonstration of torpedoing a small anchored -vessel, but it was not until 1810 that he was given -the opportunity to make a test attack on a United States -warship. But stout old Commodore Rogers, who had -been entrusted with the defense of the brig <i>Argus</i>, under -which Fulton was to plant a torpedo, anchored the vessel -in shallow water, stretched a tight wall of spars and netting<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35">35</a></span> -all round her, and successfully defied the inventor -to blow her up. Even a modern destroyer or submarine -would be puzzled to get past this defense. Though compelled -to admit his failure, Fulton pointed out that “a -system then in its infancy, which compelled a hostile -vessel to guard herself by such extraordinary means, -could not fail of becoming a most important mode of warfare.”</p> - -<p>It was a great triumph for conservatism—the same -spirit of conservatism that threatens to send our navy -into its next war with no battle-cruisers, too few scouts -and sea-planes, and the slowest dreadnoughts in the world. -Though Fulton published a wonderful little book on -“Torpedo War and Submarine Explosions” in New -York in 1810, the United States navy made no use of it -in the War of 1812. A privateer submarine from Connecticut -made three dives under the British battleship -<i>Ramillies</i> off New London, but failed to attach a torpedo -for the old reason: copper sheathing. Further attacks -were prevented by the captain of the <i>Ramillies</i>, who gave -notice that he had had a number of American prisoners -placed on board as hostages. Fulton himself was hard -at work superintending the building both of the <i>Demologos</i>, -the first steam-propelled battleship, and the <i>Mute</i>, -a large armored submarine that was to carry a silent engine -and a crew of eighty men, when he died in 1815.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36">36</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV<br /> - -<span class="subhead">SUBMARINES IN THE CIVIL WAR</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> most powerful battleship in the world, half a -century ago, was the U.S.S. <i>New Ironsides</i>. She -was a wooden-hulled, ship-rigged steamer of 3486 tons -displacement—about one tenth the size of a modern -superdreadnought—her sides plated with four inches -of iron armor, and carrying twenty heavy guns. On the -night of October 5, 1863, the <i>New Ironsides</i> was on blockade -duty off Charleston Harbor, when Ensign Howard, -the officer of the deck, saw something approaching that -looked like a floating plank. He hailed it, and was answered -by a rifle ball that stretched him, mortally -wounded, on the deck. An instant later came the flash -and roar of a tremendous explosion, a column of water -shot high into the air alongside, and the <i>New Ironsides</i> -was shaken violently from stem to stern.</p> - -<p>The Confederate submarine <i>David</i> had crept up and -driven a spar-torpedo against Goliath’s armor.</p> - -<p>But except for a few splintered timbers, a flooded engine-room, -and a marine’s broken leg, no damage had -been done. As the Confederate craft was too close and -too low in the water for the broadside guns to bear, the -crew of the ironclad lined the rail and poured volley -after volley of musketry into their dimly seen adversary<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37">37</a></span> -till she drifted away into the night. Her crew of seven -men had dived overboard at the moment of impact, and -were all picked up by different vessels of the blockading -fleet, except the engineer and one other, who swam back -to the <i>David</i>, started her engine again, and brought her -safely home to Charleston.</p> - -<div id="ip_37" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_037.jpg" width="600" height="350" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Views of a Confederate <i>David</i>.</p> - -<p class="smaller">From Scharf’s History of the Confederate States Navy.</p></div></div> - -<p>The <i>David</i> was a cigar-shaped steam launch, fifty-four -feet long and six feet broad at the thickest point. Projecting -from her bow was a fifteen-foot spar, with a torpedo -charged with sixty pounds of gunpowder at the end -of it. This was exploded by the heat given off by certain -chemicals, after they were shaken up together by the impact -of the torpedo against the enemy’s ship. The <i>David</i>, -steaming at her full speed of seven knots an hour, struck -squarely against the <i>New Ironsides</i> at the water-line and -rebounded to a distance of seven or eight feet before -this clumsy detonator could do its work. When the explosion<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38">38</a></span> -came, the intervening body of water prevented it -from doing any great damage.</p> - -<p>The <i>David</i> was not a true submarine but a surface torpedo -boat, that could be submerged till only the funnel -and a small pilot-house were exposed. A number of -other <i>Davids</i> were built and operated by the Confederate -States navy, but the first of them was the only one to -accomplish anything.</p> - -<div id="ip_38" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_038.jpg" width="600" height="340" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>C. S. S. <i>Hundley</i>.</p> - -<p class="smaller">The Only Submarine to sink a Hostile Warship before the Outbreak of -the Present War.</p></div></div> - -<p>The one real submarine possessed by the Confederacy -was not a <i>David</i>, though she is usually so called. This -was the C.S.S. <i>Hundley</i>, a hand-power “diving-boat” -not unlike Fulton’s <i>Nautilus</i>, but very much clumsier and -harder to manage. She had ballast tanks and a pair -of diving-planes for steering her up and down, and she -was designed to attack an enemy’s ship by swimming -under it, towing a torpedo that would explode on striking -her opponent’s keel.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39">39</a></span> -The <i>Hundley</i> was built at Mobile, Alabama, by the -firm of Hundley and McKlintock, named for the senior -partner, and brought to Charleston on a flatcar. There -she was manned by a crew of nine volunteers, eight of -whom sat in a row and turned the cranks on the propellor-shaft, -while the ninth man steered. There was no -conning-tower and the forward hatchway had to be left -open for the helmsman to look out of while running on -the surface. On the <i>Hundley’s</i> first practice cruise, the -wash from the paddle-wheels of a passing steamer poured -suddenly down the open hatchway. Only the steersman -and commanding officer, Lieutenant Payne, had time to -save himself before the submarine sank, drowning the -rest of her crew.</p> - -<p>The boat was raised and Payne took her out with a -new crew. This time a sudden squall sank her before -they could close the hatches, and Payne escaped, with two -of his men. He tried a third time, only to be capsized -off Fort Sumter, with the loss of four of his crew. On -the fourth trip, the hatches were closed, the tanks filled, -and an attempt was made to navigate beneath the surface. -But the <i>Hundley</i> dived too suddenly, stuck her nose deep -into the muddy bottom, and stayed there till her entire -crew were suffocated. On the fifth trial she became entangled -in the cable of an anchored vessel, with the same -result.</p> - -<p>By this time the submarine’s victims numbered thirty-five, -and the Confederates had nicknamed her the “Peripatetic -Coffin.” But at the sixth call for volunteers, they -still came forward. It was decided to risk no more lives -on practice trips but to attack at once. In spite of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40">40</a></span> -protests of Mr. Hundley, the designer of the craft, her -latest and last commander, Lieutenant Dixon of the 21st -South Carolina Infantry, was ordered by General Beauregard -to use the vessel as a surface torpedo-boat, submerged -to the hatch-coaming and with the hatches open. -A spar-torpedo, to be exploded by pulling a trigger with -a light line running back into the boat, was mounted on the -bow. Thus armed, and manned by Lieutenant Dixon, -Captain Carlson, and five enlisted men of their regiment, -the little <i>Hundley</i> put out over Charleston bar on the -night of February 17, 1864, to attack some vessel of -the blockading fleet. This proved to be the U.S.S. -<i>Housatonic</i>, a fine new thirteen-gun corvette of 1264 -tons. What followed is best described by Admiral -David Porter in his “Naval History of the Civil War.”</p> - -<p>“At about 8.45 <span class="smcap smaller">P.M.</span>, the officer of the deck on board -the unfortunate vessel discovered something about 100 -yards away, moving along the water. It came directly -towards the ship, and within two minutes of the time it -was first sighted was alongside. The cable was slipped, -the engines backed, and all hands called to quarters. But -it was too late—the torpedo struck the <i>Housatonic</i> just -forward of the mainmast, on the starboard side, on a line -with the magazine. The man who steered her (the -<i>Hundley</i>) knew where the vital spots of the steamer were -and he did his work well. When the explosion took place -the ship trembled all over as if by the shock of an earthquake, -and seemed to be lifted out of the water, and then -sank stern-foremost, heeling to port as she went -down.”</p> - -<p>The <i>Hundley</i> was not seen after the explosion, and it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41">41</a></span> -was supposed that she had backed away and escaped. -But when peace came, and Charleston Harbor was being -cleared of the wrecks with which war had clogged it, the -divers sent down to inspect the <i>Housatonic</i> found the -<i>Hundley</i> lying beside her. Sucked in by the rush of the -water through the hole her torpedo had made, she had -been caught and dragged down by her own victim. All -the <i>Hundley’s</i> crew were found dead within her. So -perished the first and last submarine to sink a hostile warship, -before the outbreak of the present war. A smaller -underwater boat of the same type was privately built at -New Orleans at the beginning of the war, lost on her trial -trip, and not brought up again till after peace was declared.</p> - -<p>The North had a hand-power submarine, that was built -at the Georgetown Navy Yard in 1862. It was designed -by a Frenchman, whose name is now forgotten but who -might have been a contemporary of Cornelius Van Drebel. -Except that its hull was of steel instead of wood and -greased leather, this first submarine of the United States -navy was no better than an eel-boat of the seventeenth -century. It was propelled by eight pairs of oars, with -hinged blades that folded up like a book on the return -stroke. The boat was thirty-five feet long and six in -diameter, and was rowed by sixteen men. It was submerged -by flooding ballast tanks. There was an oxygen -tank and an apparatus for purifying the used air by blowing -it over lime. A spar-torpedo was to be run out on -rollers in the bow.</p> - -<p>Ten thousand dollars was paid to the inventor of this -medieval leftover, and he prudently left the country before<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42">42</a></span> -he could be called on to operate it, though he had -been promised a reward of five thousand dollars for every -Confederate ironclad he succeeded in blowing up. Like -the first <i>Monitor</i>, this nameless submarine was lost in -a storm off Cape Hatteras, while being towed by a -steamer.</p> - -<p>After the loss of the <i>Housatonic</i>, the North built two -semi-submersible steam torpedo-boats on the same idea -as the <i>David</i>, but larger and faster. Both were armed -with spar-torpedoes and fitted with ballast tanks to sink -them very low in the water when they attacked. The -smaller of the two, the <i>Stromboli</i>, could be submerged -till only her pilot-house, smoke-stack, and one ventilator -showed above the water. The other boat was called the -<i>Spuyten Duyvil</i>. She could be sunk till her deck, which -was covered with three inches of iron armor, was level -with the water, but she bristled with masts, funnels, conning-towers, -ventilators, and other excrescences that -sprouted out of her hull at the most unexpected places. -Neither of these craft was ever used in action.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43">43</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE WHITEHEAD TORPEDO</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">How</span> best to float a charge of explosives against the -hull of an enemy’s ship and there explode it is the -great problem of torpedo warfare. The spar-torpedo, -that did such effective work in the Civil War, was little -more than a can of gunpowder on the end of a stick. -This stick or spar was mounted usually on the bow of a -steam-launch, either partially submerged, like the <i>David</i>, -or boldly running on the surface over log-booms and -through a hail of bullets and grapeshot, as when Lieutenant -Cushing sank the Confederate ironclad <i>Albemarle</i>. -Once alongside, the spar-torpedo was run out to its full -length, raised, depressed, and finally fired by pulling different -ropes. So small was the chance of success and so -great the danger to the launch’s crew that naval officers -and inventors all the world over sought constantly for -some surer and safer way.</p> - -<p>Early in the sixties, an Austrian artillery officer attached -to the coast defenses conceived the idea of sending -out the launch without a crew. He made some drawings -of a big toy boat, to be driven by steam or hot air or even -by clockwork, and steered from the shore by long ropes. -As it would have no crew, this boat could carry the explosives -in its hull, and the spars which were to project -from it in all directions would carry no torpedoes themselves<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44">44</a></span> -but would serve to explode the boat’s cargo of -guncotton by firing a pistol into it, as soon as one of the -spars came into contact with the target. Before he could -carry out his ideas any further, this officer died and his -plans were turned over to Captain Lupuis of the Austrian -navy. Lupuis experimented diligently with surface -torpedoes till 1864, but found that he would have to discover -some better steering-device than ropes from the -shore and some other motive-power than steam or clockwork. -So he consulted with Mr. Whitehead, the English -manager of a firm of engine manufacturers at the seaport -of Fiume.</p> - -<p>Whitehead gave the torpedo a fish-shaped hull, so that -it could run beneath instead of on the surface. For motive-power -he used compressed air, which proved much -superior to either steam or clockwork. And by improving -its rudders, he enabled the little craft to keep its course -without the aid of guide-ropes from the shore. The chief -defect of the first Whitehead torpedoes, which were finished -and tried in 1866, was that they kept bobbing to the -surface, or else they would dive too deep and pass harmlessly -under the target. To correct this defect, Whitehead -invented by 1868 what he called the “balance chamber.” -Then, as now, each torpedo was divided into a -number of separate compartments or chambers, and in -one of these the inventor placed a most ingenious device -for keeping the torpedo at a uniform depth. The contents -of the balance-chamber was Whitehead’s great secret, -and it was not revealed to the public for twenty years.</p> - -<p>The automobile or, as it was then called, the “submarine -locomotive” torpedo was now a practicable,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45">45</a></span> -though by no means perfected, weapon, and the Austrian -naval authorities gave it a thorough trial at Fiume in -1868. Whitehead rigged up a crude ejecting tube on the -bow of a gunboat, and successfully discharged two of -his torpedoes at a yacht. The Austrian government -promptly adopted the weapon, but could not obtain a -monopoly of it, for Whitehead was a patriotic Englishman. -The British admiralty invited him to England two -years later, and after careful trials of its own, induced the -English government to buy Whitehead’s secret and manufacturing -rights for $45,000. Other nations soon added -“Whiteheads” to their navies, and in 1873 there was -built in Norway a large, fast steam launch for the express -purpose of carrying torpedoes and discharging them -at an enemy. Every one began to build larger and -swifter launches, till they evolved the torpedo-boat and -the destroyer of to-day.</p> - -<p>The torpedo itself has undergone a similar development -in size and efficiency. The difference between the Whiteheads -of forty-five years ago and those of to-day is strikingly -shown in the following table:</p> - -<table id="torpedosizes" class="intact p1 b1" summary="Torpedo sizes"> - <tr> - <td class="tdc b1" colspan="6"><span class="smcap">British Naval Torpedoes of 1870</span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdc"><i>Length,<br />Feet</i></td> - <td class="tdc"><i>Diameter,<br />Inches</i></td> - <td class="tdc"><i>Charge,<br />Pounds</i></td> - <td class="tdc"><i>Range,<br />Yards</i></td> - <td class="tdc"><i>Speed,<br />Knots</i></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Large</td> - <td class="tdc">14</td> - <td class="tdc">16</td> - <td class="tdc">67<br />guncotton</td> - <td class="tdc">600</td> - <td class="tdc">7.5</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Small</td> - <td class="tdl intorp">13 10.58 in.</td> - <td class="tdc">14</td> - <td class="tdc">18<br />dynamite</td> - <td class="tdc">200</td> - <td class="tdc">8.5</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc p1 b1" colspan="6"><span class="smcap">British Naval Torpedoes of 1915</span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Large</td> - <td class="tdc">21</td> - <td class="tdc">21</td> - <td class="tdc">330<br />guncotton</td> - <td class="tdc">12,000</td> - <td class="tdc">48</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Small</td> - <td class="tdc">18</td> - <td class="tdc">18</td> - <td class="tdc">200<br />guncotton</td> - <td class="tdc">16,000</td> - <td class="tdc">36</td></tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46">46</a></span> -The length of a large modern torpedo, it will be observed, -is only three inches less than that of Fulton’s -famous submarine boat of 1801. A Whitehead torpedo -is really a small automatic submarine, steered and controlled -by the most ingenious and sensitive machinery, -as surely as if it were manned by a crew of Lilliputian -seamen.</p> - -<p>Projecting from the head is the “striker,” a rod which, -when the torpedo runs into anything hard, is driven back -in against a detonator or “percussion-cap” of fulminate -of mercury. Just as the hammer of a toy “cap-pistol” -explodes a paper cap, so the sudden shock of the in-driven -striker explodes the fulminate, which is instantly expanded -to more than two thousand times its former size. -This, in turn, gives a severe blow to the surrounding -“primer” of dry guncotton. The primer is exploded, -and by its own expansion sets off the main charge of several -hundred pounds of wet guncotton.</p> - -<p>The reason for this is that though wet guncotton is -safe to handle because a very great shock is required -to make it explode, dry guncotton is much less so, while a -shell or torpedo filled with fulminate of mercury would -be more dangerous to its owners than to their enemies, -because the slightest jar might set it off prematurely. -Every precaution is taken to prevent a torpedo’s exploding -too soon and damaging the vessel from which it -is fired.</p> - -<p>When the torpedo is shot out of the tube, by compressed -air, like a pea from a pea-shooter, the striker is -held fast by the “jammer”: a small propellor-shaped -collar, whose blades begin to revolve as soon as they<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47">47</a></span> -strike the water, till the collar has unscrewed itself and -dropped off after the torpedo has traveled about forty -feet. A copper pin that runs through the striker-rod -is not removed but must be broken short off by a blow -of considerable violence, such as would be given by running -into a ship’s hull. As a third safeguard, there is a -strong safety-catch, that must be released by hand, just -before the torpedo is placed in the tube.</p> - -<p>The explosive charge of two or three hundred pounds -of wet guncotton is called the “war-head.” In peace and -for target-practice it is replaced by a dummy head of -thick steel. The usual target is the space between two -buoys moored a ship’s length or less apart. At the end -of a practice run, the torpedo rises to the surface, where -it can be recovered and used again. This is distinctly -worth while, for a modern torpedo costs more than seven -thousand dollars.</p> - -<p>Back of the war-head is the air-chamber, that contains -the motive-power of this miniature submarine. The air -is either packed into it by powerful pumps, on shore -or shipboard, or else drawn from one of the storage -flasks of compressed air, a number of which are carried -on every submarine. The air-chamber of a modern -torpedo is charged at a pressure of from 2000 to 2500 -pounds per square inch. As the torpedo leaves the tube, -a lever on its back is struck and knocked over by a -little projecting piece of metal, and the starting-valve -of the air-chamber is opened. But if the compressed air -were allowed to reach and start the engines at once, they -would begin to revolve the propellors while they were -still in the air inside the tube. This would cause the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48">48</a></span> -screws to “race,” or spin round too rapidly and perhaps -break off. So there is a “delaying-valve,” which keeps -the air away from the engines till another valve-lever is -swung over by the impact of the water against a little -metal flap.</p> - -<p>As the compressed air rushes through the pipe from the -chamber to the engine-room, it passes through a “reducing-valve,” -which keeps it from spurting at the start -and lagging at the finish. By supplying the air to the -engines at a reduced but uniform pressure, this device -enables the torpedo to maintain the same speed throughout -the run. At the same time the compressed air is -heated by a small jet of burning oil, with a consequent -increase in pressure, power, and speed, estimated at 30 -per cent. All these devices are kept not in the air-chamber -itself but in the next compartment, the balance-chamber.</p> - -<p>Here is the famous little machine, once a close-kept -secret but now known to all the world, that holds the -torpedo at any desired depth. Think of a push-button, -working in a tube open to the sea, with the water pressure -pushing the button in and a spiral spring inside -shoving it out. This push-button—called a “hydrostatic -valve”—is connected by a system of levers with -the two diving-planes or horizontal rudders that steer -the torpedo up or down. By turning a screw, the spring -can be adjusted to exert a force equal to the pressure of -the water at any given depth. If the torpedo dives too -deep, the increased water-pressure forces in the valve, -moves the levers, raises the diving-planes, and steers the -torpedo towards the surface. As the water pressure<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49">49</a></span> -grows less, the spring forces out the valve, depresses -the diving-planes, and brings the miniature submarine -down to its proper depth again. When his torpedoes -grew too big to be controlled by the comparatively feeble -force exerted by the hydrostatic valve, Whitehead invented -the “servo-motor”: an auxiliary, compressed-air -engine, less than five inches long, sensitive enough to -respond to the slightest movement of the valve levers but -strong enough to steer the largest torpedo, exactly as the -steam steering-gear moves the huge rudder of an ocean -liner.</p> - -<p>There is also a heavy pendulum, swinging fore and aft -and attached to the diving-planes, that checks any sudden -up-or-down movement of the torpedo by inclining -the planes and restoring the horizontal position.</p> - -<p>Next comes the engine-room, with its three-cylinder -motor, capable of developing from thirty-five to fifty-five -horse-power. The exhaust air from the engine passes -out through the stern in a constant stream of bubbles, -leaving a broad white streak on the surface of the water -as the torpedo speeds to its mark.</p> - -<p>The aftermost compartment is called the buoyancy -chamber. Besides adding to the floatability of the torpedo, -this space also holds the engine shaft and the gear -attaching it to the twin propellors. The first Whiteheads -were single-screw boats. But the revolution of -the propellor in one direction set up a reaction that caused -the torpedo itself to partially revolve or heel over in the -other, disturbing its rudders and swerving it from its -course. This reaction is neutralized by using two propellers, -one revolving to the right, the other to the left.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50">50</a></span> -Instead of being placed side by side, as on a steamer, they -are mounted one behind the other, with the shaft of one -revolving inside the hollow shaft of the other, and in the -opposite direction.</p> - -<p>Long after they could be depended on to keep a proper -depth, the Whiteheads and other self-propelled torpedoes -were liable to swing suddenly to port or starboard, or -even turn completely round. During the war between -Chile and Peru, in 1879, the Peruvian ironclad <i>Huascar</i> -discharged an automobile torpedo that went halfway to -the target, changed its mind, and was coming back to blow -up its owners when an officer swam out to meet it and -succeeded in turning it aside, for the torpedoes of that -time were slow and small as well as erratic.</p> - -<p>Nowadays a torpedo is kept on a straight course by a -gyroscope placed in the buoyancy chamber. Nearly -every boy knows the gyroscopic top, like a little flywheel, -that you can spin on the edge of a tumbler. The upper -part of this toy is a heavy little metal wheel, and if you -try to push it over while it is spinning, it resists and -pushes back, as if it were alive. A similar wheel, weighing -about two pounds, is placed in the buoyancy chamber -of a Whitehead. When the torpedo starts, it releases -either a powerful spring or an auxiliary compressed air -engine that sets the gyroscope to spinning at more than -two thousand revolutions a minute. It revolves vertically, -in the fore-and-aft line of the torpedo, and is -mounted on a pivoted stand. If the torpedo deviates -from its straight course, the gyroscope does not, and the -consequent change in their relative positions brings the -flywheel into contact with a lever running to the servo-motor -that controls the two vertical rudders, which soon -set the torpedo right again.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51">51</a></span></p> - -<div id="ip_51" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_051.jpg" width="600" height="384" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Cross-section of a Whitehead Torpedo.<br /> - <span class="smaller">Redrawn from the Illustrated London News.</span></div> - -<div class="captionh j">A, Striker which, when driven in, fires the charge; B, Safety pin, which is removed just before the torpedo is discharged; C, -Detonating charge; D, Explosive-head, or war-head; filled with guncotton; E, Primer charge of dry guncotton in cylinder; -F, Balance chamber; G, Starting pin; H, Buoyancy chamber; I, Propellor shaft; J, Vertical rudder; K, Twin screws; L, -Horizontal rudder; M, Gyroscope controlling torpedo’s course; N, Engines propelling machinery; O, Pendulum acting on -the horizontal rudder which controls the depth of submergence; P, Hydrostatic valve; Q, Air-chamber, filled with compressed -air; provides motive-power for the engines; R, “Jammer” or release propellor.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52">52</a></span> -Thus guided and driven, a modern torpedo speeds -swiftly and surely to its target, there to blow itself into -a thousand pieces, with a force sufficient to sink a ship -a thousand times its size.</p> - -<p>The Whitehead is used by every navy in the world -except the German, which has its own torpedo: the -“Schwartzkopf.” This, however, is practically identical -with the Whitehead, except that its hull is made of bronze -instead of steel and its war-head is charged with trinitrotuluol, -or T.N.T., a much more powerful explosive -than guncotton.</p> - -<p>After the Russo-Japanese War, when several Russian -battleships kept afloat although they had been struck by -Japanese torpedoes, many naval experts declared that an -exploding war-head spent most of its energy in throwing -a great column of water up into the air, instead of blowing -in the side of the ship. So Commander Davis of the -United States navy invented his “gun-torpedo.” This -is like a Whitehead in every respect except that instead -of a charge of guncotton it carries in its head a short -eight-inch cannon loaded with an armor-piercing shell -and a small charge of powder. In this type of torpedo, -the impact of the striker against the target serves to fire -the gun. The shell then passes easily through the thin -side of the ship below the armor-belt and through any -protecting coal-bunkers and bulkheads it may encounter, -till it reaches the ship’s vitals, where it is exploded by the -delayed action of an adjustable time-fuse. What would -happen if it burst in a magazine or boiler-room is best<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53">53</a></span> -left to the imagination. Several Davis gun-torpedoes -have been built and used against targets with very satisfactory -results, but they have not yet been used in actual -warfare.</p> - -<div id="ip_53" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_053.jpg" width="600" height="401" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Courtesy of the Electric Boat Company.</div> - <div class="caption">Davis Gun-Torpedo after discharge, showing eight-inch gun forward -of air-flask.</div></div> - -<p>Mr. Edward F. Chandler, M.E., one of the foremost -torpedo-experts in America, is dissatisfied with the compressed-air -driven gyroscope, both because it does not -begin to revolve till after the torpedo has been launched -and perhaps deflected from its true course, and because -it cannot be made to spin continuously throughout the -long run of a modern torpedo. He proposes to remove -the compressed-air servo-motors, both for this purpose -and for controlling the horizontal rudders by the hydrostatic -valve, and replace them with an electrical-driven -gyroscope and depth-gear. The increased efficiency of -the latter would enable him to get rid of the heavy, uncertain<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54">54</a></span> -pendulum, thus allowing for the weight of the -storage batteries. Mr. Chandler declares that his electrically-controlled -torpedo can be lowered over the side -of a small boat, headed in any desired direction, and -started, without any launching-tube.<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">9</a></p> - -<div id="ip_54" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_054.jpg" width="600" height="419" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Courtesy of the Electric Boat Company.</div> - <div class="caption">Effect of Davis Gun-Torpedo on a specially-constructed target.</div></div> - -<p>Though the automobile torpedo has been brought to so -high a state of perfection, the original idea of steering -from the shore has not been abandoned. The Brennan -and Sims-Edison controllable torpedoes were driven and -steered by electricity, receiving the current through wires -trailed astern and carrying little masts and flags above the -surface to guide the operator on shore. But these also -served as a warning to the enemy and gave him too good -a chance either to avoid the torpedo or destroy it with -machine-gun fire. Then, too, the trailing wires reduced<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55">55</a></span> -its speed and were always liable to get tangled in the -propellors. Controllable torpedoes of this type were -abandoned before the outbreak of the present war and -will probably never be used in action.</p> - -<p>A new and more promising sort of controllable torpedo -was immediately suggested by the invention of wireless -telegraphy. Many inventors have been working to perfect -such a weapon, and a young American engineer, Mr. -John Hays Hammond, Jr., seems to have succeeded. -From his wireless station on shore, Mr. Hammond can -make a small, crewless electric launch run hither and yon -as he pleases about the harbor of Gloucester, Massachusetts. -The commander and many of the officers of the -United States coast artillery corps have carefully inspected -and tested this craft, which promises to be the -forerunner of a new and most formidable species of -coast defense torpedo.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56">56</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI<br /> - -<span class="subhead">FREAKS AND FAILURES</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">During</span> the half-century following the death of Fulton, -scarcely a year went by without the designing -or launching of a new man-power submarine. Some of -these boats, notably those of the Bavarian Wilhelm Bauer, -were surprisingly good, others were most amazingly bad, -but none of them led to anything better. Inventor after -inventor wasted his substance discovering what Van -Drebel, Bushnell, and Fulton had known before him, -only to die and have the same facts painfully rediscovered -by some one on the other side of the earth.</p> - -<p>A striking example of this lack of progress is Halstead’s -<i>Intelligent Whale</i>. Built for the United States -navy at New York, in the winter of 1864–5, this craft is -no more modern and much less efficient than Fulton’s -<i>Nautilus</i> of 1801. The <i>Intelligent Whale</i> is a fat, cigar-shaped, -iron vessel propelled by a screw cranked by manpower -and submerged by dropping two heavy anchors to -the bottom and then warping the boat down to any desired -depth. A diver can then emerge from a door in the -submarine’s bottom, to place a mine under a hostile ship. -It was not until 1872 that the <i>Intelligent Whale</i> was sent -on a trial trip in Newark Bay. Manned by an utterly inexperienced -and very nervous crew, the clumsy submarine -got entirely out of control and had to be hauled up by a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57">57</a></span> -cable that had been thoughtfully attached to her before -she went down. Fortunately no lives had been lost, -but the wildest stories were told and printed, till the -imaginary death-roll ran up to forty-nine. The <i>Intelligent -Whale</i> was hauled up on dry land and can still -be seen on exhibition at the corner of Third Street and -Perry Avenue in the Brooklyn Navy Yard.</p> - -<p>Lack of motive-power was the reason why man-sized -submarines lagged behind their little automatic brethren, -the Whitehead torpedoes. Compressed air was just the -thing for a spurt, but when two Frenchmen, Captain -Bourgois and M. Brun, built the <i>Plongeur</i>, a steel submarine -146 feet long and 12 feet in diameter, at Rochefort -in 1863, and fitted it with an eighty-horse-power, -compressed-air engine, they discovered that the storage-flasks -emptied themselves too quickly to permit a voyage -of any length.</p> - -<p>The <i>Plongeur</i> also proved that while you can sink a -boat to the bottom by filling her ballast-tanks or make -her rise to the surface by emptying them, you cannot -make her float suspended between two bodies of water -except by holding her there by some mechanical means. -Without anything of the kind, the <i>Plongeur</i> kept bouncing -up and down like a rubber ball. Once her inventors navigated -her horizontally for some distance, only to find -that she had been sliding on her stomach along the soft -muddy bottom of a canal. Better results were obtained -after the <i>Plongeur</i> was fitted with a crude pair of diving-planes. -But the inefficiency of her compressed-air engine -caused her to be condemned and turned into a water -tank.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58">58</a></span></p> - -<div id="ip_58" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_058.jpg" width="600" height="217" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>The <i>Intelligent Whale</i>.</p> - <p class="smaller">Drawn by Lieutenant F. M. Barber, U. S. N., in 1875.</p></div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59">59</a></span> -Electricity was first applied in 1861 by another Frenchman, -named Olivier Riou. This is the ideal motive-power -for underwater boats, and it was at this time that -Jules Verne described the ideal submarine in his immortal -story of “Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea.” -But before we can have a <i>Nautilus</i> like Captain Nemo’s -we must discover an electric storage battery of unheard-of -lightness and capacity.</p> - -<div id="ip_59" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_059.jpg" width="600" height="239" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><i>Le Plongeur.</i></div></div> - -<p>There was a great revival of French interest in electric -submarines after Admiral Aube, who was a lifelong -submarine “fan,” became minister of marine in 1886. -In spite of much ridicule and opposition, he authorized -the construction of a small experimental vessel of this -type called the <i>Gymnote</i>. She was a wild little thing -that did everything short of turning somersaults when she -dived, but she was enough of a success to be followed by -a larger craft named, after the great engineer who had -designed her predecessor, the <i>Gustave Zédé</i>.</p> - -<p>“The history of the <i>Gustave Zédé</i> shows how much -in earnest the French were in the matter of submarines. -When she was first launched she was a failure in almost<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60">60</a></span> -every respect, and it was only after some years, during -which many alterations and improvements were carried -out, that she became a serviceable craft. At first nothing -would induce the <i>Gustave Zédé</i> to quit the surface, -and when at last she did plunge she did it so effectually -that she went down to the bottom in 10 fathoms of water -at an angle of 30 degrees. The committee of engineers -were on board at the time, and it speaks well for their -patriotism that they did not as a result of their unpleasant -experience condemn the <i>Gustave Zédé</i> and advise the -government to spend no more money on submarine -craft.”<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">10</a></p> - -<p>Twenty-nine other electric submarines were built for -the French navy between 1886 and 1901. During the -same period, a French gentleman named M. Goubet -built and experimented with two very small electric submarines, -each of which was manned by two men, who sat -back to back on a sort of settee stuffed with machinery. -Little or big, all these French boats had the same fatal -defect: lack of power. Their storage batteries, called on -to propel them above, as well as below, the surface, became -exhausted after a few hours’ cruising. They were -as useless for practical naval warfare as an electric run-about -would be to haul guns or carry supplies in Flanders.</p> - -<p>But if compressed-air and electricity were too quickly -exhausted, gasoline or petroleum was even less practicable -for submarine navigation. To set an oil-engine, that -derives its power from the explosion of a mixture of -oil-vapor and air, at work in a small closed space like the -interior of a submarine, would soon make it uninhabitable.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61">61</a></span> -While Mr. Holland was puzzling how to overcome -this difficulty, in the middle eighties, a Swedish inventor -named Nordenfeldt was building submarines to be run by -steam-power.</p> - -<p>Mr. Nordenfeldt, who is remembered to-day as the inventor -of the famous gun that bears his name, had taken -up the idea of an English clergyman named Garett, who -in 1878 had built a submarine called the <i>Resurgam</i>, or -“I Shall Rise.” Garett’s second boat, built a year later, -had a steam-engine. When the vessel was submerged, -the smoke-stack was closed by a sliding panel, the furnace -doors were shut tight, and the engine run by the steam -given off by a big tank full of bottled-up hot water. -Nordenfeldt improved this system till his hot-water tanks -gave off enough steam to propel his boat beneath the surface -for a distance of fourteen miles.</p> - -<p>He also rediscovered and patented Bushnell’s device -for submerging a boat by pushing it straight down and -holding it under with a vertical propellor. His first submarine -had two of these, placed in sponsons or projections -on either side of the center of the hull. The Nordenfeldt -boats, with their cigar-shaped hulls and projecting -smoke-stacks, looked like larger editions of the -Civil War <i>Davids</i>, and like them, could be submerged by -taking in water-ballast till only a strip of deck with the -funnel and conning-tower projected above the surface. -Then the vertical propellors would begin to revolve and -force the boat straight down on an even keel. Mr. Nordenfeldt -insisted with great earnestness that this was the -only safe and proper way to submerge a submarine. If -you tried to steer it downward with any kind of driving-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62">62</a></span>planes, -he declared, then the boat was liable to keep on -descending, before you could pull its head up, till it either -struck the bottom or was crushed in by the pressure of -too great a depth of water. There was a great deal of -truth in this, but Mr. Nordenfeldt failed to realize that -if one of his vertical propellors pushed only a little harder -than the other, then the keel of his own submarine was -going to be anything but even.</p> - -<div id="ip_62" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_062.jpg" width="600" height="448" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Steam Submarine <i>Nordenfeldt II</i>, at Constantinople, 1887. Observe -vertical-acting propellors on deck.</p> - -<p class="smaller">Reproduced from “Submarine Navigation, Past and Present” by Alan -H. Burgoyne, by permission of E. P. Dutton & Company.</p></div></div> - -<p>The first Nordenfeldt boat was launched in 1886 and -bought by Greece, after a fairly successful trial in the -Bay of Salamis. Two larger and more powerful submarines: -<i>Nordenfeldt II</i> and <i>III</i>, were promptly ordered<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63">63</a></span> -by Greece’s naval rival Turkey. Each of these was 125 -feet long, or nearly twice the length of the Greek boat, -and each carried its two vertical propellors on deck, one -forward and the other aft. Both boats were shipped in -sections to Constantinople in 1887, but only <i>Nordenfeldt -II</i> was put together and tried. She was one of the -first submarines to be armed with a bow torpedo-tube for -discharging Whiteheads, and as a surface torpedo-boat, -she was a distinct success. But when they tried to navigate -her under water there was a circus.</p> - -<p>No sooner did one of the crew take two steps forward -in the engine-room than down went the bow. The hot -water in the boilers and the cold water in the ballast-tanks -ran downhill, increasing the slant still further. -English engineers, Turkish sailors, monkey-wrenches, hot -ashes, Whitehead torpedoes, and other movables came -tumbling after, till the submarine was nearly standing -on her head, with everything inside packed into the bow -like toys in the toe of a Christmas stocking. The little -vertical propellors pushed and pulled and the crew clawed -their way aft, till suddenly up came her head, down went -her tail, and everything went gurgling and clattering -down to the other end. <i>Nordenfeldt II</i> was a perpetual -see-saw, and no mortal power could keep her on an even -keel. Once they succeeded in steadying her long enough -to fire a torpedo. Where it went to, no man can tell, -but the sudden lightening of the bow and the recoil of -the discharge made the submarine rear up and sit down -so hard that she began to sink stern-foremost. The -water was blown out of her ballast tanks by steam-pressure, -and the main engine started full speed ahead, till<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64">64</a></span> -she shot up to the surface like a flying-fish. The Turkish -naval authorities, watching the trials from the shores of -the Golden Horn, were so impressed by these antics that -they bought the boat. But it was impossible to keep a -crew on her, for every native engineer or seaman who -was sent on board prudently deserted on the first dark -night. So the <i>Nordenfeldt II</i> rusted away till she fell -to pieces, long before the Allied fleets began the forcing -of the Dardanelles.</p> - -<p>Fantastic though their performances seem to us to-day, -these submarines represent the best work of some of -the most capable inventors and naval engineers of the -nineteenth century. With them deserve to be mentioned -the boats of the Russian Drzewiecki and the Spaniard -Peral. Failures though they were, they taught the world -many valuable lessons about the laws controlling the actions -of submerged bodies.</p> - -<div id="ip_65" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_065.jpg" width="600" height="330" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Bauer’s Submarine Concert, Cronstadt Harbor, 1855. See <a href="#Footnote_17">footnote</a>, page <a href="#Page_120">120</a></p> - -<p class="smaller">An original drawing by the author, Alan H. Burgoyne; reproduced from “Submarine Navigation, Past and Present,” -by permission of E. P. Dutton & Company.</p></div></div> - -<p>But many of the underwater craft invented between -1850 and 1900 can be classified only as freaks. Most of -them, fortunately, were designed but never built, and -those that were launched miraculously refrained from -drowning any of their crews. There were submarines -armed with steam-driven gimlets: the</p> - -<div class="poem-container"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i32">“nimble tail,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Made like an auger, with which tail she wriggles,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Betwixt the ribs of a ship and sinks it straight,”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p class="in0">that Ben Jonson playfully ascribed to Van Drebel. Dr. -Lacomme, in 1869, proposed a submarine railroad from -Calais to Dover, with tracks laid on the bottom of the -Channel and cars that could cast off their wheels and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65">65</a><a class="hidev" id="Page_66">66</a></span> -rise to the surface in case of accident. Lieutenant André -Constantin designed, during the siege of Paris, a boat to -be submerged by drawing in pistons working in large -cylinders open to the water. A vessel was actually built -on this principle in England in 1888, and submerged in -Tilbury Docks, where the soft mud at the bottom choked -the cylinders so that the pistons could not be driven out -again and the boat was brought up with considerable difficulty. -Two particularly delirious inventors claimed -that their submarines could also be used as dirigible balloons. -Boucher’s underwater boat of 1886 was to have -gills like a fish, so that it need never rise to the surface -for air, and was further adorned with spring-buffers on -the bottom, oars, a propellor under the center of the -keel, and a movable tail for sculling the vessel forward. -There were submarines with paddle-wheels, submarines -with fins, and submarines with wings. A Venezuelan -dentist, Señor Lacavalerier, invented a double-hulled, -cigar-shaped boat, whose outer hull was threaded like -a screw, and by revolving round the fixed inner hull, -bored its way through the water. But he had been anticipated -and outdone by Apostoloff, a Russian, who not -only designed a submarine on the same principle but intended -it to carry a large cabin suspended on davits above -the surface of the water, and declared that his vessel -would cross the Atlantic at an average speed of 111 -knots an hour.</p> - -<div id="ip_67" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_067.jpg" width="600" height="400" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Apostoloff’s Proposed Submarine.</p> - -<p class="smaller">An original drawing by the author, Alan H. Burgoyne; reproduced from “Submarine Navigation, Past and Present,” -by permission of E. P. Dutton & Company.</p></div></div> - -<p>As late as 1898 the Spanish government, neglecting -the promising little electric boat built ten years before -by Señor Peral, was experimenting with two highly -impossible submarines, one of which was to be propelled<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67">67</a><a class="hidev" id="Page_68">68</a></span> -by a huge clock-spring, while the other was perfectly -round. Needless to say, neither the sphere nor the toy -boat ever encountered the American fleet.</p> - -<p>At the same time, the United States government declined -to accept the war services of the already practicable -boats of the two American inventors who were -about to usher in the present era of submarine warfare: -Simon Lake and John P. Holland.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69">69</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII<br /> - -<span class="subhead">JOHN P. HOLLAND</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">When</span> the <i>Merrimac</i> rammed the <i>Cumberland</i>, -burned the <i>Congress</i>, and was fought to a standstill -next day by the little <i>Monitor</i>, all the world realized -that there had been a revolution in naval warfare. The -age of the wooden warship was gone forever, the day -of the ironclad had come. And a twenty-year-old Irish -school-teacher began to wonder what would be the next -revolution; what new craft might be invented that would -dethrone the ironclad. This young Irishman’s name was -John P. Holland, and he decided to devote his life to the -perfection of the submarine.</p> - -<p>Like Robert Fulton, Admiral Von Tirpitz, and the -Frenchman who built the <i>Rotterdam Boat</i> in 1652, Holland -relied on submarines to break the power of the -British fleet. Though born a British subject, in the little -village of Liscannor, County Clare in the year 1842, he -had seen too many of his fellow countrymen starved to -death or driven into exile not to hate the stupid tyranny -that characterized England’s rule of Ireland in those bitter, -far-off days. He longed for the day of Ireland’s independence, -and that day seemed to be brought much -nearer by the American Civil War. Not only had many -thousand brave Irish-Americans become trained veterans<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70">70</a></span> -but Great Britain and the United States had been brought -to the verge of war by the sinking of American ships -by the <i>Alabama</i> and other British-built, Confederate -commerce-destroyers. When that Anglo-American war -broke out, there would be an army ready to come over and -free Ireland—if only the troublesome British navy could -be put out of the way. And already the English were -launching ironclad after ironclad to replace their now -useless steam-frigates and ships-of-the-line. It is no use -trying to outbuild or outfight the British navy above -water, and John P. Holland realized this in 1862, as several -kings and emperors have, before or since.</p> - -<div id="ip_70" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_070.jpg" width="600" height="186" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>The <i>Holland No. 1</i>. Designed to carry a torpedo and fix it to the -bottom of a ship, on the general principle of Bushnell’s <i>Turtle</i>.</p> - -<p class="smaller">Drawn by Lieutenant F. M. Barber, U. S. N., in 1875.</p></div></div> - -<p>Though his friends in Cork kept laughing at him, Holland -worked steadily on his plans for a submarine boat, -throughout the sixties. Presently he came to America -and obtained a job as school-teacher in Paterson, New -Jersey. There he built and launched his first submarine -in 1875. It was a sharp-pointed, little, cigar-shaped affair, -only sixteen feet long and two feet in diameter -amidships. This craft was designed to carry a torpedo -and fix it to the bottom of a ship, on the general principle<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71">71</a></span> -of Bushnell’s <i>Turtle</i>. It was divided into four compartments, -with air-chambers fore and aft. Air-pipes led -to where Holland sat in the middle, with his head in a -respirator shaped like a diver’s helmet, and his feet working -pedals that turned the propellor.</p> - -<p>There was nothing revolutionary about this <i>Holland -No. 1</i>. A similar underwater bicycle is said to have -been invented by Alvary Templo in 1826, and Drzewiecki -used one at Odessa in 1877. But Holland used his to -teach himself how to build something better. Just as -the Wright brothers learned how to build and fly aeroplanes -by coasting down through the air from the tops -of the Kitty Hawk sand-hills in their motorless “glider,” -so John P. Holland found how to make and navigate -submarines by diving under the surface of the Passaic -River and adjacent waters, and swimming around there -in his <i>No. 1</i> and her successors.</p> - -<p>The <i>Holland No. 2</i> was launched in 1877 and became -immediately and prophetically stuck in the mud. She -had a double hull, the space between being used as a ballast-tank, -whose contents leaked constantly into the interior, -and she was driven intermittently by a four horse-power -petroleum engine of primitive design. After a -series of trials that entertained his neighbors and taught -the inventor that the best place for a single horizontal -rudder is the stern, Holland took the engine out of the -boat and sank her under the Falls Bridge, where she lies -to this day.</p> - -<p>He then entered into negotiations with the Fenian -Brotherhood, a secret society organized for the purpose -of setting up an Irish republic by militant methods.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72">72</a></span> -Though not a Fenian himself, Holland was thoroughly -in sympathy with the brotherhood, and offered to show -them how they could get round, or rather under, the -British navy. You may have seen a once-familiar lithograph -of a green-painted superdreadnought of strange -design flying the Crownless Harp, and named the Irish -battleship <i>Emerald Isle</i>. The only real Irish warships -of modern times, however, were the two submarines Holland -persuaded the Fenians to have him build at their -expense.</p> - -<p>Rear-Admiral Philip Hichborn, former Chief Constructor, -U.S.N., said of these two boats:</p> - -<p>“She (the earlier one) was the first submarine since -Bushnell’s time employing water ballast and always retaining -buoyancy, in which provision was made to insure -a fixed center of gravity and a fixed absolute weight. -Moreover, she was the first buoyant submarine to be -steered down and up in the vertical plane by horizontal-rudder -action as she was pushed forward by her motor, -instead of being pushed up and down by vertical-acting -mechanism.<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> Her petroleum engine, provided for motive-power -and for charging her compressed-air flasks, -was inefficient, and the boat therefore failed as a practical -craft; but in her were demonstrated all the chief -principles of successful, brain-directed, submarine navigation. -In 1881, Holland turned out a larger and better -boat in which he led the world far and away in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73">73</a></span> -solution of submarine problems, and for a couple of years -demonstrated that he could perfectly control his craft in -the vertical plane. Eventually, through financial complications, -she was taken to New Haven, where she now -is.”</p> - -<div id="ip_73" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_073.jpg" width="600" height="448" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Photo by Brown Bros.</div> - <div class="caption"><p>The <i>Fenian Ram</i>.<br /> - <span class="smaller">(Photographed by Mr. Simon Lake, in the shed at New Haven.)</span></p></div></div> - -<p>Political as well as financial complications caused the -internment of this submarine, which a New York reporter, -with picturesque inaccuracy, called the <i>Fenian -Ram</i>. The Irish at home were by this time thinking less -of fighting for independence and more for peacefully -obtaining home rule, while the arbitration and payment -of the “Alabama claims” by Great Britain had removed -all danger of a war between that country and the United<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74">74</a></span> -States. Under these circumstances, many of the Fenians -felt that it was wasted money for their society to spend -any more of its funds on warships it could never find use -for. This led to dissensions which culminated in a party -of Fenians seizing the <i>Ram</i> and taking it to a shed on -the premises of one of their members at New Haven, -where it has remained ever since.</p> - -<p>But the construction and performances of this submarine, -and of several others which he soon afterwards -built for himself, won Holland such a reputation that -when Secretary Whitney decided in 1888 that submarines -would be a good thing for the United States navy, the -great Philadelphia ship-building firm of Cramps submitted -two designs: Holland’s and Nordenfeldt’s, and -the former won the award. But after nearly twelve -months had been spent in settling preliminary details, and -when a contract for building an experimental boat was -just about to be awarded, there came a change of administration -and the matter was dropped.</p> - -<p>This was a great disappointment for Holland, and the -next four or five years were lean ones for the inventor. -He had built five boats and designed a sixth without their -having brought him a cent of profit. It was not until -March 3, 1893, that Congress appropriated the money -for the construction of an experimental submarine, and -inventors were invited to submit their designs. By this -time John P. Holland had not only spent all his own -money, but all he could borrow from his relatives and -friends. To make matters worse, the country was then -passing through a financial panic, when very few people -had any money to lend or invest. And all the security<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75">75</a></span> -Holland could offer was his faith in the future of the -submarine, which at that time was a stock joke of the -comic papers, together with those other two crack-brained -projects, the flying-machine and the horseless carriage.</p> - -<p>“I know I can win that competition and build that -boat for the Government,” said Holland to a young lawyer -whom he had met at lunch in a downtown New -York restaurant, “if I can only raise the money to pay -the fees and other expenses. I need exactly $347.19.”</p> - -<p>“What do you want the nineteen cents for?” asked -the other.</p> - -<p>“To buy a certain kind of ruler I need for drawing my -plans.”</p> - -<p>“If you’ve figured it out as closely as all that,” replied -the lawyer, “I’ll take a chance and lend you the -money.”</p> - -<p>He did so, receiving in exchange a large block of stock -in the new-formed Holland Torpedo-boat Company. -To-day his stock is worth several million dollars.</p> - -<p>Mr. Holland won the competition and after two years’ -delay his company began the construction of the <i>Plunger</i>. -This submarine was to be propelled by steam while running -on the surface and by storage-batteries when submerged. -Double propulsion of this type had been first -installed by a Southerner named Alstitt on a submarine -he built at Mobile, Alabama, in 1863, and theoretically -discussed in a book written in 1887 by Commander -Hovgaard of the Danish navy. Though a great improvement -on any type of single propulsion, this system -had many drawbacks, the chief of which was the length -of time—from fifteen to thirty minutes—that it took<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76">76</a></span> -for the oil-burning surface engine to cool and rid itself -of hot gases before it was safe to seal the funnel and -dive. Though the <i>Plunger</i> was launched in 1897, she -was never finished, for Mr. Holland foresaw her defects. -He persuaded the Government to let his company pay -back the money already spent on the <i>Plunger</i> and build -an entirely new boat.</p> - -<p><i>Holland No. 8</i> was built accordingly, but failed to work -properly. Finally came the ninth and last of her line, -the first of the modern submarines, the world-famous -<i>Holland</i>.</p> - -<p>She was a chunky little porpoise of a boat, 10 feet -7 inches deep and only 53 feet 10 inches long, and looking -even shorter and thicker than she was because of -the narrow, comb-like superstructure running fore and -aft along the deck. But her shape and dimensions were -the results of twenty-five years’ experience. Built at -Mr. Lewis Nixon’s shipyards at Elizabethport, New Jersey, -the <i>Holland</i> was launched in the early spring of 1898, -between the blowing-up of the <i>Maine</i> and the outbreak -of the Spanish-American War. But though John P. -Holland repeatedly begged to be allowed to take his submarine -into Santiago Harbor and torpedo Cervera’s fleet, -the naval authorities at Washington were too conservative-minded -to let him try.</p> - -<p>“United States warship goes down with all hands!” -the small boys (I was one of them) used to shout at -this time, and then explain that it was only another dive -of the “Holland submarine.” Strictly speaking, the -<i>Holland</i> was not a United States warship till October -13, 1900, when she was formally placed in commission<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77">77</a><a class="hidev" id="Page_78">78</a></span> -under the command of Lieutenant Harry H. Caldwell, -who had been on her during many of the exhaustive series -of trials in which the little undersea destroyer proved to -even the most conservative officers of our navy that the -day of the submarine had come at last.</p> - -<div id="ip_77" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_077.jpg" width="600" height="387" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Courtesy of the Electric Boat Company</div> - <div class="caption">U. S. S. <i>Holland</i>, in Drydock with the Russian Battleship <i>Retvizan</i>.</div></div> - -<p>Propelled on the surface by a fifty horse-power gasoline -motor, the <i>Holland</i> had a cruising radius of 1500 -miles at a speed of seven knots an hour. Submerged, -she was driven by electric storage-batteries. This effective -combination of oil-engines with an electric motor is -one of John P. Holland’s great discoveries, and is used -in every submarine to-day. When her tanks were filled -till her deck was flush with the water, and the two horizontal -rudders at the stern began to steer her downwards, -the <i>Holland</i> could dive to a depth of twenty-eight -feet in five seconds. She had no periscope, for that instrument -was then crude and unsatisfactory. To take -aim, the captain of the <i>Holland</i> had to make a quick -“porpoise dive,” up to the surface and down again, exposing -the conning-tower for the few seconds needed to -take aim and judge the distance to the target. Though -by this means the <i>Holland</i> succeeded in getting within -striking-distance of the <i>Kearsarge</i> and the <i>New York</i> -without being detected, during the summer manœuvers -of the Atlantic fleet off Newport in 1900, it has proved -fatal to the only submarine that has tried it in actual -warfare (see page <a href="#Page_160">160</a>).</p> - -<p>Less than half the length of the <i>Nordenfeldt II</i>, the -<i>Holland</i> did not pitch or see-saw when submerged. -Each of her crew of six sat on a low stool beside the -machinery he was to operate, and there was no moving<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79">79</a></span> -about when below the surface. Neither did the boat -stand on her tail when a torpedo was discharged from -the bow-tube, for the loss of weight was immediately -compensated by admitting an equivalent amount of water -into a tank. Originally the <i>Holland</i> had a stern torpedo-tube -as well, besides a pneumatic gun for throwing eighty -pounds of dynamite half a mile through the air, but these -were later removed.</p> - -<p>How the <i>Holland</i> impressed our naval officers at that -time is best shown in the oft-quoted testimony of Admiral -Dewey before the naval committee of the House of -Representatives in 1900.</p> - -<p>“Gentlemen, I saw the operation of the boat down off -Mount Vernon the other day. Several members of this -committee were there. I think we were all very much -impressed with its performance. My aid, Lieutenant -Caldwell, was on board. The boat did everything that -the owners proposed to do. I said then, and I have said -it since, that if they had had two of those things at -Manila, I could never have held it with the squadron I -had. The moral effect—to my mind, it is infinitely superior -to mines or torpedoes or anything of the kind. -With those craft moving under water it would wear -people out. With two of those in Galveston all the navies -of the world could not blockade the place.”</p> - -<div id="ip_80" class="figcenter" style="width: 445px;"> - <img src="images/i_080.jpg" width="445" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Photo by Brown Bros.</div> - <div class="caption">John P. Holland.</div></div> - -<p>The <i>Holland</i> was purchased by the United States Government -on April 11, 1900, for $150,000. She had cost -her builders, exclusive of any office expenses or salaries -of officers, $236,615.43. But it had been a profitable investment -for the Holland Torpedo-boat Company, for -on August 25, the United States navy contracted with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80">80</a></span> -it for the construction of six more submarines. And in -the autumn of the same year, though it was not announced -to the public till March 1, 1901, five other -<i>Hollands</i> were ordered through the agency of Vickers -Sons, and Maxim by the British admiralty. Soon every -maritime nation was either buying <i>Hollands</i> or paying -royalties on the inventor’s patents, and building bigger, -faster, better submarines every year.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81">81</a></span> -The original <i>Holland</i> had outlived her fighting value -when she was condemned by Secretary Daniels in June, -1915, to be broken up and sold as junk. There is still -room in the Brooklyn Navy Yard for that worthless -and meaningless relic, the <i>Intelligent Whale</i>, but there -was none for the <i>Holland</i> submarine, whose place in history -is with the <i>Clairmont</i> and the <i>Monitor</i>.</p> - -<p>John P. Holland withdrew in 1904 from the Holland -Torpedo-boat Company, which has since become merged -with the Electric Boat Company, that builds most of the -submarines for the United States navy, and many for -the navies of foreign powers. Like most other great -inventive geniuses, Holland was not a trained engineer, -and it was perhaps inevitable that disputes should have -arisen between him and his associates as to the carrying -out of his ideas. His last years were embittered by the -belief that the submarines of to-day were distorted and -worthless developments of his original type. Whether -or not he was mistaken, only time can tell. That to -John P. Holland, more than to any other man since -David Bushnell and Robert Fulton, the world owes the -modern submarine, cannot be denied. His death, on -August 12, 1914, was but little noticed in the turmoil -and confusion of the first weeks of the great European -War. But when the naval histories of that war are -written, his name will not be forgotten.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82">82</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE LAKE SUBMARINES</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">John P. Holland</span> was not the only inventor who -responded to the invitation of the United States navy -department to submit designs for a proposed submarine -boat in 1893. That invitation had been issued and an -appropriation of $200,000 made by Congress on the -recommendation of Commander Folger, chief of ordnance, -after he had seen a trial trip on Lake Michigan -of an underwater boat invented by Mr. George C. Baker. -This was an egg-shaped craft, propelled by a steam engine -on the surface and storage-batteries when submerged, -and controlled by two adjustable propellers, -mounted on either side of the boat on a shaft running -athwartship. These screws could be turned in any direction, -so as to push or pull the vessel forward, downward, -or at any desired angle. Mr. Baker submitted designs -for a larger boat of the same kind, but they were not -accepted.</p> - -<p>The third inventor who entered the 1893 competition -was Mr. Simon Lake, then a resident of Baltimore. He -sent in the plans of the most astonishing-looking craft -that had startled the eyes of the navy department since -Ericsson’s original monitor. It had two cigar-shaped -hulls, one inside the other, the space between being used -for ballast-tanks. It had no less than five propellors:<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83">83</a></span> -twin screws aft for propulsion, a single screw working -in an open transverse tunnel forward,<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">12</a> to “swing the -vessel at rest to facilitate pointing her torpedos,” and two -downhaul or vertical-acting propellers “for holding vessel -to depth when not under way.” These were not placed -on deck, as on the <i>Nordenfeldt II</i>, but in slots in the -keel. Other features of the bottom were two anchor -weights, a detachable “emergency keel,” and a diving -compartment. On deck were a folding periscope and -a “gun arranged in water-tight, revolving turret for defense -purposes or attack on unarmored surface craft.” -There were four torpedo tubes, two forward and two aft, -according to the modern German practice. The motive-power -was the then usual combination of steam and storage -batteries. But the two remaining features of the -1893 model Lake submarine were extremely unusual.</p> - -<div id="ip_83" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_083.jpg" width="600" height="163" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Courtesy International Marine Engineering.</div> - <div class="caption">Lake 1893 Design as Submitted to the U. S. Navy Department.</div></div> - -<p>Instead of one pair of horizontal rudders, there were -four pairs, two large and two small. The latter, placed -near the bow and stern, were “levelling vanes, designed -automatically to hold the vessel on a level keel when under<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84">84</a></span> -way”; while the larger ones were called “hydroplanes” -and so located and designed as to steer the submarine -under, not by making it dive bow-foremost but by causing -it to submerge on an even keel. How this was to be -accomplished will be explained presently. The other new -thing about the Lake boat was that it was mounted on -wheels for running along the sea-bottom. There were -three of these wheels: a large pair forward on a strong -axle for bearing the vessel’s weight, and a small steering-wheel -on the bottom of the rudder.</p> - -<div id="ip_84" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_084.jpg" width="600" height="565" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Courtesy of Mr. Simon Lake.</div> - <div class="caption">The <i>Argonaut Junior</i>.</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85">85</a></span> -This submarine was never built, however, for the -congressional appropriation was awarded to the Holland -Torpedo-boat Company and Mr. Lake had at that time -no means for building so elaborate a vessel by himself. -What he did build was the simplest and crudest little -submarine imaginable: the <i>Argonaut Jr.</i> She was a -triangular box of yellow pine, fourteen feet long and five -feet deep, mounted on three solid wooden wheels. She -was trundled along the bottom of Sandy Hook Bay by -one or two men cranking the axle of the two driving -wheels. The boat was provided with an air-lock and -diver’s compartment “so arranged that by putting an -air pressure on the diver’s compartment equal to the water -pressure outside, a bottom door could be opened and no -water would come into the vessel. Then by putting on -a pair of rubber boots the operator could walk around -on the sea bottom and push the boat along with him and -pick up objects, such as clams, oysters, etc., from the -sea bottom.”<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">13</a></p> - -<p>Enough people were convinced by the performances -of this simple craft of the soundness of Mr. Lake’s theories -that the inventor was able to raise sufficient capital -to build a larger submarine. This boat, which was designed -in 1895 and built at Baltimore in 1897, was called -the <i>Argonaut</i>. When launched, she had a cigar-shaped -hull thirty-six feet long by nine in diameter, mounted on -a pair of large toothed driving-wheels forward and a -guiding-wheel on the rudder. The driving-wheels could<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_86">86</a></span> -be disconnected and left to revolve freely while the boat -was driven by its single-screw propeller. There was a -diver’s compartment in the bottom and a “lookout compartment -in the extreme bow, with a powerful searchlight -to light up a pathway in front of her as she moved along -over the waterbed. The searchlight I later found of -little value except for night work in clear water. In clear -water the sunlight would permit of as good vision without -the use of the light as with it, while if the water was -not clear, no amount of light would permit of vision -through it for any considerable distance.”</p> - -<p>Storage batteries were carried only for working the -searchlight and illuminating the interior of the boat. The -<i>Argonaut</i> was propelled, both above and below the surface, -by a thirty horse-power gasoline engine, the first -one to be installed in a submarine. There was enough -air to run it on, even when submerged, because the -<i>Argonaut</i> was ventilated through a hose running to a float -on the surface: a device later changed to two pipe masts -long enough to let her run along the bottom at a depth -of fifty feet.</p> - -<div id="ip_87" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_087.jpg" width="600" height="390" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Courtesy of International Marine Engineering.</div> - <div class="caption"><i>Argonaut</i> as Originally Built.</div></div> - -<p>The <i>Argonaut</i> had no hydroplanes or horizontal rudders -of any kind. She was submerged, like the <i>Intelligent -Whale</i>, by “two anchor weights, each weighing 1000 -pounds, attached to cables, and capable of being hauled up -or lowered by a drum and mechanism within the boat.... -When it is desired to submerge the vessel the anchor -weights are first lowered to the bottom; water is then -allowed to enter the water-ballast compartments until her -buoyancy is less than the weight of the two anchors, say -1500 pounds; the cables connecting with the weights are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87">87</a></span> -then hauled in, and the vessel is thus hauled to the bottom, -until she comes to rest on her three wheels. The -weights are then hauled into their pockets in the keel, and -it is evident that she is resting on the wheels with a weight -equal to the difference between her buoyancy with the -weights at the bottom, and the weights in their pockets, -or 500 pounds. Now this weight may be increased or -diminished, either by admitting more water into the ballast -tanks or by pumping some out. Thus it will be seen -that we have perfect control of the vessel in submerging -her, as we may haul her down as fast or as slow as we -please, and by having her rest on the bottom with sufficient -weight to prevent the currents from moving her out of her -course we may start up our propeller or driving-wheels -and drive her at will over the bottom, the same as a tricycle -is propelled on the surface of the earth in the upper air.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88">88</a></span> -In muddy bottoms, we rest with a weight not much over -100 pounds; while on hard bottoms, or where there are -strong currents, we sometimes rest on the bottom with -a weight of from 1000 to 1500 pounds....</p> - -<p>“In the rivers we invariably found a muddy bed; in -Chesapeake Bay we found bottoms of various kinds, -in some places so soft that our divers would sink up to -their knees, while in other places the ground would be -hard, and at one place we ran across a bottom which -was composed of a loose gravel, resembling shelled corn. -Out in the ocean, however, was found the ideal -submarine course, consisting of a fine gray sand, almost -as hard as a macadamized road, and very level and uniform.”</p> - -<p>During this cruise under the waters of Chesapeake Bay, -the <i>Argonaut</i> came on the wrecks of several sunken vessels, -which Mr. Lake or some member of his crew examined -through the open door in the bottom of the diving-compartment. -The air inside was kept at a sufficiently -high pressure to keep the water from entering, and the -man in the submarine could pull up pieces of the wreck -with a short boathook, or even reach down and place his -bare hand on the back of a big fish swimming past. Sometimes -members of the crew would put on diving-suits and -walk out over the bottom, keeping in communication with -the boat by telephone. Telephone stations were even established -on the bottom of the bay, with cables running to -the nearest exchange on shore, and conversations were -held with people in Baltimore, Washington, and New -York. (Perhaps the commanders of German submarines -in British waters to-day are using this method to communicate<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89">89</a></span> -with German spies in London, Dublin, and Liverpool.)</p> - -<p>The Spanish-American War was being fought while -Mr. Lake was making these experiments. The entrance -to Hampton Roads was planted with electric mines, but -though he was forbidden to go too near them, the inventor -proved that nothing would be easier than to locate -the cable connecting them with the shore, haul it up into -the diver’s compartment of the <i>Argonaut</i> and cut it. He -did this with a dummy cable of his own, and then repeatedly -begged the navy department to let him take the -<i>Argonaut</i> into the harbor of Santiago de Cuba and disable -the mines that were keeping Admiral Sampson’s fleet from -going in and smashing the Spanish squadron there. But -his offer, like that of John P. Holland, was refused.</p> - -<p>“In 1898, also,” says Mr. Lake, “the <i>Argonaut</i> made -the trip from Norfolk to New York under her own power -and unescorted. In her original form she was a cigar-shaped -craft with only a small percentage of reserve buoyancy -in her surface cruising condition. We were caught -out in the severe November northeast storm of 1898 in -which over two hundred vessels were lost and we did not -succeed in reaching a harbor in the ‘horseshoe’ back of -Sandy Hook until three o’clock in the morning. The seas -were so rough they would break over her conning-tower -in such masses I was obliged to lash myself fast to -prevent being swept overboard. It was freezing weather -and I was soaked and covered with ice on reaching harbor.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90">90</a></span></p> - -<div id="ip_90" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_090.jpg" width="600" height="272" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Courtesy of International Marine Engineering.</div> - <div class="caption"><i>Argonaut</i> as Rebuilt.</div></div> - -<p>Mr. Lake then sent the <i>Argonaut</i> to a Brooklyn shipyard, -where her original cigar-shaped hull was cut in half, -and lengthened twenty feet, after which a light ship-shaped -superstructure was built over her low sloping topsides. -To keep it from being crushed in by water pressure -when submerged, scupper-like openings were cut in -the thin plating where it joined the stout, pressure-resisting -hull, so that the superstructure automatically filled -itself with sea-water on submerging and drained itself on -rising again. Though uninhabitable, its interior supplied -useful storage space, particularly for the gasoline fuel -tanks, which, as Mr. Lake had already discovered, gave -off fumes that soon rendered the air inside the submarine -unbreathable, unless the tanks were kept outside instead -of inside the hull. The swan-bow and long bowsprit of -the new superstructure, together with the two ventilator-masts, -gave the rebuilt <i>Argonaut</i> a schooner-like appearance, -and her bowsprit has been compared to the whip-socket -on the dashboard of the earliest automobiles. -But Mr. Lake declares that this was no useless leftover -but a practicable spring-buffer to guard against running -into submerged rocks, while the bobstay helped the <i>Argonaut</i><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91">91</a></span> -to climb over the obstruction, as she could over -anything on the sea-bottom she could get her bows over.</p> - -<p>Primarily, the superstructure served to make the submarine -more seaworthy as a surface craft. Until then, -most inventors and designers of undersea boats had confined -their attentions to the problems of underwater navigation -only, because, as had been pointed out by the monk -Mersenne before 1648, even during the most violent -storms the disturbance is felt but a little distance below -the surface. But Mr. Lake realized that a submarine, -like every other kind of boat, spends most of its existence -on top of the water and that it is not always desirable to -submerge whenever a moderate-sized wave sweeps over -one of the old-fashioned, low-lying, cigar-shaped vessels. -With her new superstructure, the <i>Argonaut</i> rode the -waves as lightly as any yacht and ushered in the era -of the sea-going submarine.</p> - -<p>It was not until a year later that the <i>Narval</i>, a large -double-hulled submarine with a ship-shaped outer shell of -light, perforated plating, was launched in France. She -was propelled by steam on the surface and by storage batteries -when submerged. To distinguish this sea-going -torpedo-boat, that could be submerged, from the earlier -and simpler submarines designed and engined for underwater -work only, her designer, M. Labeuf, called the -<i>Narval</i> a “submersible.” As the old type of boat soon -became extinct, the distinction was not necessary and the -old name “submarine” is still applied to all underwater -craft. That Simon Lake and not M. Labeuf first gave -the modern sea-going submarine its characteristic and essential -superstructure is easily proved by dates. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92">92</a></span> -<i>Narval</i> was launched in October, 1899, the <i>Argonaut</i> was -remodeled in December, 1898, and on April 2, 1897, Mr. -Lake applied for and was presently granted the pioneer -patent on a “combined surface and submarine vessel,” -the space between its cylindrical hull and the superstructure -“being adapted to be filled with water when the vessel -is submerged and thus rendered capable of resisting -the pressure of the water.”</p> - -<p>But though in her remodeled form she became the -forerunner of the long grim submarine cruisers of to-day, -the <i>Argonaut</i> herself had been built to serve not as a -warship but as a commercial vessel. Like her namesakes -who followed Jason in the <i>Argo</i> to far-off Colchis for -the Golden Fleece, she was to go forth in search of hidden -treasure. She was to have been the first of a fleet -of wheeled bottom-workers, salvaging the cargoes of -wrecked ships; from the mail-bags of the latest lost liner -to ingots and pieces-of-eight from the sand-clogged hulks -of long-sunk Spanish galleons, or bringing up sponges, -coral, and pearls from the depths of the tropic seas. -But though he investigated a few wrecks and ingeniously -transferred a few tons of coal from one into a submarine -lighter by means of a pipe-line and a powerful -force-pump, Mr. Lake has done nothing more to develop -the fascinating commercial possibilities of the submarine -since 1901, because he has been kept too busy building -undersea warships for the United States and other naval -powers.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93">93</a></span></p> - -<div id="ip_93" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_093.jpg" width="600" height="359" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Courtesy of International Marine Engineering.</div> - <div class="caption">The Rebuilt <i>Argonaut</i>, Showing Pipe-masts and Ship-shaped Superstructure.</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94">94</a></span> -Mr. Lake declares that one of his up-to-date wheeled -submarines could enter a harbor-mouth defended by -booms and nettings that would keep out either surface -torpedo boats or ordinary submarines. The smooth-backed -bottom-worker of this special type would slip under -the netting like a cat under a bead portière. If the -netting were fastened down, a diver would step out -through the door in the bottom of the submarine and -either cut the netting from its moorings or attach a bomb -to blow a hole for the bottom-worker to go in through. -An ordinary submarine, entering a hostile harbor, would -be in constant danger of running aground in shallow water -and either sticking there or rebounding to the surface, -to be seen and fired at by the enemy. Even if its commander -succeeded in keeping to the deep channel by -dead reckoning—a process akin to flying blindfolded in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95">95</a></span> -an aeroplane up a crooked ravine and remembering just -when and where to turn—even if he dodged the rocks -and sand bars, he would be liable to bump the nose of his -boat against an anchored contact mine (see Chapter XI). -But the Lake bottom-worker would trundle steadily along, -sampling the bottom to find where it was, and passing -safely under the mines floating far above it. The divers -would make short work of cutting the mine cables, or they -might plant mines of their own under the ships in the -harbor and blow them up as Bushnell tried to. Using -electric motors and storage air-flasks, with no pipe masts -or other “surface-indications” to betray its presence, -one of these boats could remain snugly hid at the bottom -of an enemy’s harbor as long as its supplies held out.</p> - -<div id="ip_94" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_094.jpg" width="600" height="493" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Courtesy of Mr. Simon Lake.</div> - <div class="caption">Cross-section of Diving-compartment on a Lake Submarine.</div></div> - -<p>As yet, however, we have not heard of any such exploits -in the present war, though they seem perfectly -feasible. Mr. Lake sold a boat designed for this sort of -work and called the <i>Protector</i> to Russia in 1906.</p> - -<p>The most characteristic feature of the Lake submarines -is not the wheels, which are found only on those specially -designed for bottom working, but the hydroplanes. -These are horizontal rudders that are so placed and designed -as to steer the boat forward and downward, but -at the same time keeping it on an even keel. Bushnell -and Nordenfeldt forced their boats straight up and down -like buckets in a well, John P. Holland made his tip -up its tail and dive like a loon, but Mr. Lake conceived the -idea of having his boat descend like a suitcase carried by -a man walking down-stairs: the suitcase moves steadily -forward and downward towards the front door but it remains -level. The first method with its vertical propellers<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96">96</a></span> -wasted too much energy, the second incurred the risk -of diving too fast and too deep, no matter whether the -single pair of horizontal rudders were placed on the -bow, or amidships, or on the stern. So Mr. Lake used -two pairs of horizontal rudders “located at equal distances -forward and aft of the center of gravity and buoyancy -of the vessel when in the submerged condition, so as -not to disturb the trim of the vessel when the planes were -inclined down or up to cause the vessel to submerge or -rise when under way.” These he called hydroplanes, to -distinguish them from another set of smaller horizontal -rudders, which at first he called “leveling-vanes” and -which were not used to steer the submarine under but -manipulated to keep her at a constant depth and on a level -keel while running submerged.</p> - -<p>In theory, the early Lake boats were submerged on an -even keel; in practice, they went under at an angle of several -degrees. But they made nothing like the abrupt -dives of the <i>Holland</i>.</p> - -<p>“As the Electric Boat Company’s boats (Holland -type) increased in size,” declares Chief Constructor D. -W. Taylor, U.S.N., “bow rudders were fitted, and nowadays -all submarines of this type in our navy are fitted -with bow rudders as well as stern rudders. The Lake -type submarines are still fitted with hydroplanes. But as -you may see, means for effecting submergence have approached -each other very closely: in fact, speaking generally, -submarines all over the world now have two or -more sets of diving-rudders; the most general arrangement -is one pair forward and one pair aft; in some types<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_97">97</a></span> -three pairs are fitted, but this arrangement is more unusual.</p> - -<p>“In general it may be said then that modern submarines -of both types submerge in practically the same -way. They assume a very slight angle of inclination, say -a degree and a half or two degrees, and submerge at this -angle. This may be said to be practically on an even -keel.”</p> - -<div id="ip_97" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_097.jpg" width="600" height="312" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Courtesy of International Marine Engineering.</div> - <div class="caption">Cross-section of the <i>Protector</i>, showing wheels stowed away - when not running on the sea bottom.</div></div> - -<p>The credit of originating this now world-wide practice -of “level-keel submergence” obviously belongs, as -“Who’s Who in America” gives it, to</p> - -<p>“Lake, Simon, naval architect, mechanical engineer. -Born at Pleasantville, New Jersey, September 4, 1866; -son of John Christopher and Miriam M. (Adams) Lake; -educated at Clinton Liberal Institute, Fort Plain, New -York, and Franklin Institute, Philadelphia; married -Margaret Vogel of Baltimore, June 9, 1890. Inventor of -even keel type of submarine torpedo boats; built first<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98">98</a></span> -experimental boat, 1894; built <i>Argonaut</i>, 1897 (first submarine -to operate successfully in the open sea); has designed -and built many submarine torpedo boats for the -United States and foreign countries; spent several years -in Russia, Germany, and England, designing, building, -and acting in an advisory capacity in construction of submarine -boats. Also inventor of submarine apparatus for -locating and recovering sunken vessels and their cargoes; -submarine apparatus for pearl and sponge fishing, heavy<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99">99</a></span> -oil internal combustion engine for marine propulsion, etc. -Member of the Society of Naval Architects and Marine -Engineers, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, -American Society of Naval Engineers, Institute of Naval -Architects (London), Schiffsbautechnische Gesellschaft -(Berlin). Mason. <i>Clubs</i>, Engineers’ (New York), Algonquin, -(Bridgeport, Connecticut). <i>Home</i>, Milford, -Connecticut. <i>Office</i>, Bridgeport, Connecticut.”</p> - -<div id="ip_98" class="figcenter" style="width: 505px;"> - <img src="images/i_098.jpg" width="505" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Mr. Simon Lake.</div></div> - -<p>When the Krupps first took up the idea of constructing -submarines for the German and Russian governments, -the great German firm consulted with Mr. Lake, who was -at that time living in Europe. An elaborate contract was -drawn up between them. The Krupps agreed to employ -Mr. Lake in an advisory capacity and to build “Lake -type” boats, both in Russia, where they were to erect a -factory and share the profits with him, and in Germany, -on a royalty basis. Before he could sign this contract, -Mr. Lake had to obtain the permission of the directors -of his own company in Bridgeport. In the meanwhile, -he gave the German company his most secret plans and -specifications. But the Krupps never signed the contract, -withdrew from going into Russia, and their lawyer coolly -told Mr. Lake that, as he had failed to patent his inventions -in Germany, his clients were perfectly free to build -“Lake type” submarines there without paying him anything -and were going to do so.</p> - -<p>The famous Krupp-built German submarines that are -playing so prominent a part in the present war are therefore -partly of American design. Whenever Mr. Lake -reads that another one of them has been destroyed by the -Allies, his emotions must be rather mixed.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100">100</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX<br /> - -<span class="subhead">A TRIP IN A MODERN SUBMARINE</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap al"><span class="smcap1">Lieutenant Perry Scope</span>, commanding the -X-class flotilla, was sitting in his comfortable little -office on the mother-ship <i>Ozark</i>, when I entered with a -letter from the secretary of the navy, giving me permission -to go on board a United States submarine. Without -such authorization no civilian may set foot on the -narrow decks of our undersea destroyers, though he may -visit a battleship with no more formality than walking -into a public park.</p> - -<p>“We’re too small and full of machinery to hold a -crowd,” explained the lieutenant, “and the crowd -wouldn’t enjoy it if they came. No nice white decks for -the girls to dance on or fourteen-inch guns for them to -sit on while they have their pictures taken. Besides, -everything’s oily—you’d better put on a suit of overalls -instead of those white flannels.”</p> - -<p>There were plenty of spare overalls on the <i>Ozark</i>, for -she was the mother-ship of a family of six young submarines. -Built as a coast defense monitor shortly after -the Spanish War, she had long since been retired from the -fighting-line, and was now the floating headquarters, dormitory, -hospital, machine-shop, bakery, and general store -for the six officers and the hundred and fifty men of the -flotilla.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101">101</a></span></p> - -<div id="ip_101" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_101.jpg" width="600" height="386" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Photo by Brown Bros.</div> - <div class="caption">U. S. Submarine <i>E-2</i>.<br /> - <span class="smaller">Note wireless, navigating-bridge, and openings for flooding superstructure when submerging.</span></div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102">102</a></span> -Moored alongside the parent-ship, the submarine <i>X-4</i> -was filling her fuel-tanks with oil through a pipe-line, in -preparation for the day’s cruise and target-practice I was -to be lucky enough to witness. Two hundred and fifty -feet long, flat-decked and straight-stemmed, she looked, -except for the lack of funnels, much more like a surface-going -torpedo-boat than the landsman’s conventional idea -of a submarine.</p> - -<p>“I thought she would be cigar-shaped,” I said as we -went on board.</p> - -<p>“She is—underneath,” answered Lieutenant Scope. -“What you see is only a light-weight superstructure or -false hull built over the real one. See those holes in it, -just above the water line? They are to flood the superstructure -with whenever we submerge, otherwise the -water pressure would crush in these thin steel plates like -veneering. But it makes us much more seaworthy for -surface work, gives us a certain amount of deckroom, -and stowage-space for various useful articles, such as -this.”</p> - -<p>Part of the deck rose straight up into the air, like the -top of a freight-elevator coming up through the sidewalk. -Beneath the canopy thus formed was a short-barreled, -three-inch gun.</p> - -<p>“Fires a twelve-pound shell, like the field-pieces the -landing-parties take ashore from the battleships,” explained -the naval officer, as he trained the vicious-looking -little cannon all around the compass. “Small enough to -be handy, big enough to sink any merchant ship afloat, -or smash anything that flies.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103">103</a></span> -Here he pointed the muzzle straight up as if gunning -for hostile aeroplanes.</p> - -<p>“And please observe,” he concluded, as the gun -sank down into its lair again, “how that armored hatch-cover -protects the gun-crew from shrapnel or falling -bombs.”</p> - -<p>I followed him to the conning-tower, or, as he always -spoke of it, the turret. The little round bandbox of the -<i>Holland</i> has developed into a tall, tapering structure, -sharply pointed fore and aft to lessen resistance when running -submerged. Above the turret was a small navigating-bridge, -screened and roofed with canvas, where a red-haired -quartermaster stood by the steering-wheel, and -saluted as we came up the ladder. The lieutenant put the -engine-room telegraph over to “Start,” and a mighty -motor throbbed underneath our feet. Then the mooring -was cast off, the telegraph put over to “Slow Ahead,” -and the <i>X-4</i> put out to sea.</p> - -<p>“How long a cruise could she make?” I asked.</p> - -<p>“Four thousand miles is her radius,” answered her -commander. “Back in 1915, ten American-designed submarines -crossed from Canada to England under their -own power.”</p> - -<p>“Yet it is only a few years since we were told that -submarines could only be used for coast defense, unless -they were carried inside their mother-ships and launched -near the scene of battle,” I remarked. “Or that each -battleship should carry a dinky little submarine on deck -and lower it over the side like a steam-launch.”</p> - -<p>“People said the same thing about torpedo-boats,”<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104">104</a></span> -agreed the lieutenant; “they began as launches—now -look at the size of that destroyer smoking along over -there. Ericsson thought that any ironclad bigger than a -Civil War monitor would be an unwieldy monster. Even -John P. Holland fought tooth and nail against increasing -the length of his submarines. This boat of mine is five -times the length of the old <i>Holland</i>, but she’s only a -primitive ancestor of the perfect submarine of the future.”</p> - -<p>“She isn’t a submarine at all,” I replied presently, as -the <i>X-4</i> swept on down the coast at a good twenty-two -knots, her foredeck buried in foam and the sea-breeze -singing through the antennæ of her wireless. “She’s -nothing but a big motor-boat.”</p> - -<p>“And she’s got some big motors,” replied the lieutenant. -“Better step below and have a look at them.”</p> - -<p>I went down through the open hatchway to the interior -of the boat and aft to the engine-room. There I found -two long, many-cylindered oil-engines of strange design, -presided over by a big blond engineer whose grease-spotted -dungarees gave no hint as to his rating.</p> - -<p>“What kind of machines are these?” I shouted above -the roar they made. “And why do you need two of -them?”</p> - -<p>“Diesel heavy-oil engines,” he answered. “One for -each propeller.”</p> - -<p>“What is the difference between one of these and the -gasoline engine of a motor-car? I know a little about -that.”</p> - -<p>“Do you know what the carburetor is?” asked the -engineer.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105">105</a></span></p> - -<div id="ip_105" class="figcenter" style="width: 900px;"> - <img src="images/i_105.jpg" width="900" height="213" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Courtesy of International Marine Engineering.</div> - <div class="caption">A Submarine Cruiser, or Fleet Submarine (Lake Type).</div> - -<p class="captionh j">The parts indicated by numbers in this illustration are as follows: 1, main ballast tanks; 2, fuel tanks; 3, keel; 4, -safety drop keel; 5, habitable superstructure; 6, escape and safety chambers; 7, disappearing anti-air craft guns; 8, -rapid fire gun; 9, torpedo tubes; 10, torpedoes; 11, twin deck torpedo tubes; 12, torpedo firing tank; 13, anchor; 14, -periscopes; 15, wireless; 16, crew’s quarters; 17, officers’ quarters; 18, war-head stowage; 19, torpedo hatch; 20, diving -chamber; 21, electric storage battery; 22, galley; 23, steering gear; 24, binnacle; 25, searchlight; 26, conning-tower; -27, diving station; 28, control tank; 29, compressed air flasks; 30, forward engine room and engines; 31, -after engine room and engines; 32, central control compartment; 33, torpedo room; 34, electric motor room; 35, -switchboard; 36, ballast pump; 37, auxiliary machinery room; 38, hydroplane; 39, vertical rudders; 40, signal masts.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106">106</a></span> -“That’s where the gasoline is mixed with air, before -it goes into the cylinder.”</p> - -<p>The engineer nodded.</p> - -<p>“The mixture is sucked into the cylinder by the down-stroke -of the piston. The up-stroke compresses it, and -then the mixture is exploded by an electric spark from the -spark-plug. The force of the explosion drives the piston -down, and the next stroke up drives out the refuse -gases. That’s how an ordinary, four-cycle gasoline -motor works.</p> - -<p>“But the Diesel engine,” he continued, “doesn’t need -any carburetor or spark-plug. When the piston makes -its first upward or compression-stroke, there is nothing in -the cylinder but pure air. This is compressed to a pressure -of about 500 pounds a square inch—and when you -squeeze anything as hard as that, you make it mighty -hot—”</p> - -<p>“Like a blacksmith pounding a piece of cold iron -to a red heat?” I suggested. The engineer nodded -again.</p> - -<p>“That compressed air is so hot that the oil which has -been spurted in through an injection-valve is exploded, -and drives the piston down on the power-stroke. The -waste gases are then blown out by compressed air. There -are an air-compressor and a storage tank just for scavenging, -or blowing the waste gases out of every three power-cylinders.”</p> - -<p>“What are the advantages of the Diesel over the gasoline -engine?”</p> - -<div id="ip_107" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_107.jpg" width="600" height="425" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Courtesy of the Electric Boat Company.</div> - <div class="caption">Auxiliary Switchboard and Electric Cook-stove, in a U. S. -Submarine.</div></div> - -<p>“In the first place, it gives more power. You see, -three out of every four strokes made by the piston of a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107">107</a></span> -gasoline engine—suction-stroke, compression-stroke, and -scavenging-stroke—waste power instead of producing it. -But the Diesel is what we call a two-cycle engine; its -piston makes only two trips for each power-stroke. In -the second place, it is cheaper, because instead of gasoline -it uses heavy, low-price oil. And this makes it much -safer, for the heavy oil does not vaporize so easily. The -air in some of the old submarines that used gasoline -motors would get so that it was like trying to breathe inside -a carburetor, and there was always the chance of a -spark from the electric motors exploding the whole -business, and your waking up to find the trained nurse -changing your bandages. The German navy refused to -build a submarine as long as there was nothing better -than gasoline to propel it on the surface. They didn’t<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108">108</a></span> -launch their <i>U-1</i> till 1906, after Dr. Diesel had got his -motor into practicable shape. It cost him twenty years -of hard work, but without his motor we couldn’t have -the modern submarine. And they’re using it more and -more in ocean freighters. There’s a line of motor-ships -running to-day between Scandinavia and San Francisco, -through the Panama Canal.</p> - -<p>“Aft of the Diesel, here,” continued the engineer, “is -our electric motor, for propelling her when submerged. -Reverse it and have it driven by the Diesel engine, and the -motor serves as a dynamo to generate electricity for charging -the batteries. As long as we can get oil and come to -the surface to use it, we can never run short of ‘juice.’<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">14</a></p> - -<p>“Besides turning the propeller, the electricity from the -batteries lights the boat, and turns the ventilating fans, -works the air-compressor for the torpedo-tubes, drives all -the big and little pumps, runs a lot of auxiliary motors -that haul up the anchor, turn the rudders, and do other -odd jobs, it heats the boat in cold weather—”</p> - -<p>“And cooks the grub all the year round, don’t forget -that, Joe,” said another member of the crew. “Luncheon -is served in the palm room.”</p> - -<p>We ate from a swinging table let down from the ceiling -of the main- or living-compartment of the submarine, -that extended forward from the engine-room to the tiny -officers’ cabin and the torpedo room in the bows. Tiers -of canvas bunks folded up against the walls showed where -the crew slept when on a cruise. For lunch that day we -had bread baked on the mother-ship, butter out of a can, -fried ham, fried potatoes, and coffee hot from a little<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_109">109</a></span> -electric stove such as you can see in the kitchenette of a -light-housekeeping apartment on shore. The lieutenant’s -lunch was carried up to him on the bridge. When the -meal was over, most of the men went on deck, and my -friend the engineer put a large cigar in his mouth. I -took out a box of matches and was about to strike one -for his benefit when he stopped me, saying,</p> - -<p>“Don’t ever strike a light in a submarine or a dynamite -factory. It’s unhealthy.”</p> - -<div id="ip_109" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_109.jpg" width="600" height="462" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Courtesy of the Electric Boat Company.</div> - <div class="caption">Forward deck of a U. S. Submarine, in cruising trim.</div></div> - -<p>I apologized profusely.</p> - -<p>“The air is so much better than I had expected that -I forgot where I was.”</p> - -<p>“Yes,” said the engineer, chewing his unlighted cigar, -“there is plenty of good air in a big modern boat like -this, running on the surface in calm weather and with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110">110</a></span> -the main hatch and all ventilators open. But come with -us when we’re bucking high seas or running submerged -on a breathing-diet of canned air flavored with oil, and -you’ll understand why so many good men have been invalided -out of the flotilla with lung-trouble. We’re the -only warships without any dogs or parrots or other mascots -on board, for no animal could endure the air in -a submarine.”</p> - -<div id="ip_110" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_110.jpg" width="600" height="411" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Courtesy of the Electric Boat Company.</div> - <div class="caption">Same, preparing to submerge. Railing stowed away and -bow-rudders extended.</div></div> - -<p>“I thought every submarine carried a cage of white -mice, because they began to squeak as soon as the air -began to get bad and so warned the crew.”</p> - -<p>“That was a crude device of the early days,” replied -the engineer. “We don’t carry white mice any more, -though I believe they still use them in the British navy.”</p> - -<p>I went up on deck, to find that the <i>X-4</i> had reached -the practice-grounds and was being made ready for a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111">111</a></span> -dive. Her crew were busy dismantling and stowing away -the bridge and the light deck-railing, hauling down the -flag, and closing all ventilators and other openings.</p> - -<p>“How long has it taken you to get ready?” I asked -Lieutenant Scope.</p> - -<p>“Twenty minutes,” he answered. “But the real diving -takes only two minutes. We’ll go below now, sink -her to condition, and run her under with the diving rudders.”</p> - -<p>“What are those things unfolding themselves on either -side of the bows?” I asked. “I thought the diving rudders -were carried astern.”</p> - -<p>“Modern submarines are so long that they need them -both fore and aft,” replied the lieutenant. “As you see, -the diving rudders fold flat against the side of the boat -where they will be out of harm’s way when we are running -on the surface or lying alongside the mother-ship. -Better come below now, for we’re going to dive.”</p> - -<p>We descended into the turret and the hatch was closed. -The Diesel engines had already been stopped and the -electric motors were now turning the propellers.</p> - -<p>“Why are those big electric pumps working down -there?” I asked.</p> - -<p>“Pumping water into the ballast-tanks.”</p> - -<p>“But doesn’t the water run into the tanks anyhow, as -soon as you open the valves?” I asked the lieutenant.</p> - -<p>“Turn a tumbler upside down and force it down into -a basin of water,” he replied, “and you trap some air -in the top of the tumbler, which prevents the water from -rising beyond a certain point. The same thing takes -place in our tanks, and to fill them we have to force in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112">112</a></span> -the water with powerful pumps that compress the air in -the tanks to a very small part of its original bulk. This -compressed air acts as a powerful spring to drive the -water out of the tanks again when we wish to rise. By -blowing out the tanks, a submarine can come to the surface -in twenty seconds or one sixth the time it takes to -submerge.”</p> - -<p>“When are we going under?” I asked him. The lieutenant -looked at his watch and answered,</p> - -<p>“We have been submerged for the last four minutes.”</p> - -<p>I experienced a feeling of the most profound disappointment. -Ever since I had been a very small boy I had -been looking forward to the time when I should go down -in a submarine boat, and now that time had passed without -my realizing it.</p> - -<p>“But why didn’t I feel the boat tilt when she dived?” -I demanded.</p> - -<p>“Because she went down a very gentle slope, between -two and three degrees at the steepest. The only way you -could have noticed it would have been to watch these -gages.”</p> - -<p>Large dials on the wall of the turret indicated that the -<i>X-4</i> was running on what was practically an even keel at -a depth of sixteen feet and under a consequent water-pressure -of 1024 pounds on every square foot of her hull.</p> - -<p>“How deep could she go?”</p> - -<p>“One hundred and fifty feet—if she had to. The -strong inner hull of a modern submarine is built up of -three quarter inch plates of the best mild steel and well -braced and strengthened from within. But as a rule -there is no need of our diving below sixty feet at the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113">113</a></span> -deepest, or far enough to clear the keel of the largest -ship. You will notice how the depth-control man is -holding her steady by manipulating the forward horizontal -rudders, just as an aviator steadies his aeroplane.”</p> - -<div id="ip_113" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_113.jpg" width="600" height="417" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Courtesy of the Electric Boat Company.</div> - <div class="caption">Depth-control Station, U. S. Submarine.<br /> - <span class="smaller">Wheel governing horizontal rudders, gages showing depth, trim, etc.</span></div></div> - -<p>“He must be a strong man to handle those two big -horizontal rudders.”</p> - -<p>“He has an electric motor to do the hard work for him, -as has the quartermaster steering the course here with -the vertical rudder.”</p> - -<p>The same red-headed petty officer that I had noticed -on the bridge now grasped the spokes of a smaller steering-wheel -inside the conning-tower.</p> - -<p>“What is that queer-looking thing whirling round and -round in front of him?” I asked.</p> - -<p>“A Sperry gyroscopic compass,” replied the lieutenant.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_114">114</a></span> -“An ordinary magnetic compass could not be relied on -to point in any particular direction if it was shut up in -a steel box full of charged electric wires, like the turret -of a submarine. We tried to remedy this by building conning-towers -of copper, till Mr. Sperry perfected a compass -that has no magnetic -needle, but operates on -the principle of the -gyroscope. You know -that a heavy, rapidly -rotating wheel resists -any tendency to being -shifted relative to -space?”</p> - -<p>“Yes.”</p> - -<div id="ip_114" class="figcenter" style="width: 380px;"> - <img src="images/i_114.jpg" width="380" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Cross-section of a Periscope.</div></div> - -<p>“The earth, revolving -on its axis, is nothing -but a big gyroscope—that -is why it stays -put. The little gyroscope -on this compass -spins at right angles to -the revolution of the -earth and so keeps in a -due north and south -line. But the frame it is mounted on turns with the -ship, so the relative positions of the frame and the gyro-axis -show in what direction the submarine is heading.”</p> - -<p>“And you can see what’s ahead of you through the -periscope. Who invented that?”</p> - -<p>“The idea is a very old one. Certain French and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_115">115</a></span> -Dutch inventors designed submarines with periscopes as -long ago as the eighteen-fifties. In the Civil War, the -light-draft river-monitor <i>Osage</i> had attached to her turret -a crude periscope made by her chief engineer, Thomas -Doughty, out of a piece of three-inch steam-pipe with -holes cut at each of its ends at opposite sides, and pieces -of looking-glass inserted as reflectors. By means of -this instrument her captain, now Rear-Admiral, Thomas -O. Selfridge, was able to look over the high banks of the -Red River when the <i>Osage</i> had run aground in a bend -and was being attacked by three thousand dismounted -Confederate cavalry, who were repulsed with the loss of -four hundred killed or wounded by the fire of the monitor’s -11-inch guns, directed through the periscope.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">15</a></p> - -<p>“But as late as 1900 the periscope was so crude and unsatisfactory -an instrument that John P. Holland would -have nothing to do with it. The credit for bringing it -to its present efficiency belongs chiefly to the Germans, -who kept many of their scientists working together on -the solution of the difficult problems of optics that were -involved.</p> - -<p>“By turning this little crank,” the lieutenant continued, -“I can revolve the reflector at the top of the tube. This -reflector contains a prism which reflects the image of the -object in view down through a system of lenses in the -tube to another prism here at the bottom, where the observer -sees it through an eyepiece and telescope lenses.”</p> - -<p>I looked into the eyepiece, which was so much like that -of an old-fashioned stereoscope that I felt that it, too, -ought to work back and forth after the manner of a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_116">116</a></span> -slide trombone. I found myself looking out over the -broad blue waters of a sunlit bay. I noticed a squall -blackening the surface of the water, a catboat running -before it, and the gleam of the brass instruments of the -band playing on the after deck of a big white excursion -steamer half a mile away.</p> - -<p>“I can almost imagine I can hear the music of that -band,” I exclaimed. “The optical illusion is perfect.”</p> - -<p>“It has to be,” rejoined the lieutenant. “If the image -were in the least distorted or out of perspective, we -couldn’t aim straight.”</p> - -<p>“What do you do when the periscope is wet with -spray?” I asked him.</p> - -<p>“Wash the glass with a jet of alcohol and dry it from -the inside with a current of warm air passing up and -down the tube. A periscope-tube is double: the outer -one passing through a stuffing-box in the hull, and the inner -tube revolving inside it. The old-fashioned single -tubes were too hard to revolve and the resistance of the -water used to bend them aft and cause leakage. We can -raise and lower the periscopes at will, and all our larger -boats have two of them, so that they can keep a lookout -in two directions at once, besides having a spare eye -in case the first is put out.”</p> - -<p>“What are those two little things that big naval tug -is towing over there?” I inquired.</p> - -<p>“The target for our torpedo practice,” replied Lieutenant -Scope. “We shall try to put four Whiteheads -between those two buoys as the tug tows them past at an -unknown range and speed. If you step forward to the -torpedo room you can see them loading the tubes.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_117">117</a></span> -As I walked forward it occurred to me that the twenty-odd -men on board the <i>X-4</i> seemed to be moving about -inside her with perfect freedom, without disturbing her -trim. I mentioned this to one of the crew.</p> - -<div id="ip_117" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_117.jpg" width="600" height="394" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Courtesy of the Electric Boat Company.</div> - <div class="caption">Forward torpedo-compartment, U. S. Submarine, showing breech-mechanism - of four tubes. Round opening above is the escape-hatch. -</div></div> - -<p>“It’s the trimming-tanks that keep her level,” he explained. -“As we’re walking forward, our weight in -water is being automatically pumped from the trimming-tank -in the bow to the one astern. A submarine is just -one blamed tank after another. Stand clear of that -chain-fall, sir; they’re loading No. 1 tube.”</p> - -<p>Stripped to the waist like an old-time gun-crew, four -beautifully muscled young gunner’s mates were hoisting, -with an ingenious arrangement of chains and pulleys, a -torpedo from the magazine. The breach of the tube was -opened and the long Whitehead thrust in, two flanges on<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_118">118</a></span> -its sides being fitted into deep grooves in the sides of the -tube, so that the torpedo would not spin like a rifle-bullet -but be launched on an even keel. The breach was closed, -and the men stood by expectantly.</p> - -<p>“Skipper’s up in the conning-tower, taking aim -through the periscope,” explained the man who had told -me about trimming-tanks. “The tubes being fixed in the -bow, he has to train the whole boat like a gun. Likewise -he’s got to figure out how far it is to the target and how -fast the tug is towing it, how many seconds it’s going to -take the torpedo to get there, and how much he’s got to -allow for its being carried off its course by tide and currents. -When he gets good and ready, the lieutenant’ll -press a little electric button and you’ll hear—”</p> - -<p>“<span class="smcap">Thud!</span>” went the compressed air in the tube, and the -submarine shuddered slightly with the shock of the recoil. -But that was all.</p> - -<p>“There she goes!” said my friend the tank-expert. -“As soon as the Whitehead was expelled, a compensation-tank -just above the tube was flooded with enough water -to make good the loss in weight.”</p> - -<p>“What keeps the sea-water from rushing into the tube -after the torpedo leaves it?” I asked.</p> - -<p>“A conical-shaped cap on the bow of the boat keeps -both tubes closed except when you want to fire one of -them. Then the cap, which is pivoted on its upper edge, -swings to port or starboard just long enough for the torpedo -to get clear and swings back before the water can -get in.”</p> - -<p>Four of the ten torpedoes carried in the magazine were -sped on their way to the unseen target. I returned to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_119">119</a></span> -the turret as the wireless operator entered and handed a -typewritten slip to Lieutenant Scope, who smiled happily -and said to me,</p> - -<p>“The captain of the tug reports that all four shots -were hits and all four torpedoes have been safely recovered.”</p> - -<p>I was too astonished to congratulate him on his marksmanship, -as I should have done.</p> - -<p>“How in the name of miracles!” I gasped. “Can -you receive a wireless telegram under the sea?”</p> - -<p>“By the Fessenden oscillator,” he replied, and added -to the wireless man,</p> - -<p>“Take this gentleman below and show him how it -works.”</p> - -<p>“Did you ever have another chap knock two stone together -under water when you were taking a dive?” asked -the operator. I nodded in vivid recollection.</p> - -<p>“Then you have some idea how sounds are magnified -under water. It is an old idea to put submarine bells -down under lighthouses and fit ships with some kind of -receiver so that the bells can be heard and warning given -when it is too foggy to see the light. The advantage over -the old-style bell-buoy lies in the fact that sound travels -about four times as fast through water as through air,<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">16</a> -and goes further and straighter because it isn’t deflected -by winds or what the aviators call ‘air-pockets.’ The -man who knows most about these things is Professor -Fessenden, of the Submarine Signal Company of Boston,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_120">120</a></span> -who first realized the possibility of telegraphing through -water.<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">17</a></p> - -<div id="ip_120" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_120.jpg" width="600" height="474" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Courtesy of the American Magazine.</div> - <div class="caption">Fessenden oscillator outside the hull of a ship. The “ear” of - a modern vessel.</div></div> - -<p>“Fastened outside the hull of this boat is one of the -Fessenden oscillators: a steel disk eighteen inches in -diameter, that can be vibrated very rapidly by electricity.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_121">121</a></span> -These vibrations travel through the water, like wireless -waves through the ether, till they strike the oscillator on -another vessel and set it to vibrating in sympathy. To -send a message, I start and stop the oscillator with this -key so as to form the dots and dashes of the Morse code. -To receive, I sit here with these receivers over my ears -and ‘listen in,’ just like a wireless operator, till I pick up -our call ‘X-4,’ ‘X-4.’”</p> - -<p>“How far can you send a message under water?”</p> - -<p>“Ten miles is the furthest I’ve ever sent one. Professor -Fessenden has sent messages more than thirty miles. -The invention only dates back to 1913 and what it will -do in the future, there is no telling.”</p> - -<div id="ip_121" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_121.jpg" width="600" height="421" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Courtesy of the American Magazine.</div> - <div class="caption">Professor Fessenden receiving a message sent through several - miles of sea-water by his “Oscillator.”</div></div> - -<p>“Even now, couldn’t a surface vessel act as eyes for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122">122</a></span> -a whole flotilla of submarines and tell them where to -go and when to strike by coaching them through the -Fessenden oscillator?”</p> - -<p>The operator nodded.</p> - -<p>“We’re doing it to-day, in practice. But don’t forget -that an enemy’s ship carrying a pair of oscillators can -hear a submarine coming two miles away. You can -make out the beat of a propeller at that distance every -time.”</p> - -<p>“But how can you tell how far away and in what -direction it is?”</p> - -<p>“I can’t, with a single oscillator like ours. But a ship -carries two of them, one on each side of the hull, like the -ears on a man’s head. And just as a man knows whether -a shout he hears comes from the right or left, because -he hears it more with one ear than the other, so the -skipper of a surface craft can look at the indicator that -registers the relative intensity of the vibrations received -by the port and starboard oscillators and say,</p> - -<p>“‘There’s somebody three points off the starboard -bow, mile and three quarters away, and heading for us. -Nothing in sight, so it must be one of those blamed submarines.’</p> - -<p>“And away he steams, full speed ahead and cutting -zigzags. Or maybe he gets his rapid-fire guns ready and -watches for Mr. Submarine to rise—like the <i>X-4</i>’s doing -now.”</p> - -<p>Freed of the dead weight of many tons of sea water -blown from her ballast-tanks by compressed air, the submarine -rose to the surface like a balloon. Ventilators -and hatch-covers were thrown open and we swarmed up<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_123">123</a></span> -on deck to fill our grateful lungs with the good sea air. -Three motor-boats from the tug throbbed up alongside -with the four torpedoes we had discharged.</p> - -<p>“Those boats wait, one this side of the target, one near -it and the third over on the far side, to mark the shots -and catch the torpedoes after they rise to the surface at -the end of their run,” said Lieutenant Scope. “We very -seldom lose a torpedo nowadays. They tell a story about -one that dived to the bottom and was driven by the force -of its own engines into forty feet of soft mud, where -it stayed till it happened to be dug up by a dredger.”</p> - -<p>The four torpedoes were hoisted aboard, drained of -the sea water that had flooded their air-chambers, cleaned -and lowered through the torpedo hatch forward down -into the magazine. By this time the bridge and railing -were again in place and the flags fluttering over the -taffrail as the <i>X-4</i>, her day’s work done, sped swiftly up -the coast to home and mother-ship.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_124">124</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X<br /> - -<span class="subhead">ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY DEVICES</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> following submarines, with all or part of their -crews, have been accidentally lost in time of peace:</p> - -<table id="lost" class="intact p1" summary="Submarines lost"> - <tr> - <td class="tdl in0 b1"><i>Date</i></td> - <td class="tdl in0 b1"><i>Name</i></td> - <td class="tdl in0 b1"><i>Nationality</i></td> - <td class="tdc b1"><i>Men Lost</i></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">March 18, 1904</td> - <td class="tdl">A-1</td> - <td class="tdl">British</td> - <td class="tdc">11</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">June 20, 1904</td> - <td class="tdl">Delfin</td> - <td class="tdl">Russian</td> - <td class="tdc">26</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">June 8, 1905</td> - <td class="tdl">A-8</td> - <td class="tdl">British</td> - <td class="tdc">14</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">July 6, 1905</td> - <td class="tdl">Farfadet</td> - <td class="tdl">French</td> - <td class="tdc">14</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">October 16, 1906</td> - <td class="tdl">Lutin</td> - <td class="tdl">French</td> - <td class="tdc">13</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">April 26, 1909</td> - <td class="tdl">Foca</td> - <td class="tdl">Italian</td> - <td class="tdc">13</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">June 12, 1909</td> - <td class="tdl">Kambala</td> - <td class="tdl">Russian</td> - <td class="tdc">20</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">July 14, 1909</td> - <td class="tdl">C-11</td> - <td class="tdl">British</td> - <td class="tdc">13</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">April 15, 1910</td> - <td class="tdl">No. 6.</td> - <td class="tdl">Japanese</td> - <td class="tdc">14</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">May 26, 1910</td> - <td class="tdl">Pluviôse</td> - <td class="tdl">French</td> - <td class="tdc">26</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">January 17, 1911</td> - <td class="tdl">U-3</td> - <td class="tdl">German</td> - <td class="tdc"> 3</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">February 2, 1912</td> - <td class="tdl">A-3</td> - <td class="tdl">British</td> - <td class="tdc">14</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">June 8, 1912</td> - <td class="tdl">Vendémiaire</td> - <td class="tdl">French</td> - <td class="tdc">24</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">October 4, 1912</td> - <td class="tdl">B-2</td> - <td class="tdl">British</td> - <td class="tdc">15</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">June 8, 1913</td> - <td class="tdl">E-5</td> - <td class="tdl">British</td> - <td class="tdc"> 3</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">December 10, 1913</td> - <td class="tdl">C-14</td> - <td class="tdl">British</td> - <td class="tdc">none</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">January 16, 1914</td> - <td class="tdl">A-7</td> - <td class="tdl">British</td> - <td class="tdc">11</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">March 25, 1915</td> - <td class="tdl">F-4</td> - <td class="tdl">American</td> - <td class="tdc">21</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>The <i>A-1</i> was engaged in manœuvers off Spithead, England, -when she rose to the surface right under the bows -of the fast-steaming Union Castle Liner <i>Berwick Castle</i>. -Before anything could be done, the sharp prow of the -steamer had cut a great gash in the thin hull of the submarine -and sent her to the bottom with all her crew. -This was in broad daylight; her sister-ship <i>C-11</i> was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_125">125</a></span> -rammed and sunk by another liner three years later, at -night. The <i>Pluviôse</i> of the French navy escaped the bow -of an on-coming cross-channel steamer when the submarine -came up at the entrance to Calais Harbor, only to -have her topsides crushed in by a blow from one of the -paddle-wheels. Collisions like these are less likely to happen -nowadays, for the navigating officer of a modern submarine -can take a look round the horizon through the -periscope from a depth sufficient to let most steamers -pass harmlessly over him, and in case of darkness or fog, -he can detect the vibrations of approaching propellers by -means of the Fessenden oscillator or some similar device. -Yet the frequency with which submarines have been intentionally -rammed and sunk in the present war shows -that they would still be liable to rise blindly to their destruction -in time of peace.</p> - -<p>The vapor from a leaking fuel-tank, making an explosive -mixture with the air inside the submarine and set -off by a spark from the electrical machinery, has caused -many accidents of another kind. Such an explosion took -place on the original <i>Holland</i>, shortly after she was taken -into the government service, but fortunately without killing -any one. As the crew of the British <i>A-5</i> were filling -the fuel tanks of their vessel with gasoline, some of -them were blown up through the open hatchway and into -the sea by a burst of flaming vapor that killed six men -and terribly injured twelve more. A rescue party that -entered the boat to save the men still left aboard had -several of its own members disabled by a second explosion. -The vessel itself, however, was almost unharmed. But -not long afterwards, another submarine of the same ill-fated<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_126">126</a></span> -class, the <i>A-8</i>, was lying off Plymouth breakwater -with her hatches open, when the people on shore heard -three distinct explosions on board her and saw her suddenly -submerge. Her crew evidently got the hatches -closed before she went down, as they sent up signals that -they were alive but unable to rise. Two hours later a -fourth explosion took place and all hope was abandoned.</p> - -<p>This danger has been guarded against by better construction -of tanks and valves, and very greatly lessened -by the substitution of the heavy oil used in the Diesel -engines for the more costly and volatile gasoline.</p> - -<p>Besides igniting explosive oil vapors with their sparks, -the old-fashioned sulphuric acid and lead storage batteries -still used in many submarines are a great source of -danger in themselves. The jars are too easily broken, -and the leaking acid eats into the steel plating of the boat, -weakening it if not actually letting in the sea water. And -if salt water comes in contact with a battery of this -type, then chlorin gas—the same poisonous gas that the -Germans use against the Allies’ trenches—is generated -and the crew are in very great danger of suffocation. -The new Edison alkali storage battery, besides being -lighter and more durable, uses no acid and cannot give -off chlorin when saturated with sea water.</p> - -<div id="ip_127" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_127.jpg" width="600" height="382" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Redrawn from the London Sphere.</div> - <div class="caption">Side-elevation of a Modern Submarine,</div> - <div class="caption smaller">A, Running on the surface; B, In awash condition; C, Submerging; D, Exposing periscope; E, Fully submerged; F, -Resting on the bottom.</div></div> - -<p>The remaining great danger is that a submarine may -get out of control and submerge too quickly, so that it -either strikes the bottom, at the risk of being crushed in -or entangled, or descends to so great a depth that its -sides are forced in by the pressure of the water outside, -which also prevents the submarine from discharging the -water in its ballast tanks and escaping to the surface.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_127">127</a><a class="hidev" id="Page_128">128</a></span> -Detachable safety weights and keels to lighten the boat -in such an emergency date back to the time of Bushnell -and J. Day. A more modern device is to have a hydrostatic -valve (see page <a href="#Page_51">51</a>) set to correspond with the -pressure of a certain depth of water, so that if the submarine -goes below this the valve will be forced in and -automatically “blow the tanks.”</p> - -<p>A submarine that sank too deep was the <i>No. 6</i>, of the -Imperial Japanese navy, which disappeared while manœuvering -in Hiroshima Bay, on April 15, 1910. When she -was found, her entire crew lay dead at their stations, and -in the conning-tower, beside the body of the commander, -was the following letter written by that officer, Lieutenant -Takuma Faotomu:</p> - -<p>“Although there is indeed no excuse to make for the -sinking of his Imperial Majesty’s boat, and for the doing -away of subordinates through my heedlessness, all on -board the boat have discharged their duties well and in -everything acted calmly until death. Although we are -dying in the pursuance of our duty to the State, the only -regret we have is due to anxiety lest the men of the world -misunderstand the matter, and that thereby a blow may -be given to the future development of the submarine.</p> - -<p>“Gentlemen, we hope you will be increasingly diligent -and not fail to appreciate the cause of the accident, and -that you will devote your entire energy to investigate -everything and so secure the future development of submarines. -If this be done we have nothing to regret.</p> - -<p>“While going through gasoline submerged exercises -we submerged too far, and when we attempted to shut -the sluice-valve, the chain broke.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_129">129</a></span> -“Then we tried to close the sluice-valve by hand, but -it was too late, for the afterpart was full of water, and -the boat sank at an angle of about twenty-five degrees. -The boat came to rest at an incline of about twelve degrees, -pointing towards the stern. The switchboard being -under water the electric lights went out. Offensive -gas developed and breathing became difficult. The boat -sank about 10 <span class="smcap smaller">A.M.</span> on the 15th, and though suffering at -the time from this offensive gas, we endeavored to expel -the water by hand pumps. As the vessel went down we -expelled the water from the main tank. As the light has -gone out the gage cannot be seen, but we know the water -has been expelled from the main tank.</p> - -<p>“We cannot use the electric current at all. The battery -is leaking but no salt water has reached it and -chlorin gas has not developed. We only rely on the -hand pump now.</p> - -<p>“The above was written under the light of the conning-tower, -at about 11.45 o’clock. We are now soaked -by the water that has made its way in. Our clothes are -wet and we feel cold. I had been accustomed to warn my -shipmates that their behavior (in an emergency) should -be calm and deliberate, as well as brave, yet not too -deliberate, lest work be retarded. People may be tempted -to ridicule this after this failure, but I am perfectly confident -that my words have not been mistaken.</p> - -<p>“The depth gage of the conning-tower indicates 52 -feet, and despite our efforts to expel the water the pump -stopped and would not work after 12 o’clock. The depth -in this neighborhood being ten fathoms, the reading may -be correct.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_130">130</a></span> -“The officers and men of submarines should be chosen -from the bravest of the brave or there will be annoyances -in cases like this. Happily all the members of this crew -have discharged their duties well and I am satisfied. -I have always expected death whenever I left my home, -and therefore my will is already in the drawer at Karasaki. -(This remark applies only to my private affairs -and is really superfluous. Messrs. Taguchi and Asami -will please inform my father of this.)</p> - -<p>“I respectfully request that none of the families left -by my subordinates suffer. The only thing I am anxious -about is this.</p> - -<p>“Atmospheric pressure is increasing and I feel as if -my tympanum were breaking.</p> - -<p>“12.30 o’clock. Respiration is extraordinarily difficult. -I mean I am breathing gasoline. I am intoxicated -with gasoline.</p> - -<p>“It is 12.40 o’clock.”</p> - -<p>Those were the last words written by Lieutenant -Takuma Faotomu, bravest of the brave.</p> - -<p>Very many ingenious devices have been invented to -enable the crew of a stranded submarine to escape. The -best-known and most widely used is some form of the -air-lock or diver’s chamber, as described in the chapter on -the Lake boats. Through this the crew can pass in succession -to the water outside and swim to the surface. If -the depth is so great that an unprotected swimmer would -be crushed by the weight of water above him, there is a -great variety of safety-helmets, and of jackets with -mouth-pieces leading to tanks containing enough air under -moderate pressure to inflate the lungs and cheeks so<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_131">131</a></span> -that the internal pressure of the body will counteract that -of the water. An escaping seaman, burdened with such -a device, cannot rise unaided to the surface but must -climb or be hauled up by a rope let down from above. -Moreover, he must not ascend too rapidly, or the pressure -within his body will dangerously exceed that without, -as if he had been suddenly -picked up at the seashore and -carried to the top of the -Andes. The human body is -too delicate and elaborate a -structure to be carelessly -turned into a compressed-air -tank. The surplus oxygen -forms bubbles which try to -force their way out through -the tissues of the body, causing -intense pain, and possibly -paralysis or death. To avoid -this, divers are brought up -from any great depth by -slow and careful stages, unless -they can be placed at -once in specially-constructed -tanks on shore, where the pressure they are under can be -gradually reduced to normal.</p> - -<div id="ip_131" class="figcenter" style="width: 362px;"> - <img src="images/i_131.jpg" width="362" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Courtesy of the Scientific American.</div> - <div class="caption">One Type of Safety-jacket.</div></div> - -<p>A covered lifeboat carried in a socket on the submarine’s -deck, so that in case of accidental stranding the -crew could get into the small boat from below, close the -hatch cover, release the lifeboat from within, and rise -safely and comfortably to the surface, was an attractive<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_132">132</a></span> -feature of the <i>Plongeur</i> in 1863, and of many projected -but unbuilt submarines since then. A detachable conning-tower, -containing a small lifeboat that could be -launched after the safety compartment had risen to the -surface, has also been designed and patented more than -once. Theoretically, these devices seem admirable but -naval architects will have none of them. The reason for -this is very simple. A submarine is primarily a warship, -an instrument of destruction, and its carrying capacity -is too limited to permit several hundredweight of torpedoes -or supplies being crowded out by a lifeboat or a -score of safety-helmets. A divers’ compartment and one -or two ordinary diving-suits—for these things are of -military value—and a buoy that can be sent up to mark -the spot where the boat has gone down are as much as -you can expect to find in the average naval submarine.</p> - -<p>One of the most instructive accidents that ever happened -to an undersea boat was the loss and rescue of the -German <i>U-3</i>. She sank to the bottom of Kiel Harbor -on January 17, 1911. A small spherical buoy was released -and rose to the surface, where it was picked up -and a telephone attached to the end of the thin wire -cable.</p> - -<p>“Hello!”</p> - -<p>“Hello! This is the captain of the <i>U-3</i> speaking. -We cannot rise, but we are resting easy and have air -enough to last forty-eight hours.”</p> - -<p>“Good. The steam salvage-dock <i>Vulcan</i> has been -sent for and will be here before then, Herr Kapitan.”</p> - -<p>But before the <i>Vulcan</i> arrived, it occurred to some one -in authority to attempt to raise the <i>U-3</i> with a large floating<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_133">133</a></span> -crane then available. The strong steel chain ready -coiled at the lower end of the buoy-line was drawn up -and made fast to the crane, which could not lift the 300-ton -submarine bodily, but succeeded in hauling up its bow -sufficiently for the twenty-seven petty officers and seamen -on board the <i>U-3</i> to be shot up through the torpedo -tube to the surface. The captain and his two lieutenants -chose to remain. Shortly afterwards the chain slipped -and broke off one of the boat’s ventilators, letting water -into the hull and drowning all three officers.</p> - -<p>Then the sea-going, steam salvage-dock <i>Vulcan</i> -reached the scene and brought the <i>U-3</i> to the surface in -three hours.</p> - -<p>“The <i>Vulcan</i> is a double-hulled vessel, 230 feet in -length with a lifting capacity of 500 tons. The width -between the two hulls is sufficient to admit with good -clearance the largest submarines. At a suitable height -a shelf is formed along each wall of the interior opening, -and upon this rests the removable floor of the dock. The -two hulls of the ship are each built with water-tight compartments -of large capacity, similar to those which are -found in the side walls of the ordinary floating dock. -When a sunken submarine is to be raised, the <i>Vulcan</i> -steams to the wreck and is moored securely in position -above it. Spanning the well between the two hulls are -two massive gantry cranes, each provided with heavy -lifting tackle driven by electric motors. The first operation -is to fill the compartments until the vessel has sunk -to the required depth. The floor of the dock is then -moved clear of the well. The lifting tackles are now -lowered and made fast, either to chains which have been<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_134">134</a></span> -slung around the body of the submarine, or to two -massive eyebolts which are permanently riveted into the -submarine’s hull. At the order to hoist away, the submarine -is lifted free from the mud and drawn up within -the well, until its bottom is clear of the supporting shelves -on the inner faces of the two hulls, above referred to. -The dock floor is -then placed in position -on the shelves, -the water is pumped -out of the two hulls, -and the <i>Vulcan</i> -rises, lifting the -submarine and the -dock floor clear of -the water.”<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">18</a></p> - -<div id="ip_134" class="figcenter" style="width: 504px;"> - <img src="images/i_134.jpg" width="504" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Courtesy of the Scientific American.</div> - <div class="caption">The <i>Vulcan</i> salvaging the <i>U-3</i>.</div></div> - -<p>A similar vessel -was built by the -French government -as a result of public -indignation over the -delay in raising the -sunken <i>Pluviôse</i>. -Great Britain has a salvage dock with a lifting capacity -of 1000 tons. But the most remarkable craft of this -kind belongs to Italy and was designed by the famous -engineer Major Cesare Laurenti, technical director of the -Fiat-San Giorgio works, builders of some of the world’s -best submarines. She is a twin-hulled vessel, fitted not -only to pick a sunken submarine from the sea bottom, but<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_135">135</a></span> -to care for it in every way, for she is also a floating dry-dock, -capable of repairing two of the largest submarines, -besides being a fully equipped mother-ship for a -flotilla of six. With the ends of her central tunnel closed -by a false stem and stern, and propelled by twin screws -driven by powerful Diesel engines, she is a fast and seaworthy -vessel, capable of keeping company with her flotilla -on a surface cruise. She carries a sufficient armament of -quick-firing guns to beat off a hostile destroyer. But the -most noteworthy feature of the Laurenti dock is a long -steel cylinder, capable of enduring great pressure from -within, that is used to test the resisting strength of new -submarines. A new boat, or a section of a proposed new -type, is placed in this tube, which is filled with water that -is then compressed by pumps, reproducing the effect of -submergence to any desired depth.</p> - -<p>The United States navy tests each new submarine built -for it by actually lowering the boat, with no one in it, -to a depth of 200 feet. We have no Laurenti dock, no -<i>Vulcan</i>, no sea-going salvage dock of any kind. The -tender <i>Fulton</i> has a powerful crane, but she cannot be -on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and in the Far East, -simultaneously.</p> - -<p>“The difficulties encountered in raising the sunken -British submarine <i>A-3</i>,” wrote Mr. R. G. Skerrett in the -“Scientific American” some years ago, “have in them -a note of warning for us. We are steadily adding to -our flotilla of under-water boats, and yet we have no -proper facilities in the government service for the -prompt salvage of any of these boats should they be -carried suddenly to the bottom. We have been fortunate<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_136">136</a></span> -so far in escaping serious accidents, but that is -no reason for assuming that we are any more likely -to be immune from disaster than any other naval service. -We should profit by the catastrophes which have -befallen England, Russia, France, Germany, and Japan, -and no longer continue unprepared for kindred mishaps.”<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">19</a></p> - -<p>We refused to profit and we continued unprepared. -Then came a brief official cablegram from Hawaii, -“Honolulu, March 25, 1915. U. S. submarine <i>F-4</i> left -tender at 9 <span class="smcap smaller">A.M.</span> for submerged run. Failed to return -to surface.”</p> - -<p>The other two submarines on the station and motor-boats -from the tender <i>Alert</i> cruised about till they found -the spot where oil and air-bubbles were coming to the -surface. Two tugs then swept the bottom with a two-thousand -foot sweep of chains and wire cables, which -caught early the next morning on what proved to be the -lost submarine, in three hundred feet of water, about -a mile and a half outside the entrance to Honolulu Harbor.</p> - -<p>For twenty-four hours or so the navy department -held out the hope that the men on board her were still -alive and might be rescued. But there was nothing -ready to rescue them with. Three weeks were spent in -building the windlasses for an improvised salvage-dock -made out of two mud scows. In the meanwhile, a detachment -of the department’s most skilled divers were -sent out from the Brooklyn Navy Yard. With their -aid, strong wire cables were passed under the submarine’s<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_137">137</a></span> -hull. While engaged on this work, one of the divers, -Chief Gunner’s Mate Frank Crilley, broke all deep submergence -records by descending to a depth of 288 feet. -As a result, his lungs were severely injured and he soon -afterwards developed pneumonia.</p> - -<p>The wire ropes chafed through and were replaced by -chains. Then the <i>F-4</i> was lifted from the bottom and -towed inshore to a depth of fifty feet. Here a heavy -storm set in and the lines had to be cast off. Six big -cylindrical-shaped pontoons were then built at San Francisco -and brought out to Honolulu on the cruiser <i>Maryland</i>. -Divers passed fresh chains under the <i>F-4</i>, the pontoons -were sunk on either side of her, and coupled together. -Then the water was blown out of the pontoons -by compressed-air piped down from above, the <i>F-4</i> was -raised to the surface, and towed into dry dock.</p> - -<p>No decipherable written record was discovered inside -her hull, which was filled with sand washed in through -a large hole made in the plating by the chafing of the -chains. But the story of the disaster was written in the -plates and rivets of the vessel herself, and skilfully deduced -and reconstructed by a board of inquiry, headed -by Rear-Admiral Boush. Their report, which was not -made public till October 27, told dramatically how the -corroded condition of the lead lining in the battery tanks -had let the acid eat away the rivets in the port wall of -the forward tank. Salt water thus entered part of the -battery, producing chlorin gas, which exploded violently, -admitting more water, till the submarine began to sink -by the head, in spite of the raising of her diving-rudders.</p> - -<p>“Automatic blow was tripped, and blow valve on<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_138">138</a></span> -auxiliary tank opened in the endeavor to check downward -momentum. Manœuvering with propellers probably -took place. The appreciable length of time requisite -for air to build up in ballast tanks for the expulsion -of sufficient quantities of water resulted in the vessel -reaching crushing depth.</p> - -<p>“Seams of the vessel began to open, and probably -through open torpedo tubes and seams water entered the -vessel and a condition of positive buoyancy was never -attained.</p> - -<p>“There followed actual disaster. The vessel began -filling with water. The personnel abandoned stations -and many sought refuge in the engine room, closing the -door. Under great pressure the engine room bulkhead -failed suddenly, leaving the vessel on the bottom, completely -flooded.”</p> - -<p>All the boats of the “F” class had already been withdrawn -from the service, by order of Secretary Daniels. -Their place at Honolulu was taken by four boats of the -“K” class, which made the 2100 mile voyage out from -San Francisco under their own power.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_139">139</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI<br /> - -<span class="subhead">MINES</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="center larger b0">THE MINE SWEEPERS</p> - -<div class="poem-container b1"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i26">“‘Ware mine!”<br /></span> -<span class="i0">“Starboard your helm.”... “Full speed ahead!”<br /></span> -<span class="i0">The squat craft duly swings—<br /></span> -<span class="i0">A hand’s breadth off, a thing of dread<br /></span> -<span class="i0">The sullen breaker flings.<br /></span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">Carefully, slowly, patiently,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">The men of Grimsby Town<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Grope their way on the rolling sea—<br /></span> -<span class="i0">The storm-swept, treacherous, gray North Sea—<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Keeping the death-rate down.<br /></span> -</div> -<div class="attrib">—<span class="smcap">H. Ingamells</span>, in the “London Spectator.” -</div></div> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap a"><span class="smcap1">A mine</span> is a torpedo that has no motive-power of -its own but is either anchored or set adrift in the -supposed path of an enemy’s ship. We have already -seen how Bushnell used drifting mines at Philadelphia -in 1777. Anchored mines are among the many inventions -of Robert Fulton. The following description of -the original type, illustrated by an engraving made by -himself, is taken from Fulton’s “Torpedo War and Submarine -Explosions.”</p> - -<div id="ip_140" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_140.jpg" width="600" height="553" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fulton’s Anchored Torpedoes.</div></div> - -<p>“Plate II represents the anchored torpedo, so arranged -as to blow up a vessel which should run against<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_140">140</a></span> -it; <i>B</i> is a copper case two feet long, twelve inches diameter, -capable of containing one hundred pounds of -powder. <i>A</i> is a brass box, in which there is a lock similar -to a common gun lock, with a barrel two inches -long, to contain a musket charge of powder: the box, -with the lock cocked and barrel charged, is screwed to -the copper case <i>B</i>. <i>H</i> is a lever which has a communication -to the lock inside of the box, and in its present -state holds the lock cocked and ready to fire. <i>C</i> is a -deal box filled with cork, and tied to the case <i>B</i>. The -object of the cork is to render the torpedo about fifteen<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_141">141</a></span> -or twenty pounds specifically lighter than water, and -give it a tendency to rise to the surface. It is held down -to any given depth under water by a weight of fifty or -sixty pounds as at <i>F</i>: there is also a small anchor <i>G</i>, to -prevent a strong tide moving it from its position. With -torpedoes prepared, and knowing the depth of water -in all our bays and harbors, it is only necessary to fix -the weight <i>F</i> at such a distance from the torpedo, as -when thrown into the water, <i>F</i> will hold it ten, twelve, or -fifteen feet below the surface at low water, it will then be -more or less below the surface at high water, or at -different times of the tide; but it should never be so -deep as the usual draft of a frigate or ship-of-the-line. -When anchored, it will, during the flood tide, stand in its -present position; at slack water it will stand perpendicular -to the weight <i>F</i>, as at <i>D</i>; during the ebb it will be at <i>E</i>. -At ten feet under water the waves, in boisterous -weather, would have little or no tendency to disturb the -torpedo; for that if the hollow of a wave should sink -ten feet below what would be the calm surface, the wave -would run twenty feet high, which I believe is never the -case in any of our bays and harbors. All the experience -which I have on this kind of torpedo is, that in the -month of October, 1805, I had one of them anchored -nine feet under water, in the British Channel near Dover; -the weather was severe, the waves ran high, it kept its -position for twenty-four hours, and, when taken up, the -powder was dry and the lock in good order. The torpedo -thus anchored, it is obvious, that if a ship in sailing -should strike the lever <i>H</i>, the explosion would be instantaneous, -and she be immediately destroyed; hence,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_142">142</a></span> -to defend our bays or harbors, let a hundred, or more if -necessary, of these engines be anchored in the channel, -as for example, the Narrows, to defend New York.</p> - -<p>“The figure to the right of the plate is an end view of -the torpedo. <i>H-H</i> shews its lever forked, to give the -better chance of being struck.</p> - -<p>“Having described this instrument in a way which -I hope will be understood,” continues Fulton, “I may be -permitted to put the following question to my reader, -which is: Knowing that the explosion of one hundred -pounds of powder, or more if required, under the bottom -of a ship-of-the-line, would destroy her, and seeing, -that if a ship in sailing should strike the lever of an -anchored torpedo, she would be blown up, would he have -the courage, or shall I say the temerity, to sail into a -channel where one or more hundred of such engines were -anchored? I rely on each gentleman’s sense of prudence -and self-preservation, to answer this question to my satisfaction. -Should the apprehension of danger become as -strong on the minds of those who investigate this subject -as it is on mine, we may reasonably conclude that the -same regard to self-preservation will make an enemy cautious -in approaching waters where such engines are -placed; for however brave sailors may be, there is no -danger so distressing to the mind of a seaman, or so -calculated to destroy his confidence, as that which is invisible -and instantaneous destruction.”</p> - -<p>But Admiral Farragut at Mobile Bay, half a century -later, did have the “temerity to sail into a channel where -one or more hundred of such engines were anchored.” -The monitor <i>Tecumseh</i> struck and exploded a mine that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_143">143</a></span> -sent her to the bottom with almost her entire crew. -The rest of the fleet began to waver when, from the -main-rigging of the <i>Hartford</i> Farragut shouted his immortal -command:</p> - -<p>“Full steam ahead! Damn the torpedoes!”</p> - -<div id="ip_143" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_143.jpg" width="600" height="413" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Sinking of the U. S. S. <i>Tecumseh</i>, by a Confederate -mine, in Mobile Bay.</div></div> - -<p>As the flagship led the way through the mine-field, -those on board heard mine after mine bump against her -bottom, but though the levers were struck and the primers -snapped, the powder-charges failed to explode. Hastily -improvised out of beer-kegs and other receptacles, with -tin or iron covers that became rusty and useless soon -after they were placed under water, many of the Confederate -mines were in this respect inferior to the well-built -copper torpedoes of Fulton. Yet crude as they -were, they destroyed more than forty Northern warships, -transports, and supply vessels.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_144">144</a></span></p> - -<div id="ip_144" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_144.jpg" width="600" height="319" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">From Scharf’s History of the Confederate States Navy.</div> - <div class="caption">A Confederate “Keg-Torpedo.”</div></div> - -<p>Percussion-caps instead of flintlocks were now used -to explode contact mines. A new type of anchored -torpedo, set off by an electric spark through a wire running -to an operator on shore, was also a favorite with the -Confederates. Because they are exploded not by contact -with the ship’s hull but by the closing of the circuit by -the operator when he observes an enemy’s vessel to be -above one of them, these are called “observation mines.” -In the Civil War, many effective mines of this sort were -made out of whisky demijohns. One of these blew up -the gunboat <i>Cairo</i>, in the Yazoo River, in the autumn -of 1862. The double-ended, river gunboat <i>Commodore -Jones</i> was blown to pieces by an observation mine, whose -operator was subsequently captured and tied to the cut-water -of another Federal gunboat as a warning and a -hostage. During the bombardment of Fort Sumter by -the United States fleet in 1863, the <i>New Ironsides</i> lay -for an hour directly above an observation mine made of -boiler iron and containing a ton of gunpowder but which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_145">145</a></span> -failed to explode despite all the efforts of the operator. -He was naturally accused of treachery and it would have -gone hard with him had it not been discovered, soon -after the <i>New Ironsides</i> ceased firing and stood out to -sea, that the shore end of the wire had been severed by -the wheel of an ammunition wagon.</p> - -<div id="ip_145" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_145.jpg" width="600" height="291" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smaller">U. S. IRON-CLAD “CAIRO” (BLOWN UP BY CONFEDERATE TORPEDO).</div> - <div class="captionl p1">From Scharf’s History of the Confederate States Navy.</div> - <div class="caption">First Warship Destroyed by a Mine.</div></div> - -<p>During the Franco-Prussian War, the powerful French -fleet blockaded the German coast but did not attack the -shore batteries, which were well protected by mines. -After peace was declared the foreign consuls at one of -the North German seaports congratulated the burgomaster -on having planted and taken up so many mines without -a single accident. Unknown to any one, the prudent -burgomaster had unloaded them first, and they kept -the French away just as well.</p> - -<p>In the Spanish-American War, Admiral Dewey was -able to enter Manila Bay and destroy the Spanish squadron -there because its commander “had repeatedly asked<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_146">146</a></span> -for torpedoes (mines) from Madrid, but had received -none and his attempts to make them had been failures.”<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">20</a> -It was the mine-fields and not the -feeble shore batteries that kept -Sampson’s fleet out of Havana and -Santiago. At Guantanamo, now a -United States naval station, the -<i>Texas</i> and the <i>Marblehead</i> each -“struck her propeller against a contact -mine, which failed to explode -only because it was incrusted with -a thick growth of barnacles. Gratitude -for the vessels’ escape may -fairly be divided between divine -care to which the gallant and devout -Captain Philip attributed it in his -report, and the Spaniards’ neglect -to maintain a proper inspection of -these defenses. A number of these -torpedoes, which were of French -manufacture, and contained forty-six -and a half kilograms (one hundred -and two pounds) of guncotton, -were afterward dragged up in the channel.”<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">21</a></p> - -<div id="ip_146" class="figleft" style="width: 240px;"> - <img src="images/i_146.jpg" width="240" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">From Scharf’s History of the Confederate States Navy.</div> - <div class="caption">A Confederate “Buoyant Torpedo” or Contact-mine.</div></div> - -<p>At the siege of Port Arthur in 1904, the Japanese fleet -planted mines outside the harbor to keep the Russians in, -and the Russians came out and planted mines of their -own to entrap the blockaders. While engaged in this -work, the Russian mine-layer <i>Yenisei</i> had a mine which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_147">147</a></span> -had just been lowered through her specially constructed -sternports thrown by a wave against her rudder, and -was blown to atoms by the consequent explosion of three -hundred more in her hold. The flagship <i>Petropavlosk</i>, -returning from a sortie on April 13, struck a Japanese contact-mine -and went down with the loss of six hundred -men, including Vereshchagin, the famous painter of war-scenes, -and Admiral Makaroff, who was not only the -commander but the heart and soul of the Russian fleet.<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">22</a> -A month later, another mine cost the Japanese their finest -battleship, the <i>Hatsuse</i>. Nor was the loss confined either -to the belligerents or to the duration of the war. Nearly -one hundred Chinese and other neutral merchant vessels -were sunk by some of the many mines torn loose from -their anchors by storms to drift, the least noticeable and -most terrible of derelicts, over all the seas of the Far -East, long after peace was declared.</p> - -<p>The same thing on a larger scale will doubtless take -place as a result of the present European War. From -the Baltic to the Dardanelles, both sides have sown the -waters thick with contact mines, hundreds of which have -already broken loose and been cast up on the shores of -Denmark, Holland, and other neutral lands. How many -more have been picked up on the coasts of the different -belligerent countries, the military censors have naturally -kept a close secret; how many of these infernal machines -are now drifting about the North Sea, the North Atlantic, -and the Mediterranean it is impossible to compute. -Scarcely a week passes without the publication of such<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_148">148</a></span> -news items as the following extracts from “Current -events in Norway,” in the “American-Scandinavian Review” -for July-August, 1915:</p> - -<p>“One hundred and fifty mines had been brought into -Bergen up to April 12. The steamer <i>Caprivi</i> of Bergen, -which sank after being struck by a mine off the -coast of Ireland, was on its way from Baltimore with a -cargo of 4150 tons of grain, the property of the Norwegian -government.... The German government has -declared its willingness to comply with the demand of the -Norwegian government for compensation for the <i>Belridge</i>, -provided it be proved that the sinking of the -steamer was the result of a German torpedo. The pieces -of the shell found in the side of the vessel are to be sent -to the German government, and in case there should be -any disagreement about the facts they will be submitted -to arbitration.”</p> - -<p>Unfortunately in most cases where a neutral ship is -so sunk, the exploding mine automatically destroys all -evidence of its own origin, and each belligerent promptly -and positively declares that it must have been planted, -if not deliberately set adrift, by the other side. The neutral -is left to get what satisfaction he can out of the ruling -of the last Hague Conference that all contact mines -must be so constructed as to become harmless after breaking -loose from their moorings. There is nothing mechanically -difficult about installing such a safety device, -and all the great powers now at war with each other -solemnly pledged themselves to do so. But the temptation -of perhaps destroying a hostile battleship as the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_149">149</a></span> -<i>Hatsuse</i> was destroyed, by a drifting mine, has apparently -been too great.</p> - -<p>Premature explosion of the mine during handling and -planting, such as caused the destruction of the <i>Yenisei</i> -is, of course, carefully guarded against. One of the -simplest and most effective safety devices is that used in -the British navy, where the external parts of the exploding -apparatus are sealed with a thick layer of sugar, -which is dissolved by the sea-water after being submerged -for a few minutes. By then the mine-laying -vessel has had time to get safely out of the neighborhood.</p> - -<p>Modern mines are of various shapes and sizes but are -as a rule either spherical or shaped like a pear with the -stem down. The anchor is a hollow, flat-bottomed cylinder, -containing its own anchor cable wound on a windlass, -and making a convenient base or stand for the explosive -chamber or mine proper, so that the whole apparatus -can be stood or trundled about the deck of a -mine-layer like a barrel. Once placed in the water either -by being dropped through the overhanging stern-ports -of a large sea-going mine-planter like the U.S.S. <i>San -Francisco</i>, or lowered over the side of a smaller craft -by a derrick boom, the weight of its anchor causes the -mine to assume an upright position. This releases a -small weight or plummet at the end of a short line attached -to a spring that keeps the windlass inside the -anchor from revolving. When the plummet has sunk to -the end of its cord, its weight pulls down the spring, -and the windlass begins to revolve and unreel the cable,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_150">150</a></span> -the end of which is, of course, made fast to the bottom -of the mine. This causes the anchor, which has been -held up by the buoyancy of the mine, to sink, and follows -the plummet till the latter touches the bottom. -Freed of the plummet’s weight, the spring now flies up -and stops the windlass. But the hollow anchor is now -filled with water, whose additional weight drags the mine -under. When the anchor rests on the bottom, the mine -will be at the same distance beneath the surface of the -water as the anchor had to sink after the windlass -stopped, or the length of the plummet’s line. By regulating -that, a mine can be made automatically to set itself -at any desired depth.</p> - -<div id="ip_150" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_150.jpg" width="600" height="387" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">(Redrawn from the London Sphere.)</div> - <div class="caption">Modern Contact-Mine.</div> - <div class="captionh j">A, Mine-Planter; B, Mine being dropped overboard; C, Plummet-line extended; -D, Anchor sinking; E, Plummet touching bottom; F, Mine submerged -and anchored; G, Battleship striking mine; 1, The “Striker”; -2, Charge of Explosives; 3, Air-space, for Buoyancy; 4, Mine-case; 5, -Anchor; 6, Plummet. -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_151">151</a></span> -Mines are almost never laid singly but in groups, the -area of water so planted being called a “mine field.” -A secret, zigzag channel is often left clear for the benefit -of friendly craft. The rows of mines are usually “staggered” -or placed like the men on a checker-board, so -that if a hostile vessel passes through an opening in the -first row she will strike a mine in the second. Another -device is to couple together the mooring cables of two -or more mines so that a ship passing between them will -draw them in against her sides.</p> - -<p>Contact may cause explosion in any one of several -different ways. The head or sides of the mine may be -studded with projecting rods like the striker on the nose -of a Whitehead, to be either driven directly in against -a detonating charge of fulminate or else open the jaws -of a clutch and release the spring of a firing-pin. Such -external movable parts, however, are too prone to become -overgrown and clogged with barnacles and the like. A -more modern way is to have the shock of the collision -with the ship’s hull dislodge a heavy ball held in a cup -inside the mine. The fall of this weight sets in motion -machinery which fires the detonating charge. Or the -device may not be mechanical but electrical, as in the -type of mine that, when drawn far enough over to one -side by a vessel passing over it, spills a cupful of mercury. -This stream of liquid metal closes an electric circuit, -so that an electric current passes through a piece -of platinum wire embedded in fulminate and heats it red-hot, -with obvious results. This current may be obtained -either from a storage-battery carried in the mine itself, -or through a wire running down the mooring cable and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_152">152</a></span> -over the bottom to the shore. Most shore-control mines -are so designed that they can either be fired by observation, -or else turned into electro-contact mines of the -above-mentioned type by arranging the switches in the -controlling station. It is also possible to have the contact -serve to warn the operator on shore by ringing a bell -and indicating the position of the intruding ship in the -mine-field.</p> - -<p>Just as barbed-wire entanglements on land are blown -out of the way by small charges of high explosives, so -mined areas of the sea can be cleared by “counter-mining.” -One or more strings of linked-together mines, of -a small, easily-handled type, are carefully placed by light-draft -vessels in the waters already planted by the enemy. -When these are exploded together, the concussion is -enough to destroy any anchored mines near at hand, -either by setting off their exploding-devices or causing -their cases to leak, so that they will be filled with water -and sink harmlessly to the bottom. Or a channel may -be cleared by “sweeping” it with a drag-rope towed -along the bottom by two small steamers, exploding the -mines or tearing them up by the roots. Very effective -work of this kind has been done by the small steam-trawlers -used by the North Sea fishermen, and if anything -of the sort is ever necessary in American waters -we may be thankful for the powerful sea-going tugs now -towing strings of barges up and down our coasts.</p> - -<div id="ip_153" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_153.jpg" width="600" height="387" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">U. S. Mine-planter <i>San Francisco</i>.</div></div> - -<p>But even a light field-piece on shore can shell and -sink the sort of small, unarmored craft that must be used -for mine-sweeping. When a fleet attacks a channel or -harbor entrance properly defended by both mine-fields<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_153">153</a><a class="hidev" id="Page_154">154</a></span> -and batteries, each supporting the other, there comes a -time when the naval forces must wait till troops can be -landed to drive away the forces protecting the rear of the -batteries, so that the mine-sweepers can advance and clear -a channel for the superdreadnoughts. The most striking -example of this is the holding of the Allied fleet by the -Turks at the Dardanelles.</p> - -<p>There, too, effective use is being made of the latest, -which is an adaptation of the oldest type of torpedo: the -drifting mine.<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> This twentieth-century improvement on -Bushnell’s “kegs charged with powder” floats upright, -with a vertical-acting propeller on top and another on its -bottom, and a hydrostatic valve set to maintain it at any -desired depth. Should it rise or sink, the change in pressure -will cause the valve to act on the principle already -explained in connection with the Whitehead torpedo (see -page <a href="#Page_44">44</a>). Controlled by the valve, the little compressed-air -motor attached to the vertical propellers will cause -them to make a few revolutions, just enough to keep the -mine at a constant depth beneath the surface of the -Dardanelles, as the four-mile-an-hour current carries it -down against the Anglo-French fleet. Within a few -hours of each other, during the furious bombardment -of the forts on March 18, 1915, the French battleship -<i>Bouvet</i> was struck by one of these drifting mines and -went down stern-foremost, then H.M.S. <i>Ocean</i> was sunk -by another, and the <i>Irresistible</i> forced to run ashore to -escape sinking, only to be pounded to pieces by the guns -of the forts. A feature of this type of mine is that its<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_155">155</a></span> -size and shape enable it to be launched through a torpedo -tube, either from a surface craft or from a submarine.</p> - -<p>Ordinary contact-mines, without anchors and attached -to floats that held them a few feet below the surface of -the water, are sometimes dropped overboard from a -vessel closely pursued by an enemy. A small mine so -dropped by a German light cruiser returning from an -attempted raid on the English coast, early in the war, -was struck by the pursuing British submarine <i>D-5</i> and -sent her to the bottom. The <i>D-5</i> was running awash -at the time and only two officers and two seamen were -saved.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_156">156</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE SUBMARINE IN ACTION</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="poem-container"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“Hit and hard hit! The blow went home<br /></span> -<span class="i0">The muffled knocking stroke,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">The steam that overrides the foam,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">The foam that thins to smoke,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">The smoke that cloaks the deep aboil,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">The deep that chokes her throes,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Till, streaked with ash and sleeked with oil,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">The lukewarm whirlpools close!”<br /></span> -</div> -<div class="attrib">—<span class="smcap">Kipling.</span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> first submarine in history to sink a hostile -warship without also sinking herself is the <i>E-9</i> of -the British navy. Together with most of her consorts, -she was sent, at the outbreak of the present war, to explore -and reconnoiter off the German coast and the island -fortress of Heligoland to find where the enemy’s ships -were lying, how they were protected and how they might -be attacked. After six weeks of such work, the <i>E-9</i> -entered Heligoland Bight on September 13, 1914, and discharged -two torpedoes at the German light cruiser <i>Hela</i>. -One exploded against her bow and the other amidships, -and the cruiser went down almost immediately, drowning -many of her crew.</p> - -<div id="ip_157" class="figcenter" style="width: 452px;"> - <img src="images/i_157.jpg" width="452" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Copyright, London Sphere & N. Y. Herald.</div> - <div class="caption">English Submarine Rescuing English Sailors.</div></div> - -<p>Another British submarine had already appeared in -action off Heligoland but as a saver instead of a destroyer -of human life. On the 28th of August a number<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_157">157</a><a class="hidev" id="Page_158">158</a></span> -of German torpedo-craft and light cruisers were decoyed -out to sea by the appearance and pretended flight of -some English destroyers. (It has been declared but not -officially confirmed that the “bait” consisted not of destroyers -but two British submarines, which rose to the -surface where one of them pretended to be disabled and -was slowly towed away by the other till their pursuers -were almost within range, when the line was cast off and -both boats dived to safety.) The Germans found themselves -attacked by a larger British flotilla and a confused -sort of battle followed. During the mêlée, an English -cruiser lowered a whaleboat that picked up several survivors -of a sunken German vessel. The cruiser was then -driven away by a more powerful German ship, and the -crew of the whaleboat found themselves left in the -enemy’s waters without arms, food, or navigating instruments. -Suddenly a periscope rose out of the water -alongside, followed by the conning-tower and hull of the -British submarine <i>E-4</i>, which took the Englishmen on -board and left the Germans the whaleboat, after which -both parties went home rejoicing.</p> - -<p>Shortly after this, the German submarine <i>U-15</i> boldly -attacked a British squadron, but revealed herself by the -white wake of her periscope as it cut through the calm -water. A beautifully aimed shot from the cruiser <i>Birmingham</i> -smashed the periscope. The submarine dived, -temporarily safe but blinded, for she was an old-fashioned -craft with only one observation instrument. Her -commander now essayed a swift “porpoise dive” up to -the surface and down again, exposing only the conning-tower -for a very few seconds. But a broadside blazed -from the <i>Birmingham</i>, a shell struck squarely against the -conning-tower, and the sea poured in through the ragged -death-wound in the deck of the <i>U-15</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_159">159</a></span></p> - -<div id="ip_159" class="figcenter" style="width: 463px;"> - <img src="images/i_159.jpg" width="463" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Copyright, London Sphere & N. Y. Herald.</div> - <div class="caption">Engagement between the <i>Birmingham</i> and the <i>U-15</i>.</div> - - <div class="intact captionl larger in6"> - 1. Submarine’s periscope shot away.<br /> - 2. Submarine dives, temporarily safe but blinded.<br /> - 3. Submarine exposes conning-tower.<br /> - 4. Conning-tower shot away, <i>U-15</i> sinking.<br /> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_160">160</a></span> -But these early affairs were now overshadowed as completely -as the first Union victories in West Virginia were -overshadowed by Bull Run. Another British squadron -encountered another German submarine and this time -the periscope was not detected. Lieutenant-Commander -Otto von Weddigen had had ample time to take up an -ideal position beside the path of his enemies, who passed -in slow and stately procession before the bow torpedo-tubes -of the <i>U-9</i>. The German officer pressed a button -and saw through his periscope the white path of the -“Schwartzkopf” as it sped straight and true to the tall -side of the <i>Aboukir</i>. He saw the cruiser heaved into the -air by the shock of the bursting war-head, then watched -her settle and go down. Round swung her nearest consort -to the rescue, lowering her lifeboats as she came. -But scarcely had the survivors of the <i>Aboukir’s</i> company -set foot on the deck of the <i>Hogue</i> than she, too, was -torpedoed, and the half-naked men of both crews went -tumbling down the slope of the upturned side as she -rolled over and sank. Up steamed the <i>Cressy</i>, her gun-crews -standing by their useless pieces, splendid in helpless -bravery. Half reluctantly, von Weddigen sent his -remaining foe to the bottom and slipped away under the -waves, the victor of the strangest naval battle in history.</p> - -<p>Not a German had received the slightest injury; fourteen -hundred Englishmen had been killed. It was the -loss of these trained officers and seamen, and not that of -three old cruisers that would soon have been sent to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_161">161</a></span> -scrap heap, that was felt by the British navy. Realizing -that no fears for their own lives would keep the officers -of a British ship from attempting to rescue the drowning -crew of another, the Admiralty issued the following order:</p> - -<p>“It has been necessary to point out for the future -guidance of his Majesty’s ships that the conditions that -prevail when one vessel of a squadron is injured in a -mine-field or exposed to submarine attack are analogous -to those which occur in an action and that the rule of -leaving disabled ships to their own resources is applicable, -so far at any rate as large vessels are concerned. No act -of humanity, whether to friend or foe, should lead to a -neglect of the proper precautions and dispositions of -war, and no measures can be taken to save life which -prejudice the military situation.”</p> - -<p>Another old cruiser, the <i>Hermes</i>, that had been -turned into a floating base for sea-planes, was torpedoed -off Dunkirk by a German submarine, most of the crew -being rescued by French torpedo boats. On New Year’s -day, 1915, the battleship <i>Formidable</i> was likewise sent -to the bottom of the English Channel. She too was a -rather old ship, of the same class as the <i>Bulwark</i>, which -had been destroyed by an internal explosion two weeks -earlier in the Medway, and the <i>Irresistible</i>, afterwards -sunk by a mine in the Dardanelles.</p> - -<p>But there was nothing small or old about the <i>Audacious</i>. -She was—or is—a 24,800 ton superdreadnought, -launched in 1911 and carrying ten thirteen-and-a-half-inch -guns. This stupendous war-engine was found -rolling helpless in the Irish Sea, her after compartments<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_162">162</a></span> -flooded by a great hole made either by a drifting mine -or, what is more likely considering its position, by a torpedo -from a German submarine. The White Star liner -<i>Olympic</i>, which had been summoned by wireless, took -the disabled warship in tow for several hours, after which -the <i>Audacious</i> was cast off and abandoned. A photograph -taken by one of the <i>Olympic’s</i> passengers and afterwards -widely circulated shows the huge ironclad down -by the stern, listing heavily to one side, and apparently -on the point of sinking. But her loss has never been admitted -by the British Admiralty, and it has been repeatedly -declared by reputable persons that the <i>Audacious</i> -was kept afloat till the <i>Olympic</i> was out of sight, and was -then towed by naval vessels into Belfast, where she was -drydocked and repaired at Harland and Wolff’s shipyard -to be sent back to the fighting line. Her fate is one of -the most interesting of the many mysteries of the war -and will probably not be made clear till peace has come. -The silence of the British Admiralty is explained by the -standing orders forbidding the revealing of the whereabouts -of any of his Majesty’s ships, particularly when -helpless and disabled. It should be noted in this connection -that the German government has never admitted the -loss of the battleship <i>Pommern</i> which the Russians insist -was sunk by one of their submarines in the Baltic.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_163">163</a></span></p> - -<div id="ip_163" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_163.jpg" width="600" height="362" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Copyright, Illustrated London News & N. Y. Sun.</div> - <div class="caption">Sinking of the <i>Aboukir</i>, <i>Cressy</i>, and <i>Hogue</i>.</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_164">164</a></span> -Because the overwhelming strength of the Allied fleet -has kept the German and Austrian battleships safely -locked up behind shore batteries, mine-fields and nettings, -the Allies’ submarines have had comparatively few targets -to try their skill on. The activity of the British -submarines in the North Sea at the outbreak of the war -has already been referred to, and a year later they found -another opportunity in the Baltic. There the German -fleet had the same preponderance over the Russian as the -English had over the German battleships in the North -Sea, but the British dreadnoughts could not be sent -through the long tortuous passage of the Skagerrack and -Cattegat, thick-sown with German mines, without cutting -the British fleet in half and giving the Germans a -splendid chance to defeat either half and then slip back -through the Kiel Canal and destroy the other. So England -sent some of her submarines instead. One of these -joined the Russian squadron defending the Gulf of Riga -against a German fleet and decided the fight by disabling -the great battle-cruiser <i>Moltke</i>. Another, the <i>E-13</i>, ran -ashore on the Danish island of Saltholm on August 19, -1915, and was warned by the commander of a Danish -torpedo-boat that she would be allowed twenty-four -hours to get off. Before the time-limit had expired and -while three Danish torpedo-boats were standing by, two -German destroyers steamed up, torpedoed the <i>E-13</i>, and -killed half her crew by gun-fire: an outrageous violation -of Denmark’s neutrality.<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">24</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_165">165</a></span> -Daredevil deeds have been done by the submarines of -both sides in the Dardanelles. The little <i>B-11</i> swam up -the straits, threading her way through mine-field after -mine-field, her captain keeping his course by “dead-reckoning” -with map and compass and stop watch. To -have exposed his periscope would have drawn the fire -of the many shore batteries, to have dived a few feet too -far in those shallow waters would have meant running -aground, to have misjudged the swirling, changing currents -might have meant annihilation. But Commander -Holbrook brought his vessel safely through, torpedoed -and sank the guard-ship <i>Messudieh</i>, a Turkish ironclad -of the vintage of 1874, and returned to receive the Victoria -Cross from his king and a gigantic “Iron Cross” -from his brother officers. The <i>E-11</i> went up even to -Constantinople, torpedoed a Turkish transport within -sight of the city and threw the whole waterfront into a -panic. More transports and store-ships were sunk or -driven on shore in the Sea of Marmora, a gunboat was -torpedoed, and then the <i>Kheyr-el-din</i>, an old 10,000 ton -battleship that had been the <i>Kurfürst Freiderich Wilhelm</i> -before the kaiser sold her to Turkey, was sent to -the bottom of the same waters by British submarines. -One of them the <i>E-15</i> ran aground in the Dardanelles and -was forced to surrender to the Turks, but before they -could float her off and make use of her, two steam -launches dashed upstream through the fire of the shore<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_166">166</a></span> -batteries and torpedoed the stranded submarine as Cushing -blew up the <i>Albemarle</i>.</p> - -<p>But on the same day as the <i>E-11’s</i> first exploit—May -25, 1915, the British battleship <i>Triumph</i> went down -with most of her crew off Gallipoli, torpedoed by a German -submarine. The <i>U-51</i> had made the 2400 mile trip -from the North Sea, using as tenders a number of small -tank steamers flying the Spanish flag. These vessels intentionally -drew the attention of the cordon of British -destroyers drawn across the Straits of Gibraltar and -were captured, while the submarine swam safely through -and traversed the Mediterranean to the Dardanelles. -Two days after her first exploit, the <i>U-51</i> or perhaps -one of her Austrian consorts, sank another British battleship, -the <i>Majestic</i>, off Gallipoli. The <i>U-51</i> has been -reported sunk by Russian warships in the Black Sea.</p> - -<div id="ip_167" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_167.jpg" width="600" height="223" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Copyright, London Sphere & N. Y. Herald.</div> - <div class="caption">Tiny target afforded by Periscopes in rough weather.</div></div> - -<p>If they could sink two battleships in three days, why -didn’t the German undersea boats sink a dozen or so -more and raise the siege of the Dardanelles? Enver -Pasha, the Turkish minister of war, declared that “the -presence of the submarines destroyed all hopes of Russia’s -ever effectively landing troops on the coast north -of Constantinople.” Then why did they permit the landing -of British, Australian, New Zealand, and French -troops on the Gallipoli Peninsula and the plains of -ancient Troy? It was not until August, 1915, that -the transport <i>Royal Edward</i> was sunk in the Mediterranean -by an Austrian submarine. Perhaps before this -war is over some British transport may be torpedoed in -the North Sea or the English Channel, but for more than -a year and a half since its outbreak, troop-ships and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_167">167</a><a class="hidev" id="Page_168">168</a></span> -store-ships have been crossing to France as if there were -not a hostile “U-boat” in the world. Equally mysterious -has been the immunity of the light-draft monitors -and obsolescent gunboats off the Flemish coast, where -their heavy guns did so much to check the first German -drive on Calais, and have harassed the invaders’ right -flank ever since. Many of these are mere floating platforms -for one or two modern guns, all are slow-steaming, -and they are not always in water too shallow for an -undersea boat to swim in, yet none have been sunk by a -submarine since the loss of the <i>Hermes</i>, in the autumn of -1914. Zeebrugge, the Belgian port that has been made -the headquarters for German submarines in the North -Sea, has been several times bombarded by the British -fleet and, according to reports from Amsterdam, half-built -submarines on the shore there have been destroyed -by shell-fire. Why did the completed undersea boats in -the harbor fail to come out and torpedo or drive away the -attacking fleet? We have been shown what modern submarines -can do; what prevents them from doing much -more?</p> - -<p>Shortly after von Weddigen’s great exploit, a German -submarine rose to the surface so near the British destroyer -<i>Badger</i> that before the undersea boat could submerge -again she was rammed, cut open and sunk. One -of the most picturesque and least expected features of -this war has been the revival of old ways; soldiers are -again wearing breastplates and metal helmets and fighting -with crossbows and catapults, while against the modern -submarine, seamen are effectively using the most ancient -of all naval weapons: the ram. It takes two minutes for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_169">169</a></span> -the average undersea boat to submerge, during which -time a thirty-knot destroyer can come charging up from -a mile away, with a good chance of scoring a hit with -her forward 3- or 4-inch gun, even if she gets there too -late to ram. In the case of the <i>U-12</i>, the submarine -dived deep enough to get her hull and superstructure out -of harm’s way, only to have the top of her conning-tower -crushed in by the destroyer as it passed over her. -When the inrush of water forced the <i>U-12</i> to rise to the -surface and surrender, her crew discovered that the main -hatch could not be opened because one of the periscopes -had been bent down across it. Some of them succeeded -in climbing out of the torpedo-hatch and jumping overboard -before the <i>U-12</i> went down for good. As she -sank stern-foremost, it was observed that both of her -bow-tubes were empty; evidence that she had vainly -launched two torpedoes at the British flotilla that were -hunting her down. Though several British destroyers -and torpedo-boats have been sent to the bottom by German -submarines, and the English <i>E-9</i> has sunk the German -destroyer <i>S-126</i>, yet the nimble surface torpedo-craft -have usually proved too difficult for the undersea -boats to hit with their fixed tubes that can only fire -straight ahead or astern.</p> - -<p>It has been pointed out that the <i>Aboukir</i>, <i>Cressy</i> and -<i>Hogue</i>, the <i>Formidable</i>, and the <i>Audacious</i> were all moving -slowly and unescorted by any destroyers when they -were attacked and sunk. The same was true of the <i>Leon -Gambetta</i> and the <i>Giuseppe Garibaldi</i>, when they were -sent to the bottom of the Mediterranean by Austrian submarines. -Under modern conditions, such isolated big<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_170">170</a></span> -ships are in much the same perilous position as would -have been a lonely battery of Union artillery marching -through a country swarming with Confederate cavalry. -While an escort of destroyers is no sure guarantee -against submarine attack, their presence certainly seems -to act as a powerful deterrent.</p> - -<p>Waters suspected of containing hostile submarines are -swept, very much as they would be for mines, by pairs -of destroyers or steam trawlers, dragging an arrangement -of strong cables between them. Sometimes this is festooned -with explosives to blow in the side of any undersea -boat it may touch. Usually the vessels engaged in -this work use a large net. When they feel the weight -of a catch, it is said that they let go the ends and leave -it to the submarine’s own twin propellers to entangle -themselves thoroughly. An undersea boat so entrapped -is helpless to do anything but either sink or else empty -her tanks and try to rise and surrender. A submarine -in trouble usually sends up notification in the form of -large quantities of escaping oil and gas.</p> - -<p>Inventors have been busy devising new kinds of traps, -snares, and exaggerated lobster-pots to be placed in the -waters about the British Isles. How many German submarines -have poked their noses into these devices probably -not even the British Admiralty could tell, if it was -so minded, but the traps are said to have been put down -very plentifully and most of the published designs are -extremely ingenious.</p> - -<p>Individual torpedo-nets for ships have rather gone out -of fashion, but the most effective way of keeping submarines -out of a harbor is to close its entrance with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_171">171</a></span> -booms and nettings. The principal naval bases on both -sides are undoubtedly so protected. It has been persistently -reported that the immunity of British transports -crossing the channel is due to a double line of booms, nets -and mines stretching from one shore to the other, and -enclosing a broad, safe channel outside which the “U-boats” -roam hungrily. There would seem to be no great -difficulty in building such a barrier, but it would be extremely -difficult to keep intact in heavy weather and for -that reason most of our naval officers are skeptical of its -existence.</p> - -<p>Microphones which have been placed under water off -the coasts of France, Great Britain, and Ireland have -succeeded in detecting the presence of submarines at a -distance of fifty-five miles. This device has been perfected -by the joint labors of an American electrical engineer, -Mr. William Dubilier, and Professor Tissot of -the French Academy of Science. These two gentlemen, -experimenting with microphones and a submarine placed -at their disposal by the French government, “discovered -in the course of the tests that the underwater craft -were sources of sound waves of exceedingly high frequency, -quite distinctive from any other subaqueous -sounds. While the cause of the high-pitched sound is -known to the inventors, it cannot be divulged since it -would then be possible for German submarine constructors -to eliminate the source of the tell-tale sound waves, -and thus render void the purpose of the detector installation.”<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">25</a></p> - -<p>These microphones, it is believed, are usually arranged<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_172">172</a></span> -in a semicircle. Each instrument records sound waves -best when they come from one particular direction. The -operator on shore, listening to a device that eliminates all -other sounds coming in from under the sea, can tell by -the way a passing submarine affects the different microphones -in the semicircle how far off and in what direction -it is moving, and so warns and summons the ever-watchful -patrol boats.</p> - -<p>Air craft are doubtless being much used in the hunt -for submarines, for an aviator at a height of several -hundred feet can distinctly see a submarine swimming -beneath him in clear water with a good light reflected -from the bottom. Early in the war, the pilot and observer -of a “Taube” that was brought down in the -North Sea were rescued by a British submarine. In the -attack on Cuxhaven a combined force of submarines, sea-planes, -and light cruisers was resisted by the German -shore-batteries, destroyers, “U-boats”, aeroplanes and -Zeppelins. As the British sea-planes returned from -dropping bombs on the Cuxhaven navy yard or taking -observations above the Kiel Canal, some of them were -shot down by the Germans but the aviators were picked -up, as had been arranged beforehand, by English submarines. -In the spring of 1915 there was an engagement -between a Zeppelin and a British submarine in -which each side claimed the victory. On August 26 -of the same year the secretary of the British Admiralty -announced:</p> - -<p>“Squadron Commander Arthur Bigsworth, R.N., destroyed -single-handed a German submarine this morning -by bombs dropped from an aeroplane. The submarine -was observed to be completely wrecked, and sank off Ostend.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_173">173</a></span></p> - -<div id="ip_173" class="figcenter" style="width: 474px;"> - <img src="images/i_173.jpg" width="474" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Copyright, Illustrated London News & Flying.</div> - <div class="caption">Photograph of a submarine, twenty feet below the surface, taken -from the aeroplane, whose shadow is shown in the picture.</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_174">174</a></span> -“It is not the practice of the Admiralty to publish -statements regarding the losses of German submarines, -important though they have been, in cases where the -enemy has no other source of information as to the time -and place at which these losses have occurred. In the -case referred to above, however, the brilliant feat of -Squadron Commander Bigsworth was performed in the -immediate neighborhood of the coast in occupation of the -enemy and the position of the sunken submarine has been -located by a German destroyer.”</p> - -<p>“This is inexact,” replied the German Admiralty. -“The submarine was attacked but not hit and returned -to port undamaged. One of our submarines on August -16 destroyed by gunfire the benzol factory with the attached -benzol warehouses and coke furnaces near Harrington, -England. The statement of the English press -that the submarine attacked the open towns of Harrington, -Parton, and Whitehaven is inexact.”</p> - -<p>Equally interesting but unfortunately lacking in details -are the reports from the Adriatic of submarines fighting -submarines. There have been three such duels, in -one an Austrian sank an Italian submarine, in another -the Italian was victorious, while after the third both -were found lying on the bottom, each torn open by the -other’s torpedo. As it is a physical impossibility for the -pilot of one submarine to see another under the water, -it would seem as if at least one of the combatants in -each of these fights must have been running on the surface -at the time.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_175">175</a></span> -Both Mr. Simon Lake and the late John P. Holland -were absolutely confident that submarines could not fight -submarines, that surface craft would be utterly unable -to injure or resist them, and that therefore the submarine -boat would make naval warfare impossible and do -more than anything else to bring about permanent -peace.</p> - -<p>All that can be said at present is that the actual situation -is much more complex than had been expected. -Submarines have sunk many surface warships but have -suffered heavily themselves. The German government -has admitted the loss of over a dozen “U-boats,” while -the unofficial estimates of their enemies’ run as high as -thirty-five or fifty German submarines destroyed or captured. -Admiral Beatty’s victorious squadron, pursuing -the German battle-cruisers after the second North Sea -fight, turned and retreated at the wake of a single torpedo -and the glimpse of hostile periscopes. But the submarine -has not yet driven the surface warship from the -seas and it has signally failed against transports. Its -moral effect has been very great: British submarines have -terrorized the citizens of Constantinople; while the victories -of their beloved “U-boats” have cheered the German -people as the victories of our frigates cheered us -in 1812, and have been a somewhat similar shock to the -nerves of the British navy. But that sturdy organization -has recovered from more than one attack of nerves. -And as the war goes on, it becomes increasingly clear -that it is unfair to expect unsupported submarines, any -more than unsupported frigates a century ago, to do the -work of an entire navy. Like the aeroplane, the submarine<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_176">176</a></span> -was first derided as useless, next hailed as a complete -substitute for all other arms, then found to be an -indispensable auxiliary, whose scope and value are now -being determined.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_177">177</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE SUBMARINE BLOCKADE</span></h2> -</div> - -<blockquote> - -<p>“It is true that submarine boats have improved, but they are -as useless as ever. Nevertheless, the German navy is carefully -watching their progress, though it has no reason to make -experiments itself.”</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="smcap">Admiral von Tirpitz</span>, in 1901. -</p></blockquote> - -<p class="center vspace b1"> -<span class="larger">“DANGER!</span><br /> -Being the Log of Captain John Sirius<br /> -by<br /> -Sir Arthur Conan Doyle.” -</p> - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">If</span> you have not read the above-mentioned story by the -author of Sherlock Holmes, I advise you to go to the -nearest public library and ask for it. For those that -cannot spare the time to do this, here are a brief outline -and a few quotations.</p> - -<p>Captain John Sirius is supposed to be chief of submarines -in the navy of Norland, a small European kingdom -at war with England. With only eight submarines, -he establishes a blockade of Great Britain and begins -sinking all ships bringing in food. He enters a French -harbor, though France is at peace with his country, and -sinks three British ships that have taken refuge there.</p> - -<p>“I suppose,” says the captain, “they thought they -were safe in French waters but what did I care about<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_178">178</a></span> -three-mile limits and international law! The view of -my government was that England was blockaded, food -contraband, and vessels carrying it to be destroyed. The -lawyers could argue about it afterwards. My business -was to starve the enemy any way I could.”</p> - -<p>Presently he overtook an American ship and sank her -by gunfire as her skipper shouted protests over the rail.</p> - -<p>“It was all the same to me what flag she flew so long -as she was engaged in carrying contraband of war to the -British Isles.... Of course I knew there would be a -big row afterwards and there was.”</p> - -<p>“The terror I had caused had cleared the Channel.”</p> - -<p>“There was talk of a British invasion (of Norland) -but I knew this to be absolute nonsense, for the British -had learned by this time that it would be sheer murder -to send transports full of soldiers to sea in the face of -submarines. When they have a Channel tunnel, they -can use their fine expeditionary force upon the Continent -but until then it might not exist so far as Europe is concerned.”</p> - -<p>“Heavens, what would England have done against a -foe with thirty or forty submarines?”</p> - -<p>The British navy could do nothing to stop Captain -John Sirius. One of his submarines was sunk by an -armed liner, but with the remaining seven he sank the -<i>Olympic</i> and so many other vessels that no one dared -try to bring food into Great Britain. At the end of six -weeks, fifty thousand people there had died of starvation -and the British government had to make peace with Norland -and pay for all the damage the submarines had -done to neutrals.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_179">179</a></span> -As a warning to his countrymen, Sir Arthur Conan -Doyle wrote this story in May, 1914. Before it was -published,<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">26</a> England was at war with Germany. On -February 4, 1915, the famous “War Zone Decree” was -published in Berlin.</p> - -<p>“The waters around Great Britain, including the -whole of the English Channel, are declared hereby to be -included within the zone of war, and after the 18th inst, -all enemy merchant vessels encountered in these waters -will be destroyed, even if it may not be possible always -to save their crews and passengers.</p> - -<p>“Within this war-zone neutral vessels are exposed to -danger since, in view of the misuse of the neutral flags -ordered by the government of Great Britain on the 31st -ult., and of the hazards of naval warfare, neutral ships -cannot always be prevented from suffering from the attacks -intended for enemy ships.</p> - -<p>“The routes of navigation around the north of the -Shetland Islands in the eastern part of the North Sea -and in a strip thirty miles wide along the Dutch coast -are not open to the danger-zone.”</p> - -<p>But those routes had been closed three months before -by the British government, which declared that it had -had the North Sea planted with anchored contact mines, -but that all ships trading to neutral ports would, if they -first called at some British port, be given safe conduct to -Holland or Scandinavia, by way of the English Channel. -This way would run through the proposed “war-zone.”</p> - -<p>International law says nothing about either “war-zones” -or submarines. In all probability, special rules<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_180">180</a></span> -for undersea warfare will be drawn up by a conference -of delegates from the leading countries of the world -soon after the end of the present war. But till then, -no such conference can be held, and the United States -has always maintained, even when it has been to its disadvantage -to do so, that no one nation can change international -law to suit herself. We insist that the game -be played according to the rules. A submarine has no -more rights than any other warship. It may sink a merchantman -if the latter tries to fight or escape. If the -captured vessel is found to be carrying contraband to the -enemy’s country, the warship may either take her into -port as a prize or, if this is impracticable, sink her. But -before an unarmed and unresisting merchant vessel can -be sunk, the passengers and crew must be given time and -opportunity to escape.</p> - -<p>President Wilson gave notice on February 10, 1915, -that if, by act of the commander of any German warship, -an American vessel or the lives of American citizens -should be lost on the high seas, the United States “would -be constrained to hold the Imperial government of Germany -to a strict accountability for such acts of their -naval authorities and to take any steps that might be -necessary to safeguard American lives and property and -to secure to American citizens the full enjoyments of -their acknowledged rights on the high seas.”</p> - -<p>On the same day, a note to Great Britain voiced our -objection to the “explicit sanction by a belligerent government -for its merchant ships generally to fly the flag -of a neutral power within certain portions of the high<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_181">181</a></span> -seas which are presumed to be frequented with hostile -warships.”</p> - -<p>To this Sir Edward Grey replied that “the British -government have no intention of advising their merchant -shipping to use foreign flags as a general practice or resort -to them otherwise than for escaping capture or destruction.”</p> - -<p>Such “sailing under false colors” to fool the enemy’s -cruisers is an old and well-established right of merchantmen -of belligerent countries. Its abuse, under present-day -conditions, however, might have given the German -submarine commanders a plausible excuse for sinking -neutral vessels. To avoid this, neutral shipowners began -to paint the name, port, and national colors on the -broadside of each of their steamers, plain enough to be -read from afar through a periscope.</p> - -<p>Then the time came for the war-zone decree to be put -into effect, and the world watched with great interest -and no little apprehension to see what the submarine -blockaders could do.</p> - -<div id="ip_182" class="figcenter" style="width: 501px;"> - <img src="images/i_182.jpg" width="501" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl">Copyright, London Sphere & N. Y. Herald.</div> - <div class="caption">German Submarine Pursuing English Merchantman.</div> - <div class="caption smaller">(Note stern torpedo-tubes, and funnel for carrying off exhaust from - Diesel engine.)</div></div> - -<p>Seven British ships were sunk during the first six days. -Then came a lull, followed by the announcement by the -British Admiralty that between February 23 to March 3, -3805 transoceanic ships had arrived at British ports, 669 -had cleared and none had been lost, while two German -submarines had been sunk. During the eleven weeks between -the establishing of the blockade and the sinking of -the <i>Lusitania</i>, forty-two oversea vessels and twenty-eight -fishing boats of British registry had been sunk by the -submarines, but 16,190 liners and freighters had safely<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_182">182</a></span> -run the blockade. The largest number of vessels sunk -by the “U-boats” in any one week was thirty-six, between -June 23 and 30; while nineteen British merchantmen, -with a total tonnage of 76,000, and three fishing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_183">183</a></span> -vessels were destroyed either by submarines or mines -during the week ending August 25. The total number -sunk in the first six months was 485. But with more -than fifteen hundred ships coming and going every week, -the submarine blockade of the British Isles was obviously -a failure.</p> - -<p>It was a costly failure from the military point of -view. The expenditure of torpedoes alone must have -been considerable and a modern Whitehead or Schwartzkopf -costs from five to eight thousand dollars and takes -several months to build. How many of the “U-boats” -themselves have fallen prey to the British patroling craft, -traps, mines, and drag-nets cannot be computed with any -accuracy, but by the first of September, 1915, the number -declared to be lost “on the authority of a high official -in the British Admiralty” ran anywhere from -thirty to fifty. Even if she has been completing a new -submarine every week since the war began, Germany -cannot afford the loss of so much material, and still, less, -of so many trained men. Captain Persius, one of the -foremost German writers on naval affairs, pointed this -out in a newspaper article that brought a hurricane of -angry criticism about his ears. How great has been the -wear and tear on the nervous systems of the submarine -crews is shown by the following extract from the statement -of Captain Hansen of the captured <i>U-16</i>.</p> - -<p>“It is fearfully trying on the nerves. Not every man -can endure it. While running under the sea there is -deathlike stillness in the boats, as the electrical machinery -is noiseless.... As the air becomes heated it gets poor -and mixed with the odor of oil from the machinery.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_184">184</a></span> -The atmosphere becomes fearful. An overpowering -sleepiness often attacks new men and one requires the -utmost will power to keep awake. I have had men who -did not want to eat during the first three days out because -they did not want to lose that amount of time from -sleep. Day after day spent in such cramped quarters, -where there is hardly room to stretch your legs, and remaining -constantly on the alert, is a tremendous strain -on the nerves.”</p> - -<p>But if there is discomfort below the surface there is -peril of death above. Yet a submarine must spend as -much time as possible on top of the water, even off the -enemy’s coast, to spare the precious storage batteries and -let the Diesel engines grind oil into electricity by using -the electric motor as a dynamo. If she could renew her -batteries under water or pick up a useable supply of current -as she can pick up a drum of oil from a given spot -on the sea-bottom, then the modern submarine would indeed -be a hard fish to catch. As it is, great ingenuity -has been shown by the German skippers in minimizing -the dangers of surface cruising and at the same time -stalking their prey. One big submarine masqueraded -as a steamer, with dummy masts and funnel. Innocent-looking -steam trawlers flying neutral flags acted as -screens and lookouts, besides carrying supplies. One of -these boldly entered a British harbor, where it was noticed -that her decks were cumbered with very many coils -of rope. The authorities investigated and found snugly -stowed in the center of each a large can of fuel-oil. Another -trawler, flying the Dutch flag, was stopped in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_185">185</a></span> -North Sea by a British cruiser and searched by a boarding-party. -They were going back into their boat, after -finding everything apparently as it should be, when one -of the Englishmen noticed a mysterious pipe sticking -out of the trawler’s side. They swarmed on board -again and discovered that the fishing-boat had a complete -double hull, the space between being filled with oil. The -trawler’s crew were removed to the cruiser and a strong -detachment of bluejackets left in their place. A few -hours afterwards, there was a swirl of water alongside -and a German submarine came up for refreshments. -It was promptly captured and so was another that presently -followed it: a good day’s catch for one small fishing-boat.</p> - -<p>Because of the uncertainty and danger of depending -on underwater caches and tenders, each blockader usually -returned at the end of two or three weeks to Heligoland, -Zeebruge, Ostend, or some other base to take on supplies, -report progress and rest the crew. This of course -reduces the number of submarines actually on guard. -How large that number may have been at any particular -time since the blockade began is unknown to everybody -except a few persons in Berlin. At the outbreak of the -war, Germany had between twenty and twenty-five submarines -in commission and a dozen or so under construction. -If, as is claimed, the Germans have been completing -a new undersea boat every week since the war began, -that would have given them by August 1, 1915, a flotilla -of seventy-seven, exclusive of losses. If only thirty had -been lost, that would have left fewer than fifty submarines<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_186">186</a></span> -to blockade more than fifty seaports, great and -small, scattered over more than twenty-five hundred miles -of coast.</p> - -<p>Moreover, these widely scattered blockaders would -have to be on duty by night as well as by day. But at -night or in fog the periscope is useless; to intercept an -incoming steamer, running swiftly and without lights, -the submarine must rise and cruise on the surface. It -cannot use a searchlight to locate the blockade-runner -without consuming much precious voltage and at the -same time attracting the nearest patrol-boat.</p> - -<p>The same disadvantages apply to sending wireless messages -from one blockading submarine to another. And -as the wireless apparatus of an undersea boat is necessarily -low-powered and has a narrow radius, while “oscillators,” -bells, and other underwater signaling devices -are still in their infancy, it would seem as if the German -“U-boats” in British waters must have been suffering -from lack of coöperation and team-play. If the captain -of a Union gunboat, lying off Charleston during the Civil -War, caught a glimpse of a blockade runner, he could -alarm the rest of the fleet with rockets and signal guns, -but the commander of the <i>U-99</i> off Queenstown cannot -count on his consorts if he himself fails to sink an approaching -liner.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the most notable shortcoming of the submarine -blockade has been its failure to inspire terror. Contrary -to the expectations of nearly every forecaster from -Robert Fulton to Conan Doyle, the sinking of the first -merchant vessels by submarines failed to frighten away -any others. Cargo rates are high in war-time and insurance<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_187">187</a></span> -covers the owners’ risk, so few sailing orders -were canceled. As for the captains, they are not noted -for timidity, and professional pride is strong among -them; most of them have families to provide for, and -every one of them knows that behind him stands an -eager young mate with a master’s ticket, ready to take -the risk and take out the ship if the skipper quits. So -the merchant marine accepted the submarine as one of -the risks of the trade.</p> - -<p>When a big German submarine rose up off the Irish -coast within easy gunshot of the homeward-bound -British steamer <i>Anglo-Californian</i> and signaled for her -to heave to, the plucky English skipper slammed his engine-room -telegraph over to “Full speed ahead.” Away -dashed the steamer and after her came the submarine,<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">27</a> -making good practice with her 8.8 centimeter gun. -Twenty shrapnel shells burst over the <i>Anglo-Californian</i>, -riddling her upper works, slaughtering thirty of her -cargo of horses, killing seven of her crew and wounding -eight more. Steering with his own hands, Captain -Archibald Panlow held his vessel on her course till a -shrapnel bullet killed him, when the wheel was taken by -his son, the second mate, who brought the <i>Anglo-Californian</i> -safely into Queenstown. It is men of this breed -who have kept Admiral von Tirpitz from saying, in the -words of the fictitious Captain John Sirius,</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_188">188</a></span> -“The terror I had caused had cleared the channel.”</p> - -<p>But because the “Campaign of Frightfulness” has -failed and a few score of unsupported submarines have -been unable to blockade the British Isles, it is stupid to -pretend that there has been no progress since 1901 and -say as Admiral von Tirpitz said then,</p> - -<p>“Submarines are as useless as ever.”</p> - -<p>Like every other type of naval craft, submarines are -useful but not omnipotent. We have seen what they can -do in action and what they have failed to do. As -scouts in the enemy’s waters they are invaluable. As -commerce destroyers, they do the work of the swift-sailing -privateers of a century ago. In the fall of 1915, -British submarines in the Baltic almost put a stop to the -trade between Germany and Sweden. But to blockade -a coast effectively, submarines must have tenders, which -must have destroyers and light cruisers to defend them, -which in turn require the support of battle-cruisers and -dreadnoughts, with their attendant host of colliers, hospital -ships and air-scouts. Nor can a coast be long defended -by submarines, mine-fields and shore-batteries, if -there are not enough trained troops to keep the enemy, -who can always land at some remote spot, from marching -round to the rear of the coast-defenses. This war -is simply repeating the old, old lesson that there are no -cheap and easy substitutes for a real army and a real -navy.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_189">189</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE SUBMARINE AND NEUTRALS</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap b"><span class="smcap1">Both</span> Admiral von Tirpitz and the Austrian Admiralty -seem to have begun their submarine campaigns -after the method of Captain John Sirius: to starve -the enemy any way they could and let the lawyers argue -about it afterwards. From the beginning of the blockade, -Scandinavian, Dutch, and Spanish vessels, even when -bound from one neutral port to another, were torpedoed -and sunk without warning by the German submarines. -Their governments protested vigorously but without effect. -Then came the turn of the United States.</p> - -<p>The <i>Falaba</i>, a small British passenger steamer outward -bound from Liverpool to the west coast of Africa was -pursued and overtaken off the coast of Wales on March -28, 1915, by the fast German submarine <i>U-28</i>. Realizing -that their vessel would be sunk but expecting that -their lives would be spared, the crew and passengers began -filling and lowering away the boats as rapidly as possible -but without panic. The wireless operator had been -sending calls for help but ceased when ordered to by the -captain of the <i>U-28</i>. No patrol boats were in sight and -the submarine was standing by on the surface, with both -gun and torpedo-tubes trained on the motionless steamer -and in absolute command of the situation. Without the -slightest excuse or warning, a torpedo was then discharged<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_190">190</a></span> -and exploded against the <i>Falaba’s</i> side, directly -beneath a half-lowered and crowded lifeboat. The lifeboat -was blown to pieces and the steamer sunk, with the -loss of one hundred and twelve lives, including that of -an American citizen, Mr. Leon C. Thrasher, of Hardwick, -Massachusetts.</p> - -<div id="ip_190" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_190.jpg" width="600" height="451" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl"><i>Photo by Brown Bros.</i></div> - <div class="caption">British Submarine, showing one type of disappearing deck-gun - now in use.</div></div> - -<p>This cold-blooded slaughter of the helpless horrified -the rest of the world and did Germany’s cause an incalculable -amount of harm. The German people were -in no state of mind to realize this, for they had gone -literally submarine-mad. They rejoiced in the cartoons -depicting John Bull marooned on his island or dragged -under and drowned by the swarming “U-boats.” They<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_191">191</a></span> -sincerely believed that within a few months the power of -the British navy would be broken forever and that in the -meanwhile the German submarines could do no wrong. -This feeling was presently intensified by the loss of their -hero, the gallant von Weddigen. Decorated, together -with every man of his crew, with the Iron Cross and promoted -to the command of a fine new submarine, the -<i>U-29</i>, he did effective work as a blockader and captured -and sank several prizes, but only after carefully removing -those on board. Then the <i>U-29</i> was sunk with all -hands, by an armed patrol boat, the British declare: -treacherously, the German people believe, by a merchant -ship whose crew von Weddigen was trying to -spare.<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">28</a></p> - -<p>No attempt was made to warn the American tank -steamer <i>Gulflight</i>, bound for Rouen, France, with a contraband -cargo of oil, when she was torpedoed by a German -submarine on May 1. The vessel stayed afloat but -the wireless operator and one of the sailors, terrified by -the shock, jumped overboard and were both drowned, -while the captain died of heart failure a few hours later -on board the British patrol boat that took off the crew -and brought the <i>Gulflight</i> into port.</p> - -<p>On the same day that the <i>Gulflight</i> was torpedoed, -these two advertisements appeared together in the New -York newspapers:</p> - -<p class="newpage"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_192">192</a></span></p> - -<div id="ip_192" class="figcenter"> - <div class="caption notbold"> - <div class="intact"> - <p class="center vspace">OCEAN STEAMSHIPS.<br /> - <span class="xxlarge bold">CUNARD</span></p> - - <img src="images/i_192.jpg" width="349" height="277" class="nobreak" alt="" /> - - <div class="larger vspace gesperrt"><span class="notbold">EUROPE <span class="smcap">via</span> LIVERPOOL</span><br /> - <span class="xlarge gesperrt">LUSITANIA</span></div> - - <p class="center notbold">Fastest and Largest Steamer<br /> - now in Atlantic Service Sails<br /> - SATURDAY, MAY 1, 10 A. M.</p> - </div> - - <table id="schedule" class="intact" summary="sailing schedule"> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Transylvania,</td> - <td class="tdl">Fri.,</td> - <td class="tdl">May</td> - <td class="tdr">7,</td> - <td class="tdr">5 P. M.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Orduna,</td> - <td class="tdl">Tues.,</td> - <td class="tdl">May</td> - <td class="tdr">18,</td> - <td class="tdr">10 A. M.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Tuscania,</td> - <td class="tdl">Fri.,</td> - <td class="tdl">May</td> - <td class="tdr">21,</td> - <td class="tdr">5 P. M.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">LUSITANIA,</td> - <td class="tdl">Sat.,</td> - <td class="tdl">May</td> - <td class="tdr">29,</td> - <td class="tdr">10 A. M.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Transylvania,</td> - <td class="tdl">Fri.,</td> - <td class="tdl">June</td> - <td class="tdr">4,</td> - <td class="tdr">5 P. M.</td></tr> - </table> - - <p class="center b0">Gibraltar—Genoa—Naples—Piraeus<br /> - S.S. Carpathia, Thur., May 13, Noon.</p> - - <p class="center b0">ROUND THE WORLD TOURS</p> - - <p class="p0 center smaller">Through bookings to all principal Ports of the World.<br /> - Company’s Office, <span class="in5">21–24 State St., N. Y.</span></p> - -<blockquote> - -<div class="dbox"><div class="ibox"> - -<p class="p0 center larger bold">NOTICE!</p> - -<p>TRAVELERS intending to embark on the Atlantic -voyage are reminded that a state of war -exists between Germany and her allies and Great -Britain and her allies; that the zone of war includes -the waters adjacent to the British isles; -that, in accordance with formal notice given by -the Imperial German Government, vessels flying -the flag of Great Britain, or of any of her allies, -are liable to destruction in those waters and that -travelers sailing in the war zone on ships of Great -Britain or her allies do so at their own risk.</p> - -<p class="center"> -IMPERIAL GERMAN EMBASSY,<br /> -WASHINGTON, D. C., APRIL 22, 1915 -</p> -</div></div> -</blockquote> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_193">193</a></span></p> - -<p class="newpage">This warning was not taken seriously. It was pointed -out that the German submarines had sunk only comparatively -small and slow steamers, and generally believed -that it would be impossible for them to hit a fast-moving -vessel. Not a single passenger canceled his passage -on the <i>Lusitania</i>, though all admitted that the Germans -would have a perfect right to sink her if they -could, as she was laden with rifle-cartridges and shell-cases -for the Allies. But every passenger knew that he -had a perfect right to be taken off first, and trusted to -the Government that had given him his passports to -maintain it.</p> - -<p>The <i>Lusitania</i> left New York on the first of May. At -two o’clock on the afternoon of Friday, May 7, she was -about ten miles from the Irish coast, off the Old Head -of Kinsale, and running slowly to avoid reaching Queenstown -at an unfavorable turn of the tide, when Captain -Turner and many others saw a periscope rise out of the -water about half a mile away.</p> - -<p>“I saw a torpedo speeding toward us,” declared the -captain afterwards, “and immediately I tried to change -our course, but was unable to manœuver out of the way. -There was a terrible impact as the torpedo struck the -starboard side of the vessel, and a second torpedo followed -almost immediately. This one struck squarely -over the boilers.</p> - -<p>“I tried to turn the <i>Lusitania</i> shoreward, hoping to -beach her, but her engines were crippled and it was impossible.</p> - -<p>“There has been some criticism because I did not -order the lifeboats out sooner, but no matter what may<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_194">194</a></span> -be done there are always some to criticize. Until the -<i>Lusitania</i> came to a standstill it was absolutely impossible -to launch the boats—they would have been -swamped.”</p> - -<p>The great ship heeled over to port so rapidly that by -the time she could be brought to a stop it was no longer -possible to lower the boats on the starboard side. There -was no panic-stricken rush for the boats that could be -lowered; all was order and seemliness and quiet heroism. -Alfred Vanderbilt stripped off the lifebelt that might -have saved him and buckled it about a woman; Lindon -Bates, Jr., was last seen trying to save three children. -Elbert Hubbard, Charles Klein, Justus Miles Forman, -and more than a hundred other Americans died, and died -bravely. As the <i>Lusitania</i> went down beneath them, -Charles Frohman smiled at his companion and said:</p> - -<p>“Why fear death? It is the most beautiful adventure -of life.”</p> - -<p>“I turned around to watch the great ship heel over,” -said a passenger who had dived overboard and swum to -a safe distance.</p> - -<p>“The monster took a sudden plunge, and I saw a -crowd still on her decks, and boats filled with helpless -women and children glued to her side. I sickened with -horror at the sight.</p> - -<p>“There was a thunderous roar, as of the collapse -of a great building on fire; then she disappeared, dragging -with her hundreds of fellow-creatures into the vortex. -Many never rose to the surface, but the sea rapidly -grew thick with the figures of struggling men and -women and children.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_195">195</a></span> -The total number of deaths was more than a thousand.</p> - -<p>The most fitting comment on the sinking of the <i>Lusitania</i> -were the words of Tinkling Cloud, a full-blooded -Sioux Indian:</p> - -<p>“Now you white men can never call us red men savages -again.”</p> - -<p>Resting its case on “Many sacred principles of justice -and humanity,” refusing to accept the warning published -in the advertising columns of the newspapers by the -German embassy either “as an excuse or palliation,” and -assuming that the commanders of submarines guilty of -torpedoing without warning vessels carrying non-combatants -had acted “under a misapprehension of orders,” -the United States concluded its note to Germany, six -days after the sinking of the <i>Lusitania</i>, with these words -of warning:</p> - -<p>“The Imperial German government will not expect -the government of the United States to omit any word -or act necessary to the performance of its sacred duty of -maintaining the rights of the United States and its citizens -and of safeguarding their free exercise and enjoyment.”</p> - -<p>Before any reply had been made to this, a German -submarine torpedoed without warning the American -freight steamer <i>Nebraskan</i>, on May 25, a few hours -after she had left Liverpool in ballast for the United -States. Fortunately no lives were lost, and although -the <i>Nebraskan’s</i> bows had been blown wide open by the -explosion, she remained afloat and was brought back to -Liverpool under her own steam. The attack was tardily<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_196">196</a></span> -admitted by Germany and explained by the fact that it -had been made at dusk, when the commander of the submarine -had been unable to recognize the steamer’s nationality.</p> - -<p>On the last day of May, Germany’s answer was received. -The Imperial government declared that the -<i>Lusitania</i> had not been an unarmed merchantman but an -auxiliary cruiser of the British navy. That she had had -masked guns mounted on her lower deck, that she had -Canadian troops among her passengers, and that in violation -of American law she had been laden with high -explosives which were the real cause of her destruction -because they were set off by the detonation of the single -torpedo that had been discharged by the submarine.</p> - -<p>To these allegations, unaccompanied by the slightest -proof and contradicted by the testimony both of British -and American eye-witnesses, the United States replied -calmly and categorically. It was pointed out that if the -German ambassador at Washington or the German consul -at New York had complained to the Federal authorities -before the <i>Lusitania</i> sailed and either guns or troops -had been found concealed on her, she would have been -interned. The statement of Mr. Dudley Field Malone, -collector of the Port of New York, that the <i>Lusitania</i> -was not armed, may be accepted as final. Gustav Stahl, -the German reservist who signed an affidavit that he had -seen guns on board her, later pleaded guilty to a charge -of perjury and was sentenced to eighteen months in a -Federal penitentiary. As for her cargo, every passenger -train and steamer in this country is allowed to transport -boxes of revolver and rifle cartridges—the only explosives<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_197">197</a></span> -carried on the <i>Lusitania</i>—because it is extremely -difficult to set off any number of them together, -either by heat or concussion.</p> - -<p>Dropping these points, Germany then pledged the -safety of American ships in the war zone, if distinctly -marked, and to facilitate American travel offered to permit -the United States to hoist its flag on four belligerent -passenger steamers. This, if accepted, would by implication -have made Americans fair game anywhere else -on the high seas, and was accordingly rejected in the -strong American note of July 21.</p> - -<p>“The rights of neutrals in time of war,” declared -President Wilson through the medium of Secretary Lansing, -“are based upon principle, not upon expediency, -and the principles are immutable. It is the duty and -obligation of belligerents to find a way to adapt the new -circumstances to them.</p> - -<p>“The events of the past two months have clearly indicated -that it is possible and practicable to conduct such -submarine operations as have characterized the activity -of the Imperial German naval commanders within the -so-called war-zone in substantial accord with the accepted -practices of regulated warfare. The whole world has -looked with interest and increasing satisfaction at the -demonstration of that possibility by German naval commanders. -It is manifestly possible, therefore, to lift -the whole practice of submarine attack above the criticism -which it has aroused and remove the chief causes -of offense.”</p> - -<p>Repetition by the commanders of German naval vessels -of acts contravening neutral rights “must be regarded<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_198">198</a></span> -by the Government of the United States, where -they effect American citizens, as deliberately unfriendly.”</p> - -<p>On July 9, a German submarine discharged a torpedo -at the west-bound Cunard liner <i>Orduna</i>, narrowly -missed her, rose to the surface and fired some twenty -shells before the steamer got out of range. Fortunately, -none of these took effect. There were American passengers -on board and nothing but bad marksmanship -averted another <i>Lusitania</i> horror.</p> - -<p>Three days later, another German submarine stopped -an American freight steamer, the <i>Leelanlaw</i>, and had her -visited and searched by a boarding party, who reported -that she was carrying contraband to Great Britain. Because -the vessel could not be taken into a German port -and there was no time to throw her cargo overboard, -the crew were taken off and she was sunk.</p> - -<p>Here was a perfectly proper procedure, where no neutral -lives had been endangered and the question of the -damage to property could be settled amicably in a court -of law. It was to the practice in the <i>Leelanlaw</i> case -that President Wilson referred to so hopefully in his -note of July 21. Though the weeks went by without any -answer from Germany, it was hoped that the Imperial -government had quietly amended the orders to its submarine -commanders and that no more passenger ships -would be attacked without warning.</p> - -<p>But on the 19th of August, the White Star liner -<i>Arabic</i> sighted and went to the rescue of a sinking ship. -This proved to be the British steamer <i>Dunsley</i>, which -had been torpedoed by a German submarine. As the -<i>Arabic</i> came up and prepared to lower her boats, another<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_199">199</a></span> -torpedo from the same submarine exploded against -the liner’s side, killing several of her crew and sending -her to the bottom in eleven minutes. She went down -within fifty miles of the resting place of the <i>Lusitania</i>. -She was sunk without warning and without cause, for -she had been bound to New York, with neither arms nor -ammunition on board, nor had she made the slightest attempt -either to escape or attack the submarine. She -carried one hundred and eighty-one passengers, twenty-five -of whom were Americans. Two Americans were -drowned.</p> - -<p>The German government at once asked for time in -which to explain, and the Imperial chancellor hinted that -the commander of the submarine that sank the <i>Arabic</i> -might have “gone beyond his instructions, in which case -the Imperial government would not hesitate to give such -complete satisfaction to the United States as would conform -to the friendly relations existing between both -governments.”</p> - -<p>Great was the rejoicing on the first of September, -when Ambassador von Bernstorff declared himself authorized -to say to the State Department that:</p> - -<p>“Liners will not be sunk by our submarines without -warning and without safety of the lives of non-combatants, -provided that the liners do not try to escape or -offer resistance.”</p> - -<p>But only three days afterwards, the west-bound -Canadian liner <i>Hesperian</i> was sunk by the explosion of -what seemed to have been a torpedo launched without -warning from a hostile submarine. And on top of this -disturbing incident came the German note on the sinking<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_200">200</a></span> -of the <i>Arabic</i>, the perusal of which sent a chill -through every peace-lover in America. Affirming that -the captain of the <i>Arabic</i> had tried to ram the submarine, -the note declared that orders had been issued to commanders -of German submarines not to sink liners without -provocation, but added that if by mistake or otherwise -liners were sunk without provocation, Germany -would not be responsible.</p> - -<p>“The German government,” it ran, “is unable to acknowledge -any obligation to grant indemnity in the matter, -even if the commander should have been mistaken as -to the aggressive intention of the <i>Arabic</i>.</p> - -<p>“If it should prove to be the case that it is impossible -for the German and American governments to reach a -harmonious opinion on this point, the German government -would be prepared to submit the difference of opinion, -as being a question of international law, to The -Hague Tribunal for arbitration....</p> - -<p>“In so doing, it assumes that, as matter of course, the -arbitral decision shall not be admitted to have the importance -of a general decision on the permissibility ... -under international law of German submarine warfare.”</p> - -<p>Assuming that this extraordinary stand was based on -a misapprehension of the facts, the United States submitted -to Germany the testimony of American passengers -on the <i>Arabic</i>, and the sworn affidavits of her -officers, that the submarine had not been sighted from -the steamer and that no attempt had been made to ram -the undersea boat or do anything but rescue the crew -of the <i>Dunsley</i>.</p> - -<p>By this time a change had come over the spirit of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_201">201</a></span> -Imperial German government. It realized that the submarine -blockade of the British Isles had broken down, -and that further examples of “Frightfulness” on the -high seas would do Germany no good and would probably -force the United States into the ranks of Germany’s -enemies. The sensible and obvious thing to do was to -take the easy and honorable way out the American government -was holding open. On October 6, Ambassador -von Bernstorff gave out the following statement:</p> - -<p>“Prompted by the desire to reach a satisfactory agreement -with regard to the <i>Arabic</i> incident, my government -has given me the following instructions:</p> - -<p>“The order issued by His Majesty the Emperor to -the commanders of the German submarines, of which I -notified you on a previous occasion, has been made so -stringent that the recurrence of incidents similar to the -<i>Arabic</i> case is considered out of the question.</p> - -<p>“According to the report of Commander Schneider of -the submarine which sank the <i>Arabic</i>, and his affidavit, -as well as those of his men, Commander Schneider was -convinced that the <i>Arabic</i> intended to ram the submarine.</p> - -<p>“On the other hand, the Imperial government does -not doubt the good faith of the affidavit of the British -officers of the <i>Arabic</i>, according to which the <i>Arabic</i> -did not intend to ram the submarine. The attack of the -submarine was undertaken against the instructions issued -to the commander. The Imperial government regrets -and disavows this act, and has notified Commander -Schneider accordingly.</p> - -<p>“Under these circumstances, my government is prepared -to pay an indemnity for American lives which, to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_202">202</a></span> -its deep regret, have been lost on the <i>Arabic</i>. I am authorized -to negotiate with you about the amount of this -indemnity.”</p> - -<p>In the meantime, fragments of the metal box of high -explosives that had blown in the side of the <i>Hesperian</i> -had been picked up on her deck, and forwarded by the -British government to America. United States naval -experts examined the twisted bits of metal and declared -them to have been pieces, not of a mine, as the German -government insists, but of an automobile torpedo. -However, in view of the fact that the <i>Hesperian</i> was -armed with a 4.7 gun, and because of the happy outcome -of the <i>Arabic</i> affair, it seems unlikely that anything will -be done about it.</p> - -<p>But only a month later there was begun another -“Campaign of Frightfulness,” this time by Austrian -submarines in the Mediterranean. As the passengers on -the Italian liner <i>Ancona</i>, one day out from Naples to -New York, were sitting at luncheon on November 7th, -they “felt a tremor through the ship as her engines -stopped and reversed.”<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">29</a> Then, while we were stopping, -there was an explosion forward. A shell had struck us.</p> - -<p>“When I reached the deck,” continues Dr. Greil, -“shell was fairly pouring into us from the submarine, -which we could see through the fog, about 100 yards -away. I hurried below to pack a few things in my -trunk. As I was standing over it, a shell came through -the porthole and struck my maid, who was standing at -my side. It tore away her scalp and part of her skull<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_203">203</a></span> -and went on through the wall, bursting somewhere inside -the ship.</p> - -<p>“When I went on deck again I found the wildest excitement. -It was like the old-time stories one used to -read of shipwrecks at sea. I will not say anything about -the crew because I could not say anything good. They -launched fifteen boats but only eight got away. I was -in one of these.... I do not believe the submarine -fired deliberately on the lifeboats. They were trying to -sink the <i>Ancona</i> with shells, but they finally used a torpedo -to send her to the bottom. I looked at my watch -when she took her last plunge. It was 12.45. We were -picked up by the French cruiser <i>Pluton</i> about midnight.”</p> - -<p>The commander of the submarine declared, in his official -report, that he had fired only because the <i>Ancona</i> -had tried to escape, that he had ceased firing as soon as -she came to a stop, that the loss of life was due to the -incompetence of the panic-stricken crew of the liner, -whom the Austrian officer allowed forty-five minutes in -which to launch the lifeboats. He admitted, however, -that at the expiration of this time he had torpedoed and -sunk the <i>Ancona</i>, while there were still a number of -people on her decks.</p> - -<p>About two hundred of the passengers and crew were -drowned or killed by shellfire. Among them were several -American citizens.</p> - -<p>“The conduct of the commander,” declared the -strongly-worded American note of December 6th, “can -only be characterized as wanton slaughter of defenseless -non-combatants.”... The government of the United -States is unwilling ... to credit the Austro-Hungarian<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_204">204</a></span> -government with an intention to permit its submarines -to destroy the lives of helpless men, women, and children. -It prefers to believe that the commander of the -submarine committed this outrage without authority and -contrary to the general or special instructions which he -had received.</p> - -<p>“As the good relations of the two countries must rest -upon a common regard for law and humanity, the government -of the United States cannot be expected to do -otherwise than to denounce the sinking of the <i>Ancona</i> -as an illegal and indefensible act, and to demand that the -officer who perpetrated the deed be punished, and that -reparation by the payment of an indemnity be made for -the citizens of the United States who were killed or injured -by the attack on the vessel.”</p> - -<p>This undiplomatic language caused no little resentment -in Vienna. But after a restatement of the Austrian case, -and a much milder rejoinder from Washington, the -American demands were apparently acceded to. In the -second Austro-Hungarian note, which was published in -America on January 1st, 1915, the government of the -Dual-Monarchy disavowed the act of its submarine commander, -declared that he had acted in violation of his -orders and would be punished therefore, and agreed to -pay an indemnity for the American citizens who had been -killed or injured.</p> - -<p>“The Imperial and Royal Government,” the note continued, -“agrees thoroughly with the American Cabinet -that the sacred commandments of humanity must be observed -also in war.... The Imperial and Royal Government -can also substantially concur in the principle expressed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_205">205</a></span> -... that private ships, in so far as they do not -attempt to escape or offer resistance, may not be destroyed -without the persons aboard being brought into -safety.”</p> - -<p>Like the settlement of the <i>Arabic</i> case, this was hailed -as a great diplomatic victory for the United States. -Unlike it, there was no question of sharing the credit -with the anti-submarine activities of the Allies, whose -merchant ships in the Mediterranean were being torpedoed -with startling frequency. On December 21st, the -new 12,000 ton Japanese liner <i>Yasaka Maru</i> was sunk -without warning, near Port Said. Thanks to the splendid -discipline of her crew, no lives were lost. There was an -alleged American on board, but there was some irregularity -about his citizenship papers. Nor were there any -Americans aboard the French passenger ship <i>Ville de la -Ciotat</i>, torpedoed on Christmas Eve, with the loss of -seventy lives. There was nothing to mar the smug satisfaction -of the American people on New Year’s Day.</p> - -<p>Then came the news of the sinking of the Peninsular -and Oriental liner <i>Persia</i>, on December 30th, off the -Island of Crete.</p> - -<p>“I was in the dining room of the <i>Persia</i> at 1.05 <span class="smcap smaller">P.M.</span>,” -declares Mr. Charles Grant of Boston, who was one of -the two Americans on board. “I had just finished my -soup, and the steward was asking me what I would take -for my second course, when a terrific explosion occurred.</p> - -<p>“The saloon became filled with smoke, broken glass -and steam from the boiler, which appeared to have burst. -There was no panic on board. We went on deck as -though we were at drill, and reported at the lifeboats on<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_206">206</a></span> -the starboard side, as the vessel had listed to port....</p> - -<p>“The last I saw of the <i>Persia</i>, she had her bow in the -air, five minutes after the explosion....</p> - -<p>“Robert McNeely, American Consul at Aden, sat at -the same table with me on the voyage. He was not seen, -probably because his cabin was on the port side.</p> - -<p>“It was a horrible scene. The water was black as ink. -Some passengers were screaming, others were calling out -good-by. Those in one boat sang hymns.”</p> - -<p>The <i>Persia</i> was apparently torpedoed, without warning. -Like the <i>Hesperian</i>, she was armed with a 4.7 gun. -One of the ship’s officers saw the white wake of the -torpedo. But no one saw the submarine.</p> - -<p>The commander of that submarine evidently believed, -like Captain Sirius, in striking first and letting the lawyers -talk about it afterwards.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_207">207</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2> - -<ul class="index"> - -<li class="ifrst"> -<i>A-1</i>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>A-3</i>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>A-5</i>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>A-7</i>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>A-8</i>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Aboukir</i>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Accidents, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aeroplanes, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Air-chamber, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Alabama</i>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Albemarle</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Alert</i>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alkmaar, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alstitt’s submarine, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ancona</i>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Anglo-Californian</i>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Apostoloff’s submarine, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Arabic</i>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Argo</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Argonaut</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Argonaut Jr.</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Argus</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Asia</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aube, Admiral, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Audacious</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Awash condition, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>B-2</i>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>B-11</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Badger</i>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Baker’s submarine, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Balance-chamber, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ballast-tanks, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Baralong</i> case, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, note.</li> - -<li class="indx">Barber, Lieutenant F. M., <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Barlow, Joel, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bates, Jr., Lindon, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Battle of the Kegs,” <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bauer, Wilhelm, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, note.</li> - -<li class="indx">Beatty, Admiral, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Beauregard, General, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Belridge</i>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Berwick Castle</i>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bigskorth, Squadron Commander, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Birmingham</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Blake, Mr., <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Blockade, <a href="#Page_177">177</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">“Blowing the tanks,” <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Booms, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Borelli, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Boucher’s submarine, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bourgois, Captain, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bourne, William, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Boush, Rear-Admiral, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Bouvet</i>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Boyle, Robert, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">British Hollands, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">British Navy, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brun, Monsieur, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Bulwark</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Buoyancy chamber, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bushnell, David, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a> to <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>C-11</i>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>C-14</i>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cable-cutting, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cairo</i>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Caldwell, Lieutenant H. C., <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Caprivi</i>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carlson, Captain, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cerberus</i>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chandler, Mr. Edward F., <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chlorin gas, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Clairmont</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Commodore Jones</i>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Compass, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Compensation-tank, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Compressed-air tank, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Conning-tower, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Constantin’s submarine, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_208">208</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx">Cooking, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Copper sheathing, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cressy</i>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crilley, Frank, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cushing, Lieutenant, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>D-5</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Daniels, Secretary, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dardanelles, the, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>David</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Davis, Commander, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Day, J., <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Delaying-valve, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Demologos</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Depth-control, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Destroyers, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Delfin</i>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dewey, Admiral, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Diable Marin</i>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, note.</li> - -<li class="indx">Diesel, Dr., <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Diesel engines, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Divers, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Diving-bells, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Diving compartment, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx" id="diving">Diving-planes, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dixon, Lieutenant, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Dorothea</i>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Doughty, Thomas, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Doyle, Sir Arthur Conan, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Drzewiecki, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Dunsely</i>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dubilier, Mr. W., <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>E-4</i>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>E-5</i>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>E-9</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>E-11</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>E-13</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>E-15</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Eagle</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Edison battery, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eel-boats, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Electric Boat Company, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Electric motors, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Electric submarines, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, note.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Emerald Isle</i>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Emergency drop-keel, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Enver Pasha, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ericsson, John, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Escape from sunken submarine, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Even-keel submergence, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>F-4</i>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Falaba</i>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Faotomu, Lieutenant Takuma, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Farfadet</i>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Farragut, Admiral, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fenian Brotherhood, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Fenian Ram</i>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fessenden oscillator, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fishing for submarines, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Foca</i>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Folger, Commander, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Forman, Justus Miles, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Formidable</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Frohman, Charles, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Fulton</i>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fulton, Robert, <a href="#Page_26">26</a> to <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Gages, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Garett, Rev. Mr., <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gasoline engines, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gasoline fumes, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">German contributions, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gimlets, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Goubet submarines, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grant, Charles, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Greased leather, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Greil, Dr. Cecile L., <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Giuseppe Garibaldi</i>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Gulflight</i>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guns, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guncotton, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Gustave Zédé</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Gymnote</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gyroscope, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gyroscopic compass, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Hague Tribunal, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Halstead, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hammond, Jr., Mr. John Hays, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_209">209</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx">Hanson, Captain, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Harsdoffer, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Hatsuse</i>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hautefeullie, Abbé de, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Hela</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Hermes</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Hesperian</i>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Hogue</i>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Holbrook, Commander, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Holland, John P., <a href="#Page_68">68</a> to <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Holland</i>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a> to <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Holland No. 1</i>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Holland No. 2</i>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Holland No. 8</i>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Holland Torpedo-boat Company, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Horn of the Nautilus,” <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Housatonic</i>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Howard, Ensign, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hovgaard, Commander, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Huascar</i>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hubbard, Elbert, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Hundley</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a> to <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hydroplanes, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hydrostatic valve, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Intelligent Whale</i>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">International law, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Irresistible</i>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">James I, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Jammer,” the, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jefferson, Thomas, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jonson, Ben, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>K</i>-class, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Kambala</i>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Kearsarge</i>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Kheyr-el-din</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Klein, Charles, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Krupps, the, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Labeuf, Monsieur, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lacavalerier, Señor, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lacomme, Dr., <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lake, Mr. Simon, <a href="#Page_82">82</a> to <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Laurenti, Major Cesare, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Laurenti dock, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Le Son, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lee, Ezra, <a href="#Page_15">15</a> to <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Leelanlaw</i>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Leon Gambetta</i>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Leveling-vanes, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lifeboats, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">List, Carl Frank, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lord St. Vincent, Admiral, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lupuis, Captain, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Lusitania</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a> to <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Lutin</i>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">McNeely, Robert, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Maine</i>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Majestic</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Makaroff, Admiral, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Malone, Mr. Dudley Field, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Marblehead</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Maryland</i>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Merrimac</i>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mersenne, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Messudieh</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Microphones, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mines, Confederate, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, note.</li> -<li class="isub1">contact, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a> to <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">drifting, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">electric, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">observation, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mine-field, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mine-planter, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mine-sweeping, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Moltke</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Monitor</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mother-ship, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mute</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Napier, John, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Napoleon, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Narval</i>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Nautilus</i>, Fulton’s, <a href="#Page_27">27</a> to <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Nautilus</i>, Jules Verne’s, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Navigating bridge, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Nebraskan</i>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nemo, Captain, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>New Ironsides</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>New York</i>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_210">210</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx">Nordenfeldt, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Nordenfeldt II</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Notes, American, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a> to <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Austrian, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">British, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">German, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>No. 6</i>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Oars, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ocean</i>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oil-engine, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Olympic</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Orduna</i>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Osage</i>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oxygen, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ozark</i>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Panlow, Captain Archibald, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Panoramas, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Payne, Lieutenant, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pendulum, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Peral</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Peripatetic Coffin,” <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Persia</i>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Persius, Captain, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Periscope, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Petropavlosk</i>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Philip, Captain, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Phosphorescence, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pipe-masts, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pitt, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Plongeur</i>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Plunger</i>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pluton</i>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pluviôse</i>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pneumatic gun, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pommern</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Porpoise dive,” <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Porter, Admiral David, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Primer,” the, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Propellers, adjustable, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">primitive, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">transverse, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">vertical-acting, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a> <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Protector</i>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pumps, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Ramillies</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ramming, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Reducing-valve, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rescuing, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Resurgam</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Riou, Olivier, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rogers, Commodore, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Rotterdam Boat</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Royal Edward</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rudders, bow, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">horizontal (see <a href="#diving">diving-planes</a>).</li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>S-126</i>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>San Francisco</i>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Safety-buoy, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">catch, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">helmets, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">jackets, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sails, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Salvage docks, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sampson, Admiral, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Schneider, Commander, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scope, Lieutenant Perry, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Searchlight, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Selfridge, Rear-admiral, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Servo-motor, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sirius, Captain John, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Skerrett, Mr. R. G., <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Spuyten Duyvil</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stahl, Gustav, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Staple of News, the,” <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Steam submarine, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Steamboat, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Storage-batteries, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Striker,” the, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Stromboli</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Submarine fighting submarine, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Submarine railroad, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Submersible, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Superstructure, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Symons’s submarine, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Taylor, D. W., Chief Constructor, U. S. N., <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Telephoning from submarines, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Tecumseh</i>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Templo, Alvary, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Texas</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_211">211</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx">Thrasher, Leon C., <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tinkling Cloud, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tissot, Professor, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Torpedo, automobile, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> to <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">boats, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Brennan, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Chandler, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">controllable, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">cost of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Davis gun-, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Fulton’s anchored, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Hammond wireless, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Torpedo-nets, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">origin of name, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">practice, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">recovering, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Schwartzkopf, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Sims-Edison, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">spar, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">tubes, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">wake of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Torpedo War and Submarine Explosions,” <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Torpedo, Whitehead, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> to <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Transports, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Trim, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Trimming-tanks, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Trinitrotuluol, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Triumph</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Trumbull, Governor, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Turner, Captain, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Turtle</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a> to <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>U-1</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>U-3</i>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>U-9</i>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>U-12</i>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>U-15</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>U-16</i>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>U-28</i>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>U-29</i>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>U-39</i>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, note.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>U-51</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Vanderbilt, Alfred, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vand der Wonde, Cornelius, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Van Drebel, Cornelius, <a href="#Page_4">4</a> to <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Vendémiaire</i>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vereshchagin, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vickers Sons & Maxim, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ville de la Ciotat</i>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Von Weddigen, Lieutenant-commander, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Von Bernstorff, Ambassador, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Von Tirpitz, Admiral, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Vulcan</i>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Waddington, Mr. J. F., <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, note.</li> - -<li class="indx">War-head, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">War Zone, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Washington, George, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wheeled submarines, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">White mice, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Whitehead, Mr., <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Whitney, Secretary, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wilson, President, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wright brothers, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>X-4</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a> to <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Yasaka Maru</i>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Yenisei</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Zeppelins, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> - -</ul> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="footnotes"> -<h2 id="FOOTNOTES" class="nobreak p1">FOOTNOTES</h2> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> Also spelled Van Drebbel, Drebell, Dreble, and Trebel. He is -the man Ben Jonson calls “Cornelius’ son.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> Harsdoffer.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> “New Experiments touching the Spring of the Air and its Effects,” -by Robert Boyle, Oxford, 1662, p. 188.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="fnanchor">4</a> The only submarine built before this for military purposes, the -<i>Rotterdam Boat</i>, remained private property, and King James’s “eel-boats” -were merely pleasure craft.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> Sergeant Ezra Lee’s letter to Gen. David Humphreys, written in -1815. Published in the “Magazine of American History,” Vol. 29, -p. 261.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="fnanchor">6</a> “General Washington and his associates in the secret took their -stations upon a house in Broadway, anxiously awaiting the result.” -From Ezra Lee’s obituary, New York “Commercial Advertiser,” -November 15, 1821.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> According to Bushnell, the screw struck an iron bar securing the -rudder.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> This survivor was examined by the captain of the <i>Cerberus</i>, who -reported that the schooner’s crew had drawn the machine on board -and by rashly tampering with its mechanism caused it to explode.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="fnanchor">9</a> See the “Scientific American,” August 7, 1915.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="fnanchor">10</a> Herbert C. Fyfe, “Submarine Warfare,” p. 269.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> But Fulton’s <i>Nautilus</i> could not possibly have made the dives with -which she is credited except by the use of the horizontal rudders -which she possessed in conjunction with the push of her man-power -propellor. Holland had carefully studied the plans and letters of -Bushnell and Fulton.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="fnanchor">12</a> Mr. J. F. Waddington used vertical propellers in tubes through -the vessel for keeping her on an even keel or submerging when -stationary, on a small electric submarine he invented, built and -demonstrated at Liverpool in 1886.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="fnanchor">13</a> Quotations in this chapter are from Mr. Lake’s articles published -in “International Marine Engineering,” and are here reprinted by -his kind permission.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="fnanchor">14</a> Electric current.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="fnanchor">15</a> From an article by Admiral Selfridge in the “Outlook.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="fnanchor">16</a> The velocity of sound in dry air at a temperature of 32 degrees -Fahrenheit is about 1087 feet a second, in water at 44 degrees, about -4708 feet a second.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="fnanchor">17</a> The sound of the first gun of the salute fired by the Russian fleet -in Cronstadt harbor to celebrate the coronation of Alexander II in -1855 was the signal for the crew of the submerged submarine <i>Le -Diable Marin</i> to begin singing the National Anthem. Their voices, -accompanied by a band of four pieces, were distinctly heard above -the surface. This novel concert had been planned by Wilhelm Bauer, -the designer of the submarine and one of the earliest students of -under-water acoustics. He succeeded in signaling from one side -of the harbor to another by striking a submerged piece of sheet-iron -with a hammer.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="fnanchor">18</a> “Scientific American,” January 28, 1911, page 87.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="fnanchor">19</a> “Scientific American,” November 23, 1912.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="fnanchor">20</a> Titherington’s History of the Spanish-American War, p. 139.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="fnanchor">21</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, page 202.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="fnanchor">22</a> He had done notable work with mines himself, during the Russo-Turkish -War of 1878.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> This was a very popular type with the Confederate Torpedo -Service in the Civil War.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="fnanchor">24</a> London, Jan. 4.—A British official statement issued to-day says: -</p> -<p> -“Sir Edward Grey, secretary for foreign affairs, has answered the -complaint by the Germans through the American embassies regarding -the destruction off the coast of Ireland of a German submarine and -crew, by the British auxiliary <i>Baralong</i>, by referring to various German -outrages. -</p> -<p> -“Sir Edward Grey offers to submit such incidents, including the -<i>Baralong</i> case, to an impartial tribunal composed, say, of officers of -the United States navy. -</p> -<p> -“The Foreign Office has presented to the House of Commons the -full correspondence between Ambassador Page and Sir Edward Grey -concerning the case. A memorandum from Germany concerning the -sinking of the submarine includes affidavits from six Americans who -were muleteers aboard the steamer <i>Nicosian</i> and witnessed the <i>Baralong’s</i> -destruction of the submarine. A further affidavit from Larimore -Holland, of Chattanooga, Tennessee, who was a member of the -crew of the <i>Baralong</i>, was submitted. All the affidavits speak of the -<i>Baralong</i> as disguised and flying the American flag.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="fnanchor">25</a> “Scientific American,” October 16, 1915.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="fnanchor">26</a> In “Collier’s Weekly,” August 22, and 29, 1914.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="fnanchor">27</a> This submarine was the <i>U-39</i>. On board her was an American -boy, Carl Frank List, who was taken off a Norwegian ship and -spent eleven days on the <i>U-39</i>, during which time she sank eleven -ships. In each case the crew were given ample time to take to the -boats. List’s intensely interesting narrative appeared in the “New -York American” for September 3, 5, and 7, 1915.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="fnanchor">28</a> “Von Weddigen, I was told, met his death chasing an armed -British steamer. Commanding the <i>U-29</i>, he went after a whale of -a British freighter in the Irish Sea, signaled her to stop. She -stopped but hoisted the Spanish flag. As he came alongside, the -steamer let drive with her two four-point-sevens at the submarine, -sinking it immediately.” Statement of Carl Frank List.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="fnanchor">29</a> Statement of Dr. Cecile L. Greil, the only native-born American -on board.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="transnote"> -<h2 class="nobreak p1"><a id="Transcribers_Notes"></a>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - -<p>Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a predominant -preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed.</p> - -<p>Words spelled differently in quoted passages than in the author’s own -text have not been changed.</p> - -<p>Simple typographical errors were silently corrected; occasional unbalanced -quotation marks retained.</p> - -<p><a href="#CHAPTER_II">Chapter II’s</a> footnotes originally skipped number “3”. The omission -is not apparent in this eBook, in which all footnotes are in a -single ascending sequence.</p> - -<p>Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained.</p> - -<p>For consistency, all occurrences of “bow-foremost” and “stern-foremost” -are hyphenated in this eBook.</p> - -<p>Index not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references.</p> -</div></div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The Story of the Submarine, by Farnham Bishop - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF THE SUBMARINE *** - -***** This file should be named 50582-h.htm or 50582-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/0/5/8/50582/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Charlie Howard, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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