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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..36612d4 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #50589 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/50589) diff --git a/old/50589-0.txt b/old/50589-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index cc1a442..0000000 --- a/old/50589-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1753 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Some Protective Designs of the Dakota, by Clark Wissler - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Some Protective Designs of the Dakota - -Author: Clark Wissler - -Release Date: December 2, 2015 [EBook #50589] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOME PROTECTIVE DESIGNS OF DAKOTA *** - - - - -Produced by Larry Harrison, Cindy Beyer, Ross Cooling and -the online Distributed Proofreaders Canada team at -http://www.pgdpcanada.net with images provided by The -Internet Archives-US - - - - - - ANTHROPOLOGICAL PAPERS - - OF THE - - American Museum of Natural - History. - - Vol. I, Part II. - - - - SOME PROTECTIVE DESIGNS OF THE DAKOTA. - - BY - - CLARK WISSLER. - - NEW YORK: - Published by Order of the Trustees. - February, 1907. - - - - - American Museum of Natural History. - PUBLICATIONS IN ANTHROPOLOGY. - -The results of research conducted by the Anthropological staff of the -Museum, unless otherwise provided for, are published in a series of -octavo volumes of about 350 pages each, issued in parts at irregular -intervals, entitled Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of -Natural History. The Anthropological work of the Museum is organized -under two heads. The Department of Ethnology exercises curatorial -functions in ethnography, ethnology and physical anthropology and in all -archæology except that pertaining to the present confines of Mexico and -the Central American States which has been delegated to a distinct -department entitled the Department of Archæology. This series of -publications aims to give the results of field-work conducted by the -above departments, supplemented by the study of collections in the -Museum. The editorial responsibilities are administered by the Curator -of the Department of Ethnology. - -The following are on sale at the Museum at the prices stated. - - Vol. I. Part I. Technique of some South American Feather-work. By - Charles - W. Mead. Pp. 1-18, Plates I-IV, and 14 text figures. - January, - 1907. Price, $0.25. - - Part II. Some Protective Designs of the Dakota. By Clark - Wissler. - Pp. 19-54, Plates V-VII, and 26 text figures, February, - 1907. - Price, $0.50. - - - - - ANTHROPOLOGICAL PAPERS - - OF THE - - AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY - - VOL. I, PART II. - - - SOME PROTECTIVE DESIGNS OF THE DAKOTA. - - BY CLARK WISSLER. - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - INTRODUCTION - SHIELD-DESIGNS - GHOST-DANCE DESIGNS - THE HOOP - THE WHIRLWIND - THE THUNDER - THE SPIDER - CONCLUSION - - - - - ILLUSTRATIONS. - PLATES. - - V. Model of a Shield, Museum No. 50-2929. Diameter, - 39 cm. - VI. Shield-design on a Cape, Museum No. 50-3102. Width - of cape, 178 cm. - VII. Model of a Shield, Museum No. 50-5467. Diameter, - 46 cm. - - TEXT FIGURES. - - 1. Shield-cover with Design - 2. Shield-design, from a Drawing by a Native - 3. Drawing, by a Native, of a Shield-cover - 4. Shield-design, from a Drawing by a Native - 5. Spider-design for a Shield, from a Drawing by a - Native - 6. Shield-design, from a Drawing by the Man who - dreamed of it - 7. Shield-design representing a Thunderstorm, from a - Drawing by a Native - 8. Model of a Shield with Pictographic Design - 9. Design on Sioux Shield captured by a Fox Indian - 10. Front of a Ghost-dance Garment - 11. Back of Garment shown in Fig. 10 - 12. Designs on the Front of Ghost-dance Garment - 13. Designs on the Back of Garment shown in Fig. 12 - 14. Front of a Ghost-dance Garment bearing Dragon-fly - Design - 15. Back of Garment shown in Fig. 14 - 16. Circular Design upon a Shirt - 17. Sketch, by a Native, of an Elk-mystery Dancer - carrying a Hoop with a Mirror in the Centre - 18. Engraved Metal Cross - 19. Engraved Bone Object - 20. Whirlwind Design, from the Handle of a Club - 21. Whirlwind Design, from a Popgun - 22. Whistle, of Bone - 23. Design of a Spider-web - 24. Sketch of a Robe for the Medicine-bow Owner - 25. Design on a Metal Belt-ornament - 26. Design of the Spider-web on a Straight Pipe - - - - - INTRODUCTION. - - -The decorative art of the Dakota has been treated in a preceding paper, -in which brief mention was made of religious art, or that art in which -there was a definite, unmistakable motive on the part of the artist to -represent mythical or philosophical ideas. In this more serious art, a -large number of designs may be characterized as “protective designs,” -because their presence or possession is in part a protection. The idea -in a protective design seems to be a symbolical appeal to the source or -concrete manifestation of a protective power. It is not easy to get the -point of view and the spirit of the faith that make these designs -significant, but from the detailed explanations of them some general -idea can be formed. The descriptions given in this paper are based upon -the statements of Indians, in most cases the executers of the designs. -The attitude of the reader toward such a study as this is often that of -concluding that the points of view set forth by a writer are universal -in the tribe. This leads to a great deal of superficial criticism. In -the opinion of the writer, any rejection of such study because one or -two or several Indians deny all knowledge of some or all of the specific -native accounts upon which conclusions are based, is absurd. We might as -well test the artistic sense of a city by calling in one or two persons -from the street. As a case in point, the reader is referred to the -remarks of J. Owen Dorsey on the authenticity of Bushotter’s Double -Woman.[1] A great deal of the information received from Indians relative -to religion is largely individual, and every ethnological field-worker -must take the best of his material from the brightest men of a tribe. -The object of this study has been to bring together ideas expressed by -various individuals more or less eminent among their people, because all -of these individual conceptions seem to have much in common. The data -were secured by the writer when on Museum expeditions to the Teton and -Yankton divisions of the Dakota. - ------ - -[1] Dorsey (Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, -p. 480). - - - - - SHIELD-DESIGNS. - - -The circular shield was distributed over a large part of North America. -A conspicuous part of the arms of Mexican warriors was “the round, small -‘target’ worn by the ‘brave’ on his left arm, and made of canes netted -together and interwoven with cotton ‘twofold,’ covered on the outside -with gilded boards and with feathers, and so strong that a hard -cross-bow shot could alone penetrate them;”[2] but “merely ornamental -shields [were also] used and carried by warriors and chiefs on festive -occasions only.”[3] - -According to the same author, in Pre-Columbian times some of the Pueblo -Indians used a thick disk of buffalo-hide as a shield. On the Plains, -from the Rio Grande to the Saskatchewan, the circular shield of -buffalo-hide was, until the extinction of the buffalo, a part of the -regalia of every warrior. These shields usually bore symbolic designs. -In many cases the designs were painted upon the rawhide itself, and -protected by a buckskin cover; while in other cases the designs were -painted upon the cover. Practically no shields of buffalo-hide are to be -found in the hands of the surviving Dakota; but in social and religious -ceremonies, models or shield-covers of buckskin or cloth, upon which are -painted the designs formerly placed on shields, are often used. For -purposes of study the writer secured such models of shields, with -explanations of the designs and with other shield-lore, from persons who -formerly owned buffalo-hide shields. - -When the enemies of the Dakota were armed with native weapons, the -shield had some value in itself, because few arrows could get through -it, and it was of sufficient strength to ward off a blow from a club or -an axe; but even at that time the designs and medicine objects tied to -the shield seem to have been regarded as of greater importance than the -mechanical properties of the shield itself. It was the power represented -by the design to which the owner of the shield looked for protection. -Naturally, with the introduction of fire-arms, shields ceased to have a -real protective value; but their designs were still looked upon as -capable of affording protection against evil. According to the -statements of some old men who still have faith in protective designs, -the ancient shield manifested its power upon the mind of the enemy by -influencing them to shoot at the shield rather than at the exposed parts -of the body of its bearer. But when fire-arms were introduced, -experience demonstrated that the shield was no longer a desirable object -in battle, because the same influence that drew arrows to it drew -bullets also, and in this case with fatal results. From this they -concluded that guns represented a mystic power superior to that of -shield-designs, but that the latter were still efficacious, except where -so overpowered. - -This explanation is interesting, because these men seem to have grasped -the idea that the shield, being a conspicuous object, would attract the -attention and thus the aim of the enemy; but they confused this -psychological explanation of the observed facts with a mystic conception -that the magic power of the design upon the shield was the cause or -force that reached out and lay hold of the attention of the enemy. Yet -the introduction of fire-arms did not relegate the shield to oblivion; -and shield-designs are still cherished by men of the olden time, because -they represent a kind of individual totem or protective power. - -The following descriptions of shield-designs are given with the -interpretations of their owners. - -A shield-cover decorated with feathers, bearing a design used by a chief -on ceremonial occasions, and said by him to be the copy of a shield -carried in his youth, is shown in Plate V. The black border on top of -the shield takes the form of the new moon, which it represents. In the -centre of the shield is a well executed drawing of an Indian on -horseback. The horse is in blue, with zigzag black lines extending down -the legs. The blue color of the horse indicates his connection with the -thunder, or the powers of the sky. The background of the shield is in -yellow, but the lower part has been worked over with green. -Symmetrically arranged around the mounted figure are four circles of -purplish color, representing a phenomenon observed in the sky, which -seems to have been either the halo of the sun, or the phenomenon that -passes under the name of “sun-dogs.” From the description of the owner -of the shield, it appears that these four circles were associated in his -mind with the medicine-hoop. He stated that this design as a whole was -the representation of what he saw in a dream; that the moon with its -dark color was drawn to represent the night, because that was the time -when he had this experience; and that in the dream he saw a horse and -rider appear in the sky surrounded by the four circular objects, as -indicated upon the shield. It appears from his explanation, that the -association of the rings with the medicine-hoop was his own individual -interpretation of the significance of his dream. In the dream he could -see a shield associated with these objects as they would appear in -reality; but in the design he attempted to convey an idea of what he saw -in conformity with the conventional modes of representative art -practised by his tribe. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1 (50-2970). Shield-cover with Design. Diameter, 42 -cm.] - -Another shield-cover (Fig. 1) bears a bird-design, representing to the -owner the osprey (?). One half of the background of this shield is in -yellow; the other half, in light green.[4] These two colors represent -the appearance of the sky at sunrise; the yellow corresponding to the -region of the dawn, and the green to the dark sky above. The four stars -symmetrically arranged are colored black for the night, yellow for the -dawn, blue for the evening, and red for the day; or in other words the -whole circle is represented. The design of the bird presents some -interesting details. The lightning-symbols represent the death-dealing -power conferred upon the owner of such a shield-design at the time of -his dream. The red marks upon the breast of the bird, representing the -national emblem of the United States, were interpreted by the owner as -symbolizing such death-dealing power in contending with soldiers. The -peculiar feature upon the tail of the bird represents an additional -experience, and was added to the shield about the year 1867, after a -successful engagement with the United States troops, in which the owner -of the shield participated. According to his account, the design on the -tail of the bird is the conventional symbol of the spider-web, but is -used here to represent an experience preceding the above engagement. As -the war-party were moving forward, they saw a strange appearance in the -sky, which took the form of this symbol. The sight of it caused the -war-party to scatter; and the interpretation placed upon this by the -owner was, that its manifestation of supernatural power, which was to be -conveyed to them, would cause their enemies to scatter in like -confusion. During the confusion into which the party fell, the stars -moved rapidly through the sky and the lightning flashed in all -directions. This is represented by the four corners of the design. At -the top of the shield is a braid of sweet-grass and a small buckskin bag -containing medicines of a supposed charm-value. Before going into -battle, some of this sweet-grass was to be burnt, and ritualistic songs -pertaining to the shield were to be sung. This having been done, the -shield was supposed to protect its owner from his enemies. Eight -feathers, arranged in pairs, are attached to the shield, and their -quills are painted to correspond to the parts of the background to which -they are attached. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2. Shield-design, - from a Drawing by a Native.] - -There is one interesting feature connected with this shield-design, and -that is the fact that some of the old men disapproved of the owner -placing the spider-web design upon the tail of the bird, because it was -a mixing of supernatural manifestations. The incident connected with -this design was regarded by them as most extraordinary, and as having -been worthy of distinct and separate representation. According to the -accepted modes of interpretation, this experience should have been -represented upon a new shield. - -The specimen shown in Plate VI is not a shield-cover, but was -nevertheless spoken of as a shield; and the design upon it is an old -shield-design. The specimen is a cape (made of cotton) worn around the -shoulders in such a way that the design could be seen upon the back of -the wearer. Here are represented the rainbow, the thunder-bird -(possessing in this case characteristics which indicate that it was -copied from the national emblem of the United States), the new and full -moon, and the stars. It will be observed that the stars in this case are -four-pointed, similar to the design of the spider-web, and they are -regarded by the Indians as an example of the old original method of -representing them. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3. Drawing, by a Native, of a Shield-cover.] - -As a great many Indians who formerly owned shields do not now possess -shield-covers, the writer secured drawings made by them of their former -shields. Such a sketch is reproduced in outline (Fig. 2). In the centre -is a design of the spider-web filled in with red. The ground of the -shield is in blue, representing the sky. Above and below are circular -areas in yellow, representing clouds or heaven. Lightning-symbols in red -connect the yellow cloud-symbols with the four corners of the spider-web -design. As a final suggestion relative to this interpretation, the -informant said, “The spider is the friend of the thunder.” - -[Illustration: Fig. 4. Shield-design, from a Drawing by a Native.] - -The manner in which the owner secured the shield-design represented in -Fig. 3 is as follows. Once when a war-party of which he was a member -were about to take the war-path, it was predicted by an old man that he -would be killed in the first battle. Before leaving with the party, he -went to an old medicine-man for help, and this man made him a shield -bearing the design described below. The bird represented is the -hawk,—flying from the sky, protected by the thunder from the hailstones -that fly thick and fast about him,—and symbolizes the manner in which -the owner of the shield will pass safely through the hail of lead from -the enemy. Four pairs of hawk-feathers are arranged symmetrically on the -circumference of the shield. - -In the shield-design in Fig. 4, we find a large circular area in the -centre painted yellow and the surrounding portion red. Around the -circumference of the yellow portion are black spots, representing tufts -of short crow-feathers. Upon the original shield, across the top, there -was tied the skin of a weasel, represented in the drawing by a -pictograph of that animal. Four pairs of feathers are arranged -symmetrically on the circumference of this design. - -The design represented by Fig. 5 is rather striking, since an image of -the spider is placed in the centre of the shield surrounded by a circle -of red, through which the numerous red lines radiate to the -circumference of the design. These red lines represent the web of the -spider. One end of a string is tied to the mouth of the spider, with an -eagle-plume at the other end, painted yellow. Around the circumference -of the design is a wavy blue line, representing water. The owner of this -design received such a shield when a young man, and stated that he never -understood why the medicine-man who made it for him placed the blue line -around it, and for that reason he could not explain its significance. - -[Illustration: Fig. 5. Spider-design for a Shield, from a - Drawing by a Native.] - -The design represented in Fig. 6 was dreamed of by the owner himself, -and in this dream he was presented with a shield bearing a design -similar to the sketch. As he was almost blind, the sketch is very crude. -In it appear again the thunder-bird, the stars, the yellow clouds, the -red and blue lightning, the new moon, and the bear. It was claimed that -the curved double line at the bottom represented both the moon and the -lightning; the former by the colors, the latter by its form. Another -interesting point in this design is the representation of an -eagle-feather upon the head of the bear. This is the conventional way of -representing a supernatural bear as distinguished from a real bear.[5] -The owner of this shield-design claimed, that, while he did not now and -had not for years carried or kept about him a drawing of the design, he -felt it as a kind of magic presence hovering around him, shielding him -from harm. He stated, further, that, while he knew that other men used -the symbols represented in his shield-design as the signs of particular -powers and ideas, he himself had no such interpretation; for in the -dream he saw nothing more than a shield bearing these designs, and -received no instruction or information as to their significance. Their -protecting power to him lay in the peculiar supernatural presence which -he always felt. - -The shield-design in Fig. 7 represents a thunderstorm. At the top, the -clouds are represented in blue. Below this, falling rain is represented -by short irregular lines, and the lightning and thunder by zigzag lines -extending downward from the clouds on a background of clear sky. This -design originated in the same manner as did the preceding; that is, a -finished shield was seen in a dream. - -[Illustration: Fig. 6. Shield-design, from a Drawing by the Man who - dreamed of it. - Fig. 7. Shield-design representing a Thunderstorm, from a Drawing by a - Native.] - -Plate VII is the reproduction of a model of a shield made of shrunken -bull-hide covered with buckskin. It was collected by Dr. J. R. Walker. -The design is somewhat similar to the preceding. The upper part is -painted in blue to represent the clouds, and the lower part in -bluish-green to represent the sky. In the cloud-area is the drawing of a -horse, symbolizing a dream-horse (probably the thunder-horse). The -thunder, or power, is symbolized by red zigzag lines extending downward -from the cloud-area. An eagle-feather and twelve hawk-feathers are tied -to a small buckskin bag of medicine, fastened to the shield in a manner -suggesting their attachment to the mane of the horse. The circumference -of the shield is decorated with small feathers, and four pairs of -eagle-feathers are also arranged symmetrically around the circumference. - -[Illustration: Fig. 8 (50-5456). Model of a Shield - with Pictographic Design. Diameter, 47 cm.] - -A shield (Fig. 8) similar to the preceding represents a vision in which -the dreamer was apparently supported by the thunder-horse in a contest -with the mythical turtle. A small bag of medicine and a pendant -eagle-plume are attached to the shield, as in the previous case. -Feathers are again arranged in four pairs. This specimen was collected -by Dr. J. R. Walker. - -In the Museum collection from the Sauk and Fox Indians, made by Dr. -William Jones, is a shield captured from the Sioux, at the time of the -outbreak of 1866, by a Fox in the employ of the United States -Government. The design was painted upon the rawhide, but is now almost -obliterated. Fig. 9 is a diagrammatic restoration. The writer saw an old -buffalo-hide shield in the possession of an Assiniboine, at Fort -Belknap, Montana. The design was painted upon buffalo-hide, and was -similar to that in Fig. 9. He collected also from the Dakota a number of -drawings representing military exploits. While twenty shields are -represented in these drawings, fourteen of them bear simple circular -designs, as shown in the adjoining figure. This suggests that the older -type of shield-decoration made use of simple circular designs. This idea -was supported by the testimony of a number of old men who ought to be -competent to speak upon the subject. Of course, there is no reason why -the image of the thunder-bird, so common upon modern shield-designs, -should not have been used in ancient times; and the writer wishes to be -understood as expressing this as an opinion based upon indirect -evidence. - -[Illustration: Fig. 9 (50-3569). Design on Sioux - Shield captured by a Fox Indian. - Diameter, 42 cm. ] - -These circular designs often represented the sun, other heavenly bodies, -or the sky, which suggests that formerly the shield as a whole may have -been considered as a symbol of the sun. The survivors of shield-using -days seemed to have no actual knowledge of any connection between the -shield-form and the sun, but usually expressed it as their opinion that -it represented the sun, and that the feathers represented the sun’s -rays. This may have been suggested by the fact that eagle-feathers were -sometimes arranged in a half-circle to represent the rays of the sun, -and that, furthermore, the rays of the sun were sometimes spoken of as -feathers. - -Shield-designs could originate only in dreams and visions, and were -painted by the person experiencing them, who prayed and sang over his -work to give the shield power. Usually but four shields could be made -from a single dream: to make a great number was sacrilege. Among the -Blackfoot, the shield was often accompanied by a ritual composed of -songs and prayers; and they possessed a few shields with such important -rituals that they were distinguished from the others as -“medicine-shields.” There seems to have been a similar condition among -the Dakota, for it was often said that medicine-shields were hung -outside the tepees, upon tripods, and that during the day they were -changed from time to time so as to keep them facing the sun. This -practice was observed by a number of Plains tribes. However, among the -Dakota the tripod often gave place to a single pole. - ------ - -[2] Bandelier (Reports of the Peabody Museum, Vol. II, p. 109). - -[3] Bandelier, op. cit., p. 108. - -[4] In the drawings, colors are indicated by the following devices: red, -by horizontal shading; yellow, by vertical shading; green, by left -oblique shading; blue or purple, by right oblique shading. Black and -white have their conventional qualities. The drawings were made by Miss -R. B. Howe. - -[5] For an illustration see Catlin, North American Indians (7th ed., -1848), Plate 102. - - - - - GHOST-DANCE DESIGNS. - - -About the year 1890 a religious movement, generally known as the -“ghost-dance religion,” infected the Plains Indians. The chief feature -of this religion was the belief in a speedy return of the old time, the -buffalo, and the extermination of the white race. The different tribes -had various ideas of their duties with respect to this new faith, and, -with the exception of the Dakota, they did not manifest direct hostility -to the white race. This warlike people, however, were already greatly -dissatisfied with the treatment they received from the Government and -with the difficult conditions under which they lived. In consequence, -they received the ghost-dance religion as a herald of the good time -which, to their minds, was to be secured only by war with the white -race. While a great many of the conditions in the immediate environment -of the Dakota have been given by various writers as causes for the -outbreak, the fact that these Indians interpreted the new religion as -the manifestation of a warlike spirit was probably due to the fact that -they were at heart a warlike people. Their ideas still run toward -military things. As the essential idea of the ghost-dance religion was a -return of the old time, the ceremonies pertaining thereto made use of -the typical objects and ideas of the past. In this, of course, they were -not entirely consistent, since they did not discard the use of -fire-arms, and did not actually resurrect bows, arrows, and shields. -Yet, as a substitute for the protective power of the shield, they -introduced garments bearing protective designs. These garments are -generally known under the name of “ghost-shirts,” and at the time of the -outbreak were spoken of by white people as “bullet-proof shirts.” The -following are descriptions of these garments by eye-witnesses at the -time of their first appearance:— - - “All the men and women made holy shirts and dresses they wear in - dance. The persons dropped in dance would all lie in great dust - the dancing make. They paint the white muslins they made holy - dresses and shirts out of with blue across the back, and - alongside of this is a line of yellow paint. They also paint in - the front part of the shirts and dresses. A picture of an eagle - is made on the back of all the shirts and dresses. On the - shoulders and on the sleeves they tied eagle-feathers. They said - that the bullets will not go through these shirts and dresses, - so they all have these dresses for war. Their enemies’ weapon - will not go through these dresses. The ghost-dancers all have to - wear eagle-feather on head.”[6] - - “I think they wore the ghost-shirt or ghost-dress for the first - time that day. I noticed that these were all new, and were worn - by about seventy men and forty women. The wife of a man called - Return-from-scout had seen in a vision that her friends all wore - a similar robe, and on reviving from her trance she called the - women together, and they made a great number of the sacred - garments. They were of white cotton cloth. The women’s dress was - cut like their ordinary dress, a loose robe with wide, flowing - sleeves, painted blue in the neck, in the shape of a - three-cornered handkerchief, with moon, stars, birds, etc., - interspersed with real feathers, painted on the waist and - sleeves. - - “The ghost-shirt for the men was made of the same - material—shirts and leggings painted in red. Some of the - leggings were painted in stripes running up and down, others - running around. The shirt was painted blue around the neck, and - the whole garment was fantastically sprinkled with figures of - birds, bows and arrows, sun, moon, and stars, and everything - they saw in nature. Down the outside of the sleeve were rows of - feathers tied by the quill-ends and left to fly in the breeze, - and also a row around the neck and up and down outside of the - leggings. I noticed that a number had stuffed birds, - squirrel-heads, etc., tied in their long hair. The faces of all - were painted red with a black half-moon on the forehead or on - one cheek.”[7] - -[Illustration: Fig. 10 (50-3053). Front of a Ghost-dance Garment. - Length, 126 cm. ] - -As is noted by the above, designs on these garments were made by -individuals who had dreams or other unusual experiences similar to those -of the medicine-men; and it would seem from this account that the -designs and objects used in the dance were in every way similar to those -employed before the ghost-dance religion appeared. The writer made the -acquaintance of several individuals who had prepared such garments at -the time of the ghost-dance, and from them he secured reproductions with -explanations as to the significance of the designs. As some time had -elapsed since the ghost-dance religion was at the height of its -popularity, it is possible that the more special features belonging to -it were forgotten by these men, and that they worked into the reproduced -garments older and more conservative ideas. However, the writer is of -the opinion, and he took special pains to investigate as best he could, -that whatever may have been lost in this way made no important changes -in either the objective character of the designs or in the ideas -expressed by them. As a matter of fact, the ghost-dance in some of its -milder forms is still observed. - -Some garments secured by the writer are decorated on both front and back -with designs chiefly pictographic. On the front of one (Fig. 10) is a -large triangular space extending downward from the shoulders (one half -of which is in red and the other half in blue), thickly dotted over with -white spots representing hailstones. The red represents the morning; and -the blue, the night. Extending across from side to side is a large -arched figure made up of red, yellow, white, and green bands, -representing the rainbow. Above this are two four-pointed stars, the red -for the morning star and the black for the stars seen in the night. -There is a large green star with eight points on the dividing-line -between day and night, concerning which I secured no satisfactory -explanation. At the apex of the triangular space are small dots of -yellow, representing the dawn; and the sun is placed on each side of the -division between day and night. The new moon is represented by a black -crescent. On the morning-side of this design is the picture of a -butterfly; while on the night-side, extending over into the morning, is -a picture of a peculiar figure, which the artist regarded as a -spirit-bird or man-bird, as he expressed it, with the medicine-hoop in -his hand. The other portion of the dress is covered over with small dots -in various colors, representing bullets. There are also pictures of -butterflies, stars, and buffalo-tracks. On one side are two parallel -wavy red lines, and on the other two in green, representing the -lightning. - -[Illustration: Fig. 11 (50-3053). Back of Garment - shown in Fig. 10.] - -On the other side of this garment, or the back (Fig. 11), is the -representation of a bird, which seems to be mythical rather than -realistic. The background upon which the figure rests is dotted to -represent bullets or hail, as both have the same significance. The lower -part of the garment is the most interesting. Here we have four -buffalo-tracks arranged in rectangular relation to represent buffalo, -and a circle or medicine-hoop (half of which is red and half green) with -extending lines of the same colors, representing the thunder, or its -power. The idea of this association of the hoop, or, as it is sometimes -spoken of, the mirror, is that this buffalo escapes bullets, or perhaps -is immortal. Below the sign of the buffalo is a four-pointed figure, -usually known as the spider-web design, representing the heavens; and -below this is the rainbow. Two swallows are represented connected to the -points in the spider-web design by lines, indicating that they enjoy the -protection of this power, making them difficult to hit with bullets or -other missiles. - -[Illustration: Fig. 12 (50-3054). Designs on the Front of - Ghost-dance Garment. Length, 128 cm.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 13 (50-3054). Designs on the Back - of Garment shown in Fig. 12.] - -On another garment (Fig. 12), the triangular area at the top is entirely -in red, covered with white spots representing hail, and bordered with -wavy lines representing the rainbow. This represents the rainbow in the -sky. The dark crescent represents the moon. Below is a large -four-pointed star in black, representing the night, with a line -extending over each side, representing the clouds. The small disk in red -represents a bullet; and the small green crescent, the moon. Below these -is the spider-web design, representing the heavens, over the four -corners of which the lightning appears; but in this case the design is -covered with dots representing the falling of the stars. Near this -design we find the butterfly and the buffalo-tracks. The remaining space -on the whole garment is covered with patches of color, representing the -hail. On the opposite side (Fig. 13) are peculiar triangular designs, -the background of which is in red bordered by straight lines, suggesting -the rainbow; while on the red background are placed the design of the -moon and two circles in such relation as to suggest a face. This design -was spoken of as the “moon-face;” but this seems to have been an -after-interpretation, since the artist wished to represent the -medicine-hoop or mirror in the sky. [It seems likely that this is simply -an adaptation of a head-dress used in the elk ceremony.] Below this we -have a combination which appears to be the spider-web design combined -with the figure of a bird, which is said to be the dream-figure, -representing the bird seen on a tree. Below this we have the moon, -rainbow, tracks of the buffalo, stars, butterfly, and a mounted warrior -riding through the hail. - -[Illustration: Fig. 14 (50-3055). Front of a Ghost-dance Garment - bearing Dragon-fly Design. Length, 125 cm.] - -In Fig. 14, the triangular space at the top is similar to that on the -preceding garment, and need not be described here. The body of the dress -is covered with dragon-flies as they appear when flying over water. The -stars represent reflections in the water; and the dashes of color, the -hail. The wavy green lines extending down the full length of the garment -represent the lightning. In this case the red at the top is spoken of as -the thunder-cloud. On the opposite side (Fig. 15), the triangular area -with its tail-like extension represents the rattlesnake. In addition we -have tracks of the buffalo dragon-fly, and butterfly, all associated as -in nature. Upon the sides of this garment are the designs of the lizard, -swallow, and turtle. - -[Illustration: Fig. 15 (50-3055). Back of Garment shown in Fig. 14.] - -The above detailed statements concerning the designs and their import do -not convey their full significance as it was brought out in discussions -between the writer and the men who made these garments. In the first -place we find on them symbols to be described in another section of this -paper; namely, the spider-web designs and the medicine-hoop. It will be -seen that in most cases the living creatures represented are those that -seem to have power to escape the hailstones, because, as they say, no -matter how severe the hailstorm may be, no one observes their dead or -maimed upon the ground: therefore they assume that these creatures -possess some extraordinary power, or receive the attention of some -protective power. The bird represented does not seem to be the -thunder-bird, as is usually the case in Dakota art, but such species, -usually birds of prey, as soar above the destructive range of the hail. -The lizard and the turtle are spoken of as animals of great power, since -they are killed with great difficulty, from which it follows that they -also enjoy the protection of some power. This we may generalize by -saying that the Indian placed upon these garments representations of -living creatures that, according to his observation and experience, were -seldom hit by missiles, or that possessed great vitality, making it -difficult to kill them. Placed on the garments, they express a prayer, a -hope, or an actual realization, on the part of the wearer, of the -protective power by which these creatures are enabled to survive. - -The triangular designs at the top of these garments were spoken of as -shields, the idea being that they were in some measure shield-designs, -and performed the same function as did those upon shields in former -times. Mr. Mooney expresses the opinion that the protective designs on -garments used in the ghost-dance religion were not aboriginal with the -Indian. - - “The protective idea in connection with the ghost-shirt does not - seem to be aboriginal. The Indian warrior habitually went into - battle naked above the waist. His protecting ‘medicine’ was a - feather, a tiny bag of some sacred powder, the claw of an - animal, the head of a bird, or some other small object which - could be readily twisted into his hair or hidden between the - covers of his shield, without attracting attention. Its virtue - depended entirely on the ceremony of the consecration, and not - on size or texture. The war-paint had the same magic power of - protection. To cover the body in battle was not in accordance - with Indian usage, which demanded that the warrior should be as - free and unincumbered in movement as possible. The so-called - ‘war-shirt’ was worn chiefly in ceremonial dress-parades, and - only rarely on the war-path.”[8] - -This statement, however, suggests that Mr. Mooney based his opinion upon -objective evidence, while the opinion expressed by the writer is based -upon subjective evidence. A comparison of the interpretations of -shield-designs and ghost-dress designs seems to leave little opportunity -for any other conclusion than that the protective designs used in the -ghost-dance were essentially the same as those used in former times upon -shields and other objects. The garments may be foreign; but the idea of -protective designs is most certainly not peculiar to the ghost-dance -religion, since it was widely distributed among American tribes, and -associated with ceremonial objects that were in use at least a century -before the ghost-dance religion appeared. - -If the writer had no other information at hand than that furnished by -Mr. Mooney in his comprehensive study of the ghost-dance religion, he -would be inclined to regard the whole as the manifestation of aboriginal -religious ideas in response to a single foreign conception; namely, that -of the coming of a messiah and the destruction of the present order of -the world. The way in which the ghost-dance ceremonies were performed, -the ideas expressed in the songs, the things the priests dreamed of, and -the objects used in the ceremonies, are so characteristically Indian, -that no other interpretation seems possible. However, in the present -connection we are concerned with these designs as types of the universal -primitive expression of belief in the presence of a guiding personal -agency that looks into the affairs of men. - ------ - -[6] George Sword, on Ghost-dance Religion (Fourteenth Annual Report of -the Bureau of American Ethnology, p. 798). - -[7] Mrs. Z. A. Parker (Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of -American Ethnology, p. 916). - -[8] Mooney (Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American -Ethnology, p. 790). - - - - - THE HOOP. - - -The circle, or more properly the hoop, is a very important religious -symbol among the Dakota. One form of it appears in the great hoop-game -described by Louis Meeker,[9] and later by Dr. J. R. Walker.[10] This -hoop is usually about two feet in diameter, and notched so as to divide -the circumference into quadrants. While this hoop-game seems to be a -true gambling game, it could be and was sometimes played as part of a -ritualistic ceremony the object of which was to bring the buffalo. It is -interesting to note that this large hoop is similar to the sacred wheel -used by the Arapaho in the sun-dance. At the time of the ghost-dance -outbreak among the Dakota of Pine Ridge Reservation, Mr. Mooney saw the -hoop and the two pairs of sticks used with it carried in the ceremonies -connected with the ghost-dance religion. He states:— - - “It is said that the medicine-man of Big Foot’s band carried - such a hoop with him in their flight from the north, and - displayed it in every dance held by the band until the fatal day - of Wounded Knee. A similar hoop was carried and hung upon the - centre tree at the dance at No Water’s camp near Pine Ridge. To - the Indian it symbolizes the revival of the old-time games.”[11] - -The last line of the above quotation implies that the hoop was a part of -the paraphernalia used in the ghost-dance ceremonies, because it -symbolized the ancient games. On another page of the same article occurs -the following:— - - “As it was the favorite game with the men in the olden times, a - great many of the songs founded on these trance visions refer to - it, and the wheel and sticks are made by the dreamer, and - carried in the dance as they sing.”[12] - -It should be remembered, however, that the game was formerly played to -restore the buffalo when they were temporarily absent from their range; -and, as one of the great objects of the ghost-dance religion was the -return of the buffalo as in the olden times, the reason for the use of -the hoop in the ceremonies described by Mooney is apparent. In Mooney’s -account, a number of songs pertaining to the hoop-game are given as sung -by the various tribes practising the ghost-dance religion. Among these -is a Dakota version, as follows:— - - “The holy (hoop) shall run, “Come and see it, - The holy (hoop) shall run, Come and see it, - The swift hoop shall run, Says the father, - The swift hoop shall run.” Says the father.”[13] - -A mythical account of the hoop-game is given by Dr. J. R. Walker, which -indicates one of the probable conceptions upon which this religious use -of the hoop rests.[14] - -The hoop-symbol occurs in graphic form, sometimes upon garments. The -writer secured a shirt that was used by one of the leaders in -ghost-dances; and which seems to have been a type of the so-called -“bullet-proof shirt.” This garment is daubed with red about the neck and -on the shoulders, but in addition bears four circular designs, also in -red, with large dots at their centres (Fig. 16). One of these designs is -placed upon the right breast; another, directly opposite, upon the back -of the garment; one upon the right shoulder; and one upon the left. -These are so arranged, that, no matter from what point you see the -wearer, one of the circular designs will be visible. These designs were -recognized as symbols of the medicine-hoop, and were supposed to have -the power to protect the wearer from all harm. The idea of placing the -designs so that one of them should always be between the wearer and the -source of danger may be original with the owner of this shirt; but the -number of them (four), and their arrangement according to the four -directions, correspond to the common explanation of religious symbols. - -[Illustration: Fig. 16 (50-2964). Circular - Design upon a Shirt. - Diameter, 11 cm. ] - -Meeker describes[15] a wheel-shaped hoop-ornament consisting of a ring -enclosing four spokes at right angles to each other. According to his -account, this is a symbol associated with the hoop-game; but similar -specimens were seen by the writer upon the heads of Dakota men, who -explained that these were symbols of the medicine-wheel or -medicine-hoop, and did not refer to the hoop-game. They were worn -because they were regarded as symbols of the power that could protect -the wearer from arrows, bullets, or other dangers. - -As is suggested by the above, the game-hoop is distinguished from the -medicine-hoop as used in ceremonies. A medicine-hoop seems to have been -used by all divisions of the Dakota, and, according to the descriptions -received by the writer, to have been of several forms. In certain -ceremonies where the elk played an important part, a hoop or ring was -formed by twining together fresh twigs and leaves of the willow. In the -centre of this hoop, a small mirror was held by four cords arranged at -right angles, and representing the four directions. A drawing of an -elk-dancer by a native is shown in Fig. 17. The painted centre for the -circular designs on a shirt (Fig. 16) described above, as well as the -small wheel-shaped head-ornament, were said to represent a hoop of this -type. - -[Illustration: Fig. 17. Sketch, by a Native, - of an Elk-mystery Dancer carrying a - Hoop with a Mirror in the Centre. - Drawing collected by R. Cronau. ] - -The connection of this hoop with the idea of protection is well -illustrated in the manufacture of one kind of red paint. It is produced -by burning a kind of yellow clay, found near the Black Hills, until it -takes on the red color. The paint, however, is given its protective -power by certain ceremonies performed as it is made. In the particular -ceremony observed by the writer, the yellow earth was pounded fine, and -mixed with water until it became a stiff paste. This was then made into -a flat disk about half an inch thick and from four to six inches in -diameter, after which a hole or depression was made in the centre. The -purpose of this, as explained, was to give it the form of a -medicine-hoop, the hole in the centre corresponding to the place -occupied by the mirror in the form of hoop just described. This disk was -then burned in the fire until red, after which it was pounded on a stone -until fine enough for use. The ceremony in preparing the paint consisted -of ritualistic songs and prayers, which reached their climax as the disk -of clay was formed and perforated. The burning and the subsequent -preparation were not regarded as parts of the ceremony. The idea, as -expressed, was to connect the paint with the power represented by the -hoop, so that when a warrior rubbed some of it upon his body, he came at -once under the protection of this power. - -Another idea seems to be connected with the conception of the -medicine-hoop, and that is the appearance of certain mythical animals -with openings through their bodies where their hearts should be. The -conception seems to be, that an animal without a heart is immortal and -supernatural: at least, this is the way in which the mythical elk was -described. According to the belief, there is a connection between this -opening through the heart and the centre of the medicine-hoop, -represented in the elk ceremonies by the mirror; but it is the opinion -of the writer that this is an error on the part of the Indians -themselves in associating two things that were formerly distinct.[16] - -It seems rather curious that the mirror should become so closely -associated with the hoop, and that the mirror should have appealed to -them as a symbol of almost equal importance. The writer is of the -opinion that the preceding cases, where the mirror and the hoop are -considered as identical symbols, are the result of a former close -association of the two in ceremonial affairs. - ------ - -[9] Meeker (Bulletin of the Free Museum of Science and Art, University -of Pennsylvania, Vol. III. No. 1). - -[10] Walker (The Journal of the American Folk-Lore Society, -October-December, 1905). - -[11] Mooney (Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American -Ethnology, p. 1075). - -[12] Mooney (Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American -Ethnology, p. 994). - -[13] Mooney (Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American -Ethnology, p. 1075). - -[14] Walker (The Journal of the American Folk-Lore Society, -October-December, 1905). - -[15] Meeker, op. cit., p. 35. - -[16] In the Report of the Peabody Museum (Vol. III, p. 286) is a -description by Miss Fletcher of some ceremonies in which the hoop and -the mirror played a part. “The neophyte held one, having a circular -mirror, fastened by four cords, from which he cast a reflection of the -sun from time to time upon the ground, or held up the hoop, and flashed -the mirror.” The explanation given by this author of the significance of -the mirror in these ceremonies differs from that secured by the writer; -but Miss Fletcher’s account seems to refer to a form of ceremony -pertaining to the elk rites not mentioned in his notes. - - - - - THE WHIRLWIND. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 18 (50-2095). Engraved Metal Cross. - Collected by R. Cronau. Length, 23 cm.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 19 (50-2898). Engraved Bone Object. - Collected by R. Cronau. Length, 24 cm.] - -In another place the writer has described the conception of the power of -the whirlwind among some of the Dakota, but wishes at this time to refer -to it again because of its relation to their system of protective -designs.[17] As stated in the former publication, there seems to be in -the minds of some of the Dakota an association between the phenomenon of -the whirlwind and those mental states generally known as “confusion of -mind.” Some of them believed and still believe that the power in the -whirlwind can be invoked to confuse the mind of an enemy. In common with -many other American tribes, the Dakota believe the whirlwind to be -associated with the fluttering wings of a moth, but they also associate -this with the cocoon of the same moth; and in symbolic representation -the design representing the power of the whirlwind is of an elongated -diamond-shape, and refers to the cocoon. The protection or aid of the -whirlwind was secured by prayers, and these prayers were symbolized by -the cocoon worn upon the person, by its image in stuffed buckskin, or by -its graphic representation, sketched or painted. The power of the -whirlwind was supposed to have been associated with the power of the -spider-web. As an illustration of this, we find engraved upon a -German-silver cross (Fig. 18) the spider, and near it three -representations of the whirlwind cocoon. Between the spider and these -three designs is a zigzag line, implying the mystic power connection of -the same. Again, on a forked bone object (Fig. 19), the use of which is -unknown, occur a number of incised designs, among which is again what -seems to be the spider-web, the tracks of a quadruped (probably the -buffalo), and four designs representing the whirlwind cocoon, -accompanied in each case by another design which cannot be determined, -but which resembles the footprints of a person. It is interesting to -note that the German-silver cross also bears the tracks of the buffalo, -or some ruminant animal, in association with the spider. In the absence -of direct information, the writer hesitates to offer any interpretation -of the design upon these specimens, although he feels that they could be -interpreted with reasonable certainty. - -The design of the whirlwind resembles a feather-design, and no doubt the -two are often confused. The difference seems to be, that, when -representing the whirlwind, half of the design is filled with parallel -or crossing lines; while, when representing feathers, half of the design -is filled in with color (see Fig. 19). The feather-design is more fixed -in form than that of the whirlwind. Fig. 20 is a representation of the -latter, from the handle of a club, where it appears in a series with the -spider, lizard, elk, and turtle. Another form of the same design is -repeated in a series on a wooden popgun (Fig. 21). - -[Illustration: Fig. 20 (50-4380). Whirlwind Design, from the Handle of a - Club. Length, 5 cm. - Fig. 21 (50-4244). Whirlwind Design, from a Popgun. Length of design, 7.5 - cm. ] - ------ - -[17] Wissler (The Journal of the American Folk-Lore Society, -October-December, 1905). - - - - - THE THUNDER. - - -The thunder is a very important deity among all the Indians of the -Plains, and is usually associated with military exploits. While the -Dakota generally regard the thunder as a bird, usually symbolized by the -eagle, yet they sometimes speak of it as a horse, a man, or a dog. The -horse always appealed to them as a creature of mysterious origin, and in -many cases was assumed to have been given by the thunder. In any event -there is an association in their minds between the power of a war-horse -and the thunder. The thunder is often represented by a zigzag or wavy -line, usually in red; but this symbol really represents the power of the -phenomenon in the abstract, because the Indian does have the conception -of a force in nature. Consequently this graphic symbol is also a general -sign for the presence of mysterious supernatural power. The whistles -made from the leg and wing bones of eagles, and used among the Plains -tribes, are generally employed by the Dakota to symbolize the cry of the -eagle as a representative of the thunder-bird. In battle, or sometimes -in stress of great trial, they are sounded to call up the power of the -thunder to rescue the unfortunate one. As a rule, a zigzag line is -scratched down the sides of these whistles. In this connection it is -interesting to note the following:— - - “Before daylight I set off with five Indians. . . . This caused - a halt, as we were surrounded and began to suspect that the - enemy had planned to cut us off. The Indians put on their - war-caps, uttering some few words which I could not hear - distinctly, and then began to whistle with a small bone - instrument which they hung around their necks for that - purpose.”[18] - -This account (1807) by an acute observer is interesting, because our -present knowledge enables us to understand the muttered prayers and the -use of the whistle. - -[Illustration: Fig. 22 (50-3023). Whistle, of Bone. - Length, 19 cm. ] - -The whistle shown in Fig. 22 is interesting because of the objects that -accompany it. The whistle is from the wing-bone of an eagle, and near -the top is a small bag containing the medicine of the owner. The -feathers of the yellow-winged woodpecker are attached thereto, because -this bird is considered as an associate of the thunder-bird, or at least -it holds some relation to the thunder, since the Dakota have observed, -that, when a storm is approaching, this bird gives a peculiar shrill -call not unlike the sound of the whistle spoken of above. This they -interpret as speaking to the thunder. Consequently, the feathers of this -bird, when attached to the whistle, are supposed to put the individual -also in a position to speak to the thunder. This bird has a large dark -spot on the throat, which is said to represent the moon and to be -further evidence of the sacred character of the bird. Thus we have a -combined charm representing the woodpecker and the eagle,—two birds -closely associated with the thunder. - -The ceremony of offering a filled pipe to the thunder was frequently -observed by the Dakota. One man stated that once, when the camp was -threatened by an approaching storm, he filled a large pipe, went to the -top of a hill, and, facing the storm, made an offering to the thunder by -extending the stem upward, and praying, with the result that the storm -divided, and passed around the camp without serious damage to his -people. In the decoration of pipe-stems, a bunch of horsehair is -attached (usually colored red), and this is often spoken of as an emblem -of the thunder-horse. This horsehair is to signify the presence of the -power of the thunder, as manifest in the horse, in all ceremonies -connected with the pipe. It is worth while noting that in this case we -have an illustration of a peculiarity of religious lore,—the indirect -symbolizing of a power by one of a series of objects in which that power -is manifest. - -The United States emblem of the eagle with outstretched claws, holding -arrows and the lightning, is regarded by the Dakota as an appeal on our -part to the thunder-bird; and statements to the contrary are usually -interpreted as white men’s lies to deceive the Indians and to guard the -power. There is little doubt that the Dakota manner of drawing the -thunder-bird has been modified by the United States emblem, and that -their own idea of his power has been influenced accordingly. - ------ - -[18] New Light on the Early History of the Greater Northwest, p. 436. - - - - - THE SPIDER. - - -The association between the spider, the spider-web, and the thunder, is -very close—so close, that it is difficult to understand the conception -of the power of the spider without considering the power of the thunder. -The spider is often spoken of as the “spider-man.” It is also associated -with the mythical elk. It was supposed to have great power. The observed -fact that a spider manufactures a web, and that this web is not -destroyed by bullets or arrows (since they pass through it, leaving only -a hole), is cited by some individuals as the basis for the conception -that the spider has power to protect people from harm. On the other -hand, the spider is spoken of as a friend of the thunder; and it is a -general belief that the thunder will never harm the spider-web, or, what -amounts to the same, that the spider-web itself is a protection against -thunder. As previously stated, the spider-web is represented by a -peculiar four-cornered design. This design is sometimes said to -represent the heavens, in which case the four points represent the four -directions, the home of the winds, the four thunders, etc.; the -supernatural character of the design being indicated by -lightning-symbols extending from the four corners. - -[Illustration: Fig. 23 (50-3095). Design of a Spider-web.] - -In a preceding paper,[19] the spider-web design was discussed in its -relation to decorative art, where it was noted that among some divisions -of the Dakota is a belief in a double woman,[20] to whom, among other -things, certain ceremonial uses of this design are attributed. According -to information secured by the writer, this character was also associated -with the elk ceremonies, where she was often represented by two women -tied together by a cord (about two feet in length), from the middle of -which hung a doll or a ball. Women often receive power by dreaming of -this character. Some such women are supposed to perform a kind of -ceremony, somewhat secret, in which a child is taken out to a lonely -place, where a swing or hammock-like structure is made in the form of -the spider-web design, supported by the four corners, and the child is -placed upon it. This is to bring good fortune to the child. A design of -the spider-web might then be placed upon the robe of the child as a -symbol of its having experienced the ceremony (Fig. 23). - -The men, however, use this design for military protection, in which -connection it is not thought of as being associated in any way with the -mythical double woman. It is, however, closely associated with the -medicine-bow. This was a very sacred military object with the Dakota, of -which only four duplicates could be had. It consisted of a bow of plain -wood, of the usual length, to the end of which was attached a -spear-head. Fastened to the bow was a stick somewhat longer, sharpened -at one end, and decorated with feathers and other symbolic objects. The -purpose of the stick was to support the bow, since all such sacred -objects would lose their power if allowed to touch the ground. The bow -was not used as a weapon, but was carried as a standard, because of its -supposed magical power over the enemy. The figure of the dragon-fly was -usually painted upon the bow and its support, as well as dots -representing insects that fly swiftly, and zigzag lines representing -thunder. Feathers of the eagle, the magpie, the hawk, and, in fact, of -all birds swift of wing, were likewise attached to it. The association -between these insects and birds was the same as that previously noted; -that is, since they were swift in motion, and difficult to strike, they -represented the qualities desired by the bearers of the bow. These bows -have long since passed out of existence, but survive in models made for -commercial purposes. - -The account of the origin of the medicine-bow is as follows:— - - “A man dreamed of the thunder, and afterwards called in four men - to assist him in making the medicine-bow. They went through the - preliminaries (the sweat-house, etc.), after which a special - tent was erected. The ground inside of this tent, where the - dreamer and his four companions sat, was covered with - sage-grass. A young man was called in to act as their assistant. - He was sent out to cut elm sticks. He went out slowly, and after - a time came back with the sticks. Then he was sent out to get - together the feathers of swift flying birds, pieces of - buffalo-hide, paints, etc. He went around the camp, and begged - these of the people. - - “Then the four men set to work making the sticks under the - direction of the dreamer. The dreamer gave a bow to one of the - men, and a piece of buffalo-hide in which to wrap the sticks, - also a wooden bowl from which to eat. - - “After a time, the faces of the men were painted red. When the - sticks were finished, four men came in wrapped in buffalo-robes, - each carrying a drum. Now the four men who had prepared the - sticks were ready to receive the bow, and the drummers began to - drum and sing. Then the man who dreamed about the bow carried it - outside of the lodge, pointing it toward the west. He was - followed by the whole company, and, after singing a song, they - took a step forward and pointed the bow to the north; another - step again, then pointed to the east; and then a step forward, - pointing to the south. Then they ran toward the west, then - toward the east, then toward the north, and then toward the - south. [The significance of this is, that the thunder resides in - the four directions of the heavens, and also goes in all - directions, so that the carrying of the sticks toward the - various points of the compass puts them in touch with the - thunder.] Then they went back to the sweat-house, and the - ceremony was complete. - - “The man who owns one of these bows must not wear iron on his - person, he must never give his food to any one else after eating - from it himself, and he must never allow the bow, or any part of - it, to touch the ground.”[21] - -[Illustration: Fig. 24. Sketch of a Robe for the - Medicine-bow Owner. Drawn by a Native. ] - -The owner of a medicine-bow should have a buffalo-robe with special -decorations, consisting of a spider-web design of the character -previously described, from the corners of which extend wavy lines -representing the thunder. Sometimes the picture of a thunder-bird was -drawn above the spider-web design, or a few tail-feathers of the eagle -were attached to the robe. The spider-web design on the robe of an owner -of a medicine-bow was to symbolize the thunder, for, as stated by the -informants, the spider is a friend of the medicine-bow. None of these -robes are now in existence; but sketches were made for the writer, one -of which is reproduced in Fig. 24. - -The body-painting for the medicine-bow was rather elaborate. In the -first place, the whole body was smeared over with a brownish-red paint, -representing the earth in a buffalo-wallow. There were two ways of -decorating the face. In one, a curved line was drawn, extending from the -corners of the mouth around over the forehead, the ends of the lines -being forked to represent lightning. Wavy lines, also with forked ends, -were drawn down the arms and the legs. These lines were in black or -blue. Blue bands were painted around the ankles, arms, wrists, and -shoulders, representing the power of the lightning. These bands were -often covered with wristlets and anklets of rabbit-fur, because the -rabbit was in some way associated with the medicine-bow. In the other -painting, a crescent, representing the moon, was placed upon the -forehead and a line drawn from ear to ear across the bridge of the nose. -In this form, the body-painting was the same as in the preceding, except -that one of the lines upon the leg was straight instead of wavy, and it -was said to signify the desire for ability to think straight or to -possess presence of mind, in contrast to the state of mind supposed to -be produced by the power of the whirlwind. - -[Illustration: Fig. 25 (50-2093). Design on a Metal Belt-ornament. Width, - 2 cm. - Fig. 26 (50-3124). Design of Spider-web on a Straight Pipe. Length, 25 - cm. ] - -The spider-web design has been mentioned in connection with shield and -other designs, and a retrospect indicates a peculiar graphic resemblance -in it to the older type of star-designs shown in Plate VI. The writer -uses the term “older” on the authority of two Indians. Some incised -designs on metal ornaments worn by a woman, of the form shown in Fig. -25, seem to be a combination of the older star-design and that of the -spider-web. Another design (Fig. 26) scratched on the bowl of a straight -pipe of red stone was also said to represent the spider-web. There is -another design used by the Dakota in ceremonies relating to the buffalo; -but it is rectangular in form with projecting corners, and is considered -a distinct symbol. - ------ - -[19] Wissler (Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, Vol. -XVII, p. 248). - -[20] Dorsey (Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, p. 480). - -[21] Narrated by an Ogalala man. - - - - - CONCLUSION. - - -The first point that appears in the consideration of these designs and -their interpretations is the animistic basis upon which they rest. The -Indian has observed nature, and singled out those qualities and -situations that are not only wonderful from his point of view, but -greatly to be desired as means to his own ends. He then proceeds on the -assumption that these originate in and are due to some hidden agency, -from which it follows, that, if he can put himself in the place of one -of the favored living creatures, he will in turn be the object upon -which this hidden agency will act. If he can be the bird that rides the -storm in safety, he will in turn ride successfully the analogous storms -of his own sphere, and, like the child that in its own mind is the -policeman when it thrusts a club into its waistband, he feels that he is -the bird calling to the thunder when he sounds the bone whistle, and -mutters his song-prayer. That this is true only of the great Indian or -the devotee, speaking in relative terms, and that the mass of -Indian-kind follow in blind imitation of the more sensitive few, may be -true; but the phenomena, for all that, are none the less ethnic. - -One characteristic of the foregoing protective designs is, that they are -usually animal motives to the almost entire exclusion of plant and -inanimate forms. While it is true that the phenomena of the heavens hold -a prominent place in this art, such phenomena are often interpreted as -results of the activity of animal-like beings, and consequently are so -expressed in art. The conditions leading to such a result are doubtless -many and intricate; but the tendency to ignore plant-forms in protective -conceptions may be due to the inactive character of the more inanimate -world. Inert things are not easily conceived of as guardians or -protectors. On the other hand, the Indian may not see the logical -necessity of carrying his view to the utmost bounds of the universe. -Pots and kettles may have an animistic presence within themselves; but -perhaps this does not appeal to the Indian, because the living creatures -are so much nearer to him and the analogy between their lives and his is -not difficult to perceive. The mystery in the animal forms that come and -go, in the storm, and in the heavenly bodies, reaches the mind unaided; -but the plant and mineral wonders require a more microscopic eye. That -there was a time when the animals were as the people is the striking -thought in many Indian myths, and this indicates a belief in the -fundamental life-identity of all moving creatures. - -There is, however, one interesting suggestion in the interpretation of -protective powers. In all of these conceptions we find less appeal for -the direct destruction of enemies than for a shielding protection to -enable the man himself to be the destructive agent. His prayers are, -that he may be swift and impossible to hit in order that he may strike -down the victim. - -Again, there are in every part of the preceding paper examples of the -close association between powers, or at least power-symbols, that are -from many points of view incongruous; as the mirror and the hoop, the -spider, the thunder, and the elk. There is in these a tendency to -coalesce into conceptions of larger wholes in which the power becomes -more general, tending toward the definite abstraction of a power-unit, -or identity of forces in nature. These larger conceptions, that are -really much more complex than indicated in this brief paper, seem to -represent a growth, or at least an accumulation of ideas, on the part of -a people who have not felt the need of systematically unifying them, or -expressing them as an objective unit. - - - - -[Illustration: ANTHROP. PAP. A. M. N. H. VOL. I, PLATE V. - MODEL OF A SHIELD. ] - - - - -[Illustration: SHIELD-DESIGN ON A CAPE. - PLATE VI. ] - - - - -[Illustration: ANTHROP. PAP. A. M. N. H. VOL. I, PLATE VII. - MODEL OF A SHIELD. ] - - - - - TRANSCRIBER NOTES - - -Misspelled words and printer errors have been corrected. - -Punctuation has been maintained. - -Some illustrations were moved to facilitate page layout. - -[The end of _Some Protective Designs of the Dakota_, by Clark Wissler.] - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Some Protective Designs of the Dakota, by -Clark Wissler - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOME PROTECTIVE DESIGNS OF DAKOTA *** - -***** This file should be named 50589-0.txt or 50589-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/0/5/8/50589/ - -Produced by Larry Harrison, Cindy Beyer, Ross Cooling and -the online Distributed Proofreaders Canada team at -http://www.pgdpcanada.net with images provided by The -Internet Archives-US - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Some Protective Designs of the Dakota - -Author: Clark Wissler - -Release Date: December 2, 2015 [EBook #50589] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOME PROTECTIVE DESIGNS OF DAKOTA *** - - - - -Produced by Larry Harrison, Cindy Beyer, Ross Cooling and -the online Project Gutenberg team at -http://www.pgdpcanada.net with images provided by The -Internet Archives-US - - - - - - -</pre> - -<div class='figcenter'> -<img src='images/cover.jpg' alt='' id='iid-0000' style='width:350px;height:auto;'/> -</div> - -<hr class='pbk'/> - -<div class='lgc' style=''> <!-- rend=';' --> -<p class='line' style='margin-top:2em;font-size:1.5em;'>ANTHROPOLOGICAL PAPERS</p> -<p class='line'> </p> -<p class='line' style='font-size:.6em;'>OF THE</p> -<p class='line'> </p> -<p class='line' style='font-size:1.5em;'>American Museum of Natural</p> -<p class='line' style='font-size:1.5em;'>History.</p> -<p class='line'> </p> -<p class='line'>Vol. I, Part II.</p> -<p class='line'> </p> -<p class='line'> </p> -<p class='line'> </p> -<p class='line' style='font-size:1.2em;'>SOME PROTECTIVE DESIGNS OF THE DAKOTA.</p> -<p class='line'> </p> -<p class='line' style='font-size:.6em;'>BY</p> -<p class='line'> </p> -<p class='line' style='font-size:.8em;'>CLARK WISSLER.</p> -<p class='line'> </p> -<p class='line' style='margin-top:4em;font-size:.8em;'>NEW YORK:</p> -<p class='line' style='margin-top:.5em;margin-bottom:.5em;font-size:.8em;'>Published by Order of the Trustees.</p> -<p class='line' style='font-size:.8em;'>February, 1907.</p> -</div> <!-- end rend --> - -<hr class='pbk'/> - -<p class='line' style='text-align:center;margin-top:4em;font-size:1.5em;'>American Museum of Natural History.</p> - -<p class='line' style='text-align:center;margin-top:1em;margin-bottom:2em;'>PUBLICATIONS IN ANTHROPOLOGY.</p> - -<p class='pindent'>The results of research conducted by the Anthropological staff of the Museum, -unless otherwise provided for, are published in a series of octavo volumes of about -350 pages each, issued in parts at irregular intervals, entitled Anthropological Papers -of the American Museum of Natural History. The Anthropological work of the -Museum is organized under two heads. The Department of Ethnology exercises -curatorial functions in ethnography, ethnology and physical anthropology and in -all archæology except that pertaining to the present confines of Mexico and the -Central American States which has been delegated to a distinct department entitled -the Department of Archæology. This series of publications aims to give the results -of field-work conducted by the above departments, supplemented by the study of -collections in the Museum. The editorial responsibilities are administered by the -Curator of the Department of Ethnology.</p> - -<p class='pindent'>The following are on sale at the Museum at the prices stated.</p> - -<table id='tab1' summary='' class='center'> -<colgroup> -<col span='1' style='width: 9em;'/> -<col span='1' style='width: 27em;'/> -</colgroup> -<tr><td class='tab1c1 tdStyle0'>Vol. I. Part I.</td><td class='tab1c2 tdStyle1'>Technique of some South American Feather-work. By Charles</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab1c1 tdStyle0'></td><td class='tab1c2 tdStyle1'>W. Mead. Pp. 1-18, Plates I-IV, and 14 text figures. January,</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab1c1 tdStyle0'></td><td class='tab1c2 tdStyle1'>1907. Price, $0.25.</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab1c1 tdStyle0'></td><td class='tab1c2 tdStyle1'></td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab1c1 tdStyle0'>Part II.</td><td class='tab1c2 tdStyle1'>Some Protective Designs of the Dakota. By Clark Wissler.</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab1c1 tdStyle0'></td><td class='tab1c2 tdStyle1'>Pp. 19-54, Plates V-VII, and 26 text figures, February, 1907.</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab1c1 tdStyle0'></td><td class='tab1c2 tdStyle1'>Price, $0.50.</td></tr> -</table> - -<hr class='pbk'/> - -<div class='lgc' style=''> <!-- rend=';' --> -<p class='line' style='font-size:1.5em;'>ANTHROPOLOGICAL PAPERS</p> -<p class='line'> </p> -<p class='line' style='font-size:.8em;'>OF THE</p> -<p class='line'> </p> -<p class='line' style='font-size:1.5em;'><span class='sc'>American Museum of Natural History</span></p> -<p class='line'> </p> -<p class='line'><span class='sc'>Vol. I, Part II</span>.</p> -<p class='line'> </p> -<p class='line'> </p> -<p class='line' style='font-size:1.2em;'>SOME PROTECTIVE DESIGNS OF THE DAKOTA.</p> -<p class='line'> </p> -<p class='line'><span class='sc'>By Clark Wissler.</span></p> -</div> <!-- end rend --> - -<div><h1 class='nobreak'>CONTENTS.</h1></div> - -<table id='tab2' summary='' class='center'> -<colgroup> -<col span='1' style='width: 2em;'/> -<col span='1' style='width: 25em;'/> -</colgroup> -<tr><td class='tab2c1 tdStyle2'></td><td class='tab2c2 tdStyle2'><a href='#ch1'><span class='sc'>Introduction</span></a></td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab2c1 tdStyle2'></td><td class='tab2c2 tdStyle2'><a href='#ch2'><span class='sc'>Shield-designs</span></a></td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab2c1 tdStyle2'></td><td class='tab2c2 tdStyle2'><a href='#ch3'><span class='sc'>Ghost-dance Designs</span></a></td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab2c1 tdStyle2'></td><td class='tab2c2 tdStyle2'><a href='#ch4'><span class='sc'>The Hoop</span></a></td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab2c1 tdStyle2'></td><td class='tab2c2 tdStyle2'><a href='#ch5'><span class='sc'>The Whirlwind</span></a></td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab2c1 tdStyle2'></td><td class='tab2c2 tdStyle2'><a href='#ch6'><span class='sc'>The Thunder</span></a></td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab2c1 tdStyle2'></td><td class='tab2c2 tdStyle2'><a href='#ch7'><span class='sc'>The Spider</span></a></td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab2c1 tdStyle2'></td><td class='tab2c2 tdStyle2'><a href='#ch8'><span class='sc'>Conclusion</span></a></td></tr> -</table> - -<hr class='pbk'/> - -<p class='line' style='text-align:center;margin-top:2em;font-size:1.2em;'>ILLUSTRATIONS.</p> - -<p class='line' style='text-align:center;margin-top:2em;'><span class='sc'>Plates.</span></p> - -<table id='tab3' summary='' class='center'> -<colgroup> -<col span='1' style='width: 2em;'/> -<col span='1' style='width: 25em;'/> -</colgroup> -<tr><td class='tab3c1 tdStyle3'><a href='#plate5'>V.</a></td><td class='tab3c2 tdStyle4'>Model of a Shield, Museum No. 50-2929. Diameter, 39 cm.</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab3c1 tdStyle3'><a href='#plate6'>VI.</a></td><td class='tab3c2 tdStyle4'>Shield-design on a Cape, Museum No. 50-3102. Width of cape, 178 cm.</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab3c1 tdStyle3'><a href='#plate7'>VII.</a></td><td class='tab3c2 tdStyle4'>Model of a Shield, Museum No. 50-5467. Diameter, 46 cm.</td></tr> -</table> - -<p class='line' style='text-align:center;margin-top:2em;'><span class='sc'>Text Figures.</span></p> - -<table id='tab4' summary='' class='center'> -<colgroup> -<col span='1' style='width: 2em;'/> -<col span='1' style='width: 25em;'/> -</colgroup> -<tr><td class='tab4c1 tdStyle3'><a href='#illo-1'>1.</a></td><td class='tab4c2 tdStyle4'>Shield-cover with Design</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab4c1 tdStyle3'><a href='#illo-2'>2.</a></td><td class='tab4c2 tdStyle4'>Shield-design, from a Drawing by a Native</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab4c1 tdStyle3'><a href='#illo-3'>3.</a></td><td class='tab4c2 tdStyle4'>Drawing, by a Native, of a Shield-cover</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab4c1 tdStyle3'><a href='#illo-4'>4.</a></td><td class='tab4c2 tdStyle4'>Shield-design, from a Drawing by a Native</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab4c1 tdStyle3'><a href='#illo-5'>5.</a></td><td class='tab4c2 tdStyle4'>Spider-design for a Shield, from a Drawing by a Native</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab4c1 tdStyle3'><a href='#illo-6'>6.</a></td><td class='tab4c2 tdStyle4'>Shield-design, from a Drawing by the Man who dreamed of it</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab4c1 tdStyle3'><a href='#illo-6'>7.</a></td><td class='tab4c2 tdStyle4'>Shield-design representing a Thunderstorm, from a Drawing by a Native</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab4c1 tdStyle3'><a href='#illo-8'>8.</a></td><td class='tab4c2 tdStyle4'>Model of a Shield with Pictographic Design</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab4c1 tdStyle3'><a href='#illo-9'>9.</a></td><td class='tab4c2 tdStyle4'>Design on Sioux Shield captured by a Fox Indian</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab4c1 tdStyle3'><a href='#illo-10'>10.</a></td><td class='tab4c2 tdStyle4'>Front of a Ghost-dance Garment</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab4c1 tdStyle3'><a href='#illo-11'>11.</a></td><td class='tab4c2 tdStyle4'>Back of Garment shown in Fig. 10</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab4c1 tdStyle3'><a href='#illo-12'>12.</a></td><td class='tab4c2 tdStyle4'>Designs on the Front of Ghost-dance Garment</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab4c1 tdStyle3'><a href='#illo-13'>13.</a></td><td class='tab4c2 tdStyle4'>Designs on the Back of Garment shown in Fig. 12</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab4c1 tdStyle3'><a href='#illo-14'>14.</a></td><td class='tab4c2 tdStyle4'>Front of a Ghost-dance Garment bearing Dragon-fly Design</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab4c1 tdStyle3'><a href='#illo-15'>15.</a></td><td class='tab4c2 tdStyle4'>Back of Garment shown in Fig. 14</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab4c1 tdStyle3'><a href='#illo-16'>16.</a></td><td class='tab4c2 tdStyle4'>Circular Design upon a Shirt</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab4c1 tdStyle3'><a href='#illo-17'>17.</a></td><td class='tab4c2 tdStyle4'>Sketch, by a Native, of an Elk-mystery Dancer carrying a Hoop with a Mirror in the Centre</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab4c1 tdStyle3'><a href='#illo-18'>18.</a></td><td class='tab4c2 tdStyle4'>Engraved Metal Cross</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab4c1 tdStyle3'><a href='#illo-19'>19.</a></td><td class='tab4c2 tdStyle4'>Engraved Bone Object</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab4c1 tdStyle3'><a href='#illo-20'>20.</a></td><td class='tab4c2 tdStyle4'>Whirlwind Design, from the Handle of a Club</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab4c1 tdStyle3'><a href='#illo-20'>21.</a></td><td class='tab4c2 tdStyle4'>Whirlwind Design, from a Popgun</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab4c1 tdStyle3'><a href='#illo-22'>22.</a></td><td class='tab4c2 tdStyle4'>Whistle, of Bone</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab4c1 tdStyle3'><a href='#illo-23'>23.</a></td><td class='tab4c2 tdStyle4'>Design of a Spider-web</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab4c1 tdStyle3'><a href='#illo-24'>24.</a></td><td class='tab4c2 tdStyle4'>Sketch of a Robe for the Medicine-bow Owner</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab4c1 tdStyle3'><a href='#illo-25'>25.</a></td><td class='tab4c2 tdStyle4'>Design on a Metal Belt-ornament</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab4c1 tdStyle3'><a href='#illo-25'>26.</a></td><td class='tab4c2 tdStyle4'>Design of the Spider-web on a Straight Pipe</td></tr> -</table> - -<hr class='pbk'/> - -<div><h1 id='ch1'>INTRODUCTION.</h1></div> - -<p class='pindent'>The decorative art of the Dakota has been treated in a preceding paper, -in which brief mention was made of religious art, or that art in which there -was a definite, unmistakable motive on the part of the artist to represent -mythical or philosophical ideas. In this more serious art, a large number -of designs may be characterized as “protective designs,” because their -presence or possession is in part a protection. The idea in a protective -design seems to be a symbolical appeal to the source or concrete manifestation -of a protective power. It is not easy to get the point of view and -the spirit of the faith that make these designs significant, but from the -detailed explanations of them some general idea can be formed. The -descriptions given in this paper are based upon the statements of Indians, -in most cases the executers of the designs. The attitude of the reader -toward such a study as this is often that of concluding that the points of -view set forth by a writer are universal in the tribe. This leads to a great -deal of superficial criticism. In the opinion of the writer, any rejection -of such study because one or two or several Indians deny all knowledge of -some or all of the specific native accounts upon which conclusions are -based, is absurd. We might as well test the artistic sense of a city by calling -in one or two persons from the street. As a case in point, the reader -is referred to the remarks of J. Owen Dorsey on the authenticity of Bushotter’s -Double Woman.<a id='r1'/><a href='#f1' style='text-decoration:none'><sup><span style='font-size:0.9em'>[1]</span></sup></a> A great deal of the information received from -Indians relative to religion is largely individual, and every ethnological -field-worker must take the best of his material from the brightest men of -a tribe. The object of this study has been to bring together ideas expressed -by various individuals more or less eminent among their people, because -all of these individual conceptions seem to have much in common. The -data were secured by the writer when on Museum expeditions to the Teton -and Yankton divisions of the Dakota.</p> - -<hr class='footnotemark'/> - -<div class='footnote'> -<table summary='footnote_1'> -<colgroup> -<col span='1' style='width: 3em;'/> -<col span='1'/> -</colgroup> -<tr><td style='vertical-align:top;'> -<div id='f1'><a href='#r1'>[1]</a></div> -</td><td> - -<p class='pindent'>Dorsey (Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, p. 480).</p> - -</td></tr> -</table> -</div> - -<div><h1 class='nobreak' id='ch2'>SHIELD-DESIGNS.</h1></div> - -<p class='pindent'>The circular shield was distributed over a large part of North America. -A conspicuous part of the arms of Mexican warriors was “the round, small -‘target’ worn by the ‘brave’ on his left arm, and made of canes netted -together and interwoven with cotton ‘twofold,’ covered on the outside with -gilded boards and with feathers, and so strong that a hard cross-bow shot -could alone penetrate them;”<a id='r2'/><a href='#f2' style='text-decoration:none'><sup><span style='font-size:0.9em'>[2]</span></sup></a> but “merely ornamental shields [were -also] used and carried by warriors and chiefs on festive occasions only.”<a id='r3'/><a href='#f3' style='text-decoration:none'><sup><span style='font-size:0.9em'>[3]</span></sup></a></p> - -<p class='pindent'>According to the same author, in Pre-Columbian times some of the -Pueblo Indians used a thick disk of buffalo-hide as a shield. On the -Plains, from the Rio Grande to the Saskatchewan, the circular shield of -buffalo-hide was, until the extinction of the buffalo, a part of the regalia -of every warrior. These shields usually bore symbolic designs. In many -cases the designs were painted upon the rawhide itself, and protected by -a buckskin cover; while in other cases the designs were painted upon -the cover. Practically no shields of buffalo-hide are to be found in the -hands of the surviving Dakota; but in social and religious ceremonies, -models or shield-covers of buckskin or cloth, upon which are painted the -designs formerly placed on shields, are often used. For purposes of study -the writer secured such models of shields, with explanations of the designs -and with other shield-lore, from persons who formerly owned buffalo-hide -shields.</p> - -<p class='pindent'>When the enemies of the Dakota were armed with native weapons, -the shield had some value in itself, because few arrows could get through -it, and it was of sufficient strength to ward off a blow from a club or an -axe; but even at that time the designs and medicine objects tied to the -shield seem to have been regarded as of greater importance than the mechanical -properties of the shield itself. It was the power represented by -the design to which the owner of the shield looked for protection. Naturally, -with the introduction of fire-arms, shields ceased to have a real -protective value; but their designs were still looked upon as capable of -affording protection against evil. According to the statements of some old -men who still have faith in protective designs, the ancient shield manifested -its power upon the mind of the enemy by influencing them to shoot -at the shield rather than at the exposed parts of the body of its bearer. -But when fire-arms were introduced, experience demonstrated that the -shield was no longer a desirable object in battle, because the same influence -that drew arrows to it drew bullets also, and in this case with fatal results. -From this they concluded that guns represented a mystic power superior -to that of shield-designs, but that the latter were still efficacious, except -where so overpowered.</p> - -<p class='pindent'>This explanation is interesting, because these men seem to have grasped -the idea that the shield, being a conspicuous object, would attract the -attention and thus the aim of the enemy; but they confused this psychological -explanation of the observed facts with a mystic conception that the -magic power of the design upon the shield was the cause or force that -reached out and lay hold of the attention of the enemy. Yet the introduction -of fire-arms did not relegate the shield to oblivion; and shield-designs -are still cherished by men of the olden time, because they represent a kind -of individual totem or protective power.</p> - -<p class='pindent'>The following descriptions of shield-designs are given with the interpretations -of their owners.</p> - -<p class='pindent'>A shield-cover decorated with feathers, bearing a design used by a chief -on ceremonial occasions, and said by him to be the copy of a shield carried -in his youth, is shown in <a href='#plate5'>Plate <span class='sc'>v</span></a>. The black border on top of the shield -takes the form of the new moon, which it represents. In the centre of the -shield is a well executed drawing of an Indian on horseback. The horse is -in blue, with zigzag black lines extending down the legs. The blue color of -the horse indicates his connection with the thunder, or the powers of the sky. -The background of the shield is in yellow, but the lower part has been -worked over with green. Symmetrically arranged around the mounted -figure are four circles of purplish color, representing a phenomenon observed -in the sky, which seems to have been either the halo of the sun, or the phenomenon -that passes under the name of “sun-dogs.” From the description -of the owner of the shield, it appears that these four circles were associated -in his mind with the medicine-hoop. He stated that this design as a whole -was the representation of what he saw in a dream; that the moon with its -dark color was drawn to represent the night, because that was the time -when he had this experience; and that in the dream he saw a horse and -rider appear in the sky surrounded by the four circular objects, as indicated -upon the shield. It appears from his explanation, that the association of -the rings with the medicine-hoop was his own individual interpretation of -the significance of his dream. In the dream he could see a shield associated -with these objects as they would appear in reality; but in the design he -attempted to convey an idea of what he saw in conformity with the conventional -modes of representative art practised by his tribe.</p> - -<div class='figcenter'> -<img src='images/illo-1.jpg' alt='' id='illo-1' style='width:300px;height:auto;'/> -<p class='caption'><span style='font-size:smaller'>Fig. 1 (50-2970). Shield-cover with Design. Diameter, 42 cm.</span></p> -</div> - -<p class='pindent'>Another shield-cover (Fig. 1) bears a bird-design, representing to the -owner the osprey (?). One half of the background of this shield is in yellow; -the other half, in light green.<a id='r4'/><a href='#f4' style='text-decoration:none'><sup><span style='font-size:0.9em'>[4]</span></sup></a> These two colors represent the appearance -of the sky at sunrise; the yellow corresponding to the region of the -dawn, and the green to the dark sky above. The four stars symmetrically -arranged are colored black for the night, yellow for the dawn, blue for the -evening, and red for the day; or in other words the whole circle is represented. -The design of the bird presents some interesting details. The -lightning-symbols represent the death-dealing power conferred upon the -owner of such a shield-design at the time of his dream. The red marks -upon the breast of the bird, representing the national emblem of the United -States, were interpreted by the owner as symbolizing such death-dealing -power in contending with soldiers. The peculiar feature upon the tail -of the bird represents an additional experience, and was added to the shield -about the year 1867, after a successful engagement with the United States -troops, in which the owner of the shield participated. According to his -account, the design on the tail of the bird is the conventional symbol of the -spider-web, but is used here to represent an experience preceding the above -engagement. As the war-party were moving forward, they saw a strange -appearance in the sky, which took the form of this symbol. The sight of -it caused the war-party to scatter; and the interpretation placed upon this -by the owner was, that its manifestation of supernatural power, which was -to be conveyed to them, would cause their enemies to scatter in like confusion. -During the confusion into which the party fell, the stars moved -rapidly through the sky and the lightning -flashed in all directions. This is represented -by the four corners of the design. -At the top of the shield is a braid of -sweet-grass and a small buckskin bag -containing medicines of a supposed -charm-value. Before going into battle, -some of this sweet-grass was to be -burnt, and ritualistic songs pertaining -to the shield were to be sung. This -having been done, the shield was supposed -to protect its owner from his enemies. -Eight feathers, arranged in pairs, -are attached to the shield, and their quills -are painted to correspond to the parts of the background to which they are -attached.</p> - -<div class='figright'> -<img src='images/illo-2.jpg' alt='' id='illo-2' style='width:200px;height:auto;'/> -<p class='caption'><span style='font-size:smaller'>Fig. 2. Shield-design,<br/> from a Drawing by a Native.</span></p> -</div> - -<p class='pindent'>There is one interesting feature connected with this shield-design, and -that is the fact that some of the old men disapproved of the owner placing -the spider-web design upon the tail of the bird, because it was a mixing of -supernatural manifestations. The incident connected with this design was -regarded by them as most extraordinary, and as having been worthy of -distinct and separate representation. According to the accepted modes -of interpretation, this experience should have been represented upon a new -shield.</p> - -<p class='pindent'>The specimen shown in <a href='#plate6'>Plate <span class='sc'>vi</span></a> is not a shield-cover, but was nevertheless -spoken of as a shield; and the design upon it is an old shield-design. -The specimen is a cape (made of cotton) worn around the shoulders in such -a way that the design could be seen upon the back of the wearer. Here -are represented the rainbow, the thunder-bird (possessing in this case -characteristics which indicate that it was copied from the national emblem -of the United States), the new and full moon, and the stars. It will be -observed that the stars in this -case are four-pointed, similar to -the design of the spider-web, -and they are regarded by the -Indians as an example of the -old original method of representing -them.</p> - -<div class='figleft'> -<img src='images/illo-3.jpg' alt='' id='illo-3' style='width:200px;height:auto;'/> -<p class='caption'><span style='font-size:smaller'>Fig. 3. Drawing, by a Native, of a Shield-cover.</span></p> -</div> - -<p class='pindent'>As a great many Indians who -formerly owned shields do not -now possess shield-covers, the -writer secured drawings made -by them of their former shields. -Such a sketch is reproduced in -outline (Fig. 2). In the centre -is a design of the spider-web filled in with red. The ground of the shield -is in blue, representing the sky. Above and below are circular areas in -yellow, representing clouds or heaven. Lightning-symbols in red connect -the yellow cloud-symbols with the four corners of the spider-web design. -As a final suggestion relative to this interpretation, the informant said, -“The spider is the friend of the thunder.”</p> - -<div class='figright'> -<img src='images/illo-4.jpg' alt='' id='illo-4' style='width:200px;height:auto;'/> -<p class='caption'><span style='font-size:smaller'>Fig. 4. Shield-design, from a Drawing by a Native.</span></p> -</div> - -<p class='pindent'>The manner in which the owner secured the shield-design represented in -Fig. 3 is as follows. Once when a war-party of which he was a member -were about to take the war-path, -it was predicted by an old man -that he would be killed in the -first battle. Before leaving with -the party, he went to an old -medicine-man for help, and this -man made him a shield bearing -the design described below. The -bird represented is the hawk,—flying -from the sky, protected -by the thunder from the hailstones -that fly thick and fast -about him,—and symbolizes -the manner in which the owner of the shield will pass safely through the -hail of lead from the enemy. Four pairs of hawk-feathers are arranged -symmetrically on the circumference of the shield.</p> - -<p class='pindent'>In the shield-design in Fig. 4, we find a large circular area in the centre -painted yellow and the surrounding portion red. Around the circumference -of the yellow portion are black spots, representing tufts of short crow-feathers. -Upon the original shield, across the top, there was tied the skin -of a weasel, represented in the drawing by a pictograph of that animal. -Four pairs of feathers are arranged symmetrically on the circumference of -this design.</p> - -<p class='pindent'>The design represented by Fig. 5 is rather striking, since an image of the -spider is placed in the centre of the shield -surrounded by a circle of red, through -which the numerous red lines radiate -to the circumference of the design. -These red lines represent the web of -the spider. One end of a string is -tied to the mouth of the spider, with an -eagle-plume at the other end, painted -yellow. Around the circumference of -the design is a wavy blue line, representing -water. The owner of this design -received such a shield when a -young man, and stated that he never -understood why the medicine-man who -made it for him placed the blue line around it, and for that reason he could -not explain its significance.</p> - -<div class='figright'> -<img src='images/illo-5.jpg' alt='' id='illo-5' style='width:200px;height:auto;'/> -<p class='caption'><span style='font-size:smaller'>Fig. 5. Spider-design for a Shield, from a<br/> Drawing by a Native.</span></p> -</div> - -<p class='pindent'>The design represented in Fig. 6 was dreamed of by the owner himself, -and in this dream he was presented with a shield bearing a design similar -to the sketch. As he was almost blind, the sketch is very crude. In it -appear again the thunder-bird, the stars, the yellow clouds, the red and -blue lightning, the new moon, and the bear. It was claimed that the -curved double line at the bottom represented both the moon and the lightning; -the former by the colors, the latter by its form. Another interesting -point in this design is the representation of an eagle-feather upon the head -of the bear. This is the conventional way of representing a supernatural -bear as distinguished from a real bear.<a id='r5'/><a href='#f5' style='text-decoration:none'><sup><span style='font-size:0.9em'>[5]</span></sup></a> The owner of this shield-design -claimed, that, while he did not now and had not for years carried or kept -about him a drawing of the design, he felt it as a kind of magic presence -hovering around him, shielding him from harm. He stated, further, that, -while he knew that other men used the symbols represented in his shield-design -as the signs of particular powers and ideas, he himself had no such -interpretation; for in the dream he saw nothing more than a shield bearing -these designs, and received no instruction or information as to their significance. -Their protecting power to him lay in the peculiar supernatural -presence which he always felt.</p> - -<p class='pindent'>The shield-design in Fig. 7 represents a thunderstorm. At the top, -the clouds are represented in blue. Below this, falling rain is represented -by short irregular lines, and the lightning and thunder by zigzag lines extending -downward from the clouds on a background of clear sky. This -design originated in the same manner as did the preceding; that is, a -finished shield was seen in a dream.</p> - -<div class='figcenter'> -<img src='images/illo-6.jpg' alt='' id='illo-6' style='width:400px;height:auto;'/> -<p class='caption'><span style='font-size:smaller'>Fig. 6. Shield-design, from a Drawing by the Man who dreamed of it.</span><br/> <span style='font-size:smaller'>Fig. 7. Shield-design representing a Thunderstorm, from a Drawing by a Native.</span></p> -</div> - -<p class='pindent'><a href='#plate7'>Plate <span class='sc'>vii</span></a> is the reproduction of a model of a shield made of shrunken -bull-hide covered with buckskin. It was collected by Dr. J. R. Walker. The -design is somewhat similar to the preceding. The upper part is painted -in blue to represent the clouds, and the lower part in bluish-green to represent -the sky. In the cloud-area is the drawing of a horse, symbolizing -a dream-horse (probably the thunder-horse). The thunder, or power, is -symbolized by red zigzag lines extending downward from the cloud-area. -An eagle-feather and twelve hawk-feathers are tied to a small buckskin -bag of medicine, fastened to the shield in a manner suggesting their attachment -to the mane of the horse. The circumference of the shield is decorated -with small feathers, and four pairs of eagle-feathers are also arranged -symmetrically around the circumference.</p> - -<div class='figcenter'> -<img src='images/illo-8.jpg' alt='' id='illo-8' style='width:400px;height:auto;'/> -<p class='caption'><span style='font-size:smaller'>Fig. 8 (50-5456). Model of a Shield<br/> with Pictographic Design. Diameter, 47 cm.</span></p> -</div> - -<p class='pindent'>A shield (Fig. 8) similar to the preceding represents a vision in which -the dreamer was apparently supported by the thunder-horse in a contest -with the mythical turtle. A small bag of medicine and a pendant eagle-plume -are attached to the shield, as in the previous case. Feathers are -again arranged in four pairs. This specimen was collected by Dr. J. R. -Walker.</p> - -<p class='pindent'>In the Museum collection from the Sauk and Fox Indians, made by -Dr. William Jones, is a shield captured from the Sioux, at the time of the -outbreak of 1866, by a Fox in the employ of the United States Government. -The design was painted upon the rawhide, but is now almost obliterated. -Fig. 9 is a diagrammatic restoration. The writer saw an old -buffalo-hide shield in the possession of an Assiniboine, at Fort Belknap, -Montana. The design was painted upon buffalo-hide, and was similar to -that in Fig. 9. He collected also from the Dakota a number of drawings -representing military exploits. While twenty -shields are represented in these drawings, -fourteen of them bear simple circular designs, -as shown in the adjoining figure. -This suggests that the older type of shield-decoration -made use of simple circular -designs. This idea was supported by the -testimony of a number of old men who -ought to be competent to speak upon the -subject. Of course, there is no reason why -the image of the thunder-bird, so common -upon modern shield-designs, should not have -been used in ancient times; and the writer -wishes to be understood as expressing this as an opinion based upon indirect -evidence.</p> - -<div class='figleft'> -<img src='images/illo-9.jpg' alt='' id='illo-9' style='width:200px;height:auto;'/> -<p class='caption'> <span style='font-size:smaller'>Fig. 9 (50-3569). Design on Sioux<br/> Shield captured by a Fox Indian.<br/> Diameter, 42 cm.</span> </p> -</div> - -<p class='pindent'>These circular designs often represented the sun, other heavenly bodies, -or the sky, which suggests that formerly the shield as a whole may have -been considered as a symbol of the sun. The survivors of shield-using -days seemed to have no actual knowledge of any connection between the -shield-form and the sun, but usually expressed it as their opinion that it -represented the sun, and that the feathers represented the sun’s rays. This -may have been suggested by the fact that eagle-feathers were sometimes -arranged in a half-circle to represent the rays of the sun, and that, furthermore, -the rays of the sun were sometimes spoken of as feathers.</p> - -<p class='pindent'>Shield-designs could originate only in dreams and visions, and were -painted by the person experiencing them, who prayed and sang over his -work to give the shield power. Usually but four shields could be made -from a single dream: to make a great number was sacrilege. Among -the Blackfoot, the shield was often accompanied by a ritual composed of -songs and prayers; and they possessed a few shields with such important -rituals that they were distinguished from the others as “medicine-shields.” -There seems to have been a similar condition among the Dakota, for it -was often said that medicine-shields were hung outside the tepees, upon -tripods, and that during the day they were changed from time to time so -as to keep them facing the sun. This practice was observed by a number -of Plains tribes. However, among the Dakota the tripod often gave place -to a single pole.</p> - -<hr class='footnotemark'/> - -<div class='footnote'> -<table summary='footnote_2'> -<colgroup> -<col span='1' style='width: 3em;'/> -<col span='1'/> -</colgroup> -<tr><td style='vertical-align:top;'> -<div id='f2'><a href='#r2'>[2]</a></div> -</td><td> - -<p class='pindent'>Bandelier (Reports of the Peabody Museum, Vol. II, p. 109).</p> - -</td></tr> -</table> -</div> - -<div class='footnote'> -<table summary='footnote_3'> -<colgroup> -<col span='1' style='width: 3em;'/> -<col span='1'/> -</colgroup> -<tr><td style='vertical-align:top;'> -<div id='f3'><a href='#r3'>[3]</a></div> -</td><td> - -<p class='pindent'>Bandelier, op. cit., p. 108.</p> - -</td></tr> -</table> -</div> - -<div class='footnote'> -<table summary='footnote_4'> -<colgroup> -<col span='1' style='width: 3em;'/> -<col span='1'/> -</colgroup> -<tr><td style='vertical-align:top;'> -<div id='f4'><a href='#r4'>[4]</a></div> -</td><td> - -<p class='pindent'>In the drawings, colors are indicated by the following devices: red, by horizontal shading; -yellow, by vertical shading; green, by left oblique shading; blue or purple, by right oblique -shading. Black and white have their conventional qualities. The drawings were made by -Miss R. B. Howe.</p> - -</td></tr> -</table> -</div> - -<div class='footnote'> -<table summary='footnote_5'> -<colgroup> -<col span='1' style='width: 3em;'/> -<col span='1'/> -</colgroup> -<tr><td style='vertical-align:top;'> -<div id='f5'><a href='#r5'>[5]</a></div> -</td><td> - -<p class='pindent'>For an illustration see Catlin, North American Indians (7th ed., 1848), Plate 102.</p> - -</td></tr> -</table> -</div> - -<div><h1 class='nobreak' id='ch3'>GHOST-DANCE DESIGNS.</h1></div> - -<p class='pindent'>About the year 1890 a religious movement, generally known as the -“ghost-dance religion,” infected the Plains Indians. The chief feature of -this religion was the belief in a speedy return of the old time, the buffalo, -and the extermination of the white race. The different tribes had various -ideas of their duties with respect to this new faith, and, with the exception -of the Dakota, they did not manifest direct hostility to the white race. -This warlike people, however, were already greatly dissatisfied with the -treatment they received from the Government and with the difficult conditions -under which they lived. In consequence, they received the ghost-dance -religion as a herald of the good time which, to their minds, was to -be secured only by war with the white race. While a great many of the -conditions in the immediate environment of the Dakota have been given -by various writers as causes for the outbreak, the fact that these Indians -interpreted the new religion as the manifestation of a warlike spirit was -probably due to the fact that they were at heart a warlike people. Their -ideas still run toward military things. As the essential idea of the ghost-dance -religion was a return of the old time, the ceremonies pertaining -thereto made use of the typical objects and ideas of the past. In this, of -course, they were not entirely consistent, since they did not discard the use -of fire-arms, and did not actually resurrect bows, arrows, and shields. Yet, -as a substitute for the protective power of the shield, they introduced garments -bearing protective designs. These garments are generally known -under the name of “ghost-shirts,” and at the time of the outbreak were -spoken of by white people as “bullet-proof shirts.” The following are -descriptions of these garments by eye-witnesses at the time of their first -appearance:—</p> - -<div class='blockquoter9'> - -<p class='pindent'>“All the men and women made holy shirts and dresses they wear in dance. -The persons dropped in dance would all lie in great dust the dancing make. They -paint the white muslins they made holy dresses and shirts out of with blue across -the back, and alongside of this is a line of yellow paint. They also paint in the front -part of the shirts and dresses. A picture of an eagle is made on the back of all the -shirts and dresses. On the shoulders and on the sleeves they tied eagle-feathers. -They said that the bullets will not go through these shirts and dresses, so they all -have these dresses for war. Their enemies’ weapon will not go through these dresses. -The ghost-dancers all have to wear eagle-feather on head.”<a id='r6'/><a href='#f6' style='text-decoration:none'><sup><span style='font-size:0.9em'>[6]</span></sup></a></p> - -<p class='pindent'>“I think they wore the ghost-shirt or ghost-dress for the first time that day. -I noticed that these were all new, and were worn by about seventy men and forty -women. The wife of a man called Return-from-scout had seen in a vision that her -friends all wore a similar robe, and on reviving from her trance she called the women -together, and they made a great number of the sacred garments. They were of -white cotton cloth. The women’s dress was cut like their ordinary dress, a loose -robe with wide, flowing sleeves, painted blue in the neck, in the shape of a three-cornered -handkerchief, with moon, stars, birds, etc., interspersed with real feathers, -painted on the waist and sleeves.</p> - -<p class='pindent'>“The ghost-shirt for the men was made of the same material—shirts and -leggings painted in red. Some of the leggings were painted in stripes running up -and down, others running around. The shirt was painted blue around the neck, -and the whole garment was fantastically sprinkled with figures of birds, bows and -arrows, sun, moon, and stars, and everything they saw in nature. Down the outside -of the sleeve were rows of feathers tied by the quill-ends and left to fly in the -breeze, and also a row around the neck and up and down outside of the leggings. -I noticed that a number had stuffed birds, squirrel-heads, etc., tied in their long -hair. The faces of all were painted red with a black half-moon on the forehead or -on one cheek.”<a id='r7'/><a href='#f7' style='text-decoration:none'><sup><span style='font-size:0.9em'>[7]</span></sup></a></p> - -</div> - -<div class='figleft'> -<img src='images/illo-10.jpg' alt='' id='illo-10' style='width:250px;height:auto;'/> -<p class='caption'><span style='font-size:smaller'>Fig. 10 (50-3053). Front of a Ghost-dance Garment.<br/> Length, 126 cm.</span> </p> -</div> - -<p class='pindent'>As is noted by the above, designs on these garments were made by -individuals who had dreams or other unusual experiences similar to those -of the medicine-men; and it would seem from this account that the designs -and objects used in the dance were in every way similar to those employed -before the ghost-dance religion appeared. The writer made the acquaintance -of several individuals who had prepared such garments at the time of -the ghost-dance, and from them he secured reproductions with explanations -as to the significance of the designs. As some time had elapsed since the -ghost-dance religion was at the height of its popularity, it is possible that -the more special features belonging to it were forgotten by these men, and -that they worked into the reproduced garments older and more conservative -ideas. However, the writer is of the opinion, and he took special -pains to investigate as best he could, that whatever may have been lost in -this way made no important changes in either the objective character of -the designs or in the ideas expressed by them. As a matter of fact, the -ghost-dance in some of its milder forms is still observed.</p> - -<p class='pindent'>Some garments secured by the writer are decorated on both front and -back with designs chiefly pictographic. On the front of one (Fig. 10) is -a large triangular space extending downward from the shoulders (one half -of which is in red and the other half in blue), thickly dotted over with white -spots representing hailstones. The red represents the morning; and the -blue, the night. Extending across from side to side is a large arched figure -made up of red, yellow, white, and green bands, representing the rainbow. -Above this are two four-pointed stars, the red for the morning star and the -black for the stars seen in the night. There is a large green star with eight -points on the dividing-line between day and night, concerning which I -secured no satisfactory explanation. At the apex of the triangular space -are small dots of yellow, representing the dawn; and the sun is placed on -each side of the division between day and night. The new moon is represented -by a black crescent. On the morning-side of this design is the picture -of a butterfly; while on the night-side, extending over into the morning, -is a picture of a peculiar figure, which the artist regarded as a spirit-bird -or man-bird, as he expressed it, with the medicine-hoop in his hand. The -other portion of the dress is covered over with small dots in various colors, -representing bullets. There are also pictures of butterflies, stars, and -buffalo-tracks. On one side are two parallel wavy red lines, and on the -other two in green, representing the lightning.</p> - -<div class='figright'> -<img src='images/illo-11.jpg' alt='' id='illo-11' style='width:250px;height:auto;'/> -<p class='caption'><span style='font-size:smaller'>Fig. 11 (50-3053). Back of Garment<br/> shown in Fig. 10.</span></p> -</div> - -<p class='pindent'>On the other side of this garment, or the back (Fig. 11), is the representation -of a bird, which seems to be mythical rather than realistic. The -background upon which the figure rests is dotted to represent bullets or hail, -as both have the same significance. The lower part of the garment is the -most interesting. Here we have four buffalo-tracks arranged in rectangular -relation to represent buffalo, and a circle or medicine-hoop (half of which -is red and half green) with extending lines of the same colors, representing -the thunder, or its power. The idea of this association of the hoop, or, as -it is sometimes spoken of, the mirror, is that this buffalo escapes bullets, -or perhaps is immortal. Below the sign of the buffalo is a four-pointed -figure, usually known as the spider-web design, representing the heavens; -and below this is the rainbow. Two swallows are represented connected -to the points in the spider-web design by lines, indicating that they enjoy -the protection of this power, making them difficult to hit with bullets or -other missiles.</p> - -<div class='figleft'> -<img src='images/illo-12.jpg' alt='' id='illo-12' style='width:250px;height:auto;'/> -<p class='caption'><span style='font-size:smaller'>Fig. 12 (50-3054). Designs on the Front of<br/> Ghost-dance Garment. Length, 128 cm.</span></p> -</div> - -<div class='figright'> -<img src='images/illo-13.jpg' alt='' id='illo-13' style='width:250px;height:auto;'/> -<p class='caption'><span style='font-size:smaller'>Fig. 13 (50-3054). Designs on the Back<br/> of Garment shown in Fig. 12.</span></p> -</div> - -<p class='pindent'>On another garment (Fig. 12), the triangular area at the top is entirely -in red, covered with white spots representing hail, and bordered with wavy -lines representing the rainbow. This represents the rainbow in the sky. -The dark crescent represents the moon. Below is a large four-pointed -star in black, representing the night, with a line extending over each side, -representing the clouds. The small disk in red represents a bullet; and -the small green crescent, the moon. Below these is the spider-web design, -representing the heavens, over the four corners of which the lightning -appears; but in this case the design is covered with dots representing the -falling of the stars. Near this design we find the butterfly and the buffalo-tracks. -The remaining space on the whole garment is covered with patches -of color, representing the hail. On the opposite side (Fig. 13) are peculiar -triangular designs, the background of which is in red bordered by -straight lines, suggesting the rainbow; while on the red background are -placed the design of the moon and two circles in such relation as to suggest -a face. This design was spoken of as the “moon-face;” but this seems to -have been an after-interpretation, since the artist wished to represent the -medicine-hoop or mirror in the sky. [It seems likely that this is simply -an adaptation of a head-dress used in the elk ceremony.] Below this we -have a combination which appears to be the spider-web design combined -with the figure of a bird, which is said to be the dream-figure, representing -the bird seen on a tree. Below this we have the moon, rainbow, tracks -of the buffalo, stars, butterfly, and a mounted warrior riding through the -hail.</p> - -<div class='figleft'> -<img src='images/illo-14.jpg' alt='' id='illo-14' style='width:250px;height:auto;'/> -<p class='caption'><span style='font-size:smaller'>Fig. 14 (50-3055). Front of a Ghost-dance Garment<br/> bearing Dragon-fly Design. Length, 125 cm.</span></p> -</div> - -<p class='pindent'>In Fig. 14, the triangular space at the top is similar to that on the preceding -garment, and need not be described here. The body of the dress -is covered with dragon-flies as they appear when flying over water. The -stars represent reflections in the water; and the dashes of color, the hail. -The wavy green lines extending down the full length of the garment represent -the lightning. In this case the red at the top is spoken of as the thunder-cloud. -On the opposite side (Fig. 15), the triangular area with its -tail-like extension represents the rattlesnake. In addition we have tracks of -the buffalo dragon-fly, and butterfly, all associated as in nature. Upon the -sides of this garment are the designs of the lizard, swallow, and turtle.</p> - -<div class='figright'> -<img src='images/illo-15.jpg' alt='' id='illo-15' style='width:250px;height:auto;'/> -<p class='caption'><span style='font-size:smaller'>Fig. 15 (50-3055). Back of Garment shown in Fig. 14.</span></p> -</div> - -<p class='pindent'>The above detailed statements concerning the designs and their import -do not convey their full significance as it was brought out in discussions -between the writer and the men who made these garments. In the first -place we find on them symbols to be described in another section of this -paper; namely, the spider-web designs and the medicine-hoop. It will be -seen that in most cases the living creatures represented are those that seem -to have power to escape the hailstones, because, as they say, no matter how -severe the hailstorm may be, no one observes their dead or maimed upon -the ground: therefore they assume that these creatures possess some -extraordinary power, or receive the attention of some protective power. -The bird represented does not seem to be the thunder-bird, as is usually -the case in Dakota art, but such species, usually birds of prey, as soar -above the destructive range of the hail. The lizard and the turtle are -spoken of as animals of great power, since they are killed with great difficulty, -from which it follows that they also enjoy the protection of some -power. This we may generalize by saying that the Indian placed upon -these garments representations of living creatures that, according to his -observation and experience, were seldom hit by missiles, or that possessed -great vitality, making it difficult to kill them. Placed on the garments, -they express a prayer, a hope, or an actual realization, on the part of the -wearer, of the protective power by which these creatures are enabled to -survive.</p> - -<p class='pindent'>The triangular designs at the top of these garments were spoken of as -shields, the idea being that they were in some measure shield-designs, and -performed the same function as did those upon shields in former times. -Mr. Mooney expresses the opinion that the protective designs on garments -used in the ghost-dance religion were not aboriginal with the Indian.</p> - -<div class='blockquoter9'> - -<p class='pindent'>“The protective idea in connection with the ghost-shirt does not seem to be -aboriginal. The Indian warrior habitually went into battle naked above the waist. -His protecting ‘medicine’ was a feather, a tiny bag of some sacred powder, the -claw of an animal, the head of a bird, or some other small object which could be -readily twisted into his hair or hidden between the covers of his shield, without -attracting attention. Its virtue depended entirely on the ceremony of the consecration, -and not on size or texture. The war-paint had the same magic power of -protection. To cover the body in battle was not in accordance with Indian usage, -which demanded that the warrior should be as free and unincumbered in movement -as possible. The so-called ‘war-shirt’ was worn chiefly in ceremonial dress-parades, -and only rarely on the war-path.”<a id='r8'/><a href='#f8' style='text-decoration:none'><sup><span style='font-size:0.9em'>[8]</span></sup></a></p> - -</div> - -<p class='pindent'>This statement, however, suggests that Mr. Mooney based his opinion -upon objective evidence, while the opinion expressed by the writer is based -upon subjective evidence. A comparison of the interpretations of shield-designs -and ghost-dress designs seems to leave little opportunity for any -other conclusion than that the protective designs used in the ghost-dance -were essentially the same as those used in former times upon shields and -other objects. The garments may be foreign; but the idea of protective -designs is most certainly not peculiar to the ghost-dance religion, since it -was widely distributed among American tribes, and associated with ceremonial -objects that were in use at least a century before the ghost-dance -religion appeared.</p> - -<p class='pindent'>If the writer had no other information at hand than that furnished by -Mr. Mooney in his comprehensive study of the ghost-dance religion, he -would be inclined to regard the whole as the manifestation of aboriginal -religious ideas in response to a single foreign conception; namely, that of -the coming of a messiah and the destruction of the present order of the -world. The way in which the ghost-dance ceremonies were performed, -the ideas expressed in the songs, the things the priests dreamed of, and -the objects used in the ceremonies, are so characteristically Indian, that -no other interpretation seems possible. However, in the present connection -we are concerned with these designs as types of the universal primitive -expression of belief in the presence of a guiding personal agency that looks -into the affairs of men.</p> - -<hr class='footnotemark'/> - -<div class='footnote'> -<table summary='footnote_6'> -<colgroup> -<col span='1' style='width: 3em;'/> -<col span='1'/> -</colgroup> -<tr><td style='vertical-align:top;'> -<div id='f6'><a href='#r6'>[6]</a></div> -</td><td> - -<p class='pindent'>George Sword, on Ghost-dance Religion (Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of -American Ethnology, p. 798).</p> - -</td></tr> -</table> -</div> - -<div class='footnote'> -<table summary='footnote_7'> -<colgroup> -<col span='1' style='width: 3em;'/> -<col span='1'/> -</colgroup> -<tr><td style='vertical-align:top;'> -<div id='f7'><a href='#r7'>[7]</a></div> -</td><td> - -<p class='pindent'>Mrs. Z. A. Parker (Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, -p. 916).</p> - -</td></tr> -</table> -</div> - -<div class='footnote'> -<table summary='footnote_8'> -<colgroup> -<col span='1' style='width: 3em;'/> -<col span='1'/> -</colgroup> -<tr><td style='vertical-align:top;'> -<div id='f8'><a href='#r8'>[8]</a></div> -</td><td> - -<p class='pindent'>Mooney (Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, p. 790).</p> - -</td></tr> -</table> -</div> - -<div><h1 class='nobreak' id='ch4'>THE HOOP.</h1></div> - -<p class='pindent'>The circle, or more properly the hoop, is a very important religious -symbol among the Dakota. One form of it appears in the great hoop-game -described by Louis Meeker,<a id='r9'/><a href='#f9' style='text-decoration:none'><sup><span style='font-size:0.9em'>[9]</span></sup></a> and later by Dr. J. R. Walker.<a id='r10'/><a href='#f10' style='text-decoration:none'><sup><span style='font-size:0.9em'>[10]</span></sup></a> This -hoop is usually about two feet in diameter, and notched so as to divide -the circumference into quadrants. While this hoop-game seems to be a -true gambling game, it could be and was sometimes played as part of a -ritualistic ceremony the object of which was to bring the buffalo. It is -interesting to note that this large hoop is similar to the sacred wheel used -by the Arapaho in the sun-dance. At the time of the ghost-dance outbreak -among the Dakota of Pine Ridge Reservation, Mr. Mooney saw -the hoop and the two pairs of sticks used with it carried in the ceremonies -connected with the ghost-dance religion. He states:—</p> - -<div class='blockquoter9'> - -<p class='pindent'>“It is said that the medicine-man of Big Foot’s band carried such a hoop -with him in their flight from the north, and displayed it in every dance held by -the band until the fatal day of Wounded Knee. A similar hoop was carried and -hung upon the centre tree at the dance at No Water’s camp near Pine Ridge. To -the Indian it symbolizes the revival of the old-time games.”<a id='r11'/><a href='#f11' style='text-decoration:none'><sup><span style='font-size:0.9em'>[11]</span></sup></a></p> - -</div> - -<p class='pindent'>The last line of the above quotation implies that the hoop was a part -of the paraphernalia used in the ghost-dance ceremonies, because it symbolized -the ancient games. On another page of the same article occurs -the following:—</p> - -<div class='blockquoter9'> - -<p class='pindent'>“As it was the favorite game with the men in the olden times, a great many -of the songs founded on these trance visions refer to it, and the wheel and sticks -are made by the dreamer, and carried in the dance as they sing.”<a id='r12'/><a href='#f12' style='text-decoration:none'><sup><span style='font-size:0.9em'>[12]</span></sup></a></p> - -</div> - -<p class='pindent'>It should be remembered, however, that the game was formerly played -to restore the buffalo when they were temporarily absent from their range; -and, as one of the great objects of the ghost-dance religion was the return -of the buffalo as in the olden times, the reason for the use of the hoop in -the ceremonies described by Mooney is apparent. In Mooney’s account, -a number of songs pertaining to the hoop-game are given as sung by the -various tribes practising the ghost-dance religion. Among these is a Dakota -version, as follows:—</p> - -<table id='tab5' summary='' class='center' style='font-size:.8em;'> -<colgroup> -<col span='1' style='width: 15em;'/> -<col span='1' style='width: 15em;'/> -</colgroup> -<tr><td class='tab5c1 tdStyle2'>“The holy (hoop) shall run,</td><td class='tab5c2 tdStyle2'>“Come and see it,</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab5c1 tdStyle2'>The holy (hoop) shall run,</td><td class='tab5c2 tdStyle2'>Come and see it,</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab5c1 tdStyle2'>The swift hoop shall run,</td><td class='tab5c2 tdStyle2'>Says the father,</td></tr> -<tr><td class='tab5c1 tdStyle2'>The swift hoop shall run.”</td><td class='tab5c2 tdStyle2'>Says the father.”<a id='r13'/><a href='#f13' style='text-decoration:none'><sup><span style='font-size:0.9em'>[13]</span></sup></a></td></tr> -</table> - -<p class='pindent'>A mythical account of the hoop-game is given by Dr. J. R. Walker, which -indicates one of the probable conceptions upon which this religious use -of the hoop rests.<a id='r14'/><a href='#f14' style='text-decoration:none'><sup><span style='font-size:0.9em'>[14]</span></sup></a></p> - -<p class='pindent'>The hoop-symbol occurs in graphic form, sometimes upon garments. -The writer secured a shirt that was used by one of the leaders in ghost-dances; -and which seems to have been a type of the -so-called “bullet-proof shirt.” This garment is -daubed with red about the neck and on the shoulders, -but in addition bears four circular designs, also -in red, with large dots at their centres (Fig. 16). -One of these designs is placed upon the right breast; -another, directly opposite, upon the back of the garment; -one upon the right shoulder; and one upon the left. These are so -arranged, that, no matter from what point you see the wearer, one of the -circular designs will be visible. These designs were recognized as symbols of -the medicine-hoop, and were supposed to have the power to protect the wearer -from all harm. The idea of placing the designs so that one of them should -always be between the wearer and the source of danger may be original -with the owner of this shirt; but the number of them (four), and their -arrangement according to the four directions, correspond to the common -explanation of religious symbols.</p> - -<div class='figleft'> -<img src='images/illo-16.jpg' alt='' id='illo-16' style='width:150px;height:auto;'/> -<p class='caption'> <span style='font-size:smaller'>Fig. 16 (50-2964). Circular<br/> Design upon a Shirt.<br/> Diameter, 11 cm.</span> </p> -</div> - -<p class='pindent'>Meeker describes<a id='r15'/><a href='#f15' style='text-decoration:none'><sup><span style='font-size:0.9em'>[15]</span></sup></a> a wheel-shaped hoop-ornament consisting of a ring -enclosing four spokes at right angles to each other. According to his account, -this is a symbol associated with the hoop-game; but similar specimens -were seen by the writer upon the heads of Dakota men, who -explained that these were symbols of the medicine-wheel or medicine-hoop, -and did not refer to the hoop-game. They were worn because they -were regarded as symbols of the power that could protect the wearer from -arrows, bullets, or other dangers.</p> - -<p class='pindent'>As is suggested by the above, the game-hoop is distinguished from the -medicine-hoop as used in ceremonies. A medicine-hoop seems to have -been used by all divisions of the Dakota, and, according to the descriptions -received by the writer, to have been of -several forms. In certain ceremonies -where the elk played an important part, -a hoop or ring was formed by twining -together fresh twigs and leaves of the -willow. In the centre of this hoop, a -small mirror was held by four cords arranged -at right angles, and representing -the four directions. A drawing of an elk-dancer -by a native is shown in Fig. 17. -The painted centre for the circular designs -on a shirt (Fig. 16) described above, -as well as the small wheel-shaped head-ornament, -were said to represent a hoop -of this type.</p> - -<div class='figleft'> -<img src='images/illo-17.jpg' alt='' id='illo-17' style='width:200px;height:auto;'/> -<p class='caption'> <span style='font-size:smaller'>Fig. 17. Sketch, by a Native,<br/> of an Elk-mystery Dancer carrying a<br/> Hoop with a Mirror in the Centre.<br/> Drawing collected by R. Cronau.</span> </p> -</div> - -<p class='pindent'>The connection of this hoop with the -idea of protection is well illustrated in -the manufacture of one kind of red paint. -It is produced by burning a kind of yellow -clay, found near the Black Hills, -until it takes on the red color. The -paint, however, is given its protective -power by certain ceremonies performed -as it is made. In the particular ceremony -observed by the writer, the yellow -earth was pounded fine, and mixed with -water until it became a stiff paste. This -was then made into a flat disk about half an inch thick and from four to -six inches in diameter, after which a hole or depression was made in the -centre. The purpose of this, as explained, was to give it the form of a -medicine-hoop, the hole in the centre corresponding to the place occupied -by the mirror in the form of hoop just described. This disk was then -burned in the fire until red, after which it was pounded on a stone until -fine enough for use. The ceremony in preparing the paint consisted of -ritualistic songs and prayers, which reached their climax as the disk of clay -was formed and perforated. The burning and the subsequent preparation -were not regarded as parts of the ceremony. The idea, as expressed, was -to connect the paint with the power represented by the hoop, so that when -a warrior rubbed some of it upon his body, he came at once under the -protection of this power.</p> - -<p class='pindent'>Another idea seems to be connected with the conception of the medicine-hoop, -and that is the appearance of certain mythical animals with openings -through their bodies where their hearts should be. The conception seems -to be, that an animal without a heart is immortal and supernatural: at -least, this is the way in which the mythical elk was described. According -to the belief, there is a connection between this opening through the heart -and the centre of the medicine-hoop, represented in the elk ceremonies by -the mirror; but it is the opinion of the writer that this is an error on the -part of the Indians themselves in associating two things that were formerly -distinct.<a id='r16'/><a href='#f16' style='text-decoration:none'><sup><span style='font-size:0.9em'>[16]</span></sup></a></p> - -<p class='pindent'>It seems rather curious that the mirror should become so closely associated -with the hoop, and that the mirror should have appealed to them -as a symbol of almost equal importance. The writer is of the opinion that -the preceding cases, where the mirror and the hoop are considered as identical -symbols, are the result of a former close association of the two in ceremonial -affairs.</p> - -<hr class='footnotemark'/> - -<div class='footnote'> -<table summary='footnote_9'> -<colgroup> -<col span='1' style='width: 3em;'/> -<col span='1'/> -</colgroup> -<tr><td style='vertical-align:top;'> -<div id='f9'><a href='#r9'>[9]</a></div> -</td><td> - -<p class='pindent'>Meeker (Bulletin of the Free Museum of Science and Art, University of Pennsylvania, -Vol. III. No. 1).</p> - -</td></tr> -</table> -</div> - -<div class='footnote'> -<table summary='footnote_10'> -<colgroup> -<col span='1' style='width: 3em;'/> -<col span='1'/> -</colgroup> -<tr><td style='vertical-align:top;'> -<div id='f10'><a href='#r10'>[10]</a></div> -</td><td> - -<p class='pindent'>Walker (The Journal of the American Folk-Lore Society, October-December, 1905).</p> - -</td></tr> -</table> -</div> - -<div class='footnote'> -<table summary='footnote_11'> -<colgroup> -<col span='1' style='width: 3em;'/> -<col span='1'/> -</colgroup> -<tr><td style='vertical-align:top;'> -<div id='f11'><a href='#r11'>[11]</a></div> -</td><td> - -<p class='pindent'>Mooney (Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, p. 1075).</p> - -</td></tr> -</table> -</div> - -<div class='footnote'> -<table summary='footnote_12'> -<colgroup> -<col span='1' style='width: 3em;'/> -<col span='1'/> -</colgroup> -<tr><td style='vertical-align:top;'> -<div id='f12'><a href='#r12'>[12]</a></div> -</td><td> - -<p class='pindent'>Mooney (Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, p. 994).</p> - -</td></tr> -</table> -</div> - -<div class='footnote'> -<table summary='footnote_13'> -<colgroup> -<col span='1' style='width: 3em;'/> -<col span='1'/> -</colgroup> -<tr><td style='vertical-align:top;'> -<div id='f13'><a href='#r13'>[13]</a></div> -</td><td> - -<p class='pindent'>Mooney (Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, p. 1075).</p> - -</td></tr> -</table> -</div> - -<div class='footnote'> -<table summary='footnote_14'> -<colgroup> -<col span='1' style='width: 3em;'/> -<col span='1'/> -</colgroup> -<tr><td style='vertical-align:top;'> -<div id='f14'><a href='#r14'>[14]</a></div> -</td><td> - -<p class='pindent'>Walker (The Journal of the American Folk-Lore Society, October-December, 1905).</p> - -</td></tr> -</table> -</div> - -<div class='footnote'> -<table summary='footnote_15'> -<colgroup> -<col span='1' style='width: 3em;'/> -<col span='1'/> -</colgroup> -<tr><td style='vertical-align:top;'> -<div id='f15'><a href='#r15'>[15]</a></div> -</td><td> - -<p class='pindent'>Meeker, op. cit., p. 35.</p> - -</td></tr> -</table> -</div> - -<div class='footnote'> -<table summary='footnote_16'> -<colgroup> -<col span='1' style='width: 3em;'/> -<col span='1'/> -</colgroup> -<tr><td style='vertical-align:top;'> -<div id='f16'><a href='#r16'>[16]</a></div> -</td><td> - -<p class='pindent'>In the Report of the Peabody Museum (Vol. III, p. 286) is a description by Miss Fletcher -of some ceremonies in which the hoop and the mirror played a part. “The neophyte held one, -having a circular mirror, fastened by four cords, from which he cast a reflection of the sun from -time to time upon the ground, or held up the hoop, and flashed the mirror.” The explanation -given by this author of the significance of the mirror in these ceremonies differs from that -secured by the writer; but Miss Fletcher’s account seems to refer to a form of ceremony pertaining -to the elk rites not mentioned in his notes.</p> - -</td></tr> -</table> -</div> - -<div><h1 class='nobreak' id='ch5'>THE WHIRLWIND.</h1></div> - -<div class='figleft'> -<img src='images/illo-18.jpg' alt='' id='illo-18' style='width:250px;height:auto;'/> -<p class='caption'><span style='font-size:smaller'>Fig. 18 (50-2095). Engraved Metal Cross.<br/> Collected by R. Cronau. Length, 23 cm.</span></p> -</div> - -<div class='figright'> -<img src='images/illo-19.jpg' alt='' id='illo-19' style='width:250px;height:auto;'/> -<p class='caption'><span style='font-size:smaller'>Fig. 19 (50-2898). Engraved Bone Object.<br/> Collected by R. Cronau. Length, 24 cm.</span></p> -</div> - -<p class='pindent'>In another place the writer has described the conception of the power -of the whirlwind among some of the Dakota, but wishes at this time to -refer to it again because of its relation to their system of protective designs.<a id='r17'/><a href='#f17' style='text-decoration:none'><sup><span style='font-size:0.9em'>[17]</span></sup></a> -As stated in the former publication, there seems to be in the minds of some -of the Dakota an association between the phenomenon of the whirlwind -and those mental states generally known as “confusion of mind.” Some -of them believed and still believe that the power in the whirlwind can be -invoked to confuse the mind of an enemy. In common with many other -American tribes, the Dakota believe the whirlwind to be associated with -the fluttering wings of a moth, but they also associate this with the cocoon -of the same moth; and in symbolic representation the design representing -the power of the whirlwind is of an elongated diamond-shape, and refers -to the cocoon. The protection or aid of the whirlwind was secured by -prayers, and these prayers were symbolized by the cocoon worn upon the -person, by its image in stuffed buckskin, or by its graphic representation, -sketched or painted. The power of the whirlwind was supposed to have -been associated with the power of the spider-web. As an illustration of -this, we find engraved upon a German-silver cross (Fig. 18) the spider, -and near it three representations of the whirlwind cocoon. Between the -spider and these three designs is a zigzag line, implying the mystic power -connection of the same. Again, on a forked bone object (Fig. 19), the use -of which is unknown, occur a number of incised designs, among which is -again what seems to be the spider-web, the tracks of a quadruped (probably -the buffalo), and four designs representing the whirlwind cocoon, accompanied -in each case by another design which cannot be determined, but -which resembles the footprints of a person. It is interesting to note that -the German-silver cross also bears the tracks of the buffalo, or some ruminant -animal, in association with the spider. In the absence of direct information, -the writer hesitates to offer any interpretation of the design upon -these specimens, although he feels that they could be interpreted with -reasonable certainty.</p> - -<p class='pindent'>The design of the whirlwind resembles a feather-design, and no doubt -the two are often confused. The difference seems to be, that, when representing -the whirlwind, half of the design is filled with parallel or crossing -lines; while, when representing feathers, half of the design is filled in with -color (see Fig. 19). The feather-design is more fixed in form than that of -the whirlwind. Fig. 20 is a representation of the latter, from the handle of a -club, where it appears in a series with the spider, lizard, elk, and turtle. -Another form of the same design is repeated in a series on a wooden popgun -(Fig. 21).</p> - -<div class='figcenter'> -<img src='images/illo-20.jpg' alt='' id='illo-20' style='width:400px;height:auto;'/> -<p class='caption'> <span style='font-size:smaller'>Fig. 20 (50-4380). Whirlwind Design, from the Handle of a Club. Length, 5 cm.<br/> Fig. 21 (50-4244). Whirlwind Design, from a Popgun. Length of design, 7.5 cm.</span> </p> -</div> - -<hr class='footnotemark'/> - -<div class='footnote'> -<table summary='footnote_17'> -<colgroup> -<col span='1' style='width: 3em;'/> -<col span='1'/> -</colgroup> -<tr><td style='vertical-align:top;'> -<div id='f17'><a href='#r17'>[17]</a></div> -</td><td> - -<p class='pindent'>Wissler (The Journal of the American Folk-Lore Society, October-December, 1905).</p> - -</td></tr> -</table> -</div> - -<div><h1 class='nobreak' id='ch6'>THE THUNDER.</h1></div> - -<p class='pindent'>The thunder is a very important deity among all the Indians of the -Plains, and is usually associated with military exploits. While the Dakota -generally regard the thunder as a bird, usually symbolized by the eagle, -yet they sometimes speak of it as a horse, a man, or a dog. The horse -always appealed to them as a creature of mysterious origin, and in many -cases was assumed to have been given by the thunder. In any event there -is an association in their minds between the power of a war-horse and the -thunder. The thunder is often represented by a zigzag or wavy line, usually -in red; but this symbol really represents the power of the phenomenon in -the abstract, because the Indian does have the conception of a force in -nature. Consequently this graphic symbol is also a general sign for the -presence of mysterious supernatural power. The whistles made from the -leg and wing bones of eagles, and used among the Plains tribes, are generally -employed by the Dakota to symbolize the cry of the eagle as a representative -of the thunder-bird. In battle, or sometimes in stress of great -trial, they are sounded to call up the -power of the thunder to rescue the -unfortunate one. As a rule, a zigzag -line is scratched down the sides -of these whistles. In this connection -it is interesting to note the -following:—</p> - -<div class='blockquoter9'> - -<p class='pindent'>“Before daylight I set off with five -Indians. . . . This caused a halt, as we -were surrounded and began to suspect -that the enemy had planned to cut us -off. The Indians put on their war-caps, -uttering some few words which I -could not hear distinctly, and then began -to whistle with a small bone instrument -which they hung around their -necks for that purpose.”<a id='r18'/><a href='#f18' style='text-decoration:none'><sup><span style='font-size:0.9em'>[18]</span></sup></a></p> - -</div> - -<p class='pindent'>This account (1807) by an acute -observer is interesting, because our -present knowledge enables us to -understand the muttered prayers -and the use of the whistle.</p> - -<div class='figright'> -<img src='images/illo-22.jpg' alt='' id='illo-22' style='width:200px;height:auto;'/> -<p class='caption'> <span style='font-size:smaller'>Fig. 22 (50-3023). Whistle, of Bone.<br/> Length, 19 cm.</span> </p> -</div> - -<p class='pindent'>The whistle shown in Fig. 22 is -interesting because of the objects -that accompany it. The whistle is -from the wing-bone of an eagle, and -near the top is a small bag containing -the medicine of the owner. -The feathers of the yellow-winged -woodpecker are attached thereto, -because this bird is considered as -an associate of the thunder-bird, -or at least it holds some relation -to the thunder, since the Dakota -have observed, that, when a storm is approaching, this bird gives a peculiar -shrill call not unlike the sound of the whistle spoken of above. This they -interpret as speaking to the thunder. Consequently, the feathers of this bird, -when attached to the whistle, are supposed to put the individual also in a -position to speak to the thunder. This bird has a large dark spot on the -throat, which is said to represent the moon and to be further evidence of -the sacred character of the bird. Thus we have a combined charm representing -the woodpecker and the eagle,—two birds closely associated with -the thunder.</p> - -<p class='pindent'>The ceremony of offering a filled pipe to the thunder was frequently -observed by the Dakota. One man stated that once, when the camp was -threatened by an approaching storm, he filled a large pipe, went to the top -of a hill, and, facing the storm, made an offering to the thunder by extending -the stem upward, and praying, with the result that the storm divided, and -passed around the camp without serious damage to his people. In the -decoration of pipe-stems, a bunch of horsehair is attached (usually colored -red), and this is often spoken of as an emblem of the thunder-horse. This -horsehair is to signify the presence of the power of the thunder, as manifest -in the horse, in all ceremonies connected with the pipe. It is worth -while noting that in this case we have an illustration of a peculiarity of -religious lore,—the indirect symbolizing of a power by one of a series of -objects in which that power is manifest.</p> - -<p class='pindent'>The United States emblem of the eagle with outstretched claws, holding -arrows and the lightning, is regarded by the Dakota as an appeal on our -part to the thunder-bird; and statements to the contrary are usually interpreted -as white men’s lies to deceive the Indians and to guard the power. -There is little doubt that the Dakota manner of drawing the thunder-bird -has been modified by the United States emblem, and that their own idea -of his power has been influenced accordingly.</p> - -<hr class='footnotemark'/> - -<div class='footnote'> -<table summary='footnote_18'> -<colgroup> -<col span='1' style='width: 3em;'/> -<col span='1'/> -</colgroup> -<tr><td style='vertical-align:top;'> -<div id='f18'><a href='#r18'>[18]</a></div> -</td><td> - -<p class='pindent'>New Light on the Early History of the Greater Northwest, p. 436.</p> - -</td></tr> -</table> -</div> - -<div><h1 class='nobreak' id='ch7'>THE SPIDER.</h1></div> - -<p class='pindent'>The association between the spider, the spider-web, and the thunder, -is very close—so close, that it is difficult to understand the conception of -the power of the spider without considering the power of the thunder. The -spider is often spoken of as the “spider-man.” It is also associated with -the mythical elk. It was supposed to have great power. The observed -fact that a spider manufactures a web, and that this web is not destroyed -by bullets or arrows (since they pass through it, leaving only a hole), is -cited by some individuals as the basis for the conception that the spider -has power to protect people from harm. On the other hand, the spider is -spoken of as a friend of the thunder; and it is a general belief that the -thunder will never harm the spider-web, or, what amounts to the same, -that the spider-web itself is a protection against thunder. As previously -stated, the spider-web is represented by a peculiar four-cornered design. -This design is sometimes said to represent the heavens, in which case the -four points represent the four directions, the home of the winds, the four -thunders, etc.; the supernatural character of the design being indicated by -lightning-symbols extending from the four corners.</p> - -<div class='figright'> -<img src='images/illo-23.jpg' alt='' id='illo-23' style='width:200px;height:auto;'/> -<p class='caption'><span style='font-size:smaller'>Fig. 23 (50-3095). Design of a Spider-web.</span></p> -</div> - -<p class='pindent'>In a preceding paper,<a id='r19'/><a href='#f19' style='text-decoration:none'><sup><span style='font-size:0.9em'>[19]</span></sup></a> the spider-web design was discussed in its relation -to decorative art, where it was noted that among some divisions of the -Dakota is a belief in a double woman,<a id='r20'/><a href='#f20' style='text-decoration:none'><sup><span style='font-size:0.9em'>[20]</span></sup></a> to whom, among other things, certain -ceremonial uses of this design are attributed. According to information -secured by the writer, this character was also associated with the elk -ceremonies, where she was often represented by two women tied together by -a cord (about two feet in length), from the middle of which hung a doll or -a ball. Women often receive power by dreaming of this character. Some -such women are supposed to perform a kind of ceremony, somewhat secret, -in which a child is taken out to a lonely place, where a swing or hammock-like -structure is made in the form of the spider-web design, supported by -the four corners, and the child is placed upon it. This is to bring good -fortune to the child. A design of the spider-web might then be placed -upon the robe of the child as a symbol of its having experienced the ceremony -(Fig. 23).</p> - -<p class='pindent'>The men, however, use this design for military protection, in which -connection it is not thought of as being associated in any way with the -mythical double woman. It is, however, closely associated with the medicine-bow. -This was a very sacred military object with the Dakota, of -which only four duplicates could be had. It consisted of a bow of plain -wood, of the usual length, to the end of which was attached a spear-head. -Fastened to the bow was a stick somewhat longer, sharpened at one end, -and decorated with feathers and other symbolic objects. The purpose of the -stick was to support the bow, since all such sacred objects would lose their -power if allowed to touch the ground. The bow was not used as a weapon, -but was carried as a standard, because of its supposed magical power over -the enemy. The figure of the dragon-fly was usually painted upon the bow -and its support, as well as dots representing insects that fly swiftly, and -zigzag lines representing thunder. Feathers of the eagle, the magpie, -the hawk, and, in fact, of all birds swift of wing, were likewise attached to -it. The association between these insects and birds was the same as that -previously noted; that is, since they were swift in motion, and difficult -to strike, they represented the qualities desired by the bearers of the bow. -These bows have long since passed out of existence, but survive in models -made for commercial purposes.</p> - -<p class='pindent'>The account of the origin of the medicine-bow is as follows:—</p> - -<div class='blockquoter9'> - -<p class='pindent'>“A man dreamed of the thunder, and afterwards called in four men to assist -him in making the medicine-bow. They went through the preliminaries (the -sweat-house, etc.), after which a special tent was erected. The ground inside of -this tent, where the dreamer and his four companions sat, was covered with sage-grass. -A young man was called in to act as their assistant. He was sent out to -cut elm sticks. He went out slowly, and after a time came back with the sticks. -Then he was sent out to get together the feathers of swift flying birds, pieces of -buffalo-hide, paints, etc. He went around the camp, and begged these of the people.</p> - -<p class='pindent'>“Then the four men set to work making the sticks under the direction of the -dreamer. The dreamer gave a bow to one of the men, and a piece of buffalo-hide -in which to wrap the sticks, also a wooden bowl from which to eat.</p> - -<p class='pindent'>“After a time, the faces of the men were painted red. When the sticks were -finished, four men came in wrapped in buffalo-robes, each carrying a drum. Now -the four men who had prepared the sticks were ready to receive the bow, and the -drummers began to drum and sing. Then the man who dreamed about the bow -carried it outside of the lodge, pointing it toward the west. He was followed by -the whole company, and, after singing a song, they took a step forward and pointed -the bow to the north; another step again, then pointed to the east; and then a -step forward, pointing to the south. Then they ran toward the west, then toward -the east, then toward the north, and then toward the south. [The significance of -this is, that the thunder resides in the four directions of the heavens, and also goes -in all directions, so that the carrying of the sticks toward the various points of the -compass puts them in touch with the thunder.] Then they went back to the sweat-house, -and the ceremony was complete.</p> - -<p class='pindent'>“The man who owns one of these bows must not wear iron on his person, he -must never give his food to any one else after eating from it himself, and he must -never allow the bow, or any part of it, to touch the ground.”<a id='r21'/><a href='#f21' style='text-decoration:none'><sup><span style='font-size:0.9em'>[21]</span></sup></a></p> - -</div> - -<div class='figright'> -<img src='images/illo-24.jpg' alt='' id='illo-24' style='width:200px;height:auto;'/> -<p class='caption'> <span style='font-size:smaller'>Fig. 24. Sketch of a Robe for the<br/> Medicine-bow Owner. Drawn by a Native.</span> </p> -</div> - -<p class='pindent'>The owner of a medicine-bow should have a buffalo-robe with special -decorations, consisting of a spider-web design of the character previously -described, from the corners of which extend -wavy lines representing the thunder. -Sometimes the picture of a thunder-bird -was drawn above the spider-web design, -or a few tail-feathers of the eagle were -attached to the robe. The spider-web -design on the robe of an owner of a -medicine-bow was to symbolize the -thunder, for, as stated by the informants, -the spider is a friend of the medicine-bow. -None of these robes are now -in existence; but sketches were made for -the writer, one of which is reproduced in -Fig. 24.</p> - -<p class='pindent'>The body-painting for the medicine-bow -was rather elaborate. In the first -place, the whole body was smeared over -with a brownish-red paint, representing -the earth in a buffalo-wallow. There -were two ways of decorating the face. -In one, a curved line was drawn, extending -from the corners of the mouth around -over the forehead, the ends of the lines being forked to represent lightning. -Wavy lines, also with forked ends, were drawn down the arms and the legs. -These lines were in black or blue. Blue bands were painted around the -ankles, arms, wrists, and shoulders, representing the power of the lightning. -These bands were often covered with wristlets and anklets of rabbit-fur, -because the rabbit was in some way associated with the medicine-bow. In -the other painting, a crescent, representing the moon, was placed upon the -forehead and a line drawn from ear to ear across the bridge of the nose. -In this form, the body-painting was the same as in the preceding, except -that one of the lines upon the leg was straight instead of wavy, and it was -said to signify the desire for ability to think straight or to possess presence -of mind, in contrast to the state of mind supposed to be produced by the -power of the whirlwind.</p> - -<div class='figcenter'> -<img src='images/illo-25.jpg' alt='' id='illo-25' style='width:350px;height:auto;'/> -<p class='caption'> <span style='font-size:smaller'>Fig. 25 (50-2093). Design on a Metal Belt-ornament. Width, 2 cm.<br/> Fig. 26 (50-3124). Design of Spider-web on a Straight Pipe. Length, 25 cm.</span> </p> -</div> - -<p class='pindent'>The spider-web design has been mentioned in connection with shield -and other designs, and a retrospect indicates a peculiar graphic resemblance -in it to the older type of star-designs shown in <a href='#plate6'>Plate <span class='sc'>vi</span></a>. The writer -uses the term “older” on the authority of two Indians. Some incised -designs on metal ornaments worn by a woman, of the form shown in -Fig. 25, seem to be a combination of the older star-design and that of the -spider-web. Another design (Fig. 26) scratched on the bowl of a straight -pipe of red stone was also said to represent the spider-web. There is -another design used by the Dakota in ceremonies relating to the buffalo; -but it is rectangular in form with projecting corners, and is considered a -distinct symbol.</p> - -<hr class='footnotemark'/> - -<div class='footnote'> -<table summary='footnote_19'> -<colgroup> -<col span='1' style='width: 3em;'/> -<col span='1'/> -</colgroup> -<tr><td style='vertical-align:top;'> -<div id='f19'><a href='#r19'>[19]</a></div> -</td><td> - -<p class='pindent'>Wissler (Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, Vol. XVII, p. 248).</p> - -</td></tr> -</table> -</div> - -<div class='footnote'> -<table summary='footnote_20'> -<colgroup> -<col span='1' style='width: 3em;'/> -<col span='1'/> -</colgroup> -<tr><td style='vertical-align:top;'> -<div id='f20'><a href='#r20'>[20]</a></div> -</td><td> - -<p class='pindent'>Dorsey (Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, p. 480).</p> - -</td></tr> -</table> -</div> - -<div class='footnote'> -<table summary='footnote_21'> -<colgroup> -<col span='1' style='width: 3em;'/> -<col span='1'/> -</colgroup> -<tr><td style='vertical-align:top;'> -<div id='f21'><a href='#r21'>[21]</a></div> -</td><td> - -<p class='pindent'>Narrated by an Ogalala man.</p> - -</td></tr> -</table> -</div> - -<div><h1 class='nobreak' id='ch8'>CONCLUSION.</h1></div> - -<p class='pindent'>The first point that appears in the consideration of these designs and -their interpretations is the animistic basis upon which they rest. The -Indian has observed nature, and singled out those qualities and situations -that are not only wonderful from his point of view, but greatly to be desired -as means to his own ends. He then proceeds on the assumption that these -originate in and are due to some hidden agency, from which it follows, -that, if he can put himself in the place of one of the favored living creatures, -he will in turn be the object upon which this hidden agency will act. If -he can be the bird that rides the storm in safety, he will in turn ride successfully -the analogous storms of his own sphere, and, like the child that -in its own mind is the policeman when it thrusts a club into its waistband, -he feels that he is the bird calling to the thunder when he sounds the bone -whistle, and mutters his song-prayer. That this is true only of the great -Indian or the devotee, speaking in relative terms, and that the mass of -Indian-kind follow in blind imitation of the more sensitive few, may be -true; but the phenomena, for all that, are none the less ethnic.</p> - -<p class='pindent'>One characteristic of the foregoing protective designs is, that they are -usually animal motives to the almost entire exclusion of plant and inanimate -forms. While it is true that the phenomena of the heavens hold a -prominent place in this art, such phenomena are often interpreted as results -of the activity of animal-like beings, and consequently are so expressed in -art. The conditions leading to such a result are doubtless many and intricate; -but the tendency to ignore plant-forms in protective conceptions may -be due to the inactive character of the more inanimate world. Inert things -are not easily conceived of as guardians or protectors. On the other hand, -the Indian may not see the logical necessity of carrying his view to the -utmost bounds of the universe. Pots and kettles may have an animistic -presence within themselves; but perhaps this does not appeal to the Indian, -because the living creatures are so much nearer to him and the analogy -between their lives and his is not difficult to perceive. The mystery in the -animal forms that come and go, in the storm, and in the heavenly bodies, -reaches the mind unaided; but the plant and mineral wonders require a -more microscopic eye. That there was a time when the animals were as -the people is the striking thought in many Indian myths, and this indicates -a belief in the fundamental life-identity of all moving creatures.</p> - -<p class='pindent'>There is, however, one interesting suggestion in the interpretation of -protective powers. In all of these conceptions we find less appeal for the -direct destruction of enemies than for a shielding protection to enable the -man himself to be the destructive agent. His prayers are, that he may be -swift and impossible to hit in order that he may strike down the victim.</p> - -<p class='pindent'>Again, there are in every part of the preceding paper examples of the -close association between powers, or at least power-symbols, that are from -many points of view incongruous; as the mirror and the hoop, the spider, -the thunder, and the elk. There is in these a tendency to coalesce into -conceptions of larger wholes in which the power becomes more general, -tending toward the definite abstraction of a power-unit, or identity of -forces in nature. These larger conceptions, that are really much more -complex than indicated in this brief paper, seem to represent a growth, or -at least an accumulation of ideas, on the part of a people who have not -felt the need of systematically unifying them, or expressing them as an -objective unit.</p> - -<hr class='pbk'/> - -<div class='figcenter'> -<img src='images/plate5.jpg' alt='' id='plate5' style='width:350px;height:auto;'/> -<p class='caption'> <span style='font-size:x-small'><span class='sc'>Anthrop. Pap. A. M. N. H.</span></span> <span style='font-size:x-small'><span class='sc'>Vol. I, Plate v.</span></span><br/> <span class='sc'>Model of a Shield.</span> </p> -</div> - -<hr class='pbk'/> - -<div class='figcenter'> -<img src='images/plate6.jpg' alt='' id='plate6' style='width:400px;height:auto;'/> -<p class='caption'> <span class='sc'>Shield-design on a Cape.</span><br/> <span style='font-size:x-small'><span class='sc'>Plate vi.</span></span> </p> -</div> - -<hr class='pbk'/> - -<div class='figcenter'> -<img src='images/plate7.jpg' alt='' id='plate7' style='width:350px;height:auto;'/> -<p class='caption'> <span style='font-size:x-small'><span class='sc'>Anthrop. Pap. A. M. N. H.</span></span> <span style='font-size:x-small'><span class='sc'>Vol. I, Plate vii.</span></span><br/> <span class='sc'>Model of a Shield.</span> </p> -</div> - -<hr class='pbk'/> - -<div><h1>TRANSCRIBER NOTES</h1></div> - -<p class='pindent'>Misspelled words and printer errors have been corrected.</p> - -<p class='pindent'>Punctuation has been maintained.</p> - -<p class='pindent'>Some illustrations were moved to facilitate page layout.</p> - -<p class='line'> </p> - -<p class='noindent'>[The end of <span class='it'>Some Protective Designs of the -Dakota</span>, by Clark Wissler.]</p> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Some Protective Designs of the Dakota, by -Clark Wissler - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOME PROTECTIVE DESIGNS OF DAKOTA *** - -***** This file should be named 50589-h.htm or 50589-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/0/5/8/50589/ - -Produced by Larry Harrison, Cindy Beyer, Ross Cooling and -the online Project Gutenberg team at -http://www.pgdpcanada.net with images provided by The -Internet Archives-US - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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