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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #50584 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/50584)
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-Project Gutenberg's Insects and Diseases of Trees in the South, by Anonymous
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: Insects and Diseases of Trees in the South
-
-Author: Anonymous
-
-Release Date: December 1, 2015 [EBook #50584]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INSECTS AND DISEASES OF TREES ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Dave Morgan and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
-
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-
-
-                                INSECTS
-                                  AND
-                                DISEASES
-                                OF TREES
-                              IN THE SOUTH
-
-
-             U.S. Department of Agriculture—Forest Service
-              State and Private Forestry—Southeastern Area
-                      Forest Pest Management Group
-
-
-
-
-                              INTRODUCTION
-
-
-This publication has been prepared to assist forest managers and
-homeowners in identifying pests of southern trees. The insects and
-diseases discussed are the more common ones attacking forest and
-ornamental trees. Prompt identification and treatment of these pests may
-mean the difference between losing or saving a valuable shade tree.
-Underlying all successful forest and ornamental pest control efforts,
-however, is the necessity to keep trees in a healthy, vigorous
-condition.
-
-We have attempted to include pictures of the damage as well as pictures
-of the damage-causing organism or stage. Chemical suppression
-recommendations are not included in this publication. For pesticide
-information contact the local State or Federal extension specialist,
-forester, entomologist, or pathologist.
-
-Credit for some of the pictures in this guide goes to the Southern and
-Southeastern Forest Experiment Stations and universities. We acknowledge
-the help of the Forest Pest Management field personnel who assisted in
-compiling this booklet.
-
-
-
-
-                           TABLE OF CONTENTS
-
-
-                                INSECTS
-  Hardwood Insects
-  Defoliators
-    Elm Spanworm                                                        1
-    Fall Cankerworm                                                     2
-    A Looper                                                            3
-    Eastern Tent Caterpillar                                            4
-    Forest Tent Caterpillar                                             5
-    Fall Webworm                                                        6
-    Oak Leaf Tier                                                       7
-    Variable Oakleaf Caterpillar                                        8
-    Locust Leafminer                                                    9
-    Cottonwood Leaf Beetle                                             10
-    Walkingstick                                                       11
-    Gypsy Moth                                                         12
-  Bark Beetles and Borers
-    Hickory Bark Beetle                                                13
-    Smaller European Elm Bark Beetle                                   14
-    Columbian Timber Beetle                                            15
-    Cottonwood Twig Borer                                              16
-    Cottonwood Borer                                                   17
-    White Oak Borer                                                    18
-    Red Oak Borer                                                      19
-    Carpenterworm                                                      20
-  Conifer Insects
-  Defoliators
-    Pine Webworm                                                       21
-    Bagworm                                                            22
-    Pine Colaspis                                                      23
-    Pine Sawfly                                                        24
-    Arkansas Pine Sawfly                                               25
-    Virginia Pine Sawfly                                               26
-    Redheaded Pine Sawfly                                              27
-    Texas Leaf Cutting Ant                                             28
-  Bark Beetles and Borers
-    Southern Pine Beetle                                               29
-    _Ips_ Engraver Beetles                                             30
-    Black Turpentine Beetle                                            31
-    Ambrosia Beetle                                                    32
-    Southern Pine Sawyers                                              33
-  Meristem Feeders
-    Nantucket Pine Tip Moth                                            34
-    Pales Weevil                                                       35
-    White Pine Weevil                                                  36
-    Pitch Eating Weevil                                                37
-    Deodar Weevil                                                      38
-    Coneworms                                                          39
-    Pine Seedworms                                                     40
-  Sapsucking Insects
-    Balsam Woolly Aphid                                                41
-
-
-                                 DISEASES
-  Conifer Diseases
-  Foliage
-    Needle Cast                                                        42
-    Brown Spot                                                         43
-    Needle Rust                                                        44
-    Cedar Apple Rust                                                   45
-    Cedar Blight                                                       46
-  Stem, Branch, Cone
-    Southern Fusiform Rust                                             47
-    White Pine Blister Rust                                            48
-    Comandra Blister Rust                                              49
-    Eastern Gall Rust                                                  50
-    Cone Rust                                                          51
-    Pitch Canker                                                       52
-    Wood Decay                                                         53
-    Red Heart                                                          54
-  Root and Butt Rots
-    Annosus Root Rot                                                   55
-    Brown Cubical Rot                                                  56
-    Red Root and Butt Rot                                              57
-    Littleleaf Disease                                                 58
-  Hardwood Diseases
-  Foliage and Twig
-    Sycamore Anthracnose                                               59
-    Walnut Anthracnose                                                 60
-    Oak Anthracnose                                                    61
-    Dogwood Anthracnose                                                62
-    Cottonwood Rust                                                    63
-    Black Knot of Cherry                                               64
-  Stem and Canker
-    Nectria Canker                                                     65
-    Strumella Canker                                                   66
-    Spiculosa Canker                                                   67
-    Irpex Canker                                                       68
-    Hispidus Canker                                                    69
-    Botryosphaeria Canker                                              70
-    Septoria Canker                                                    71
-    Cytospora Canker                                                   72
-    Chestnut Blight                                                    73
-  Vascular Wilts
-    Oak Wilt                                                           74
-    Dutch Elm Disease                                                  75
-    Elm Phloem Necrosis                                                76
-    Mimosa Wilt                                                        77
-    Verticillium Wilt                                                  78
-  Root and Butt Rots
-    Armillaria Root Rot                                                79
-    Cylindrocladium Root Rot                                           80
-    Lucidus Root and Butt Rot                                          81
-
-
-
-
-                                INSECTS
-
-
-              ELM SPANWORM, _Ennomos subsignarius_ (Hbn.)
-
-The elm spanworm is a native insect which is widely distributed over the
-eastern half of the United States and Canada from Nova Scotia south to
-Georgia and west to Colorado. The most widespread outbreak on record
-occurred during the period 1954-1963 when over one million acres of
-hardwood forests were defoliated in the mountains of western North
-Carolina, eastern Tennessee and northern Georgia. The elm spanworm feeds
-upon hickories and a variety of hardwoods; white oak, chestnut oak, and
-northern red oak are the species most heavily defoliated in the
-Appalachians. Repeated defoliation causes growth loss, reduces mast
-crops, and will eventually kill the tree.
-
-    [Illustration: Sixth instar elm spanworm larva.]
-
-Eggs are laid in masses of 12 to 200 on the undersides of host tree
-branches in early July. Winter is spent in the egg stage. Larvae hatch
-in early spring when foliage opens. The larval stage is an “inchworm” or
-“looper”, approximately 1½ inches long when mature. Larval coloring
-varies from green or light brown to black, depending upon population
-density. The typical color of the larva in heavy populations is dark
-brown to black, with a dark-red head, legs, and anal shield. The larvae
-feed for about 1½ months, and then pupate in a loose cocoon for six to
-ten days. The adult, a snow-white moth, emerges in late June or early
-July. There is one generation per year.
-
-Natural enemies help keep populations of the elm spanworm in check. One
-of the most important is _Telenomus alsophilae_, a tiny wasp which
-parasitizes eggs. Persistent outbreaks on high-value stands may require
-treatment with chemicals.
-
-    [Illustration: Elm span worms feeding on oak.]
-
-
-            FALL CANKERWORM, _Alsophila pometaria_ (Harris)
-
-The fall cankerworm is widespread in the northern part of the United
-States, ranging south through the Appalachian Mountains to North
-Carolina. Larvae defoliate many species of hardwoods, but in the South
-seem to prefer oaks, hickories, and ash.
-
-    [Illustration: Mature fall cankerworm larva.]
-
-The winged male and wingless female adults emerge on mild days in
-November and December and mate. Females lay 6-300 eggs in neatly
-arranged masses encircling small branches and twigs. The pale green
-larvae hatch in late April or early May. As they mature they may remain
-light green, or change to a very dark brownish-green depending on the
-host. Newly hatched inch-worms (larvae) of the fall cankerworm chew
-small holes in expanding leaves of their hosts, or may completely
-skeletonize the leaves. Mature larvae consume all but the mid-rib and
-major veins of the leaf. Feeding is usually completed in four to five
-weeks, at which time larvae drop to the ground to pupate in the soil.
-
-Cold, wet weather during the early larval period, and parasitization,
-are responsible for sudden declines in established populations. Chemical
-control has also been effective. A small wasp, _Telenomus alsophilae_
-Viereck, has caused a sharp decline in outbreaks of cankerworm
-populations. Usually, however, outbreak conditions must exist for
-several years before the parasite can attain the density needed to cause
-a decline.
-
-    [Illustration: Female cankerworm adult depositing eggs.]
-
-
-                  A LOOPER, _Phigalia titea_ (Cramer)
-
-Larvae of this moth, one of the measuring worms, have periodically been
-responsible for scattered mortality of hardwoods throughout the eastern
-United States. Mortality is most likely to occur in stands on
-low-quality sites, particularly during periods of drought which favor
-this insect’s development and further weaken infested trees. This
-species is likely to be found in almost any hardwood area in the eastern
-United States. The insect feeds on a wide variety of trees and shrubs.
-Host trees in the Southeast include oaks, hickories, black tupelo, and
-black locust.
-
-    [Illustration: Phigalia adult male moth.]
-
-_Phigalia titea_ overwinters as a pupa. Adults emerge in late March to
-mid-April, and mate. The female lays her eggs in protected sites on
-branches and trunks of hardwoods. Eggs are most often laid in crevices
-and beneath the bark of dead branches. Eggs hatch in April, and larvae
-feed until early June. Larvae often feed on unopened buds, causing
-irregular holes in the developing leaves. Larvae first eat just the
-surfaces of leaves, but later consume all leaf tissue between the major
-veins. When larvae are dislodged by wind or feeding predators they fall
-or descend on a silken thread and continue feeding in the lower crown or
-on understory vegetation. Pupation occurs on the soil surface or in the
-litter.
-
-    [Illustration: Phigalia larva.]
-
-Weather regulates populations of this insect. Soil-inhabiting insects
-and rodents are believed to destroy many pupae during the winter.
-
-
-         EASTERN TENT CATERPILLAR, _Malacosoma americanum_ (F.)
-
-The presence of the eastern tent caterpillar is objectionable more from
-an aesthetic standpoint than from its effect on the host tree. The ugly
-tents constructed by the feeding larvae make this pest highly
-objectionable on shade trees. Black cherry and other species of the
-genus _Prunus_ are preferred hosts, but other trees in the family
-_Rosaceae_ are sometimes attacked. This insect is widely distributed
-wherever host trees are found east of the Rocky Mountains.
-
-    [Illustration: Larvae and tent of eastern tent caterpillar.]
-
-The caterpillars appear at about the same time the leaves of black
-cherry begin to unfold. The larvae construct a web or tent in the crotch
-of a small branch, and begin feeding. Usually they consume entire
-leaves, except for the large veins. As the larvae mature, they add to
-the tent, which may reach a foot in diameter and two feet in length.
-Reaching maturity in about six weeks, the larvae drop to the ground and
-pupate. The moths emerge in June and the females lay eggs. Eggs of the
-eastern tent caterpillar are shiny black masses which encircle the
-smaller twigs and are quite noticeable. The insect overwinters in the
-egg stage.
-
-Control on ornamental, fruit, and shade trees is achieved by pruning off
-and burning the tents containing the caterpillars.
-
-    [Illustration: Tent caterpillar-infested black cherry.]
-
-
-         FOREST TENT CATERPILLAR, _Malacosoma disstria_ (Hbn.)
-
-The forest tent caterpillar has caused repeated serious defoliation of
-hardwood forests throughout North America. Aspen, water tupelo, hard
-maple, gums, and oaks are preferred hosts but this insect will feed on a
-variety of other broadleaf trees.
-
-    [Illustration: Forest tent caterpillar larvae.]
-
-The shiny black egg masses encircling the twigs of host trees can be
-seen during winter months. Small black, hairy larvae hatch out just as
-the leaves are beginning to unfold. They do not construct a tent, but
-make a silken mat on the larger branches or trunk of the tree on which
-they rest between feeding periods. When full grown, the larvae are about
-two inches long, brownish-black with distinctive white, keyhole-shaped
-spots down the middle of the back, and blue lines along the sides. Just
-before pupating, the larvae spin a whitish silk cocoon on the bark or
-leaf of the host. In about ten days the light brown moths emerge, mate,
-and the females begin laying their eggs.
-
-Parasitic flies are one of the more important agents which normally keep
-this insect under control. Outbreaks occur with some regularity,
-however, and chemicals may be required to prevent defoliation.
-
-    [Illustration: Colony of third instar larvae.]
-
-
-                FALL WEBWORM, _Hyphantria cunea_ (Drury)
-
-The fall webworm is not considered an important forest pest. However,
-ugly webs can seriously detract from aesthetic values. The preferred
-hosts in the South are persimmon, pecan, and sourwood, but it is also
-found on black walnut, hickory, cherry, sycamore, crab apple, and
-sweetgum. The insects range throughout North America.
-
-    [Illustration: Fall webworm larva.]
-
-The adult is a pure white moth about 1¼ inches long. The forewing is
-sometimes marked with blackish dots. The larva is about one inch long
-when full grown, generally pale yellow or greenish with a broad dark
-longitudinal stripe on the back and a yellowish stripe extending from
-black and orange warts. The insect has one generation per year in the
-northern part of its range, and two in the southern part. Moths of the
-first generation emerge from May to July and those of the second in July
-and August. Adult females lay 400-500 eggs in white cottony patches on
-the underside of the leaves of host plants. The eggs hatch in about a
-week, and the larvae form a web and begin to skeletonize the leaves by
-feeding in rows. As the larvae grow they expand the web to cover the
-colony. When the larvae are ready to pupate, they crawl or drop to the
-ground and form a brownish cocoon in the duff around the tree where they
-overwinter.
-
-    [Illustration: Fall webworm infestation.]
-
-Natural enemies usually keep this insect under control. Webs can be
-pruned from high-value trees in scenic or recreation areas.
-
-
-              OAK LEAF TIER, _Croesia albicomana_ (Clem.)
-
-This oak leaf tier has been associated with the decline and mortality of
-several species of oak in the northeastern United States and southern
-Appalachians. An outbreak population in the mountains of West Virginia
-and Virginia in 1966-68 resulted in the loss of several thousand acres
-of scarlet oak. Usually such outbreaks coincide with periods of drought
-which increase the impact of defoliation on the host. Its hosts include
-northern red oak, black oak, scarlet oak, and pin oak. The latter two
-species seem to be hit hardest by this insect.
-
-    [Illustration: Leaf tier adult and pupa.]
-
-_Croesia albicomana_ spends the winter in the egg stage. Eggs are glued
-to small twigs in the crown of the host tree. Hatch occurs from
-mid-April to early May. Young larvae, which emerge before bud-break,
-bore into and mine the expanding buds. When large numbers of this insect
-are present they can destroy most of the vegetative buds on a tree.
-Later the older larvae tie down a folded-over portion of a leaf and feed
-on it. Leaves fed on by the oak leaf tier appear to be full of shot
-holes. As the larvae near maturity they may tie the apical portion of
-two or more leaves together and feed on them. Mature larvae then drop to
-the ground to pupate in the litter. Adult moths emerge in June or early
-July, mate, and the female immediately begins laying eggs. The small,
-flat, oval eggs are deposited individually on small twigs, generally
-around nodes or leaf scars.
-
-    [Illustration: Scarlet oak killed by leaf tier.]
-
-Little is known of the natural factors which regulate population levels
-of this insect, but undoubtedly weather is important.
-
-
-      VARIABLE OAK LEAF CATERPILLAR, _Heterocampa maneto_ (Dbldy.)
-
-The variable oak leaf caterpillar periodically defoliates extensive
-areas of hardwood forest in the eastern United States. Its range covers
-all of the southern and eastern states as far west as east Texas. The
-larvae feed primarily on oaks but will also feed on beech, basswood,
-birch and elm. Other defoliating insects may be associated with
-outbreaks causing additional damage. Young larvae skeletonize the leaf
-while older larvae devour the entire leaf except the primary veins.
-Infestations are generally more severe in the South, where the insect
-has two generations per year causing two periods of defoliation in a
-single year. While infestations usually subside before many trees are
-killed, heavy defoliation reduces the tree’s growth and vigor.
-
-    [Illustration: Larva of the variable oak leaf caterpillar.]
-
-The variable oak leaf caterpillar overwinters as a non-feeding larva in
-a cocoon on the forest floor. It pupates and emerges as a moth the
-following spring. The female moth, gray in color and about 1¾ inches
-long, lays about 500 eggs singly on the leaves of host trees. The larvae
-feed on foliage for five or six weeks, drop to the ground to pupate, and
-emerge as adults in mid-summer. Larvae hatching from eggs laid by the
-second generation of moths defoliate the trees for a second time during
-late summer. By late October the mature larvae of the second generation
-have dropped to the forest floor to overwinter. The full grown larva is
-approximately 1½ inches long. Color varies among individuals. The head
-is generally amber brown with curved diagonal white and black bands. The
-body is usually yellow green with a narrow white stripe down the center
-of the back bordered by wider dark bands.
-
-Outbreaks of the variable oak leaf caterpillar may be severe but
-generally subside before serious tree mortality occurs. Parasites and
-predators are not effective in controlling rising populations of the
-insect. Mice and predaceous beetles feed on the resting larvae and pupae
-in the litter and soil of the forest floor. While no chemical is
-currently registered for control of this insect, chemical spraying has
-been effective and safe in controlling closely related insects.
-
-
-          LOCUST LEAFMINER, _Xenochalepus dorsalis_ (Thunberg)
-
-The locust leafminer is a destructive pest of black locust and honey
-locust in both the adult and larval stages. It is found throughout the
-range of these trees in the eastern half of North America. The adults
-also feed on other species of trees.
-
-The adult beetles overwinter in crevices in the bark of trees and under
-litter on the forest floor. The beetles emerge and begin feeding in the
-spring, usually after mid-April. After feeding for a short time they
-deposit eggs on the undersides of leaves, piling them one upon another,
-somewhat shingle-like. Eggs are covered with brownish fecal matter.
-Larvae soon hatch and eat into the leaf tissue to form a mine. Newly
-emerged larvae feed gregariously in a single mine for a short time. They
-then construct new mines where the insects live singly. Several mines
-are constructed before the larvae reach maturity. The larvae pupate in
-the mines and emerge as adults in July to begin the second generation.
-The adult beetles are foliage feeders, eating irregular holes in leaves.
-When sufficient in number they may defoliate host trees.
-
-    [Illustration: Damage to black locust caused by the locust leaf
-    miner.]
-
-Under forested conditions no control is recommended. Rarely do trees die
-from attacks by this insect. Damage is objectionable mostly from an
-aesthetic viewpoint.
-
-
-           COTTONWOOD LEAF BEETLE, _Chrysomela scripta_ (F.)
-
-Willows, poplars, aspens and alders are attacked by the cottonwood leaf
-beetle in the eastern United States. Cottonwood is the most important
-host in the South. Damage has been especially severe in Louisiana and
-Mississippi where thousands of acres of cottonwood plantations are
-intensively managed. Adult beetles and larvae feed on the foliage.
-Damage is most critical during the first three years after the
-cottonwood is planted. Adults chew holes in the leaves and may attack
-the terminal shoots causing reduced growth or stem deformity. Young
-larvae skeletonize the foliage but older larvae consume all foliage
-except the leaf midribs. Damage may become severe enough to cause
-mortality.
-
-    [Illustration: Cottonwood leaf beetle adult.]
-
-The cottonwood leaf beetle overwinters in the adult stage. Eggs are laid
-in the spring. The female lays a cluster of about 75 yellowish eggs on
-the underside of a leaf. As the larvae mature they become yellow with
-black spots. After about nine days in the larval stage the beetle
-transforms into the non-feeding pupal stage which lasts five to ten
-days. The adult is about ¼-inch long and has a black head and thorax.
-The wing covers are yellow with longitudinal black stripes. The life
-cycle is completed in 25 to 30 days and several generations occur in a
-single year.
-
-    [Illustration: Larvae and pupae of the cottonwood leaf beetle.]
-
-Control may be needed in a plantation only during the first three years.
-Chemical sprays have been successful in the past but at the present time
-no insecticides are registered for cottonwood leaf beetle control.
-
-
-              WALKINGSTICK, _Diapheromera femorata_ (Say)
-
-The walkingstick is a defoliator of broadleaved trees in North America.
-The black oaks, basswood, and wild cherry are the most common preferred
-hosts but numerous other hardwood species are attacked. This insect is
-widely distributed over the United States east of the Rocky Mountains as
-well as Manitoba and Ontario in Canada. At times, populations build in
-sufficient numbers to defoliate trees over large areas.
-
-    [Illustration: Male walkingsticks feeding on oak.]
-
-These slender, wingless, stick-like insects are pale green when young,
-but gradually change to a dark green, gray, or brown at maturity. The
-adult female measures up to three inches in length and is more
-stout-bodied than the male. Mating usually takes place in August and egg
-laying begins six to ten days later. The eggs are dropped to the ground
-where they overwinter in the leaf litter. In the northern part of the
-walkingstick’s range the eggs take two years to hatch. In the South,
-walkingstick eggs hatch the summer after they are laid, usually starting
-in mid-May. The newly hatched walkingstick looks like a miniature adult.
-
-Parasitic wasps and flies are active against the immature walkingsticks
-but are not efficient enough to cause a substantial population
-reduction. Flocks of robins, blackbirds, and grackles have a much
-greater impact, however. The defoliation caused by walkingsticks
-generally occurs on upland sites in stands which are not of high value
-or intensively managed. For this reason there has been little interest
-in control.
-
-
-                  GYPSY MOTH, _Porthetria dispar_ (L.)
-
-The gypsy moth is an introduced forest insect. It was brought into this
-country from Europe in 1869 and has been restricted to the Northeast.
-The gypsy moth feeds aggressively on oak, alder, apple, basswood,
-willow, and birch. As the caterpillars reach maturity they will also
-feed on hemlock, cedar, pine, and spruce.
-
-    [Illustration: Gypsy moth larvae.]
-
-In the Northeast, the gypsy moth has a single generation per year,
-overwintering in the egg stage. Eggs hatch in late April and May and
-larvae are present for approximately two months. Full-grown caterpillars
-measure more than two inches long and are easily identified by the five
-pairs of blue spots and six pairs of red spots arranged in a double row
-along the back. The adult moths are active from late June to early
-September. Female moths, their bodies heavy with eggs, are unable to fly
-and must rely on a powerful sex attractant to lure male moths. This sex
-attractant has been chemically synthesized and is used as a trap bait in
-surveys designed to determine the presence of gypsy moths in areas
-suspected to be infested. Each female deposits from 200 to 800 eggs in a
-buff-colored mass which she attaches to any convenient surface including
-cars, trailers, and other vehicles.
-
-    [Illustration: Female gypsy moths depositing egg masses.]
-
-During the past 75 years the gypsy moth has been the target of many
-large-scale control programs, and much money has been spent trying to
-reduce the impact of gypsy moth infestations. Current control efforts
-are handicapped by the unavailability of a safe and effective persistent
-chemical. In the North two predators and nine parasites have been
-successfully established to help control the gypsy moth. The greatest
-problem in controlling gypsy moth spread, however, lies in the fact that
-recreational vehicles transport egg masses and larvae from infested
-sites into uninfested areas.
-
-
-          HICKORY BARK BEETLE, _Scolytus quadrispinosus_ (Say)
-
-The hickory bark beetle is reported to be the most serious insect pest
-of hickory in the United States. Population explosions where thousands
-of trees were killed have been reported from New York, Pennsylvania,
-Maryland, Virginia, and recently from Georgia. Hickory bark beetles are
-distributed throughout the range of their host in eastern United States.
-All species of hickory are subject to attack, as well as pecan and
-possibly butternut. Adult beetles emerge in May and June in the southern
-portion of their range. They feed for a short time by boring into the
-petioles of leaves and into small twigs of the host. Dying leaves and
-twigs are the first evidence of attack. After feeding, the beetles fly
-to the trunk and larger branches of the host and bore into the inner
-bark to lay their eggs. Short, longitudinal egg galleries are etched
-into the sapwood and from 20 to 60 eggs deposited in small niches cut on
-either side of the gallery. As the larvae develop, their galleries
-radiate out from the egg gallery. Two generations per year have been
-reported from northern Mississippi. The beetle overwinters in the larval
-stage. With the coming of warm weather in the early spring, it changes
-into the pupal stage, and finally, in May, to an adult.
-
-    [Illustration: Hickory bark beetle adult.]
-
-Outbreaks of this insect begin in periods of hot, dry weather and
-subside when rains commence.
-
-    [Illustration: Larval galleries of the hickory bark beetle.]
-
-
-  SMALLER EUROPEAN ELM BARK BEETLE, _Scolytus multistriatus_ (Marsham)
-
-The smaller European elm bark beetle was first reported in the United
-States in 1909. Its presence in this country was given significance with
-the introduction of the Dutch elm disease in 1930. The beetle attacks
-all native and introduced species of elms and now occurs wherever the
-hosts are present. The feeding of the adult beetles in the spring is
-responsible for transmitting the Dutch elm disease from diseased to
-healthy trees. The Dutch elm disease is now our most important shade
-tree disease.
-
-    [Illustration: Smaller European elm bark beetle adult.]
-
-Adult bark beetles emerge in the spring from dead or dying elms and
-begin feeding on the twigs of healthy elms. The female then excavates an
-egg gallery in the bark of dead or weakened elms. Eggs are deposited
-along the walls of the gallery. The larvae, upon hatching, burrow into
-the bark at right angles to the egg gallery. Pupation occurs at the end
-of the larval tunnel. New adults tunnel to the bark surface and leave
-the tree through circular emergence holes. There are usually two
-generations a year. The beetles overwinter in the larval stage.
-
-Chemical control and good tree maintenance are the two methods used to
-reduce bark beetle populations. Insecticides are used to prevent feeding
-by the adults in the spring. Tree sanitation involves removal and
-disposal of dead elms and elm limbs which eliminate breeding and larval
-development sites.
-
-
-       COLUMBIAN TIMBER BEETLE, _Corthylus columbianus_ (Hopkins)
-
-All hardwood trees in the eastern half of the United States are subject
-to attack by the Columbian timber beetle, but oaks, maples, birch,
-basswood, yellow-poplar, and elm are the preferred hosts in the South.
-The beetle causes two major types of damage: 1) physical damage caused
-by the 1/32″ to 1/16″ hole excavated by the adult into the sapwood, and
-2) degrade caused by stain which may extend for a considerable distance
-above and below the gallery. Large diameter trees are preferred as
-hosts, but trees as small as one and one-fourth inches in diameter may
-be attacked.
-
-    [Illustration: Callow adult and pupae of the Columbian timber
-    beetle.]
-
-There are two and sometimes three generations of this insect each year.
-Adults from the first generation emerge from late May through June and
-those from the second in October. The first evidence of attack is the
-white dust which collects at the entrance hole. Later, depending on the
-tree’s physiological condition, a sap-soaked area may develop around the
-entrance hole. The adult bores a horizontal hole into the sapwood of a
-healthy tree for a few inches and later constructs two or three shorter
-lateral branches. “Cradles” (or egg chambers) are then constructed for a
-short distance perpendicular to these galleries. The female deposits a
-single egg in each chamber. The offspring spend their entire
-developmental period within the cradles feeding on fungi which grow on
-the sapwood. It is this fungus which causes the extensive staining
-characteristic of Columbian timber beetle attack. Winter is spent in
-both the pupal and adult stages in the brood galleries.
-
-    [Illustration: Columbian timber beetle entrance holes in
-    yellow-poplar.]
-
-Chemical control is not practical for forest trees.
-
-
-       COTTONWOOD TWIG BORER, _Gypsonoma haimbachiana_ (Kearfott)
-
-The cottonwood twig borer is widely distributed throughout the entire
-range of eastern cottonwood, from Canada to the Gulf States and west to
-Missouri. The larvae of the cottonwood twig borer feed in the terminals
-of the host. This feeding results in reduction of terminal growth and
-forked and crooked trunks. Damage is especially severe on young trees.
-
-    [Illustration: Cottonwood twig borer damage to cottonwood sapling.]
-
-    [Illustration: Three-year-old cottonwood stunted by twig borers.]
-
-The female moth lays eggs on the upper surface of leaves along the
-mid-rib, singly or in groups of two to eight. Hatching occurs in about
-five days and the young larvae cover themselves with silk mixed with
-trash, and then tunnel into the mid-rib. After the first molt, larvae
-leave the tunnels and bore into tender shoots. Larvae reach maturity in
-about 21-23 days and begin moving down the trunk of the tree where they
-spin cocoons in sheltered bark crevices, in litter, or between leaf
-folds. The adult moths emerge in eight or nine days. It takes from 40-45
-days to complete the life cycle in mid-summer.
-
-The most effective natural control is a potter wasp, _Eumenes_ sp. which
-tears open tender cottonwood shoots and removes twig borer larvae from
-their galleries. Other wasps parasitizing the twig borer include _Bracon
-mellitor_ (Say), _Apanteles clavatus_ (Provancher) and _Agathis_ sp.
-
-
-             COTTONWOOD BORER, _Plectrodera scalator_ (F.)
-
-The cottonwood borer is limited in range to the southern half of the
-United States. Hosts include cottonwood, poplars and willows. The adults
-feed on the tender shoots of young trees causing them to shrivel and
-break off. The larval stage of this insect tunnels in the inner bark and
-wood at the base of the tree and may kill or severely weaken it.
-
-    [Illustration: Adult cottonwood borer.]
-
-The adult beetles appear in midsummer. After feeding briefly on the
-tender bark of the terminals the adults descend to the bases of host
-trees where the female deposits her eggs in small pits gnawed in the
-bark. Eggs hatch in about three weeks. The larvae bore downward in the
-inner bark, entering a large root by fall. Larval feeding continues into
-the second year as the larvae bore into the inner bark and wood. The
-larvae transform into the non-feeding pupal stage and finally into an
-adult in the summer of the second year thus completing a two year life
-cycle. Adult beetles are 1¼ to 1½ inches long. They are black with lines
-of cream-colored scales forming irregular black patches.
-
-The best control for the cottonwood borer is to maintain a vigorous,
-healthy stand. Slow growing, off-site plantings of host trees are the
-most severely damaged. While some systemic insecticides have shown
-promise, there is currently no registered chemical control method.
-
-
-               WHITE OAK BORER, _Goes tigrinus_ (De Geer)
-
-A recent survey of damage caused by various wood borers to three species
-in the white oak group revealed an estimated annual loss in the South
-exceeding 20 million dollars. One of the more important borers
-responsible for this damage is the white oak borer.
-
-    [Illustration: Adult white oak borer.]
-
-Usually the white oak borer attacks oaks one to eight inches in
-diameter. The damage, like that of other hardwood borers, is the result
-of larval feeding in the wood. Galleries up to one-half inch in diameter
-extend upward through the sapwood into the heartwood. The white oak
-borer takes three to four years to complete one generation. The mated
-adult female beetle lays her eggs singly in the inner bark through a
-small oval niche chewed through the outer bark. After about three weeks
-the eggs hatch and the larvae immediately bore into the sapwood. Later
-they bore upward into the heartwood. The boring frass ejected out of the
-entrance is evidence of an active infestation. Pupation occurs behind a
-plug of excelsior-like frass at the upper end of the gallery in the
-heartwood. In about three weeks, adults emerge by boring separate and
-perfectly round holes through the wood and bark. In the South, adults
-generally emerge in May and June and feed for a short time on oak leaves
-and the tender bark of twigs before the females lay their eggs.
-
-Woodpeckers may destroy up to 25 percent of the larvae during the winter
-months, but this and the small toll taken by insect predators and
-parasites are not sufficient to keep the white oak borer population low
-enough to avoid serious economic loss.
-
-    [Illustration: Entrance and emergence holes in white oak.]
-
-
-              RED OAK BORER, _Enaphalodes rufulus_ (Hald.)
-
-The red oak borer is a serious pest of trees in the red oak group. It
-ranges throughout eastern North America wherever host species grow. It
-is estimated that defects caused by larval tunnels in the sapwood and
-heartwood of host trees costs the hardwood timber industry millions of
-dollars each year.
-
-    [Illustration: Adult red oak borer.]
-
-Eggs of the red oak borer are laid during early and mid-summer in bark
-crevices or under patches of lichen on host trees. After hatching,
-larvae bore into the inner bark region where they feed until mid-summer
-of the next year. This feeding in the inner bark causes characteristic
-catfaces or bark pockets. Once larvae enter the wood they bore upward
-through the sapwood and into the heartwood and pupate behind a plug of
-excelsior-like frass. The larval galleries are from one-fourth to
-one-half inch in diameter, and six to ten inches long. Usually the
-galleries are within six inches of the center of the tree. The adult
-emerges at the lower end of the tunnel, using a hole cut through the
-bark by the larva just prior to pupating. Adults emerge in June and
-July. The timing of the two-year life cycle of the red oak borer is such
-that the adult population is greatest in odd-numbered years.
-
-Generally, borers such as the red oak borer infest trees of poor vigor.
-It is possible, therefore, to reduce borer populations by maintaining
-vigorous stands and by removing cull trees.
-
-    [Illustration: Red oak borer attack on Nuttall oak.]
-
-
-             CARPENTERWORM, _Prionoxystus robiniae_ (Peck)
-
-The carpenterworm bores in the wood of living hardwood trees, causing
-costly damage to commercial timber species. In the South, oak species
-are preferred hosts but black locust, maples, willows, and fruit trees
-are also attacked. The carpenterworm is distributed throughout the
-United States.
-
-    [Illustration: Carpenterworm adults.]
-
-Adult moths emerge in late April to early June, mate, and the females
-lay groups of eggs in bark crevices or wounds. Each female lays 200 to
-500 eggs during her one-week life span. After hatching, the larvae
-wander over the bark for a short time before boring into the inner bark
-where they feed until half-grown. The larvae then bore into the sapwood
-and heartwood, returning occasionally to feed in the inner bark. The
-larval period lasts from two to four years. Pupation usually occurs deep
-within the heartwood. Just prior to emergence, the pupa wiggles to the
-entrance hole where it remains slightly protruding until the adult moth
-emerges. The large winding tunnels constructed by the larvae in the
-sapwood and heartwood of living hardwoods serve as an entrance for
-wood-rotting fungi and insects such as the carpenter ant. In extreme
-cases, the tree may be structurally weakened and subject to wind
-breakage.
-
-    [Illustration: Carpenterworm galleries in nuttall oak.]
-
-Some chemicals which have a fumigating action have proved effective in
-controlling this insect in shade trees, but no practical control has yet
-been found for forest trees.
-
-
-              PINE WEBWORM, _Tetralopha robustela_ (Zell.)
-
-Ugly, compact masses of brown excrement or frass pellets around the stem
-of pine seedlings mark infestations of the pine webworm. Rarely is the
-defoliation severe enough to kill the seedlings, but it undoubtedly has
-an impact on growth. Found throughout the eastern United States, the
-webworm commonly attacks red, white, jack, loblolly, shortleaf, and
-slash pines.
-
-    [Illustration: Pine webworm damage to loblolly pine.]
-
-    [Illustration: (cont.)]
-
-The adult moth has a wingspread of about one inch. The forewing usually
-is gray in the middle portion and darker at the base and tip. The hind
-wings and body are smokey gray. The full-grown larva is a caterpillar
-approximately ⅘ of an inch long. The head is tan with darker markings
-and the body light brown with dark longitudinal stripes running down
-each side.
-
-Eggs are usually laid on seedlings, occasionally on larger trees,
-between May and September. After eggs hatch, the caterpillars live in
-silken webs surrounded by masses of frass, and feed on the needles.
-Generally each web contains one or two larvae but occasionally 25 or
-more may be found. After feeding is completed, the caterpillars drop to
-the ground and pupate below the soil surface. In the South, there are
-usually two generations each year.
-
-In plantations, hand picking is an effective method of control. When
-high value nursery stock becomes infested, chemical control may become
-necessary.
-
-
-            BAGWORM, _Thyridopteryx ephemeraeformis_ (Haw.)
-
-The bagworm is distributed throughout the eastern half of the United
-States. It is generally recognized as a defoliator of conifers,
-particularly juniper, cedars, and arborvitae, but it is also found on
-many hardwood trees including maple, wild cherry, poplars, oaks, and
-apple.
-
-    [Illustration: Bagworm cases on pine.]
-
-The wingless, maggot-like adult female bagworms are present in September
-and October and spend their entire lives within the protective cover of
-the tough, silken bag which they construct as larvae. Males are quite
-agile fliers and can often be seen in the fall flying around infested
-shrubs in search of a mate. Mating takes place through the open end of
-the bag. Shortly thereafter the female deposits her egg mass containing
-500 to 1,000 eggs in her pupal case. The eggs remain in the bag
-throughout the winter. In the deep South, hatching can occur as early as
-April, but occurs in May or June further north. During the early stage
-of development, the larvae, housed in their tiny bags, are quite
-inconspicuous. As they mature, the bags become quite noticeable, and the
-amount of foliage consumed increases rapidly.
-
-Outbreak populations of bagworm are in most cases quickly reduced by low
-winter temperatures and a complex of several parasites. On shrubs and
-shade trees around a home, it is often practical to control bagworms by
-picking and destroying the bags.
-
-
-                PINE COLASPIS, _Colaspis pini_ (Barber)
-
-Colaspis beetles are found throughout the Southeast, but are more common
-in the Gulf states. They seem to prefer slash pine but have been found
-on many of the southern pines. The pine colaspis beetle is not a serious
-forest pest but feeding damage caused by large populations occasionally
-produces a spectacular browning effect of the needles similar to that
-caused by fire.
-
-    [Illustration: Adult pine colaspis beetle feeding damage on pine.]
-
-The adult beetles chew the edges of needles to produce an irregular,
-saw-like edge which turns brown. Occasionally only the tips of the
-needles show signs of the infestation. Later, however, the entire needle
-may die, causing the whole tree to become brown as though scorched by
-fire. Trees that have been attacked do not die, and little or no growth
-loss results. Attacks usually occur in early summer; by late summer the
-trees appear green and healthy again. This pest is sporadic in its
-occurrence and may not develop again in the same area for several years.
-The adult female lays her eggs in the soil during the summer. Larvae
-hatch and feed on roots of grasses and other vegetation, and overwinter
-in this stage. The larvae pupate in the spring; adults emerge in early
-summer to feed. There is only one generation a year.
-
-Under forest conditions, no control measures are recommended for the
-pine colaspis beetle. On ornamentals and shade trees, insecticides can
-be used to prevent unsightly damage.
-
-
-               PINE SAWFLY, _Neodiprion excitans_ (Roh.)
-
-This pine sawfly is found throughout the southeast from Virginia to
-Texas. Loblolly and shortleaf pine are preferred hosts, but pond, slash,
-longleaf, and Sonderegger pine are also attacked. The larvae do not do
-well on the latter two species. As with most sawflies, the larvae feed
-in groups on the host needles. Generally the old needles are preferred,
-but all of the needles are eaten when large numbers of larvae are
-present. Three or four young larvae usually encircle a needle and,
-starting from the tip, consume all but a central core. When nearing
-maturity they eat the entire needle.
-
-    [Illustration: Pine sawfly larvae.]
-
-Four or five generations of this sawfly may occur each year. Adult
-females begin to lay their eggs in slits cut in the needles during late
-March. The eggs hatch in 10-21 days, and the larvae feed for about five
-weeks. When mature the larvae usually crawl to the ground and spin a
-cocoon in the loose litter at the base of the tree. Although all stages
-of the life history can be found at any time during the growing season,
-the peak adult emergence occurs in late summer. Larvae from this late
-summer generation are responsible for most of the damage which, although
-never directly responsible for mortality, may predispose the trees to
-attack by other insects (particularly bark beetles) and diseases.
-
-Natural control factors generally bring outbreak populations under
-control after one season. Hogs, armadillos, mice, and shrews are
-reported as being of significant value in regulating the sawfly
-population. Insect parasites, predators, and disease are also effective
-control agents.
-
-
-       ARKANSAS PINE SAWFLY, _Neodiprion taedae linearis_ (Ross)
-
-Loblolly and shortleaf pines are the only trees attacked by the Arkansas
-pine sawfly. Periodic outbreaks of this insect over large areas in the
-south-central states cause substantial growth losses, but the insects
-seldom kill trees.
-
-    [Illustration: Arkansas pine sawfly larvae.]
-
-This insect has a single generation each year. In the spring, eggs which
-have overwintered hatch into tiny caterpillar-like larvae. The larvae
-feed in groups for 30-40 days (primarily on the older foliage) before
-crawling to the ground and pupating in the topsoil or litter. Adults
-emerge during warm days in October and November, mate, and the females
-begin laying eggs. Sawflies get their name from the manner in which the
-eggs are laid. The female is equipped with a saw-like “ovipositor” with
-which she cuts a slit in the needle into which the egg is inserted. From
-two to ten eggs are laid in a single needle. Each female deposits from
-90 to 120 eggs.
-
-An important natural control agent of this sawfly is a polyhedral virus
-disease that sometimes destroys large numbers of the larvae. Rodents
-destroy many cocoons. Several species of larval parasites are also known
-to exist. Of these, a parasitic fly, _Anthrax sinuosa_ (Wied.) and an
-ichneumon wasp, _Exenterus canadensis_ (Prov.) appear to be the most
-important.
-
-
-        VIRGINIA PINE SAWFLY, _Neodriprion pratti pratti_ (Dyar)
-
-The Virginia pine sawfly is found from Maryland to North Carolina, and
-west to Illinois. The insect prefers Virginia and shortleaf pine, but it
-will also oviposit and feed on pitch and loblolly pine.
-
-    [Illustration: Virginia pine sawfly larva.]
-
-On warm sunny days in late October and early November, the adult
-sawflies emerge from their cocoons in the litter, mate, and the females
-lay eggs. The female is equipped with a saw-like ovipositor with which
-she cuts a slit at the edge of a needle and inserts a small, white, oval
-egg. Several eggs are usually laid at evenly spaced intervals in each
-needle, but in only one needle per fascicle. From 30 to 100 eggs are
-deposited in this manner by each female. The eggs hatch the following
-April and the young larvae feed gregariously on the old needles. Larval
-development is usually completed by the time the new needles come out,
-giving heavily defoliated trees a tufted appearance. Mature larvae crawl
-to the ground and spin cocoons in the litter or surface soil. They
-remain as prepupae until late September when pupation occurs.
-
-    [Illustration: Pine defoliated by the Virginia pine sawfly.]
-
-Heavy defoliation for two or more years can weaken trees and make them
-more susceptible to other insects and diseases, particularly when
-associated with drought. In commercial stands the growth loss caused by
-several years of 50% defoliation by this insect can amount to ⅓ of the
-expected growth.
-
-Several parasites, predators, and a virus attack the Virginia pine
-sawfly, but weather conditions seem to be primarily responsible for the
-drastic fluctuations in sawfly populations. Several chemicals have
-proven effective in preventing damage to ornamentals.
-
-
-          REDHEADED PINE SAWFLY, _Neodiprion lecontei_ (Fitch)
-
-The redheaded pine sawfly did not become an important pest until
-extensive planting of pine in pure plantations began in the 1920’s.
-Since then, outbreaks in young natural pine stands and plantations have
-been common in the South, the north-central states, and eastern states.
-Feeding is primarily restricted to the two- and three-needled pines
-under fifteen feet in height. Shortleaf, loblolly, longleaf, and slash
-are the species most commonly attacked in the southern states.
-
-    [Illustration: Redheaded pine sawfly larva.]
-
-In the fall, sawfly larvae drop to the ground, spin cocoons in the duff
-or topsoil, and overwinter as prepupae in a small, brown cocoon. With
-the coming of spring, pupation occurs and adult emergence follows in
-about two weeks. Some prepupae may remain in a resting stage for more
-than one season before emerging. Each female lays about 120 eggs. She
-cuts a small slit in the edge of a needle and deposits a single egg
-inside each slit. Eggs laid by a single female are generally clustered
-on the needles of a single twig. Eggs hatch in three to five weeks,
-depending on temperature and locality. Larvae feed gregariously on the
-host for 25 to 30 days. When fully grown, larvae drop to the ground and
-spin their cocoons. In the South there are at least two generations per
-year with a maximum of five being recorded. Colonies of different ages
-may co-exist in the late fall or early winter.
-
-Outbreaks occur periodically and tend to subside after a few years of
-heavy defoliation. Numerous parasitic and predatory insects play an
-important role in causing the decline of infestations, as do adverse
-weather conditions during the larval stage. When deemed necessary,
-chemical treatment is an effective control.
-
-
-            TEXAS LEAF-CUTTING ANT, _Atta texana_ (Buckley)
-
-Damage caused by the Texas leaf-cutting ant, or town ant, is confined in
-the United States to southeast Texas and west-central Louisiana. The ant
-causes damage to a variety of green plants throughout the year and
-causes serious damage to pine seedlings during the winter when other
-green plants are scarce. During this period, stands of young seedlings
-may be completely defoliated and the stems girdled. The ant carries bits
-of needles, buds, and bark back to its nest to serve as the medium on
-which it cultivates a fungus. The fungus is the ant’s only known food.
-
-    [Illustration: Texas leaf cutting ant.]
-
-Ant colonies are characterized by numerous crescent-shaped mounds five
-to fourteen inches high, and by a series of well defined foraging trails
-cleared of vegetation. The mounds may be confined to a relatively small
-area or extend over an acre or more. Each mound serves as the entrance
-to a football-sized, hemispherical-shaped nest which the ants construct
-at depths up to 20 feet below the surface. The nests are interconnected
-by a series of narrow tunnels, and connected to lateral foraging tunnels
-which may surface a hundred yards or more from the colony. Leaf-cutting
-ants, like many other social insects, are segregated into castes. The
-queen dominates the colony and is responsible for its reproduction.
-Large worker ants, or soldiers, provide protection from intrusion by
-other insects, while the smaller workers collect the leaves and tend the
-fungus gardens.
-
-Various chemicals such as fumigants, contact poisons, and baits have
-been used to control the leaf-cutting ants with varying success. No
-natural control has yet been found.
-
-
-         SOUTHERN PINE BEETLE, _Dendroctonus frontalis_ (Zimm.)
-
-Probably no other insect is of more concern to managers of southern pine
-forests than the southern pine beetle. Loblolly and shortleaf pine seem
-to be preferred hosts, but all of the southern pines may be attacked
-wherever they occur in North and Central America.
-
-Adult beetles are about the size of a grain of rice, stout and
-reddish-brown in color. While they commonly attack lightning-struck or
-weakened trees, they can also quickly build up to high populations
-capable of successfully attacking healthy trees during periods favorable
-to their development. Adult beetles bore directly through the bark,
-mate, and the females begin to excavate S-shaped egg galleries in the
-inner bark. Eggs are deposited in niches on either side of these
-galleries and hatch into small legless grubs within four to nine days.
-The grubs mine for a short distance before boring into the outer bark
-where they pupate. There are from three to seven generations per year
-depending on locality and weather. Drought seems to be associated with
-major outbreaks of this insect.
-
-    [Illustration: Adults of the black turpentine beetle, the southern
-    pine beetle and three species of _Ips_ engraver beetles.]
-
-Control includes rapid salvage and utilization of infested trees and
-piling and burning of infested material. Outbreaks usually subside with
-the advent of unfavorable weather and improved host vigor.
-
-    [Illustration: Southern pine beetle larval galleries.]
-
-    [Illustration: Southern pine beetle pitch tubes.]
-
-
-                    IPS ENGRAVER BEETLES, _Ips_ spp.
-
-With the possible exception of the southern pine beetle, no other
-insects cause as much mortality to southern pine forests as do the three
-species of _Ips_ engravers. Usually they attack severely weakened trees,
-lightning-struck trees, or fresh slash left by logging operations.
-During drought periods they can successfully attack otherwise healthy
-pines.
-
-    [Illustration: Pine showing typical symptoms of _Ips_ attack.]
-
-Attacked trees are quickly girdled by the adults as they construct their
-egg galleries in the inner bark. Death is usually hastened by the
-introduction of blue-stain fungi which blocks the flow of sap. Small
-reddish pitch tubes are frequently the first sign of attack, but they
-are usually absent in trees suffering from drought. Peeling back the
-bark of an infested tree will reveal typical Y- or H-shaped egg
-galleries with short larval galleries extending perpendicular to them on
-either side. _Ips_ beetles are easily recognized by their “scooped out”
-posteriors which are surrounded by varying numbers of tooth-like
-projections. It takes only 18-25 days to complete one generation,
-allowing populations of these beetles to increase very rapidly during
-favorable conditions.
-
-At present the best control is the speedy removal and utilization of
-actively infested trees, making sure that the bark and slabs are
-destroyed.
-
-
-       BLACK TURPENTINE BEETLE, _Dendroctonus terebrans_ (Oliv.)
-
-The black turpentine beetle is found from New Hampshire south to
-Florida, and from West Virginia to east Texas. It is a particularly
-serious pest in the Gulf States where recent outbreaks have killed large
-acreages of timber. Attacks have been observed on all pines native to
-the Southeast, and also on red spruce.
-
-    [Illustration: Life stages of the black turpentine beetle: adult,
-    callow adult, pupa, larva and eggs.]
-
-This is the largest of the southern bark beetles, varying in length from
-⅕ to ⅓ of an inch, or about the size of a raisin. They are reddish-brown
-to black in color. The beetle attacks fresh stumps and living trees by
-boring through the bark and constructing galleries on the face of the
-sapwood where eggs are laid. Fifty to 200 eggs are laid in a group. They
-hatch into white larvae which feed on the inner bark. The beetle may
-girdle trees when several broods occur at approximately the same height,
-killing the trees. From 70 to 90 percent of the trees attacked by the
-beetle die.
-
-After the larvae complete their development, they pupate. Adult beetles
-emerge and infest more pine trees. The entire life cycle takes from 2½
-to 4 months, depending on temperature. In the insect’s southern range
-there usually are two generations and part of a third each year. In its
-northern range, the third generation does not develop; consequently the
-beetle is not a serious pest there.
-
-Weather is probably the most influential factor in regulating the
-numbers of this insect. During outbreaks the removal or chemical
-treatment of infested trees helps to keep losses to a minimum.
-
-    [Illustration: Close-up of black turpentine beetle pitch tubes.]
-
-
-              AMBROSIA BEETLE, _Platypus flavicornis_ (F.)
-
-Ambrosia beetles are represented in the South by several species of the
-genus _Platypus_ of which only _P. flavicornis_ (F.) is known to attack
-dead or dying southern pines. _P. flavicornis_ (F.) will secondarily
-invade other conifers and on some occasions may be found in hardwood
-trees. It is so abundant in the South that few dying pines, stumps, or
-logs escape attack. The beetle is found from Texas east to Florida and
-north to New Jersey.
-
-    [Illustration: Adult of the _Platypus_ ambrosia beetle.]
-
-The adult is a reddish-brown elongate beetle approximately one-fourth
-inch in length. The male of the species has a pair of blunt tooth-like
-structures on the third abdominal segment. Several males are usually
-found in the presence of a single female. This species requires moist
-wood which is favorable to the growth of fungi upon which they feed. The
-adults bore into sapwood or heartwood of logs and lumber, making
-pin-sized holes which are stained by the ambrosia fungus. The female
-lays eggs in small clusters in the tunnel and the developing larvae
-excavate tiny cells extending from the tunnel parallel to the grain of
-wood. There may be several generations a year.
-
-Ambrosia beetle damage to green sawlogs and lumber may result in
-considerable degrade and strength reduction. The best control is rapid
-utilization of dead or dying trees. Lumber should be seasoned as soon as
-possible to reduce or eliminate losses.
-
-
-                SOUTHERN PINE SAWYERS, _Monochamus_ spp.
-
-In the South, dying pines and fresh logs are quickly attacked by the
-pine sawyers. In sufficient numbers they may cause a significant loss of
-wood fiber and degrade sawlogs. These species are commonly found in the
-South infesting southern pine, fir, and spruce wherever the hosts grow.
-
-    [Illustration: Adult southern pine sawyer beetle.]
-
-The adults emerge in the spring or summer and begin to feed on the bark
-of twigs. After mating, the female gnaws pits through the bark of
-freshly felled or dying pine. The female beetle lays one to several eggs
-in each pit. After eggs hatch the larvae bore beneath the bark for 40-60
-days, converting the inner bark into coarse, shredded frass. The larvae
-then enter the wood and make deep U-shaped cells through the heartwood
-and sapwood. The entrance is plugged with frass and the far end is
-excavated into a pupal chamber. The larvae pupate the following spring
-or early summer, transform into adults, and emerge that same season. The
-insect has two or three generations per year in the South.
-
-Pine sawyers render storm- or fire-damaged pines unfit for salvage and
-are also a problem in wood-holding yards. Rapid salvage and utilization
-of dead or dying trees or green logs will reduce losses significantly.
-
-
-       NANTUCKET PINE TIP MOTH, _Rhyacionia frustrana_ (Comstock)
-
-The impact of the Nantucket pine tip moth on pine plantations varies
-widely with tree species, host vigor, and environmental factors. Heavily
-infested trees may be severely stunted or deformed but mortality is
-rare. Generally, the tree grows out of the susceptible stage within a
-few years. In seed orchards, the tip moth is receiving increasing
-attention because of its impact on height growth and, more importantly,
-because of its effect on flower and cone production. All species of pine
-within the range of the tip moth except white pine and longleaf pine,
-are attacked. It has been reported from all states in the eastern
-hard-pine region extending across east Texas, Oklahoma, Illinois,
-Indiana, Ohio, and southern New York State.
-
-    [Illustration: Nantucket pine tip moth larva on pine bud.]
-
-The tip moths overwinter as pupae in the tips of infested trees. In the
-South the adults emerge on warm days during the late winter months,
-mate, and the females lay eggs in the axils between needles and stem
-near the terminal bud of host trees. On hatching, larvae bore first into
-the base of developing needles, and later into the new terminal growth
-or buds. There are two to four generations per year in the southern part
-of the tip moth’s range.
-
-Chemical control is generally not considered practical in forest
-plantations, but several pesticides have proved effective in reducing
-insect damage in seed orchards.
-
-    [Illustration: Newly emerged adult tip moth on a damaged shortleaf
-    pine tip.]
-
-
-                 PALES WEEVIL, _Hylobius pales_ (Hbst.)
-
-Pales weevil is perhaps the most serious insect pest of pine
-reproduction in the southeastern United States. Losses in susceptible
-areas commonly run 20-25 percent, but exceed 90 percent under
-circumstances favoring weevil development. Pales weevil is found
-throughout pine-growing regions of eastern United States and Canada.
-Feeding has been reported on most coniferous species, and all species of
-southern pines appear to be susceptible in varying degrees.
-
-    [Illustration: Pitch-eating weevils in the genera _Pachylobius_,
-    _Hylobius_, and _Pissodes_.]
-
-Adult weevils are attracted by the odor of fresh pine resin, and quickly
-invade logging areas. Eggs are laid in lateral roots of fresh pine
-stumps, where they hatch in approximately five to ten days. Larvae feed
-on the inner-bark tissues of roots. At maturity, larvae usually
-construct a chip cocoon in a chamber cut into the wood, and pupate in
-the cocoon. On emerging, adults feed on the tender bark of seedlings, or
-twigs of trees. The small irregular feeding patches in the bark are
-characteristic of weevil damage. Heavy feeding girdles the stem or twig,
-causing wilting and eventual death. Newly emerged adult females feed for
-approximately one month before laying eggs. Females may lay eggs
-sporadically through two growing seasons. The average female lays about
-50 eggs in her lifetime. In the South there are two peaks in adult
-weevil population each year; the first occurs in the early spring
-(March-May) followed by a second somewhat lower peak in July and August.
-
-This insect can be controlled by delaying planting in cut-over areas for
-at least nine months, or by treating seedlings with a suitable
-insecticide.
-
-    [Illustration: Adult pales weevil feeding on seedling.]
-
-
-              WHITE PINE WEEVIL, _Pissodes strobi_ (Peck)
-
-The white pine weevil is generally regarded as the most serious insect
-pest of white pine. Although it usually does not cause mortality, trees
-suffering repeated attacks become stunted and deformed to the point of
-being commercially unusable. The weevil has become such a problem in
-some areas that it prohibits the growing of white pine. In addition to
-eastern white pine, the white pine weevils also attack Norway spruce and
-jack pine. Other pines and spruces are attacked to a lesser degree. The
-weevil is found throughout the range of eastern white pine.
-
-    [Illustration: Pine leader damaged by the white pine weevil.]
-
-During the latter half of April, the adults may be found on the terminal
-shoots of host trees where the female lays her eggs. Up to 200 eggs are
-deposited over a six-week period. The eggs are laid in feeding punctures
-in the bark, and hatch about two weeks later. Characteristically, the
-young larvae position themselves around the shoot and begin feeding as a
-group down the terminal through the inner bark. Small holes scattered
-over the bark are characteristic of white pine weevil attacks. After
-five or six weeks the larvae construct pupal chambers in the pith or
-wood of the terminal shoot and transform into adults. The young adults
-remain in the dead terminal until late October and November when they
-move to favorable overwintering sites on the ground, usually at the base
-of the host tree.
-
-Control of the white pine weevil is difficult. It is possible, however,
-to reduce the damage by making conditions in a young stand unfavorable
-for egg laying. This is possible because the female weevil will only lay
-eggs within a rather narrow range of temperature and relative humidity.
-Various techniques involving the use of shade from “nurse trees” have
-been developed but require intensive management. Under certain
-circumstances, chemical control can be used.
-
-
-         PITCH-EATING WEEVIL, _Pachylobius picivorus_ (Germar)
-
-In the Gulf Coast States the pitch-eating weevil is probably the most
-troublesome insect pest of pine seedlings. No accurate figures are
-available on the damage directly attributable to this pest, but
-mortality losses are estimated to average about 30 percent in
-susceptible areas. All of the southern hard pines and other conifers are
-probably suitable breeding and host material for the pitch-eating
-weevil. Its range overlaps that of the pales weevil, being reported from
-Labrador, Canada, south to Florida and west to Texas. It occurs in
-damage-causing numbers only in the Gulf Coast States.
-
-Pitch-eating weevils breed in the roots of freshly cut stumps. The
-adults burrow down through the soil, sometimes a considerable distance
-from the stump, and lay their eggs in niches chewed in the root bark. On
-hatching, larvae mine the inner bark, packing their galleries with
-frass. Pupal cells are excavated in the sapwood, and a chip cocoon is
-constructed from the excelsior-like material removed during the cells’
-construction. Development time varies from six to ten months depending
-on when the stumps are initially infested. Emerging adult pitch-eating
-weevils feed by night on the tender bark of seedlings. Small irregular
-patches of bark are removed, eventually girdling the seedling and
-causing its death. The pitch-eating weevil exhibits a population trend
-similar to that of the pales weevil, and is a threat mostly in early
-spring and in the fall.
-
-The most effective control for pine reproduction weevils is to wait nine
-months before replanting or until the stumps in an area are no longer
-attractive to the weevil. Chemical control can be used when such a delay
-is considered impractical.
-
-
-              DEODAR WEEVIL, _Pissodes nemorensis_ (Germ.)
-
-This snout beetle is very similar to the white pine weevil both in
-appearance and habits. It is found throughout the south- and
-mid-Atlantic states from southern New Jersey west to Missouri. Although
-deodar cedar is the preferred host, Atlas cedar, Lebanon cedar, and
-several species of southern pines are also attacked.
-
-    [Illustration: Galleries and chip cocoons of the deodar weevil.]
-
-Adults emerge from April to May and feed briefly on the inner bark of
-leaders and lateral branches of host trees. Heavy feeding frequently
-girdles the stem and can kill small trees. The adults are dormant during
-the summer, but resume activity in the fall to lay their eggs. From one
-to four eggs are deposited in feeding punctures. The newly hatched
-larvae bore into the inner bark where they construct winding galleries
-which girdle the stem. Evidence of such infestations is often delayed
-until January when the branches begin to turn brown. Winter is spent in
-the larval stage. The larvae pupate in March or April and the cycle is
-complete.
-
-Keeping shade trees in a vigorous condition by proper watering and
-fertilization helps reduce their susceptibility to weevil attack.
-
-
-                      CONEWORMS, _Dioryctria_ spp.
-
-Coneworms are perhaps the most destructive insect pests of pine cones in
-the South. They are particularly serious in superior-tree seed orchards
-where they frequently cause substantial economic loss. There are five
-important species of coneworms in the South, one or more of which attack
-all of the native and exotic pines.
-
-    [Illustration: Coneworm larva feeding on a pine shoot.]
-
-Although the number of generations per year varies with the species,
-their general life history is similar. Female moths lay their eggs
-around wounds, cankers, galls, etc., but also deposit particularly on
-terminal growth. Eggs generally hatch in about a week. Larvae may stay
-at a single feeding site, or move to several different sites before
-completing their development. This latter behavior often results in a
-single larva destroying several cones or shoots. Pupation takes place in
-a chamber constructed by the larva at the feeding site. Depending on the
-species and time of year, the adult may emerge in two to three weeks or
-overwinter in the pupal stage. Coneworms cause several kinds of damage.
-They may mine through the inner bark, bore up the center of a shoot, or
-completely hollow out a cone. Their attacks are sometimes marked by
-fecal pellets and large pitch masses.
-
-    [Illustration: Slash pine cone damaged by coneworm larva.]
-
-Several parasites attack coneworms but are seldom effective enough to
-prevent population build-ups. Chemical control is often necessary on
-seed orchards to ensure adequate protection of the cone crop.
-
-
-                   PINE SEEDWORMS, _Laspeyresia_ spp.
-
-Until recent years little has been known about pine seedworms. These
-insects are found throughout the South but seldom have population
-explosions. An exception to this is on slash pine in Florida where over
-70 percent of one year’s cones were reported infested. Longleaf pine
-cones in Texas and Louisiana have also had over 60 percent cone
-infestation on occasion. Loblolly and shortleaf pine cones are seldom
-over 20 percent infested. Seedworms have been found infesting longleaf,
-loblolly, shortleaf, slash, and Virginia pine cones. _Laspeyresia
-anaranjada_ Miller attacks primarily slash pine, occasionally longleaf
-pine, and rarely loblolly pine. _L. ingens_ Heinrick attacks primarily
-longleaf and slash pine. _L. toreuta_ Grote attacks Virginia, shortleaf,
-and loblolly pine in the South.
-
-    [Illustration: Adult pine seedworm.]
-
-The female moth lays eggs from April through May on second-year cones.
-There is one generation per year. Larvae feed within developing seeds
-until the cone matures. In late fall, larvae either bore into the cone
-axis or remain in a hollowed-out seed, and overwinter. Pupation occurs
-within the cone and moths emerge through the hollow seeds. External
-evidence of seedworm attack is not visible in immature cones. As cones
-mature, damaged seeds are retained in the cone. Heavily damaged cones do
-not open properly. In high-value seed orchards and seed production areas
-some protection from seedworm attack may be obtained through the use of
-pesticides applied in a carefully timed program.
-
-    [Illustration: Pine seedworm larva in longleaf pine seed.]
-
-
-           BALSAM WOOLLY APHID, _Adelges piceae_ (Ratzeburg)
-
-    [Illustration: Eggs and wool-covered adult balsam woolly aphids.]
-
-The balsam woolly aphid was introduced into northeastern North America
-from Europe around the turn of the century. Since then it has become a
-pest of major importance to true firs on the east and west coasts of the
-continent, and threatens some 60,000 acres of Fraser fir in the southern
-Appalachians. Usually the balsam woolly aphid has two generations per
-year in the southern Appalachians. Eggs of the first generation hatch in
-late June and July followed by the second generation in September and
-October. The immature stage of the aphid known as a “crawler” is the
-only motile stage in the aphid’s life cycle. Once the crawler begins
-feeding, it transforms into an adult and never again moves. Reproduction
-is parthenogenic with each female laying approximately 100 eggs during
-her lifetime.
-
-In the feeding process the aphid injects a salivary substance into the
-host tree, which causes growth abnormalities. Initial symptoms of aphid
-attack may include “gouting” of buds or twig nodes and some twig and
-branch die-back. Heavy stem attacks reduce the tree’s ability to
-translocate food and water. Usually a heavily infested tree dies within
-two to seven years.
-
-Chemical control is effective but extremely costly and thus limited to
-very high-value areas along scenic road-ways. Other control measures
-include removal and destruction of infested material.
-
-    [Illustration: Fraser fir infested by balsam woolly aphid.]
-
-
-
-
-                                DISEASES
-
-
-                              NEEDLE CAST
-
-Needle cast is a very common disease of conifers throughout eastern and
-southern United States. Eastern white, loblolly, longleaf, pitch, pond,
-shortleaf, table mountain, and Virginia pines are all susceptible.
-_Hypoderma lethale_ is probably the most common cause of needle cast on
-the above hosts, with the exception of longleaf pine. _Lophodermium
-pinastri_ is also associated with needle cast.
-
-    [Illustration: Hypoderma needle cast on loblolly pine.]
-
-Current pine needles are infected in the early summer, and by winter or
-early spring begin to turn brown at the tips. At this time the tree
-usually has a scorched appearance. Later, the browning progresses down
-the needle and the fungal fruiting bodies are produced. These are small,
-black, elongated structures known as hysterothecia, which open along a
-slit during moist weather to release their spores. The infected needles
-are often “cast,” leaving only the new growth, and causing the tree to
-have a tufted appearance.
-
-Controls are seldom needed for this disease in forest stands. Infected
-trees usually recover and put out new foliage the year following heavy
-attacks. Nurseries or plantations should not be established in areas
-where needle cast is prevalent.
-
-    [Illustration: Lophodermium needle cast on 2-0 nursery stock and 5
-    year old scotch pine, Spanish variety.]
-
-    [Illustration: (cont.)]
-
-
-                        BROWN SPOT NEEDLE BLIGHT
-
-Brown spot or brown spot needle blight is caused by the fungus _Scirrhia
-acicola_. Brown spot occurs in all the coastal states from Virginia to
-Texas, and inland to Arkansas and Tennessee. All southern pines are
-attacked by the fungus, but only longleaf pine seedlings are seriously
-damaged.
-
-    [Illustration: Brown spot needle blight on longleaf pine
-    reproduction.]
-
-Initial infection of pine needles results in the development of small,
-circular spots of grey green color, which later turn brown. As the
-fungus continues to grow, a necrotic area encircles the needle,
-appearing as a brown band. The infected area will then increase in size,
-eventually resulting in the death of the needle. Fruiting bodies, called
-acervuli, develop in the dead areas of the needle. Spores are extruded
-from the acervuli in a water soluble gelatinuous matrix throughout the
-entire year. The spores are washed apart and splashed short distances by
-rain drops. These spores spread the disease from seedling to seedling.
-During the winter and early spring, the sexual stage of the fungus is
-produced on dead needles. Ascospores, produced in a fruiting body called
-a perithecium, are light and wind-disseminated. These spores are
-responsible for disease spread. During the grass stage, seedlings often
-become heavily infected by the brown spot fungus, resulting in partial
-to complete defoliation. Seedlings which are nearly defoliated every
-year remain in the grass stage and eventually die. Three successive
-years of complete defoliation will result in death. The disease is very
-damaging during wet years, especially in areas where the fungus has
-become well established in the absence of controls.
-
-The disease can be reduced by control burning during the winter months.
-On seedlings, fire burns the diseased needles and reduces the amount of
-available inoculum for reinfection, leaving the large terminal bud
-unharmed. Often a single prescribed burn reduces the disease intensity
-to such low levels that vigorous seedling height growth begins the
-following year. Fungicide sprays will also reduce brown spot on high
-valued trees.
-
-
-                            PINE NEEDLE RUST
-
-    [Illustration: Fruiting bodies of pine needle rust on loblolly
-    pine.]
-
-Nearly all the native pines in southern United States are attacked by
-various needle rust fungi of the genus _Coleosporium_. This disease is
-very common, but causes little harm to the trees. Many species of this
-rust also attack broadleaved weeds in addition to the pines, needing
-both host types to complete their life cycle.
-
-Needle rusts are most prevalent on young trees in the seedling to
-sapling stage. In the spring or early summer small, delicate white
-fungus “cups” filled with yellow to orange spores are produced on the
-needles. From a distance entire seedlings may appear to have a whitish
-or yellowish cast. Individual needles which are heavily infected may
-die, turn brown, and drop from the tree. However, the entire tree is
-rarely defoliated. Small red “rust pustules” form on the undersurface of
-the weed leaves. These are replaced by dark structures later in the
-summer.
-
-The needle rusts are not important enough to warrant control in natural
-forests or plantations. If the weed (alternate) host is known, it can be
-eradicated around nurseries of susceptible pine species. However, it
-would be better to establish nurseries in rust free areas.
-
-
-                            CEDAR APPLE RUST
-
-Cedar apple rust, caused by _Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae_, is
-important commercially in the apple-growing regions of the Virginias,
-Carolinas, and the Mississippi Valley. The alternate hosts of this rust
-are eastern red cedar and several species of junipers.
-
-    [Illustration: Fruiting galls containing spores on cedar tree.]
-
-    [Illustration: Fruiting on apple leaf the alternate host.]
-
-Cedar “apples” or galls are the characteristic signs of the fungus on
-cedars. Cedar needles are infected in the summer by wind-borne spores
-from apple leaves. By the next spring or early summer galls begin to
-appear as small greenish brown swellings on the upper needle surfaces.
-By fall, the infected needle turns into a chocolate brown gall covered
-with small circular depressions. The following spring, orange jelly-like
-tendrils protrude from the galls producing an attractive ornament for
-the cedar tree. Spores produced from these orange spore masses are then
-capable of reinfecting apple leaves, thus completing the fungus life
-cycle.
-
-No practical control of the rust on cedars is available because of the
-low value of cedar. However, considerable effort is expended to protect
-apple trees. Where apple is to be protected, cedars should be eliminated
-in the vicinity or, rust galls should be picked or cut off cedars before
-the galls mature.
-
-
-                              CEDAR BLIGHT
-
-Cedar blight, caused by _Phomopsis juniperovora_, is most severe on
-eastern red and Rocky Mountain cedars. Other hosts include arborvitae,
-cypress, and Atlantic white cedar. The disease ranges from the mid-West
-to the Atlantic coast and south to Alabama where it is most common in
-nurseries.
-
-    [Illustration: Needle symptoms on 1-0 eastern red cedar nursery
-    stock and 5 year old Arizona cypress.]
-
-    [Illustration: (cont.)]
-
-Symptoms on red cedar resemble that of drought. The tips of branches are
-killed back and sometimes entire trees will turn brown. The fungus forms
-black fruiting bodies on needles and stem lesions. Fungus spores are
-distributed by rainwater; nursery overhead sprinkling systems also
-facilitate blight spread.
-
-Control of cedar blight is initiated by removing and burning infected
-nursery stock early in the season before infection becomes heavy.
-Seedbeds should be well drained. Avoid introducing cedar stock to an
-infected nursery. The location of cedars in the nursery should be
-changed frequently and, where possible, cedar beds should be kept well
-away from older cedar or cedar hedges. Seedlings growing in low-density
-seed beds are more vulnerable to the blight; thus beds should be fully
-stocked. Cedar mulch should never be used on cedar beds. Avoid wounding
-nursery transplants. No economically feasible control is available for
-forest stands.
-
-
-                             FUSIFORM RUST
-
-    [Illustration: Galls on 1-0 pine nursery stock.]
-
-    [Illustration: Damage caused by fusiform rust infection.]
-
-Fusiform rust, caused by _Cronartium fusiforme_, is one of the most
-important diseases on southern pines. This rust is found from Maryland
-to Florida and west to Texas and southern Arkansas. The rust’s most
-important impact is in nurseries, seed orchards, and young plantations.
-Loblolly and slash pines are very susceptible to this rust. Pitch and
-pond pines are moderately susceptible, longleaf pine is fairly
-resistant, and shortleaf pine is highly resistant.
-
-The most easily recognized symptom is the spindle-shaped canker on the
-pine branches or main stem. In early spring these swellings appear
-yellow to orange as the fungus produces powdery spores. As host tissue
-is killed, older stem cankers may become flat or sunken. Cankers often
-girdle trees and wind breakage at the canker is common. Fungus spores
-from the pine infect oak leaves. Brown hair-like structures, produced on
-the underside of the leaves in late spring, are the most conspicuous
-signs. These projections produce spores which in turn reinfect the pine
-trees, completing a “typical” rust cycle.
-
-    [Illustration: Fruiting fusiform-shaped canker on main stem of
-    southern pine.]
-
-Silvicultural practices may lessen the incidence of infection in
-plantations. Avoid planting highly susceptible species such as slash and
-loblolly pines in areas of known high rust incidence. In these areas
-more resistant species such as longleaf or shortleaf pine should be
-planted. Pruning infected branches will prevent stem infection in young
-plantations. Rust-resistant pines should be readily available from the
-nurseries in the near future. Culling out seedlings with obvious galls
-before outplanting will reduce the disease incidence in new plantations.
-
-
-                        WHITE PINE BLISTER RUST
-
-White pine blister rust, caused by _Cronartium ribicola_, was introduced
-to North America on nursery stock about 1900. It is the most important
-disease on white pine in the United States. In the South, the disease is
-found on eastern white pine in the Appalachian mountains.
-
-    [Illustration: Fruiting cankers showing yellow-colored spores of
-    blister rust on eastern white pine.]
-
-    [Illustration: (cont.)]
-
-The disease is caused by a fungus that attacks both white pine and wild
-and cultivated currant and gooseberry bushes, called _Ribes_. Both hosts
-must be present if the fungus is to complete its life cycle. Attack by
-the disease is followed by the development of cankers on the main stem
-or branches. Infected pines die when a canker completely girdles the
-main stem or when many of the branches are killed by girdling. The most
-conspicuous symptoms of the disease are the dying branches or crowns
-(“flags”) above the girdling cankers, and the cankers themselves.
-
-Initially, a narrow band of yellow-orange bark marks the edges of the
-canker. Inside this band are small irregular dark brown scars. As the
-canker grows, the margin and bank of dark scars expand and the portion
-formerly occupied by the dark scars is now the area where the spores
-that infect _Ribes_ are produced. During the months of April through
-June white sacs or blisters containing orange-yellow spores (called
-aeciospores) push through the diseased bark. The blisters soon rupture
-and the orange-yellow spores are wind-dispersed for great distances.
-Generally, there is some tissue swelling associated with the canker,
-which results in a spindle-shaped swelling around the infected portion
-of the stem.
-
-Loss of white pines from blister rust can be prevented by destroying the
-wild and cultivated _Ribes_ bushes. Bushes may be removed by uprooting
-by hand, grubbing with a hand tool, or with herbicides. Pruning infected
-branches on young trees will prevent stem infections and probably tree
-mortality.
-
-
-                         COMANDRA BLISTER RUST
-
-    [Illustration: Fruit gall showing orange colored spores on loblolly
-    pine.]
-
-    [Illustration: Alternate host—false toadflax.]
-
-Comandra blister rust, caused by the fungus _Cronartium comandrae_, is a
-canker disease of hard pines. The disease presently occurs in widely
-scattered areas throughout the western, central, and southern United
-States. In the South, the primary hosts are loblolly, shortleaf, pond,
-and Virginia pine. Herbaceous plants of the genus Comandra, commonly
-known as false toadflax or comandra, are also attacked.
-
-The fungus infects pines through the needles and grows from the needle
-into the branch or main stem where it forms a gall or canker. Dark
-orange-colored spores which are produced on the surface of the gall in
-the spring are wind-blown and infect the leaves or stems of the comandra
-plants. Two to three weeks after infection, urediospores are produced on
-the underside of the comandra leaf. These are wind-blown and can only
-infect other comandra plants. Eventually hair-like structures known as
-telia are produced on the comandra leaves and stems. The telia produce
-spores which are wind-blown and infect the pine host through the needle.
-The necessary combination of a susceptible pine host, the alternate
-host, and the pathogen is presently known to occur only in northern
-Arkansas, eastern Tennessee, and northern Alabama.
-
-No effective method of controlling the disease in forest stands is
-presently known. Silvicultural or forest management practices which
-reduce the abundance of the alternate host offer promise of long term
-control. Maintenance of dense stands and heavy ground cover as a means
-of shading out the intermediate host plants, may be helpful in reducing
-rust damage in many areas.
-
-
-                           EASTERN GALL RUST
-
-Eastern gall rust, caused by the fungus _Cronartium cerebrum_, attacks
-many species of eastern hard pines. The disease ranges eastward from the
-Great Plains and is most severe in the South on Virginia and shortleaf
-pines. Like most rusts this fungus requires an alternate host in
-addition to its pine host. In this case oaks, especially the red oak
-group (black, red, scarlet and pin) are the alternate hosts. Damage to
-the oaks is generally not of economic importance as only the leaves are
-affected.
-
-    [Illustration: Fruiting gall showing red-orange spores on Virginia
-    pine.]
-
-On pines the fungus causes the formation of globose to sub-globose
-galls. Canker formation occurs occasionally but mortality generally
-results from wind breakage at the gall rather than by canker formation
-as literally hundreds of galls may appear on a single tree. They are not
-lethal to the tree, but may ruin tree form and on a large stem they can
-lead to an open decayed wound, as decay fungi are often secondary
-invaders of rust infections. The shape of galls and the arrangement of
-the spore sacs filled with red-orange spores present a cerebroid
-(brain-like) appearance. During the spring the bright orange galls are
-very striking.
-
-This disease is sometimes a problem in nurseries where seedlings are
-attacked and killed. This is where control efforts are concentrated.
-Fungicide protectants are applied to the seedling foliage to prevent
-infection from spores produced on oaks. Contact your local forestry
-extension agent or the nearest Division of Forest Pest Management for
-the latest recommendations. Under forest conditions, control is not
-economically feasible. Trees of poor form should be removed during
-thinning operations.
-
-
-                           SOUTHERN CONE RUST
-
-Southern cone rust is caused by the fungus _Cronartium strobilinum_. It
-has been reported to completely destroy slash and longleaf pine cone
-crops in Georgia and along the Gulf Coast from Florida to Texas.
-
-    [Illustration: Cone rust symptoms on slash pine.]
-
-    [Illustration: (cont.)]
-
-Like most other rusts, the fungus requires oaks and pines to complete
-its life cycle. Although infection of oak leaves occurs annually, no
-significant economic damage is done to the oaks. Fungus spores produced
-on oak leaves infect the mature female pine flowers about the time of
-pollination (January-February). The fungus grows through the developing
-conelet causing it to swell abnormally. By early April or late May the
-infected cones are three to four times larger than the normal first-year
-cones and even exceed the maturing second-year cones in size. The
-swollen cone scales are reddish in color. Cavities in the cone filled
-with orange-yellow spores burst and the cones become orange-yellow. The
-swollen orange-yellow cones in the tree crowns can be easily
-distinguished from normal cones by an observer on the ground. By late
-summer most of the diseased cones have died and fallen.
-
-Control at present is confined to seed orchards. Hydraulic spraying of
-the flowers with fungicides gives a significant reduction in infections.
-Consult your local forester, county extension agent or the nearest
-Forest Pest Management Office for current control recommendations.
-
-
-                              PITCH CANKER
-
-Pitch canker, caused by the fungus _Fusarium lateritium forma pini_, is
-rapidly becoming widespread throughout the South. The disease apparently
-is most serious on Virginia, slash and south Florida slash pine. The
-fungus also attacks shortleaf, pitch, and table-mountain pine.
-
-    [Illustration: Pitch canker infection in terminal branch and main
-    stem of pine.]
-
-    [Illustration: (cont.)]
-
-Pitch canker may cause tree mortality. On Virginia pines the fungus
-reportedly enters through small insect wounds in the twigs or mechanical
-wounds in the bole. Shoots may be girdled and killed within a few weeks,
-but it takes a period of years for the fungus to girdle the bole of
-larger trees. On slash pine the disease apparently attacks plantations
-in wave years. During years of heavy attack the fungus can cause rapid
-crown deterioration in addition to causing bole canker infections.
-Cankers on leaders in the crown can result in death of two-thirds or
-more of the crown by mid-summer in a tree that appeared healthy in the
-spring. In the majority of tree infections only the leader and one or
-two laterals will be infected. The tree recovers in a few years with a
-crook in the bole as the only evidence of attack. Pitch cankers usually
-retain the bark and old cankers on the hole may be sunken. The most
-diagnostic characteristic of the disease, and the one that definitely
-separates it from similar disease, is the heavy pitch soak of the wood
-beneath the canker. Pitch cankers are often so soaked with pitch that
-heavy flow of pitch is observed flowing down the bole.
-
-At the present time, no known method of control exists. Observations in
-slash pine plantations indicate that some trees are resistant while
-others range in their degree of susceptibility.
-
-
-                               WOOD DECAY
-
-Wood decay of southern forest trees is responsible for nearly 80 percent
-of all loss attributed to disease. This decay is caused by fungi which
-mainly attack heartwood in the central portion of stems, branches, and
-roots. Wood-rotting fungi gain entrance into the tree through broken
-branches, wounds, and damaged or exposed roots. Spores, which land at
-these damaged areas, germinate and produce a microscopic mycelium which
-attacks and spreads throughout the heartwood. The decay is caused by the
-action of the mycelium, which penetrate the cell walls and dissolve or
-alter the wood in various ways. Fungus development within the tree may
-continue for many years without any apparent effect on the growth of the
-host. Eventually the mycelium will aggregate and break through the bark
-to form the reproductive stage, either before or after the death of the
-host. The fruiting body (sporophore, conk) produces vast amounts of
-spores which are capable of spreading the fungus to other trees.
-
-Heartrots may be separated into broad classes on the basis of the host
-portion attacked, such as root rots, root and butt rots, stem rots, and
-top rots. Decay fungi may be further separated into two broad classes
-based on their effect on wood. The first class causes white rots,
-decomposing all components of the wood and reducing it to a spongy mass
-with white pockets or streaks separated by firm wood. The second class,
-causing brown rots, utilize the cellulose, leaving the lignin more or
-less unaffected. This usually results in a rot which appears as some
-shade of brown.
-
-The separation of wood decay fungi on the basis of their host range, the
-portion of the host attacked, and the type of rot produced are useful
-aids to a pathologist in determining a tentative identification of the
-fungus responsible for a particular type of rot. However, there are
-numerous fungi which cause decay, many of which are exceptions to the
-various methods of classification. This forces the pathologist to use
-microscopic examination and various artificial keys to arrive at the
-proper identification of a given rot-producing fungus.
-
-    [Illustration: Sectioned stump showing rot and decay in heartwood.]
-
-
-                               RED HEART
-
-The fungus, _Fomes pini_, is the cause of a heartrot of widespread
-distribution. Common names for the rot produced by this fungus are: red
-heart, red ring rot, or white peck. The disease is commonly associated
-with mature and over-mature conifers, especially Douglas fir, larch,
-spruce, and pine. In the southern United States, the fungus attacks all
-species of mature pine.
-
-    [Illustration: Fruiting body of redheart on southern pine.]
-
-Generally, infection of all hosts occurs through dead branch stubs.
-Early stages of decay caused by _F. pini_ are characterized by a
-discoloration of the heartwood, often appearing light red to reddish
-brown. The advanced stages of heartrot appear as elongated white pockets
-or flecks, formed parallel to the grain and separated by apparently firm
-wood. Often the pockets become resin filled. On southern pine hosts, the
-conks are often bracket-like or hoof-shaped. The upper surface appears
-dull grey to dark brown, with concentric furrows parallel to the margin
-of the fruiting body. The lower side is a light brown to brownish gold,
-rimmed by a velvety golden brown margin. Swollen knots result from the
-living wood tissue trying to overgrow the knot where a conk is forming.
-
-    [Illustration: Cross section of infected tree showing rotted and
-    decayed heart wood.]
-
-In southern forest stands, heartrot damage may be reduced by harvesting
-mature pines prior to the age of extreme susceptibility to fungus
-attack. Some degree of shade tree protection can be obtained by pruning
-dead and dying branches flush with the main stem. This will allow the
-knot to be quickly overgrown by sap wood, preventing the heartrot fungus
-from entering through the branch stub.
-
-
-                       ANNOSUS ROOT AND BUTT ROT
-
-    [Illustration: Fomes annosus fruiting bodies on stump.]
-
-Annosus root and butt rot is caused by the fungus _Fomes annosus_. This
-pathogen is common throughout coniferous stands of the North Temperate
-Zone. Hardwoods may be attacked, but damage is usually of minor
-consequence. In the South, the disease is most serious in pine
-plantations on sandy soils with low organic matter. All species of
-southern pine are susceptible. Slash and loblolly plantations are often
-severely affected.
-
-The disease gains entry into plantations by spore infection of freshly
-cut stumps during thinnings. The fungus then spreads from the infected
-stumps to residual trees by growth along the roots to points of root
-contact. Residual trees usually begin to die within a few years after
-thinning. The sporophores or fruiting bodies are generally found at
-ground line or in the root crotch. Pines in initial stages of the
-disease usually exhibit sparsely foliated crowns; however, white pine
-with full crown may have extensive butt and root decay. Occasionally
-trees may die rapidly with a sudden red discoloration of a nearly full
-crown. Diseased trees are often found in groups or circular pockets in
-the stand. The indication of _F. annosus_ decay may include the pink to
-violet stain of incipient decay, the narrow elongated white pockets and
-scattered black flecks in the wood of the early decay stages, and the
-yellow stringy rot of the late stages of decay.
-
-    [Illustration: Infection center in pulpwood size pine stand.]
-
-Control includes avoidance of planting on soils of low organic matter
-and elimination of thinning. Stump infection following thinning or
-harvest may be prevented using various methods.
-
-
-                         BROWN CUBICAL BUTT ROT
-
-_Polyporus schweinitzii_ is a common cause of root and butt rot of
-conifers throughout North America. The primary hosts of the fungus are
-Douglas fir, spruce, and pine. All southern pines are susceptible to
-attack by _P. schweinitzii_. Common names of the rot are: red-brown butt
-rot and brown cubical butt rot.
-
-    [Illustration: Fruiting body of brown cubical root and butt rot of
-    pine.]
-
-The fungus enters living hosts through damaged roots, fire scars, and
-other wounds near the tree base. The initial stage of decay appears as a
-light yellow stain. In the advanced stage, the heartwood becomes brittle
-and breaks into large yellow-brown to reddish-brown cubes. The fungus
-develops primarily in the roots and butt and seldom extends more than 15
-or 20 feet up into the stem. Diseased trees are subject to wind-throw
-and wind breakage. Although the volume of wood destroyed by the rot is
-small, the total volume lost through wind-throw is quite large. Mature,
-suppressed, and weakened off-site trees are commonly attacked by the
-fungus. It is assumed that the fungus may also spread from infected to
-healthy trees through root contacts and grafts. The only outward signs
-of decay are the annual sporophores, which develop in late summer and
-fall during moist weather. Conks formed at the base of infected trees
-are bracket shaped, while those arising from decayed roots appear
-circular, sunken in the center, and supported by a short stalk. When
-fresh, the upper surface is velvety, concentrically zoned, and
-reddish-brown in color with a light yellow margin. The underside is dark
-olive or green with large irregular pores.
-
-In forest stands, no method of controlling the disease is known. Losses
-may be prevented to some extent by reducing the amount of root damage
-and wounding from heavy logging equipment. The prevention of basal fire
-scars in conifer stands will also reduce the incidence of this disease.
-Trees which show signs of advanced root and butt rot should be removed
-from around recreation areas, parking lots, power lines, and buildings
-to avoid damage from wind-throw and wind breakage.
-
-
-                         RED ROOT AND BUTT ROT
-
-    [Illustration: Fruiting body of red root and butt rot of pine.]
-
-_Polyporus tomentosus_ causes red root and butt rot of living conifers
-throughout North America. Common hosts of the fungus are: spruce, larch,
-pine, fir, Douglas fir, hemlock, and cedar. Throughout the southern
-United States, _P. tomentosus_ has been reported in two general areas;
-causing extensive degrade of mature shortleaf pine in northern Arkansas
-and root and butt rot of slash pine in South Carolina, Georgia, and
-Florida.
-
-The fungus is believed to enter living hosts through basal wounds and
-damaged roots. Under ideal conditions, the fungus may spread from
-infected to healthy trees by way of root contacts or grafts. Growth of
-the fungus is very slow, often causing host mortality 20 to 30 years
-after initial infection. Wood decayed initially appears firm, but dark
-reddish-brown in color. In advanced stages, the wood is flecked with
-elliptical white pockets separated by brown-colored wood. Infected
-conifers generally express typical root rot symptoms. Trees show
-evidence of reduced radial and internodal growth, accompanied by death
-of the crown from the base upward. The foliage appears off-color and
-reduced in length. Under moist conditions, sporophores are produced
-either at the base of infected trees or on the forest floor.
-Bracket-shaped sporophores are produced at the base of infected trees
-while stipitate conks are produced on the ground directly over infected
-or dead roots. Fresh sporophores appear yellow-brown in color from above
-with a lighter colored pore surface below.
-
-No effective method of controlling the disease in forest stands is
-presently known. However, damage and losses may be reduced by management
-practices which reduce or eliminate the chance introduction of the
-disease into healthy stands. In areas where red root and butt rot is
-common, attempts should be made to conduct logging and thinning
-operations during the dry season to avoid mechanical damage to the root
-systems of the residual trees.
-
-
-                           LITTLELEAF OF PINE
-
-Littleleaf of pine, caused by _Phytophthora cinnamomi_, is the most
-serious disease of shortleaf pine in the Piedmont region of the South.
-Loblolly is also affected, usually where associated with infected
-shortleaf pine. The disease is most evident in older age classes, rarely
-attacking stands under 20 years old.
-
-    [Illustration: Needle symptoms and damage of littleleaf on shortleaf
-    pine.]
-
-    [Illustration: (cont.)]
-
-The disease is caused by a malfunctioning of the root system due to a
-combination of biological and physical factors. A fungus, _Phytophthora
-cinnamomi_ attacks and kills the root tips. When conditions of moisture,
-fertility, and drainage are adverse, they reduce tree vigor and prevent
-the tree from rapidly replacing the destroyed root tips. Trees on good
-sites are reportedly also attacked by the fungus, but their vigor is
-such that they quickly overcome the disease by producing new root tips.
-The disease usually progresses rather slowly. Some trees may persist
-fifteen or more years after the appearance of initial symptoms. In
-general, trees live only five or six years after attack, but they may
-die in as little as one year. Symptoms are those typical of trees in
-stress due to a malfunction of the root system. In the early stage of
-the disease the foliage may turn yellow-green and the current year’s
-needles are shorter than normal. Later stages of the disease are
-sparsely foliated crowns with short needles (reduced from three to five
-to only one-half to three inches in length) and dead branches. Abundant
-foliage sprouting on the hole of infected shortleaf is common.
-
-Losses are minimized by salvage cuttings and by favoring loblolly and
-hardwoods in regeneration plans.
-
-
-                          SYCAMORE ANTHRACNOSE
-
-    [Illustration: Defoliation of sycamore tree caused by sycamore
-    anthracnose.]
-
-Sycamore anthracnose, caused by _Gnomonia veneta_, is common on American
-sycamore throughout its range in the eastern United States.
-
-Anthracnose is a disease characterized by distinctive limited lesions on
-stem, leaf, or fruit, often accompanied by dieback or blight and usually
-caused by fungi that produce slimy spores that ooze from small
-cup-shaped fruiting bodies that are visible with a hand lens. This
-disease has four distinct symptom stages identified as twig blight, bud
-blight, shoot blight, and leaf blight. Twig blight appears before leaf
-emergence and kills the tips of small one-year-old twigs. Infection
-comes initially from leaf litter and twig cankers. The second stage, bud
-blight, develops during bud expansion in April and early May. Shoot
-blight, the most frequently observed symptom, causes the sudden dying of
-expanding shoots and also young leaves. Leaf blight, the final stage,
-involves the actual infection of expanding or mature leaves. Diseased
-portions of the leaf involve irregular brown areas adjacent to the
-midrib and veins which are dotted with diseased spots. Incidence of
-anthracnose is directly related to the amount of spring rainfall. Shoot
-blight is severe if the weather for two weeks after leaf emergence is
-cool and moist. The disease may defoliate trees, which usually put out a
-new crop of leaves by late spring or summer.
-
-Control of sycamore anthracnose under forest conditions is not
-economically feasible. Where the disease is prevalent, other species
-should be favored during thinnings. In shade and ornamental trees,
-pruning of infected twigs, burning of leaves, and fertilization will
-reduce the disease impact.
-
-    [Illustration: Leaf and twig symptoms.]
-
-
-                           WALNUT ANTHRACNOSE
-
-Walnut anthracnose is a fungus disease caused by _Gnomonia leptostyla_.
-This worldwide disease attacks most species of walnut in the United
-States. Black walnut is most severely affected, but with favorable
-weather for the fungus, even less susceptible individuals may be
-defoliated. Butternut, Persian walnut, and two species from California
-(Hinds walnut and California walnut) are all susceptible. Anthracnose
-has also been reported on species of walnut from most of the European
-countries, Argentina, Canada, and South Africa.
-
-Wet weather greatly favors this leaf disease which may defoliate black
-walnuts by late July or early August. Defoliation slows growth, weakens
-trees, and sometimes causes mortality. Infected leaves reveal circular
-spots of dark brown or black. These spots often grow together, leaving
-large dead areas. These spots or blotches are bordered with yellow to
-golden tissue. While severely affected leaves fall, some “anthracnose”
-leaves remain on the tree. This disease also affects the growth and
-quality of the nuts. Nutmeats from infected trees are dark,
-unattractive, and shrivelled. Sunken, killed areas appear on the husks
-as dark circular spots smaller than those on the leaves. Infected nuts,
-like the leaves, may also fall from the tree. Lesions may appear on the
-current year’s shoots and later form dead sunken areas that are oval to
-irregularly circular with reddish brown margins.
-
-As with the other anthracnose diseases, no practical control is
-available for forest trees. Control of walnut anthracnose on ornamentals
-and nut trees is partially achieved by raking and burning of old leaves.
-
-
-                            OAK ANTRHACNOSE
-
-    [Illustration: Leaf symptoms of oak anthracnose.]
-
-Oak anthracnose is caused by the fungus _Gnomonia veneta_. Trees of the
-white oak group, particularly white oak, are susceptible to this
-disease. Oaks throughout the entire eastern United States are affected
-by the disease, although it is less common in the Northeast.
-
-Infection occurs in the early spring or mid-summer. Symptoms on leaves
-develop as irregular brown diseased areas (blotches) along the midrib
-and the major side veins. These blotches may grow together by late
-spring or early summer if infection occurs early. Blotches are usually
-confined to the areas bordered by the larger veins. Leaves on the lower
-branches are frequently killed and occasionally trees will be
-defoliated. However, a second crop of leaves soon develops and mortality
-is rare. Fruiting bodies of _Gloeosporium_, the imperfect fungus
-fruiting stage of anthracnose, are located on the midrib and veins of
-infected leaves. When the disease spreads to the twigs, cankers and
-crown dieback may occur. The anthracnose fungus overwinters on diseased
-twigs and in the leaf litter. Oak anthracnose has the same causal agent
-as sycamore anthracnose, and the weather conditions favoring the
-sycamore disease also increases the anthracnose on oak.
-
-Control is similar to sycamore anthracnose and involves an integrated
-program of pruning disease tissue, fertilization, and burning of leaf
-litter. No practical control is available for forest trees.
-
-
-                          DOGWOOD ANTHRACNOSE
-
-Dogwood anthracnose, caused by the fungus _Elsinoe corni_, occurs in
-states bordering the Atlantic Ocean and has also been reported in
-Louisiana. Its primary host is flowering dogwood, _Cornus florida_ L.
-
-    [Illustration: Leaf and flower symptoms of dogwood anthracnose.]
-
-    [Illustration: (cont.)]
-
-Anthracnose occurs in the spring and affects not only the leaves, but
-also the buds and “flowers”. The buds may fail to open or they may
-produce stunted flowers. These have many circular to elongated spots
-with light tan centers. Margins of these spots are purple to brown.
-Often the flowers abort before development. Foliage spots (1-2 mm. in
-diameter) are raised at the margins. They are purple at the edges and
-yellow-gray in the center. Later centers of spots may fall out causing a
-“shothole” effect. Dozens of spots may be present on a single leaf and
-may be scattered or concentrated at tip, margin, or midrib. Twisting and
-malformation of the leaves are common. In addition to floral and foliage
-spots, infected areas may also occur on petioles, stems, and fruit
-clusters. All three areas have spots similar to those on the foliage.
-
-Other diseases which may be confused with anthracnose include _Septoria_
-and _Ascochyta_ leaf spots. _Septoria_ usually begins around July and
-unlike anthracnose has more angular lesions that are between the veins.
-_Ascochyta_ spots may be larger (6 mm. in diameter) than anthracnose,
-and tissue discoloration may extend outside of their borders.
-Occasionally the leaves may totally blacken. This disease may occur as
-early as June.
-
-Wet, humid weather at certain stages of plant development is required
-for infection. Homeowners may obtain effective control by removing and
-burning infected plant parts. Various fungicide sprays are recommended
-by authors of ornamental handbooks.
-
-
-                            COTTONWOOD RUST
-
-    [Illustration: Rust infected cottonwood leaf.]
-
-Cottonwood rust, caused by _Melampsora medusae_, is probably the most
-important leaf disease of cottonwoods wherever they are grown. In the
-Lower Mississippi Valley, all sizes of eastern cottonwood trees may be
-infected with this rust. However, the disease is probably of most
-importance in cottonwood nurseries.
-
-In mid-summer, yellow to orange pustules containing spores of the fungus
-form on the under surface of the cottonwood leaves. In late summer and
-early fall, dark brown fungal growths replace the orange structures.
-Cottonwood may be prematurely defoliated or even killed by successive
-attacks. The rust may weaken trees and subject them to attack by other
-disease-causing organisms. Also, there is often a reduction in growth in
-these normally fast growing species. This is very important since there
-is presently a wide interest in the use of hybrid poplars for pulp and
-timber production.
-
-There is generally no accepted control for cottonwood rust.
-Rust-resistant varieties of hybrid and exotic cottonwoods are being
-developed and may provide the best control of this disease.
-
-
-                               BLACK KNOT
-
-    [Illustration: Black swellings of cherry black knot.]
-
-Black knot, caused by _Dibotryon morbosum_, is prevalent throughout the
-Southeast (with the exception of southern Florida) wherever black cherry
-grows, and in orchards on plums and domestic cherries.
-
-The most prominent symptoms are the elongated black swellings which
-appear in summer on small twigs and branches. Heavily infected trees
-appear quite grotesque, with large swellings which may be several times
-the diameter of the twigs. Cankers occurring on black cherry trunks
-usually ruin the commercial tree value. Initial infection occurs on
-lateral branches and twigs in the spring, but the swellings do not
-become noticeable until the following spring.
-
-The most practical control for black knot is removal of infected black
-cherry from the stand. Twigs and branches with knots should be burned.
-
-
-                             NECTRIA CANKER
-
-Nectria canker of hardwoods, caused by _Nectria galligena_ and _N.
-magnoliae_, is frequently found on yellow birch and black walnut. Common
-hosts also include bigtooth aspen, sassafras, northern red oak, red
-maple, beech, Carolina poplar, paper birch, and sweet birch. A closely
-related canker disease is also found on yellow-poplar and magnolias. The
-range of this disease includes the Lake States, the Northeast, and the
-southern Appalachians.
-
-    [Illustration: Target-shaped canker of Nectria on sassafras and
-    yellow-poplar.]
-
-    [Illustration: (cont.)]
-
-Older Nectria cankers are easily recognized in forest stands because of
-their typical “target” shape. “Target” cankers have rings, each of which
-represent a year’s growth. Younger cankers tend to be grown over by bark
-and callus tissue attempting to heal the wound. Such cankers are
-difficult to recognize, but close examination of the affected area may
-reveal tiny red bodies, which are the fruiting bodies of the Nectria
-fungi. Mortality rarely occurs from this disease, but stems may break at
-canker locations during high winds.
-
-Control of Nectria canker is the same as for Strumella canker—the
-removal of infected trees during thinning operations.
-
-
-                            STRUMELLA CANKER
-
-Strumella canker of hardwoods, caused by _Strumella coryneoidia_, most
-frequently attacks trees of the red oak group. Other hosts include
-species in the white oak group. Beech, basswood, blackgum, shagbark
-hickory and red maple are also occasionally affected. This disease is
-found in the East, from the southern Appalachians to northern New
-England.
-
-    [Illustration: Strumella canker on black oak.]
-
-Strumella cankers are of two types: diffuse, and the more common
-“target-shaped.” The first develops on smooth-barked saplings and
-rapidly girdles and kills the tree. Killing results because callus
-tissue, which tends to heal over cankers, does not have time to develop.
-Target-shaped cankers are more common. “Targets” are formed by the
-alternation of killing of bark by the fungus around the canker’s
-perimeter and the formation, in turn, of a callus ridge by the host
-tree. The fungus is active usually in the dormant season, while
-callusing occurs in the spring. As with most canker-causing fungi,
-Strumella usually enters the tree through a branch stub. Cankers are
-quite large and may reach several feet in circumference or length. The
-presence of the causal fungus is revealed by dark brown, cushion-like
-structures about one to three millimeters in diameter on the dead bark
-and surrounding tissue.
-
-No feasible control method is available under forest conditions.
-However, the disease impact can be greatly reduced by removing cankered
-trees during thinning operations.
-
-
-                            SPICULOSA CANKER
-
-Spiculosa canker, caused by _Poria spiculosa_, is found on bottomland
-oaks in the South. Occasionally this disease will also degrade hickories
-and honeylocust.
-
-    [Illustration: Fruiting body of Poria rot and canker on oak.]
-
-    [Illustration: Cross section of tree showing rot and decay.]
-
-Spiculosa canker is considered to be a canker-rot disease, a type of
-decay in which the causal organism incites not only heart-rot but also
-large irregular cankers. Infected trees have cankers that appear as
-rough circular swellings on the bole. The canker centers are depressed
-and old branch stubs are discernible. Fungus fruiting bodies, or conks,
-usually are not present on living trees but develop on snags or decayed
-logs. The conks grow flat under the bark and push it off to expose the
-brown fungus fruiting surface.
-
-Control for Spiculosa canker is similar to other canker rots: salvage to
-remove undesirable cankered trees that may be later replaced by better
-quality trees.
-
-
-                              IRPEX CANKER
-
-Irpex canker, caused by _Irpex mollis_, is prevalent in bottomlands and
-on upland areas of the Southeast. In the bottoms, Nuttall, water, and
-willow oaks are affected. White, chestnut, southern red, and black oaks
-are the hosts of this disease on upland sites.
-
-    [Illustration: Fruiting body of Irpex rot.]
-
-    [Illustration: Cross section of tree showing rot and decay.]
-
-Irpex canker is also considered to be a canker-rot disease. Symptoms on
-infected trees frequently involve irregular cankers up to two feet in
-length. Cankers are usually found on trees eight to ten inches in
-diameter or larger, at a height of twenty feet above the ground. Branch
-stubs, signifying probable infection points, are usually present in the
-centers of cankers. The portion of the trunk affected is usually swollen
-but sometimes may be sunken. At the base of the sunken portion of the
-canker are small, creamy-white, toothed fruiting bodies or conks with a
-leathery texture. Conks also appear on hardwood logs. The wood behind
-cankers is characterized by a tough, spongy, white rot which extends as
-much as eight feet above and below the canker. The decay pattern may
-also extend downward into the roots. In cross-section, the rotted areas
-appear as finger-like projections radiating out toward the sapwood.
-Gradually the rot column tapers to a thin central core beyond which
-white flecks appear, and this early rot stage is concentrated along the
-rays of the oaks.
-
-Control for Irpex canker is the same as for other canker-rots—salvage of
-undesirable cankered trees.
-
-
-                            HISPIDUS CANKER
-
-_Polyporus hispidus_ is the cause of trunk cankers and localized decay
-of hardwoods throughout eastern, central, and southern United States.
-The fungus is also known to attack hardwoods in Oregon and California.
-Reported hosts are: hickory, ash, mulberry, willow, walnut, and oak. In
-the south, _P. hispidus_ is common on oaks, including willow, water,
-black, white, Nuttall, and cherrybark.
-
-    [Illustration: Fruiting body and canker of Hispidus on oak.]
-
-The fungus usually enters the tree through dead branch stubs, from which
-it grows into the heartwood. After becoming established, the fungus
-begins penetrating the sapwood and attacks the living cambium. Callus
-folds are formed by the host around the dead cambial area, forming an
-elongated swollen canker, commonly referred to as a “hispidus canker”.
-The cankered area of the stem is bark-covered and sunken, usually
-containing a remnant of a branch stub or branch scar. During late
-summer, fall or early winter, the fungus produces conks (sporophores) on
-the surface of the cankers. The annual bracket-shaped conks are large,
-spongy, and yellowish-brown to rusty-brown on the upper surface. When
-fresh, the under surface is a light tan color. After a few months, the
-mature conks dry to a rigid black mass and fall from the canker. Old
-conks are commonly found at the base of cankered trees during the spring
-and early summer. Decay produced by the fungus appears spongy, light
-yellow, and is commonly separated from the sound wood by a black zone
-line. The rot is of the delignifying white rot type. On southern oaks,
-the rate of canker elongation has been estimated at one-half foot per
-year, with the internal rot usually extending about one foot above and
-below the cankered area.
-
-No effective control in forest stands is known. Removal of diseased
-trees provides additional growing space for crop trees. Some degree of
-shade tree protection can be obtained by pruning of dead branches flush
-with the main stem of the tree.
-
-
-                         BOTRYOSPHAERIA CANKER
-
-_Botryosphaeria ribis_ causes cankering and mortality of more than 50
-woody plants. The fungus is widely distributed throughout the eastern
-one-half of the United States. The pathogen infects the following
-economically important hosts: sweetgum, redbud, willow, poplar, tupelo,
-pecan, and hickory.
-
-    [Illustration: Botryosphaeria canker on sweetgum.]
-
-The fungus gains entry into susceptible hosts primarily through wounds
-or dead and dying twigs. Small oval cankers on stems or branches are the
-first symptoms of infection. As the fungus continues to attack and kill
-the cambium, the sunken cankers enlarge, eventually girdling and killing
-the branch or stem above the cankered area. In the spring and early
-summer, cankers on living portions of the host often produce an exudate.
-Infected sweetgums generally produce the exudate in great quantities, to
-which the common name of bleeding necrosis has been applied.
-Reproductive structures called stroma are produced by the fungus on dead
-cankered stems and branches during moist periods of the spring and
-summer.
-
-No practical method of control is known. Diseased trees seldom recover.
-Infection of high value shade and ornamental trees may be prevented to
-some degree by avoiding mechanical damage. Dead limbs and branches
-should be pruned and wounds covered with a suitable tree paint. Infected
-trees should be removed and burned.
-
-
-                            SEPTORIA CANKER
-
-    [Illustration: Septoria canker on young cottonwood saplings.]
-
-Septoria canker is caused by the fungus _Septoria musiva_. Although this
-is a disease of poplars, native poplar species are not severely
-attacked. However, this is an important problem wherever hybrid or
-introduced poplars are grown. With the ever-increasing emphasis on
-poplar planting, this will probably become a much more important problem
-in the near future.
-
-Young stem cankers usually develop around openings such as wounds,
-lenticels, or leaf scars, appearing first as sunken, dark areas of the
-bark. The infected area later becomes more depressed and darker as
-tissue dies, and often a black margin will be formed around the canker.
-Small, pink, hair-like spore tendrils are produced by the fungus around
-the canker margin, especially during moist weather. These tendrils
-contain spores which can cause further infection, and arise from small
-dark fungal fruiting structures called pycnidia. This cankered area is
-often invaded by insects and other fungi and is also a weakened area at
-which wind breakage may occur. The fungus also causes a gray to black
-leaf spot, which usually has a light colored center. These spots may
-coalesce on a severely infected leaf and involve the entire leaf
-surface. This leaf spot in itself causes slight damage, but acts as a
-source of fungus spores which can cause stem cankers, and thus is
-important in the overall consideration of the disease.
-
-    [Illustration: Defoliation in cottonwood caused by Septoria
-    leafspot.]
-
-A control for this disease is to use native poplars or resistant hybrids
-wherever possible. Wider spacing in plantations may also reduce the
-humidity, decreasing the amount of infection.
-
-
-                            CYTOSPORA CANKER
-
-Cytospora canker is caused by _Cytospora chrysosperma_. This fungus
-attacks more than 70 species of hardwood trees and shrubs as well as
-some conifers. Poplars and willows are among the most common hosts, and
-are attacked throughout their range. Trees used for shade or windbreak,
-and also cuttings in propagation beds are particularly susceptible to
-this canker. This disease is most severe on trees growing under stress,
-such as those growing on an unfavorable site, or injured by drought,
-frost, fire, or severe pruning. The fungus is a normal inhabitant of the
-bark and becomes parasitic only when the tree is weakened.
-
-    [Illustration: Cytospora canker on cottonwood.]
-
-A canker begins as a gradual, circular killing of the bark of a limb or
-stem. This infected tissue soon appears as a brownish, sunken patch,
-around which the host often produces raised callus tissue. Small black
-fungal structures (pycnidia) appear as small pimples on the dead bark.
-During moist weather, thin threads of spores exude out from the
-pycnidia. The inner diseased bark becomes dark and odorous. The cambium
-is killed and the sapwood becomes watery and reddish brown as it becomes
-infected. Water spouts may form below the canker before the tree dies.
-
-Since this disease is most severe on weakened trees, shade trees should
-be watered and fertilized to maintain healthy, vigorous growth. Wounding
-and severe pruning should be avoided. Cuttings should be selected from
-healthy planting material grown in disease free areas. If cuttings are
-to be stored for any length of time, they should be kept at a
-temperature below 35°. This low temperature will keep new infections
-from occurring, even if spores are present.
-
-
-                            CHESTNUT BLIGHT
-
-    [Illustration: Stem canker caused by chestnut blight organism.]
-
-Chestnut blight is caused by the fungus _Endothia parasitica_. It can be
-found on American chestnut throughout its range where it has virtually
-eliminated this valuable species from eastern hardwood forests. The
-chestnut blight fungus is also parasitic on other hosts including common
-chinkapin, Spanish chestnut, and post oak. Japanese and Chinese
-chestnuts are resistant.
-
-Stem cankers are either swollen or sunken and the sunken type may be
-grown over with bark. The fungus forms fruiting bodies some distance
-back from the advancing cankers, and the spores may exude from bark
-crevices as orange curl-like masses during moist weather. Young cankers
-are yellow-brown in sharp contrast to the normal olive-green color of
-the bark. The chestnut is a vigorous sprouting species but the fungus
-survives in previously killed stumps and later kills the new sprout
-growth.
-
-No effective control has been developed for chestnut blight, even after
-several decades of intensive research. The most promising control
-involves the development of a blight-resistant species. Research is
-presently underway on this matter but results are inconclusive.
-
-    [Illustration: Fruiting bodies on surface of canker.]
-
-
-                                OAK WILT
-
-This serious vascular wilt of oaks is caused by the fungus _Ceratocystis
-fagacearum_. At least fifty species and varieties of oak are
-susceptible. The disease has been most damaging in the Lake States but
-is also found in the eastern United States.
-
-    [Illustration: Oak wilt symptoms on red oak trees and leaves.]
-
-    [Illustration: (cont.)]
-
-Oak wilt symptoms are most noticeable during late spring or early
-summer. Red oaks may be killed in as little as three weeks, the lower
-branches being affected last. In white oaks, symptoms are usually
-confined to a few branches each year and trees may live several years
-before death. Leaf symptoms are similar for both red and white oaks.
-Leaves turn yellow or brown and become dry progressively from the edge
-or tip to the midrib and base. Mature leaves may fall at any symptom
-stage from green to brown. Premature leaf shedding is the most
-outstanding symptom. A definite characteristic of the disease is the
-raising and cracking of the bark due to pressure of mats of the fungus
-growing between the bark and wood.
-
-Oak wilt is spread over long distances by insects that pick up spores
-while crawling on the mats of infected trees. The disease may also
-spread from tree to tree via root graft. Short-distance spread is
-controlled by severing all roots of living trees around infected trees
-by use of a ditchdigger. Another control is to fell all trees in a
-50-foot radius of infected trees; felling and burning of all parts of
-infected trees is sometimes done to prevent overland spread.
-
-
-                           DUTCH ELM DISEASE
-
-    [Illustration: Dying tree infected with Dutch elm disease.]
-
-Dutch elm disease, caused by _Ceratocystis ulmi_, is the most
-devastating disease of elm trees in the United States. This disease has
-been recorded in most states east of the Mississippi and as far as Idaho
-in the Northwest and Texas in the Southwest. All of the native elm
-species are susceptible, while many of the ornamental Asiatic species
-are highly resistant.
-
-Trees suffering from Dutch elm disease may show a variety of symptoms.
-Leaves become yellow, wilt, and turn brown. Premature defoliation and
-death of branches usually occurs, causing the crown to appear thin and
-sparse. Internally, a brown discoloration appears in the outer sapwood.
-_C. ulmi_ is transmitted from diseased to healthy elms by elm bark
-beetles, mainly the small European elm bark beetle and the native elm
-bark beetle. These beetles make characteristic galleries under the bark
-of dead and dying elms. Adult beetles pick up the sticky fungus spores
-from under the bark and then feed on the young tender elm twigs of
-healthy trees, inadvertently inoculating the healthy tree with the
-fungus. The fungus may also spread from diseased elms to adjacent
-healthy elms through root grafts.
-
-    [Illustration: Discoloration and streaking symptoms in the sapwood.]
-
-Controls to combat this disease generally involve sanitary measures
-aimed at the beetles. Dead and dying elms should be burned. This
-eliminates the elm wood which normally serves as a breeding place for
-elm bark beetles and thus reduces the beetle population. In areas where
-most native elms are infected, other tree species or resistant elm
-species, such as the Chinese or Siberian elm, should be planted rather
-them native elms.
-
-
-                          ELM PHLOEM NECROSIS
-
-Elm phloem necrosis is a disease of elm, caused by a virus or virus-like
-organism. The disease has occurred in the United States for many years,
-probably as early as 1882. The pathogen is transmitted from infected to
-healthy trees by the adult white-banded elm leafhopper, _Scaphoideus
-luteolus_, which feeds on the leaf veins. It is now present throughout
-most of the central, eastern, and southern portions of the United
-States. The disease is known to occur on American and winged elm, but
-all native elms are probably susceptible to attack by the pathogen.
-
-    [Illustration: Foliage symptoms of elm phloem necrosis.]
-
-The earliest symptoms of the disease appear in the top of the crown, at
-the outer tips of the branches. Here the elm leaves suddenly wilt, turn
-yellow, the margins curl upward and the leaves die. Leaf-fall causes the
-crown to appear sparse. In large trees, the foliage symptoms may
-initially appear on one branch or only a portion of the crown. However,
-the symptoms during the advanced stage of the disease are exhibited
-throughout the crown. The most reliable symptom appears as a yellow to
-butterscotch discoloration on the inner bark surface or phloem. This
-symptom initially appears under the bark of large roots, later spreading
-to the base of the main stem and finally to the larger branches. Phloem
-and cambial discoloration is often found in advance of the foliage
-symptoms. The moderately discolored phlomen has a slight odor of
-wintergreen. Thus far, all trees known to be infected with the pathogen
-have died. Acutely infected trees, while initially appearing healthy,
-may wilt and die in three to four weeks.
-
-    [Illustration: Stem sample showing discoloration of sapwood.]
-
-No effective controls are known. The “Christine Buisman” elm, which is
-highly resistant to Dutch elm disease, has demonstrated resistance to
-elm phloem necrosis.
-
-
-                              MIMOSA WILT
-
-    [Illustration: Mimosa branches showing wilt symptoms.]
-
-A vascular wilt of the mimosa (silktree) is caused by the fungus
-_Fusarium oxysporum forma perniciosum_. The fungus is known only to
-attack the mimosa, a tree imported from eastern Asia and grown
-throughout the southeast as an ornamental. Since the discovery of the
-disease in North Carolina in 1935, the fungus has spread north to
-Maryland, south to Florida, and west to Texas.
-
-The fungus causing mimosa wilt is soil-borne and gains entrance into the
-tree by attacking the roots. Once entrance is gained by the fungus, the
-pathogen enters the outer water-conductive system in the sapwood. As the
-fungus grows throughout the system, it hinders or completely inhibits
-the water movement from the roots to the aerial portion of the tree. The
-first outward symptom of disease is the wilting of leaflets, usually in
-the upper portion of the crown. The wilted leaflets turn yellow, then
-brown, and die. Often a branch or two will succumb at a time until the
-entire crown is dead. A second symptom of the disease is found in the
-outer sapwood of the tree. A brown discoloration, appearing as spots or
-a ring, is observed by cutting into the outer sapwood of the infected
-stem or branch.
-
-Control of the fungus is very difficult, since it is soil-borne and
-enters through the roots. However, resistant varieties of mimosa trees,
-developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, are now available at
-most commercial nurseries.
-
-    [Illustration: Branch sample showing brown discoloration of
-    sapwood.]
-
-
-                           VERTICILLIUM WILT
-
-Verticillium wilt, caused by common soil-inhabiting fungi belonging to
-the genus _Verticillium_, is found on a number of hardwood hosts. In
-southern and eastern United States elms and maples are attacked
-throughout their natural ranges.
-
-    [Illustration: Wilting foliage and defoliation of elms caused by
-    Verticillium wilt.]
-
-Infected trees may die within a few weeks after the first symptoms are
-observed, or they may survive for years. The first symptoms of the
-disease involve a wilting of the foliage, with the leaves turning yellow
-and finally brown. The early symptoms are often restricted to a single
-limb or portion of the crown. Vascular discoloration, which is brown in
-elms and green in maples, is present in the outer sapwood. In elms, this
-discoloration is similar to that produced in trees having Dutch elm
-disease.
-
-This disease is not of serious consequence in forest stands. However, it
-is often extremely important in high value shade trees. Dead or dying
-limbs on lawn trees may be pruned out. This may not always save the
-tree, but may help keep it alive for years. Trees should be well watered
-and fertilized as necessary. If a lawn tree dies from Verticillium wilt,
-it should be replaced by a resistant species.
-
-
-                      ARMILLARIA ROOT AND BUTT ROT
-
-    [Illustration: Mushroom or fruiting bodies of the “honey mushroom”
-    rot.]
-
-Armillaria root and butt rot is caused by the fungus _Armillaria
-mellea_. This disease is common in orchards, vineyards, gardens, parks,
-and forests throughout the world. Both coniferous and hardwood forest
-trees are attacked. The fungus is especially troublesome in plantations,
-particularly in stands recently thinned.
-
-The fungus is spread by spores produced by honey-colored mushrooms,
-rhizomorphs, and root contacts between diseased trees or stumps and
-healthy trees. Rhizomorphs are visible strands of compacted mycelium
-(fungus material) that appear as black or reddish-brown “shoestrings.”
-They may be flattened when found between bark and wood or cylindrical
-when found in decayed wood or soil. Rhizomorphs increase in length at
-their tips and in this manner the fungus may move through the soil from
-infected trees to uninfected trees. The honey-colored mushrooms are
-produced annually and are fairly short lived; they are subject to
-desiccation, and are favored by small mammals. The size of the top
-varies from two to five inches in diameter. The top is usually flecked
-with dark brown scales. White to light yellow gills are borne
-underneath. Crown symptoms of the trees affected are similar to those
-caused by any malfunctioning of the roots. A reduction in size and
-production of leaves or needles, a general thinning of the crown, branch
-dying, and yellowing of foliage may precede death or trees may die
-rapidly with a rapid red discoloration of the foliage. Trees often die
-in groups, but single-tree kill is also common. Cankers bleeding resin,
-gum or other exudate at the tree base are common symptoms.
-
-Control is not attempted for this disease under forest conditions.
-Losses may be reduced by following proper planting procedures, and by
-salvage cutting.
-
-    [Illustration: Shoestrings of armillaria.]
-
-
-                        CYLINDROCLADIUM ROOT ROT
-
-This nursery disease is caused by two fungi species. _Cylindrocladium
-scoparium_ and _C. floridanum_: Cylindrocladium root rot has been found
-on two hardwoods (yellow-poplar and black walnut) and two conifers
-(white pine and Fraser fir) in forest tree nurseries in six southern
-states. These include Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina,
-Tennessee, Alabama, and Mississippi.
-
-    [Illustration: Leaf symptoms on 1-0 black walnut nursery stock.]
-
-Root rot symptoms on hardwoods and conifers are quite different. The
-most characteristic root symptoms on yellow-poplar and black walnut are
-the blackened and longitudinally-cracked infected roots that are in
-sharp contrast with healthy white roots of these two species. Infected
-seedling leaves become yellow and later turn reddish-brown.
-
-Root rot symptoms on conifers involve either rotting of the seed or
-seedling (pre-emergence damping off) before emergence from the soil or
-seedling root rot following emergence. These symptoms also involve a
-shrivelling and reddening of foliage, needle blight, and stem cankers.
-The most characteristic symptoms are the “patchy” irregularly scattered
-pattern of infection in conifer seedling beds and the loosening of the
-root epidermis on infected roots—making it very easy to pull off.
-
-    [Illustration: Root symptoms on 1-0 yellow-poplar nursery stock.]
-
-The most practical and effective control for root rot diseases of this
-type involves strict quarantine to either keep the disease out of the
-nursery or keep it confined to known infected areas by avoiding the
-transportation of root material, organic matter, and soil from infected
-to non-infected seed beds. Soil fumigation may control this disease if
-applied under favorable conditions.
-
-
-                       LUCIDUS ROOT AND BUTT ROT
-
-    [Illustration: Fruiting body of Lucidus root and butt rot on
-    mimosa.]
-
-_Polyporus lucidus_ is the cause of root and basal stem decay of
-hardwood trees throughout the eastern, central, and southern portions of
-the United States. The fungus is known to attack and kill maple,
-hackberry, orange, lemon, ash, sweetgum, oak, locust, elm, tupelo,
-willow, and mimosa. Mimosa trees are very susceptible to attack by _P.
-lucidus_ throughout the South.
-
-The disease is characterized by a rapid decline and death of the host.
-Examination of infected roots will reveal a soft spongy white rot with
-black spots scattered throughout. Fruiting bodies are formed at the base
-of infected trees or on the surface of exposed roots. The mature
-fruiting bodies are a reddish brown above and white below, with the tops
-and stems appearing glazed or varnished. The fungus is believed to gain
-entrance into the host through bark and root injuries and can spread
-from infected to healthy trees through root contacts and grafts.
-
-No control is known for this disease. Avoidance of lawnmower and other
-mechanical injuries to the base of roots of susceptible shade trees will
-reduce the chance of infection by the fungus. The spread of the disease
-from infected to healthy trees can be reduced by planting at a wide
-enough spacing to avoid root contacts and grafts.
-
-
-_If you find damage on your trees from insects or diseases you may
-consult with any of the following offices or your state forester._
-
-
-  FIELD OFFICES:
-  _Alexandria Office_
-    U.S. Forest Service
-    2500 Shreveport Highway
-    Pineville, Louisiana 71360
-    Phone A/C 318 445-6511 Ext. 311
-  FOR STATES OF:
-    Alabama
-    Arkansas
-    Louisiana
-    Mississippi
-    Oklahoma
-    Texas
-  _Asheville Office_
-    U.S. Forest Service
-    P.O. Box 5895
-    Asheville, North Carolina 28803
-    Phone A/C 704 254-0961 Ext. 625
-  FOR STATES OF:
-    Florida
-    Georgia
-    Kentucky
-    North Carolina
-    South Carolina
-    Tennessee
-    Virginia
-  _AREA OFFICE_
-    Group Leader
-    Forest Pest Management Group
-    U.S. Forest Service
-    1720 Peachtree Street, N.W.
-    Atlanta, Georgia 30309
-    Phone A/C 404 526-3734
-
-
-    [Illustration: Forest Environment: WEATHER FIRE PEOPLE SOIL ABUSE
-    PESTS]
-
-                      FOREST PEST MANAGEMENT GROUP
-
-                Southeastern Area S. and P. F.—7    1972
-
-
-
-
-                          Transcriber’s Notes
-
-
-—Silently corrected a few palpable typos.
-
-—In the text versions, delimited italics or underlined text in
-  _underscores_ (the HTML version reproduces the font form of the
-  printed book.)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Insects and Diseases of Trees in the
-South, by Anonymous
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-Project Gutenberg's Insects and Diseases of Trees in the South, by Anonymous
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: Insects and Diseases of Trees in the South
-
-Author: Anonymous
-
-Release Date: December 1, 2015 [EBook #50584]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INSECTS AND DISEASES OF TREES ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Dave Morgan and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
-
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-
-
-                                INSECTS
-                                  AND
-                                DISEASES
-                                OF TREES
-                              IN THE SOUTH
-
-
-             U.S. Department of Agriculture--Forest Service
-             State and Private Forestry--Southeastern Area
-                      Forest Pest Management Group
-
-
-
-
-                              INTRODUCTION
-
-
-This publication has been prepared to assist forest managers and
-homeowners in identifying pests of southern trees. The insects and
-diseases discussed are the more common ones attacking forest and
-ornamental trees. Prompt identification and treatment of these pests may
-mean the difference between losing or saving a valuable shade tree.
-Underlying all successful forest and ornamental pest control efforts,
-however, is the necessity to keep trees in a healthy, vigorous
-condition.
-
-We have attempted to include pictures of the damage as well as pictures
-of the damage-causing organism or stage. Chemical suppression
-recommendations are not included in this publication. For pesticide
-information contact the local State or Federal extension specialist,
-forester, entomologist, or pathologist.
-
-Credit for some of the pictures in this guide goes to the Southern and
-Southeastern Forest Experiment Stations and universities. We acknowledge
-the help of the Forest Pest Management field personnel who assisted in
-compiling this booklet.
-
-
-
-
-                           TABLE OF CONTENTS
-
-
-                                INSECTS
-  Hardwood Insects
-  Defoliators
-    Elm Spanworm                                                        1
-    Fall Cankerworm                                                     2
-    A Looper                                                            3
-    Eastern Tent Caterpillar                                            4
-    Forest Tent Caterpillar                                             5
-    Fall Webworm                                                        6
-    Oak Leaf Tier                                                       7
-    Variable Oakleaf Caterpillar                                        8
-    Locust Leafminer                                                    9
-    Cottonwood Leaf Beetle                                             10
-    Walkingstick                                                       11
-    Gypsy Moth                                                         12
-  Bark Beetles and Borers
-    Hickory Bark Beetle                                                13
-    Smaller European Elm Bark Beetle                                   14
-    Columbian Timber Beetle                                            15
-    Cottonwood Twig Borer                                              16
-    Cottonwood Borer                                                   17
-    White Oak Borer                                                    18
-    Red Oak Borer                                                      19
-    Carpenterworm                                                      20
-  Conifer Insects
-  Defoliators
-    Pine Webworm                                                       21
-    Bagworm                                                            22
-    Pine Colaspis                                                      23
-    Pine Sawfly                                                        24
-    Arkansas Pine Sawfly                                               25
-    Virginia Pine Sawfly                                               26
-    Redheaded Pine Sawfly                                              27
-    Texas Leaf Cutting Ant                                             28
-  Bark Beetles and Borers
-    Southern Pine Beetle                                               29
-    _Ips_ Engraver Beetles                                             30
-    Black Turpentine Beetle                                            31
-    Ambrosia Beetle                                                    32
-    Southern Pine Sawyers                                              33
-  Meristem Feeders
-    Nantucket Pine Tip Moth                                            34
-    Pales Weevil                                                       35
-    White Pine Weevil                                                  36
-    Pitch Eating Weevil                                                37
-    Deodar Weevil                                                      38
-    Coneworms                                                          39
-    Pine Seedworms                                                     40
-  Sapsucking Insects
-    Balsam Woolly Aphid                                                41
-
-
-                                 DISEASES
-  Conifer Diseases
-  Foliage
-    Needle Cast                                                        42
-    Brown Spot                                                         43
-    Needle Rust                                                        44
-    Cedar Apple Rust                                                   45
-    Cedar Blight                                                       46
-  Stem, Branch, Cone
-    Southern Fusiform Rust                                             47
-    White Pine Blister Rust                                            48
-    Comandra Blister Rust                                              49
-    Eastern Gall Rust                                                  50
-    Cone Rust                                                          51
-    Pitch Canker                                                       52
-    Wood Decay                                                         53
-    Red Heart                                                          54
-  Root and Butt Rots
-    Annosus Root Rot                                                   55
-    Brown Cubical Rot                                                  56
-    Red Root and Butt Rot                                              57
-    Littleleaf Disease                                                 58
-  Hardwood Diseases
-  Foliage and Twig
-    Sycamore Anthracnose                                               59
-    Walnut Anthracnose                                                 60
-    Oak Anthracnose                                                    61
-    Dogwood Anthracnose                                                62
-    Cottonwood Rust                                                    63
-    Black Knot of Cherry                                               64
-  Stem and Canker
-    Nectria Canker                                                     65
-    Strumella Canker                                                   66
-    Spiculosa Canker                                                   67
-    Irpex Canker                                                       68
-    Hispidus Canker                                                    69
-    Botryosphaeria Canker                                              70
-    Septoria Canker                                                    71
-    Cytospora Canker                                                   72
-    Chestnut Blight                                                    73
-  Vascular Wilts
-    Oak Wilt                                                           74
-    Dutch Elm Disease                                                  75
-    Elm Phloem Necrosis                                                76
-    Mimosa Wilt                                                        77
-    Verticillium Wilt                                                  78
-  Root and Butt Rots
-    Armillaria Root Rot                                                79
-    Cylindrocladium Root Rot                                           80
-    Lucidus Root and Butt Rot                                          81
-
-
-
-
-                                INSECTS
-
-
-              ELM SPANWORM, _Ennomos subsignarius_ (Hbn.)
-
-The elm spanworm is a native insect which is widely distributed over the
-eastern half of the United States and Canada from Nova Scotia south to
-Georgia and west to Colorado. The most widespread outbreak on record
-occurred during the period 1954-1963 when over one million acres of
-hardwood forests were defoliated in the mountains of western North
-Carolina, eastern Tennessee and northern Georgia. The elm spanworm feeds
-upon hickories and a variety of hardwoods; white oak, chestnut oak, and
-northern red oak are the species most heavily defoliated in the
-Appalachians. Repeated defoliation causes growth loss, reduces mast
-crops, and will eventually kill the tree.
-
-    [Illustration: Sixth instar elm spanworm larva.]
-
-Eggs are laid in masses of 12 to 200 on the undersides of host tree
-branches in early July. Winter is spent in the egg stage. Larvae hatch
-in early spring when foliage opens. The larval stage is an "inchworm" or
-"looper", approximately 1-1/2 inches long when mature. Larval coloring
-varies from green or light brown to black, depending upon population
-density. The typical color of the larva in heavy populations is dark
-brown to black, with a dark-red head, legs, and anal shield. The larvae
-feed for about 1-1/2 months, and then pupate in a loose cocoon for six
-to ten days. The adult, a snow-white moth, emerges in late June or early
-July. There is one generation per year.
-
-Natural enemies help keep populations of the elm spanworm in check. One
-of the most important is _Telenomus alsophilae_, a tiny wasp which
-parasitizes eggs. Persistent outbreaks on high-value stands may require
-treatment with chemicals.
-
-    [Illustration: Elm span worms feeding on oak.]
-
-
-            FALL CANKERWORM, _Alsophila pometaria_ (Harris)
-
-The fall cankerworm is widespread in the northern part of the United
-States, ranging south through the Appalachian Mountains to North
-Carolina. Larvae defoliate many species of hardwoods, but in the South
-seem to prefer oaks, hickories, and ash.
-
-    [Illustration: Mature fall cankerworm larva.]
-
-The winged male and wingless female adults emerge on mild days in
-November and December and mate. Females lay 6-300 eggs in neatly
-arranged masses encircling small branches and twigs. The pale green
-larvae hatch in late April or early May. As they mature they may remain
-light green, or change to a very dark brownish-green depending on the
-host. Newly hatched inch-worms (larvae) of the fall cankerworm chew
-small holes in expanding leaves of their hosts, or may completely
-skeletonize the leaves. Mature larvae consume all but the mid-rib and
-major veins of the leaf. Feeding is usually completed in four to five
-weeks, at which time larvae drop to the ground to pupate in the soil.
-
-Cold, wet weather during the early larval period, and parasitization,
-are responsible for sudden declines in established populations. Chemical
-control has also been effective. A small wasp, _Telenomus alsophilae_
-Viereck, has caused a sharp decline in outbreaks of cankerworm
-populations. Usually, however, outbreak conditions must exist for
-several years before the parasite can attain the density needed to cause
-a decline.
-
-    [Illustration: Female cankerworm adult depositing eggs.]
-
-
-                  A LOOPER, _Phigalia titea_ (Cramer)
-
-Larvae of this moth, one of the measuring worms, have periodically been
-responsible for scattered mortality of hardwoods throughout the eastern
-United States. Mortality is most likely to occur in stands on
-low-quality sites, particularly during periods of drought which favor
-this insect's development and further weaken infested trees. This
-species is likely to be found in almost any hardwood area in the eastern
-United States. The insect feeds on a wide variety of trees and shrubs.
-Host trees in the Southeast include oaks, hickories, black tupelo, and
-black locust.
-
-    [Illustration: Phigalia adult male moth.]
-
-_Phigalia titea_ overwinters as a pupa. Adults emerge in late March to
-mid-April, and mate. The female lays her eggs in protected sites on
-branches and trunks of hardwoods. Eggs are most often laid in crevices
-and beneath the bark of dead branches. Eggs hatch in April, and larvae
-feed until early June. Larvae often feed on unopened buds, causing
-irregular holes in the developing leaves. Larvae first eat just the
-surfaces of leaves, but later consume all leaf tissue between the major
-veins. When larvae are dislodged by wind or feeding predators they fall
-or descend on a silken thread and continue feeding in the lower crown or
-on understory vegetation. Pupation occurs on the soil surface or in the
-litter.
-
-    [Illustration: Phigalia larva.]
-
-Weather regulates populations of this insect. Soil-inhabiting insects
-and rodents are believed to destroy many pupae during the winter.
-
-
-         EASTERN TENT CATERPILLAR, _Malacosoma americanum_ (F.)
-
-The presence of the eastern tent caterpillar is objectionable more from
-an aesthetic standpoint than from its effect on the host tree. The ugly
-tents constructed by the feeding larvae make this pest highly
-objectionable on shade trees. Black cherry and other species of the
-genus _Prunus_ are preferred hosts, but other trees in the family
-_Rosaceae_ are sometimes attacked. This insect is widely distributed
-wherever host trees are found east of the Rocky Mountains.
-
-    [Illustration: Larvae and tent of eastern tent caterpillar.]
-
-The caterpillars appear at about the same time the leaves of black
-cherry begin to unfold. The larvae construct a web or tent in the crotch
-of a small branch, and begin feeding. Usually they consume entire
-leaves, except for the large veins. As the larvae mature, they add to
-the tent, which may reach a foot in diameter and two feet in length.
-Reaching maturity in about six weeks, the larvae drop to the ground and
-pupate. The moths emerge in June and the females lay eggs. Eggs of the
-eastern tent caterpillar are shiny black masses which encircle the
-smaller twigs and are quite noticeable. The insect overwinters in the
-egg stage.
-
-Control on ornamental, fruit, and shade trees is achieved by pruning off
-and burning the tents containing the caterpillars.
-
-    [Illustration: Tent caterpillar-infested black cherry.]
-
-
-         FOREST TENT CATERPILLAR, _Malacosoma disstria_ (Hbn.)
-
-The forest tent caterpillar has caused repeated serious defoliation of
-hardwood forests throughout North America. Aspen, water tupelo, hard
-maple, gums, and oaks are preferred hosts but this insect will feed on a
-variety of other broadleaf trees.
-
-    [Illustration: Forest tent caterpillar larvae.]
-
-The shiny black egg masses encircling the twigs of host trees can be
-seen during winter months. Small black, hairy larvae hatch out just as
-the leaves are beginning to unfold. They do not construct a tent, but
-make a silken mat on the larger branches or trunk of the tree on which
-they rest between feeding periods. When full grown, the larvae are about
-two inches long, brownish-black with distinctive white, keyhole-shaped
-spots down the middle of the back, and blue lines along the sides. Just
-before pupating, the larvae spin a whitish silk cocoon on the bark or
-leaf of the host. In about ten days the light brown moths emerge, mate,
-and the females begin laying their eggs.
-
-Parasitic flies are one of the more important agents which normally keep
-this insect under control. Outbreaks occur with some regularity,
-however, and chemicals may be required to prevent defoliation.
-
-    [Illustration: Colony of third instar larvae.]
-
-
-                FALL WEBWORM, _Hyphantria cunea_ (Drury)
-
-The fall webworm is not considered an important forest pest. However,
-ugly webs can seriously detract from aesthetic values. The preferred
-hosts in the South are persimmon, pecan, and sourwood, but it is also
-found on black walnut, hickory, cherry, sycamore, crab apple, and
-sweetgum. The insects range throughout North America.
-
-    [Illustration: Fall webworm larva.]
-
-The adult is a pure white moth about 1-1/4 inches long. The forewing is
-sometimes marked with blackish dots. The larva is about one inch long
-when full grown, generally pale yellow or greenish with a broad dark
-longitudinal stripe on the back and a yellowish stripe extending from
-black and orange warts. The insect has one generation per year in the
-northern part of its range, and two in the southern part. Moths of the
-first generation emerge from May to July and those of the second in July
-and August. Adult females lay 400-500 eggs in white cottony patches on
-the underside of the leaves of host plants. The eggs hatch in about a
-week, and the larvae form a web and begin to skeletonize the leaves by
-feeding in rows. As the larvae grow they expand the web to cover the
-colony. When the larvae are ready to pupate, they crawl or drop to the
-ground and form a brownish cocoon in the duff around the tree where they
-overwinter.
-
-    [Illustration: Fall webworm infestation.]
-
-Natural enemies usually keep this insect under control. Webs can be
-pruned from high-value trees in scenic or recreation areas.
-
-
-              OAK LEAF TIER, _Croesia albicomana_ (Clem.)
-
-This oak leaf tier has been associated with the decline and mortality of
-several species of oak in the northeastern United States and southern
-Appalachians. An outbreak population in the mountains of West Virginia
-and Virginia in 1966-68 resulted in the loss of several thousand acres
-of scarlet oak. Usually such outbreaks coincide with periods of drought
-which increase the impact of defoliation on the host. Its hosts include
-northern red oak, black oak, scarlet oak, and pin oak. The latter two
-species seem to be hit hardest by this insect.
-
-    [Illustration: Leaf tier adult and pupa.]
-
-_Croesia albicomana_ spends the winter in the egg stage. Eggs are glued
-to small twigs in the crown of the host tree. Hatch occurs from
-mid-April to early May. Young larvae, which emerge before bud-break,
-bore into and mine the expanding buds. When large numbers of this insect
-are present they can destroy most of the vegetative buds on a tree.
-Later the older larvae tie down a folded-over portion of a leaf and feed
-on it. Leaves fed on by the oak leaf tier appear to be full of shot
-holes. As the larvae near maturity they may tie the apical portion of
-two or more leaves together and feed on them. Mature larvae then drop to
-the ground to pupate in the litter. Adult moths emerge in June or early
-July, mate, and the female immediately begins laying eggs. The small,
-flat, oval eggs are deposited individually on small twigs, generally
-around nodes or leaf scars.
-
-    [Illustration: Scarlet oak killed by leaf tier.]
-
-Little is known of the natural factors which regulate population levels
-of this insect, but undoubtedly weather is important.
-
-
-      VARIABLE OAK LEAF CATERPILLAR, _Heterocampa maneto_ (Dbldy.)
-
-The variable oak leaf caterpillar periodically defoliates extensive
-areas of hardwood forest in the eastern United States. Its range covers
-all of the southern and eastern states as far west as east Texas. The
-larvae feed primarily on oaks but will also feed on beech, basswood,
-birch and elm. Other defoliating insects may be associated with
-outbreaks causing additional damage. Young larvae skeletonize the leaf
-while older larvae devour the entire leaf except the primary veins.
-Infestations are generally more severe in the South, where the insect
-has two generations per year causing two periods of defoliation in a
-single year. While infestations usually subside before many trees are
-killed, heavy defoliation reduces the tree's growth and vigor.
-
-    [Illustration: Larva of the variable oak leaf caterpillar.]
-
-The variable oak leaf caterpillar overwinters as a non-feeding larva in
-a cocoon on the forest floor. It pupates and emerges as a moth the
-following spring. The female moth, gray in color and about 1-3/4 inches
-long, lays about 500 eggs singly on the leaves of host trees. The larvae
-feed on foliage for five or six weeks, drop to the ground to pupate, and
-emerge as adults in mid-summer. Larvae hatching from eggs laid by the
-second generation of moths defoliate the trees for a second time during
-late summer. By late October the mature larvae of the second generation
-have dropped to the forest floor to overwinter. The full grown larva is
-approximately 1-1/2 inches long. Color varies among individuals. The
-head is generally amber brown with curved diagonal white and black
-bands. The body is usually yellow green with a narrow white stripe down
-the center of the back bordered by wider dark bands.
-
-Outbreaks of the variable oak leaf caterpillar may be severe but
-generally subside before serious tree mortality occurs. Parasites and
-predators are not effective in controlling rising populations of the
-insect. Mice and predaceous beetles feed on the resting larvae and pupae
-in the litter and soil of the forest floor. While no chemical is
-currently registered for control of this insect, chemical spraying has
-been effective and safe in controlling closely related insects.
-
-
-          LOCUST LEAFMINER, _Xenochalepus dorsalis_ (Thunberg)
-
-The locust leafminer is a destructive pest of black locust and honey
-locust in both the adult and larval stages. It is found throughout the
-range of these trees in the eastern half of North America. The adults
-also feed on other species of trees.
-
-The adult beetles overwinter in crevices in the bark of trees and under
-litter on the forest floor. The beetles emerge and begin feeding in the
-spring, usually after mid-April. After feeding for a short time they
-deposit eggs on the undersides of leaves, piling them one upon another,
-somewhat shingle-like. Eggs are covered with brownish fecal matter.
-Larvae soon hatch and eat into the leaf tissue to form a mine. Newly
-emerged larvae feed gregariously in a single mine for a short time. They
-then construct new mines where the insects live singly. Several mines
-are constructed before the larvae reach maturity. The larvae pupate in
-the mines and emerge as adults in July to begin the second generation.
-The adult beetles are foliage feeders, eating irregular holes in leaves.
-When sufficient in number they may defoliate host trees.
-
-    [Illustration: Damage to black locust caused by the locust leaf
-    miner.]
-
-Under forested conditions no control is recommended. Rarely do trees die
-from attacks by this insect. Damage is objectionable mostly from an
-aesthetic viewpoint.
-
-
-           COTTONWOOD LEAF BEETLE, _Chrysomela scripta_ (F.)
-
-Willows, poplars, aspens and alders are attacked by the cottonwood leaf
-beetle in the eastern United States. Cottonwood is the most important
-host in the South. Damage has been especially severe in Louisiana and
-Mississippi where thousands of acres of cottonwood plantations are
-intensively managed. Adult beetles and larvae feed on the foliage.
-Damage is most critical during the first three years after the
-cottonwood is planted. Adults chew holes in the leaves and may attack
-the terminal shoots causing reduced growth or stem deformity. Young
-larvae skeletonize the foliage but older larvae consume all foliage
-except the leaf midribs. Damage may become severe enough to cause
-mortality.
-
-    [Illustration: Cottonwood leaf beetle adult.]
-
-The cottonwood leaf beetle overwinters in the adult stage. Eggs are laid
-in the spring. The female lays a cluster of about 75 yellowish eggs on
-the underside of a leaf. As the larvae mature they become yellow with
-black spots. After about nine days in the larval stage the beetle
-transforms into the non-feeding pupal stage which lasts five to ten
-days. The adult is about 1/4-inch long and has a black head and thorax.
-The wing covers are yellow with longitudinal black stripes. The life
-cycle is completed in 25 to 30 days and several generations occur in a
-single year.
-
-    [Illustration: Larvae and pupae of the cottonwood leaf beetle.]
-
-Control may be needed in a plantation only during the first three years.
-Chemical sprays have been successful in the past but at the present time
-no insecticides are registered for cottonwood leaf beetle control.
-
-
-              WALKINGSTICK, _Diapheromera femorata_ (Say)
-
-The walkingstick is a defoliator of broadleaved trees in North America.
-The black oaks, basswood, and wild cherry are the most common preferred
-hosts but numerous other hardwood species are attacked. This insect is
-widely distributed over the United States east of the Rocky Mountains as
-well as Manitoba and Ontario in Canada. At times, populations build in
-sufficient numbers to defoliate trees over large areas.
-
-    [Illustration: Male walkingsticks feeding on oak.]
-
-These slender, wingless, stick-like insects are pale green when young,
-but gradually change to a dark green, gray, or brown at maturity. The
-adult female measures up to three inches in length and is more
-stout-bodied than the male. Mating usually takes place in August and egg
-laying begins six to ten days later. The eggs are dropped to the ground
-where they overwinter in the leaf litter. In the northern part of the
-walkingstick's range the eggs take two years to hatch. In the South,
-walkingstick eggs hatch the summer after they are laid, usually starting
-in mid-May. The newly hatched walkingstick looks like a miniature adult.
-
-Parasitic wasps and flies are active against the immature walkingsticks
-but are not efficient enough to cause a substantial population
-reduction. Flocks of robins, blackbirds, and grackles have a much
-greater impact, however. The defoliation caused by walkingsticks
-generally occurs on upland sites in stands which are not of high value
-or intensively managed. For this reason there has been little interest
-in control.
-
-
-                  GYPSY MOTH, _Porthetria dispar_ (L.)
-
-The gypsy moth is an introduced forest insect. It was brought into this
-country from Europe in 1869 and has been restricted to the Northeast.
-The gypsy moth feeds aggressively on oak, alder, apple, basswood,
-willow, and birch. As the caterpillars reach maturity they will also
-feed on hemlock, cedar, pine, and spruce.
-
-    [Illustration: Gypsy moth larvae.]
-
-In the Northeast, the gypsy moth has a single generation per year,
-overwintering in the egg stage. Eggs hatch in late April and May and
-larvae are present for approximately two months. Full-grown caterpillars
-measure more than two inches long and are easily identified by the five
-pairs of blue spots and six pairs of red spots arranged in a double row
-along the back. The adult moths are active from late June to early
-September. Female moths, their bodies heavy with eggs, are unable to fly
-and must rely on a powerful sex attractant to lure male moths. This sex
-attractant has been chemically synthesized and is used as a trap bait in
-surveys designed to determine the presence of gypsy moths in areas
-suspected to be infested. Each female deposits from 200 to 800 eggs in a
-buff-colored mass which she attaches to any convenient surface including
-cars, trailers, and other vehicles.
-
-    [Illustration: Female gypsy moths depositing egg masses.]
-
-During the past 75 years the gypsy moth has been the target of many
-large-scale control programs, and much money has been spent trying to
-reduce the impact of gypsy moth infestations. Current control efforts
-are handicapped by the unavailability of a safe and effective persistent
-chemical. In the North two predators and nine parasites have been
-successfully established to help control the gypsy moth. The greatest
-problem in controlling gypsy moth spread, however, lies in the fact that
-recreational vehicles transport egg masses and larvae from infested
-sites into uninfested areas.
-
-
-          HICKORY BARK BEETLE, _Scolytus quadrispinosus_ (Say)
-
-The hickory bark beetle is reported to be the most serious insect pest
-of hickory in the United States. Population explosions where thousands
-of trees were killed have been reported from New York, Pennsylvania,
-Maryland, Virginia, and recently from Georgia. Hickory bark beetles are
-distributed throughout the range of their host in eastern United States.
-All species of hickory are subject to attack, as well as pecan and
-possibly butternut. Adult beetles emerge in May and June in the southern
-portion of their range. They feed for a short time by boring into the
-petioles of leaves and into small twigs of the host. Dying leaves and
-twigs are the first evidence of attack. After feeding, the beetles fly
-to the trunk and larger branches of the host and bore into the inner
-bark to lay their eggs. Short, longitudinal egg galleries are etched
-into the sapwood and from 20 to 60 eggs deposited in small niches cut on
-either side of the gallery. As the larvae develop, their galleries
-radiate out from the egg gallery. Two generations per year have been
-reported from northern Mississippi. The beetle overwinters in the larval
-stage. With the coming of warm weather in the early spring, it changes
-into the pupal stage, and finally, in May, to an adult.
-
-    [Illustration: Hickory bark beetle adult.]
-
-Outbreaks of this insect begin in periods of hot, dry weather and
-subside when rains commence.
-
-    [Illustration: Larval galleries of the hickory bark beetle.]
-
-
-  SMALLER EUROPEAN ELM BARK BEETLE, _Scolytus multistriatus_ (Marsham)
-
-The smaller European elm bark beetle was first reported in the United
-States in 1909. Its presence in this country was given significance with
-the introduction of the Dutch elm disease in 1930. The beetle attacks
-all native and introduced species of elms and now occurs wherever the
-hosts are present. The feeding of the adult beetles in the spring is
-responsible for transmitting the Dutch elm disease from diseased to
-healthy trees. The Dutch elm disease is now our most important shade
-tree disease.
-
-    [Illustration: Smaller European elm bark beetle adult.]
-
-Adult bark beetles emerge in the spring from dead or dying elms and
-begin feeding on the twigs of healthy elms. The female then excavates an
-egg gallery in the bark of dead or weakened elms. Eggs are deposited
-along the walls of the gallery. The larvae, upon hatching, burrow into
-the bark at right angles to the egg gallery. Pupation occurs at the end
-of the larval tunnel. New adults tunnel to the bark surface and leave
-the tree through circular emergence holes. There are usually two
-generations a year. The beetles overwinter in the larval stage.
-
-Chemical control and good tree maintenance are the two methods used to
-reduce bark beetle populations. Insecticides are used to prevent feeding
-by the adults in the spring. Tree sanitation involves removal and
-disposal of dead elms and elm limbs which eliminate breeding and larval
-development sites.
-
-
-       COLUMBIAN TIMBER BEETLE, _Corthylus columbianus_ (Hopkins)
-
-All hardwood trees in the eastern half of the United States are subject
-to attack by the Columbian timber beetle, but oaks, maples, birch,
-basswood, yellow-poplar, and elm are the preferred hosts in the South.
-The beetle causes two major types of damage: 1) physical damage caused
-by the 1/32" to 1/16" hole excavated by the adult into the sapwood, and
-2) degrade caused by stain which may extend for a considerable distance
-above and below the gallery. Large diameter trees are preferred as
-hosts, but trees as small as one and one-fourth inches in diameter may
-be attacked.
-
-    [Illustration: Callow adult and pupae of the Columbian timber
-    beetle.]
-
-There are two and sometimes three generations of this insect each year.
-Adults from the first generation emerge from late May through June and
-those from the second in October. The first evidence of attack is the
-white dust which collects at the entrance hole. Later, depending on the
-tree's physiological condition, a sap-soaked area may develop around the
-entrance hole. The adult bores a horizontal hole into the sapwood of a
-healthy tree for a few inches and later constructs two or three shorter
-lateral branches. "Cradles" (or egg chambers) are then constructed for a
-short distance perpendicular to these galleries. The female deposits a
-single egg in each chamber. The offspring spend their entire
-developmental period within the cradles feeding on fungi which grow on
-the sapwood. It is this fungus which causes the extensive staining
-characteristic of Columbian timber beetle attack. Winter is spent in
-both the pupal and adult stages in the brood galleries.
-
-    [Illustration: Columbian timber beetle entrance holes in
-    yellow-poplar.]
-
-Chemical control is not practical for forest trees.
-
-
-       COTTONWOOD TWIG BORER, _Gypsonoma haimbachiana_ (Kearfott)
-
-The cottonwood twig borer is widely distributed throughout the entire
-range of eastern cottonwood, from Canada to the Gulf States and west to
-Missouri. The larvae of the cottonwood twig borer feed in the terminals
-of the host. This feeding results in reduction of terminal growth and
-forked and crooked trunks. Damage is especially severe on young trees.
-
-    [Illustration: Cottonwood twig borer damage to cottonwood sapling.]
-
-    [Illustration: Three-year-old cottonwood stunted by twig borers.]
-
-The female moth lays eggs on the upper surface of leaves along the
-mid-rib, singly or in groups of two to eight. Hatching occurs in about
-five days and the young larvae cover themselves with silk mixed with
-trash, and then tunnel into the mid-rib. After the first molt, larvae
-leave the tunnels and bore into tender shoots. Larvae reach maturity in
-about 21-23 days and begin moving down the trunk of the tree where they
-spin cocoons in sheltered bark crevices, in litter, or between leaf
-folds. The adult moths emerge in eight or nine days. It takes from 40-45
-days to complete the life cycle in mid-summer.
-
-The most effective natural control is a potter wasp, _Eumenes_ sp. which
-tears open tender cottonwood shoots and removes twig borer larvae from
-their galleries. Other wasps parasitizing the twig borer include _Bracon
-mellitor_ (Say), _Apanteles clavatus_ (Provancher) and _Agathis_ sp.
-
-
-             COTTONWOOD BORER, _Plectrodera scalator_ (F.)
-
-The cottonwood borer is limited in range to the southern half of the
-United States. Hosts include cottonwood, poplars and willows. The adults
-feed on the tender shoots of young trees causing them to shrivel and
-break off. The larval stage of this insect tunnels in the inner bark and
-wood at the base of the tree and may kill or severely weaken it.
-
-    [Illustration: Adult cottonwood borer.]
-
-The adult beetles appear in midsummer. After feeding briefly on the
-tender bark of the terminals the adults descend to the bases of host
-trees where the female deposits her eggs in small pits gnawed in the
-bark. Eggs hatch in about three weeks. The larvae bore downward in the
-inner bark, entering a large root by fall. Larval feeding continues into
-the second year as the larvae bore into the inner bark and wood. The
-larvae transform into the non-feeding pupal stage and finally into an
-adult in the summer of the second year thus completing a two year life
-cycle. Adult beetles are 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 inches long. They are black with
-lines of cream-colored scales forming irregular black patches.
-
-The best control for the cottonwood borer is to maintain a vigorous,
-healthy stand. Slow growing, off-site plantings of host trees are the
-most severely damaged. While some systemic insecticides have shown
-promise, there is currently no registered chemical control method.
-
-
-               WHITE OAK BORER, _Goes tigrinus_ (De Geer)
-
-A recent survey of damage caused by various wood borers to three species
-in the white oak group revealed an estimated annual loss in the South
-exceeding 20 million dollars. One of the more important borers
-responsible for this damage is the white oak borer.
-
-    [Illustration: Adult white oak borer.]
-
-Usually the white oak borer attacks oaks one to eight inches in
-diameter. The damage, like that of other hardwood borers, is the result
-of larval feeding in the wood. Galleries up to one-half inch in diameter
-extend upward through the sapwood into the heartwood. The white oak
-borer takes three to four years to complete one generation. The mated
-adult female beetle lays her eggs singly in the inner bark through a
-small oval niche chewed through the outer bark. After about three weeks
-the eggs hatch and the larvae immediately bore into the sapwood. Later
-they bore upward into the heartwood. The boring frass ejected out of the
-entrance is evidence of an active infestation. Pupation occurs behind a
-plug of excelsior-like frass at the upper end of the gallery in the
-heartwood. In about three weeks, adults emerge by boring separate and
-perfectly round holes through the wood and bark. In the South, adults
-generally emerge in May and June and feed for a short time on oak leaves
-and the tender bark of twigs before the females lay their eggs.
-
-Woodpeckers may destroy up to 25 percent of the larvae during the winter
-months, but this and the small toll taken by insect predators and
-parasites are not sufficient to keep the white oak borer population low
-enough to avoid serious economic loss.
-
-    [Illustration: Entrance and emergence holes in white oak.]
-
-
-              RED OAK BORER, _Enaphalodes rufulus_ (Hald.)
-
-The red oak borer is a serious pest of trees in the red oak group. It
-ranges throughout eastern North America wherever host species grow. It
-is estimated that defects caused by larval tunnels in the sapwood and
-heartwood of host trees costs the hardwood timber industry millions of
-dollars each year.
-
-    [Illustration: Adult red oak borer.]
-
-Eggs of the red oak borer are laid during early and mid-summer in bark
-crevices or under patches of lichen on host trees. After hatching,
-larvae bore into the inner bark region where they feed until mid-summer
-of the next year. This feeding in the inner bark causes characteristic
-catfaces or bark pockets. Once larvae enter the wood they bore upward
-through the sapwood and into the heartwood and pupate behind a plug of
-excelsior-like frass. The larval galleries are from one-fourth to
-one-half inch in diameter, and six to ten inches long. Usually the
-galleries are within six inches of the center of the tree. The adult
-emerges at the lower end of the tunnel, using a hole cut through the
-bark by the larva just prior to pupating. Adults emerge in June and
-July. The timing of the two-year life cycle of the red oak borer is such
-that the adult population is greatest in odd-numbered years.
-
-Generally, borers such as the red oak borer infest trees of poor vigor.
-It is possible, therefore, to reduce borer populations by maintaining
-vigorous stands and by removing cull trees.
-
-    [Illustration: Red oak borer attack on Nuttall oak.]
-
-
-             CARPENTERWORM, _Prionoxystus robiniae_ (Peck)
-
-The carpenterworm bores in the wood of living hardwood trees, causing
-costly damage to commercial timber species. In the South, oak species
-are preferred hosts but black locust, maples, willows, and fruit trees
-are also attacked. The carpenterworm is distributed throughout the
-United States.
-
-    [Illustration: Carpenterworm adults.]
-
-Adult moths emerge in late April to early June, mate, and the females
-lay groups of eggs in bark crevices or wounds. Each female lays 200 to
-500 eggs during her one-week life span. After hatching, the larvae
-wander over the bark for a short time before boring into the inner bark
-where they feed until half-grown. The larvae then bore into the sapwood
-and heartwood, returning occasionally to feed in the inner bark. The
-larval period lasts from two to four years. Pupation usually occurs deep
-within the heartwood. Just prior to emergence, the pupa wiggles to the
-entrance hole where it remains slightly protruding until the adult moth
-emerges. The large winding tunnels constructed by the larvae in the
-sapwood and heartwood of living hardwoods serve as an entrance for
-wood-rotting fungi and insects such as the carpenter ant. In extreme
-cases, the tree may be structurally weakened and subject to wind
-breakage.
-
-    [Illustration: Carpenterworm galleries in nuttall oak.]
-
-Some chemicals which have a fumigating action have proved effective in
-controlling this insect in shade trees, but no practical control has yet
-been found for forest trees.
-
-
-              PINE WEBWORM, _Tetralopha robustela_ (Zell.)
-
-Ugly, compact masses of brown excrement or frass pellets around the stem
-of pine seedlings mark infestations of the pine webworm. Rarely is the
-defoliation severe enough to kill the seedlings, but it undoubtedly has
-an impact on growth. Found throughout the eastern United States, the
-webworm commonly attacks red, white, jack, loblolly, shortleaf, and
-slash pines.
-
-    [Illustration: Pine webworm damage to loblolly pine.]
-
-    [Illustration: (cont.)]
-
-The adult moth has a wingspread of about one inch. The forewing usually
-is gray in the middle portion and darker at the base and tip. The hind
-wings and body are smokey gray. The full-grown larva is a caterpillar
-approximately 4/5 of an inch long. The head is tan with darker markings
-and the body light brown with dark longitudinal stripes running down
-each side.
-
-Eggs are usually laid on seedlings, occasionally on larger trees,
-between May and September. After eggs hatch, the caterpillars live in
-silken webs surrounded by masses of frass, and feed on the needles.
-Generally each web contains one or two larvae but occasionally 25 or
-more may be found. After feeding is completed, the caterpillars drop to
-the ground and pupate below the soil surface. In the South, there are
-usually two generations each year.
-
-In plantations, hand picking is an effective method of control. When
-high value nursery stock becomes infested, chemical control may become
-necessary.
-
-
-            BAGWORM, _Thyridopteryx ephemeraeformis_ (Haw.)
-
-The bagworm is distributed throughout the eastern half of the United
-States. It is generally recognized as a defoliator of conifers,
-particularly juniper, cedars, and arborvitae, but it is also found on
-many hardwood trees including maple, wild cherry, poplars, oaks, and
-apple.
-
-    [Illustration: Bagworm cases on pine.]
-
-The wingless, maggot-like adult female bagworms are present in September
-and October and spend their entire lives within the protective cover of
-the tough, silken bag which they construct as larvae. Males are quite
-agile fliers and can often be seen in the fall flying around infested
-shrubs in search of a mate. Mating takes place through the open end of
-the bag. Shortly thereafter the female deposits her egg mass containing
-500 to 1,000 eggs in her pupal case. The eggs remain in the bag
-throughout the winter. In the deep South, hatching can occur as early as
-April, but occurs in May or June further north. During the early stage
-of development, the larvae, housed in their tiny bags, are quite
-inconspicuous. As they mature, the bags become quite noticeable, and the
-amount of foliage consumed increases rapidly.
-
-Outbreak populations of bagworm are in most cases quickly reduced by low
-winter temperatures and a complex of several parasites. On shrubs and
-shade trees around a home, it is often practical to control bagworms by
-picking and destroying the bags.
-
-
-                PINE COLASPIS, _Colaspis pini_ (Barber)
-
-Colaspis beetles are found throughout the Southeast, but are more common
-in the Gulf states. They seem to prefer slash pine but have been found
-on many of the southern pines. The pine colaspis beetle is not a serious
-forest pest but feeding damage caused by large populations occasionally
-produces a spectacular browning effect of the needles similar to that
-caused by fire.
-
-    [Illustration: Adult pine colaspis beetle feeding damage on pine.]
-
-The adult beetles chew the edges of needles to produce an irregular,
-saw-like edge which turns brown. Occasionally only the tips of the
-needles show signs of the infestation. Later, however, the entire needle
-may die, causing the whole tree to become brown as though scorched by
-fire. Trees that have been attacked do not die, and little or no growth
-loss results. Attacks usually occur in early summer; by late summer the
-trees appear green and healthy again. This pest is sporadic in its
-occurrence and may not develop again in the same area for several years.
-The adult female lays her eggs in the soil during the summer. Larvae
-hatch and feed on roots of grasses and other vegetation, and overwinter
-in this stage. The larvae pupate in the spring; adults emerge in early
-summer to feed. There is only one generation a year.
-
-Under forest conditions, no control measures are recommended for the
-pine colaspis beetle. On ornamentals and shade trees, insecticides can
-be used to prevent unsightly damage.
-
-
-               PINE SAWFLY, _Neodiprion excitans_ (Roh.)
-
-This pine sawfly is found throughout the southeast from Virginia to
-Texas. Loblolly and shortleaf pine are preferred hosts, but pond, slash,
-longleaf, and Sonderegger pine are also attacked. The larvae do not do
-well on the latter two species. As with most sawflies, the larvae feed
-in groups on the host needles. Generally the old needles are preferred,
-but all of the needles are eaten when large numbers of larvae are
-present. Three or four young larvae usually encircle a needle and,
-starting from the tip, consume all but a central core. When nearing
-maturity they eat the entire needle.
-
-    [Illustration: Pine sawfly larvae.]
-
-Four or five generations of this sawfly may occur each year. Adult
-females begin to lay their eggs in slits cut in the needles during late
-March. The eggs hatch in 10-21 days, and the larvae feed for about five
-weeks. When mature the larvae usually crawl to the ground and spin a
-cocoon in the loose litter at the base of the tree. Although all stages
-of the life history can be found at any time during the growing season,
-the peak adult emergence occurs in late summer. Larvae from this late
-summer generation are responsible for most of the damage which, although
-never directly responsible for mortality, may predispose the trees to
-attack by other insects (particularly bark beetles) and diseases.
-
-Natural control factors generally bring outbreak populations under
-control after one season. Hogs, armadillos, mice, and shrews are
-reported as being of significant value in regulating the sawfly
-population. Insect parasites, predators, and disease are also effective
-control agents.
-
-
-       ARKANSAS PINE SAWFLY, _Neodiprion taedae linearis_ (Ross)
-
-Loblolly and shortleaf pines are the only trees attacked by the Arkansas
-pine sawfly. Periodic outbreaks of this insect over large areas in the
-south-central states cause substantial growth losses, but the insects
-seldom kill trees.
-
-    [Illustration: Arkansas pine sawfly larvae.]
-
-This insect has a single generation each year. In the spring, eggs which
-have overwintered hatch into tiny caterpillar-like larvae. The larvae
-feed in groups for 30-40 days (primarily on the older foliage) before
-crawling to the ground and pupating in the topsoil or litter. Adults
-emerge during warm days in October and November, mate, and the females
-begin laying eggs. Sawflies get their name from the manner in which the
-eggs are laid. The female is equipped with a saw-like "ovipositor" with
-which she cuts a slit in the needle into which the egg is inserted. From
-two to ten eggs are laid in a single needle. Each female deposits from
-90 to 120 eggs.
-
-An important natural control agent of this sawfly is a polyhedral virus
-disease that sometimes destroys large numbers of the larvae. Rodents
-destroy many cocoons. Several species of larval parasites are also known
-to exist. Of these, a parasitic fly, _Anthrax sinuosa_ (Wied.) and an
-ichneumon wasp, _Exenterus canadensis_ (Prov.) appear to be the most
-important.
-
-
-        VIRGINIA PINE SAWFLY, _Neodriprion pratti pratti_ (Dyar)
-
-The Virginia pine sawfly is found from Maryland to North Carolina, and
-west to Illinois. The insect prefers Virginia and shortleaf pine, but it
-will also oviposit and feed on pitch and loblolly pine.
-
-    [Illustration: Virginia pine sawfly larva.]
-
-On warm sunny days in late October and early November, the adult
-sawflies emerge from their cocoons in the litter, mate, and the females
-lay eggs. The female is equipped with a saw-like ovipositor with which
-she cuts a slit at the edge of a needle and inserts a small, white, oval
-egg. Several eggs are usually laid at evenly spaced intervals in each
-needle, but in only one needle per fascicle. From 30 to 100 eggs are
-deposited in this manner by each female. The eggs hatch the following
-April and the young larvae feed gregariously on the old needles. Larval
-development is usually completed by the time the new needles come out,
-giving heavily defoliated trees a tufted appearance. Mature larvae crawl
-to the ground and spin cocoons in the litter or surface soil. They
-remain as prepupae until late September when pupation occurs.
-
-    [Illustration: Pine defoliated by the Virginia pine sawfly.]
-
-Heavy defoliation for two or more years can weaken trees and make them
-more susceptible to other insects and diseases, particularly when
-associated with drought. In commercial stands the growth loss caused by
-several years of 50% defoliation by this insect can amount to 1/3 of the
-expected growth.
-
-Several parasites, predators, and a virus attack the Virginia pine
-sawfly, but weather conditions seem to be primarily responsible for the
-drastic fluctuations in sawfly populations. Several chemicals have
-proven effective in preventing damage to ornamentals.
-
-
-          REDHEADED PINE SAWFLY, _Neodiprion lecontei_ (Fitch)
-
-The redheaded pine sawfly did not become an important pest until
-extensive planting of pine in pure plantations began in the 1920's.
-Since then, outbreaks in young natural pine stands and plantations have
-been common in the South, the north-central states, and eastern states.
-Feeding is primarily restricted to the two- and three-needled pines
-under fifteen feet in height. Shortleaf, loblolly, longleaf, and slash
-are the species most commonly attacked in the southern states.
-
-    [Illustration: Redheaded pine sawfly larva.]
-
-In the fall, sawfly larvae drop to the ground, spin cocoons in the duff
-or topsoil, and overwinter as prepupae in a small, brown cocoon. With
-the coming of spring, pupation occurs and adult emergence follows in
-about two weeks. Some prepupae may remain in a resting stage for more
-than one season before emerging. Each female lays about 120 eggs. She
-cuts a small slit in the edge of a needle and deposits a single egg
-inside each slit. Eggs laid by a single female are generally clustered
-on the needles of a single twig. Eggs hatch in three to five weeks,
-depending on temperature and locality. Larvae feed gregariously on the
-host for 25 to 30 days. When fully grown, larvae drop to the ground and
-spin their cocoons. In the South there are at least two generations per
-year with a maximum of five being recorded. Colonies of different ages
-may co-exist in the late fall or early winter.
-
-Outbreaks occur periodically and tend to subside after a few years of
-heavy defoliation. Numerous parasitic and predatory insects play an
-important role in causing the decline of infestations, as do adverse
-weather conditions during the larval stage. When deemed necessary,
-chemical treatment is an effective control.
-
-
-            TEXAS LEAF-CUTTING ANT, _Atta texana_ (Buckley)
-
-Damage caused by the Texas leaf-cutting ant, or town ant, is confined in
-the United States to southeast Texas and west-central Louisiana. The ant
-causes damage to a variety of green plants throughout the year and
-causes serious damage to pine seedlings during the winter when other
-green plants are scarce. During this period, stands of young seedlings
-may be completely defoliated and the stems girdled. The ant carries bits
-of needles, buds, and bark back to its nest to serve as the medium on
-which it cultivates a fungus. The fungus is the ant's only known food.
-
-    [Illustration: Texas leaf cutting ant.]
-
-Ant colonies are characterized by numerous crescent-shaped mounds five
-to fourteen inches high, and by a series of well defined foraging trails
-cleared of vegetation. The mounds may be confined to a relatively small
-area or extend over an acre or more. Each mound serves as the entrance
-to a football-sized, hemispherical-shaped nest which the ants construct
-at depths up to 20 feet below the surface. The nests are interconnected
-by a series of narrow tunnels, and connected to lateral foraging tunnels
-which may surface a hundred yards or more from the colony. Leaf-cutting
-ants, like many other social insects, are segregated into castes. The
-queen dominates the colony and is responsible for its reproduction.
-Large worker ants, or soldiers, provide protection from intrusion by
-other insects, while the smaller workers collect the leaves and tend the
-fungus gardens.
-
-Various chemicals such as fumigants, contact poisons, and baits have
-been used to control the leaf-cutting ants with varying success. No
-natural control has yet been found.
-
-
-         SOUTHERN PINE BEETLE, _Dendroctonus frontalis_ (Zimm.)
-
-Probably no other insect is of more concern to managers of southern pine
-forests than the southern pine beetle. Loblolly and shortleaf pine seem
-to be preferred hosts, but all of the southern pines may be attacked
-wherever they occur in North and Central America.
-
-Adult beetles are about the size of a grain of rice, stout and
-reddish-brown in color. While they commonly attack lightning-struck or
-weakened trees, they can also quickly build up to high populations
-capable of successfully attacking healthy trees during periods favorable
-to their development. Adult beetles bore directly through the bark,
-mate, and the females begin to excavate S-shaped egg galleries in the
-inner bark. Eggs are deposited in niches on either side of these
-galleries and hatch into small legless grubs within four to nine days.
-The grubs mine for a short distance before boring into the outer bark
-where they pupate. There are from three to seven generations per year
-depending on locality and weather. Drought seems to be associated with
-major outbreaks of this insect.
-
-    [Illustration: Adults of the black turpentine beetle, the southern
-    pine beetle and three species of _Ips_ engraver beetles.]
-
-Control includes rapid salvage and utilization of infested trees and
-piling and burning of infested material. Outbreaks usually subside with
-the advent of unfavorable weather and improved host vigor.
-
-    [Illustration: Southern pine beetle larval galleries.]
-
-    [Illustration: Southern pine beetle pitch tubes.]
-
-
-                    IPS ENGRAVER BEETLES, _Ips_ spp.
-
-With the possible exception of the southern pine beetle, no other
-insects cause as much mortality to southern pine forests as do the three
-species of _Ips_ engravers. Usually they attack severely weakened trees,
-lightning-struck trees, or fresh slash left by logging operations.
-During drought periods they can successfully attack otherwise healthy
-pines.
-
-    [Illustration: Pine showing typical symptoms of _Ips_ attack.]
-
-Attacked trees are quickly girdled by the adults as they construct their
-egg galleries in the inner bark. Death is usually hastened by the
-introduction of blue-stain fungi which blocks the flow of sap. Small
-reddish pitch tubes are frequently the first sign of attack, but they
-are usually absent in trees suffering from drought. Peeling back the
-bark of an infested tree will reveal typical Y- or H-shaped egg
-galleries with short larval galleries extending perpendicular to them on
-either side. _Ips_ beetles are easily recognized by their "scooped out"
-posteriors which are surrounded by varying numbers of tooth-like
-projections. It takes only 18-25 days to complete one generation,
-allowing populations of these beetles to increase very rapidly during
-favorable conditions.
-
-At present the best control is the speedy removal and utilization of
-actively infested trees, making sure that the bark and slabs are
-destroyed.
-
-
-       BLACK TURPENTINE BEETLE, _Dendroctonus terebrans_ (Oliv.)
-
-The black turpentine beetle is found from New Hampshire south to
-Florida, and from West Virginia to east Texas. It is a particularly
-serious pest in the Gulf States where recent outbreaks have killed large
-acreages of timber. Attacks have been observed on all pines native to
-the Southeast, and also on red spruce.
-
-    [Illustration: Life stages of the black turpentine beetle: adult,
-    callow adult, pupa, larva and eggs.]
-
-This is the largest of the southern bark beetles, varying in length from
-1/5 to 1/3 of an inch, or about the size of a raisin. They are
-reddish-brown to black in color. The beetle attacks fresh stumps and
-living trees by boring through the bark and constructing galleries on
-the face of the sapwood where eggs are laid. Fifty to 200 eggs are laid
-in a group. They hatch into white larvae which feed on the inner bark.
-The beetle may girdle trees when several broods occur at approximately
-the same height, killing the trees. From 70 to 90 percent of the trees
-attacked by the beetle die.
-
-After the larvae complete their development, they pupate. Adult beetles
-emerge and infest more pine trees. The entire life cycle takes from
-2-1/2 to 4 months, depending on temperature. In the insect's southern
-range there usually are two generations and part of a third each year.
-In its northern range, the third generation does not develop;
-consequently the beetle is not a serious pest there.
-
-Weather is probably the most influential factor in regulating the
-numbers of this insect. During outbreaks the removal or chemical
-treatment of infested trees helps to keep losses to a minimum.
-
-    [Illustration: Close-up of black turpentine beetle pitch tubes.]
-
-
-              AMBROSIA BEETLE, _Platypus flavicornis_ (F.)
-
-Ambrosia beetles are represented in the South by several species of the
-genus _Platypus_ of which only _P. flavicornis_ (F.) is known to attack
-dead or dying southern pines. _P. flavicornis_ (F.) will secondarily
-invade other conifers and on some occasions may be found in hardwood
-trees. It is so abundant in the South that few dying pines, stumps, or
-logs escape attack. The beetle is found from Texas east to Florida and
-north to New Jersey.
-
-    [Illustration: Adult of the _Platypus_ ambrosia beetle.]
-
-The adult is a reddish-brown elongate beetle approximately one-fourth
-inch in length. The male of the species has a pair of blunt tooth-like
-structures on the third abdominal segment. Several males are usually
-found in the presence of a single female. This species requires moist
-wood which is favorable to the growth of fungi upon which they feed. The
-adults bore into sapwood or heartwood of logs and lumber, making
-pin-sized holes which are stained by the ambrosia fungus. The female
-lays eggs in small clusters in the tunnel and the developing larvae
-excavate tiny cells extending from the tunnel parallel to the grain of
-wood. There may be several generations a year.
-
-Ambrosia beetle damage to green sawlogs and lumber may result in
-considerable degrade and strength reduction. The best control is rapid
-utilization of dead or dying trees. Lumber should be seasoned as soon as
-possible to reduce or eliminate losses.
-
-
-                SOUTHERN PINE SAWYERS, _Monochamus_ spp.
-
-In the South, dying pines and fresh logs are quickly attacked by the
-pine sawyers. In sufficient numbers they may cause a significant loss of
-wood fiber and degrade sawlogs. These species are commonly found in the
-South infesting southern pine, fir, and spruce wherever the hosts grow.
-
-    [Illustration: Adult southern pine sawyer beetle.]
-
-The adults emerge in the spring or summer and begin to feed on the bark
-of twigs. After mating, the female gnaws pits through the bark of
-freshly felled or dying pine. The female beetle lays one to several eggs
-in each pit. After eggs hatch the larvae bore beneath the bark for 40-60
-days, converting the inner bark into coarse, shredded frass. The larvae
-then enter the wood and make deep U-shaped cells through the heartwood
-and sapwood. The entrance is plugged with frass and the far end is
-excavated into a pupal chamber. The larvae pupate the following spring
-or early summer, transform into adults, and emerge that same season. The
-insect has two or three generations per year in the South.
-
-Pine sawyers render storm- or fire-damaged pines unfit for salvage and
-are also a problem in wood-holding yards. Rapid salvage and utilization
-of dead or dying trees or green logs will reduce losses significantly.
-
-
-       NANTUCKET PINE TIP MOTH, _Rhyacionia frustrana_ (Comstock)
-
-The impact of the Nantucket pine tip moth on pine plantations varies
-widely with tree species, host vigor, and environmental factors. Heavily
-infested trees may be severely stunted or deformed but mortality is
-rare. Generally, the tree grows out of the susceptible stage within a
-few years. In seed orchards, the tip moth is receiving increasing
-attention because of its impact on height growth and, more importantly,
-because of its effect on flower and cone production. All species of pine
-within the range of the tip moth except white pine and longleaf pine,
-are attacked. It has been reported from all states in the eastern
-hard-pine region extending across east Texas, Oklahoma, Illinois,
-Indiana, Ohio, and southern New York State.
-
-    [Illustration: Nantucket pine tip moth larva on pine bud.]
-
-The tip moths overwinter as pupae in the tips of infested trees. In the
-South the adults emerge on warm days during the late winter months,
-mate, and the females lay eggs in the axils between needles and stem
-near the terminal bud of host trees. On hatching, larvae bore first into
-the base of developing needles, and later into the new terminal growth
-or buds. There are two to four generations per year in the southern part
-of the tip moth's range.
-
-Chemical control is generally not considered practical in forest
-plantations, but several pesticides have proved effective in reducing
-insect damage in seed orchards.
-
-    [Illustration: Newly emerged adult tip moth on a damaged shortleaf
-    pine tip.]
-
-
-                 PALES WEEVIL, _Hylobius pales_ (Hbst.)
-
-Pales weevil is perhaps the most serious insect pest of pine
-reproduction in the southeastern United States. Losses in susceptible
-areas commonly run 20-25 percent, but exceed 90 percent under
-circumstances favoring weevil development. Pales weevil is found
-throughout pine-growing regions of eastern United States and Canada.
-Feeding has been reported on most coniferous species, and all species of
-southern pines appear to be susceptible in varying degrees.
-
-    [Illustration: Pitch-eating weevils in the genera _Pachylobius_,
-    _Hylobius_, and _Pissodes_.]
-
-Adult weevils are attracted by the odor of fresh pine resin, and quickly
-invade logging areas. Eggs are laid in lateral roots of fresh pine
-stumps, where they hatch in approximately five to ten days. Larvae feed
-on the inner-bark tissues of roots. At maturity, larvae usually
-construct a chip cocoon in a chamber cut into the wood, and pupate in
-the cocoon. On emerging, adults feed on the tender bark of seedlings, or
-twigs of trees. The small irregular feeding patches in the bark are
-characteristic of weevil damage. Heavy feeding girdles the stem or twig,
-causing wilting and eventual death. Newly emerged adult females feed for
-approximately one month before laying eggs. Females may lay eggs
-sporadically through two growing seasons. The average female lays about
-50 eggs in her lifetime. In the South there are two peaks in adult
-weevil population each year; the first occurs in the early spring
-(March-May) followed by a second somewhat lower peak in July and August.
-
-This insect can be controlled by delaying planting in cut-over areas for
-at least nine months, or by treating seedlings with a suitable
-insecticide.
-
-    [Illustration: Adult pales weevil feeding on seedling.]
-
-
-              WHITE PINE WEEVIL, _Pissodes strobi_ (Peck)
-
-The white pine weevil is generally regarded as the most serious insect
-pest of white pine. Although it usually does not cause mortality, trees
-suffering repeated attacks become stunted and deformed to the point of
-being commercially unusable. The weevil has become such a problem in
-some areas that it prohibits the growing of white pine. In addition to
-eastern white pine, the white pine weevils also attack Norway spruce and
-jack pine. Other pines and spruces are attacked to a lesser degree. The
-weevil is found throughout the range of eastern white pine.
-
-    [Illustration: Pine leader damaged by the white pine weevil.]
-
-During the latter half of April, the adults may be found on the terminal
-shoots of host trees where the female lays her eggs. Up to 200 eggs are
-deposited over a six-week period. The eggs are laid in feeding punctures
-in the bark, and hatch about two weeks later. Characteristically, the
-young larvae position themselves around the shoot and begin feeding as a
-group down the terminal through the inner bark. Small holes scattered
-over the bark are characteristic of white pine weevil attacks. After
-five or six weeks the larvae construct pupal chambers in the pith or
-wood of the terminal shoot and transform into adults. The young adults
-remain in the dead terminal until late October and November when they
-move to favorable overwintering sites on the ground, usually at the base
-of the host tree.
-
-Control of the white pine weevil is difficult. It is possible, however,
-to reduce the damage by making conditions in a young stand unfavorable
-for egg laying. This is possible because the female weevil will only lay
-eggs within a rather narrow range of temperature and relative humidity.
-Various techniques involving the use of shade from "nurse trees" have
-been developed but require intensive management. Under certain
-circumstances, chemical control can be used.
-
-
-         PITCH-EATING WEEVIL, _Pachylobius picivorus_ (Germar)
-
-In the Gulf Coast States the pitch-eating weevil is probably the most
-troublesome insect pest of pine seedlings. No accurate figures are
-available on the damage directly attributable to this pest, but
-mortality losses are estimated to average about 30 percent in
-susceptible areas. All of the southern hard pines and other conifers are
-probably suitable breeding and host material for the pitch-eating
-weevil. Its range overlaps that of the pales weevil, being reported from
-Labrador, Canada, south to Florida and west to Texas. It occurs in
-damage-causing numbers only in the Gulf Coast States.
-
-Pitch-eating weevils breed in the roots of freshly cut stumps. The
-adults burrow down through the soil, sometimes a considerable distance
-from the stump, and lay their eggs in niches chewed in the root bark. On
-hatching, larvae mine the inner bark, packing their galleries with
-frass. Pupal cells are excavated in the sapwood, and a chip cocoon is
-constructed from the excelsior-like material removed during the cells'
-construction. Development time varies from six to ten months depending
-on when the stumps are initially infested. Emerging adult pitch-eating
-weevils feed by night on the tender bark of seedlings. Small irregular
-patches of bark are removed, eventually girdling the seedling and
-causing its death. The pitch-eating weevil exhibits a population trend
-similar to that of the pales weevil, and is a threat mostly in early
-spring and in the fall.
-
-The most effective control for pine reproduction weevils is to wait nine
-months before replanting or until the stumps in an area are no longer
-attractive to the weevil. Chemical control can be used when such a delay
-is considered impractical.
-
-
-              DEODAR WEEVIL, _Pissodes nemorensis_ (Germ.)
-
-This snout beetle is very similar to the white pine weevil both in
-appearance and habits. It is found throughout the south- and
-mid-Atlantic states from southern New Jersey west to Missouri. Although
-deodar cedar is the preferred host, Atlas cedar, Lebanon cedar, and
-several species of southern pines are also attacked.
-
-    [Illustration: Galleries and chip cocoons of the deodar weevil.]
-
-Adults emerge from April to May and feed briefly on the inner bark of
-leaders and lateral branches of host trees. Heavy feeding frequently
-girdles the stem and can kill small trees. The adults are dormant during
-the summer, but resume activity in the fall to lay their eggs. From one
-to four eggs are deposited in feeding punctures. The newly hatched
-larvae bore into the inner bark where they construct winding galleries
-which girdle the stem. Evidence of such infestations is often delayed
-until January when the branches begin to turn brown. Winter is spent in
-the larval stage. The larvae pupate in March or April and the cycle is
-complete.
-
-Keeping shade trees in a vigorous condition by proper watering and
-fertilization helps reduce their susceptibility to weevil attack.
-
-
-                      CONEWORMS, _Dioryctria_ spp.
-
-Coneworms are perhaps the most destructive insect pests of pine cones in
-the South. They are particularly serious in superior-tree seed orchards
-where they frequently cause substantial economic loss. There are five
-important species of coneworms in the South, one or more of which attack
-all of the native and exotic pines.
-
-    [Illustration: Coneworm larva feeding on a pine shoot.]
-
-Although the number of generations per year varies with the species,
-their general life history is similar. Female moths lay their eggs
-around wounds, cankers, galls, etc., but also deposit particularly on
-terminal growth. Eggs generally hatch in about a week. Larvae may stay
-at a single feeding site, or move to several different sites before
-completing their development. This latter behavior often results in a
-single larva destroying several cones or shoots. Pupation takes place in
-a chamber constructed by the larva at the feeding site. Depending on the
-species and time of year, the adult may emerge in two to three weeks or
-overwinter in the pupal stage. Coneworms cause several kinds of damage.
-They may mine through the inner bark, bore up the center of a shoot, or
-completely hollow out a cone. Their attacks are sometimes marked by
-fecal pellets and large pitch masses.
-
-    [Illustration: Slash pine cone damaged by coneworm larva.]
-
-Several parasites attack coneworms but are seldom effective enough to
-prevent population build-ups. Chemical control is often necessary on
-seed orchards to ensure adequate protection of the cone crop.
-
-
-                   PINE SEEDWORMS, _Laspeyresia_ spp.
-
-Until recent years little has been known about pine seedworms. These
-insects are found throughout the South but seldom have population
-explosions. An exception to this is on slash pine in Florida where over
-70 percent of one year's cones were reported infested. Longleaf pine
-cones in Texas and Louisiana have also had over 60 percent cone
-infestation on occasion. Loblolly and shortleaf pine cones are seldom
-over 20 percent infested. Seedworms have been found infesting longleaf,
-loblolly, shortleaf, slash, and Virginia pine cones. _Laspeyresia
-anaranjada_ Miller attacks primarily slash pine, occasionally longleaf
-pine, and rarely loblolly pine. _L. ingens_ Heinrick attacks primarily
-longleaf and slash pine. _L. toreuta_ Grote attacks Virginia, shortleaf,
-and loblolly pine in the South.
-
-    [Illustration: Adult pine seedworm.]
-
-The female moth lays eggs from April through May on second-year cones.
-There is one generation per year. Larvae feed within developing seeds
-until the cone matures. In late fall, larvae either bore into the cone
-axis or remain in a hollowed-out seed, and overwinter. Pupation occurs
-within the cone and moths emerge through the hollow seeds. External
-evidence of seedworm attack is not visible in immature cones. As cones
-mature, damaged seeds are retained in the cone. Heavily damaged cones do
-not open properly. In high-value seed orchards and seed production areas
-some protection from seedworm attack may be obtained through the use of
-pesticides applied in a carefully timed program.
-
-    [Illustration: Pine seedworm larva in longleaf pine seed.]
-
-
-           BALSAM WOOLLY APHID, _Adelges piceae_ (Ratzeburg)
-
-    [Illustration: Eggs and wool-covered adult balsam woolly aphids.]
-
-The balsam woolly aphid was introduced into northeastern North America
-from Europe around the turn of the century. Since then it has become a
-pest of major importance to true firs on the east and west coasts of the
-continent, and threatens some 60,000 acres of Fraser fir in the southern
-Appalachians. Usually the balsam woolly aphid has two generations per
-year in the southern Appalachians. Eggs of the first generation hatch in
-late June and July followed by the second generation in September and
-October. The immature stage of the aphid known as a "crawler" is the
-only motile stage in the aphid's life cycle. Once the crawler begins
-feeding, it transforms into an adult and never again moves. Reproduction
-is parthenogenic with each female laying approximately 100 eggs during
-her lifetime.
-
-In the feeding process the aphid injects a salivary substance into the
-host tree, which causes growth abnormalities. Initial symptoms of aphid
-attack may include "gouting" of buds or twig nodes and some twig and
-branch die-back. Heavy stem attacks reduce the tree's ability to
-translocate food and water. Usually a heavily infested tree dies within
-two to seven years.
-
-Chemical control is effective but extremely costly and thus limited to
-very high-value areas along scenic road-ways. Other control measures
-include removal and destruction of infested material.
-
-    [Illustration: Fraser fir infested by balsam woolly aphid.]
-
-
-
-
-                                DISEASES
-
-
-                              NEEDLE CAST
-
-Needle cast is a very common disease of conifers throughout eastern and
-southern United States. Eastern white, loblolly, longleaf, pitch, pond,
-shortleaf, table mountain, and Virginia pines are all susceptible.
-_Hypoderma lethale_ is probably the most common cause of needle cast on
-the above hosts, with the exception of longleaf pine. _Lophodermium
-pinastri_ is also associated with needle cast.
-
-    [Illustration: Hypoderma needle cast on loblolly pine.]
-
-Current pine needles are infected in the early summer, and by winter or
-early spring begin to turn brown at the tips. At this time the tree
-usually has a scorched appearance. Later, the browning progresses down
-the needle and the fungal fruiting bodies are produced. These are small,
-black, elongated structures known as hysterothecia, which open along a
-slit during moist weather to release their spores. The infected needles
-are often "cast," leaving only the new growth, and causing the tree to
-have a tufted appearance.
-
-Controls are seldom needed for this disease in forest stands. Infected
-trees usually recover and put out new foliage the year following heavy
-attacks. Nurseries or plantations should not be established in areas
-where needle cast is prevalent.
-
-    [Illustration: Lophodermium needle cast on 2-0 nursery stock and 5
-    year old scotch pine, Spanish variety.]
-
-    [Illustration: (cont.)]
-
-
-                        BROWN SPOT NEEDLE BLIGHT
-
-Brown spot or brown spot needle blight is caused by the fungus _Scirrhia
-acicola_. Brown spot occurs in all the coastal states from Virginia to
-Texas, and inland to Arkansas and Tennessee. All southern pines are
-attacked by the fungus, but only longleaf pine seedlings are seriously
-damaged.
-
-    [Illustration: Brown spot needle blight on longleaf pine
-    reproduction.]
-
-Initial infection of pine needles results in the development of small,
-circular spots of grey green color, which later turn brown. As the
-fungus continues to grow, a necrotic area encircles the needle,
-appearing as a brown band. The infected area will then increase in size,
-eventually resulting in the death of the needle. Fruiting bodies, called
-acervuli, develop in the dead areas of the needle. Spores are extruded
-from the acervuli in a water soluble gelatinuous matrix throughout the
-entire year. The spores are washed apart and splashed short distances by
-rain drops. These spores spread the disease from seedling to seedling.
-During the winter and early spring, the sexual stage of the fungus is
-produced on dead needles. Ascospores, produced in a fruiting body called
-a perithecium, are light and wind-disseminated. These spores are
-responsible for disease spread. During the grass stage, seedlings often
-become heavily infected by the brown spot fungus, resulting in partial
-to complete defoliation. Seedlings which are nearly defoliated every
-year remain in the grass stage and eventually die. Three successive
-years of complete defoliation will result in death. The disease is very
-damaging during wet years, especially in areas where the fungus has
-become well established in the absence of controls.
-
-The disease can be reduced by control burning during the winter months.
-On seedlings, fire burns the diseased needles and reduces the amount of
-available inoculum for reinfection, leaving the large terminal bud
-unharmed. Often a single prescribed burn reduces the disease intensity
-to such low levels that vigorous seedling height growth begins the
-following year. Fungicide sprays will also reduce brown spot on high
-valued trees.
-
-
-                            PINE NEEDLE RUST
-
-    [Illustration: Fruiting bodies of pine needle rust on loblolly
-    pine.]
-
-Nearly all the native pines in southern United States are attacked by
-various needle rust fungi of the genus _Coleosporium_. This disease is
-very common, but causes little harm to the trees. Many species of this
-rust also attack broadleaved weeds in addition to the pines, needing
-both host types to complete their life cycle.
-
-Needle rusts are most prevalent on young trees in the seedling to
-sapling stage. In the spring or early summer small, delicate white
-fungus "cups" filled with yellow to orange spores are produced on the
-needles. From a distance entire seedlings may appear to have a whitish
-or yellowish cast. Individual needles which are heavily infected may
-die, turn brown, and drop from the tree. However, the entire tree is
-rarely defoliated. Small red "rust pustules" form on the undersurface of
-the weed leaves. These are replaced by dark structures later in the
-summer.
-
-The needle rusts are not important enough to warrant control in natural
-forests or plantations. If the weed (alternate) host is known, it can be
-eradicated around nurseries of susceptible pine species. However, it
-would be better to establish nurseries in rust free areas.
-
-
-                            CEDAR APPLE RUST
-
-Cedar apple rust, caused by _Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae_, is
-important commercially in the apple-growing regions of the Virginias,
-Carolinas, and the Mississippi Valley. The alternate hosts of this rust
-are eastern red cedar and several species of junipers.
-
-    [Illustration: Fruiting galls containing spores on cedar tree.]
-
-    [Illustration: Fruiting on apple leaf the alternate host.]
-
-Cedar "apples" or galls are the characteristic signs of the fungus on
-cedars. Cedar needles are infected in the summer by wind-borne spores
-from apple leaves. By the next spring or early summer galls begin to
-appear as small greenish brown swellings on the upper needle surfaces.
-By fall, the infected needle turns into a chocolate brown gall covered
-with small circular depressions. The following spring, orange jelly-like
-tendrils protrude from the galls producing an attractive ornament for
-the cedar tree. Spores produced from these orange spore masses are then
-capable of reinfecting apple leaves, thus completing the fungus life
-cycle.
-
-No practical control of the rust on cedars is available because of the
-low value of cedar. However, considerable effort is expended to protect
-apple trees. Where apple is to be protected, cedars should be eliminated
-in the vicinity or, rust galls should be picked or cut off cedars before
-the galls mature.
-
-
-                              CEDAR BLIGHT
-
-Cedar blight, caused by _Phomopsis juniperovora_, is most severe on
-eastern red and Rocky Mountain cedars. Other hosts include arborvitae,
-cypress, and Atlantic white cedar. The disease ranges from the mid-West
-to the Atlantic coast and south to Alabama where it is most common in
-nurseries.
-
-    [Illustration: Needle symptoms on 1-0 eastern red cedar nursery
-    stock and 5 year old Arizona cypress.]
-
-    [Illustration: (cont.)]
-
-Symptoms on red cedar resemble that of drought. The tips of branches are
-killed back and sometimes entire trees will turn brown. The fungus forms
-black fruiting bodies on needles and stem lesions. Fungus spores are
-distributed by rainwater; nursery overhead sprinkling systems also
-facilitate blight spread.
-
-Control of cedar blight is initiated by removing and burning infected
-nursery stock early in the season before infection becomes heavy.
-Seedbeds should be well drained. Avoid introducing cedar stock to an
-infected nursery. The location of cedars in the nursery should be
-changed frequently and, where possible, cedar beds should be kept well
-away from older cedar or cedar hedges. Seedlings growing in low-density
-seed beds are more vulnerable to the blight; thus beds should be fully
-stocked. Cedar mulch should never be used on cedar beds. Avoid wounding
-nursery transplants. No economically feasible control is available for
-forest stands.
-
-
-                             FUSIFORM RUST
-
-    [Illustration: Galls on 1-0 pine nursery stock.]
-
-    [Illustration: Damage caused by fusiform rust infection.]
-
-Fusiform rust, caused by _Cronartium fusiforme_, is one of the most
-important diseases on southern pines. This rust is found from Maryland
-to Florida and west to Texas and southern Arkansas. The rust's most
-important impact is in nurseries, seed orchards, and young plantations.
-Loblolly and slash pines are very susceptible to this rust. Pitch and
-pond pines are moderately susceptible, longleaf pine is fairly
-resistant, and shortleaf pine is highly resistant.
-
-The most easily recognized symptom is the spindle-shaped canker on the
-pine branches or main stem. In early spring these swellings appear
-yellow to orange as the fungus produces powdery spores. As host tissue
-is killed, older stem cankers may become flat or sunken. Cankers often
-girdle trees and wind breakage at the canker is common. Fungus spores
-from the pine infect oak leaves. Brown hair-like structures, produced on
-the underside of the leaves in late spring, are the most conspicuous
-signs. These projections produce spores which in turn reinfect the pine
-trees, completing a "typical" rust cycle.
-
-    [Illustration: Fruiting fusiform-shaped canker on main stem of
-    southern pine.]
-
-Silvicultural practices may lessen the incidence of infection in
-plantations. Avoid planting highly susceptible species such as slash and
-loblolly pines in areas of known high rust incidence. In these areas
-more resistant species such as longleaf or shortleaf pine should be
-planted. Pruning infected branches will prevent stem infection in young
-plantations. Rust-resistant pines should be readily available from the
-nurseries in the near future. Culling out seedlings with obvious galls
-before outplanting will reduce the disease incidence in new plantations.
-
-
-                        WHITE PINE BLISTER RUST
-
-White pine blister rust, caused by _Cronartium ribicola_, was introduced
-to North America on nursery stock about 1900. It is the most important
-disease on white pine in the United States. In the South, the disease is
-found on eastern white pine in the Appalachian mountains.
-
-    [Illustration: Fruiting cankers showing yellow-colored spores of
-    blister rust on eastern white pine.]
-
-    [Illustration: (cont.)]
-
-The disease is caused by a fungus that attacks both white pine and wild
-and cultivated currant and gooseberry bushes, called _Ribes_. Both hosts
-must be present if the fungus is to complete its life cycle. Attack by
-the disease is followed by the development of cankers on the main stem
-or branches. Infected pines die when a canker completely girdles the
-main stem or when many of the branches are killed by girdling. The most
-conspicuous symptoms of the disease are the dying branches or crowns
-("flags") above the girdling cankers, and the cankers themselves.
-
-Initially, a narrow band of yellow-orange bark marks the edges of the
-canker. Inside this band are small irregular dark brown scars. As the
-canker grows, the margin and bank of dark scars expand and the portion
-formerly occupied by the dark scars is now the area where the spores
-that infect _Ribes_ are produced. During the months of April through
-June white sacs or blisters containing orange-yellow spores (called
-aeciospores) push through the diseased bark. The blisters soon rupture
-and the orange-yellow spores are wind-dispersed for great distances.
-Generally, there is some tissue swelling associated with the canker,
-which results in a spindle-shaped swelling around the infected portion
-of the stem.
-
-Loss of white pines from blister rust can be prevented by destroying the
-wild and cultivated _Ribes_ bushes. Bushes may be removed by uprooting
-by hand, grubbing with a hand tool, or with herbicides. Pruning infected
-branches on young trees will prevent stem infections and probably tree
-mortality.
-
-
-                         COMANDRA BLISTER RUST
-
-    [Illustration: Fruit gall showing orange colored spores on loblolly
-    pine.]
-
-    [Illustration: Alternate host--false toadflax.]
-
-Comandra blister rust, caused by the fungus _Cronartium comandrae_, is a
-canker disease of hard pines. The disease presently occurs in widely
-scattered areas throughout the western, central, and southern United
-States. In the South, the primary hosts are loblolly, shortleaf, pond,
-and Virginia pine. Herbaceous plants of the genus Comandra, commonly
-known as false toadflax or comandra, are also attacked.
-
-The fungus infects pines through the needles and grows from the needle
-into the branch or main stem where it forms a gall or canker. Dark
-orange-colored spores which are produced on the surface of the gall in
-the spring are wind-blown and infect the leaves or stems of the comandra
-plants. Two to three weeks after infection, urediospores are produced on
-the underside of the comandra leaf. These are wind-blown and can only
-infect other comandra plants. Eventually hair-like structures known as
-telia are produced on the comandra leaves and stems. The telia produce
-spores which are wind-blown and infect the pine host through the needle.
-The necessary combination of a susceptible pine host, the alternate
-host, and the pathogen is presently known to occur only in northern
-Arkansas, eastern Tennessee, and northern Alabama.
-
-No effective method of controlling the disease in forest stands is
-presently known. Silvicultural or forest management practices which
-reduce the abundance of the alternate host offer promise of long term
-control. Maintenance of dense stands and heavy ground cover as a means
-of shading out the intermediate host plants, may be helpful in reducing
-rust damage in many areas.
-
-
-                           EASTERN GALL RUST
-
-Eastern gall rust, caused by the fungus _Cronartium cerebrum_, attacks
-many species of eastern hard pines. The disease ranges eastward from the
-Great Plains and is most severe in the South on Virginia and shortleaf
-pines. Like most rusts this fungus requires an alternate host in
-addition to its pine host. In this case oaks, especially the red oak
-group (black, red, scarlet and pin) are the alternate hosts. Damage to
-the oaks is generally not of economic importance as only the leaves are
-affected.
-
-    [Illustration: Fruiting gall showing red-orange spores on Virginia
-    pine.]
-
-On pines the fungus causes the formation of globose to sub-globose
-galls. Canker formation occurs occasionally but mortality generally
-results from wind breakage at the gall rather than by canker formation
-as literally hundreds of galls may appear on a single tree. They are not
-lethal to the tree, but may ruin tree form and on a large stem they can
-lead to an open decayed wound, as decay fungi are often secondary
-invaders of rust infections. The shape of galls and the arrangement of
-the spore sacs filled with red-orange spores present a cerebroid
-(brain-like) appearance. During the spring the bright orange galls are
-very striking.
-
-This disease is sometimes a problem in nurseries where seedlings are
-attacked and killed. This is where control efforts are concentrated.
-Fungicide protectants are applied to the seedling foliage to prevent
-infection from spores produced on oaks. Contact your local forestry
-extension agent or the nearest Division of Forest Pest Management for
-the latest recommendations. Under forest conditions, control is not
-economically feasible. Trees of poor form should be removed during
-thinning operations.
-
-
-                           SOUTHERN CONE RUST
-
-Southern cone rust is caused by the fungus _Cronartium strobilinum_. It
-has been reported to completely destroy slash and longleaf pine cone
-crops in Georgia and along the Gulf Coast from Florida to Texas.
-
-    [Illustration: Cone rust symptoms on slash pine.]
-
-    [Illustration: (cont.)]
-
-Like most other rusts, the fungus requires oaks and pines to complete
-its life cycle. Although infection of oak leaves occurs annually, no
-significant economic damage is done to the oaks. Fungus spores produced
-on oak leaves infect the mature female pine flowers about the time of
-pollination (January-February). The fungus grows through the developing
-conelet causing it to swell abnormally. By early April or late May the
-infected cones are three to four times larger than the normal first-year
-cones and even exceed the maturing second-year cones in size. The
-swollen cone scales are reddish in color. Cavities in the cone filled
-with orange-yellow spores burst and the cones become orange-yellow. The
-swollen orange-yellow cones in the tree crowns can be easily
-distinguished from normal cones by an observer on the ground. By late
-summer most of the diseased cones have died and fallen.
-
-Control at present is confined to seed orchards. Hydraulic spraying of
-the flowers with fungicides gives a significant reduction in infections.
-Consult your local forester, county extension agent or the nearest
-Forest Pest Management Office for current control recommendations.
-
-
-                              PITCH CANKER
-
-Pitch canker, caused by the fungus _Fusarium lateritium forma pini_, is
-rapidly becoming widespread throughout the South. The disease apparently
-is most serious on Virginia, slash and south Florida slash pine. The
-fungus also attacks shortleaf, pitch, and table-mountain pine.
-
-    [Illustration: Pitch canker infection in terminal branch and main
-    stem of pine.]
-
-    [Illustration: (cont.)]
-
-Pitch canker may cause tree mortality. On Virginia pines the fungus
-reportedly enters through small insect wounds in the twigs or mechanical
-wounds in the bole. Shoots may be girdled and killed within a few weeks,
-but it takes a period of years for the fungus to girdle the bole of
-larger trees. On slash pine the disease apparently attacks plantations
-in wave years. During years of heavy attack the fungus can cause rapid
-crown deterioration in addition to causing bole canker infections.
-Cankers on leaders in the crown can result in death of two-thirds or
-more of the crown by mid-summer in a tree that appeared healthy in the
-spring. In the majority of tree infections only the leader and one or
-two laterals will be infected. The tree recovers in a few years with a
-crook in the bole as the only evidence of attack. Pitch cankers usually
-retain the bark and old cankers on the hole may be sunken. The most
-diagnostic characteristic of the disease, and the one that definitely
-separates it from similar disease, is the heavy pitch soak of the wood
-beneath the canker. Pitch cankers are often so soaked with pitch that
-heavy flow of pitch is observed flowing down the bole.
-
-At the present time, no known method of control exists. Observations in
-slash pine plantations indicate that some trees are resistant while
-others range in their degree of susceptibility.
-
-
-                               WOOD DECAY
-
-Wood decay of southern forest trees is responsible for nearly 80 percent
-of all loss attributed to disease. This decay is caused by fungi which
-mainly attack heartwood in the central portion of stems, branches, and
-roots. Wood-rotting fungi gain entrance into the tree through broken
-branches, wounds, and damaged or exposed roots. Spores, which land at
-these damaged areas, germinate and produce a microscopic mycelium which
-attacks and spreads throughout the heartwood. The decay is caused by the
-action of the mycelium, which penetrate the cell walls and dissolve or
-alter the wood in various ways. Fungus development within the tree may
-continue for many years without any apparent effect on the growth of the
-host. Eventually the mycelium will aggregate and break through the bark
-to form the reproductive stage, either before or after the death of the
-host. The fruiting body (sporophore, conk) produces vast amounts of
-spores which are capable of spreading the fungus to other trees.
-
-Heartrots may be separated into broad classes on the basis of the host
-portion attacked, such as root rots, root and butt rots, stem rots, and
-top rots. Decay fungi may be further separated into two broad classes
-based on their effect on wood. The first class causes white rots,
-decomposing all components of the wood and reducing it to a spongy mass
-with white pockets or streaks separated by firm wood. The second class,
-causing brown rots, utilize the cellulose, leaving the lignin more or
-less unaffected. This usually results in a rot which appears as some
-shade of brown.
-
-The separation of wood decay fungi on the basis of their host range, the
-portion of the host attacked, and the type of rot produced are useful
-aids to a pathologist in determining a tentative identification of the
-fungus responsible for a particular type of rot. However, there are
-numerous fungi which cause decay, many of which are exceptions to the
-various methods of classification. This forces the pathologist to use
-microscopic examination and various artificial keys to arrive at the
-proper identification of a given rot-producing fungus.
-
-    [Illustration: Sectioned stump showing rot and decay in heartwood.]
-
-
-                               RED HEART
-
-The fungus, _Fomes pini_, is the cause of a heartrot of widespread
-distribution. Common names for the rot produced by this fungus are: red
-heart, red ring rot, or white peck. The disease is commonly associated
-with mature and over-mature conifers, especially Douglas fir, larch,
-spruce, and pine. In the southern United States, the fungus attacks all
-species of mature pine.
-
-    [Illustration: Fruiting body of redheart on southern pine.]
-
-Generally, infection of all hosts occurs through dead branch stubs.
-Early stages of decay caused by _F. pini_ are characterized by a
-discoloration of the heartwood, often appearing light red to reddish
-brown. The advanced stages of heartrot appear as elongated white pockets
-or flecks, formed parallel to the grain and separated by apparently firm
-wood. Often the pockets become resin filled. On southern pine hosts, the
-conks are often bracket-like or hoof-shaped. The upper surface appears
-dull grey to dark brown, with concentric furrows parallel to the margin
-of the fruiting body. The lower side is a light brown to brownish gold,
-rimmed by a velvety golden brown margin. Swollen knots result from the
-living wood tissue trying to overgrow the knot where a conk is forming.
-
-    [Illustration: Cross section of infected tree showing rotted and
-    decayed heart wood.]
-
-In southern forest stands, heartrot damage may be reduced by harvesting
-mature pines prior to the age of extreme susceptibility to fungus
-attack. Some degree of shade tree protection can be obtained by pruning
-dead and dying branches flush with the main stem. This will allow the
-knot to be quickly overgrown by sap wood, preventing the heartrot fungus
-from entering through the branch stub.
-
-
-                       ANNOSUS ROOT AND BUTT ROT
-
-    [Illustration: Fomes annosus fruiting bodies on stump.]
-
-Annosus root and butt rot is caused by the fungus _Fomes annosus_. This
-pathogen is common throughout coniferous stands of the North Temperate
-Zone. Hardwoods may be attacked, but damage is usually of minor
-consequence. In the South, the disease is most serious in pine
-plantations on sandy soils with low organic matter. All species of
-southern pine are susceptible. Slash and loblolly plantations are often
-severely affected.
-
-The disease gains entry into plantations by spore infection of freshly
-cut stumps during thinnings. The fungus then spreads from the infected
-stumps to residual trees by growth along the roots to points of root
-contact. Residual trees usually begin to die within a few years after
-thinning. The sporophores or fruiting bodies are generally found at
-ground line or in the root crotch. Pines in initial stages of the
-disease usually exhibit sparsely foliated crowns; however, white pine
-with full crown may have extensive butt and root decay. Occasionally
-trees may die rapidly with a sudden red discoloration of a nearly full
-crown. Diseased trees are often found in groups or circular pockets in
-the stand. The indication of _F. annosus_ decay may include the pink to
-violet stain of incipient decay, the narrow elongated white pockets and
-scattered black flecks in the wood of the early decay stages, and the
-yellow stringy rot of the late stages of decay.
-
-    [Illustration: Infection center in pulpwood size pine stand.]
-
-Control includes avoidance of planting on soils of low organic matter
-and elimination of thinning. Stump infection following thinning or
-harvest may be prevented using various methods.
-
-
-                         BROWN CUBICAL BUTT ROT
-
-_Polyporus schweinitzii_ is a common cause of root and butt rot of
-conifers throughout North America. The primary hosts of the fungus are
-Douglas fir, spruce, and pine. All southern pines are susceptible to
-attack by _P. schweinitzii_. Common names of the rot are: red-brown butt
-rot and brown cubical butt rot.
-
-    [Illustration: Fruiting body of brown cubical root and butt rot of
-    pine.]
-
-The fungus enters living hosts through damaged roots, fire scars, and
-other wounds near the tree base. The initial stage of decay appears as a
-light yellow stain. In the advanced stage, the heartwood becomes brittle
-and breaks into large yellow-brown to reddish-brown cubes. The fungus
-develops primarily in the roots and butt and seldom extends more than 15
-or 20 feet up into the stem. Diseased trees are subject to wind-throw
-and wind breakage. Although the volume of wood destroyed by the rot is
-small, the total volume lost through wind-throw is quite large. Mature,
-suppressed, and weakened off-site trees are commonly attacked by the
-fungus. It is assumed that the fungus may also spread from infected to
-healthy trees through root contacts and grafts. The only outward signs
-of decay are the annual sporophores, which develop in late summer and
-fall during moist weather. Conks formed at the base of infected trees
-are bracket shaped, while those arising from decayed roots appear
-circular, sunken in the center, and supported by a short stalk. When
-fresh, the upper surface is velvety, concentrically zoned, and
-reddish-brown in color with a light yellow margin. The underside is dark
-olive or green with large irregular pores.
-
-In forest stands, no method of controlling the disease is known. Losses
-may be prevented to some extent by reducing the amount of root damage
-and wounding from heavy logging equipment. The prevention of basal fire
-scars in conifer stands will also reduce the incidence of this disease.
-Trees which show signs of advanced root and butt rot should be removed
-from around recreation areas, parking lots, power lines, and buildings
-to avoid damage from wind-throw and wind breakage.
-
-
-                         RED ROOT AND BUTT ROT
-
-    [Illustration: Fruiting body of red root and butt rot of pine.]
-
-_Polyporus tomentosus_ causes red root and butt rot of living conifers
-throughout North America. Common hosts of the fungus are: spruce, larch,
-pine, fir, Douglas fir, hemlock, and cedar. Throughout the southern
-United States, _P. tomentosus_ has been reported in two general areas;
-causing extensive degrade of mature shortleaf pine in northern Arkansas
-and root and butt rot of slash pine in South Carolina, Georgia, and
-Florida.
-
-The fungus is believed to enter living hosts through basal wounds and
-damaged roots. Under ideal conditions, the fungus may spread from
-infected to healthy trees by way of root contacts or grafts. Growth of
-the fungus is very slow, often causing host mortality 20 to 30 years
-after initial infection. Wood decayed initially appears firm, but dark
-reddish-brown in color. In advanced stages, the wood is flecked with
-elliptical white pockets separated by brown-colored wood. Infected
-conifers generally express typical root rot symptoms. Trees show
-evidence of reduced radial and internodal growth, accompanied by death
-of the crown from the base upward. The foliage appears off-color and
-reduced in length. Under moist conditions, sporophores are produced
-either at the base of infected trees or on the forest floor.
-Bracket-shaped sporophores are produced at the base of infected trees
-while stipitate conks are produced on the ground directly over infected
-or dead roots. Fresh sporophores appear yellow-brown in color from above
-with a lighter colored pore surface below.
-
-No effective method of controlling the disease in forest stands is
-presently known. However, damage and losses may be reduced by management
-practices which reduce or eliminate the chance introduction of the
-disease into healthy stands. In areas where red root and butt rot is
-common, attempts should be made to conduct logging and thinning
-operations during the dry season to avoid mechanical damage to the root
-systems of the residual trees.
-
-
-                           LITTLELEAF OF PINE
-
-Littleleaf of pine, caused by _Phytophthora cinnamomi_, is the most
-serious disease of shortleaf pine in the Piedmont region of the South.
-Loblolly is also affected, usually where associated with infected
-shortleaf pine. The disease is most evident in older age classes, rarely
-attacking stands under 20 years old.
-
-    [Illustration: Needle symptoms and damage of littleleaf on shortleaf
-    pine.]
-
-    [Illustration: (cont.)]
-
-The disease is caused by a malfunctioning of the root system due to a
-combination of biological and physical factors. A fungus, _Phytophthora
-cinnamomi_ attacks and kills the root tips. When conditions of moisture,
-fertility, and drainage are adverse, they reduce tree vigor and prevent
-the tree from rapidly replacing the destroyed root tips. Trees on good
-sites are reportedly also attacked by the fungus, but their vigor is
-such that they quickly overcome the disease by producing new root tips.
-The disease usually progresses rather slowly. Some trees may persist
-fifteen or more years after the appearance of initial symptoms. In
-general, trees live only five or six years after attack, but they may
-die in as little as one year. Symptoms are those typical of trees in
-stress due to a malfunction of the root system. In the early stage of
-the disease the foliage may turn yellow-green and the current year's
-needles are shorter than normal. Later stages of the disease are
-sparsely foliated crowns with short needles (reduced from three to five
-to only one-half to three inches in length) and dead branches. Abundant
-foliage sprouting on the hole of infected shortleaf is common.
-
-Losses are minimized by salvage cuttings and by favoring loblolly and
-hardwoods in regeneration plans.
-
-
-                          SYCAMORE ANTHRACNOSE
-
-    [Illustration: Defoliation of sycamore tree caused by sycamore
-    anthracnose.]
-
-Sycamore anthracnose, caused by _Gnomonia veneta_, is common on American
-sycamore throughout its range in the eastern United States.
-
-Anthracnose is a disease characterized by distinctive limited lesions on
-stem, leaf, or fruit, often accompanied by dieback or blight and usually
-caused by fungi that produce slimy spores that ooze from small
-cup-shaped fruiting bodies that are visible with a hand lens. This
-disease has four distinct symptom stages identified as twig blight, bud
-blight, shoot blight, and leaf blight. Twig blight appears before leaf
-emergence and kills the tips of small one-year-old twigs. Infection
-comes initially from leaf litter and twig cankers. The second stage, bud
-blight, develops during bud expansion in April and early May. Shoot
-blight, the most frequently observed symptom, causes the sudden dying of
-expanding shoots and also young leaves. Leaf blight, the final stage,
-involves the actual infection of expanding or mature leaves. Diseased
-portions of the leaf involve irregular brown areas adjacent to the
-midrib and veins which are dotted with diseased spots. Incidence of
-anthracnose is directly related to the amount of spring rainfall. Shoot
-blight is severe if the weather for two weeks after leaf emergence is
-cool and moist. The disease may defoliate trees, which usually put out a
-new crop of leaves by late spring or summer.
-
-Control of sycamore anthracnose under forest conditions is not
-economically feasible. Where the disease is prevalent, other species
-should be favored during thinnings. In shade and ornamental trees,
-pruning of infected twigs, burning of leaves, and fertilization will
-reduce the disease impact.
-
-    [Illustration: Leaf and twig symptoms.]
-
-
-                           WALNUT ANTHRACNOSE
-
-Walnut anthracnose is a fungus disease caused by _Gnomonia leptostyla_.
-This worldwide disease attacks most species of walnut in the United
-States. Black walnut is most severely affected, but with favorable
-weather for the fungus, even less susceptible individuals may be
-defoliated. Butternut, Persian walnut, and two species from California
-(Hinds walnut and California walnut) are all susceptible. Anthracnose
-has also been reported on species of walnut from most of the European
-countries, Argentina, Canada, and South Africa.
-
-Wet weather greatly favors this leaf disease which may defoliate black
-walnuts by late July or early August. Defoliation slows growth, weakens
-trees, and sometimes causes mortality. Infected leaves reveal circular
-spots of dark brown or black. These spots often grow together, leaving
-large dead areas. These spots or blotches are bordered with yellow to
-golden tissue. While severely affected leaves fall, some "anthracnose"
-leaves remain on the tree. This disease also affects the growth and
-quality of the nuts. Nutmeats from infected trees are dark,
-unattractive, and shrivelled. Sunken, killed areas appear on the husks
-as dark circular spots smaller than those on the leaves. Infected nuts,
-like the leaves, may also fall from the tree. Lesions may appear on the
-current year's shoots and later form dead sunken areas that are oval to
-irregularly circular with reddish brown margins.
-
-As with the other anthracnose diseases, no practical control is
-available for forest trees. Control of walnut anthracnose on ornamentals
-and nut trees is partially achieved by raking and burning of old leaves.
-
-
-                            OAK ANTRHACNOSE
-
-    [Illustration: Leaf symptoms of oak anthracnose.]
-
-Oak anthracnose is caused by the fungus _Gnomonia veneta_. Trees of the
-white oak group, particularly white oak, are susceptible to this
-disease. Oaks throughout the entire eastern United States are affected
-by the disease, although it is less common in the Northeast.
-
-Infection occurs in the early spring or mid-summer. Symptoms on leaves
-develop as irregular brown diseased areas (blotches) along the midrib
-and the major side veins. These blotches may grow together by late
-spring or early summer if infection occurs early. Blotches are usually
-confined to the areas bordered by the larger veins. Leaves on the lower
-branches are frequently killed and occasionally trees will be
-defoliated. However, a second crop of leaves soon develops and mortality
-is rare. Fruiting bodies of _Gloeosporium_, the imperfect fungus
-fruiting stage of anthracnose, are located on the midrib and veins of
-infected leaves. When the disease spreads to the twigs, cankers and
-crown dieback may occur. The anthracnose fungus overwinters on diseased
-twigs and in the leaf litter. Oak anthracnose has the same causal agent
-as sycamore anthracnose, and the weather conditions favoring the
-sycamore disease also increases the anthracnose on oak.
-
-Control is similar to sycamore anthracnose and involves an integrated
-program of pruning disease tissue, fertilization, and burning of leaf
-litter. No practical control is available for forest trees.
-
-
-                          DOGWOOD ANTHRACNOSE
-
-Dogwood anthracnose, caused by the fungus _Elsinoe corni_, occurs in
-states bordering the Atlantic Ocean and has also been reported in
-Louisiana. Its primary host is flowering dogwood, _Cornus florida_ L.
-
-    [Illustration: Leaf and flower symptoms of dogwood anthracnose.]
-
-    [Illustration: (cont.)]
-
-Anthracnose occurs in the spring and affects not only the leaves, but
-also the buds and "flowers". The buds may fail to open or they may
-produce stunted flowers. These have many circular to elongated spots
-with light tan centers. Margins of these spots are purple to brown.
-Often the flowers abort before development. Foliage spots (1-2 mm. in
-diameter) are raised at the margins. They are purple at the edges and
-yellow-gray in the center. Later centers of spots may fall out causing a
-"shothole" effect. Dozens of spots may be present on a single leaf and
-may be scattered or concentrated at tip, margin, or midrib. Twisting and
-malformation of the leaves are common. In addition to floral and foliage
-spots, infected areas may also occur on petioles, stems, and fruit
-clusters. All three areas have spots similar to those on the foliage.
-
-Other diseases which may be confused with anthracnose include _Septoria_
-and _Ascochyta_ leaf spots. _Septoria_ usually begins around July and
-unlike anthracnose has more angular lesions that are between the veins.
-_Ascochyta_ spots may be larger (6 mm. in diameter) than anthracnose,
-and tissue discoloration may extend outside of their borders.
-Occasionally the leaves may totally blacken. This disease may occur as
-early as June.
-
-Wet, humid weather at certain stages of plant development is required
-for infection. Homeowners may obtain effective control by removing and
-burning infected plant parts. Various fungicide sprays are recommended
-by authors of ornamental handbooks.
-
-
-                            COTTONWOOD RUST
-
-    [Illustration: Rust infected cottonwood leaf.]
-
-Cottonwood rust, caused by _Melampsora medusae_, is probably the most
-important leaf disease of cottonwoods wherever they are grown. In the
-Lower Mississippi Valley, all sizes of eastern cottonwood trees may be
-infected with this rust. However, the disease is probably of most
-importance in cottonwood nurseries.
-
-In mid-summer, yellow to orange pustules containing spores of the fungus
-form on the under surface of the cottonwood leaves. In late summer and
-early fall, dark brown fungal growths replace the orange structures.
-Cottonwood may be prematurely defoliated or even killed by successive
-attacks. The rust may weaken trees and subject them to attack by other
-disease-causing organisms. Also, there is often a reduction in growth in
-these normally fast growing species. This is very important since there
-is presently a wide interest in the use of hybrid poplars for pulp and
-timber production.
-
-There is generally no accepted control for cottonwood rust.
-Rust-resistant varieties of hybrid and exotic cottonwoods are being
-developed and may provide the best control of this disease.
-
-
-                               BLACK KNOT
-
-    [Illustration: Black swellings of cherry black knot.]
-
-Black knot, caused by _Dibotryon morbosum_, is prevalent throughout the
-Southeast (with the exception of southern Florida) wherever black cherry
-grows, and in orchards on plums and domestic cherries.
-
-The most prominent symptoms are the elongated black swellings which
-appear in summer on small twigs and branches. Heavily infected trees
-appear quite grotesque, with large swellings which may be several times
-the diameter of the twigs. Cankers occurring on black cherry trunks
-usually ruin the commercial tree value. Initial infection occurs on
-lateral branches and twigs in the spring, but the swellings do not
-become noticeable until the following spring.
-
-The most practical control for black knot is removal of infected black
-cherry from the stand. Twigs and branches with knots should be burned.
-
-
-                             NECTRIA CANKER
-
-Nectria canker of hardwoods, caused by _Nectria galligena_ and _N.
-magnoliae_, is frequently found on yellow birch and black walnut. Common
-hosts also include bigtooth aspen, sassafras, northern red oak, red
-maple, beech, Carolina poplar, paper birch, and sweet birch. A closely
-related canker disease is also found on yellow-poplar and magnolias. The
-range of this disease includes the Lake States, the Northeast, and the
-southern Appalachians.
-
-    [Illustration: Target-shaped canker of Nectria on sassafras and
-    yellow-poplar.]
-
-    [Illustration: (cont.)]
-
-Older Nectria cankers are easily recognized in forest stands because of
-their typical "target" shape. "Target" cankers have rings, each of which
-represent a year's growth. Younger cankers tend to be grown over by bark
-and callus tissue attempting to heal the wound. Such cankers are
-difficult to recognize, but close examination of the affected area may
-reveal tiny red bodies, which are the fruiting bodies of the Nectria
-fungi. Mortality rarely occurs from this disease, but stems may break at
-canker locations during high winds.
-
-Control of Nectria canker is the same as for Strumella canker--the
-removal of infected trees during thinning operations.
-
-
-                            STRUMELLA CANKER
-
-Strumella canker of hardwoods, caused by _Strumella coryneoidia_, most
-frequently attacks trees of the red oak group. Other hosts include
-species in the white oak group. Beech, basswood, blackgum, shagbark
-hickory and red maple are also occasionally affected. This disease is
-found in the East, from the southern Appalachians to northern New
-England.
-
-    [Illustration: Strumella canker on black oak.]
-
-Strumella cankers are of two types: diffuse, and the more common
-"target-shaped." The first develops on smooth-barked saplings and
-rapidly girdles and kills the tree. Killing results because callus
-tissue, which tends to heal over cankers, does not have time to develop.
-Target-shaped cankers are more common. "Targets" are formed by the
-alternation of killing of bark by the fungus around the canker's
-perimeter and the formation, in turn, of a callus ridge by the host
-tree. The fungus is active usually in the dormant season, while
-callusing occurs in the spring. As with most canker-causing fungi,
-Strumella usually enters the tree through a branch stub. Cankers are
-quite large and may reach several feet in circumference or length. The
-presence of the causal fungus is revealed by dark brown, cushion-like
-structures about one to three millimeters in diameter on the dead bark
-and surrounding tissue.
-
-No feasible control method is available under forest conditions.
-However, the disease impact can be greatly reduced by removing cankered
-trees during thinning operations.
-
-
-                            SPICULOSA CANKER
-
-Spiculosa canker, caused by _Poria spiculosa_, is found on bottomland
-oaks in the South. Occasionally this disease will also degrade hickories
-and honeylocust.
-
-    [Illustration: Fruiting body of Poria rot and canker on oak.]
-
-    [Illustration: Cross section of tree showing rot and decay.]
-
-Spiculosa canker is considered to be a canker-rot disease, a type of
-decay in which the causal organism incites not only heart-rot but also
-large irregular cankers. Infected trees have cankers that appear as
-rough circular swellings on the bole. The canker centers are depressed
-and old branch stubs are discernible. Fungus fruiting bodies, or conks,
-usually are not present on living trees but develop on snags or decayed
-logs. The conks grow flat under the bark and push it off to expose the
-brown fungus fruiting surface.
-
-Control for Spiculosa canker is similar to other canker rots: salvage to
-remove undesirable cankered trees that may be later replaced by better
-quality trees.
-
-
-                              IRPEX CANKER
-
-Irpex canker, caused by _Irpex mollis_, is prevalent in bottomlands and
-on upland areas of the Southeast. In the bottoms, Nuttall, water, and
-willow oaks are affected. White, chestnut, southern red, and black oaks
-are the hosts of this disease on upland sites.
-
-    [Illustration: Fruiting body of Irpex rot.]
-
-    [Illustration: Cross section of tree showing rot and decay.]
-
-Irpex canker is also considered to be a canker-rot disease. Symptoms on
-infected trees frequently involve irregular cankers up to two feet in
-length. Cankers are usually found on trees eight to ten inches in
-diameter or larger, at a height of twenty feet above the ground. Branch
-stubs, signifying probable infection points, are usually present in the
-centers of cankers. The portion of the trunk affected is usually swollen
-but sometimes may be sunken. At the base of the sunken portion of the
-canker are small, creamy-white, toothed fruiting bodies or conks with a
-leathery texture. Conks also appear on hardwood logs. The wood behind
-cankers is characterized by a tough, spongy, white rot which extends as
-much as eight feet above and below the canker. The decay pattern may
-also extend downward into the roots. In cross-section, the rotted areas
-appear as finger-like projections radiating out toward the sapwood.
-Gradually the rot column tapers to a thin central core beyond which
-white flecks appear, and this early rot stage is concentrated along the
-rays of the oaks.
-
-Control for Irpex canker is the same as for other canker-rots--salvage
-of undesirable cankered trees.
-
-
-                            HISPIDUS CANKER
-
-_Polyporus hispidus_ is the cause of trunk cankers and localized decay
-of hardwoods throughout eastern, central, and southern United States.
-The fungus is also known to attack hardwoods in Oregon and California.
-Reported hosts are: hickory, ash, mulberry, willow, walnut, and oak. In
-the south, _P. hispidus_ is common on oaks, including willow, water,
-black, white, Nuttall, and cherrybark.
-
-    [Illustration: Fruiting body and canker of Hispidus on oak.]
-
-The fungus usually enters the tree through dead branch stubs, from which
-it grows into the heartwood. After becoming established, the fungus
-begins penetrating the sapwood and attacks the living cambium. Callus
-folds are formed by the host around the dead cambial area, forming an
-elongated swollen canker, commonly referred to as a "hispidus canker".
-The cankered area of the stem is bark-covered and sunken, usually
-containing a remnant of a branch stub or branch scar. During late
-summer, fall or early winter, the fungus produces conks (sporophores) on
-the surface of the cankers. The annual bracket-shaped conks are large,
-spongy, and yellowish-brown to rusty-brown on the upper surface. When
-fresh, the under surface is a light tan color. After a few months, the
-mature conks dry to a rigid black mass and fall from the canker. Old
-conks are commonly found at the base of cankered trees during the spring
-and early summer. Decay produced by the fungus appears spongy, light
-yellow, and is commonly separated from the sound wood by a black zone
-line. The rot is of the delignifying white rot type. On southern oaks,
-the rate of canker elongation has been estimated at one-half foot per
-year, with the internal rot usually extending about one foot above and
-below the cankered area.
-
-No effective control in forest stands is known. Removal of diseased
-trees provides additional growing space for crop trees. Some degree of
-shade tree protection can be obtained by pruning of dead branches flush
-with the main stem of the tree.
-
-
-                         BOTRYOSPHAERIA CANKER
-
-_Botryosphaeria ribis_ causes cankering and mortality of more than 50
-woody plants. The fungus is widely distributed throughout the eastern
-one-half of the United States. The pathogen infects the following
-economically important hosts: sweetgum, redbud, willow, poplar, tupelo,
-pecan, and hickory.
-
-    [Illustration: Botryosphaeria canker on sweetgum.]
-
-The fungus gains entry into susceptible hosts primarily through wounds
-or dead and dying twigs. Small oval cankers on stems or branches are the
-first symptoms of infection. As the fungus continues to attack and kill
-the cambium, the sunken cankers enlarge, eventually girdling and killing
-the branch or stem above the cankered area. In the spring and early
-summer, cankers on living portions of the host often produce an exudate.
-Infected sweetgums generally produce the exudate in great quantities, to
-which the common name of bleeding necrosis has been applied.
-Reproductive structures called stroma are produced by the fungus on dead
-cankered stems and branches during moist periods of the spring and
-summer.
-
-No practical method of control is known. Diseased trees seldom recover.
-Infection of high value shade and ornamental trees may be prevented to
-some degree by avoiding mechanical damage. Dead limbs and branches
-should be pruned and wounds covered with a suitable tree paint. Infected
-trees should be removed and burned.
-
-
-                            SEPTORIA CANKER
-
-    [Illustration: Septoria canker on young cottonwood saplings.]
-
-Septoria canker is caused by the fungus _Septoria musiva_. Although this
-is a disease of poplars, native poplar species are not severely
-attacked. However, this is an important problem wherever hybrid or
-introduced poplars are grown. With the ever-increasing emphasis on
-poplar planting, this will probably become a much more important problem
-in the near future.
-
-Young stem cankers usually develop around openings such as wounds,
-lenticels, or leaf scars, appearing first as sunken, dark areas of the
-bark. The infected area later becomes more depressed and darker as
-tissue dies, and often a black margin will be formed around the canker.
-Small, pink, hair-like spore tendrils are produced by the fungus around
-the canker margin, especially during moist weather. These tendrils
-contain spores which can cause further infection, and arise from small
-dark fungal fruiting structures called pycnidia. This cankered area is
-often invaded by insects and other fungi and is also a weakened area at
-which wind breakage may occur. The fungus also causes a gray to black
-leaf spot, which usually has a light colored center. These spots may
-coalesce on a severely infected leaf and involve the entire leaf
-surface. This leaf spot in itself causes slight damage, but acts as a
-source of fungus spores which can cause stem cankers, and thus is
-important in the overall consideration of the disease.
-
-    [Illustration: Defoliation in cottonwood caused by Septoria
-    leafspot.]
-
-A control for this disease is to use native poplars or resistant hybrids
-wherever possible. Wider spacing in plantations may also reduce the
-humidity, decreasing the amount of infection.
-
-
-                            CYTOSPORA CANKER
-
-Cytospora canker is caused by _Cytospora chrysosperma_. This fungus
-attacks more than 70 species of hardwood trees and shrubs as well as
-some conifers. Poplars and willows are among the most common hosts, and
-are attacked throughout their range. Trees used for shade or windbreak,
-and also cuttings in propagation beds are particularly susceptible to
-this canker. This disease is most severe on trees growing under stress,
-such as those growing on an unfavorable site, or injured by drought,
-frost, fire, or severe pruning. The fungus is a normal inhabitant of the
-bark and becomes parasitic only when the tree is weakened.
-
-    [Illustration: Cytospora canker on cottonwood.]
-
-A canker begins as a gradual, circular killing of the bark of a limb or
-stem. This infected tissue soon appears as a brownish, sunken patch,
-around which the host often produces raised callus tissue. Small black
-fungal structures (pycnidia) appear as small pimples on the dead bark.
-During moist weather, thin threads of spores exude out from the
-pycnidia. The inner diseased bark becomes dark and odorous. The cambium
-is killed and the sapwood becomes watery and reddish brown as it becomes
-infected. Water spouts may form below the canker before the tree dies.
-
-Since this disease is most severe on weakened trees, shade trees should
-be watered and fertilized to maintain healthy, vigorous growth. Wounding
-and severe pruning should be avoided. Cuttings should be selected from
-healthy planting material grown in disease free areas. If cuttings are
-to be stored for any length of time, they should be kept at a
-temperature below 35�. This low temperature will keep new infections
-from occurring, even if spores are present.
-
-
-                            CHESTNUT BLIGHT
-
-    [Illustration: Stem canker caused by chestnut blight organism.]
-
-Chestnut blight is caused by the fungus _Endothia parasitica_. It can be
-found on American chestnut throughout its range where it has virtually
-eliminated this valuable species from eastern hardwood forests. The
-chestnut blight fungus is also parasitic on other hosts including common
-chinkapin, Spanish chestnut, and post oak. Japanese and Chinese
-chestnuts are resistant.
-
-Stem cankers are either swollen or sunken and the sunken type may be
-grown over with bark. The fungus forms fruiting bodies some distance
-back from the advancing cankers, and the spores may exude from bark
-crevices as orange curl-like masses during moist weather. Young cankers
-are yellow-brown in sharp contrast to the normal olive-green color of
-the bark. The chestnut is a vigorous sprouting species but the fungus
-survives in previously killed stumps and later kills the new sprout
-growth.
-
-No effective control has been developed for chestnut blight, even after
-several decades of intensive research. The most promising control
-involves the development of a blight-resistant species. Research is
-presently underway on this matter but results are inconclusive.
-
-    [Illustration: Fruiting bodies on surface of canker.]
-
-
-                                OAK WILT
-
-This serious vascular wilt of oaks is caused by the fungus _Ceratocystis
-fagacearum_. At least fifty species and varieties of oak are
-susceptible. The disease has been most damaging in the Lake States but
-is also found in the eastern United States.
-
-    [Illustration: Oak wilt symptoms on red oak trees and leaves.]
-
-    [Illustration: (cont.)]
-
-Oak wilt symptoms are most noticeable during late spring or early
-summer. Red oaks may be killed in as little as three weeks, the lower
-branches being affected last. In white oaks, symptoms are usually
-confined to a few branches each year and trees may live several years
-before death. Leaf symptoms are similar for both red and white oaks.
-Leaves turn yellow or brown and become dry progressively from the edge
-or tip to the midrib and base. Mature leaves may fall at any symptom
-stage from green to brown. Premature leaf shedding is the most
-outstanding symptom. A definite characteristic of the disease is the
-raising and cracking of the bark due to pressure of mats of the fungus
-growing between the bark and wood.
-
-Oak wilt is spread over long distances by insects that pick up spores
-while crawling on the mats of infected trees. The disease may also
-spread from tree to tree via root graft. Short-distance spread is
-controlled by severing all roots of living trees around infected trees
-by use of a ditchdigger. Another control is to fell all trees in a
-50-foot radius of infected trees; felling and burning of all parts of
-infected trees is sometimes done to prevent overland spread.
-
-
-                           DUTCH ELM DISEASE
-
-    [Illustration: Dying tree infected with Dutch elm disease.]
-
-Dutch elm disease, caused by _Ceratocystis ulmi_, is the most
-devastating disease of elm trees in the United States. This disease has
-been recorded in most states east of the Mississippi and as far as Idaho
-in the Northwest and Texas in the Southwest. All of the native elm
-species are susceptible, while many of the ornamental Asiatic species
-are highly resistant.
-
-Trees suffering from Dutch elm disease may show a variety of symptoms.
-Leaves become yellow, wilt, and turn brown. Premature defoliation and
-death of branches usually occurs, causing the crown to appear thin and
-sparse. Internally, a brown discoloration appears in the outer sapwood.
-_C. ulmi_ is transmitted from diseased to healthy elms by elm bark
-beetles, mainly the small European elm bark beetle and the native elm
-bark beetle. These beetles make characteristic galleries under the bark
-of dead and dying elms. Adult beetles pick up the sticky fungus spores
-from under the bark and then feed on the young tender elm twigs of
-healthy trees, inadvertently inoculating the healthy tree with the
-fungus. The fungus may also spread from diseased elms to adjacent
-healthy elms through root grafts.
-
-    [Illustration: Discoloration and streaking symptoms in the sapwood.]
-
-Controls to combat this disease generally involve sanitary measures
-aimed at the beetles. Dead and dying elms should be burned. This
-eliminates the elm wood which normally serves as a breeding place for
-elm bark beetles and thus reduces the beetle population. In areas where
-most native elms are infected, other tree species or resistant elm
-species, such as the Chinese or Siberian elm, should be planted rather
-them native elms.
-
-
-                          ELM PHLOEM NECROSIS
-
-Elm phloem necrosis is a disease of elm, caused by a virus or virus-like
-organism. The disease has occurred in the United States for many years,
-probably as early as 1882. The pathogen is transmitted from infected to
-healthy trees by the adult white-banded elm leafhopper, _Scaphoideus
-luteolus_, which feeds on the leaf veins. It is now present throughout
-most of the central, eastern, and southern portions of the United
-States. The disease is known to occur on American and winged elm, but
-all native elms are probably susceptible to attack by the pathogen.
-
-    [Illustration: Foliage symptoms of elm phloem necrosis.]
-
-The earliest symptoms of the disease appear in the top of the crown, at
-the outer tips of the branches. Here the elm leaves suddenly wilt, turn
-yellow, the margins curl upward and the leaves die. Leaf-fall causes the
-crown to appear sparse. In large trees, the foliage symptoms may
-initially appear on one branch or only a portion of the crown. However,
-the symptoms during the advanced stage of the disease are exhibited
-throughout the crown. The most reliable symptom appears as a yellow to
-butterscotch discoloration on the inner bark surface or phloem. This
-symptom initially appears under the bark of large roots, later spreading
-to the base of the main stem and finally to the larger branches. Phloem
-and cambial discoloration is often found in advance of the foliage
-symptoms. The moderately discolored phlomen has a slight odor of
-wintergreen. Thus far, all trees known to be infected with the pathogen
-have died. Acutely infected trees, while initially appearing healthy,
-may wilt and die in three to four weeks.
-
-    [Illustration: Stem sample showing discoloration of sapwood.]
-
-No effective controls are known. The "Christine Buisman" elm, which is
-highly resistant to Dutch elm disease, has demonstrated resistance to
-elm phloem necrosis.
-
-
-                              MIMOSA WILT
-
-    [Illustration: Mimosa branches showing wilt symptoms.]
-
-A vascular wilt of the mimosa (silktree) is caused by the fungus
-_Fusarium oxysporum forma perniciosum_. The fungus is known only to
-attack the mimosa, a tree imported from eastern Asia and grown
-throughout the southeast as an ornamental. Since the discovery of the
-disease in North Carolina in 1935, the fungus has spread north to
-Maryland, south to Florida, and west to Texas.
-
-The fungus causing mimosa wilt is soil-borne and gains entrance into the
-tree by attacking the roots. Once entrance is gained by the fungus, the
-pathogen enters the outer water-conductive system in the sapwood. As the
-fungus grows throughout the system, it hinders or completely inhibits
-the water movement from the roots to the aerial portion of the tree. The
-first outward symptom of disease is the wilting of leaflets, usually in
-the upper portion of the crown. The wilted leaflets turn yellow, then
-brown, and die. Often a branch or two will succumb at a time until the
-entire crown is dead. A second symptom of the disease is found in the
-outer sapwood of the tree. A brown discoloration, appearing as spots or
-a ring, is observed by cutting into the outer sapwood of the infected
-stem or branch.
-
-Control of the fungus is very difficult, since it is soil-borne and
-enters through the roots. However, resistant varieties of mimosa trees,
-developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, are now available at
-most commercial nurseries.
-
-    [Illustration: Branch sample showing brown discoloration of
-    sapwood.]
-
-
-                           VERTICILLIUM WILT
-
-Verticillium wilt, caused by common soil-inhabiting fungi belonging to
-the genus _Verticillium_, is found on a number of hardwood hosts. In
-southern and eastern United States elms and maples are attacked
-throughout their natural ranges.
-
-    [Illustration: Wilting foliage and defoliation of elms caused by
-    Verticillium wilt.]
-
-Infected trees may die within a few weeks after the first symptoms are
-observed, or they may survive for years. The first symptoms of the
-disease involve a wilting of the foliage, with the leaves turning yellow
-and finally brown. The early symptoms are often restricted to a single
-limb or portion of the crown. Vascular discoloration, which is brown in
-elms and green in maples, is present in the outer sapwood. In elms, this
-discoloration is similar to that produced in trees having Dutch elm
-disease.
-
-This disease is not of serious consequence in forest stands. However, it
-is often extremely important in high value shade trees. Dead or dying
-limbs on lawn trees may be pruned out. This may not always save the
-tree, but may help keep it alive for years. Trees should be well watered
-and fertilized as necessary. If a lawn tree dies from Verticillium wilt,
-it should be replaced by a resistant species.
-
-
-                      ARMILLARIA ROOT AND BUTT ROT
-
-    [Illustration: Mushroom or fruiting bodies of the "honey mushroom"
-    rot.]
-
-Armillaria root and butt rot is caused by the fungus _Armillaria
-mellea_. This disease is common in orchards, vineyards, gardens, parks,
-and forests throughout the world. Both coniferous and hardwood forest
-trees are attacked. The fungus is especially troublesome in plantations,
-particularly in stands recently thinned.
-
-The fungus is spread by spores produced by honey-colored mushrooms,
-rhizomorphs, and root contacts between diseased trees or stumps and
-healthy trees. Rhizomorphs are visible strands of compacted mycelium
-(fungus material) that appear as black or reddish-brown "shoestrings."
-They may be flattened when found between bark and wood or cylindrical
-when found in decayed wood or soil. Rhizomorphs increase in length at
-their tips and in this manner the fungus may move through the soil from
-infected trees to uninfected trees. The honey-colored mushrooms are
-produced annually and are fairly short lived; they are subject to
-desiccation, and are favored by small mammals. The size of the top
-varies from two to five inches in diameter. The top is usually flecked
-with dark brown scales. White to light yellow gills are borne
-underneath. Crown symptoms of the trees affected are similar to those
-caused by any malfunctioning of the roots. A reduction in size and
-production of leaves or needles, a general thinning of the crown, branch
-dying, and yellowing of foliage may precede death or trees may die
-rapidly with a rapid red discoloration of the foliage. Trees often die
-in groups, but single-tree kill is also common. Cankers bleeding resin,
-gum or other exudate at the tree base are common symptoms.
-
-Control is not attempted for this disease under forest conditions.
-Losses may be reduced by following proper planting procedures, and by
-salvage cutting.
-
-    [Illustration: Shoestrings of armillaria.]
-
-
-                        CYLINDROCLADIUM ROOT ROT
-
-This nursery disease is caused by two fungi species. _Cylindrocladium
-scoparium_ and _C. floridanum_: Cylindrocladium root rot has been found
-on two hardwoods (yellow-poplar and black walnut) and two conifers
-(white pine and Fraser fir) in forest tree nurseries in six southern
-states. These include Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina,
-Tennessee, Alabama, and Mississippi.
-
-    [Illustration: Leaf symptoms on 1-0 black walnut nursery stock.]
-
-Root rot symptoms on hardwoods and conifers are quite different. The
-most characteristic root symptoms on yellow-poplar and black walnut are
-the blackened and longitudinally-cracked infected roots that are in
-sharp contrast with healthy white roots of these two species. Infected
-seedling leaves become yellow and later turn reddish-brown.
-
-Root rot symptoms on conifers involve either rotting of the seed or
-seedling (pre-emergence damping off) before emergence from the soil or
-seedling root rot following emergence. These symptoms also involve a
-shrivelling and reddening of foliage, needle blight, and stem cankers.
-The most characteristic symptoms are the "patchy" irregularly scattered
-pattern of infection in conifer seedling beds and the loosening of the
-root epidermis on infected roots--making it very easy to pull off.
-
-    [Illustration: Root symptoms on 1-0 yellow-poplar nursery stock.]
-
-The most practical and effective control for root rot diseases of this
-type involves strict quarantine to either keep the disease out of the
-nursery or keep it confined to known infected areas by avoiding the
-transportation of root material, organic matter, and soil from infected
-to non-infected seed beds. Soil fumigation may control this disease if
-applied under favorable conditions.
-
-
-                       LUCIDUS ROOT AND BUTT ROT
-
-    [Illustration: Fruiting body of Lucidus root and butt rot on
-    mimosa.]
-
-_Polyporus lucidus_ is the cause of root and basal stem decay of
-hardwood trees throughout the eastern, central, and southern portions of
-the United States. The fungus is known to attack and kill maple,
-hackberry, orange, lemon, ash, sweetgum, oak, locust, elm, tupelo,
-willow, and mimosa. Mimosa trees are very susceptible to attack by _P.
-lucidus_ throughout the South.
-
-The disease is characterized by a rapid decline and death of the host.
-Examination of infected roots will reveal a soft spongy white rot with
-black spots scattered throughout. Fruiting bodies are formed at the base
-of infected trees or on the surface of exposed roots. The mature
-fruiting bodies are a reddish brown above and white below, with the tops
-and stems appearing glazed or varnished. The fungus is believed to gain
-entrance into the host through bark and root injuries and can spread
-from infected to healthy trees through root contacts and grafts.
-
-No control is known for this disease. Avoidance of lawnmower and other
-mechanical injuries to the base of roots of susceptible shade trees will
-reduce the chance of infection by the fungus. The spread of the disease
-from infected to healthy trees can be reduced by planting at a wide
-enough spacing to avoid root contacts and grafts.
-
-
-_If you find damage on your trees from insects or diseases you may
-consult with any of the following offices or your state forester._
-
-
-  FIELD OFFICES:
-  _Alexandria Office_
-    U.S. Forest Service
-    2500 Shreveport Highway
-    Pineville, Louisiana 71360
-    Phone A/C 318 445-6511 Ext. 311
-  FOR STATES OF:
-    Alabama
-    Arkansas
-    Louisiana
-    Mississippi
-    Oklahoma
-    Texas
-  _Asheville Office_
-    U.S. Forest Service
-    P.O. Box 5895
-    Asheville, North Carolina 28803
-    Phone A/C 704 254-0961 Ext. 625
-  FOR STATES OF:
-    Florida
-    Georgia
-    Kentucky
-    North Carolina
-    South Carolina
-    Tennessee
-    Virginia
-  _AREA OFFICE_
-    Group Leader
-    Forest Pest Management Group
-    U.S. Forest Service
-    1720 Peachtree Street, N.W.
-    Atlanta, Georgia 30309
-    Phone A/C 404 526-3734
-
-
-    [Illustration: Forest Environment: WEATHER FIRE PEOPLE SOIL ABUSE
-    PESTS]
-
-                      FOREST PEST MANAGEMENT GROUP
-
-               Southeastern Area S. and P. F.--7    1972
-
-
-
-
-                          Transcriber's Notes
-
-
---Silently corrected a few palpable typos.
-
---In the text versions, delimited italics or underlined text in
-  _underscores_ (the HTML version reproduces the font form of the
-  printed book.)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Insects and Diseases of Trees in the
-South, by Anonymous
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-<pre>
-
-Project Gutenberg's Insects and Diseases of Trees in the South, by Anonymous
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: Insects and Diseases of Trees in the South
-
-Author: Anonymous
-
-Release Date: December 1, 2015 [EBook #50584]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INSECTS AND DISEASES OF TREES ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Dave Morgan and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
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-</pre>
-
-<div id="cover" class="img">
-<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Insects and Diseases of Trees in the South" width="500" height="751" />
-</div>
-<div class="box">
-<h1>INSECTS
-<br /><span class="smallest">AND</span>
-<br />DISEASES
-<br /><span class="smaller">OF TREES
-<br />IN THE SOUTH</span></h1>
-<p class="tbcenter">U.S. Department of Agriculture&mdash;Forest Service
-<br />State and Private Forestry&mdash;Southeastern Area
-<br />Forest Pest Management Group</p>
-</div>
-<h2><br /><span class="small">INTRODUCTION</span></h2>
-<p>This publication has been prepared to assist forest managers and homeowners
-in identifying pests of southern trees. The insects and diseases
-discussed are the more common ones attacking forest and ornamental
-trees. Prompt identification and treatment of these pests may mean the
-difference between losing or saving a valuable shade tree. Underlying all
-successful forest and ornamental pest control efforts, however, is the
-necessity to keep trees in a healthy, vigorous condition.</p>
-<p>We have attempted to include pictures of the damage as well as pictures
-of the damage-causing organism or stage. Chemical suppression recommendations
-are not included in this publication. For pesticide information
-contact the local State or Federal extension specialist, forester,
-entomologist, or pathologist.</p>
-<p>Credit for some of the pictures in this guide goes to the Southern and
-Southeastern Forest Experiment Stations and universities. We acknowledge
-the help of the Forest Pest Management field personnel who
-assisted in compiling this booklet.</p>
-<h2 class="center">TABLE OF CONTENTS</h2>
-<dl class="toc">
-<dt class="center">INSECTS</dt>
-<dt>Hardwood Insects</dt>
-<dt class="t">Defoliators</dt>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c1">Elm Spanworm</a> 1</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c2">Fall Cankerworm</a> 2</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c3">A Looper</a> 3</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c4">Eastern Tent Caterpillar</a> 4</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c5">Forest Tent Caterpillar</a> 5</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c6">Fall Webworm</a> 6</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c7">Oak Leaf Tier</a> 7</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c8">Variable Oakleaf Caterpillar</a> 8</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c9">Locust Leafminer</a> 9</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c10">Cottonwood Leaf Beetle</a> 10</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c11">Walkingstick</a> 11</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c12">Gypsy Moth</a> 12</dd>
-<dt class="t">Bark Beetles and Borers</dt>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c13">Hickory Bark Beetle</a> 13</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c14">Smaller European Elm Bark Beetle</a> 14</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c15">Columbian Timber Beetle</a> 15</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c16">Cottonwood Twig Borer</a> 16</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c17">Cottonwood Borer</a> 17</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c18">White Oak Borer</a> 18</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c19">Red Oak Borer</a> 19</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c20">Carpenterworm</a> 20</dd>
-<dt>Conifer Insects</dt>
-<dt class="t">Defoliators</dt>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c21">Pine Webworm</a> 21</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c22">Bagworm</a> 22</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c23">Pine Colaspis</a> 23</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c24">Pine Sawfly</a> 24</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c25">Arkansas Pine Sawfly</a> 25</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c26">Virginia Pine Sawfly</a> 26</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c27">Redheaded Pine Sawfly</a> 27</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c28">Texas Leaf Cutting Ant</a> 28</dd>
-<dt class="t">Bark Beetles and Borers</dt>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c29">Southern Pine Beetle</a> 29</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c30"><i>Ips</i> Engraver Beetles</a> 30</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c31">Black Turpentine Beetle</a> 31</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c32">Ambrosia Beetle</a> 32</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c33">Southern Pine Sawyers</a> 33</dd>
-<dt class="t">Meristem Feeders</dt>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c34">Nantucket Pine Tip Moth</a> 34</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c35">Pales Weevil</a> 35</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c36">White Pine Weevil</a> 36</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c37">Pitch Eating Weevil</a> 37</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c38">Deodar Weevil</a> 38</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c39">Coneworms</a> 39</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c40">Pine Seedworms</a> 40</dd>
-<dt class="t">Sapsucking Insects</dt>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c41">Balsam Woolly Aphid</a> 41</dd>
-<dt class="center">DISEASES</dt>
-<dt>Conifer Diseases</dt>
-<dt class="t">Foliage</dt>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c42">Needle Cast</a> 42</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c43">Brown Spot</a> 43</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c44">Needle Rust</a> 44</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c45">Cedar Apple Rust</a> 45</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c46">Cedar Blight</a> 46</dd>
-<dt class="t">Stem, Branch, Cone</dt>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c47">Southern Fusiform Rust</a> 47</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c48">White Pine Blister Rust</a> 48</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c49">Comandra Blister Rust</a> 49</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c50">Eastern Gall Rust</a> 50</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c51">Cone Rust</a> 51</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c52">Pitch Canker</a> 52</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c53">Wood Decay</a> 53</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c54">Red Heart</a> 54</dd>
-<dt class="t">Root and Butt Rots</dt>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c55">Annosus Root Rot</a> 55</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c56">Brown Cubical Rot</a> 56</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c57">Red Root and Butt Rot</a> 57</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c58">Littleleaf Disease</a> 58</dd>
-<dt>Hardwood Diseases</dt>
-<dt class="t">Foliage and Twig</dt>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c59">Sycamore Anthracnose</a> 59</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c60">Walnut Anthracnose</a> 60</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c61">Oak Anthracnose</a> 61</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c62">Dogwood Anthracnose</a> 62</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c63">Cottonwood Rust</a> 63</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c64">Black Knot of Cherry</a> 64</dd>
-<dt class="t">Stem and Canker</dt>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c65">Nectria Canker</a> 65</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c66">Strumella Canker</a> 66</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c67">Spiculosa Canker</a> 67</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c68">Irpex Canker</a> 68</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c69">Hispidus Canker</a> 69</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c70">Botryosphaeria Canker</a> 70</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c71">Septoria Canker</a> 71</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c72">Cytospora Canker</a> 72</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c73">Chestnut Blight</a> 73</dd>
-<dt class="t">Vascular Wilts</dt>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c74">Oak Wilt</a> 74</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c75">Dutch Elm Disease</a> 75</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c76">Elm Phloem Necrosis</a> 76</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c77">Mimosa Wilt</a> 77</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c78">Verticillium Wilt</a> 78</dd>
-<dt class="t">Root and Butt Rots</dt>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c79">Armillaria Root Rot</a> 79</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c80">Cylindrocladium Root Rot</a> 80</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c81">Lucidus Root and Butt Rot</a> 81</dd>
-</dl>
-<h2><br /><span class="small">INSECTS</span></h2>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_1">1</div>
-<h3 id="c1">ELM SPANWORM, <i>Ennomos subsignarius</i> (Hbn.)</h3>
-<p>The elm spanworm is a native insect
-which is widely distributed over the
-eastern half of the United States
-and Canada from Nova Scotia south
-to Georgia and west to Colorado.
-The most widespread outbreak on
-record occurred during the period
-1954-1963 when over one million
-acres of hardwood forests were
-defoliated in the mountains of
-western North Carolina, eastern
-Tennessee and northern Georgia.
-The elm spanworm feeds upon
-hickories and a variety of hardwoods;
-white oak, chestnut oak, and northern red oak are the species most
-heavily defoliated in the Appalachians. Repeated defoliation causes
-growth loss, reduces mast crops, and will eventually kill the tree.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig1">
-<img src="images/i002.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="470" />
-<p class="pcap">Sixth instar elm spanworm larva.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Eggs are laid in masses of 12 to 200 on the undersides of host tree
-branches in early July. Winter is spent in the egg stage. Larvae hatch in
-early spring when foliage opens. The larval stage is an &ldquo;inchworm&rdquo; or
-&ldquo;looper&rdquo;, approximately 1&frac12; inches long when mature. Larval
-coloring varies from green or light brown to black, depending upon
-population density. The typical color of the larva in heavy populations
-is dark brown to black, with a dark-red head, legs, and anal shield. The
-larvae feed for about 1&frac12; months, and then pupate in a loose cocoon
-for six to ten days. The adult, a
-snow-white moth, emerges in late
-June or early July. There is one
-generation per year.</p>
-<p>Natural enemies help keep populations
-of the elm spanworm in
-check. One of the most important
-is <i>Telenomus alsophilae</i>, a
-tiny wasp which parasitizes eggs.
-Persistent outbreaks on high-value
-stands may require treatment
-with chemicals.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig2">
-<img src="images/i002a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="457" />
-<p class="pcap">Elm span worms feeding on oak.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_2">2</div>
-<h3 id="c2">FALL CANKERWORM, <i>Alsophila pometaria</i> (Harris)</h3>
-<p>The fall cankerworm is widespread
-in the northern part of the United
-States, ranging south through the
-Appalachian Mountains to North
-Carolina. Larvae defoliate many
-species of hardwoods, but in the
-South seem to prefer oaks, hickories,
-and ash.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig3">
-<img src="images/i003.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="497" />
-<p class="pcap">Mature fall cankerworm larva.</p>
-</div>
-<p>The winged male and wingless female
-adults emerge on mild days in
-November and December and mate.
-Females lay 6-300 eggs in neatly
-arranged masses encircling small
-branches and twigs. The pale green larvae hatch in late April or early
-May. As they mature they may remain light green, or change to a very
-dark brownish-green depending on the host. Newly hatched inch-worms
-(larvae) of the fall cankerworm chew small holes in expanding leaves of
-their hosts, or may completely skeletonize the leaves. Mature larvae
-consume all but the mid-rib and major veins of the leaf. Feeding is
-usually completed in four to five weeks, at which time larvae drop to
-the ground to pupate in the soil.</p>
-<p>Cold, wet weather during the early larval period, and parasitization, are
-responsible for sudden declines in established populations. Chemical
-control has also been effective. A small wasp, <i>Telenomus alsophilae</i>
-Viereck, has caused a sharp decline
-in outbreaks of cankerworm
-populations. Usually, however,
-outbreak conditions must
-exist for several years before the
-parasite can attain the density
-needed to cause a decline.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig4">
-<img src="images/i003a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="401" />
-<p class="pcap">Female cankerworm adult depositing eggs.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_3">3</div>
-<h3 id="c3">A LOOPER, <i>Phigalia titea</i> (Cramer)</h3>
-<p>Larvae of this moth, one of the
-measuring worms, have periodically
-been responsible for scattered mortality
-of hardwoods throughout the
-eastern United States. Mortality is
-most likely to occur in stands on
-low-quality sites, particularly during
-periods of drought which favor
-this insect&rsquo;s development and further
-weaken infested trees. This
-species is likely to be found in
-almost any hardwood area in the
-eastern United States. The insect
-feeds on a wide variety of trees and
-shrubs. Host trees in the Southeast
-include oaks, hickories, black tupelo,
-and black locust.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig5">
-<img src="images/i003b.jpg" alt="" width="596" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap">Phigalia adult male moth.</p>
-</div>
-<p><i>Phigalia titea</i> overwinters as a pupa. Adults emerge in late March to
-mid-April, and mate. The female lays her eggs in protected sites on
-branches and trunks of hardwoods. Eggs are most often laid in crevices
-and beneath the bark of dead branches. Eggs hatch in April, and larvae
-feed until early June. Larvae often feed on unopened buds, causing
-irregular holes in the developing leaves. Larvae first eat just the surfaces
-of leaves, but later consume all leaf tissue between the major veins.
-When larvae are dislodged by wind
-or feeding predators they fall or
-descend on a silken thread and
-continue feeding in the lower
-crown or on understory vegetation.
-Pupation occurs on the soil surface
-or in the litter.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig6">
-<img src="images/i003c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="369" />
-<p class="pcap">Phigalia larva.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Weather regulates populations of
-this insect. Soil-inhabiting insects
-and rodents are believed to destroy
-many pupae during the winter.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_4">4</div>
-<h3 id="c4">EASTERN TENT CATERPILLAR, <i>Malacosoma americanum</i> (F.)</h3>
-<p>The presence of the eastern tent
-caterpillar is objectionable more
-from an aesthetic standpoint than
-from its effect on the host tree. The
-ugly tents constructed by the feeding
-larvae make this pest highly
-objectionable on shade trees. Black
-cherry and other species of the
-genus <i>Prunus</i> are preferred hosts,
-but other trees in the family
-<i>Rosaceae</i> are sometimes attacked.
-This insect is widely distributed
-wherever host trees are found east
-of the Rocky Mountains.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig7">
-<img src="images/i004.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="499" />
-<p class="pcap">Larvae and tent of eastern tent caterpillar.</p>
-</div>
-<p>The caterpillars appear at about the same time the leaves of black
-cherry begin to unfold. The larvae construct a web or tent in the crotch
-of a small branch, and begin feeding. Usually they consume entire
-leaves, except for the large veins. As the larvae mature, they add to the
-tent, which may reach a foot in diameter and two feet in length.
-Reaching maturity in about six weeks, the larvae drop to the ground
-and pupate. The moths emerge in June and the females lay eggs. Eggs of
-the eastern tent caterpillar are shiny black masses which encircle the
-smaller twigs and are quite noticeable. The insect overwinters in the egg
-stage.</p>
-<p>Control on ornamental, fruit, and
-shade trees is achieved by pruning off
-and burning the tents containing the
-caterpillars.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig8">
-<img src="images/i004a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="615" />
-<p class="pcap">Tent caterpillar-infested black cherry.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_5">5</div>
-<h3 id="c5">FOREST TENT CATERPILLAR, <i>Malacosoma disstria</i> (Hbn.)</h3>
-<p>The forest tent caterpillar has
-caused repeated serious defoliation
-of hardwood forests
-throughout North America. Aspen,
-water tupelo, hard maple,
-gums, and oaks are preferred
-hosts but this insect will feed on
-a variety of other broadleaf trees.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig9">
-<img src="images/i004b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="382" />
-<p class="pcap">Forest tent caterpillar larvae.</p>
-</div>
-<p>The shiny black egg masses encircling
-the twigs of host trees can
-be seen during winter months.
-Small black, hairy larvae hatch out just as the leaves are beginning to
-unfold. They do not construct a tent, but make a silken mat on the
-larger branches or trunk of the tree on which they rest between feeding
-periods. When full grown, the larvae are about two inches long,
-brownish-black with distinctive white, keyhole-shaped spots down the
-middle of the back, and blue lines along the sides. Just before pupating,
-the larvae spin a whitish silk
-cocoon on the bark or leaf of the
-host. In about ten days the light
-brown moths emerge, mate, and
-the females begin laying their
-eggs.</p>
-<p>Parasitic flies are one of the more
-important agents which normally
-keep this insect under control.
-Outbreaks occur with some regularity,
-however, and chemicals
-may be required to prevent defoliation.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig10">
-<img src="images/i004c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="387" />
-<p class="pcap">Colony of third instar larvae.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_6">6</div>
-<h3 id="c6">FALL WEBWORM, <i>Hyphantria cunea</i> (Drury)</h3>
-<p>The fall webworm is not considered
-an important forest pest.
-However, ugly webs can seriously
-detract from aesthetic values.
-The preferred hosts in the South
-are persimmon, pecan, and sourwood,
-but it is also found on
-black walnut, hickory, cherry,
-sycamore, crab apple, and sweetgum.
-The insects range throughout
-North America.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig11">
-<img src="images/i005.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="476" />
-<p class="pcap">Fall webworm larva.</p>
-</div>
-<p>The adult is a pure white moth
-about 1&frac14; inches long. The
-forewing is sometimes marked
-with blackish dots. The larva is about one inch long when full grown,
-generally pale yellow or greenish with a broad dark longitudinal stripe
-on the back and a yellowish stripe extending from black and orange
-warts. The insect has one generation per year in the northern part of its
-range, and two in the southern part. Moths of the first generation
-emerge from May to July and those of the second in July and August.
-Adult females lay 400-500 eggs in white cottony patches on the
-underside of the leaves of host plants. The eggs hatch in about a week,
-and the larvae form a web and begin to skeletonize the leaves by
-feeding in rows. As the larvae grow
-they expand the web to cover the
-colony. When the larvae are ready
-to pupate, they crawl or drop to
-the ground and form a brownish
-cocoon in the duff around the tree
-where they overwinter.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig12">
-<img src="images/i005a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="564" />
-<p class="pcap">Fall webworm infestation.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Natural enemies usually keep this
-insect under control. Webs can be
-pruned from high-value trees in
-scenic or recreation areas.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_7">7</div>
-<h3 id="c7">OAK LEAF TIER, <i>Croesia albicomana</i> (Clem.)</h3>
-<p>This oak leaf tier has been
-associated with the decline
-and mortality of several
-species of oak in the northeastern
-United States and
-southern Appalachians. An
-outbreak population in the
-mountains of West Virginia
-and Virginia in 1966-68 resulted
-in the loss of several
-thousand acres of scarlet oak.
-Usually such outbreaks coincide
-with periods of drought
-which increase the impact of
-defoliation on the host. Its hosts include northern red oak, black oak,
-scarlet oak, and pin oak. The latter two species seem to be hit hardest
-by this insect.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig13">
-<img src="images/i005c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="414" />
-<p class="pcap">Leaf tier adult and pupa.</p>
-</div>
-<p><i>Croesia albicomana</i> spends the winter in the egg stage. Eggs are
-glued to small twigs in the crown of the host tree. Hatch occurs from
-mid-April to early May. Young larvae, which emerge before bud-break,
-bore into and mine the expanding buds. When large numbers of this
-insect are present they can destroy most of the vegetative buds on a
-tree. Later the older larvae tie down a folded-over portion of a leaf and
-feed on it. Leaves fed on by the oak leaf tier appear to be full of shot
-holes. As the larvae near maturity they may tie the apical portion of
-two or more leaves together and feed on them. Mature larvae then drop
-to the ground to pupate in the
-litter. Adult moths emerge in
-June or early July, mate, and the
-female immediately begins laying
-eggs. The small, flat, oval eggs are
-deposited individually on small
-twigs, generally around nodes or
-leaf scars.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig14">
-<img src="images/i005d.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="408" />
-<p class="pcap">Scarlet oak killed by leaf tier.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Little is known of the natural
-factors which regulate population
-levels of this insect, but undoubtedly
-weather is important.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_8">8</div>
-<h3 id="c8">VARIABLE OAK LEAF CATERPILLAR, <i>Heterocampa maneto</i> (Dbldy.)</h3>
-<p>The variable oak leaf caterpillar periodically
-defoliates extensive areas of
-hardwood forest in the eastern United
-States. Its range covers all of the
-southern and eastern states as far west
-as east Texas. The larvae feed primarily
-on oaks but will also feed on
-beech, basswood, birch and elm.
-Other defoliating insects may be associated
-with outbreaks causing additional
-damage. Young larvae skeletonize
-the leaf while older larvae
-devour the entire leaf except the
-primary veins. Infestations are generally
-more severe in the South, where
-the insect has two generations per
-year causing two periods of defoliation
-in a single year. While infestations
-usually subside before many trees are
-killed, heavy defoliation reduces the
-tree&rsquo;s growth and vigor.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig15">
-<img src="images/i006.jpg" alt="" width="571" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap">Larva of the variable oak leaf caterpillar.</p>
-</div>
-<p>The variable oak leaf caterpillar overwinters as a non-feeding larva in a
-cocoon on the forest floor. It pupates and emerges as a moth the
-following spring. The female moth, gray in color and about 1&frac34; inches
-long, lays about 500 eggs singly on the leaves of host trees. The larvae
-feed on foliage for five or six weeks, drop to the ground to pupate, and
-emerge as adults in mid-summer. Larvae hatching from eggs laid by the
-second generation of moths defoliate the trees for a second time during
-late summer. By late October the mature larvae of the second
-generation have dropped to the forest floor to overwinter. The full
-grown larva is approximately 1&frac12; inches long. Color varies among
-individuals. The head is generally amber brown with curved diagonal
-white and black bands. The body is usually yellow green with a narrow
-white stripe down the center of the back bordered by wider dark bands.</p>
-<p>Outbreaks of the variable oak leaf caterpillar may be severe but
-generally subside before serious tree mortality occurs. Parasites and
-predators are not effective in controlling rising populations of the
-insect. Mice and predaceous beetles feed on the resting larvae and pupae
-in the litter and soil of the forest floor. While no chemical is currently
-registered for control of this insect, chemical spraying has been
-effective and safe in controlling closely related insects.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_9">9</div>
-<h3 id="c9">LOCUST LEAFMINER, <i>Xenochalepus dorsalis</i> (Thunberg)</h3>
-<p>The locust leafminer is a destructive
-pest of black locust and honey
-locust in both the adult and larval
-stages. It is found throughout the
-range of these trees in the eastern
-half of North America. The adults
-also feed on other species of trees.</p>
-<p>The adult beetles overwinter in
-crevices in the bark of trees and
-under litter on the forest floor. The
-beetles emerge and begin feeding in
-the spring, usually after mid-April.
-After feeding for a short time they
-deposit eggs on the undersides of
-leaves, piling them one upon
-another, somewhat shingle-like. Eggs are covered with brownish fecal
-matter. Larvae soon hatch and eat into the leaf tissue to form a mine.
-Newly emerged larvae feed gregariously in a single mine for a short
-time. They then construct new mines where the insects live singly.
-Several mines are constructed before the larvae reach maturity. The
-larvae pupate in the mines and emerge as adults in July to begin the
-second generation. The adult beetles are foliage feeders, eating irregular
-holes in leaves. When sufficient in number they may defoliate host
-trees.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig16">
-<img src="images/i006a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="552" />
-<p class="pcap">Damage to black locust caused by the locust leaf miner.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Under forested conditions no control is recommended. Rarely do trees
-die from attacks by this insect. Damage is objectionable mostly from an
-aesthetic viewpoint.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_10">10</div>
-<h3 id="c10">COTTONWOOD LEAF BEETLE, <i>Chrysomela scripta</i> (F.)</h3>
-<p>Willows, poplars, aspens and alders
-are attacked by the cottonwood
-leaf beetle in the eastern United
-States. Cottonwood is the most important
-host in the South. Damage
-has been especially severe in Louisiana
-and Mississippi where thousands
-of acres of cottonwood
-plantations are intensively managed.
-Adult beetles and larvae feed
-on the foliage. Damage is most critical
-during the first three years after
-the cottonwood is planted. Adults
-chew holes in the leaves and may
-attack the terminal shoots causing
-reduced growth or stem deformity.
-Young larvae skeletonize the foliage
-but older larvae consume all foliage
-except the leaf midribs. Damage may become severe enough to cause
-mortality.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig17">
-<img src="images/i007.jpg" alt="" width="587" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap">Cottonwood leaf beetle adult.</p>
-</div>
-<p>The cottonwood leaf beetle overwinters in the adult stage. Eggs are laid
-in the spring. The female lays a cluster of about 75 yellowish eggs on
-the underside of a leaf. As the larvae mature they become yellow with
-black spots. After about nine days in the larval stage the beetle transforms
-into the non-feeding pupal stage which lasts five to ten days. The
-adult is about &frac14;-inch long and has a black head and thorax. The wing
-covers are yellow with longitudinal
-black stripes. The life cycle is completed
-in 25 to 30 days and several
-generations occur in a single year.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig18">
-<img src="images/i007a.jpg" alt="" width="580" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap">Larvae and pupae of the cottonwood leaf beetle.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Control may be needed in a plantation
-only during the first three
-years. Chemical sprays have been
-successful in the past but at the
-present time no insecticides are
-registered for cottonwood leaf
-beetle control.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_11">11</div>
-<h3 id="c11">WALKINGSTICK, <i>Diapheromera femorata</i> (Say)</h3>
-<p>The walkingstick is a defoliator
-of broadleaved trees in North
-America. The black oaks, basswood,
-and wild cherry are the
-most common preferred hosts
-but numerous other hardwood
-species are attacked. This insect
-is widely distributed over the
-United States east of the Rocky
-Mountains as well as Manitoba
-and Ontario in Canada. At times,
-populations build in sufficient
-numbers to defoliate trees over
-large areas.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig19">
-<img src="images/i007b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="427" />
-<p class="pcap">Male walkingsticks feeding on oak.</p>
-</div>
-<p>These slender, wingless, stick-like insects are pale green when young,
-but gradually change to a dark green, gray, or brown at maturity. The
-adult female measures up to three inches in length and is more stout-bodied
-than the male. Mating usually takes place in August and egg
-laying begins six to ten days later. The eggs are dropped to the ground
-where they overwinter in the leaf litter. In the northern part of the
-walkingstick&rsquo;s range the eggs take two years to hatch. In the South,
-walkingstick eggs hatch the summer after they are laid, usually starting
-in mid-May. The newly hatched walkingstick looks like a miniature
-adult.</p>
-<p>Parasitic wasps and flies are active against the immature walkingsticks
-but are not efficient enough to cause a substantial population reduction.
-Flocks of robins, blackbirds, and grackles have a much greater
-impact, however. The defoliation caused by walkingsticks generally
-occurs on upland sites in stands which are not of high value or intensively
-managed. For this reason there has been little interest in control.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_12">12</div>
-<h3 id="c12">GYPSY MOTH, <i>Porthetria dispar</i> (L.)</h3>
-<p>The gypsy moth is an introduced
-forest insect. It was brought into
-this country from Europe in
-1869 and has been restricted to
-the Northeast. The gypsy moth
-feeds aggressively on oak, alder,
-apple, basswood, willow, and
-birch. As the caterpillars reach
-maturity they will also feed on
-hemlock, cedar, pine, and spruce.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig20">
-<img src="images/i008.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="534" />
-<p class="pcap">Gypsy moth larvae.</p>
-</div>
-<p>In the Northeast, the gypsy moth
-has a single generation per year,
-overwintering in the egg stage.
-Eggs hatch in late April and May
-and larvae are present for
-approximately two months. Full-grown caterpillars measure more than
-two inches long and are easily identified by the five pairs of blue spots
-and six pairs of red spots arranged in a double row along the back. The
-adult moths are active from late June to early September. Female
-moths, their bodies heavy with eggs, are unable to fly and must rely on
-a powerful sex attractant to lure male moths. This sex attractant has
-been chemically synthesized and is used as a trap bait in surveys designed
-to determine the presence of gypsy moths in areas suspected to be
-infested. Each female deposits from 200 to 800 eggs in a buff-colored
-mass which she attaches to any convenient surface including cars, trailers,
-and other vehicles.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig21">
-<img src="images/i008a.jpg" alt="" width="544" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap">Female gypsy moths depositing egg masses.</p>
-</div>
-<p>During the past 75 years the gypsy
-moth has been the target of many
-large-scale control programs, and much
-money has been spent trying to reduce
-the impact of gypsy moth infestations.
-Current control efforts are
-handicapped by the unavailability of a
-safe and effective persistent chemical.
-In the North two predators and nine
-parasites have been successfully established
-to help control the gypsy moth.
-The greatest problem in controlling
-gypsy moth spread, however, lies in
-the fact that recreational vehicles
-transport egg masses and larvae from
-infested sites into uninfested areas.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_13">13</div>
-<h3 id="c13">HICKORY BARK BEETLE, <i>Scolytus quadrispinosus</i> (Say)</h3>
-<p>The hickory bark beetle is reported
-to be the most serious insect pest of
-hickory in the United States. Population
-explosions where thousands
-of trees were killed have been reported
-from New York, Pennsylvania,
-Maryland, Virginia, and
-recently from Georgia. Hickory
-bark beetles are distributed
-throughout the range of their host
-in eastern United States. All species
-of hickory are subject to attack, as
-well as pecan and possibly butternut.
-Adult beetles emerge in May
-and June in the southern portion of
-their range. They feed for a short time by boring into the petioles of
-leaves and into small twigs of the host. Dying leaves and twigs are the
-first evidence of attack. After feeding, the beetles fly to the trunk and
-larger branches of the host and bore into the inner bark to lay their
-eggs. Short, longitudinal egg galleries are etched into the sapwood and
-from 20 to 60 eggs deposited in small niches cut on either side of the
-gallery. As the larvae develop, their galleries radiate out from the egg
-gallery. Two generations per year have been reported from northern
-Mississippi. The beetle overwinters in the larval stage. With the coming
-of warm weather in the early spring, it changes into the pupal stage, and
-finally, in May, to an adult.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig22">
-<img src="images/i008b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="532" />
-<p class="pcap">Hickory bark beetle adult.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Outbreaks of this insect begin in
-periods of hot, dry weather and
-subside when rains commence.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig23">
-<img src="images/i008c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="569" />
-<p class="pcap">Larval galleries of the hickory bark beetle.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_14">14</div>
-<h3 id="c14">SMALLER EUROPEAN ELM BARK BEETLE, <i>Scolytus multistriatus</i> (Marsham)</h3>
-<p>The smaller European elm bark
-beetle was first reported in the
-United States in 1909. Its presence
-in this country was given significance
-with the introduction of the
-Dutch elm disease in 1930. The
-beetle attacks all native and introduced
-species of elms and now
-occurs wherever the hosts are
-present. The feeding of the adult
-beetles in the spring is responsible
-for transmitting the Dutch elm disease
-from diseased to healthy trees.
-The Dutch elm disease is now our
-most important shade tree disease.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig24">
-<img src="images/i009.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="443" />
-<p class="pcap">Smaller European elm bark beetle adult.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Adult bark beetles emerge in the spring from dead or dying elms and
-begin feeding on the twigs of healthy elms. The female then excavates
-an egg gallery in the bark of dead or weakened elms. Eggs are deposited
-along the walls of the gallery. The larvae, upon hatching, burrow into
-the bark at right angles to the egg gallery. Pupation occurs at the end of
-the larval tunnel. New adults tunnel to the bark surface and leave the
-tree through circular emergence holes. There are usually two generations
-a year. The beetles overwinter in the larval stage.</p>
-<p>Chemical control and good tree maintenance are the two methods used
-to reduce bark beetle populations. Insecticides are used to prevent
-feeding by the adults in the spring. Tree sanitation involves removal and
-disposal of dead elms and elm limbs which eliminate breeding and
-larval development sites.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_15">15</div>
-<h3 id="c15">COLUMBIAN TIMBER BEETLE, <i>Corthylus columbianus</i> (Hopkins)</h3>
-<p>All hardwood trees in the eastern
-half of the United States are subject
-to attack by the Columbian
-timber beetle, but oaks, maples,
-birch, basswood, yellow-poplar,
-and elm are the preferred hosts
-in the South. The beetle causes
-two major types of damage:
-1) physical damage caused by the
-1/32&Prime; to 1/16&Prime; hole excavated
-by the adult into the sapwood,
-and 2) degrade caused by stain
-which may extend for a considerable
-distance above and below
-the gallery. Large diameter trees are preferred as hosts, but trees as
-small as one and one-fourth inches in diameter may be attacked.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig25">
-<img src="images/i009a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="398" />
-<p class="pcap">Callow adult and pupae of the Columbian timber beetle.</p>
-</div>
-<p>There are two and sometimes three generations of this insect each year.
-Adults from the first generation emerge from late May through June
-and those from the second in October. The first evidence of attack is
-the white dust which collects at the entrance hole. Later, depending on
-the tree&rsquo;s physiological condition, a sap-soaked area may develop
-around the entrance hole. The adult bores a horizontal hole into the
-sapwood of a healthy tree for a few inches and later constructs two or
-three shorter lateral branches. &ldquo;Cradles&rdquo; (or egg chambers) are then
-constructed for a short distance perpendicular to these galleries. The
-female deposits a single egg in each
-chamber. The offspring spend their
-entire developmental period within
-the cradles feeding on fungi which
-grow on the sapwood. It is this fungus
-which causes the extensive
-staining characteristic of Columbian
-timber beetle attack. Winter is
-spent in both the pupal and adult
-stages in the brood galleries.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig26">
-<img src="images/i009c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="554" />
-<p class="pcap">Columbian timber beetle entrance holes in yellow-poplar.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Chemical control is not practical
-for forest trees.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_16">16</div>
-<h3 id="c16">COTTONWOOD TWIG BORER, <i>Gypsonoma haimbachiana</i> (Kearfott)</h3>
-<p>The cottonwood twig borer is widely distributed throughout the entire
-range of eastern cottonwood, from Canada to the Gulf States and west
-to Missouri. The larvae of the cottonwood twig borer feed in the terminals
-of the host. This feeding results in reduction of terminal growth
-and forked and crooked trunks. Damage is especially severe on young
-trees.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig27">
-<img src="images/i010.jpg" alt="" width="417" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap">Cottonwood twig borer damage to cottonwood sapling.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig28">
-<img src="images/i010a.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap">Three-year-old cottonwood stunted by twig borers.</p>
-</div>
-<p>The female moth lays eggs on the upper surface of leaves along the
-mid-rib, singly or in groups of two to eight. Hatching occurs in about
-five days and the young larvae cover themselves with silk mixed with
-trash, and then tunnel into the mid-rib. After the first molt, larvae leave
-the tunnels and bore into tender shoots. Larvae reach maturity in about
-21-23 days and begin moving down the trunk of the tree where they
-spin cocoons in sheltered bark crevices, in litter, or between leaf folds.
-The adult moths emerge in eight or nine days. It takes from 40-45 days
-to complete the life cycle in mid-summer.</p>
-<p>The most effective natural control is a potter wasp, <i>Eumenes</i> sp. which
-tears open tender cottonwood shoots and removes twig borer larvae
-from their galleries. Other wasps parasitizing the twig borer include
-<i>Bracon mellitor</i> (Say), <i>Apanteles clavatus</i> (Provancher) and <i>Agathis</i> sp.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_17">17</div>
-<h3 id="c17">COTTONWOOD BORER, <i>Plectrodera scalator</i> (F.)</h3>
-<p>The cottonwood borer is limited
-in range to the southern half of
-the United States. Hosts include
-cottonwood, poplars and willows.
-The adults feed on the tender
-shoots of young trees causing
-them to shrivel and break off.
-The larval stage of this insect
-tunnels in the inner bark and
-wood at the base of the tree and
-may kill or severely weaken it.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig29">
-<img src="images/i010c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="521" />
-<p class="pcap">Adult cottonwood borer.</p>
-</div>
-<p>The adult beetles appear in midsummer.
-After feeding briefly on
-the tender bark of the terminals
-the adults descend to the bases of host trees where the female deposits
-her eggs in small pits gnawed in the bark. Eggs hatch in about three
-weeks. The larvae bore downward in the inner bark, entering a large
-root by fall. Larval feeding continues into the second year as the larvae
-bore into the inner bark and wood. The larvae transform into the
-non-feeding pupal stage and finally into an adult in the summer of the
-second year thus completing a two year life cycle. Adult beetles are
-1&frac14; to 1&frac12; inches long. They are black with lines of cream-colored
-scales forming irregular black patches.</p>
-<p>The best control for the cottonwood borer is to maintain a vigorous,
-healthy stand. Slow growing, off-site plantings of host trees are the
-most severely damaged. While some systemic insecticides have shown
-promise, there is currently no registered chemical control method.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_18">18</div>
-<h3 id="c18">WHITE OAK BORER, <i>Goes tigrinus</i> (De Geer)</h3>
-<p>A recent survey of damage
-caused by various wood borers to
-three species in the white oak
-group revealed an estimated annual
-loss in the South exceeding
-20 million dollars. One of the
-more important borers responsible
-for this damage is the white
-oak borer.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig30">
-<img src="images/i011.jpg" alt="" width="591" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap">Adult white oak borer.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Usually the white oak borer attacks
-oaks one to eight inches in
-diameter. The damage, like that
-of other hardwood borers, is the
-result of larval feeding in the
-wood. Galleries up to one-half
-inch in diameter extend upward
-through the sapwood into the
-heartwood. The white oak borer takes three to four years to complete
-one generation. The mated adult female beetle lays her eggs singly in
-the inner bark through a small oval niche chewed through the outer
-bark. After about three weeks the eggs hatch and the larvae immediately
-bore into the sapwood. Later they bore upward into the heartwood.
-The boring frass ejected out of the entrance is evidence of an active
-infestation. Pupation occurs behind a plug of excelsior-like frass at the
-upper end of the gallery in the heartwood. In about three weeks, adults
-emerge by boring separate and perfectly round holes through the wood
-and bark. In the South, adults generally emerge in May and June and
-feed for a short time on oak
-leaves and the tender bark of
-twigs before the females lay their
-eggs.</p>
-<p>Woodpeckers may destroy up to
-25 percent of the larvae during
-the winter months, but this and
-the small toll taken by insect
-predators and parasites are not
-sufficient to keep the white oak
-borer population low enough to
-avoid serious economic loss.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig31">
-<img src="images/i011a.jpg" alt="" width="430" height="601" />
-<p class="pcap">Entrance and emergence holes in white oak.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_19">19</div>
-<h3 id="c19">RED OAK BORER, <i>Enaphalodes rufulus</i> (Hald.)</h3>
-<p>The red oak borer is a serious
-pest of trees in the red oak
-group. It ranges throughout
-eastern North America wherever
-host species grow. It is estimated
-that defects caused by larval tunnels
-in the sapwood and heartwood
-of host trees costs the
-hardwood timber industry millions
-of dollars each year.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig32">
-<img src="images/i011b.jpg" alt="" width="534" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap">Adult red oak borer.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Eggs of the red oak borer are laid
-during early and mid-summer in
-bark crevices or under patches of
-lichen on host trees. After
-hatching, larvae bore into the
-inner bark region where they
-feed until mid-summer of the
-next year. This feeding in the
-inner bark causes characteristic catfaces or bark pockets. Once larvae
-enter the wood they bore upward through the sapwood and into the
-heartwood and pupate behind a plug of excelsior-like frass. The larval
-galleries are from one-fourth to one-half inch in diameter, and six to ten
-inches long. Usually the galleries are within six inches of the center of
-the tree. The adult emerges at the lower end of the tunnel, using a hole
-cut through the bark by the larva just prior to pupating. Adults emerge
-in June and July. The timing of
-the two-year life cycle of the red
-oak borer is such that the adult
-population is greatest in odd-numbered
-years.</p>
-<p>Generally, borers such as the red
-oak borer infest trees of poor
-vigor. It is possible, therefore, to
-reduce borer populations by
-maintaining vigorous stands and
-by removing cull trees.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig33">
-<img src="images/i011c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="433" />
-<p class="pcap">Red oak borer attack on Nuttall oak.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_20">20</div>
-<h3 id="c20">CARPENTERWORM, <i>Prionoxystus robiniae</i> (Peck)</h3>
-<p>The carpenterworm bores in
-the wood of living hardwood
-trees, causing costly damage to
-commercial timber species. In
-the South, oak species are preferred
-hosts but black locust,
-maples, willows, and fruit
-trees are also attacked. The
-carpenterworm is distributed
-throughout the United States.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig34">
-<img src="images/i012.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="333" />
-<p class="pcap">Carpenterworm adults.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Adult moths emerge in late
-April to early June, mate, and the females lay groups of eggs in bark
-crevices or wounds. Each female lays 200 to 500 eggs during her one-week
-life span. After hatching, the larvae wander over the bark for a
-short time before boring into the inner bark where they feed until
-half-grown. The larvae then bore into the sapwood and heartwood,
-returning occasionally to feed in the inner bark. The larval period lasts
-from two to four years. Pupation usually occurs deep within the heartwood.
-Just prior to emergence,
-the pupa wiggles to the entrance
-hole where it remains slightly
-protruding until the adult moth
-emerges. The large winding tunnels
-constructed by the larvae in
-the sapwood and heartwood of
-living hardwoods serve as an entrance
-for wood-rotting fungi
-and insects such as the carpenter
-ant. In extreme cases, the tree
-may be structurally weakened
-and subject to wind breakage.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig35">
-<img src="images/i012a.jpg" alt="" width="587" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap">Carpenterworm galleries in nuttall oak.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Some chemicals which have a fumigating action have proved effective in
-controlling this insect in shade trees, but no practical control has yet
-been found for forest trees.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_21">21</div>
-<h3 id="c21">PINE WEBWORM, <i>Tetralopha robustela</i> (Zell.)</h3>
-<p>Ugly, compact masses of brown excrement or frass pellets around the
-stem of pine seedlings mark infestations of the pine webworm. Rarely is
-the defoliation severe enough to kill the seedlings, but it undoubtedly
-has an impact on growth. Found throughout the eastern United States,
-the webworm commonly attacks red, white, jack, loblolly, shortleaf,
-and slash pines.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig36">
-<img src="images/i012b.jpg" alt="" width="601" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap">Pine webworm damage to loblolly pine.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig37">
-<img src="images/i012c.jpg" alt="(cont.)" width="595" height="600" />
-</div>
-<p>The adult moth has a wingspread of about one inch. The forewing
-usually is gray in the middle portion and darker at the base and tip. The
-hind wings and body are smokey gray. The full-grown larva is a caterpillar
-approximately &#8536; of an inch long. The head is tan with darker
-markings and the body light brown with dark longitudinal stripes
-running down each side.</p>
-<p>Eggs are usually laid on seedlings, occasionally on larger trees, between
-May and September. After eggs hatch, the caterpillars live in silken
-webs surrounded by masses of frass, and feed on the needles. Generally
-each web contains one or two larvae but occasionally 25 or more may
-be found. After feeding is completed, the caterpillars drop to the
-ground and pupate below the soil surface. In the South, there are
-usually two generations each year.</p>
-<p>In plantations, hand picking is an effective method of control. When
-high value nursery stock becomes infested, chemical control may
-become necessary.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_22">22</div>
-<h3 id="c22">BAGWORM, <i>Thyridopteryx ephemeraeformis</i> (Haw.)</h3>
-<p>The bagworm is distributed throughout the eastern half of the United
-States. It is generally recognized as a defoliator of conifers, particularly
-juniper, cedars, and arborvitae, but it is also found on many hardwood
-trees including maple, wild cherry, poplars, oaks, and apple.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig38">
-<img src="images/i013.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="558" />
-<p class="pcap">Bagworm cases on pine.</p>
-</div>
-<p>The wingless, maggot-like adult
-female bagworms are present in
-September and October and
-spend their entire lives within the
-protective cover of the tough,
-silken bag which they construct
-as larvae. Males are quite agile
-fliers and can often be seen in
-the fall flying around infested
-shrubs in search of a mate.
-Mating takes place through the
-open end of the bag. Shortly
-thereafter the female deposits
-her egg mass containing 500 to
-1,000 eggs in her pupal case. The
-eggs remain in the bag throughout
-the winter. In the deep South, hatching can occur as early as April,
-but occurs in May or June further north. During the early stage of
-development, the larvae, housed in their tiny bags, are quite inconspicuous.
-As they mature, the bags become quite noticeable, and the
-amount of foliage consumed increases rapidly.</p>
-<p>Outbreak populations of bagworm are in most cases quickly reduced by
-low winter temperatures and a complex of several parasites. On shrubs
-and shade trees around a home, it is often practical to control bagworms
-by picking and destroying the bags.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_23">23</div>
-<h3 id="c23">PINE COLASPIS, <i>Colaspis pini</i> (Barber)</h3>
-<p>Colaspis beetles are found
-throughout the Southeast, but
-are more common in the Gulf
-states. They seem to prefer slash
-pine but have been found on
-many of the southern pines. The
-pine colaspis beetle is not a
-serious forest pest but feeding
-damage caused by large populations
-occasionally produces a
-spectacular browning effect of
-the needles similar to that caused
-by fire.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig39">
-<img src="images/i013a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="531" />
-<p class="pcap">Adult pine colaspis beetle feeding damage on pine.</p>
-</div>
-<p>The adult beetles chew the edges
-of needles to produce an irregular,
-saw-like edge which turns
-brown. Occasionally only the
-tips of the needles show signs of the infestation. Later, however, the
-entire needle may die, causing the whole tree to become brown as
-though scorched by fire. Trees that have been attacked do not die, and
-little or no growth loss results. Attacks usually occur in early summer;
-by late summer the trees appear green and healthy again. This pest is
-sporadic in its occurrence and may not develop again in the same area
-for several years. The adult female lays her eggs in the soil during the
-summer. Larvae hatch and feed on roots of grasses and other vegetation,
-and overwinter in this stage. The larvae pupate in the spring;
-adults emerge in early summer to feed. There is only one generation a
-year.</p>
-<p>Under forest conditions, no control measures are recommended for the
-pine colaspis beetle. On ornamentals and shade trees, insecticides can be
-used to prevent unsightly damage.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_24">24</div>
-<h3 id="c24">PINE SAWFLY, <i>Neodiprion excitans</i> (Roh.)</h3>
-<p>This pine sawfly is found
-throughout the southeast from
-Virginia to Texas. Loblolly and
-shortleaf pine are preferred
-hosts, but pond, slash, longleaf,
-and Sonderegger pine are also attacked.
-The larvae do not do well
-on the latter two species. As with
-most sawflies, the larvae feed in
-groups on the host needles. Generally
-the old needles are preferred,
-but all of the needles are
-eaten when large numbers of
-larvae are present. Three or four
-young larvae usually encircle a
-needle and, starting from the tip,
-consume all but a central core.
-When nearing maturity they eat the entire needle.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig40">
-<img src="images/i014.jpg" alt="" width="572" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap">Pine sawfly larvae.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Four or five generations of this sawfly may occur each year. Adult
-females begin to lay their eggs in slits cut in the needles during late
-March. The eggs hatch in 10-21 days, and the larvae feed for about five
-weeks. When mature the larvae usually crawl to the ground and spin a
-cocoon in the loose litter at the base of the tree. Although all stages of
-the life history can be found at any time during the growing season, the
-peak adult emergence occurs in late summer. Larvae from this late
-summer generation are responsible for most of the damage which, although
-never directly responsible for mortality, may predispose the
-trees to attack by other insects (particularly bark beetles) and diseases.</p>
-<p>Natural control factors generally bring outbreak populations under control
-after one season. Hogs, armadillos, mice, and shrews are reported as
-being of significant value in regulating the sawfly population. Insect
-parasites, predators, and disease are also effective control agents.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_25">25</div>
-<h3 id="c25">ARKANSAS PINE SAWFLY, <i>Neodiprion taedae linearis</i> (Ross)</h3>
-<p>Loblolly and shortleaf pines
-are the only trees attacked by
-the Arkansas pine sawfly. Periodic
-outbreaks of this insect
-over large areas in the south-central
-states cause substantial
-growth losses, but the insects
-seldom kill trees.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig41">
-<img src="images/i014a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="398" />
-<p class="pcap">Arkansas pine sawfly larvae.</p>
-</div>
-<p>This insect has a single generation each year. In the spring, eggs which
-have overwintered hatch into tiny caterpillar-like larvae. The larvae feed
-in groups for 30-40 days (primarily on the older foliage) before crawling
-to the ground and pupating in the topsoil or litter. Adults emerge
-during warm days in October and November, mate, and the females
-begin laying eggs. Sawflies get their name from the manner in which the
-eggs are laid. The female is equipped with a saw-like &ldquo;ovipositor&rdquo; with
-which she cuts a slit in the needle into which the egg is inserted. From
-two to ten eggs are laid in a single needle. Each female deposits from 90
-to 120 eggs.</p>
-<p>An important natural control agent of this sawfly is a polyhedral virus
-disease that sometimes destroys large numbers of the larvae. Rodents
-destroy many cocoons. Several species of larval parasites are also known
-to exist. Of these, a parasitic fly, <i>Anthrax sinuosa</i> (Wied.) and an ichneumon
-wasp, <i>Exenterus canadensis</i> (Prov.) appear to be the most
-important.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_26">26</div>
-<h3 id="c26">VIRGINIA PINE SAWFLY, <i>Neodriprion pratti pratti</i> (Dyar)</h3>
-<p>The Virginia pine sawfly is
-found from Maryland to
-North Carolina, and west to
-Illinois. The insect prefers Virginia
-and shortleaf pine, but it
-will also oviposit and feed on
-pitch and loblolly pine.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig42">
-<img src="images/i015.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="356" />
-<p class="pcap">Virginia pine sawfly larva.</p>
-</div>
-<p>On warm sunny days in late
-October and early November,
-the adult sawflies emerge from
-their cocoons in the litter,
-mate, and the females lay eggs. The female is equipped with a saw-like
-ovipositor with which she cuts a slit at the edge of a needle and inserts a
-small, white, oval egg. Several eggs are usually laid at evenly spaced
-intervals in each needle, but in only one needle per fascicle. From 30 to
-100 eggs are deposited in this manner by each female. The eggs hatch
-the following April and the young larvae feed gregariously on the old
-needles. Larval development is usually completed by the time the new
-needles come out, giving heavily defoliated trees a tufted appearance.
-Mature larvae crawl to the ground and spin cocoons in the litter or
-surface soil. They remain as prepupae until late September when
-pupation occurs.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig43">
-<img src="images/i015a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="570" />
-<p class="pcap">Pine defoliated by the Virginia pine sawfly.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Heavy defoliation for two or
-more years can weaken trees and
-make them more susceptible to
-other insects and diseases, particularly
-when associated with
-drought. In commercial stands
-the growth loss caused by several
-years of 50% defoliation by this
-insect can amount to &#8531; of the
-expected growth.</p>
-<p>Several parasites, predators, and
-a virus attack the Virginia pine
-sawfly, but weather conditions
-seem to be primarily responsible
-for the drastic fluctuations in
-sawfly populations. Several
-chemicals have proven effective
-in preventing damage to
-ornamentals.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_27">27</div>
-<h3 id="c27">REDHEADED PINE SAWFLY, <i>Neodiprion lecontei</i> (Fitch)</h3>
-<p>The redheaded pine sawfly did
-not become an important pest
-until extensive planting of
-pine in pure plantations began
-in the 1920&rsquo;s. Since then, outbreaks
-in young natural pine
-stands and plantations have
-been common in the South,
-the north-central states, and
-eastern states. Feeding is primarily
-restricted to the two- and
-three-needled pines under
-fifteen feet in height. Shortleaf,
-loblolly, longleaf, and
-slash are the species most commonly
-attacked in the southern
-states.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig44">
-<img src="images/i015b.jpg" alt="" width="557" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap">Redheaded pine sawfly larva.</p>
-</div>
-<p>In the fall, sawfly larvae drop
-to the ground, spin cocoons in
-the duff or topsoil, and overwinter as prepupae in a small, brown
-cocoon. With the coming of spring, pupation occurs and adult emergence
-follows in about two weeks. Some prepupae may remain in a
-resting stage for more than one season before emerging. Each female
-lays about 120 eggs. She cuts a small slit in the edge of a needle and
-deposits a single egg inside each slit. Eggs laid by a single female are
-generally clustered on the needles of a single twig. Eggs hatch in three
-to five weeks, depending on temperature and locality. Larvae feed gregariously
-on the host for 25 to 30 days. When fully grown, larvae drop
-to the ground and spin their cocoons. In the South there are at least
-two generations per year with a maximum of five being recorded. Colonies
-of different ages may co-exist in the late fall or early winter.</p>
-<p>Outbreaks occur periodically and tend to subside after a few years of
-heavy defoliation. Numerous parasitic and predatory insects play an
-important role in causing the decline of infestations, as do adverse
-weather conditions during the larval stage. When deemed necessary,
-chemical treatment is an effective control.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_28">28</div>
-<h3 id="c28">TEXAS LEAF-CUTTING ANT, <i>Atta texana</i> (Buckley)</h3>
-<p>Damage caused by the Texas
-leaf-cutting ant, or town ant, is
-confined in the United States to
-southeast Texas and west-central
-Louisiana. The ant causes
-damage to a variety of green
-plants throughout the year and
-causes serious damage to pine
-seedlings during the winter when
-other green plants are scarce.
-During this period, stands of
-young seedlings may be completely
-defoliated and the stems
-girdled. The ant carries bits of
-needles, buds, and bark back to
-its nest to serve as the medium
-on which it cultivates a fungus. The fungus is the ant&rsquo;s only known
-food.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig45">
-<img src="images/i016.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="590" />
-<p class="pcap">Texas leaf cutting ant.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Ant colonies are characterized by numerous crescent-shaped mounds
-five to fourteen inches high, and by a series of well defined foraging
-trails cleared of vegetation. The mounds may be confined to a relatively
-small area or extend over an acre or more. Each mound serves as the
-entrance to a football-sized, hemispherical-shaped nest which the ants
-construct at depths up to 20 feet below the surface. The nests are
-interconnected by a series of narrow tunnels, and connected to lateral
-foraging tunnels which may surface a hundred yards or more from the
-colony. Leaf-cutting ants, like many other social insects, are segregated
-into castes. The queen dominates the colony and is responsible for its
-reproduction. Large worker ants, or soldiers, provide protection from
-intrusion by other insects, while the smaller workers collect the leaves
-and tend the fungus gardens.</p>
-<p>Various chemicals such as fumigants, contact poisons, and baits have
-been used to control the leaf-cutting ants with varying success. No
-natural control has yet been found.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_29">29</div>
-<h3 id="c29">SOUTHERN PINE BEETLE, <i>Dendroctonus frontalis</i> (Zimm.)</h3>
-<p>Probably no other insect is of more concern
-to managers of southern pine forests than the
-southern pine beetle. Loblolly and shortleaf
-pine seem to be preferred hosts, but all of the
-southern pines may be attacked wherever
-they occur in North and Central America.</p>
-<p>Adult beetles are about the size of a grain of
-rice, stout and reddish-brown in color. While
-they commonly attack lightning-struck or
-weakened trees, they can also quickly build
-up to high populations capable of successfully
-attacking healthy trees during periods favorable
-to their development. Adult beetles bore
-directly through the bark, mate, and the
-females begin to excavate S-shaped egg galleries
-in the inner bark. Eggs are deposited in
-niches on either side of these galleries and
-hatch into small legless grubs within four to
-nine days. The grubs mine for a short distance
-before boring into the outer bark where they
-pupate. There are from three to seven generations
-per year depending on locality and
-weather. Drought seems to be associated with
-major outbreaks of this insect.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig46">
-<img src="images/i016a.jpg" alt="" width="344" height="799" />
-<p class="pcap">Adults of the black turpentine beetle, the southern pine beetle and three species of <span class="u">Ips</span> engraver beetles.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Control includes rapid salvage and utilization of infested trees and
-piling and burning of infested material. Outbreaks usually subside with
-the advent of unfavorable weather and improved host vigor.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig47">
-<img src="images/i016b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="563" />
-<p class="pcap">Southern pine beetle larval galleries.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig48">
-<img src="images/i016c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="563" />
-<p class="pcap">Southern pine beetle pitch tubes.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_30">30</div>
-<h3 id="c30">IPS ENGRAVER BEETLES, <i>Ips</i> spp.</h3>
-<p>With the possible exception of the
-southern pine beetle, no other insects
-cause as much mortality to
-southern pine forests as do the
-three species of <i>Ips</i> engravers.
-Usually they attack severely weakened
-trees, lightning-struck trees, or
-fresh slash left by logging operations.
-During drought periods they
-can successfully attack otherwise
-healthy pines.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig49">
-<img src="images/i017.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="499" />
-<p class="pcap">Pine showing typical symptoms of <span class="u">Ips</span> attack.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Attacked trees are quickly girdled
-by the adults as they construct
-their egg galleries in the inner bark.
-Death is usually hastened by the introduction of blue-stain fungi
-which blocks the flow of sap. Small reddish pitch tubes are frequently
-the first sign of attack, but they are usually absent in trees suffering
-from drought. Peeling back the bark of an infested tree will reveal
-typical Y- or H-shaped egg galleries with short larval galleries extending
-perpendicular to them on either side. <i>Ips</i> beetles are easily recognized
-by their &ldquo;scooped out&rdquo; posteriors which are surrounded by varying
-numbers of tooth-like projections. It takes only 18-25 days to complete
-one generation, allowing populations of these beetles to increase very
-rapidly during favorable conditions.</p>
-<p>At present the best control is the speedy removal and utilization of
-actively infested trees, making sure that the bark and slabs are
-destroyed.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_31">31</div>
-<h3 id="c31">BLACK TURPENTINE BEETLE, <i>Dendroctonus terebrans</i> (Oliv.)</h3>
-<p>The black turpentine beetle is found from
-New Hampshire south to Florida, and
-from West Virginia to east Texas. It is a
-particularly serious pest in the Gulf States
-where recent outbreaks have killed large
-acreages of timber. Attacks have been observed
-on all pines native to the Southeast,
-and also on red spruce.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig50">
-<img src="images/i017a.jpg" alt="" width="421" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap">Life stages of the black turpentine beetle: adult, callow adult, pupa, larva and eggs.</p>
-</div>
-<p>This is the largest of the southern bark
-beetles, varying in length from &#8533; to &#8531;
-of an inch, or about the size of a raisin.
-They are reddish-brown to black in color.
-The beetle attacks fresh stumps and living
-trees by boring through the bark and constructing
-galleries on the face of the sapwood
-where eggs are laid. Fifty to 200
-eggs are laid in a group. They hatch into
-white larvae which feed on the inner bark.
-The beetle may girdle trees when several
-broods occur at approximately the same
-height, killing the trees. From 70 to 90
-percent of the trees attacked by the beetle die.</p>
-<p>After the larvae complete their development, they pupate. Adult
-beetles emerge and infest more pine trees. The entire life cycle takes
-from 2&frac12; to 4 months, depending on temperature. In the insect&rsquo;s
-southern range there usually are two generations and part of a third
-each year. In its northern range, the third generation does not develop;
-consequently the beetle is not a serious pest there.</p>
-<p>Weather is probably the most influential
-factor in regulating the numbers
-of this insect. During outbreaks the removal
-or chemical treatment of infested
-trees helps to keep losses to a
-minimum.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig51">
-<img src="images/i017b.jpg" alt="" width="544" height="599" />
-<p class="pcap">Close-up of black turpentine beetle pitch tubes.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_32">32</div>
-<h3 id="c32">AMBROSIA BEETLE, <i>Platypus flavicornis</i> (F.)</h3>
-<p>Ambrosia beetles are represented
-in the South by several species of
-the genus <i>Platypus</i> of which only
-<i>P. flavicornis</i> (F.) is known to attack
-dead or dying southern
-pines. <i>P. flavicornis</i> (F.) will secondarily
-invade other conifers
-and on some occasions may be
-found in hardwood trees. It is so
-abundant in the South that few
-dying pines, stumps, or logs escape
-attack. The beetle is found
-from Texas east to Florida and
-north to New Jersey.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig52">
-<img src="images/i018.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="375" />
-<p class="pcap">Adult of the <span class="u">Platypus</span> ambrosia beetle.</p>
-</div>
-<p>The adult is a reddish-brown elongate beetle approximately one-fourth
-inch in length. The male of the species has a pair of blunt tooth-like
-structures on the third abdominal segment. Several males are usually
-found in the presence of a single female. This species requires moist
-wood which is favorable to the growth of fungi upon which they feed.
-The adults bore into sapwood or heartwood of logs and lumber, making
-pin-sized holes which are stained by the ambrosia fungus. The female
-lays eggs in small clusters in the tunnel and the developing larvae excavate
-tiny cells extending from the tunnel parallel to the grain of
-wood. There may be several generations a year.</p>
-<p>Ambrosia beetle damage to green sawlogs and lumber may result in
-considerable degrade and strength reduction. The best control is rapid
-utilization of dead or dying trees. Lumber should be seasoned as soon
-as possible to reduce or eliminate losses.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_33">33</div>
-<h3 id="c33">SOUTHERN PINE SAWYERS, <i>Monochamus</i> spp.</h3>
-<p>In the South, dying pines and
-fresh logs are quickly attacked
-by the pine sawyers. In sufficient
-numbers they may cause
-a significant loss of wood fiber
-and degrade sawlogs. These
-species are commonly found
-in the South infesting southern
-pine, fir, and spruce
-wherever the hosts grow.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig53">
-<img src="images/i018a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="440" />
-<p class="pcap">Adult southern pine sawyer beetle.</p>
-</div>
-<p>The adults emerge in the
-spring or summer and begin to
-feed on the bark of twigs.
-After mating, the female
-gnaws pits through the bark of
-freshly felled or dying pine. The female beetle lays one to several eggs
-in each pit. After eggs hatch the larvae bore beneath the bark for 40-60
-days, converting the inner bark into coarse, shredded frass. The larvae
-then enter the wood and make deep U-shaped cells through the heartwood
-and sapwood. The entrance is plugged with frass and the far end
-is excavated into a pupal chamber. The larvae pupate the following
-spring or early summer, transform into adults, and emerge that same
-season. The insect has two or three generations per year in the South.</p>
-<p>Pine sawyers render storm- or fire-damaged pines unfit for salvage and
-are also a problem in wood-holding yards. Rapid salvage and utilization
-of dead or dying trees or green logs will reduce losses significantly.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_34">34</div>
-<h3 id="c34">NANTUCKET PINE TIP MOTH, <i>Rhyacionia frustrana</i> (Comstock)</h3>
-<p>The impact of the Nantucket
-pine tip moth on pine plantations
-varies widely with tree
-species, host vigor, and environmental
-factors. Heavily infested
-trees may be severely stunted or
-deformed but mortality is rare.
-Generally, the tree grows out of
-the susceptible stage within a few
-years. In seed orchards, the tip
-moth is receiving increasing attention
-because of its impact on
-height growth and, more importantly,
-because of its effect on
-flower and cone production. All
-species of pine within the range
-of the tip moth except white
-pine and longleaf pine, are attacked. It has been reported from all states
-in the eastern hard-pine region extending across east Texas, Oklahoma,
-Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, and southern New York State.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig54">
-<img src="images/i019.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="526" />
-<p class="pcap">Nantucket pine tip moth larva on pine bud.</p>
-</div>
-<p>The tip moths overwinter as pupae in the tips of infested trees. In the
-South the adults emerge on warm
-days during the late winter months,
-mate, and the females lay eggs in
-the axils between needles and stem
-near the terminal bud of host trees.
-On hatching, larvae bore first into
-the base of developing needles, and
-later into the new terminal growth
-or buds. There are two to four generations
-per year in the southern
-part of the tip moth&rsquo;s range.</p>
-<p>Chemical control is generally not
-considered practical in forest plantations,
-but several pesticides have
-proved effective in reducing insect
-damage in seed orchards.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig55">
-<img src="images/i019a.jpg" alt="" width="558" height="601" />
-<p class="pcap">Newly emerged adult tip moth on a damaged shortleaf pine tip.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_35">35</div>
-<h3 id="c35">PALES WEEVIL, <i>Hylobius pales</i> (Hbst.)</h3>
-<p>Pales weevil is perhaps the most serious insect
-pest of pine reproduction in the southeastern
-United States. Losses in susceptible areas
-commonly run 20-25 percent, but exceed 90
-percent under circumstances favoring weevil
-development. Pales weevil is found throughout
-pine-growing regions of eastern United
-States and Canada. Feeding has been reported
-on most coniferous species, and all species of
-southern pines appear to be susceptible in
-varying degrees.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig56">
-<img src="images/i019b.jpg" alt="" width="395" height="699" />
-<p class="pcap">Pitch-eating weevils in the genera <span class="u">Pachylobius</span>, <span class="u">Hylobius</span>, and <span class="u">Pissodes</span>.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Adult weevils are attracted by the odor of
-fresh pine resin, and quickly invade logging
-areas. Eggs are laid in lateral roots of fresh
-pine stumps, where they hatch in approximately
-five to ten days. Larvae feed on the
-inner-bark tissues of roots. At maturity, larvae
-usually construct a chip cocoon in a chamber
-cut into the wood, and pupate in the cocoon.
-On emerging, adults feed on the tender bark
-of seedlings, or twigs of trees. The small irregular
-feeding patches in the bark are characteristic
-of weevil damage. Heavy feeding girdles the stem or twig,
-causing wilting and eventual death. Newly emerged adult females feed
-for approximately one month before laying eggs. Females may lay eggs
-sporadically through two growing seasons. The average female lays
-about 50 eggs in her lifetime. In the South there are two peaks in adult
-weevil population each year; the first occurs in the early spring (March-May)
-followed by a second somewhat lower peak in July and August.</p>
-<p>This insect can be controlled by delaying planting in cut-over areas for
-at least nine months, or by treating seedlings with a suitable insecticide.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig57">
-<img src="images/i019c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="515" />
-<p class="pcap">Adult pales weevil feeding on seedling.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_36">36</div>
-<h3 id="c36">WHITE PINE WEEVIL, <i>Pissodes strobi</i> (Peck)</h3>
-<p>The white pine weevil is generally
-regarded as the most serious insect
-pest of white pine. Although it
-usually does not cause mortality,
-trees suffering repeated attacks become
-stunted and deformed to the
-point of being commercially unusable.
-The weevil has become such a
-problem in some areas that it prohibits
-the growing of white pine. In
-addition to eastern white pine, the
-white pine weevils also attack Norway
-spruce and jack pine. Other
-pines and spruces are attacked to a
-lesser degree. The weevil is found
-throughout the range of eastern
-white pine.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig58">
-<img src="images/i020.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="599" />
-<p class="pcap">Pine leader damaged by the white pine weevil.</p>
-</div>
-<p>During the latter half of April, the adults may be found on the terminal
-shoots of host trees where the female lays her eggs. Up to 200 eggs
-are deposited over a six-week period. The eggs are laid in feeding punctures
-in the bark, and hatch about two weeks later. Characteristically,
-the young larvae position themselves around the shoot and begin
-feeding as a group down the terminal through the inner bark. Small
-holes scattered over the bark are characteristic of white pine weevil
-attacks. After five or six weeks the larvae construct pupal chambers in
-the pith or wood of the terminal shoot and transform into adults. The
-young adults remain in the dead terminal until late October and
-November when they move to favorable overwintering sites on the
-ground, usually at the base of the host tree.</p>
-<p>Control of the white pine weevil is difficult. It is possible, however, to
-reduce the damage by making conditions in a young stand unfavorable
-for egg laying. This is possible because the female weevil will only lay
-eggs within a rather narrow range of temperature and relative humidity.
-Various techniques involving the use of shade from &ldquo;nurse trees&rdquo; have
-been developed but require intensive management. Under certain circumstances,
-chemical control can be used.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_37">37</div>
-<h3 id="c37">PITCH-EATING WEEVIL, <i>Pachylobius picivorus</i> (Germar)</h3>
-<p>In the Gulf Coast States the pitch-eating weevil is probably the most
-troublesome insect pest of pine seedlings. No accurate figures are available
-on the damage directly attributable to this pest, but mortality
-losses are estimated to average about 30 percent in susceptible areas. All
-of the southern hard pines and other conifers are probably suitable
-breeding and host material for the pitch-eating weevil. Its range overlaps
-that of the pales weevil, being reported from Labrador, Canada, south
-to Florida and west to Texas. It occurs in damage-causing numbers
-only in the Gulf Coast States.</p>
-<p>Pitch-eating weevils breed in the roots of freshly cut stumps. The adults
-burrow down through the soil, sometimes a considerable distance from
-the stump, and lay their eggs in niches chewed in the root bark. On
-hatching, larvae mine the inner bark, packing their galleries with frass.
-Pupal cells are excavated in the sapwood, and a chip cocoon is constructed
-from the excelsior-like material removed during the cells&rsquo; construction.
-Development time varies from six to ten months depending
-on when the stumps are initially infested. Emerging adult pitch-eating
-weevils feed by night on the tender bark of seedlings. Small irregular
-patches of bark are removed, eventually girdling the seedling and
-causing its death. The pitch-eating weevil exhibits a population trend
-similar to that of the pales weevil, and is a threat mostly in early spring
-and in the fall.</p>
-<p>The most effective control for pine reproduction weevils is to wait nine
-months before replanting or until the stumps in an area are no longer
-attractive to the weevil. Chemical control can be used when such a
-delay is considered impractical.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_38">38</div>
-<h3 id="c38">DEODAR WEEVIL, <i>Pissodes nemorensis</i> (Germ.)</h3>
-<p>This snout beetle is very
-similar to the white pine
-weevil both in appearance and
-habits. It is found throughout
-the south- and mid-Atlantic
-states from southern New Jersey
-west to Missouri. Although
-deodar cedar is the preferred
-host, Atlas cedar, Lebanon
-cedar, and several species of
-southern pines are also
-attacked.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig59">
-<img src="images/i021.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="421" />
-<p class="pcap">Galleries and chip cocoons of the deodar weevil.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Adults emerge from April to
-May and feed briefly on the inner bark of leaders and lateral branches
-of host trees. Heavy feeding frequently girdles the stem and can kill
-small trees. The adults are dormant during the summer, but resume
-activity in the fall to lay their eggs. From one to four eggs are deposited
-in feeding punctures. The newly hatched larvae bore into the inner bark
-where they construct winding galleries which girdle the stem. Evidence
-of such infestations is often delayed until January when the branches
-begin to turn brown. Winter is spent in the larval stage. The larvae
-pupate in March or April and the cycle is complete.</p>
-<p>Keeping shade trees in a vigorous condition by proper watering and
-fertilization helps reduce their susceptibility to weevil attack.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_39">39</div>
-<h3 id="c39">CONEWORMS, <i>Dioryctria</i> spp.</h3>
-<p>Coneworms are perhaps the most
-destructive insect pests of pine
-cones in the South. They are
-particularly serious in superior-tree
-seed orchards where they
-frequently cause substantial
-economic loss. There are five
-important species of coneworms
-in the South, one or more of
-which attack all of the native and
-exotic pines.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig60">
-<img src="images/i021a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="482" />
-<p class="pcap">Coneworm larva feeding on a pine shoot.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Although the number of generations
-per year varies with the
-species, their general life history
-is similar. Female moths lay their
-eggs around wounds, cankers, galls, etc., but also deposit particularly on
-terminal growth. Eggs generally hatch in about a week. Larvae may stay
-at a single feeding site, or move to several different sites before completing
-their development. This latter behavior often results in a single
-larva destroying several cones or shoots. Pupation takes place in a
-chamber constructed by the larva at the feeding site. Depending on the
-species and time of year, the adult may emerge in two to three weeks or
-overwinter in the pupal stage. Coneworms cause several kinds of damage.
-They may mine through the inner bark, bore up the center of a
-shoot, or completely hollow
-out a cone. Their attacks are
-sometimes marked by fecal
-pellets and large pitch masses.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig61">
-<img src="images/i021c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="423" />
-<p class="pcap">Slash pine cone damaged by coneworm larva.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Several parasites attack coneworms
-but are seldom effective
-enough to prevent population
-build-ups. Chemical
-control is often necessary on
-seed orchards to ensure
-adequate protection of the
-cone crop.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_40">40</div>
-<h3 id="c40">PINE SEEDWORMS, <i>Laspeyresia</i> spp.</h3>
-<p>Until recent years little has been
-known about pine seedworms.
-These insects are found throughout
-the South but seldom have
-population explosions. An exception
-to this is on slash pine in
-Florida where over 70 percent of
-one year&rsquo;s cones were reported
-infested. Longleaf pine cones in
-Texas and Louisiana have also
-had over 60 percent cone infestation
-on occasion. Loblolly and
-shortleaf pine cones are seldom
-over 20 percent infested. Seedworms
-have been found infesting
-longleaf, loblolly, shortleaf,
-slash, and Virginia pine cones.
-<i>Laspeyresia anaranjada</i> Miller attacks primarily slash pine, occasionally
-longleaf pine, and rarely loblolly pine. <i>L. ingens</i> Heinrick attacks
-primarily longleaf and slash pine. <i>L. toreuta</i> Grote attacks Virginia,
-shortleaf, and loblolly pine in the South.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig62">
-<img src="images/i022.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="575" />
-<p class="pcap">Adult pine seedworm.</p>
-</div>
-<p>The female moth lays eggs from April through May on second-year
-cones. There is one generation per year. Larvae feed within developing
-seeds until the cone matures. In late fall, larvae either bore into the
-cone axis or remain in a hollowed-out seed, and overwinter. Pupation
-occurs within the cone and moths emerge through the hollow seeds.
-External evidence of seedworm
-attack is not visible in
-immature cones. As cones
-mature, damaged seeds are
-retained in the cone. Heavily
-damaged cones do not open
-properly. In high-value seed
-orchards and seed production
-areas some protection from
-seedworm attack may be obtained
-through the use of pesticides
-applied in a carefully
-timed program.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig63">
-<img src="images/i022a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="398" />
-<p class="pcap">Pine seedworm larva in longleaf pine seed.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_41">41</div>
-<h3 id="c41">BALSAM WOOLLY APHID, <i>Adelges piceae</i> (Ratzeburg)</h3>
-<div class="img" id="fig64">
-<img src="images/i022b.jpg" alt="" width="471" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap">Eggs and wool-covered adult balsam woolly aphids.</p>
-</div>
-<p>The balsam woolly aphid was
-introduced into northeastern
-North America from Europe
-around the turn of the century.
-Since then it has become a pest
-of major importance to true firs
-on the east and west coasts of
-the continent, and threatens
-some 60,000 acres of Fraser fir
-in the southern Appalachians.
-Usually the balsam woolly aphid
-has two generations per year in
-the southern Appalachians. Eggs
-of the first generation hatch in
-late June and July followed by
-the second generation in September
-and October. The immature
-stage of the aphid known as a
-&ldquo;crawler&rdquo; is the only motile
-stage in the aphid&rsquo;s life cycle.
-Once the crawler begins feeding,
-it transforms into an adult and
-never again moves. Reproduction
-is parthenogenic with each female laying approximately 100 eggs during
-her lifetime.</p>
-<p>In the feeding process the aphid injects a salivary substance into the
-host tree, which causes growth abnormalities. Initial symptoms of aphid
-attack may include &ldquo;gouting&rdquo; of buds or twig nodes and some twig and
-branch die-back. Heavy stem
-attacks reduce the tree&rsquo;s
-ability to translocate food and
-water. Usually a heavily infested
-tree dies within two to
-seven years.</p>
-<p>Chemical control is effective
-but extremely costly and thus
-limited to very high-value
-areas along scenic road-ways.
-Other control measures include
-removal and destruction
-of infested material.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig65">
-<img src="images/i022c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="377" />
-<p class="pcap">Fraser fir infested by balsam woolly aphid.</p>
-</div>
-<h2><br /><span class="small">DISEASES</span></h2>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_42">42</div>
-<h3 id="c42">NEEDLE CAST</h3>
-<p>Needle cast is a very common
-disease of conifers throughout
-eastern and southern United
-States. Eastern white, loblolly,
-longleaf, pitch, pond, shortleaf,
-table mountain, and Virginia
-pines are all susceptible. <i>Hypoderma
-lethale</i> is probably the
-most common cause of needle
-cast on the above hosts, with the
-exception of longleaf pine.
-<i>Lophodermium pinastri</i> is also
-associated with needle cast.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig66">
-<img src="images/i023.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="422" />
-<p class="pcap">Hypoderma needle cast on loblolly pine.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Current pine needles are infected in the early summer, and by winter or
-early spring begin to turn brown at the tips. At this time the tree
-usually has a scorched appearance. Later, the browning progresses down
-the needle and the fungal fruiting bodies are produced. These are small,
-black, elongated structures known as hysterothecia, which open along a
-slit during moist weather to release their spores. The infected needles
-are often &ldquo;cast,&rdquo; leaving only the new growth, and causing the tree to
-have a tufted appearance.</p>
-<p>Controls are seldom needed for this disease in forest stands. Infected
-trees usually recover and put out new foliage the year following heavy
-attacks. Nurseries or plantations should not be established in areas
-where needle cast is prevalent.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig67">
-<img src="images/i023a.jpg" alt="" width="592" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap">Lophodermium needle cast on 2-0 nursery stock and 5 year old scotch pine, Spanish variety.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig68">
-<img src="images/i023b.jpg" alt="(cont.)" width="595" height="600" />
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_43">43</div>
-<h3 id="c43">BROWN SPOT NEEDLE BLIGHT</h3>
-<p>Brown spot or brown spot needle
-blight is caused by the fungus
-<i>Scirrhia acicola</i>. Brown spot
-occurs in all the coastal states
-from Virginia to Texas, and inland
-to Arkansas and Tennessee.
-All southern pines are attacked
-by the fungus, but only longleaf
-pine seedlings are seriously
-damaged.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig69">
-<img src="images/i023c.jpg" alt="" width="595" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap">Brown spot needle blight on longleaf pine reproduction.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Initial infection of pine needles
-results in the development of
-small, circular spots of grey green
-color, which later turn brown. As
-the fungus continues to grow, a
-necrotic area encircles the
-needle, appearing as a brown
-band. The infected area will then
-increase in size, eventually resulting in the death of the needle. Fruiting
-bodies, called acervuli, develop in the dead areas of the needle. Spores
-are extruded from the acervuli in a water soluble gelatinuous matrix
-throughout the entire year. The spores are washed apart and splashed
-short distances by rain drops. These spores spread the disease from
-seedling to seedling. During the winter and early spring, the sexual stage
-of the fungus is produced on dead needles. Ascospores, produced in a
-fruiting body called a perithecium, are light and wind-disseminated.
-These spores are responsible for disease spread. During the grass stage,
-seedlings often become heavily infected by the brown spot fungus,
-resulting in partial to complete defoliation. Seedlings which are nearly
-defoliated every year remain in the grass stage and eventually die. Three
-successive years of complete defoliation will result in death. The disease
-is very damaging during wet years, especially in areas where the fungus
-has become well established in the absence of controls.</p>
-<p>The disease can be reduced by control burning during the winter
-months. On seedlings, fire burns the diseased needles and reduces the
-amount of available inoculum for reinfection, leaving the large terminal
-bud unharmed. Often a single prescribed burn reduces the disease intensity
-to such low levels that vigorous seedling height growth begins the
-following year. Fungicide sprays will also reduce brown spot on high
-valued trees.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_44">44</div>
-<h3 id="c44">PINE NEEDLE RUST</h3>
-<div class="img" id="fig70">
-<img src="images/i024.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="424" />
-<p class="pcap">Fruiting bodies of pine needle rust on loblolly pine.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Nearly all the native pines in southern United States are attacked by
-various needle rust fungi of the genus <i>Coleosporium</i>. This disease is very
-common, but causes little harm to the trees. Many species of this rust
-also attack broadleaved weeds in addition to the pines, needing both
-host types to complete their life cycle.</p>
-<p>Needle rusts are most prevalent on young trees in the seedling to sapling
-stage. In the spring or early summer small, delicate white fungus &ldquo;cups&rdquo;
-filled with yellow to orange spores are produced on the needles. From a
-distance entire seedlings may appear to have a whitish or yellowish cast.
-Individual needles which are heavily infected may die, turn brown, and
-drop from the tree. However, the entire tree is rarely defoliated. Small
-red &ldquo;rust pustules&rdquo; form on the undersurface of the weed leaves. These
-are replaced by dark structures later in the summer.</p>
-<p>The needle rusts are not important enough to warrant control in natural
-forests or plantations. If the weed (alternate) host is known, it can be
-eradicated around nurseries of susceptible pine species. However, it
-would be better to establish nurseries in rust free areas.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_45">45</div>
-<h3 id="c45">CEDAR APPLE RUST</h3>
-<p>Cedar apple rust, caused by <i>Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae</i>, is
-important commercially in the apple-growing regions of the Virginias,
-Carolinas, and the Mississippi Valley. The alternate hosts of this rust are
-eastern red cedar and several species of junipers.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig71">
-<img src="images/i024b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="528" />
-<p class="pcap">Fruiting galls containing spores on cedar tree.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig72">
-<img src="images/i024c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="567" />
-<p class="pcap">Fruiting on apple leaf the alternate host.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Cedar &ldquo;apples&rdquo; or galls are the characteristic signs of the fungus on
-cedars. Cedar needles are infected in the summer by wind-borne spores
-from apple leaves. By the next spring or early summer galls begin to
-appear as small greenish brown swellings on the upper needle surfaces.
-By fall, the infected needle turns into a chocolate brown gall covered
-with small circular depressions. The following spring, orange jelly-like
-tendrils protrude from the galls producing an attractive ornament for
-the cedar tree. Spores produced from these orange spore masses are
-then capable of reinfecting apple leaves, thus completing the fungus life
-cycle.</p>
-<p>No practical control of the rust on cedars is available because of the low
-value of cedar. However, considerable effort is expended to protect
-apple trees. Where apple is to be protected, cedars should be eliminated
-in the vicinity or, rust galls should be picked or cut off cedars before
-the galls mature.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_46">46</div>
-<h3 id="c46">CEDAR BLIGHT</h3>
-<p>Cedar blight, caused by <i>Phomopsis juniperovora</i>, is most severe on eastern
-red and Rocky Mountain cedars. Other hosts include arborvitae,
-cypress, and Atlantic white cedar. The disease ranges from the mid-West
-to the Atlantic coast and south to Alabama where it is most common in
-nurseries.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig73">
-<img src="images/i025.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="541" />
-<p class="pcap">Needle symptoms on 1-0 eastern red cedar nursery stock and 5 year old Arizona cypress.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig74">
-<img src="images/i025a.jpg" alt="(cont.)" width="600" height="548" />
-</div>
-<p>Symptoms on red cedar resemble that of drought. The tips of branches
-are killed back and sometimes entire trees will turn brown. The fungus
-forms black fruiting bodies on needles and stem lesions. Fungus spores
-are distributed by rainwater; nursery overhead sprinkling systems also
-facilitate blight spread.</p>
-<p>Control of cedar blight is initiated by removing and burning infected
-nursery stock early in the season before infection becomes heavy. Seedbeds
-should be well drained. Avoid introducing cedar stock to an infected
-nursery. The location of cedars in the nursery should be changed
-frequently and, where possible, cedar beds should be kept well away
-from older cedar or cedar hedges. Seedlings growing in low-density seed
-beds are more vulnerable to the blight; thus beds should be fully
-stocked. Cedar mulch should never be used on cedar beds. Avoid
-wounding nursery transplants. No economically feasible control is available
-for forest stands.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_47">47</div>
-<h3 id="c47">FUSIFORM RUST</h3>
-<div class="img" id="fig75">
-<img src="images/i025b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="381" />
-<p class="pcap">Galls on 1-0 pine nursery stock.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig76">
-<img src="images/i025c.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="319" />
-<p class="pcap">Damage caused by fusiform rust infection.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Fusiform rust, caused by <i>Cronartium fusiforme</i>, is one of the most
-important diseases on southern pines. This rust is found from Maryland
-to Florida and west to Texas and southern Arkansas. The rust&rsquo;s most
-important impact is in nurseries, seed orchards, and young plantations.
-Loblolly and slash pines are very susceptible to this rust. Pitch and
-pond pines are moderately susceptible, longleaf pine is fairly resistant,
-and shortleaf pine is highly resistant.</p>
-<p>The most easily recognized symptom is the spindle-shaped canker on
-the pine branches or main stem. In early spring these swellings appear
-yellow to orange as the fungus produces
-powdery spores. As host tissue
-is killed, older stem cankers may
-become flat or sunken. Cankers often
-girdle trees and wind breakage at the
-canker is common. Fungus spores
-from the pine infect oak leaves.
-Brown hair-like structures, produced
-on the underside of the leaves in late
-spring, are the most conspicuous signs.
-These projections produce spores
-which in turn reinfect the pine trees,
-completing a &ldquo;typical&rdquo; rust cycle.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig77">
-<img src="images/i025e.jpg" alt="" width="587" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap">Fruiting fusiform-shaped canker on main stem of southern pine.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Silvicultural practices may lessen the
-incidence of infection in plantations.
-Avoid planting highly susceptible
-species such as slash and loblolly pines in areas of known high rust
-incidence. In these areas more resistant species such as longleaf or shortleaf
-pine should be planted. Pruning infected branches will prevent stem
-infection in young plantations. Rust-resistant pines should be readily
-available from the nurseries in the near future. Culling out seedlings
-with obvious galls before outplanting will reduce the disease incidence
-in new plantations.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_48">48</div>
-<h3 id="c48">WHITE PINE BLISTER RUST</h3>
-<p>White pine blister rust, caused by <i>Cronartium ribicola</i>, was introduced
-to North America on nursery stock about 1900. It is the most important
-disease on white pine in the United States. In the South, the
-disease is found on eastern white pine in the Appalachian mountains.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig78">
-<img src="images/i026.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="441" />
-<p class="pcap">Fruiting cankers showing yellow-colored spores of blister rust on eastern white pine.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig79">
-<img src="images/i026a.jpg" alt="(cont.)" width="600" height="441" />
-</div>
-<p>The disease is caused by a fungus that attacks both white pine and wild
-and cultivated currant and gooseberry bushes, called <i>Ribes</i>. Both hosts
-must be present if the fungus is to complete its life cycle. Attack by the
-disease is followed by the development of cankers on the main stem or
-branches. Infected pines die when a canker completely girdles the main
-stem or when many of the branches are killed by girdling. The most
-conspicuous symptoms of the disease are the dying branches or crowns
-(&ldquo;flags&rdquo;) above the girdling cankers, and the cankers themselves.</p>
-<p>Initially, a narrow band of yellow-orange bark marks the edges of the
-canker. Inside this band are small irregular dark brown scars. As the
-canker grows, the margin and bank of dark scars expand and the portion
-formerly occupied by the dark scars is now the area where the
-spores that infect <i>Ribes</i> are produced. During the months of April
-through June white sacs or blisters containing orange-yellow spores
-(called aeciospores) push through the diseased bark. The blisters soon
-rupture and the orange-yellow spores are wind-dispersed for great distances.
-Generally, there is some tissue swelling associated with the canker,
-which results in a spindle-shaped swelling around the infected portion
-of the stem.</p>
-<p>Loss of white pines from blister rust can be prevented by destroying the
-wild and cultivated <i>Ribes</i> bushes. Bushes may be removed by uprooting
-by hand, grubbing with a hand tool, or with herbicides. Pruning infected
-branches on young trees will prevent stem infections and
-probably tree mortality.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_49">49</div>
-<h3 id="c49">COMANDRA BLISTER RUST</h3>
-<div class="img" id="fig80">
-<img src="images/i026b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="706" />
-<p class="pcap">Fruit gall showing orange colored spores on loblolly pine.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig81">
-<img src="images/i026c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="763" />
-<p class="pcap">Alternate host&mdash;false toadflax.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Comandra blister rust, caused by the fungus <i>Cronartium comandrae</i>, is
-a canker disease of hard pines. The disease presently occurs in widely
-scattered areas throughout the western, central, and southern United
-States. In the South, the primary hosts are loblolly, shortleaf, pond,
-and Virginia pine. Herbaceous plants of the genus Comandra, commonly
-known as false toadflax or comandra, are also attacked.</p>
-<p>The fungus infects pines through the needles and grows from the needle
-into the branch or main stem where it forms a gall or canker. Dark
-orange-colored spores which are produced on the surface of the gall in
-the spring are wind-blown and infect the leaves or stems of the comandra
-plants. Two to three weeks after infection, urediospores are produced
-on the underside of the comandra leaf. These are wind-blown
-and can only infect other comandra plants. Eventually hair-like structures
-known as telia are produced on the comandra leaves and stems.
-The telia produce spores which are wind-blown and infect the pine host
-through the needle. The necessary combination of a susceptible pine
-host, the alternate host, and the pathogen is presently known to occur
-only in northern Arkansas, eastern Tennessee, and northern Alabama.</p>
-<p>No effective method of controlling the disease in forest stands is presently
-known. Silvicultural or forest management practices which reduce
-the abundance of the alternate host offer promise of long term control.
-Maintenance of dense stands and heavy ground cover as a means of
-shading out the intermediate host plants, may be helpful in reducing
-rust damage in many areas.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_50">50</div>
-<h3 id="c50">EASTERN GALL RUST</h3>
-<p>Eastern gall rust, caused by
-the fungus <i>Cronartium cerebrum</i>,
-attacks many species of
-eastern hard pines. The disease
-ranges eastward from the
-Great Plains and is most severe
-in the South on Virginia and
-shortleaf pines. Like most
-rusts this fungus requires an alternate
-host in addition to its
-pine host. In this case oaks, especially
-the red oak group
-(black, red, scarlet and pin)
-are the alternate hosts. Damage
-to the oaks is generally not
-of economic importance as only
-the leaves are affected.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig82">
-<img src="images/i027.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="480" />
-<p class="pcap">Fruiting gall showing red-orange spores on Virginia pine.</p>
-</div>
-<p>On pines the fungus causes the formation of globose to sub-globose
-galls. Canker formation occurs occasionally but mortality generally results
-from wind breakage at the gall rather than by canker formation as
-literally hundreds of galls may appear on a single tree. They are not
-lethal to the tree, but may ruin tree form and on a large stem they can
-lead to an open decayed wound, as decay fungi are often secondary
-invaders of rust infections. The shape of galls and the arrangement of
-the spore sacs filled with red-orange spores present a cerebroid (brain-like)
-appearance. During the spring the bright orange galls are very
-striking.</p>
-<p>This disease is sometimes a problem in nurseries where seedlings are
-attacked and killed. This is where control efforts are concentrated.
-Fungicide protectants are applied to the seedling foliage to prevent
-infection from spores produced on oaks. Contact your local forestry
-extension agent or the nearest Division of Forest Pest Management for
-the latest recommendations. Under forest conditions, control is not
-economically feasible. Trees of poor form should be removed during
-thinning operations.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_51">51</div>
-<h3 id="c51">SOUTHERN CONE RUST</h3>
-<p>Southern cone rust is caused by the fungus <i>Cronartium strobilinum</i>. It
-has been reported to completely destroy slash and longleaf pine cone
-crops in Georgia and along the Gulf Coast from Florida to Texas.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig83">
-<img src="images/i027a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="546" />
-<p class="pcap">Cone rust symptoms on slash pine.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig84">
-<img src="images/i027b.jpg" alt="(cont.)" width="600" height="537" />
-</div>
-<p>Like most other rusts, the fungus requires oaks and pines to complete
-its life cycle. Although infection of oak leaves occurs annually, no
-significant economic damage is done to the oaks. Fungus spores produced
-on oak leaves infect the mature female pine flowers about the
-time of pollination (January-February). The fungus grows through the
-developing conelet causing it to swell abnormally. By early April or late
-May the infected cones are three to four times larger than the normal
-first-year cones and even exceed the maturing second-year cones in size.
-The swollen cone scales are reddish in color. Cavities in the cone filled
-with orange-yellow spores burst and the cones become orange-yellow.
-The swollen orange-yellow cones in the tree crowns can be easily distinguished
-from normal cones by an observer on the ground. By late
-summer most of the diseased cones have died and fallen.</p>
-<p>Control at present is confined to seed orchards. Hydraulic spraying of
-the flowers with fungicides gives a significant reduction in infections.
-Consult your local forester, county extension agent or the nearest
-Forest Pest Management Office for current control recommendations.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_52">52</div>
-<h3 id="c52">PITCH CANKER</h3>
-<p>Pitch canker, caused by the fungus <i>Fusarium lateritium forma pini</i>, is
-rapidly becoming widespread throughout the South. The disease apparently
-is most serious on Virginia, slash and south Florida slash pine. The
-fungus also attacks shortleaf, pitch, and table-mountain pine.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig85">
-<img src="images/i028.jpg" alt="" width="565" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap">Pitch canker infection in terminal branch and main stem of pine.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig86">
-<img src="images/i028a.jpg" alt="(cont.)" width="600" height="454" />
-</div>
-<p>Pitch canker may cause tree mortality. On Virginia pines the fungus
-reportedly enters through small insect wounds in the twigs or mechanical
-wounds in the bole. Shoots may be girdled and killed within a few
-weeks, but it takes a period of years for the fungus to girdle the bole of
-larger trees. On slash pine the disease apparently attacks plantations in
-wave years. During years of heavy attack the fungus can cause rapid
-crown deterioration in addition to causing bole canker infections. Cankers
-on leaders in the crown can result in death of two-thirds or more
-of the crown by mid-summer in a tree that appeared healthy in the
-spring. In the majority of tree infections only the leader and one or two
-laterals will be infected. The tree recovers in a few years with a crook in
-the bole as the only evidence of attack. Pitch cankers usually retain the
-bark and old cankers on the hole may be sunken. The most diagnostic
-characteristic of the disease, and the one that definitely separates it
-from similar disease, is the heavy pitch soak of the wood beneath the
-canker. Pitch cankers are often so soaked with pitch that heavy flow of
-pitch is observed flowing down the bole.</p>
-<p>At the present time, no known method of control exists. Observations
-in slash pine plantations indicate that some trees are resistant while
-others range in their degree of susceptibility.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_53">53</div>
-<h3 id="c53">WOOD DECAY</h3>
-<p>Wood decay of southern forest trees is responsible for nearly 80 percent
-of all loss attributed to disease. This decay is caused by fungi which
-mainly attack heartwood in the central portion of stems, branches, and
-roots. Wood-rotting fungi gain entrance into the tree through broken
-branches, wounds, and damaged or exposed roots. Spores, which land
-at these damaged areas, germinate and produce a microscopic mycelium
-which attacks and spreads throughout the heartwood. The decay is
-caused by the action of the mycelium, which penetrate the cell walls
-and dissolve or alter the wood in various ways. Fungus development
-within the tree may continue for many years without any apparent
-effect on the growth of the host. Eventually the mycelium will aggregate
-and break through the bark to form the reproductive stage, either
-before or after the death of the host. The fruiting body (sporophore,
-conk) produces vast amounts of spores which are capable of spreading
-the fungus to other trees.</p>
-<p>Heartrots may be separated into broad classes on the basis of the host
-portion attacked, such as root rots, root and butt rots, stem rots, and
-top rots. Decay fungi may be further separated into two broad classes
-based on their effect on wood. The first class causes white rots, decomposing
-all components of the wood and reducing it to a spongy mass
-with white pockets or streaks separated by firm wood. The second
-class, causing brown rots, utilize the cellulose, leaving the lignin more or
-less unaffected. This usually results in a rot which appears as some
-shade of brown.</p>
-<p>The separation of wood decay fungi on the basis of their host range, the
-portion of the host attacked, and the type of rot produced are useful
-aids to a pathologist in determining a tentative identification of the
-fungus responsible for a particular type of rot. However, there are
-numerous fungi which cause decay, many of which are exceptions to
-the various methods of classification. This forces the pathologist to use
-microscopic examination and various artificial keys to arrive at the
-proper identification of a given rot-producing fungus.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig87">
-<img src="images/i028b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="409" />
-<p class="pcap">Sectioned stump showing rot and decay in heartwood.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_54">54</div>
-<h3 id="c54">RED HEART</h3>
-<p>The fungus, <i>Fomes pini</i>, is the
-cause of a heartrot of widespread
-distribution. Common
-names for the rot produced by
-this fungus are: red heart, red
-ring rot, or white peck. The
-disease is commonly associated
-with mature and over-mature
-conifers, especially
-Douglas fir, larch, spruce, and
-pine. In the southern United
-States, the fungus attacks all
-species of mature pine.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig88">
-<img src="images/i029.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="345" />
-<p class="pcap">Fruiting body of redheart on southern pine.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Generally, infection of all hosts occurs through dead branch stubs.
-Early stages of decay caused by <i>F. pini</i> are characterized by a discoloration
-of the heartwood, often appearing light red to reddish brown.
-The advanced stages of heartrot appear as elongated white pockets or
-flecks, formed parallel to the grain and separated by apparently firm
-wood. Often the pockets become resin filled. On southern pine hosts,
-the conks are often bracket-like or hoof-shaped. The upper surface
-appears dull grey to dark brown, with concentric furrows parallel to the
-margin of the fruiting body. The lower side is a light brown to brownish
-gold, rimmed by a velvety golden brown margin. Swollen knots result
-from the living wood tissue trying to overgrow the knot where a conk is
-forming.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig89">
-<img src="images/i029a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="450" />
-<p class="pcap">Cross section of infected tree showing rotted and decayed heart wood.</p>
-</div>
-<p>In southern forest stands,
-heartrot damage may be reduced
-by harvesting mature
-pines prior to the age of extreme
-susceptibility to fungus
-attack. Some degree of shade
-tree protection can be obtained
-by pruning dead and
-dying branches flush with the
-main stem. This will allow the
-knot to be quickly overgrown
-by sap wood, preventing the
-heartrot fungus from entering
-through the branch stub.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_55">55</div>
-<h3 id="c55">ANNOSUS ROOT AND BUTT ROT</h3>
-<div class="img" id="fig90">
-<img src="images/i029b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="515" />
-<p class="pcap">Fomes annosus fruiting bodies on stump.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Annosus root and butt rot is
-caused by the fungus <i>Fomes
-annosus</i>. This pathogen is common
-throughout coniferous
-stands of the North Temperate
-Zone. Hardwoods may be attacked,
-but damage is usually of
-minor consequence. In the
-South, the disease is most serious
-in pine plantations on sandy soils
-with low organic matter. All
-species of southern pine are susceptible.
-Slash and loblolly plantations
-are often severely
-affected.</p>
-<p>The disease gains entry into plantations by spore infection of freshly
-cut stumps during thinnings. The fungus then spreads from the infected
-stumps to residual trees by growth along the roots to points of root
-contact. Residual trees usually begin to die within a few years after
-thinning. The sporophores or fruiting bodies are generally found at
-ground line or in the root crotch. Pines in initial stages of the disease
-usually exhibit sparsely foliated crowns; however, white pine with full
-crown may have extensive butt and root decay. Occasionally trees may
-die rapidly with a sudden red discoloration of a nearly full crown.
-Diseased trees are often found in groups or circular pockets in the
-stand. The indication of <i>F. annosus</i>
-decay may include the pink to
-violet stain of incipient decay, the
-narrow elongated white pockets
-and scattered black flecks in the
-wood of the early decay stages, and
-the yellow stringy rot of the late
-stages of decay.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig91">
-<img src="images/i029c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="644" />
-<p class="pcap">Infection center in pulpwood size pine stand.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Control includes avoidance of
-planting on soils of low organic
-matter and elimination of thinning.
-Stump infection following thinning
-or harvest may be prevented using
-various methods.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_56">56</div>
-<h3 id="c56">BROWN CUBICAL BUTT ROT</h3>
-<p><i>Polyporus schweinitzii</i> is a
-common cause of root and
-butt rot of conifers
-throughout North America.
-The primary hosts of the
-fungus are Douglas fir,
-spruce, and pine. All southern
-pines are susceptible to
-attack by <i>P. schweinitzii</i>.
-Common names of the rot
-are: red-brown butt rot and
-brown cubical butt rot.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig92">
-<img src="images/i030.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="346" />
-<p class="pcap">Fruiting body of brown cubical root and butt rot of pine.</p>
-</div>
-<p>The fungus enters living
-hosts through damaged roots, fire scars, and other wounds near the tree
-base. The initial stage of decay appears as a light yellow stain. In the
-advanced stage, the heartwood becomes brittle and breaks into large
-yellow-brown to reddish-brown cubes. The fungus develops primarily in
-the roots and butt and seldom extends more than 15 or 20 feet up into
-the stem. Diseased trees are subject to wind-throw and wind breakage.
-Although the volume of wood destroyed by the rot is small, the total
-volume lost through wind-throw is quite large. Mature, suppressed, and
-weakened off-site trees are commonly attacked by the fungus. It is
-assumed that the fungus may also spread from infected to healthy trees
-through root contacts and grafts. The only outward signs of decay are
-the annual sporophores, which develop in late summer and fall during
-moist weather. Conks formed at the base of infected trees are bracket
-shaped, while those arising from decayed roots appear circular, sunken
-in the center, and supported by a short stalk. When fresh, the upper
-surface is velvety, concentrically zoned, and reddish-brown in color
-with a light yellow margin. The underside is dark olive or green with
-large irregular pores.</p>
-<p>In forest stands, no method of controlling the disease is known. Losses
-may be prevented to some extent by reducing the amount of root
-damage and wounding from heavy logging equipment. The prevention
-of basal fire scars in conifer stands will also reduce the incidence of this
-disease. Trees which show signs of advanced root and butt rot should be
-removed from around recreation areas, parking lots, power lines, and
-buildings to avoid damage from wind-throw and wind breakage.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_57">57</div>
-<h3 id="c57">RED ROOT AND BUTT ROT</h3>
-<div class="img" id="fig93">
-<img src="images/i030a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="426" />
-<p class="pcap">Fruiting body of red root and butt rot of pine.</p>
-</div>
-<p><i>Polyporus tomentosus</i>
-causes red root and butt rot
-of living conifers throughout
-North America. Common
-hosts of the fungus
-are: spruce, larch, pine, fir,
-Douglas fir, hemlock, and
-cedar. Throughout the
-southern United States, <i>P.
-tomentosus</i> has been reported
-in two general areas;
-causing extensive degrade of
-mature shortleaf pine in
-northern Arkansas and root
-and butt rot of slash pine in
-South Carolina, Georgia,
-and Florida.</p>
-<p>The fungus is believed to enter living hosts through basal wounds and
-damaged roots. Under ideal conditions, the fungus may spread from
-infected to healthy trees by way of root contacts or grafts. Growth of
-the fungus is very slow, often causing host mortality 20 to 30 years
-after initial infection. Wood decayed initially appears firm, but dark
-reddish-brown in color. In advanced stages, the wood is flecked with
-elliptical white pockets separated by brown-colored wood. Infected
-conifers generally express typical root rot symptoms. Trees show evidence
-of reduced radial and internodal growth, accompanied by death
-of the crown from the base upward. The foliage appears off-color and
-reduced in length. Under moist conditions, sporophores are produced
-either at the base of infected trees or on the forest floor. Bracket-shaped
-sporophores are produced at the base of infected trees while
-stipitate conks are produced on the ground directly over infected or
-dead roots. Fresh sporophores appear yellow-brown in color from
-above with a lighter colored pore surface below.</p>
-<p>No effective method of controlling the disease in forest stands is presently
-known. However, damage and losses may be reduced by management
-practices which reduce or eliminate the chance introduction of
-the disease into healthy stands. In areas where red root and butt rot is
-common, attempts should be made to conduct logging and thinning
-operations during the dry season to avoid mechanical damage to the
-root systems of the residual trees.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_58">58</div>
-<h3 id="c58">LITTLELEAF OF PINE</h3>
-<p>Littleleaf of pine, caused by <i>Phytophthora cinnamomi</i>, is the most
-serious disease of shortleaf pine in the Piedmont region of the South.
-Loblolly is also affected, usually where associated with infected shortleaf
-pine. The disease is most evident in older age classes, rarely attacking
-stands under 20 years old.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig94">
-<img src="images/i031.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="414" />
-<p class="pcap">Needle symptoms and damage of littleleaf on shortleaf pine.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig95">
-<img src="images/i031a.jpg" alt="(cont.)" width="600" height="419" />
-</div>
-<p>The disease is caused by a malfunctioning of the root system due to
-a combination of biological and physical factors. A fungus, <i>Phytophthora
-cinnamomi</i> attacks and kills the root tips. When conditions
-of moisture, fertility, and drainage are adverse, they reduce tree vigor
-and prevent the tree from rapidly replacing the destroyed root tips.
-Trees on good sites are reportedly also attacked by the fungus, but
-their vigor is such that they quickly overcome the disease by producing
-new root tips. The disease usually progresses rather slowly. Some trees
-may persist fifteen or more years after the appearance of initial symptoms.
-In general, trees live only five or six years after attack, but they
-may die in as little as one year. Symptoms are those typical of trees
-in stress due to a malfunction of the root system. In the early stage
-of the disease the foliage may turn yellow-green and the current year&rsquo;s
-needles are shorter than normal. Later stages of the disease are sparsely
-foliated crowns with short needles (reduced from three to five to only
-one-half to three inches in length) and dead branches. Abundant foliage
-sprouting on the hole of infected shortleaf is common.</p>
-<p>Losses are minimized by salvage cuttings and by favoring loblolly and
-hardwoods in regeneration plans.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_59">59</div>
-<h3 id="c59">SYCAMORE ANTHRACNOSE</h3>
-<div class="img" id="fig96">
-<img src="images/i031b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="628" />
-<p class="pcap">Defoliation of sycamore tree caused by sycamore anthracnose.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Sycamore anthracnose, caused by
-<i>Gnomonia veneta</i>, is common on
-American sycamore throughout its
-range in the eastern United States.</p>
-<p>Anthracnose is a disease characterized
-by distinctive limited lesions on stem,
-leaf, or fruit, often accompanied by
-dieback or blight and usually caused
-by fungi that produce slimy spores
-that ooze from small cup-shaped fruiting
-bodies that are visible with a hand
-lens. This disease has four distinct
-symptom stages identified as twig
-blight, bud blight, shoot blight, and
-leaf blight. Twig blight appears before
-leaf emergence and kills the tips of
-small one-year-old twigs. Infection comes initially from leaf litter and
-twig cankers. The second stage, bud blight, develops during bud expansion
-in April and early May. Shoot blight, the most frequently
-observed symptom, causes the sudden dying of expanding shoots and
-also young leaves. Leaf blight, the final stage, involves the actual infection
-of expanding or mature leaves. Diseased portions of the leaf involve
-irregular brown areas adjacent to the midrib and veins which are
-dotted with diseased spots. Incidence of anthracnose is directly related
-to the amount of spring rainfall. Shoot blight is severe if the weather
-for two weeks after leaf emergence
-is cool and moist. The disease may
-defoliate trees, which usually put
-out a new crop of leaves by late
-spring or summer.</p>
-<p>Control of sycamore anthracnose
-under forest conditions is not economically
-feasible. Where the disease
-is prevalent, other species should be
-favored during thinnings. In shade
-and ornamental trees, pruning of infected
-twigs, burning of leaves, and
-fertilization will reduce the disease
-impact.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig97">
-<img src="images/i031c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="507" />
-<p class="pcap">Leaf and twig symptoms.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_60">60</div>
-<h3 id="c60">WALNUT ANTHRACNOSE</h3>
-<p>Walnut anthracnose is a fungus disease caused by <i>Gnomonia leptostyla</i>.
-This worldwide disease attacks most species of walnut in the United
-States. Black walnut is most severely affected, but with favorable
-weather for the fungus, even less susceptible individuals may be defoliated.
-Butternut, Persian walnut, and two species from California (Hinds
-walnut and California walnut) are all susceptible. Anthracnose has also
-been reported on species of walnut from most of the European countries,
-Argentina, Canada, and South Africa.</p>
-<p>Wet weather greatly favors this leaf disease which may defoliate black
-walnuts by late July or early August. Defoliation slows growth,
-weakens trees, and sometimes causes mortality. Infected leaves reveal
-circular spots of dark brown or black. These spots often grow together,
-leaving large dead areas. These spots or blotches are bordered with
-yellow to golden tissue. While severely affected leaves fall, some &ldquo;anthracnose&rdquo;
-leaves remain on the tree. This disease also affects the
-growth and quality of the nuts. Nutmeats from infected trees are dark,
-unattractive, and shrivelled. Sunken, killed areas appear on the husks as
-dark circular spots smaller than those on the leaves. Infected nuts, like
-the leaves, may also fall from the tree. Lesions may appear on the
-current year&rsquo;s shoots and later form dead sunken areas that are oval to
-irregularly circular with reddish brown margins.</p>
-<p>As with the other anthracnose diseases, no practical control is available
-for forest trees. Control of walnut anthracnose on ornamentals and nut
-trees is partially achieved by raking and burning of old leaves.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_61">61</div>
-<h3 id="c61">OAK ANTRHACNOSE</h3>
-<div class="img" id="fig98">
-<img src="images/i032.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="597" />
-<p class="pcap">Leaf symptoms of oak anthracnose.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Oak anthracnose is caused by the
-fungus <i>Gnomonia veneta</i>. Trees
-of the white oak group, particularly
-white oak, are susceptible
-to this disease. Oaks throughout
-the entire eastern United States
-are affected by the disease,
-although it is less common in the
-Northeast.</p>
-<p>Infection occurs in the early
-spring or mid-summer. Symptoms
-on leaves develop as irregular
-brown diseased areas
-(blotches) along the midrib and
-the major side veins. These
-blotches may grow together by
-late spring or early summer if infection
-occurs early. Blotches are usually confined to the areas bordered
-by the larger veins. Leaves on the lower branches are frequently
-killed and occasionally trees will be defoliated. However, a second crop
-of leaves soon develops and mortality is rare. Fruiting bodies of <i>Gloeosporium</i>,
-the imperfect fungus fruiting stage of anthracnose, are located
-on the midrib and veins of infected leaves. When the disease spreads to
-the twigs, cankers and crown dieback may occur. The anthracnose fungus
-overwinters on diseased twigs and in the leaf litter. Oak anthracnose
-has the same causal agent as sycamore anthracnose, and the weather
-conditions favoring the sycamore disease also increases the anthracnose
-on oak.</p>
-<p>Control is similar to sycamore anthracnose and involves an integrated
-program of pruning disease tissue, fertilization, and burning of leaf
-litter. No practical control is available for forest trees.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_62">62</div>
-<h3 id="c62">DOGWOOD ANTHRACNOSE</h3>
-<p>Dogwood anthracnose, caused by the fungus <i>Elsinoe corni</i>, occurs in
-states bordering the Atlantic Ocean and has also been reported in Louisiana.
-Its primary host is flowering dogwood, <i>Cornus florida</i> L.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig99">
-<img src="images/i033.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="434" />
-<p class="pcap">Leaf and flower symptoms of dogwood anthracnose.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig100">
-<img src="images/i033a.jpg" alt="(cont.)" width="600" height="432" />
-</div>
-<p>Anthracnose occurs in the spring and affects not only the leaves, but
-also the buds and &ldquo;flowers&rdquo;. The buds may fail to open or they may
-produce stunted flowers. These have many circular to elongated spots
-with light tan centers. Margins of these spots are purple to brown.
-Often the flowers abort before development. Foliage spots (1-2 mm. in
-diameter) are raised at the margins. They are purple at the edges and
-yellow-gray in the center. Later centers of spots may fall out causing a
-&ldquo;shothole&rdquo; effect. Dozens of spots may be present on a single leaf and
-may be scattered or concentrated at tip, margin, or midrib. Twisting
-and malformation of the leaves are common. In addition to floral and
-foliage spots, infected areas may also occur on petioles, stems, and fruit
-clusters. All three areas have spots similar to those on the foliage.</p>
-<p>Other diseases which may be confused with anthracnose include
-<i>Septoria</i> and <i>Ascochyta</i> leaf spots. <i>Septoria</i> usually begins around July
-and unlike anthracnose has more angular lesions that are between the
-veins. <i>Ascochyta</i> spots may be larger (6 mm. in diameter) than anthracnose,
-and tissue discoloration may extend outside of their borders.
-Occasionally the leaves may totally blacken. This disease may occur as
-early as June.</p>
-<p>Wet, humid weather at certain stages of plant development is required
-for infection. Homeowners may obtain effective control by removing
-and burning infected plant parts. Various fungicide sprays are recommended
-by authors of ornamental handbooks.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_63">63</div>
-<h3 id="c63">COTTONWOOD RUST</h3>
-<div class="img" id="fig101">
-<img src="images/i033c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="397" />
-<p class="pcap">Rust infected cottonwood leaf.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Cottonwood rust, caused by <i>Melampsora medusae</i>, is probably the most
-important leaf disease of cottonwoods wherever they are grown. In the
-Lower Mississippi Valley, all sizes of eastern cottonwood trees may be
-infected with this rust. However, the disease is probably of most importance
-in cottonwood nurseries.</p>
-<p>In mid-summer, yellow to orange pustules containing spores of the
-fungus form on the under surface of the cottonwood leaves. In late
-summer and early fall, dark brown fungal growths replace the orange
-structures. Cottonwood may be prematurely defoliated or even killed
-by successive attacks. The rust may weaken trees and subject them to
-attack by other disease-causing organisms. Also, there is often a reduction
-in growth in these normally fast growing species. This is very
-important since there is presently a wide interest in the use of hybrid
-poplars for pulp and timber production.</p>
-<p>There is generally no accepted control for cottonwood rust. Rust-resistant
-varieties of hybrid and exotic cottonwoods are being developed
-and may provide the best control of this disease.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_64">64</div>
-<h3 id="c64">BLACK KNOT</h3>
-<div class="img" id="fig102">
-<img src="images/i034.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="683" />
-<p class="pcap">Black swellings of cherry black knot.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Black knot, caused by <i>Dibotryon morbosum</i>, is prevalent throughout
-the Southeast (with the exception of southern Florida) wherever black
-cherry grows, and in orchards on plums and domestic cherries.</p>
-<p>The most prominent symptoms are the elongated black swellings which
-appear in summer on small twigs and branches. Heavily infected trees
-appear quite grotesque, with large swellings which may be several times
-the diameter of the twigs. Cankers occurring on black cherry trunks
-usually ruin the commercial tree value. Initial infection occurs on lateral
-branches and twigs in the spring, but the swellings do not become
-noticeable until the following spring.</p>
-<p>The most practical control for black knot is removal of infected black
-cherry from the stand. Twigs and branches with knots should be
-burned.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_65">65</div>
-<h3 id="c65">NECTRIA CANKER</h3>
-<p>Nectria canker of hardwoods, caused by <i>Nectria galligena</i> and <i>N. magnoliae</i>,
-is frequently found on yellow birch and black walnut. Common
-hosts also include bigtooth aspen, sassafras, northern red oak, red
-maple, beech, Carolina poplar, paper birch, and sweet birch. A closely
-related canker disease is also found on yellow-poplar and magnolias.
-The range of this disease includes the Lake States, the Northeast, and
-the southern Appalachians.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig103">
-<img src="images/i034a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="599" />
-<p class="pcap">Target-shaped canker of Nectria on sassafras and yellow-poplar.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig104">
-<img src="images/i034c.jpg" alt="(cont.)" width="597" height="600" />
-</div>
-<p>Older Nectria cankers are easily recognized in forest stands because of
-their typical &ldquo;target&rdquo; shape. &ldquo;Target&rdquo; cankers have rings, each of which
-represent a year&rsquo;s growth. Younger cankers tend to be grown over by
-bark and callus tissue attempting to heal the wound. Such cankers are
-difficult to recognize, but close examination of the affected area may
-reveal tiny red bodies, which are the fruiting bodies of the Nectria
-fungi. Mortality rarely occurs from this disease, but stems may break at
-canker locations during high winds.</p>
-<p>Control of Nectria canker is the same as for Strumella canker&mdash;the
-removal of infected trees during thinning operations.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_66">66</div>
-<h3 id="c66">STRUMELLA CANKER</h3>
-<p>Strumella canker of hardwoods,
-caused by <i>Strumella coryneoidia</i>,
-most frequently attacks trees of the
-red oak group. Other hosts include
-species in the white oak group. Beech,
-basswood, blackgum, shagbark hickory
-and red maple are also occasionally
-affected. This disease is found in
-the East, from the southern Appalachians
-to northern New England.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig105">
-<img src="images/i035.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="621" />
-<p class="pcap">Strumella canker on black oak.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Strumella cankers are of two types:
-diffuse, and the more common
-&ldquo;target-shaped.&rdquo; The first develops on
-smooth-barked saplings and rapidly
-girdles and kills the tree. Killing results
-because callus tissue, which tends
-to heal over cankers, does not have
-time to develop. Target-shaped cankers
-are more common. &ldquo;Targets&rdquo; are
-formed by the alternation of killing of
-bark by the fungus around the canker&rsquo;s perimeter and the formation, in
-turn, of a callus ridge by the host tree. The fungus is active usually in
-the dormant season, while callusing occurs in the spring. As with most
-canker-causing fungi, Strumella usually enters the tree through a branch
-stub. Cankers are quite large and may reach several feet in circumference
-or length. The presence of the causal fungus is revealed by dark
-brown, cushion-like structures about one to three millimeters in diameter
-on the dead bark and surrounding tissue.</p>
-<p>No feasible control method is available under forest conditions. However,
-the disease impact can be greatly reduced by removing cankered
-trees during thinning operations.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_67">67</div>
-<h3 id="c67">SPICULOSA CANKER</h3>
-<p>Spiculosa canker, caused by <i>Poria spiculosa</i>, is found on bottomland
-oaks in the South. Occasionally this disease will also degrade hickories
-and honeylocust.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig106">
-<img src="images/i035a.jpg" alt="" width="405" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap">Fruiting body of Poria rot and canker on oak.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig107">
-<img src="images/i035c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="446" />
-<p class="pcap">Cross section of tree showing rot and decay.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Spiculosa canker is considered to be a canker-rot disease, a type of
-decay in which the causal organism incites not only heart-rot but also
-large irregular cankers. Infected trees have cankers that appear as rough
-circular swellings on the bole. The canker centers are depressed and old
-branch stubs are discernible. Fungus fruiting bodies, or conks, usually
-are not present on living trees but develop on snags or decayed logs.
-The conks grow flat under the bark and push it off to expose the brown
-fungus fruiting surface.</p>
-<p>Control for Spiculosa canker is similar to other canker rots: salvage to
-remove undesirable cankered trees that may be later replaced by better
-quality trees.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_68">68</div>
-<h3 id="c68">IRPEX CANKER</h3>
-<p>Irpex canker, caused by <i>Irpex mollis</i>, is prevalent in bottomlands and
-on upland areas of the Southeast. In the bottoms, Nuttall, water, and
-willow oaks are affected. White, chestnut, southern red, and black oaks
-are the hosts of this disease on upland sites.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig108">
-<img src="images/i036.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="598" />
-<p class="pcap">Fruiting body of Irpex rot.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig109">
-<img src="images/i036a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="412" />
-<p class="pcap">Cross section of tree showing rot and decay.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Irpex canker is also considered to be a canker-rot disease. Symptoms on
-infected trees frequently involve irregular cankers up to two feet in
-length. Cankers are usually found on trees eight to ten inches in diameter
-or larger, at a height of twenty feet above the ground. Branch
-stubs, signifying probable infection points, are usually present in the
-centers of cankers. The portion of the trunk affected is usually swollen
-but sometimes may be sunken. At the base of the sunken portion of the
-canker are small, creamy-white, toothed fruiting bodies or conks with a
-leathery texture. Conks also appear on hardwood logs. The wood
-behind cankers is characterized by a tough, spongy, white rot which
-extends as much as eight feet above and below the canker. The decay
-pattern may also extend downward into the roots. In cross-section, the
-rotted areas appear as finger-like projections radiating out toward the
-sapwood. Gradually the rot column tapers to a thin central core beyond
-which white flecks appear, and this early rot stage is concentrated along
-the rays of the oaks.</p>
-<p>Control for Irpex canker is the same as for other canker-rots&mdash;salvage of
-undesirable cankered trees.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_69">69</div>
-<h3 id="c69">HISPIDUS CANKER</h3>
-<p><i>Polyporus hispidus</i> is the
-cause of trunk cankers and
-localized decay of hardwoods
-throughout eastern,
-central, and southern United
-States. The fungus is
-also known to attack hardwoods
-in Oregon and California.
-Reported hosts are:
-hickory, ash, mulberry, willow,
-walnut, and oak. In the
-south, <i>P. hispidus</i> is common
-on oaks, including willow,
-water, black, white,
-Nuttall, and cherrybark.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig110">
-<img src="images/i036c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="493" />
-<p class="pcap">Fruiting body and canker of Hispidus on oak.</p>
-</div>
-<p>The fungus usually enters
-the tree through dead
-branch stubs, from which it grows into the heartwood. After becoming
-established, the fungus begins penetrating the sapwood and attacks the
-living cambium. Callus folds are formed by the host around the dead
-cambial area, forming an elongated swollen canker, commonly referred
-to as a &ldquo;hispidus canker&rdquo;. The cankered area of the stem is
-bark-covered and sunken, usually containing a remnant of a branch stub
-or branch scar. During late summer, fall or early winter, the fungus
-produces conks (sporophores) on the surface of the cankers. The annual
-bracket-shaped conks are large, spongy, and yellowish-brown to
-rusty-brown on the upper surface. When fresh, the under surface is a
-light tan color. After a few months, the mature conks dry to a rigid
-black mass and fall from the canker. Old conks are commonly found at
-the base of cankered trees during the spring and early summer. Decay
-produced by the fungus appears spongy, light yellow, and is commonly
-separated from the sound wood by a black zone line. The rot is of the
-delignifying white rot type. On southern oaks, the rate of canker
-elongation has been estimated at one-half foot per year, with the
-internal rot usually extending about one foot above and below the
-cankered area.</p>
-<p>No effective control in forest stands is known. Removal of diseased
-trees provides additional growing space for crop trees. Some degree of
-shade tree protection can be obtained by pruning of dead branches
-flush with the main stem of the tree.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_70">70</div>
-<h3 id="c70">BOTRYOSPHAERIA CANKER</h3>
-<p><i>Botryosphaeria ribis</i> causes cankering
-and mortality of more than 50 woody
-plants. The fungus is widely distributed
-throughout the eastern one-half of
-the United States. The pathogen infects
-the following economically important
-hosts: sweetgum, redbud, willow,
-poplar, tupelo, pecan, and
-hickory.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig111">
-<img src="images/i037.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="407" />
-<p class="pcap">Botryosphaeria canker on sweetgum.</p>
-</div>
-<p>The fungus gains entry into susceptible
-hosts primarily through wounds or
-dead and dying twigs. Small oval
-cankers on stems or branches are the
-first symptoms of infection. As the
-fungus continues to attack and kill the
-cambium, the sunken cankers enlarge,
-eventually girdling and killing the
-branch or stem above the cankered
-area. In the spring and early summer,
-cankers on living portions of the host
-often produce an exudate. Infected
-sweetgums generally produce the exudate in great quantities, to which
-the common name of bleeding necrosis has been applied. Reproductive
-structures called stroma are produced by the fungus on dead cankered
-stems and branches during moist periods of the spring and summer.</p>
-<p>No practical method of control is known. Diseased trees seldom
-recover. Infection of high value shade and ornamental trees may be
-prevented to some degree by avoiding mechanical damage. Dead limbs
-and branches should be pruned and wounds covered with a suitable tree
-paint. Infected trees should be removed and burned.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_71">71</div>
-<h3 id="c71">SEPTORIA CANKER</h3>
-<div class="img" id="fig112">
-<img src="images/i037a.jpg" alt="" width="445" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap">Septoria canker on young cottonwood saplings.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Septoria canker is caused by the fungus
-<i>Septoria musiva</i>. Although this is a
-disease of poplars, native poplar
-species are not severely attacked. However,
-this is an important problem
-wherever hybrid or introduced poplars
-are grown. With the ever-increasing
-emphasis on poplar planting, this will
-probably become a much more important
-problem in the near future.</p>
-<p>Young stem cankers usually develop
-around openings such as wounds,
-lenticels, or leaf scars, appearing first
-as sunken, dark areas of the bark. The
-infected area later becomes more depressed
-and darker as tissue dies, and
-often a black margin will be formed
-around the canker. Small, pink, hair-like
-spore tendrils are produced by the
-fungus around the canker margin,
-especially during moist weather. These tendrils contain spores which
-can cause further infection, and arise from small dark fungal fruiting
-structures called pycnidia. This cankered area is often invaded by insects
-and other fungi and is also a weakened area at which wind breakage
-may occur. The fungus also causes a gray to black leaf spot, which
-usually has a light colored center. These spots may coalesce on a
-severely infected leaf and involve the entire leaf surface. This leaf spot
-in itself causes slight damage, but acts as a source of fungus spores
-which can cause stem cankers, and thus is important in the overall
-consideration of the disease.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig113">
-<img src="images/i037b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="402" />
-<p class="pcap">Defoliation in cottonwood caused by Septoria leafspot.</p>
-</div>
-<p>A control for this disease is to
-use native poplars or resistant
-hybrids wherever possible. Wider
-spacing in plantations may also
-reduce the humidity, decreasing
-the amount of infection.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_72">72</div>
-<h3 id="c72">CYTOSPORA CANKER</h3>
-<p>Cytospora canker is caused by
-<i>Cytospora chrysosperma</i>. This
-fungus attacks more than 70
-species of hardwood trees and
-shrubs as well as some conifers.
-Poplars and willows are among
-the most common hosts, and are
-attacked throughout their range.
-Trees used for shade or windbreak,
-and also cuttings in propagation
-beds are particularly susceptible
-to this canker. This
-disease is most severe on trees
-growing under stress, such as those growing on an unfavorable site, or
-injured by drought, frost, fire, or severe pruning. The fungus is a normal
-inhabitant of the bark and becomes parasitic only when the tree is
-weakened.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig114">
-<img src="images/i038.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="421" />
-<p class="pcap">Cytospora canker on cottonwood.</p>
-</div>
-<p>A canker begins as a gradual, circular killing of the bark of a limb or
-stem. This infected tissue soon appears as a brownish, sunken patch,
-around which the host often produces raised callus tissue. Small black
-fungal structures (pycnidia) appear as small pimples on the dead bark.
-During moist weather, thin threads of spores exude out from the
-pycnidia. The inner diseased bark becomes dark and odorous. The
-cambium is killed and the sapwood becomes watery and reddish brown
-as it becomes infected. Water spouts may form below the canker before
-the tree dies.</p>
-<p>Since this disease is most severe on weakened trees, shade trees should
-be watered and fertilized to maintain healthy, vigorous growth.
-Wounding and severe pruning should be avoided. Cuttings should be
-selected from healthy planting material grown in disease free areas. If
-cuttings are to be stored for any length of time, they should be kept at
-a temperature below 35&deg;. This low temperature will keep new
-infections from occurring, even if spores are present.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_73">73</div>
-<h3 id="c73">CHESTNUT BLIGHT</h3>
-<div class="img" id="fig115">
-<img src="images/i038a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="547" />
-<p class="pcap">Stem canker caused by chestnut blight organism.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Chestnut blight is caused by the
-fungus <i>Endothia parasitica</i>. It
-can be found on American chestnut
-throughout its range where it
-has virtually eliminated this valuable
-species from eastern hardwood
-forests. The chestnut
-blight fungus is also parasitic on
-other hosts including common
-chinkapin, Spanish chestnut, and
-post oak. Japanese and Chinese
-chestnuts are resistant.</p>
-<p>Stem cankers are either swollen
-or sunken and the sunken type
-may be grown over with bark.
-The fungus forms fruiting bodies some distance back from the
-advancing cankers, and the spores may exude from bark crevices as
-orange curl-like masses during moist weather. Young cankers are
-yellow-brown in sharp contrast to the normal olive-green color of the
-bark. The chestnut is a vigorous
-sprouting species but the fungus
-survives in previously killed
-stumps and later kills the new
-sprout growth.</p>
-<p>No effective control has been
-developed for chestnut blight,
-even after several decades of intensive
-research. The most promising
-control involves the development
-of a blight-resistant
-species. Research is presently
-underway on this matter but
-results are inconclusive.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig116">
-<img src="images/i038b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="582" />
-<p class="pcap">Fruiting bodies on surface of canker.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_74">74</div>
-<h3 id="c74">OAK WILT</h3>
-<p>This serious vascular wilt of oaks is caused by the fungus <i>Ceratocystis
-fagacearum</i>. At least fifty species and varieties of oak are susceptible.
-The disease has been most damaging in the Lake States but is also
-found in the eastern United States.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig117">
-<img src="images/i039.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="454" />
-<p class="pcap">Oak wilt symptoms on red oak trees and leaves.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig118">
-<img src="images/i039a.jpg" alt="(cont.)" width="600" height="458" />
-</div>
-<p>Oak wilt symptoms are most noticeable during late spring or early
-summer. Red oaks may be killed in as little as three weeks, the lower
-branches being affected last. In white oaks, symptoms are usually
-confined to a few branches each year and trees may live several years
-before death. Leaf symptoms are similar for both red and white oaks.
-Leaves turn yellow or brown and become dry progressively from the
-edge or tip to the midrib and base. Mature leaves may fall at any
-symptom stage from green to brown. Premature leaf shedding is the
-most outstanding symptom. A definite characteristic of the disease is
-the raising and cracking of the bark due to pressure of mats of the
-fungus growing between the bark and wood.</p>
-<p>Oak wilt is spread over long distances by insects that pick up spores
-while crawling on the mats of infected trees. The disease may also
-spread from tree to tree via root graft. Short-distance spread is
-controlled by severing all roots of living trees around infected trees by
-use of a ditchdigger. Another control is to fell all trees in a 50-foot
-radius of infected trees; felling and burning of all parts of infected trees
-is sometimes done to prevent overland spread.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_75">75</div>
-<h3 id="c75">DUTCH ELM DISEASE</h3>
-<div class="img" id="fig119">
-<img src="images/i039b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="594" />
-<p class="pcap">Dying tree infected with Dutch elm disease.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Dutch elm disease, caused by <i>Ceratocystis
-ulmi</i>, is the most devastating
-disease of elm trees in the United States.
-This disease has been recorded in most
-states east of the Mississippi and as far as
-Idaho in the Northwest and Texas in the
-Southwest. All of the native elm species
-are susceptible, while many of the ornamental
-Asiatic species are highly resistant.</p>
-<p>Trees suffering from Dutch elm disease
-may show a variety of symptoms. Leaves
-become yellow, wilt, and turn brown.
-Premature defoliation and death of
-branches usually occurs, causing the crown to appear thin and sparse.
-Internally, a brown discoloration appears in the outer sapwood. <i>C. ulmi</i>
-is transmitted from diseased to healthy elms by elm bark beetles,
-mainly the small European elm bark beetle and the native elm bark
-beetle. These beetles make characteristic galleries under the bark of
-dead and dying elms. Adult beetles pick up the sticky fungus spores
-from under the bark and then feed on the young tender elm twigs of
-healthy trees, inadvertently inoculating the healthy tree with the
-fungus. The fungus may also spread from diseased elms to adjacent
-healthy elms through root grafts.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig120">
-<img src="images/i039c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="580" />
-<p class="pcap">Discoloration and streaking symptoms in the sapwood.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Controls to combat this disease
-generally involve sanitary measures
-aimed at the beetles. Dead
-and dying elms should be burned.
-This eliminates the elm wood
-which normally serves as a breeding
-place for elm bark beetles
-and thus reduces the beetle population.
-In areas where most native
-elms are infected, other tree
-species or resistant elm species,
-such as the Chinese or Siberian
-elm, should be planted rather
-them native elms.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_76">76</div>
-<h3 id="c76">ELM PHLOEM NECROSIS</h3>
-<p>Elm phloem necrosis is a disease of
-elm, caused by a virus or virus-like
-organism. The disease has occurred in
-the United States for many years,
-probably as early as 1882. The pathogen
-is transmitted from infected to
-healthy trees by the adult white-banded
-elm leafhopper, <i>Scaphoideus
-luteolus</i>, which feeds on the leaf veins.
-It is now present throughout most of
-the central, eastern, and southern portions
-of the United States. The disease
-is known to occur on American and
-winged elm, but all native elms are
-probably susceptible to attack by the
-pathogen.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig121">
-<img src="images/i040.jpg" alt="" width="502" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap">Foliage symptoms of elm phloem necrosis.</p>
-</div>
-<p>The earliest symptoms of the disease appear in the top of the crown, at
-the outer tips of the branches. Here the elm leaves suddenly wilt, turn
-yellow, the margins curl upward and the
-leaves die. Leaf-fall causes the crown to
-appear sparse. In large trees, the foliage
-symptoms may initially appear on one
-branch or only a portion of the crown.
-However, the symptoms during the advanced
-stage of the disease are exhibited
-throughout the crown. The most reliable
-symptom appears as a yellow to butterscotch
-discoloration on the inner bark
-surface or phloem. This symptom
-initially appears under the bark of large
-roots, later spreading to the base of the
-main stem and finally to the larger
-branches. Phloem and cambial discoloration
-is often found in advance of the
-foliage symptoms. The moderately discolored
-phlomen has a slight odor of
-wintergreen. Thus far, all trees known to
-be infected with the pathogen have died.
-Acutely infected trees, while initially appearing healthy, may wilt and
-die in three to four weeks.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig122">
-<img src="images/i040a.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="617" />
-<p class="pcap">Stem sample showing discoloration of sapwood.</p>
-</div>
-<p>No effective controls are known. The &ldquo;Christine Buisman&rdquo; elm, which
-is highly resistant to Dutch elm disease, has demonstrated resistance to
-elm phloem necrosis.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_77">77</div>
-<h3 id="c77">MIMOSA WILT</h3>
-<div class="img" id="fig123">
-<img src="images/i040b.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="657" />
-<p class="pcap">Mimosa branches showing wilt symptoms.</p>
-</div>
-<p>A vascular wilt of the mimosa (silktree) is
-caused by the fungus <i>Fusarium oxysporum
-forma perniciosum</i>. The fungus is known
-only to attack the mimosa, a tree imported
-from eastern Asia and grown throughout
-the southeast as an ornamental. Since the
-discovery of the disease in North Carolina
-in 1935, the fungus has spread north to
-Maryland, south to Florida, and west to
-Texas.</p>
-<p>The fungus causing mimosa wilt is soil-borne
-and gains entrance into the tree by
-attacking the roots. Once entrance is gained
-by the fungus, the pathogen enters the
-outer water-conductive system in the sapwood.
-As the fungus grows throughout
-the system, it hinders or completely inhibits
-the water movement from the roots to
-the aerial portion of the tree. The first
-outward symptom of disease is the wilting of leaflets, usually in
-the upper portion of the crown. The wilted leaflets turn yellow, then
-brown, and die. Often a branch or two will succumb at a time until the
-entire crown is dead. A second symptom of
-the disease is found in the outer sapwood of
-the tree. A brown discoloration, appearing as
-spots or a ring, is observed by cutting into the
-outer sapwood of the infected stem or
-branch.</p>
-<p>Control of the fungus is very difficult, since it
-is soil-borne and enters through the roots.
-However, resistant varieties of mimosa trees,
-developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture,
-are now available at most commercial
-nurseries.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig124">
-<img src="images/i040c.jpg" alt="" width="424" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap">Branch sample showing brown discoloration of sapwood.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_78">78</div>
-<h3 id="c78">VERTICILLIUM WILT</h3>
-<p>Verticillium wilt, caused by common
-soil-inhabiting fungi belonging to the
-genus <i>Verticillium</i>, is found on a number
-of hardwood hosts. In southern
-and eastern United States elms and
-maples are attacked throughout their
-natural ranges.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig125">
-<img src="images/i041.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="635" />
-<p class="pcap">Wilting foliage and defoliation of elms caused by Verticillium wilt.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Infected trees may die within a few
-weeks after the first symptoms are observed,
-or they may survive for years.
-The first symptoms of the disease involve
-a wilting of the foliage, with the
-leaves turning yellow and finally
-brown. The early symptoms are often
-restricted to a single limb or portion
-of the crown. Vascular discoloration,
-which is brown in elms and green in maples, is present in the outer
-sapwood. In elms, this discoloration is similar to that produced in trees
-having Dutch elm disease.</p>
-<p>This disease is not of serious consequence in forest stands. However, it
-is often extremely important in high value shade trees. Dead or dying
-limbs on lawn trees may be pruned out. This may not always save the
-tree, but may help keep it alive for years. Trees should be well watered
-and fertilized as necessary. If a lawn tree dies from Verticillium wilt, it
-should be replaced by a resistant species.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_79">79</div>
-<h3 id="c79">ARMILLARIA ROOT AND BUTT ROT</h3>
-<div class="img" id="fig126">
-<img src="images/i041a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="465" />
-<p class="pcap">Mushroom or fruiting bodies of the &ldquo;honey mushroom&rdquo; rot.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Armillaria root and butt rot is
-caused by the fungus <i>Armillaria
-mellea</i>. This disease is common
-in orchards, vineyards, gardens,
-parks, and forests throughout the
-world. Both coniferous and hardwood
-forest trees are attacked.
-The fungus is especially troublesome
-in plantations, particularly
-in stands recently thinned.</p>
-<p>The fungus is spread by spores
-produced by honey-colored
-mushrooms, rhizomorphs, and
-root contacts between diseased
-trees or stumps and healthy trees. Rhizomorphs are visible strands of
-compacted mycelium (fungus material) that appear as black or reddish-brown
-&ldquo;shoestrings.&rdquo; They may be flattened when found between bark
-and wood or cylindrical when found in decayed wood or soil. Rhizomorphs
-increase in length at their tips and in this manner the fungus
-may move through the soil from infected trees to uninfected trees. The
-honey-colored mushrooms are produced annually and are fairly short
-lived; they are subject to desiccation, and are favored by small mammals.
-The size of the top varies from two to five inches in diameter. The
-top is usually flecked with dark brown scales. White to light yellow gills
-are borne underneath. Crown symptoms of the trees affected are similar
-to those caused by any malfunctioning of the roots. A reduction in size
-and production of leaves or needles, a general thinning of the crown,
-branch dying, and yellowing of foliage may precede death or trees may
-die rapidly with a rapid red discoloration
-of the foliage. Trees
-often die in groups, but single-tree
-kill is also common. Cankers
-bleeding resin, gum or other exudate
-at the tree base are common
-symptoms.</p>
-<p>Control is not attempted for this
-disease under forest conditions.
-Losses may be reduced by following
-proper planting procedures,
-and by salvage cutting.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig127">
-<img src="images/i041b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="405" />
-<p class="pcap">Shoestrings of armillaria.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_80">80</div>
-<h3 id="c80">CYLINDROCLADIUM ROOT ROT</h3>
-<p>This nursery disease is caused by
-two fungi species. <i>Cylindrocladium
-scoparium</i> and <i>C. floridanum</i>: Cylindrocladium
-root rot has been found
-on two hardwoods (yellow-poplar
-and black walnut) and two conifers
-(white pine and Fraser fir) in forest
-tree nurseries in six southern states.
-These include Virginia, West Virginia,
-North Carolina, Tennessee,
-Alabama, and Mississippi.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig128">
-<img src="images/i042.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="542" />
-<p class="pcap">Leaf symptoms on 1-0 black walnut nursery stock.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Root rot symptoms on hardwoods
-and conifers are quite different.
-The most characteristic root
-symptoms on yellow-poplar and
-black walnut are the blackened and longitudinally-cracked infected
-roots that are in sharp contrast with healthy white roots of these two
-species. Infected seedling leaves become yellow and later turn reddish-brown.</p>
-<p>Root rot symptoms on conifers involve either rotting of the seed or
-seedling (pre-emergence damping off) before emergence from the soil or
-seedling root rot following emergence. These symptoms also involve a
-shrivelling and reddening of foliage, needle blight, and stem cankers.
-The most characteristic symptoms are the &ldquo;patchy&rdquo; irregularly scattered
-pattern of infection in conifer seedling beds and the loosening of the
-root epidermis on infected roots&mdash;making it very easy to pull off.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig129">
-<img src="images/i042a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="397" />
-<p class="pcap">Root symptoms on 1-0 yellow-poplar nursery stock.</p>
-</div>
-<p>The most practical and effective
-control for root rot diseases of
-this type involves strict quarantine
-to either keep the disease
-out of the nursery or keep it
-confined to known infected areas
-by avoiding the transportation of
-root material, organic matter,
-and soil from infected to non-infected
-seed beds. Soil fumigation
-may control this disease if
-applied under favorable conditions.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_81">81</div>
-<h3 id="c81">LUCIDUS ROOT AND BUTT ROT</h3>
-<div class="img" id="fig130">
-<img src="images/i042b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="418" />
-<p class="pcap">Fruiting body of Lucidus root and butt rot on mimosa.</p>
-</div>
-<p><i>Polyporus lucidus</i> is the
-cause of root and basal
-stem decay of hardwood
-trees throughout the eastern,
-central, and southern
-portions of the United
-States. The fungus is
-known to attack and kill
-maple, hackberry,
-orange, lemon, ash,
-sweetgum, oak, locust,
-elm, tupelo, willow, and
-mimosa. Mimosa trees are
-very susceptible to attack
-by <i>P. lucidus</i> throughout
-the South.</p>
-<p>The disease is characterized by a rapid decline and death of the host.
-Examination of infected roots will reveal a soft spongy white rot with
-black spots scattered throughout. Fruiting bodies are formed at the
-base of infected trees or on the surface of exposed roots. The mature
-fruiting bodies are a reddish brown above and white below, with the
-tops and stems appearing glazed or varnished. The fungus is believed to
-gain entrance into the host through bark and root injuries and can
-spread from infected to healthy trees through root contacts and grafts.</p>
-<p>No control is known for this disease. Avoidance of lawnmower and
-other mechanical injuries to the base of roots of susceptible shade trees
-will reduce the chance of infection by the fungus. The spread of the
-disease from infected to healthy trees can be reduced by planting at a
-wide enough spacing to avoid root contacts and grafts.</p>
-<hr />
-<p class="tb"><i>If you find damage on your trees from insects or diseases you may
-consult with any of the following offices or your state forester.</i></p>
-<dl class="undent"><dt>FIELD OFFICES:</dt>
-<dt><span class="u">Alexandria Office</span></dt>
-<dd>U.S. Forest Service</dd>
-<dd>2500 Shreveport Highway</dd>
-<dd>Pineville, Louisiana 71360</dd>
-<dd>Phone A/C 318 445-6511 Ext. 311</dd>
-<dt>FOR STATES OF:</dt>
-<dd>Alabama</dd>
-<dd>Arkansas</dd>
-<dd>Louisiana</dd>
-<dd>Mississippi</dd>
-<dd>Oklahoma</dd>
-<dd>Texas</dd>
-<dt><span class="u">Asheville Office</span></dt>
-<dd>U.S. Forest Service</dd>
-<dd>P.O. Box 5895</dd>
-<dd>Asheville, North Carolina 28803</dd>
-<dd>Phone A/C 704 254-0961 Ext. 625</dd>
-<dt>FOR STATES OF:</dt>
-<dd>Florida</dd>
-<dd>Georgia</dd>
-<dd>Kentucky</dd>
-<dd>North Carolina</dd>
-<dd>South Carolina</dd>
-<dd>Tennessee</dd>
-<dd>Virginia</dd>
-<dt><span class="u">AREA OFFICE</span></dt>
-<dd>Group Leader</dd>
-<dd>Forest Pest Management Group</dd>
-<dd>U.S. Forest Service</dd>
-<dd>1720 Peachtree Street, N.W.</dd>
-<dd>Atlanta, Georgia 30309</dd>
-<dd>Phone A/C 404 526-3734</dd></dl>
-<div class="img" id="fig131">
-<img src="images/i043.jpg" alt="Forest Environment: WEATHER FIRE PEOPLE SOIL ABUSE PESTS" width="500" height="770" />
-</div>
-<p class="center"><b><span class="ss">FOREST PEST MANAGEMENT GROUP</span></b></p>
-<p class="center small">Southeastern Area S. and P. F.&mdash;7 <span class="hst">1972</span></p>
-<h2><br /><span class="small">Transcriber&rsquo;s Notes</span></h2>
-<ul><li>Silently corrected a few palpable typos.</li>
-<li>In the text versions, delimited italics or underlined text in _underscores_ (the HTML version reproduces the font form of the printed book.)</li></ul>
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-<pre>
-
-
-
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-
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