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Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..59f5a81 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #50752 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/50752) diff --git a/old/50752-0.txt b/old/50752-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 6428929..0000000 --- a/old/50752-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,21980 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Anthropological Survey in Alaska, by Ales Hrdlicka - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Anthropological Survey in Alaska - -Author: Ales Hrdlicka - -Release Date: December 23, 2015 [EBook #50752] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA *** - - - - -Produced by Richard Tonsing, PM for Bureau of American -Ethnology and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by the Bibliothèque nationale -de France (BnF/Gallica) at http://gallica.bnf.fr) - - - - - - - - - - ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA - - - By ALEŠ HRDLIČKA - - - - -CONTENTS - - - Page - Introduction 29 - General remarks 31 - Northwest coast--Juneau 32 - The Coast Indians 32 - Notes of archeological interest 33 - The writer's trip on the Yukon 39 - Tanana--Yukon 39 - Ancient man 41 - The Indians at Tanana 42 - Ruby 48 - Galena 51 - Nulato 53 - Kaltag 54 - The Anvik people 57 - Bonasila 60 - Holy Cross 61 - Ghost Creek 62 - Paimute 66 - Russian Mission 70 - Marshall 72 - St. Michael 84 - About Nome 88 - Aboriginal remains 89 - Nome--Bering Strait--Barrow 90 - Savonga 92 - The Diomedes 94 - The Yukon Territory--Sites, the Indians, the Eskimo 123 - The Tanana 123 - Brief historical data 123 - Population 124 - Indian sites and villages along the Tanana 125 - Lower Tanana, Nenana to Yukon 126 - The Yukon below Tanana 126 - Brief history 126 - The Yukon natives 129 - Native villages 131 - Present conditions 133 - Archeology of the Yukon 134 - The random specimens 134 - Location of villages and sites on the Yukon 136 - Pre-Russian sites 140 - Archeology of Central Alaska 144 - Ancient stone culture 144 - The pottery 146 - The Alaskan grooved stone ax 147 - Anthropology of the Yukon 150 - The living Indian 150 - Pure bloods 150 - General type 151 - Color 151 - Stature and strength 151 - Head form 151 - Body 151 - Photographs 151 - Skeletal remains of the Yukon 151 - Detailed measurements of skulls 152 - Lower middle Yukon Indian crania 153 - Skeletal parts 156 - Skeletal remains from the bank at Bonasila 156 - The crania 157 - Additional parts 159 - The Yukon Eskimo 161 - The living 161 - Measurements on living Yukon Eskimo 162 - Skeletal remains of Yukon Eskimo 162 - Skeletal parts of the Yukon Eskimo 163 - Notes on the archeology of the Western Eskimo region 165 - Old sites in the region of the Western Eskimo 168 - Present location of archeological sites 171 - Sites and villages 176 - Burial grounds 183 - Prince William Sound, Kodiak Island, Alaska Peninsula 184 - Kodiak Island and neighborhood 184 - Alaska Peninsula 186 - Bristol Bay to Cape Romanzof 190 - Cape Romanzof to Northern (Apoon) Pass of the Yukon and - northward 195 - St. Michael Island 195 - Norton Sound 195 - South shore of Seward Peninsula west of Bluff 196 - Scammon Bay, Norton Sound, south coast of Seward Peninsula, to - Cape Rodney 198 - The northern shore of the Seward Peninsula 202 - Kotzebue Sound, its rivers and its coast northward to Kevalina 204 - Seward Peninsula, Kotzebue Sound, and northward 204 - Kevalina--Point Barrow 205 - Point Hope (Tigara) 205 - Point Hope to Point Barrow 206 - Barrow and Point Barrow 206 - The St. Lawrence and Diomede Islands 209 - St. Lawrence Island 209 - The Diomede Islands and the Asiatic coast 210 - Physical anthropology 213 - Earlier data 213 - Older anthropometric data on the western Eskimo 228 - Stature and other measurements on the living 228 - The skull 231 - Present data on the western Eskimo 238 - The living 238 - Measurements of living western Eskimo 238 - Stature 238 - Height sitting 239 - Arm span 239 - The head 239 - The forehead 240 - The face 241 - Lower facial breadth 242 - The nose 242 - The mouth 243 - The ears 243 - The chest 244 - The hand 245 - The foot 246 - Girth of the calf 246 - Physiological observations 247 - Summary of observations on the living western Eskimo 249 - Remarks 250 - Present data on the skull and other skeletal remains of the - western Eskimo 254 - The skull 254 - Skull size 255 - Module and capacity 258 - Additional remarks on cranial module 258 - Skull shape 258 - Height of the skull 261 - The face 263 - The nose 267 - The orbits 270 - The upper alveolar arch 275 - The basion-nasion diameter 277 - Prognathism 282 - Skulls of Eskimo children 294 - Crania of Eskimo children 295 - Southwestern and midwestern Eskimo 295 - Principal cranial indices in children compared with those in - adults 297 - The lower jaw 299 - Strength of the jaw 301 - Breadth of the rami 303 - Other dimensions 303 - The angle 305 - Résumé 306 - Mandibular hyperostoses 306 - Main references 310 - Skeletal parts other than the skull 313 - The long bones 314 - Comparative data 315 - Long bones in Eskimo and stature 316 - Length of principal long bones, and stature in the living, - on the St. Lawrence Island 317 - Long bones vs. stature in Eskimo of Smith Sound 317 - A strange group of Eskimo near Point Barrow 318 - Anthropological observations and measurements on the - collections 321 - Physical characteristics 323 - Origin and antiquity of the Eskimo 329 - Origin of the name "Eskimo"329 - Opinions by former and living students 330 - Origin in Asia 330 - Origin in America 330 - Origin in Europe--Identity with Upper Palaeolithic man 331 - Other hypotheses 332 - Theories as to the origin of the Eskimo 333 - Asiatics 333 - American 340 - European 347 - Opposed to European 351 - Miscellaneous and indefinite 351 - Discussion and conclusions indicated by present data 355 - Summary 361 - Bibliography 367 - Index 629 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS - - -PLATES - - Page 1. _a_, "Old Minto" on the Tanana. Indian village. (A. H., - 1926.) _b_, Present Nulato and its cemetery (on hill to the - right of the village) from some distance up the river. (A. - H., 1926.) _c_, The Greyling River site, right bank, 22 miles - above Anvik; site and graveyard (male skeleton) from top of - knoll. (A. H., 1926.) 54 - - 2. _a_, View on the Yukon from above Kaltag. (A. H., 1926.) _b_, - Indian burial ground, middle Yukon. (A. H., 1926.) _c_, - Anvik, from the mission. (A. H., 1926.) 54 - - 3. _a_, Midnight on the Yukon. _b_, Lower middle Yukon: painted - burial box of a Yukon Indian (before 1884) said to have been - a hunter of bielugas (white whales), which used to ascend far - up the Yukon 64 - - 4. _a_, Eskimo camp below Paimute, Yukon River. _b_, Old - "protolithic" site 12 miles down from Paimute, right bank, - just beyond "12-mile hill" (skull, bones, stones). _c_, "Old" - site in bank seen in middle of picture, 12 miles down from - Paimute, opposite that shown in preceding figure. (A. H., - 1926.) 64 - - 5. _a_, Cape Prince of Wales from the southeast. (A. H., 1926.) - _b_, Village and cemetery slope. Little Diomede. (A. H., - 1926.) 96 - - 6. _a_, Asiatics departing for Siberia from the Little Diomede - Island. (Photo by D. Jenness, 1926.) _b_, _c_, "Chukchis" - loading their boat with goods on Little Diomede Island, - before departure for Siberia. (Photos by D. Jenness, 1926.) 96 - - 7. _a_, Eskimos from East Cape arriving at Nome, Alaska. _b_, - East Cape of Asia (to the southward). (Photo from Joe - Bernard.) 96 - - 8. A group of women at Shishmaref. (Taken at 2 a. m. by A. H., - 1926.) 96 - - 9. _a_, My "spoils," loaded on sled, Point Hope. (A. H., 1926.) - _b_, The load is heavy and sledding over sand and gravel - difficult. (A. H., 1926.) 136 - - 10. Characteristic stone axes, middle Yukon. (A. H. coll., 1926.) - 136 - - 11. Crude stone artifacts, found at Bonasila, lower middle Yukon. - (A. H. coll., 1926.) 136 - - 12. Crude stone artifacts, found at Bonasila, lower middle Yukon. - (A. H. coll., 1926.) 136 - - 13. Tanana Indian woman 150 - - 14. Chief Sam Joseph, near Tanana village, on the Yukon. (A. H., - 1926.) 150 - - 15. _a_, Yukon Indians, at Kokrines, Jacob and Andrew. Jacob - probably has a trace of white blood. (A. H., 1926.) _b_, - Yukon Indians at Kokrines. (A. H., 1926.) 150 - - 16. Yukon Indians. _a_, Marguerite Johnny Yatlen, Koyukuk - village. (A. H., 1926.) _b_, Lucy John, Koyukuk, daughter of - a former chief. (A. H., 1926.) 150 - - 17. Yukon Indians. _a_, George Halfway, Nulato on the Yukon. (A. - H., 1926.) _b_, Jack Curry of Nulato, 41 years. (Now at Ruby, - middle Yukon; Eskimoid physiognomy.) _c_, Arthur Malamvot, of - Nulato 150 - - 18. _a_, Indian children, mission school at Anvik, lower middle - Yukon. _b_, Indian children, mission school at Anvik, lower - middle Yukon. _c_, Two women of Anvik, on the Yukon, somewhat - Eskimoid 150 - - 19. Terminal piece of a lance or harpoon, northern Bering Sea. - Black, high natural polish. Most beautiful piece of the - fossil ivory art. (A. H., 1926, U.S.N.M.) 174 - - 20. Fossil ivory specimens showing the old curvilinear designs. - Northern Bering Sea. (A. H. coll., 1926, U.S.N.M.) 174 - - 21. Objects showing the old fossil ivory art, northern Bering - Sea. (U.S.N.M., Nos. 1 and 3 coll., A. H., 1926.) 174 - - 22. Fossil ivory needle cases and spear heads, northern Bering - Sea, showing fine workmanship. (A. H. coll., 1926, U.S.N.M.) - 174 - - 23. _a_, Small, finely made objects in fossil ivory and stone - (the head), from the ruins at Point Hope. (A. H. coll., - 1926.) _b_, Old fossil ivory objects, northern Bering Sea. - The article to the right is almost classic in form; it is - decorated on both sides. (A. H. coll., 1926, U.S.N.M.) 174 - - 24. Fossil ivory combs, upper Bering Sea. (A. H. coll., 1926) 174 - - 25. Fossil ivory objects from the upper Bering Sea region. - Transitional art. (Museum of the Agricultural College, - Fairbanks, Alaska.) 174 - - 26. Old black finely carved fossil ivory figure, from the - northeastern Asiatic coast. (Loan to U.S.N.M. by Mr. Carl - Lomen.) 174 - - 27. Wooden figurines from a medicine lodge, Choco Indians, - Panama. (U.S.N.M. colls.) 174 - - 28. Left: Two beautiful knives lately made of fossil mammoth - ivory by a Seward Peninsula Eskimo. (Gift to the U.S.N.M. - by A. H., 1926.) Right: Two old ceremonial Mexican obsidian - knives. Manche de poignard en ivoire, avec sculpture - représentant un renne. Montastruc (Peccadeau de l'Isle; in De - Quatrefages (A.)--Hommes fossiles, Paris, 1884, p. 50.) 174 - - 29. Billings and Gall's map of Bering Strait and neighboring - lands, 1811 178 - - 30. Eskimo villages and sites, Norton Sound and Bay and Seward - Peninsula, and the Kotzebue Sound, from Zagoskin's general - map, 1847 178 - - 31. Graves at Nash Harbor, Nunivak Island. (Photos by Collins and - Stewart, 1927.) 214 - - 32. The school children at Wales 214 - - 33. _a_, Children, Nunivak Island. (Photo by Collins and Stewart, - 1927.) _b_, Adults, Nunivak Island. (Photo by Collins and - Stewart, 1927.) 214 - - 34. King Island Eskimo; a family group 214 - - 35. King Island native 214 - - 36. A fine full-blood Eskimo pair, northern Bering Sea region. - _a_, Young Eskimo woman, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo - by Lomen Bros.) _b_, Eskimo, northern Bering Sea region. - (Photo by F. H. Nowell.) 214 - - 37. Typical full-blood Eskimo, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo - by Lomen Bros.) 214 - - 38. Elderly man, St. Lawrence Island. (Photos by R. D. Moore, - 1912. U.S.N.M.) 214 - - 39. The Wales people. (Photo by Lomen Bros.) 242 - - 40. The long broad-faced types, Wales. (Photo by Lomen Bros.) 242 - - 41. _a_, The broad-faced and low-vaulted Eskimo, St. Lawrence - Island. (Photo by R. D. Moore, 1912. U.S.N.M.). _b_, - Broad-faced type, St. Lawrence Island. (Photo by R. D. Moore, - 1912. U. S. N. M.) 242 - - 42. The long-faced type. _a_, A young man from Seward Peninsula. - _b_, A boy from St. Lawrence Island 242 - - 43. A "Hypereskimo," King Island. Excessively developed face 242 - - 44. Eskimo "Madonna" and child, northern Bering Sea region. - (Photo by Lomen Bros.) 242 - - 45. Young woman, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by Lomen - Bros.) 250 - - 46. Young women, full-blood Eskimo, Seward Peninsula. (Photo by - Lomen Bros.) 250 - - 47. A Point Hope group 250 - - 48. _a_, Eskimo woman, Kevalina. (Photo on the "Bear" by A. H., - 1926. U.S.N.M.). _b_, The body build of an adult Eskimo - woman, upper Bering Sea 250 - - 49. Elderly woman, St. Lawrence Island. (Photos by R. D. Moore, - 1912. U.S.N.M.) 250 - - 50. _a_, Yukon Eskimo, below Paimute. (A. H., 1926.) _b_, Norton - Sound Eskimo woman and child. (A. H., 1926.) 250 - - 51. Eskimo, Indianlike, northern Bering Sea region. (Photos by - Lomen Bros.) 250 - - 52. Eskimo, Indianlike, northern Bering Sea region. (Photos by - Lomen Bros.) 250 - - 53. Eskimo, Indianlike, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by - Lomen Bros.) 250 - - 54. Eskimo, Indianlike, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by - Lomen Bros.) 250 - - 55. Eskimo, Indianlike, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by - Lomen Bros.) 250 - - 56. Eskimo, Indianlike, Arctic region. (Photo by Lomen Bros.) 250 - - 57. Siberian Eskimo and child, Indian type 250 - - 58. _a_, Mrs. Sage, Kevalina. Fine Indian type. Born on Notak. - Both parents Notak "Eskimo." (Photo by A. H., 1926.) _b_, - Eskimo family, Indianlike, near Barrow. (Photo by A. H., - 1926.) 250 - - 59. Skulls from old burials, Point Hope; right skull shows low - vault. (U.S.N.M.) 262 - - 60. Skulls from old burials, Point Hope; right skull shows low - vault. (U.S.N.M.) 262 - - 61. Western Eskimo and Aleut (middle) lower jaws, showing lingual - hyperostoses. (U.S.N.M.) 308 - - -TEXT FIGURES - - 1. The Tanana River between Nenana and Tanana, with Indian - villages 125 - - 2. The Yukon from Tanana to below Kokrines 137 - - 3. The Yukon from below Kokrines to below Koyukuk 137 - - 4. The Yukon from below Koyukuk to Lofkas 138 - - 5. Old map of the Nulato district 139 - - 6. Map of Kaltag and vicinity. (By McLeod) 139 - - 7. The Yukon from Bystraia to below Holy Cross 140 - - 8. The Yukon from above Holy Cross to below Mountain Village 141 - - 9. The Yukon from below Mountain Village to near Marshall 141 - - 10. The Yukon from near Marshall to below Kavlingnak 142 - - 11. From above Kobolunuk to mouth of river 143 - - 12. Conventionalized design from fossil ivory specimen shown in - Plate 19 174 - - 13. World map 177 - - 14. Dall's map of the distribution of the tribes of Alaska and - adjoining territory, 1875 178 - - 15. Nelson's map, Eighteenth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn., 1898 179 - - 16. Linguistic map, United States census, 1920 180 - - 17. Villages and sites on Kodiak Island 185 - - 18. Villages and sites on the proximal half of Alaska Peninsula - 187 - - 19. Villages and sites on the distal half of Alaska Peninsula 188 - - 20. Eskimo villages and sites on Nushagak Bay to Kuskokwim Bay 191 - - 21. Eskimo villages and sites, Kuskokwim Bay to Scammon Bay 193 - - 22. Eskimo villages and sites, Scammon Bay to Norton Sound and - Bay to Cape Rodney 198 - - 23. Eskimo villages and sites, Wales. (By Clark M. Garber, 1927) - 201 - - 24. Eskimo villages and sites, Seward Peninsula, Kotzebue Sound, - and Arctic coast, to Kevalina 203 - - 25. Eskimo villages and sites, Kevalina to Point Barrow 207 - - 26. Russian map of St. Lawrence Island, 1849. (Tebenkof) 209 - - 27. Eskimo villages and sites, St. Lawrence Island, the Diomedes, - and the eastern Asiatic coast 211 - - 28. The Bering Strait Islands 212 - - 29. Probable movements of people from northeastern Asia to Alaska - and in Alaska. (A. Hrdlička) 360 - - ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA - - By ALEŠ HRDLIČKA - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -Alaska and the opposite parts of Asia hold, in all probability, the key -to the problem of the peopling of America. It is here, and here alone, -where a land of another continent approaches so near to America that a -passage of man with primitive means of navigation and provisioning was -possible. All the affinities of the American native point toward the -more eastern parts of Asia. In Siberia, Mongolia, Tibet, Manchuria, -Formosa, and in some of the islands off southeastern Asia, living -remnants of the same type of man as the American aborigines are to this -day encountered, and it is here in the farthest northwest where actual -passings of parties of natives between the Asiatic coast and the Bering -Sea islands and between the latter and the American coasts have always, -since these parts were known, been observed and are still of common -occurrence. - -With these facts before them, the students of the peopling of this -continent were always drawn strongly to Alaska and the opposite parts -of Asia; but the distances, the difficulties of communication, and -the high costs of exploration in these far-off regions have proven a -serious hindrance to actual investigation. As a result, but little -direct, systematic, archeological or anthropological (somatological) -research has ever been carried out in these regions; though since -Bering's, Cook's, and Vancouver's opening voyages to these parts a -large amount of general, cultural, and linguistic observations on the -natives has accumulated. - -For these observations, which are much in need of a compilation and -critical analysis, science is indebted to the above-named captains; -to the subsequent Russian explorers, and especially to the Russian -clerics who were sent to Alaska as missionaries or priests to the -natives; to various captains, traders, agents, miners, soldiers, -and men in collateral branches of science, who came in contact with -the aborigines; to special United States Government exploratory -expeditions, with an occasional participation of the Biological Survey -and the Smithsonian Institution, such as resulted in the fine "Corwin" -reports and the highly valuable accounts of Leffingwell, Dall, Nelson, -and Murdoch; to the separate pieces of scientific work by men such as -Gordon and Jennes; and to Jochelson and Bogoras of the Jesup exploring -expedition of the American Museum. - -As a result of all these contributions, it may be said that there -has been established a fair cultural and linguistic knowledge of the -Aleut, the Eskimo, and the Chukchee, not to speak of the Tlingit, -consideration of which seems more naturally to fall with that of the -Indians of the northwest coast. - -There are also numerous though often very imperfect and occasionally -rather contradictory notes on the physical status of these peoples, -and some valuable cultural and even skeletal collections were made. -Since 1912 we possess also a good series of measurements on the St. -Lawrence Island natives, together with valuable cranial material from -that locality, made, under the direction of the writer, by Riley D. -Moore, at that time aide in the Division of Physical Anthropology in -the United States National Museum. - -The need of a further systematic archeological and somatological -research in this important part of the world was long since felt, -and several propositions were made in this line to the National -Research Council (Hrdlička) and to the Smithsonian Institution (Hough, -Hrdlička); but nothing came of these until the early part of 1926, -when, a little money becoming available, the writer was intrusted -by the Bureau of American Ethnology with the making of an extensive -preliminary survey of Alaska. The objects of the trip were, in brief, -to ascertain as much as possible about the surviving Indians and -Eskimos; to trace all indications of old settlements and migrations; -and to collect such skeletal and archeological material as might be of -importance. - -The trip occupied approximately four months, from the latter part -of May to the latter part of September, affording a full season in -Alaska. It began with the inside trip from Vancouver to Juneau, where -at several of the stopping places groups of the northwest coast -Indians were observed. At Juneau examination was made of the valuable -archeological collections in the local museum. After this followed a -trip with several stops along the gulf, a railroad trip with some stops -to Fairbanks, a return trip to Nenana, a boat trip on the Tanana to the -Yukon, and then, with little boats of various sorts, a trip with many -stops for about 900 miles down the Yukon. This in turn was followed by -a side trip in Norton Sound, after which transportation was secured -to the island of St. Michael and to Nome. From Nome, after some work -in the vicinity, the revenue cutter _Bear_ took the writer to the St. -Lawrence and Diomede Islands, to Cape Wales, and thence from place to -place of scientific interest up to Barrow. On the return a number of -the more important places, besides some new ones, were touched upon, -while the visit to others was prevented by the increasing storms, and -the trip ended at Unalaska. - -Throughout the journey, the writer received help from the Governor, -officials, missionaries, traders, and people of Alaska; from the -captain, officers, and crew of the _Bear_; and from many individuals; -for all of which cordial thanks are hereby once more rendered. Grateful -acknowledgments are especially due to the following gentlemen: Governor -George A. Parks, of Alaska; Mr. Harry G. Watson, his secretary; Mr. -Karl Thiele, Secretary for Alaska; Judge James Wickersham, formerly -Delegate from Alaska; Father A. P. Kashevaroff, curator of the -Territorial Museum and Library of Juneau; Dr. William Chase, of -Cordova; Mr. Noel W. Smith, general manager Government railroad of -Alaska; Mr. B. B. Mozee, Indian supervisor, and Dr. J. A. Romig, of -Anchorage; Prof. C. E. Bunnell, president Alaska Agriculture College, -at Fairbanks; Mr. and Mrs. Fullerton, missionaries, at Tanana; Rev. -J. W. Chapman and Mr. Harry Lawrence, at Anvik; Father Jetté and -Jim Walker, at Holy Cross; Mr. C. Betsch, at the Russian Mission; -Messrs. Frank Tucker and E. C. Gurtler, near the mission; Mr. Frank P. -Williams, of St. Michael; Judge G. J. Lomen and his sons and daughter, -at Nome; Rev. Dr. Baldwin, Fathers La Fortune and Post, Captain Ross, -United States Coast Guard, and Mr. Elmer Rydeem, merchant, at Nome; -C. S. Cochran, captain of the _Bear_, and his officers, particularly -Mr. H. Berg, the boatswain; Rev. F. W. Goodman and Mr. LaVoy, at Point -Hope; the American teachers at Wales, Shishmareff, Kotzebue, Point -Hope, and elsewhere; Messrs. Tom Berryman, Jim Allen; and Charles -Brower, traders, respectively, at Kotzebue, Wainright, and Barrow; Mr. -Sylvester Chance, superintendent of education, Kotzebue, Alaska; the -United States marshals, deputy marshals, and postmasters along the -route; and the numerous traders, miners, settlers, and others who were -helpful with specimens, advice, guidance, and in other matters. - - -GENERAL REMARKS - -The account of the survey will be limited in the main to -anthropological and archeological observations; but it is thought -best to give it largely in the form of the original notes made on the -spot or within a few hours after an event. These notes often contain -collateral observations or thoughts which could be excluded, but -the presence of which adds freshness, reliability, and some local -atmosphere to what otherwise would be a rather dry narrative. A -preliminary account of the trip and its results was published in the -Smithsonian exploration volume for 1926 (Washington, 1927, pp. 137-158). - -Not much reference is possible to previous work of the nature here -dealt with in the parts visited, except in the Aleutian Islands, where -good archeological work was done in the late sixties by William H. -Dall,[1] and in 1909-10 by Waldemar Jochelson.[2] - -The archeology and anthropology of the Gulf of Alaska, the inland, the -Yukon Basin, the Bering Sea coasts and islands, and those of the Arctic -coasts up to Point Barrow are but little known. The archeology is in -reality known only from the stone and old ivory implements that have -been incidentally collected and have reached various institutions where -they have been studied; from the excavations about Barrow, conducted -by an expedition of the University Museum, Philadelphia, in charge of -W. B. Van Valin, and by the trader, Mr. Charles Brower, the results -of which have not yet been published; and from the recent diggings at -Wales and on the smaller Diomede Island by Doctor Jenness.[3] Neither -Dall, Nelson, Rau, nor Murdoch conducted any excavations outside the -already mentioned work in the Aleutians. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] Dall, Wm. H.: Alaska as it Was and Is; 1865-1895. Bull. Phil. Soc. -Wash., 1900, vol. XIII, 141. On Prehistoric Remains in the Aleutian -Islands. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., November, 1872, vol. IV, 283-287. -Explorations on the Western Coast of North America. Smiths. Rept. for -1873, Wash., 1874, 417-418. On Further Examinations of the Amaknak -Cave. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., 1873, vol. V, 196-200. Notes on Some -Aleut Mummies. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., October, 1874, vol. V. 399-400. -Deserted Hearths. The Overland Monthly, 1874, vol. XIII, 25-30. Alaskan -Mummies. Am. Naturalist, 1875, vol. IX, 433-440. Tribes of the Extreme -Northwest. Contrib. N. Am. Ethnol., vol. I, Wash., 1877. On the -Remains of Later Prehistoric Man Obtained from Caves in the Catharina -Archipelago, Alaska Territory, etc. Smiths. Contr. to Knowledge, No. -318, Wash., 1878. - -[2] Jochelson, W., Archæological Investigations in the Aleutian -Islands. Carnegie Inst. of Wash. Publ. No. 367, Wash., D. C., 1925. - -[3] Rau, Chas., North American Stone Implements. Smiths. Rept. for -1872, Wash., 1873. Prehistoric Fishing in Europe and North America. -Smiths. Contr. to Knowledge, Wash., 1884, vol. XXV. Thomas, Cyrus, -Introduction to the Study of North American Archæology. Cincinnati, -1898. Jennes, D. Archæological Investigations in Bering Strait. Ann. -Rep. Nat. Mus. Canada for 1926 (Ottawa 1928), pp. 71-80. - - -NORTHWEST COAST--JUNEAU - - -THE COAST INDIANS - -Passage was taken on a small steamer from Vancouver. The boat stopped -at a number of settlements on the scenic "inside" route--which -impresses one as a much enlarged and varied trip through the -Catskills--permitting some observations on the Indians of these parts. - -The main opportunity was had at Aleut Bay. Here many British Columbia -Indians were seen on the dock, belonging to several tribes. Names of -these, as pronounced to me, were unfamiliar. They have a large agency -here; engage in salmon industry. A minority, only, full bloods--of the -younger a large majority mixed (white blood). The full bloods all show -one marked type, of short to moderate stature, rather short legs, huge -chest and head, i. e., face. Color near onion-brown, without luster. -Indians, but modified locally. Remind one (chest, stature, stockiness, -shortness of neck and legs) of Peruvian Indians. - -Indians at Prince Rupert same type; color pale brown; eyes and nose -rather small for the faces in some, in others good size. Look good deal -like some Chinese or rather some hand-laboring Chinese and Japanese -look like them. - -Indians at Juneau (the Auk tribe) very similar, but most mixed with -whites. - -_Juneau._--A week was spent at Juneau, gathering information, obtaining -letters of introduction, and making a few excursions. The city has -an excellent museum devoted to Alaskan history and archeology, under -the able curatorship of Father Andrew P. Kashevaroff, himself a part -of the history of the Territory. The archeological collections of -Alaska Indians and Eskimos are in some respects--e. g., pottery--more -comprehensive than those of any other of our museums; but they, -together with the valuable library, are housed in a frail frame -building, under great risks from both fire and thieves. Fortunately the -latter are still scarce in Alaska, but the fire risk is great and ever -present. The museum is a decided cultural asset to Juneau. - - -NOTES OF ARCHEOLOGICAL INTEREST - -_Auk Point._--Thanks to Father Kashevaroff and Mr. Charles H. Flory, -the district forester, an excursion was arranged one day to Auk Point, -approximately 15 miles distant, a picturesque wooded little promontory -near which there used to be a settlement of the Auk Indians. On the -point were several burials of shamans and a chief of the tribe (all -other dead being cremated), and near the graves stood until a short -time ago a moderate-sized totem pole. Of all this we found but bare -remnants. The burials of three shamans and one chief had been in huge -boxes above ground; but they had all been broken into and most of the -contents belonging to the dead were taken away, including the skulls. -The skeletal parts of two of the bodies and a few bones of the chief -remained, however, with a few objects the vandals had overlooked. The -latter were placed in the Juneau Museum while the bones, showing some -features of interest, were collected and sent to Washington. A large -painted board near the graves of the shamans remained, though damaged. -The totem pole, however, had been cut down the year before by a young -man from Juneau, who then severed the head, which he carried home, -and left the rest on the beach, from where it was soon washed away. -Thus a group of burials, the only ones known of the once good-sized Auk -tribe, have been despoiled and their record lost to science. And such a -fate is, according to all accounts, rapidly overtaking similar remains -everywhere in southeastern Alaska. - -_Rare stone lamp (?)._--At the museum one of the first and most -interesting objects shown the writer by Father Kashevaroff was a -large, heavy, finely sculptured oblong bowl, made of hard, dark -crystalline stone, decorated in relief on the rim and with a squatting -stone figure, cut from the same piece, near one of the ends. The -bowl looks like a ceremonial lamp, though showing no trace of oil or -carbon. Subsequently four other bowls of this same remarkable type -and workmanship were learned of, two, the best of the lot, in the -University Museum at Philadelphia; one in the Museum of the American -Indian, New York; and one, somewhat inferior and of reddish stone, in -the possession of Mr. Müller, the trader at Kaltag, on the Yukon (later -in that of Mr. Lynn Smith, marshal at Fairbanks). The localities where -the five remarkable and high-grade specimens have been found range -from the Kenai Peninsula in southwestern Alaska to the lower Yukon. -The Juneau specimen comes from Fish Creek, near Kuik, Cook Inlet (see -Descriptive Booklet Alaska Hist. Mus., Juneau, 1922, pp. 26, 27); that -in the Heye Museum is from the same locality; the one in Philadelphia -was found in the Kenai Peninsula; while that at Kaltag came from an old -Indian site on the Kaiuh slough of the Yukon. Locally, there is much -inclination to regard these specimens as Asiatic, especially Japanese, -and a bronze Japanese Temple medal has been found near that now at -Juneau. On the other hand, a strong suggestion of similarity to these -dishes is presented by some undecorated large stone lamps from Alaska, -and by a class of pottery bowls with a human figure perched on the -rim at one end from some of the Arkansas mounds, Mexico, and farther -southward. (See Mason, J. A. A remarkable stone lamp from Alaska. The -Museum Jour., Phila., 1928, 170-194.) - -_Copper mask._--Shortly before leaving Juneau I became acquainted with -Mr. Robert Simpson, manager of the "Nugget" curio shop, and found in -his possession a number of interesting specimens made in the past by -the Tlingit Indians. An outstanding piece was an old copper mask, which -was purchased for the National Museum. Mr. Simpson obtained it years -ago from a native of Yakutat and stored it with native furs and other -articles of value. It originally belonged to a shaman of the Yakutat -tribe and was said to have been worn by him in sacrificial slave -killings, the shaman with the mask representing some mythical being. It -is an exceedingly good and rare piece of native workmanship. - -_Copper "shield."_--Another interesting article secured from Mr. -Simpson is a large old shieldlike plate of beaten copper, decorated on -one side with a characteristic Tlingit engraved design. Mr. Simpson, -in a letter to Doctor Hough, dated June 26, 1926, says: "The shield, -or to speak more correctly the copper plate--for it was not used as a -shield--was the most valuable possession of the Tlingits. They were -usually valued in slaves, this one, at the last known exchange, having -been traded for three slaves. The possessor of four or five such plates -was a man of the utmost wealth. Some claim that they got these copper -plates from the early New England traders and others that they came -from the Copper River. Either is possible. Lots of the Copper River -nuggets were very large and flat and could have readily been hammered -into plate form. I bought this in the village of Klawak on the west -coast of Prince of Wales Island. I do not know of another one around -here. All of the local elderly natives are familiar with its previous -value, and when they have wandered into my shop to sell things they -always made deep obeisance to this plate." - -_Talks._--While in Juneau the writer spoke before the Rotarians, who -honored him with a lunch; and later, in the auditorium of the fine new -high school, gave a public lecture on "The Peopling of America," etc. -The object of these and the many subsequent talks in Alaska was, on -the one hand, to reciprocate as far as possible the kindness and help -received on all sides, and on the other to leave wholesome information -and stimulus in things anthropological. The audience was invariably -all that a lecturer could desire, and many were left everywhere eager -for help and cooperation. The aid of some of these men, including -prospectors, miners, settlers, engineers, foresters, and various -officials, may some day prove of much value in the search for Alaskan -antiquities. - -_Juneau--Seward._--June 8, leave Juneau. It has been raining every day, -with one exception, and is misting now, depriving us of a view of most -of the coast. Wherever there is a glimpse of it, however, it is seen to -be mountainous, wooded below, snowy and icy higher up, inhospitable, -forbidding. - -June 10, arrive at Cordova, a former native and Russian settlement -of some importance. Will stay here large part of the day and go -to see about Indians, old sites, burials, and specimens, the main -hotel keeper, the assistant superintendent of the local railway, the -postmaster, the supervisor of the forests, and Dr. William Chase, who -has been connected with the work of the Biological Survey in these -regions. Mr. W. J. McDonald, the forester, takes me out some miles -into the very rugged country, where there are still plenty of bear and -mountain goat. After which Doctor Chase takes me to the old Russian -and Indian cemetery. There are many graves, mostly Indian, but also a -few whites, and even a Chinaman. Russian crosses are still common. The -older Indian part could be easily excavated. Learn of skulls and bones -on "mummy" island in Prince William Sound. - -_Indians._--See quite a few. Nearly all appear more or less mixed; -color in these more or less pronounced tan with red in cheeks and -some tendency to paleness. Heads still all brachycephalic and of only -moderate height; faces broad, noses not prominent, in males tend to -large. - -Two adult men, evidently full-bloods--pure Indian type of the -brachycephalic form, head moderate in size, medium short, face not -very large, nose slightly or moderately convex, not prominent, but -all Indian. Color of skin submedium to near medium brown, no trace of -whitish or pink. Stature and build medium; feet rather small; hair -typical Indian, black, straight; beard sparse and short; mustache -sparse, no hair on sides of the face. - -The boat makes two or three more commercial and passenger stops -before reaching Seward, the main one at Valdez, the terminal of the -Richardson Trail to the interior. These stops permit us to see some -fish canneries, which are of both general and anthropological interest. -These establishments employ Japanese, Philippine, and Chinese labor, -and it was found to be quite a task to distinguish these, and to tell -them from the coast Indians. The Chinamen can be distinguished most -often, though not always, the Japanese less so, while the Filipino -usually can not be told from the Indian, even by an expert. Here was a -striking practical lesson in relationships. - -_Seward--Anchorage._--Seward found to be a fine little town, full of -the same good brand of people that one finds everywhere in Alaska and -who go so far to restore one's faith in humanity. It is the terminus of -the Government railroad to Fairbanks and a port of some importance. - -_Indian basketry._--No Indians were seen here, though some come -occasionally. But several of the stores, including that of the Seward -Drug Co. (Mr. Elwyn Swestmann), have an unexpectedly good supply of -decorated Alaska Indian baskets. It was found later, in fact, that the -Alaskan Indians, with the Aleutians, compare well in basketry with -those of Arizona and California. - -_Anchorage._--June 12-13. Anchorage, on Cook's Inlet, is a good-sized -town for Alaska and the headquarters of the railroad. Here were met -some very good friends, particularly Mr. Noel W. Smith, general manager -of the railroad; Dr. J. H. Romig, formerly of the Kuskokwim; and Mr. -B. B. Mozee, the Indian supervisor. Here, at Ellis Hall, I lectured -on "The Origin and Racial Affiliations of the Indians," and the large -audience included seven male (some full blood) and two female (mix -blood) Indians--of the latter, one very pretty, approaching a Spanish -type of beauty. Near town I also visited with a launch two small Indian -fishing camps. From Doctor Romig information was obtained about the -Indians and some old sites of the Kuskokwim; and through the kindness -of Messrs. Smith and Mozee I was enabled to visit the Indian school at -Eklutna. Here at Anchorage I also was given the first and rather rare -old Indian stone implement. - -The Indians at the camps included 6 full bloods--4 men, 2 women. One of -the men tested on chest. Typical full-blood results. - -Type of full bloods: Color slightly submedium to medium brown, never -darker; heads, subbrachycephalic to full brachycephalic, rather small; -forehead in men more or less sloping in two; face, not large, Indian; -nose tends to convex but not high. Indian in features and behavior, but -features not as pronounced as general in the States tribes. - -The full bloods in town: Medium to short stature, not massive frames, -moderate-sized faces, Indian type, but not the pronounced form; head -brachycephalic; hair all black; mustache and beard scarce, as in -Indians in general; color of skin submedium brown. Children in camp -(up to about 5 years) were striking by a relatively considerable -interorbital breadth, otherwise typical Indian. - -_Birch-bark dishes._--At Anchorage, in several of the stores, but -particularly at one small store, were seen many nicely decorated -birch-bark dishes or receptacles. They are made by inland Indians, are -prettily decorated with colored porcupine quills, and evidently take -the place of the baskets of other tribes. It was difficult to learn -just what Indians made the best or most, though the Tanana people were -mentioned. No such fine assortment of these dishes was seen after -leaving Anchorage. - -_Eklutna._--Sixteen miles from Anchorage, along the railroad, is the -Indian village and school Eklutna. Mr. Smith made it possible for me to -reach this place on a freight and to be picked up later the same day by -the passenger train. - -At Eklutna was found an isolated but prettily located and well-kept -Indian school, with about fifty children from many parts of -southwestern Alaska. More than half of these children showed more -or less admixture of white blood, but there was a minority of -unquestionable full bloods. There were two children from Kodiak Island -and two or three southern Eskimo. The main impression after a detailed -look at the children was that, while they all showed clear Indian -affinities and some were typically Indian, yet on the whole there -was a prevalent trace of something Eskimoid in the physiognomies--an -observation that was to be repeated more than once in other parts of -Indian Alaska. - -_Burials._--At a few minutes' walk from the school at Eklutna there -is in a clearing of the forest a small Indian village, with a late -graveyard showing Russian influence. A short distance farther, however, -according to the Indians, there is an old burial place of some -magnitude, with traces of graves, although quite obliterated. - -_Eklutna--Fairbanks._--Since reaching Seward the almost incessant -drizzles have ceased and the weather has been fine and pleasantly warm. -Everything is green, grass is luxuriant, and there are many flowers. - -The railroad journey is a regular scenic tour, with its crowning -point a glorious view of Mount McKinley. The trains run only in the -daytime. For the night a stop is made at a railroad hotel, in a quiet, -picturesque location, at the edge of a good-sized river. They have -foxes in cages here and a tame reindeer. There are no natives in this -vicinity. - -There are two interesting passengers on the train, with both of whom I -became well acquainted. One is Joe Bernard, an explorer and collector -(besides his other occupations) in Alaska and Siberia. He furnishes -me with some valuable pictures and much information. The other man is -Captain Wilkins, the flier of Point Barrow fame, who strikes me as an -able and modest man. - -The next day, as the train stops at Nenana, I am met, thanks to a word -sent by Mr. Noel W. Smith, by Chief Thomas and a group of his people. -These behave kindly and tell me of a potlatch to be held at Tanana -"after some days," where they will visit. The chief impresses me with -his rather refined though thoroughly Indian countenance. - -_Fairbanks._--Before reaching Fairbanks, the inland capital of Alaska, -I am met by Prof. C. E. Bunnell, head of the Alaska Agricultural -College. This college, located on an elevation about 4 miles out of -the city, I visit with Professor Bunnell soon after arrival, to find -there some interesting paleontological and archeological collections. -Here are fair beginnings which well deserve the good will of the -Alaskans. Unfortunately the college has not yet the means for any -substantial progress or research in these lines, and the collections -are housed in a frame building where they are in serious danger from -fire. But their presence will aid, doubtless, in the saving of other -material of similar nature from the Tanana region, and specimens of -special scientific importance will doubtless be referred to scientific -institutions outside. - -Fairbanks is a good-sized town, built on the wide flats of the Tanana -River. Its population, now reduced, includes some civilized natives, -most of whom, however, are mix breeds. A large petrified mammoth -tusk on the porch of one of the semi-log houses shows that these -are regions of more than ordinary biological interest. And there is -soon an occurrence which demonstrates this further. Mr. John Buckley, -the deputy marshal, takes me to an old Japanese resident, now a -rooming-house keeper, who has had a hobby of collecting fossils, and -who in the end is happy to donate to the National Museum a fine skull -of a fossil Alaskan horse, together with some other specimens, refusing -all payment. Such is the human Alaska, or at least the most of it. - -Here, too, to a full hall in the library, a lecture is given on "The -Peopling of Alaska and America," after which follows a return to Nenana -to catch a steamer to the Yukon. - - - - -THE WRITER'S TRIP ON THE YUKON - - -TANANA--YUKON - -June 17. Nenana: This is a small town on the Tanana, mostly railroad -buildings, with a hospital; there is one street of stores (three short -blocks), most of them now empty. About half a mile off a small Indian -settlement about an Episcopalian mission. - -Country flat on both sides of the rather large river, except for some -hills back of the right shore beyond the railroad bridge, for a short -distance. The river flats seem scarcely 3 or 4 feet above water, -overgrown with brush and a few scrubby trees, later spruce thickets. -Purple flowers (fireweed) strike the eye. - -No relics found at Nenana; no information concerning old sites or -abandoned villages along the stream. - -Physically, the Indians seen at Nenana were submedium brown, good many -still full blood, pure Indian type, brachycephalic, faces (nose, etc.), -however, of but medium prominence. Moderate to good stature. - -They are all fairly "civilized," wear white men's clothing, to which on -gala occasions are added bands or collars of beadwork, and speak more -or less English. The younger men are evidently good workers. - -The distance from Nenana to Tanana is given as about 190 miles by the -river. - -The government boat _Jacobs_, on which we shall go down the Tanana, -is a moderate-sized, shallow-bottomed stern-wheeler, and, like all -such boats on these rivers, will push a heavily laden freight barge -before it. There are about a dozen passengers, the boat labor, a trader -or two. All kindly, open. A few women--most of both sexes of the -Scandinavian type. On barge some horses, a cow, pigs, chickens. - -Leave after lunch--very good, generous, and pleasant meal in a local -restaurant that would do credit to a large city; only the people are -better, more human. Meals $1, the almost universal price in Alaska. - -Some quaint expressions: When anyone has been away, especially to the -States, they say he was "outside." I am an "outsider;" show it "by my -collar." Underdone bacon is "easy." To assent they say "you bet." In -a restaurant, to a decent, cheerful girl: "May I have a little hot -coffee?" "You bet!" Which bright answer is heard so often that one -finishes by being shy to ask. - -Dogs, of course, do not pull, but "mush." This is from the Canadian -French "marche." Dogs do not understand "go" or "go on," only "mush." - -Extensive flats. Below Nenana these flats, plainly recent alluvial, are -said to extend up to 60 miles to the left (southwestward) and to 20 -miles to the right. As one passes nearer they are seen to range from 3 -up to about 8 feet above the level of the river at this stage of water. - -Cabins and fishing camps along the river, mostly flimsy structures, -with a few tents. Indians in some. The Indians are said by the whites -to be pretty lazy, living from day to day; yet they seem industrious -enough in their own camps and in their own way. - -Storage or caches, little houses on stilts. Dog houses in rows. Curious -wheel fish traps, revolving like hay or wheat lifting machines, run -by the current. They scoop out the fish and let them fall into a box, -from which the fisherman collects them twice a day. It is the laziest -fishing that could be devised. The contraption is said to come from -the northwest coast, but has become one of the characteristic parts of -the scenery along the Tanana and the Yukon. An Indian camp--stacks of -cordwood--canoes. - -The day is sunny, moderately warm and rather dry--about as a warm, -dry, fall day with us. The river shows bars, with caught driftwood; -also considerable floating wood. There are seagulls, said to destroy -young ducks and geese and water birds' eggs. Shores now wooded, mainly -poplar, not large. Farther back and farther down, spruce. - -The river averages about 200 to 300 yards but differs much in places -and there are numerous side channels (sloughs). It is crooked; many -bends. The current is quite marked, stated to run 4 to 6 miles an hour. -The water is charged with grayish-brown silt, part from glaciers higher -above, part from banks that are being "cut." The banks are entirely -silt, no trace of gravel or stone. Indian camps getting very scarce. -Boat making good time, but now and then requires careful manipulation, -with its big, heavy barge in front. Once driven to shore, but no -damage, and after some effort gets away again. No trouble yet from -mosquitoes, but there are some horseflies. - -Pass a large camp--a Finn married to a squaw, and three or four Indian -families--all snug in a clearing of the fresh-looking woods on the bank -of the river. - -Bend after bend in the stream, and boat has to follow them all, and -more, for the current and deeper water are now near this bank and again -at the opposite bank. - -The water in many places is undermining the bank, exposing frozen -strata of silt. The top often falls in without breaking, with trees and -all, and it then looks like heavy, ragged mats hanging over the bank, -with green trees or bushes dipping into the water, and perhaps a clump -of wild roses projecting from the sward. There are many low bushes of -wild roses in this country, pink and red kinds, now blooming. Also many -small bushes of wild berries--cranberries (low and high), raspberries, -dewberries or blueberries. - -Meat is imported even to here from Seattle, and carried far down the -Yukon. When received they place it in a "cellar" or hole dug down to -the frozen ground and place the meat there--a natural and thoroughly -efficient refrigerator. - -Past Old Minto, a little Indian village, a few little log houses in a -row facing the river, with a wheel fish trap in front (pl. 1, _a_). -Later a few Indian houses and a "road house" with a store at Tolovana. -Most Indians there (and elsewhere here) died of the "flu" in 1918, the -bodies being left and later buried by the Government. A few isolated -little Indian camps. - -The boat ties to trees along the banks. No docks or anything of that -nature. Not many mosquitoes yet, more horseflies, which, however, do -not bother man very much. - -After reaching Hot Springs (right bank), there is seen a long range of -more or less forested, fairly steep-sloped hills along the right bank, -coming right down to the water's edge for miles, with bush and forested -flats opposite. At the end of one of the ravines with a little stream, -right on the bank, remnants of a little glacier melting very slowly in -the sun. Strange contrast, ice and green touching. Boat making good -time along the hills. - -June 18. Hardly any sleep. Sun set after 10 and rose about 2.30, with -no more than dusk between. Then heat in the cabin, and above all the -noises. The boat stuck five hours on a bar and there were all sorts of -jerks and shudders and calls. - -Flats again on both sides, but hills beyond, with just one little spot -of snow. Will be warm day again. - - -ANCIENT MAN - -Prospects of old remains of man all along the river are slight if -any. Old silt flats have doubtless been mostly washed away (as now) -and rebuilt. Only on the older parts, now often far from water, -could anything remain and there it is all a jungle of forest with -undergrowth, with all surface traces absent (no stone, no shell), and -no one here to find things accidentally. As to the hills that approach -the river, the slopes (shales, overlain by what looks like stratified -mud and silt rock) are mostly of recent exposure, and have doubtless -been receding slowly through erosion, so that the bank line along them -is not old; and their valleys are few, narrow, and were higher formerly -as well as more extended toward where the river flowed then. The only -hopeful spot is about Hot Springs, where fossil animal remains are said -to exist, but here nothing as yet has been noted suggesting ancient man. - -June 18, 4 p. m. River getting broader. Some low dunes. In distance -a range of bluish hills before us--the hills along the Yukon. Boat -meandering from side to side. Every now and then a necessary steam -blow-out of mud, or a short whistle, hurry of a man over the top of the -barge and of two half-breeds along its side to the prow to test, with -long pointed and graduated poles, the depth of the water, calling it -out to the captain. The calls range from "no bottom" to "4 feet," at -the latter of which the boat begins to touch and back water. - -5 p. m. Arrived at Tanana, a cheerful looking town, extending over -about half a mile along the right bank of the Yukon, here about 20 -feet high; but now, with the gold rush over, rather "slack" on both -business and population, as are all other Yukon towns. Somewhat -disappointed with the Yukon--not as majestic here as expected. See -storekeeper--introduced by captain. Hear good news. The Indians have a -big potlatch at the mission, 2 miles above. Tanana Indians expected. -And there will be many in attendance. Rumors of this potlatch were -heard before, but this was the first definite information. Get on a -little motor boat with Indians who were making some purchases, and go -to the St. Thomas Episcopal Mission, Mr. Fullerton in charge. - - -THE INDIANS AT TANANA - -The mission above Tanana is beautifully located on the elevated right -Yukon bank, facing Nuklukhayet island and point, the latter, according -to old reports, an old trading and meeting spot of the Kuchin tribes, -and the confluence of the Tanana with the Yukon. The mission house, -located on rising ground, the wooden church lower down, the cemetery a -bit farther up, and the Indian village a bit farther downstream, with -their colors and that of the luxuriant vegetation, form a picturesque -cluster. - -I am kindly received by Mr. Fullerton and his wife and given -accommodation in their house. On the part of the good-sized Indian -village everything is life and bustle and we soon are over. Motor -launches owned and operated by the Indians in the river; dogs, scores -of the big, half-wild, noisy sled dogs tied to stakes along the slope -of the bank, fighting stray ones, barking in whole outbursts, feeding -on smelly fish, or digging cooling holes into the bank in which they -hide most of the body from the warm rays of the sun; and many Indians, -about 400 in all, in whole families, in houses, large canvas tents, -cooking, eating, visiting--a busy multitude, but with white man's -clothes, utensils, etc., not nearly so interesting as a group of more -primitive Indians would be. - -Walk, visit, talk, and observe. Note many mix-bloods, especially among -the younger ones and the children. Among the full bloods, many, about -one-half, with features reminding more or less of Eskimoid; but a few -typically Indian, i. e., like most of the States Indians. - -Medium stature, substantial but not massive build, quite a few of -the older women stout. Color of full bloods generally near medium -brown, features regular Indian but not exaggerated, noses rather -low especially in upper half, eyes and hair Indian. Epicanthus not -excessive in children, absent in adults (traces in younger women), eyes -not markedly oblique. Behavior, Indian. - -The more pronounced Eskimoids have flatter and longer faces, more -oblique eyes, and more marked epicanthus. They should come, it would -seem, from Eskimo admixture. The Tanana Indians (Nenana) did not, so -far as seen, show such physiognomies. - -Toward evening, and especially after supper, natives sing and dance. -Songs of Indian characteristics, and yet different from those in south; -some more expressive. A song "for dead mother," very sad, affects some -to crying aloud (a woman, a man). A wash song--a row of women and even -some men imitating, standing in a row, the movements in washing, while -others sing; humorous. A dance in a line, curving to a circle, of a -more typical Indian character. Late at night, a war dance, with much -supple contortion. Also other songs and dances up to 2.30 a. m.--heard -in bed. - -June 19. With dogs barking and whining and Indians singing, got little -rest. All Indians sleep until afternoon. No chance of doing anything, -so go down to town to get instruments and blanks. Find that storekeeper -has an old stone ax--sells it to me for $1. Also tells of a farmer -who has one--go there with the boat and obtain it as a gift; told of -another one--a Finn--has two, sells them for $1. Come from the gravelly -bank of the river or are dug out in gardening. There may well have been -old settlements in this favorable location. After return, visit some -tents to see sick. Much sickness--eyes, tuberculosis--now and then -probably syphilis. - -Indians relatively civilized, more than expected, and most speak -tolerable English. Have flags, guns, sleep in some cases on iron beds -and under mosquito netting, smoke cigarettes and cigars; and even play -fiddles. Of course some have also learned the white man's cupidity and -vices. - -This day I met with something unexpected, due to perversity of -mix-breed nature. Seeing so many Indians present, and after a good -reception by them the evening preceding, I thought of utilizing the -occasion for taking some measurements. I therefore mentioned the thing -to some of the head men shortly after my arrival and receiving what -seemed assent, went to-day to Tanana to get my instruments. On coming -back and finding a few of the old men, who were quite friendly, I -invited them into the "kashim" (community house) and began to question -them on old sites, etc., when in came, probably somewhat under the -influence of liquor, a mix-breed to whom I had been introduced the -night before and who at that time acted quite civilly, but now coming -forward began rather loudly and offensively to question about what I -wanted here and about authority, giving me to understand at last quite -plainly that he wanted to "be paid" if I was to take any measurements. -He claimed to be one of the "chiefs," and I would not be allowed to -do anything without his help. His harangue quite disturbed the other -Indians, who evidently were both ashamed and afraid of the fellow. And -as I would not be coerced into employing and paying him, and there -being no one, as I learned, of supreme authority, the "chief" of these -Indians being little more than a figurehead, it was decided to give up -the attempt at measurements. The rest of the visit was therefore given -to further observations and to the witnessing of the potlatch. Chief -Joseph (pl. 14), nominally the head of these Yukon Indians, expressed -his sorrow and tried to make amends by offering himself. - -The potlatch was evidently in the main a social gathering of the Yukon -Indians, with the Tanana natives as visitors. It consisted mainly of -eating, singing, and dancing, to be terminated by a big "give-away." -This latter was witnessed. It proved a disappointing and rather -senseless affair. The whole transaction consists in the buying and -gathering, and on this occasion giving away, of all sorts of objects, -by some one, or several, who have lost a husband, wife, mother, -etc., during the preceding year. The possessions of the deceased are -included in this and doubtless often transmit disease. All the color -of the observance is now gone. The goods--blankets, clothing, fabrics, -guns, and many other objects, even pieces of furniture, trunks, or -stoves--are gathered in the open and when the time comes are one after -another selected by those dispensing and brought to this or that man -or woman of those who have gathered around. No song, no ceremony, -no talks, no thanking, no "wake" following. Just a poor shadow of -something that formerly may have been a tragic, memorable, and meaning -occasion. - -Returned to Tanana near 10 p. m. and found lodging with a storekeeper -who kept a "hotel." Got a big room, big bed, and when store closed was -alone in the house, the storekeeper sleeping elsewhere. - -June 20. But, Alaska was evidently not made for sleepers. Had not a -wink until after 3 a. m.--daylight, people talking loud and walking on -the board walk outside, and heard so clearly in my room--loud-laughing -girls, the dogs, and at last another boat with its siren; and every -now and then a singing mosquito trying to get at me through even the -small opening left under the sheet for breathing--there being no -netting. Finally doze off, to wake near 9 a. m., but everything closed, -deadlike. However, go to a little frame house for breakfast, and in -waiting until it is made find myself with two elderly men who go to-day -down the river with their boats. One is a former store clerk, etc., -and now an "optician"--peddles eyeglasses down the river; the other -was a prospector, miner, and blacksmith, now an itinerant "jeweler" -and a reputed "hootch" peddler. As the latter--otherwise a pretty good -fellow--has a good-sized though old boat, arrange to go down with him. -See the marshal, storekeeper, settle with my hotel man (had to go at 11 -to awake him), and ready to start. - -The outfit is largely homemade, not imposing, old, unpainted, and unfit -for the rough--but it could be worse. It consists of a scow, a low, -flat-bottomed boat, partly covered with canvas roof on birch hoops, -in which Peake (the owner) carries fresh meat to some one, a stove, -dishes, bedding, and many other things; and the motor boat proper, in -which there is little room except for the machine and its tender. The -latter sits on a soap box; I, on a seat extemporized from a cylindrical -piece of firewood with a little board across it, with my two boxes -and bedding within easy reach. Sit in front of the scow, except when -driven back by spray. But our motor works and so we start quite well -at some time after 11. The arrangement is to stop at every white man's -camp or settlement down to Ruby. I could have gone on a better boat -with its owner, but they charge here $15 a day, with "keep," and twice -the amount for the return of the man and the boat, which is beyond my -resources. - -Tanana--Ruby. The river is clearer than the Tanana, and much broader. -It is a great fine stream and its shores, while mostly still low on the -left, on the right rise here and there into moderate loess bluffs, far -beyond which are seen higher elevations and bluish forested mountains. -All covered with poplar and spruce. - -2.15 p. m. Wind has so increased that the scow bumps and squeaks and -there is danger of opening its seams. Therefore side to the beach and -make lunch--a roast of fat pork, over-salted, canned spinach, dry -bread, and black coffee. All on a simple, old, but efficient little -stove in the boat. Our companion, the oculist, rides not with us but in -a nice little green canoe with a plaything of a gasoline motor fastened -to the backboard, but we all eat and sleep together. - -But a few small Indian camps seen, and no white man's house. Soon after -lunch, however, approach "The Old Station," where there are a few -Indian houses, and later a white man's place (Burchell's). Stop at the -latter. Learn that we are 20 miles from Tanana and on a 5-mile-long -channel. There are here 15 to 40 feet high loess-like (silt) bluffs -with a flat on the top, which latter was from far back one of the most -important sites of the Indians of these regions. Mr. Burchell and his -partner kindly take me back, with their better boat, to the main old -site. Many old graves there, a few still marked. Traces of dugouts -(birch-bark lined), houses, caches, etc., from Burchell's place to old -main site. Important place that deserves to be thoroughly excavated, -though this will entail no little work. Site was of the choicest, -dominant, healthy. Connects by a trail, still traceable, with the -Koyukuk region. - -There are said to be no traces of pottery in any of these parts. But -average to very large stone axes are washed out occasionally from the -banks, and other articles are dug out (long ivory spear, bone scraper, -etc.). Promise of bones, etc., by Mr. Burchell. - -One hundred miles more to Ruby. Near 8 p. m. start again--sun still -high, little wind--endeavor to get to the "bone yard," a great bank -bearing fossils. Fine clean scenery, flat on left, flat to elevated -with grey-blue mountainous beyond on right. Water now calm and we make -good progress. Very few camps--dogs on the beach, fish-drying racks -a little farther, then a little log cabin and perhaps a tent, with -somewhere near by in the river the inevitable fish wheel, turning -slowly with the current. - -Had supper at Burchell's; white fish, boiled potato, coffee, some -canned greens. - -Scenery in spots precious, virginal, flat at the river, elevated -behind, foreground covered by the lighter green of poplars and birches, -with upright, somber, dark spruce behind. Sun on the right, half moon -on the left, and river like a big glassy lake, just rippling a little -here and there. Cooler--need a coat. On right, getting gradually nearer -the mountains. - -Near 10 p. m. Sun still above horizon. On left a long (several miles), -mostly wooded, but here and there denuded, palisade-like bank, -apparently 200-400 feet high--the "graveyard." - -Monday, June 21. Just at sunset last night--after 10 o'clock--came to -the "bone yard" bank--a long curving line of loess bluffs 100 to 300 -feet high, steep right to water's edge, riven by many ravines. Lowest -third (approximately) light compact loess; then a thick layer of river -sand (stratified more or less) and small gravel, then from one-third to -nearly two-fifths of darker loess. In spots quite dark, frozen, but on -surface melting, "running," also tumbling in smaller or larger masses. -Wherever darker there emanates from it and spreads far out over the -river a decided mummy-like smell. Too late to photograph from boat, -and no other place available. Also impracticable to explore with any -detail--would take several days and be a difficult work. The bluffs -become gradually lower downstream. No bones seen from boat, but mostly -were not near enough to discern. A remarkable formation, in many ways, -and in need of masterly study as well as description. - -Night on a low gravelly and pebbly beach. Many mosquitoes. Mosquito -netting found bad--sides too short (gave directions, but they were -disregarded) and mesh not small enough. In a short time impossible to -stay under. Supplemented by old netting of Mr. Peake, who will sleep -under his canvas in the boat; but the old dirty net has holes in it -and the mosquitoes keep on coming through the two. Fighting them until -some time after midnight, then under all my things--netting, blanket, -clothes--find some rest, sleeping until 4.30 a. m. After that--full -day, of course--sleep impossible. The "optician," who slept well under -proper Alaska netting, gets up, wakes my man; we both get up, shake, -roll up bedding, have a cat-wash, then breakfast, and at 6.30 off once -more along the beautiful but not hospitable river. - -Inquiry at a local white man's cabin about fossils and Indian things -negative--has paid no attention, and fossil bones that he sometimes -comes across generally not in good state of preservation. - -Right bank now hilly, with greater hills and then mountains behind. -Warm, river smooth, just a light breeze. How puny we are in all this -greatness. - -A lot of trouble develops with the engine to-day--bad pump. Will not -get to Ruby until evening. Meat, on which I must sit occasionally, -begins to smell, and there are numerous horseflies, probably attracted -by the smell. - -Four p. m. Visit Kokrines, on a high bank, native village, cemetery. -Photograph some natives, are good natured, talk pidgin English. Clearly -considerable old Eskimo admixture, but the substratum and main portion -is Indian. All kind and cheerful here, glad to have pictures taken. -Only white man is a "road-house" keeper; i. e., storekeeper. Store, -however, poorly stocked, probably in all not over $200 worth of goods. -"Optician," who is hoggish, has headache, but eats and drinks all he -can nevertheless. "Jeweler" repaired his pump, and so we are once more -on the way--35 miles more to Ruby. No trace of any relics at Kokrines. - -River now a mile wide, with many "slews" (side channels, sloughs), and -many low, flat, forested islands. Mountains to right, higher, traces -of snow. Smoke wall from forest fire advancing from the west--now -also smell. Islands beautiful, fresh colors and clean--light grass on -border, then green and grayish poplars, birches, and alder, from among -which rise the blackish green spruces. Little native fishing camps a -mile or two apart, right bank--on left wilderness of flats, as usual. - -A few miles above Ruby conditions change--high bluffs (rocky) now -on left, flat on right side. Ruby, from a distance and after the -loneliness of the day, looks quite a little town on the left bank, at -the base of the higher ground. - - -RUBY - -June 22-23. Our approach to Ruby was very modest. With Mr. Peake paid -off, we just sided against and tied to the bank, on which are the -lowest houses of the village, and carried out my boxes and bedding on -the bank. There two or three men were idly watching our arrival. I -asked about the local marshal, to whom I had a note, and had my things -carried to the combined post office and hotel. In almost no time I meet -Mr. Thomas H. Long, the marshal, become acquainted with the people -about, tell my mission, and begin to collect. It does not take long -for one properly introduced to be thoroughly and warmly at home in -Alaska. The first specimen I get is a fine fossilized mammoth molar. It -is brought to me by Albert Verkinik, who was about to depart for some -mines, but went back to get the tooth. And he asks no compensation. - -The parts of two days spent at Ruby were quite profitable. Visiting, -and in the jail, were several Indians who could be noted and -photographed. At the old jail there were two skulls of Indians -that were donated. The teacher had two of the characteristic Yukon -two-grooved axes. The postmaster, Mr. H. E. Clarke, gave a collection -of fresh animal skulls. Mr. Louis Pilback donated two mammoth molars, -found 2 miles up the Yukon on Little Melozey Creek, about 8 feet deep, -in the muck right over the gravel. Mrs. Monica Silas brought me a -good old stone knife. Several of the men took me down to the beach to -see a damaged fossil elephant skull, also to see some fossiliferous -workings above the town. Another party took me a few miles up and -across the river to see an Indian camp and near by some old burials. -The collections were sent through parcel post; and the evening before -departure I gave a lecture to an attentive and respectful audience. - -The town itself, however, is now a mere damaged and crumbling shell -of what it was in the heyday of its glory, during the gold rush. Many -of the frame dwellings and stores are empty; the board sidewalks are -rickety and with big holes; and in the air is a general lack of impetus. - -June 23. Failing to find another suitable boat, I once more made an -arrangement to go farther down the river with Mr. Peake and his friend. -Peake's boat and scow were not much to look at, and the troubles with -the engine, and with its owner's raw swearing at times, were somewhat -trying; but for my purpose the outfit did well enough, and I was -treated very well and given all needed opportunity to examine what was -of importance on the banks. I was quite sorry when eventually we had to -part company, and I know Mr. Peake has not forgotten my quest, for I -heard of his talking about it to parties, with whom I was very glad to -come in contact, on the Kuskokwim. - -June 23. The sunny evening of my second busy day at Ruby, near 10 -p. m., Peake unexpectedly comes to the hotel to tell me he will be -ready to start to-night, on account of quiet water. His wash "is -being ironed" and will be ready soon. The marshal comes in, calls the -prisoners to take down my baggage, and at 10.15, after true, hearty -good-byes, I am once more in the old scow. Then Peake goes for his -wash, with an Indian woman, and does not come until near 11. River -peaceful, sun shortly set, sky somewhat cloudy, forest fire on opposite -shore below still smoking a great deal. Leaving good people at Ruby, -who promise to help in the future. It is getting much cooler after a -pretty warm day. Will lie on the hard boxes and try to get a little -sleep. - -Thursday, June 24. We went long into the night, then stopped at a lone -cabin. Up timely, but slow start--it is 10.10 a. m. before we go. -The time gained at night lost now--bad habits. Breeze up the river, -occasionally strong, but not severe. - -The cabin was the "Dutchman's," or Meyer's. He came out at 1 a. m. to -meet us, at the bark of his big dogs, a good-hearted, weather-seared -prospector, fisherman, and trapper of about 40, alone with his huskies. -Asked me into his little log hut, prepared a place for my bedding on -a frame, burned powder against the mosquitoes, brought out from cool -"cellar" a bottle of root beer he brews, and then we went to sleep. But -dogs kept waking us and Meyer went out several times to quiet them. -Fall asleep at 3.20 and oblivious until near 7. Meyer forces on me six -bottles of root beer, I leave him some prescriptions, and taking my bed -roll we go down to the boat. My men still sleeping, as I expected. And -then slow awakening, breakfast, and late starting. - -Meyer never saw any Indian bones or stones, but promises cheerfully to -watch for them hereafter and to make inquiries. Of course, he also, -like so many in these lands, tells of a "prospect" of a gold find, and -is quite confident he'll "make good." As usual, also, it is a "lead" -that was "lost" and he believes he has found it. And all the time the -gold is inside, not outside, of these hunters of the yellow star. - -Hills on the right again; flat islands, banks, etc., on the left. -Meyer's is 18 miles down from Ruby, right bank. About 5 miles farther -down on the slopes of the right bank is a pretty little Indian -graveyard (pl. 1, _b_), and a little lower down there are three now -empty Indian huts. - -Hills and mountains seen also now beyond the wide flats of the left -bank. The hills on right, along which we pass, are more or less -forested, but often just bushy and grassy. They rise to about 600 to -700 feet and the slopes are seldom steep. Along their base there are -many elevated platforms, low swells, and nooks, that could have served -of old--as they serve here and there now--for native habitation, though -only few could have accommodated larger villages. - -Pass an Indian camp--the inevitable staked dogs; a swimming boy--first -being seen bathing in the open. - -Whiskey Creek next. Sixty-two dogs, all along the bank, and each -one-half or more in his own cooling hole; holes they dig down to near -the frozen ground. A settler, and two Indians--a photograph. No relics -or bones now, but will watch; promise also to save some animal skulls, -etc. - -Twelve o'clock. Off again. Day better now, less squally, warm. - -Hills above and below lower and earthy--loess, at least much of it. The -right shore is all along sunnier, higher, more beautiful, and more open -to wind (less mosquitoes). These are the reasons, doubtless, why it was -of old and is still the favored side for habitations by natives as well -as whites. - -Just before reaching "Old Lowden," overtaken by a rather crazily driven -small motor boat with four young Indians, who hand us a crude message -for the storekeeper at Galena, telling him that a baby in the camp -is to die to-night. I offer to see the baby. Find a boy infant about -one year or a little over, ill evidently with bronchitis. Father and -mother, each about 30, sit over it brooding in dumb grief, each on one -side. Respond not to my presence, and barely so to my questions. And -when I begin to tell to the fellow who interprets and is some relative -that the baby need not die, and what to do--I note that he is somewhat -under the influence of liquor and a little flushed--to my dismay he -begins to rant against me as a doctor and against the Government, and -wants me perforce, seemingly, to say that the child is going to die -and die to-night. There are two guns around and I almost anticipate -his catching hold of one. The gist of the piecemeal talk is that they -believe I am a Government doctor, who ought to stay four or five days -with them and take over the child's treatment, and yet the fellow -insists that the child will die before next morning. I do not know what -they would say or do to the doctor if he undertook to stay and the -child died--or if it recovered. It is dismal. They have the idea that -the "Government" is obliged to do all sorts of things for them, without -being clear just what, and that it does not do them. They believe, -and try to say so, that I am sent and paid by the Government to treat -them. Probably they have heard about the Government medical party that -is to examine conditions along the river this summer, and think that I -do not want to do or give what is necessary. I give all the possible -advice, but there is plainly no inclination to follow it. I offer some -medicine; they sneer at medicine. Even the father says he does not -understand it or want it. They are all surly and in a dangerous, stupid -mood. So there is nothing left but to go away as well as one may. - -On way down the bank a woman is seen cleaning and cutting fish--knife -steel, with wood or ivory handle, of the Chinese and Eskimo type. A -porcupine, bloated, and with flies and maggots on it already about -the nose, mouth, and eyes, lies next to the woman, and its turn will -probably come next after the fish. - -Have modest lunch--canned pears, a bit of cold bacon left from morning, -a bit of cheese, and coffee; and start once more onward. So much beauty -here, and such human discord. - -3.30 p. m. Passing on right bank a line of bluffs, wholly of loess, -about 200 feet high and approximately 4 miles long, and as if shaven -with knife from top to water's edge. After that flats only on both -sides, with but one hill far ahead of us. - -Motor trouble again--same old pump; but not for long; in half an hour -on again. A steamer upward passes us--like a stranger, and power. - - -GALENA - -A little town (village), on a flat promontory. An old consumptive -storekeeper--no knowledge of any old implements or skeletal remains. -Lowden village moved here due to mine opposite and better site. About -10 Indian houses here; inhabitants now mostly in fishing camps. - -From Galena down, low shores and islands as on the Tanana, as far as -can be seen, with mountains, grayish blue, in far distance (and only -occasional glimpses). River never less than three-fourths of a mile and -sometimes together with its sloughs and islands several miles broad. -Some geese; occasional rabbit seen on land; otherwise but little life. -First gulls. - -The Indians at Ruby and Galena show here and there an Eskimoid type, -with the younger nearly all mix bloods (with whites). Full bloods of -same type as all along the river, brachycephalic, low to moderate -high vault of head, moderate to medium (rarely above) stature, medium -brown, noses not prominent, concavo-convex, moderately convex or -nearly straight, Indian cast of the face, but quite a few more or less -Eskimoid. Not very bright. - -Sit in the bottom of the scow, in front, before the stove and make -notes. When we stop, jump out to tie the boat; when leaving, push it -off. Getting sunburnt dark. Forgetting once again that I have a stomach -or any other organ. Only sleep, never fully, much less than ought to; -but even that is somehow much more bearable here than it would be at -home. - -6.45 p. m. Suddenly, after a turn, confronted with a steep rocky -promontory about 500 feet high--stratified mud rocks. On side, high -above, a tall white cross; learn later an Indian murdered a bishop -here. A little farther, on a flat below the slope, a small settlement. -A remarkable landmark, known as the Bishop's Rock. Afterwards again -flats, but some more elevated than before to the left. River like a -great looking-glass. Same character of vegetation and colors as farther -above, but details varied. - -At Ruby had made a genuine, effective, Alaska mosquito netting, and -so now feel quite independent of the pest; also have two bottles of -mosquito oil, which helps. Fortunately on the water we are not bothered. - -Toward night reach Koyukuk River, and later on, Koyukuk village, a -pleasant row of houses, white and native, on a high bank. Here, at -last, pass one good night, sleeping under good mosquito netting in the -house and on the bed of an Italian trader. Also had good supper of -salmon, and good breakfast of bacon and eggs, and so feel rested and -strong. - -Friday, June 25. But in the morning the sky is overcast and every now -and then there is a loose shower. Of course my boon companions are -not ready again until long after 9 o'clock, and then the engine will -not go again, so a longer delay. They were inclined, in fact, to "lay -over," but I urged them on. But they are determined if it rains a bit -more to "tie to" somewhere. Fortunately there is no wind. About 3 miles -below Koyukuk and its flats, the high bluffs with steep more or less -shaved-like barren slopes recommence. A gloomy day. - -About 7 miles down, after a large rocky promontory, a small graveyard -on the side of a hill, with a little native camp about a third of a -mile beyond. - -10.45 a. m. Beautiful wooded great hills, 400 to 800 feet high, all -along the right bank again, with large ~V~-shaped valleys between. A -fine, rounded, slightly more than usually elevated island ahead. Left -banks flat. - -Sun coming out a little; cool, but not unpleasant. No more showers, -river smooth, boat making time. Blue hazy mountains far to the left -front. - -Hills to right rocky, strata horizontal to warped, mud rocks, broad -banks of sandy, gravelly or mucky materials, not consolidated, between -hard strata. - -Now and then a small Indian camp, usually two or three tents, Indians, -dogs, boats; some drying fish (not much). - -11.00 a. m. Another isolated little graveyard, right slope, near an old -camp. - -There is no possibility now of excavating any of these graveyards, -for the Indians are in unpleasant disposition toward the Government -for various reasons. But such a place as that near Burchell's could -be excavated as soon as conditions improve. Also that above Ruby -and another opposite and just below Ruby. There are no longer any -superstructures left at these (or but traces), and the graves, as seen -above Ruby, are near (within 2 feet of) the surface. - -No trace or indication of anything older than the double-grooved ax -culture has thus far been seen anywhere in the valley; and large -stretches of present banks are quite barren. - -As we approach Nulato the horizon before us becomes hilly and -mountainous. The sun is now fully out and its warmth is very pleasant. -Pass an Indian woman paddling a canoe; later an Indian family going -upstream in a motor boat. Most of these Indians possess a motor boat of -some sort, and know how to run it, though it is not in their nature to -be overcareful. - - -NULATO - -(Pl. 1, _b_) - -Arrive midday. Quite a village, as usual along the water front on a -high bank. Large fancy modern surface burial ground with brightly -painted boxes and flying flags on a hill to the right. Met by local -marshal and doctor; my things are taken to a little hospital. Natives -here have poor reputation, but now said to be better. Boys nearly all -mix bloods. Several men and women show Eskimo type, but majority -are Indian to somewhat Eskimoid. Soon find they are not very well -disposed--want pay for everything, and much pay. Have a few specimens, -but to obtain anything from them is difficult. Have been spoiled. - -A visit with the marshal to the site of old Nulato on the proximate -point; nothing there, just a rabbit's skull and a lot of mosquitoes. -Photograph old graveyard (that of old Nulato), on the distal point -beyond the creek. - -Mr. Steinhauser, trader, of Czech descent, helpful and kind. But -nothing further to do here. Steamer that was to be here to-night -or to-morrow will not arrive, just learned, until Tuesday (this is -Friday); and so must engage a little gasoline boat to the next station, -Kaltag, 40 miles down the river. - -Sleep under my new netting in the hospital. In the morning, after -parting with doctor and marshal, start 8.30 a. m. Boat little, shaky, -run by a half-breed boy of about 18. My old scow with Peake and his -companion will stay a day longer. Partly cloudy, warm. - -Pass flats, and come again to similar shaved-off bluffs like yesterday. -We are now running close to the shore so that I can see everything. -Flowers, but not many or many varieties. - -9.50 a. m. Pass (about 8 miles from Nulato) a few burials (old boxes) -on right slope. (Pl. 1, _c_.) Indian camp about one-half mile farther, -and a few old abandoned huts and caches. - -Everything on and along the river about the same as yesterday, except -in little details. Sky clouded; light clouds, however. The boy with me -has had good schooling (for a native) and is a good informer. But there -is little of archeological or anthropological interest hereabouts. (Pl. -2, _a_.) - -12.10 p. m. Another rounded island ahead of us; far beyond it -grayish-blue hills and mountains. Six miles more to Kaltag. But little -life here--a few small birds, a lone robin, a lone gull. - - -KALTAG - -1.00 p. m. Kaltag in view--a small modern village on right bank, less -than half the size of Nulato; a nearly compact row of log and plank -houses. Nothing of any special interest seen from distance, and but -little after landing. The old village used to be somewhat higher up the -river. - -There is an old abandoned site also just opposite the present Kaltag. -Another site, "Klenkakaiuh," is, I am told, in the Kaiuh slough south -of Kaltag, in a straight line about 10 miles, but no one there; and -several other old villages in that region along that slough--same -Indians as those of Kaltag. All of Kaltag go there on occasions, but do -not live there permanently any more. - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 1 - -_a_, "Old Minto" on the Tanana. Indian village. (A. H., 1926) - -_b_, Present Nulato and its cemetery (on hill to right of village) from -some distance up the river. (A. H., 1926) - -_c_, The Greyling River site, right bank, 22 miles above Anvik; site -and graveyard (male skeleton) from top of knoll. (A. H., 1926)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 2 - -_a_, View on the Yukon from above Kaltag. (A. H., 1926) - -_b_, Indian burial ground, Middle Yukon. (A. H., 1926) - -_c_, Anvik, from the mission. (A. H., 1926)] - -At Kaltag Eskimoid features already predominate and some of those seen -are fully like Eskimo. - -There is a tradition of an Asiatic (Chukchee) attempt at Kaltag once. - -Later in the afternoon photograph some natives and go with Mr. Müller, -the storekeeper, and Mr. McLeod, the intelligent local teacher, on the -latter's boat, "hunting" along the banks up the stream. Meet an old -Indian (Eskimo type) paddling a birch-bark canoe, said to be the only -canoe of that sort now on the Yukon. About three-fourths of a mile -above the village see caved bank and find a skull and bones--"split" -old burial of a woman. - -A canoe coming, so we all go farther up the beach, pretending to -examine stones. It is only the boy who brought me, however, going home -with some planks, and he grins knowingly. - -After that we locate three exposed coffins, two undisturbed and covered -with sod. These two, for fear of irritating the natives, are left. -But the third is wrapped only in birch bark. It was a powerful woman. -With her a bone tool and a white man's spoon. With the burial that had -tumbled out of the bank there were large blue and gray beads and three -iron bracelets--reserved by the teacher. - -I gather all the larger bones and we put them temporarily in a piece -of canvas. It is hard to collect all--the men are apprehensive--it -might be dangerous for them if detected. Everything smoothed as much as -possible, and we go across the river to examine two fish nets belonging -to the trader. One of these is found empty; but the other contains -five large king salmon, 15 to 20 pounds each, three drowned, two -still alive. The latter are hooked, hoisted to the edge of the boat, -killed with a club, and, full of blood, thrown into the boat--great, -stout, fine fish. To secrete our other findings from the natives the -storekeeper gets a large bundle of grass and ties it to my package. We -shall be bringing "medicine." - -Arrive home, only to learn that against our information the river -boat has left Tanana on schedule time, is now above Koyukuk, and is -expected to arrive at Kaltag before 8 p. m. Hurriedly pack, a few more -photographs, supper, and the smoke of the steamer begins to be visible. -In a little while she is at the bank, my boxes are brought down, a -greeting with old friends on the boat--the same boat (_Jacobs_) on -which I went from Nenana to Tanana--and we start off for Anvik. - -Mr. Müller, the trader at Kaltag, German by birth, has a young, fairly -educated Eskimo wife, a good cook, housekeeper, and mother of one -child. The child is an interesting white-Eskimo blend. - -In his store Mr. Müller showed me a good-sized heavy bowl of red stone -with a figure seated in a characteristic way near one end. The specimen -was said to have come from an old site on the Kaiuh and is of the -same type as that at the museum in Juneau and the two in the east, one -at the Museum of the American Indian, New York, and the other at the -University Museum, Philadelphia. Regrettably Mr. Müller would not part -with the specimen. (See also p. 34.) - -The natives of Kaltag, so far as seen, are more Eskimoid than those of -any of the other settlements farther up the river. - -Fine evening; sit with a passenger going to Nome, until late. Learn -that the boat to St. Michael is waiting for this boat and will go right -on--not suitable for my work. Also we are to stop but a few minutes at -Anvik, where I am to meet Doctor Chapman, the missionary. - -Sunday, June 27. About 5 a. m. arrive in the pretty cove of Anvik. -Received on the bank by Doctor Chapman, the head of the local -Episcopalian mission and school, and also the Anvik postmaster. The -doctor for the present is alone, his wife and daughter having gone -to Fairbanks, and so he is also the cook and everything. In a few -minutes, with the help of some native boys, I am with my boxes in -Doctor Chapman's house, and after the boat has left and the necessities -connected with what she left attended to we have breakfast. I am -soon made to feel as much as possible "at home," and we have a long -conversation. Then see a number of chronic patients and incurables; -attend a bit lengthy service in Doctor Chapman's near-by little church; -have a lunch with the ladies at the school; visit the hill graveyard. -They have reburied all the older remains and there is nothing left. -Attend an afternoon service and give a talk to the congregation of -about half a dozen whites and two dozen more or less Eskimoid Indians -on the Indians and our endeavors; and then do some writing, ending the -day by going out for about a mile and a half along the banks of the -Anvik River, looking in vain for signs of something older, human or -animal. (Pl. 2, _c_.) - -There are many and bad gnats here just now--how bad I only learned -later, when I found my whole body covered with patches of their bites; -and also many mosquitoes, which proved particularly obnoxious during -the lunch. As the doctor is alone, the three excellent white ladies of -the school, matron and teachers, invited us, as already mentioned, to -lunch with them. We had vegetable soup, a bit of cheese, two crackers -each, a piece of cake, and tea. But I chose an outlandish chair the -seat of which was made of strips of hide with spaces between; and from -the beginning of the lunch to its end there was a struggle between the -proprieties of the occasion and the mosquitoes that kept on biting me -through the spaces in the seat. Chairs of this type, and I finally told -that to the ladies to explain my seeming restlessness during the meal, -should be outlawed in Alaska. - - -THE ANVIK PEOPLE - -The Anvik people, it will be recalled, were the first Yukon natives -seen by a white man. They were discovered in 1834 by Glazunof, and -since then have occupied the same site, located favorably on a point -between the Anvik and the Yukon Rivers. They belonged to the Inkalik -tribe, a name given to them, according to Zagoskin, by the coast -people and signifying "lousy," from the fact that they never cut their -hair, which in consequence, presumably, harbored some parasites. Their -village was the lowest larger settlement of the Indians on the Yukon, -the Eskimo commencing soon after. - -The Anviks to-day are clearly seen to be a hybrid lot. There are -unmistakable signs of a prevalent old Eskimo mixture. The men are -nearly all more or less Eskimoid, and even the head is not infrequently -narrower, fairly long, jaws much developed. The women, however, show -the Eskimo type less, and the children in a still smaller measure--they -are much more Indian. Yet even some women and an occasional child -are Eskimoid--face flat, long, lower jaw high, cheek bones prominent -forward (like welts on each side of the nose), whole physiognomy -recalling the Eskimo. The more Indianlike types resemble closely those -of the upper Yukon. There is perceptible, too, some mixture with -whites, particularly in the young. - -To bed about 11. Attic warm and window can not be opened because of the -insects. Sleep not very good; some mosquitoes in room anyway. Wake up -after 3 and just begin to doze off again when the doctor gets up. About -4 he puts his shoes on--one can hear every sound throughout the frame -house, even every yawn--and then goes to the kitchen where there soon -comes the rattling of pots. At 4.30 comes up to bid me good morning and -ask me if I am ready to get up and have breakfast. A man with a boat is -to be ready at 6 to take me to some old site. So a little after 5 I get -up, shave, dress and go down. Another night to make up for sometime, -somewhere. - -We finish breakfast and the doctor goes to look for the man, but -everything deadlike, no one stirring anywhere. So I pack my stone -specimens from the river above and the bones from Kaltag, etc. It is -8 a. m. and then at last Harry Lawrence, our man, appears--having -understood to come about that time--and before long we start, in a -good-sized boat, up the Yukon. - -Day mostly cloudy but fairly good; no wind. Must use mosquito mixture -all the time, even after I get on boat, but they quit later. Am -standing on the back of the boat against and over the "house" over -it--inside things shake too much and I can not see enough. - -Passing by fish wheels--heaps of fish in their boxes--some just being -caught and dumped in. Picturesque bluffs passed yesterday seen to -be of volcanic stone, near basalt, not granite, with indication of -minerals. Passing close to vertical cliffs of fissured and fragmented -rocks 200 to 500 feet high--dangerous. Consolidated volcanic ashes with -inclosure of many bowlders--fine lessons in geology. Slides of soil -and vegetation here and there. Large spruces and altogether a richer -vegetation since this particular rock region was reached. There was -in fact a plain line of demarcation in the vegetation where the rocks -changed. - -Sleepy. Afraid to doze and fall off, so go inside. But there the motor -thumps and shakes too much for a nap to be possible. - -About 12 miles upstream from Anvik, on the north bank, the mineralized -rocks and tufa suddenly cease, to be superseded by a line, several -miles long, of sheared-off loess bluffs about 200 feet high. Here the -vegetation changes very perceptibly. Two mammoth jaws obtained from -these deposits have a few years ago been given to Mr. Gilmore, of the -United States National Museum. - -22 to 23 miles up the river, north bank, a fine large platform and an -old native site. Many signs still of pit and tunnel houses. A little -farther upstream a hill with abandoned burials. Excavate a grave on a -promontory over the river--not very old--wet and not much left of soft -parts, but succeed in getting the skeleton. Fine middle-aged adult, -somewhat Eskimoid, about typical for this region. Carry down in a bag, -dry on the beach gravel. Lunch on beach; cheese, bread, coffee. The -site is known as that of the Greyling River. (Pl. 2, _b_.) - -Start back a little after 3. Very warm day. River smooth. Sky looks -like there might be a storm later. - -Hear of pottery--40 years ago it was still made at Anvik. Was black, -of poor quality. The women used to put feathers in the clay "to -make the pots stronger." When buried it soon rotted and fell to -pieces. In shapes and otherwise it was much like the Eskimo pottery. -Its decorations consisted of nail or other impressions, in simple -geometrical designs, particularly about the rim. It was rather gross, -but better pieces did occur, though rarely. - -It is becoming plain that there are no known traces of any really old -settlements along the present banks of the Yukon; nothing beyond a few -hundred years at most. If there was anything older no external signs of -it have been noted, and no objects of it have ever been found. It seems -certain that the stone implements thus far seen were used and made by -the pre-Russian and probably even later Indians. They all belong to the -polished-stone variety. No "paleolithic" type of instrument has yet -been seen. - -It is also evident that the Eskimo admixture and doubtless also -cultural influence extended far up the river. The farther down -the river, particularly from Ruby, the more the Eskimoid physical -characteristics become marked and the Indian diluted, until at Anvik -most, or at least much, physical and cultural, is clearly Eskimo. - -Have further learned quite definitely that native villages on the -Yukon were seldom if ever stable. Have been known (as at Kaltag and -elsewhere) to have changed location as much as three times within the -last few scores of years, though in general they keep to the same -locality in a larger sense of the word. Anvik alone seems to have -remained on the old site since the advent of the whites. - -Anvik, Tuesday, June 29. Last night gave talk on evolution to white -teachers, etc. Quite appreciated, regardless of previous state of -mentality. - -Caught up with some sleep, even though my attic room was so hot that -the gum from the spruce boards was dropping down on me. Good breakfast -with the doctor--canned grapefruit, corn flakes with canned milk, bread -toasted in the oven, and coffee. - -Pack up my Greyling skeleton--much drier to-day--and dispatch by parcel -post, through the doctor as postmaster. - -Photograph school children and village. Gnats bad and have to wear -substantial underclothing (limbs are already full of dark red itching -blotches where bitten by them) though it is a hot day again. - -The full-blood and especially the slightly mixed children would be -fine, not seldom lovely, were they fully healthy; but their lungs are -often weak or there is some other tubercular trouble. - -The color of the full-bloods, juvenile and others, on the body, is -invariably submedium to near medium brown, the exposed parts darker; -and the chest test (mine) for full-bloodedness holds true. The young -are often good looking; the old rather ugly. - -All adults fishing now, the fish running much since a day or two; all -busy at the fish camps, not many, in the daytime especially, about the -mission. - -At noon air fills with haze--soon recognized as smoke from a fire which -is located at only about a mile, and that with the wind, from the -mission. We all hasten to some of the houses in the brush--find enough -clearing about them for safety. The school here burned two years ago -and so all are apprehensive. Natives from across the river hasten to -their caches. Luckily not much wind. - -After lunch children come running in saying they hear thunder; one girl -saying in their usual choppy, picturesque way, "Outside is thunder"; -another smaller one says, "It hollers above." Before long a sprinkle -and then gradually more and more rain until there is a downpour -followed by several thunderclaps (as with us) and then some more rain. -That, of course, stops the fire from approaching closer and all is -safe. Such storms are rare occurrences hereabouts. - -My limbs are a sight from the gnats. Must apply Aseptinol. Worse than -any mosquitoes; like the worst chiggers. Poisonous--some hemolytic -substance, which causes also much itching, especially at night. - -Arrange to leave to-morrow. Good people these, unpretentious, but white -through and through. - -Mr. Lawrence, the local trader, who with his boy was with me yesterday, -is going to take me to an old site down the river and then to Holy -Cross. Donates a fine old ivory arrow point from the site mentioned. -Doctor Chapman gives three old dishes and two stone axes--haft on one -of recent manufacture. The natives seem to have nothing of this nature, -and no old site is near. The nearest is Bonasila, where we go to-morrow. - -This is truly a fish country. Along the placid Anvik River fish smell -everywhere--dead fish on shore here and there, or fish eggs, or offal. - -Wednesday, June 30. Hazy and cool, 52° F. Take leave with friend, -Doctor Chapman, then at school, and leave 8 a. m. for Bonasila. - -The gnat pest was bad this morning--could hardly load my baggage; had -to apply the smear again, but this helps only where put and for a time -only. - - -BONASILA - -Close to 10 a. m. arrive at the Bonasila site. Not much--just a low -bank of the big river, not over 4 feet high in front, and a higher rank -grass-covered flat with a little stream on the left and a hill on the -right. But the flat is full of fossae of old barabras (pit and tunnel -dwellings), all wood on surface gone; and there is a cemetery to the -right and behind, on a slope. - -Examine beach and banks minutely until 12. Modest lunch--two -sandwiches, a bit of cake and tea--and then begin to examine the -shore again. Soon after arrival finding bones of animals, some partly -fossilized; beaver, deer, caribou, bear, fox, dog, etc., all species -still living in Alaska, as found later, though no more in the immediate -neighborhood. - -Mosquitoes and gnats bad--use lot of oil. Begin soon to find remarkably -primitive looking stone tools, knockers, scrapers, etc. Crawl through -washed-down trees and brush. Many stones on the beach show signs of -chipping or use. Very crude--a protolithic industry; but a few pieces -better and showing polished edge. Also plenty of fragments of pottery, -not seldom decorated (indented). Make quite a collection. And then, to -cap it, find parts of human skeleton, doubtless washed out from the -bank. Much missing, but a good bit recovered, and that bit is very -striking. (See p. 156.) Also a cut bone (clean cut, as if by a sharp -knife) in situ in the mud of the bank, and a little birch-bark basket -still filled with mud from the bank, with later a larger basket of same -nature in situ; could save but a piece. Conditions puzzling. Was there -an older site under one more recent? - -2 p. m. About 2 p. m. go to the cemetery. About a dozen burials -recognizable. A pest of mosquitoes and gnats--Lawrence soon bleeds over -face and neck, while I keep them off only by frequent smearing. He -soon has to smear, too. Open five graves--placed above ground, wooden -(split and no nails) boxes covered with earth and sod. Skeletons all -in contracted position, head to the east and lying on right side. Some -in poor condition. Three women, one man, one child. Gnats swarm in the -moss and the graves, and with the smears, here and there a trickle of -blood, the killed pests and the dust, we soon look lovely. But there -is enough of interest. With each burial appears something--with the -man two large blue Russian beads; first woman--a pottery lamp (or -dish), iron knife; with the second two fire sticks, stone objects -(sharpeners), partly decayed clay dish; with the third, a Russian bead -and a birch-bark snuffbox; with the child a "killed" (?) glass bottle -of old form and an iron flask; in the grave of an infant (bones gone) a -Russian bead. A grave of a child--bones burned. - -6.15 p. m. Rest must be left. Lawrence may be enabled to do some work -in the fall. Leave 6.15; carry quite a lot--in sacks, gasoline cans, -lard cans. Wonder how I shall be able to send things from Holy Cross, -and what next. Cool, sky overcast whole day. - - -HOLY CROSS - -Thursday, July 1. Slept on the floor of a little store last night -at Ghost Creek. The Catholic mission at Holy Cross, with all sorts -of room, about 1½ miles down, and where, though late and tired, I -visited Father Jules Jetté, a renowned student of the dialects of the -Yukon Indians, did not offer to accommodate me, and the trader in -their village could only offer me a "bunk" in one little room with -three other people. So after 10 p. m. we went down to the "Ghost -Creek," where I was gladly given a little corner in the store of Alec -Richardson. Of course there were whining dogs outside, right next -to the store on both sides, and they sang at times (or howled) like -wolves, whose blood they seem to carry. And a cat got closed in with -me and was pulling dried fish about, which she chewed, most of the -night it seemed. So there was not much sleep until from about 5 a. m. -to 8.30, after the cat was chased out and the dogs got weary. Then no -breakfast till near 9.30. - -Went to mission again to see Father Jetté--he is not of the mission--a -fine old Frenchman and scholar. He was not responsible for last night -and anyway I was spoiled farther up the river. His meritorious work -deserves to be known and published. - -After a very simple lunch packed yesterday's collections from the -Bonasila site--five boxes. The parcel post here alone will cost $20.40. -How odd that the transportation of the collections of a Government -institution must be paid for from the little appropriation received for -scientific work to another department of the same Government. - -It is cloudy, drizzly, cold. Am endeavoring to leave to-morrow, but -they want $35 to the next station, and the boat does not leave for -St. Michael until the 11th. Fortunately I am able to send away the -collections, and there will surely be some way down the river. - - -GHOST CREEK - -July 1-2, 10.30 p. m. A night on the Yukon. (Pl. 3, _a_,) They have -lit a powder against the mosquitoes. Smear the many gnat bites with -Mentholatum--helps but for a while--and having now my fine meshed -netting, my own bedding, and a clean pillow, I feel fine, safe from all -the pests, and ready for a quiet night, all alone. - -Commenced dozing off when a he-cat, who hid in the store at closing, -begins to make all kinds of unnamable noises. Stand it for a while, but -he does not stop and one could never sleep--so crawl out from the bed, -catch the beast, and throw him out. - -In again and settling down, when another cat--did not know there were -two here--begins to mew and tries to force its way out under the door, -which is about 2½ inches above the floor. Persists until I have to get -up the second time. Throw that cat out and in bed once more. - -In a minute, however, the dogs outside espied the cats and began a -pandemonium of howls and yelps and barks. Try hard, but can not stand -it. Moreover, the last cat got on the roof, where I hear him walking, -and he seems in no hurry to get off. So finally have to get out, catch -the cat on the edge of the roof, throw him back into the store, and -to bed for another trial. But soon have to smear the body; the bites -itch too much. The sleepiness is now quite gone. A mild amusement -as to what next. It must be midnight or later now, and it has grown -cold. One blanket is not sufficient. Doze off a little, wake up with -cold, readjust blanket and flaps of bag, doze off a little again--the -dogs commence to howl, just for a song this time, in two, three, then -a unison. The bites itch bitterly, now here, now there. The sun has -risen; it is real cold, probably no more than about 40° to 45° F. And -so on until 5.30, when at last fall into a deep, dreamless sleep, -regardless of light, cats, dogs, and everything and sleep until 8.30. - -Wake up, can not believe my watch; but it goes, and so probably is -right. But no one anywhere yet stirring. - -Dress, wash a bit in the muddy river; head feels as if it had been -knocked by something heavy. Make my "roll" of bedding and then work -on notes, putting down faithfully what has transpired. About 9.30, at -last, the storekeeper comes to say they overslept and that a cup of -coffee will be ready before long. - -Friday, July 2. "Ghost Creek" was named so because of many burials -about the creek. The flat between the hills here is about three-fourths -of a mile long by the water front, with rising slopes, and used to -extend considerably farther out, but was "cut" or washed away by the -river. It has been used for a village site and burial ground by the old -Indians of the vicinity. As the banks tumble away, bone arrow points, -barbed and not, stone scrapers, and other objects wash out. Graves are -found in the ground as well as above it. Russian influence prevalent -in the objects buried with the bodies, but site extends to pre-Russian -time. Same type graves as at Bonasila, with slight local modifications. - -At Bonasila the burials above ground were in boxes of hewn wood, -joined somewhat as the logs in a log house, and without any base. The -body inside was covered with birch bark (three or four pieces), then -covered with the top planks, unfastened, and these in turn covered -with about a foot of earth and sod. At Ghost Creek the same, but there -is an undressed-stake base or platform on which the sides of the -"coffin" rest and with somewhat less earth and sod on the top of the -box. But graves differ here from underground and birch bark alone (no -trace of wood, if any was ever there; but probably none used) to such -aboveground as have iron nails and sawed planks. Here, as at Bonasila, -a few simple articles are generally found buried at the head, and -for these many of the graves were already despoiled and the skeletal -remains scattered or reburied. - -There appears to be no line of demarcation between the underground and -aboveground graves; possibly the latter were winter burials, but this -must be looked into further. - -The bodies here, except the latest, are buried flexed. Exceptionally, -both at Bonasila and here, the planks surrounding the grave were -painted with some mineral pigments which resist decomposition better -than the wood, and decorated in a very good native way with series -of animals and men, caribou, bear, etc. Too faint to photograph, and -too bulky and decayed to take away; but decoration much superior to -ordinary Indian pictographs, and apparently connecting with the type -of art of the northwest coast. It is of interest that practically the -same decorated burials were seen by Dall among the Eskimo of Norton -Sound (Unalaklik).[4] In this case it was probably the Indian habit -that was adopted by the near-by Eskimo, for none of the more northern -Eskimo practiced such burials. The habit was also known in southeastern -Alaska. (Pl. 3, _b_.) - -Jim Walker, the helpful local mix-breed trader, has dug out many of -these graves (alone or with Harry Lawrence), and a good many of the -objects are said to have been taken away by Father O'Hara, formerly of -the Holy Cross Mission. - -According to all indications the stone culture of Bonasila and of Ghost -Creek (1½ miles upstream from Holy Cross) were related, both passing -apparently into the Russian period, and that at Ghost Creek continuing -down to our times, for there is still living here an old man who -belongs to this place which once had a large village. Much could be -done yet and saved in both places. - -Saturday, July 3. At last slept, notwithstanding everything, and -succeeded even in being warm. - -Breakfast 8.30, for a wonder. Two soft-boiled Seattle eggs, two bits -of toast with canned butter (not bad at all), some over-preserved -raspberries, and a faded-looking nearly cold "flapjack" with sirup, -also mediocre tea. But all goes here, and the stomach calls for no -other attention than to fill it. - -Finishing work, getting further information from the old Indian, -writing, and waiting to go away with a trader to Paimute, the -first all-Eskimo village, 25 miles farther down the river. Rains -occasionally, but not very cold. Many gnats when wind moderates. - -Lunch--canned sardines (in this land of fresh salmon!), a bit of toast, -some canned fruit, and that unsavory tea. - -Have utilized this day in a profitable manner. Have learned that there -was another burial ground about half a mile farther upstream, behind -an elevation. So got a rowboat and with Jim Walker's young boy rowed -over. Had to wade through high grass over a wet flat, and then up the -rank grass and bush-covered slope, and there found a number of old -burials. All rifled, but most of the bones still there. So send boy -back, on the quiet--there is above the store the camp of the old man -with an old Indian woman and sick girl--for some boxes, and meanwhile -collect. It is an unceasing struggle with the mosquitoes and gnats in -the tall grass and weeds; but one after another I find what remains of -the usual old box burials. The bones are mostly in good condition. -The boy arrives with several empty gasoline boxes, we gather drier -grass and moss, and pack right on the spot, eventually get to the boat, -strike off as far as possible from the shore so none could see what is -carried, and proceed to Walker's storehouse. Old Indian and his old -crony nevertheless stand on bank and look long at us. In storehouse -boxes closed, later delivered by the boy to the mail boat, and so that -much is saved; for were it not collected, in a few years the weather, -vegetation, and animals, human and other, would destroy everything. - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 3 - -_a_, Midnight on the Yukon - -_b_, Lower middle Yukon: Painted burial box of a Yukon Indian (before -1884) said to have been a hunter of Bielugas (white whales), which used -to ascend far up the Yukon] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 4 - -_a_, Eskimo camp below Paimute, Yukon River - -_b_, Old "protolithic" site 12 miles down from Paimute, right bank, -just beyond "12-mile hill." (skull, bones, stones) - -_c_, "Old" site in bank seen in middle of picture, 12 miles down from -Paimute, opposite that shown in preceding figure. (A. H., 1926)] - -Moreover, the utmost care is taken always to leave everything in as -good shape as found; and the remains taken will be treated so well and -may give us so much that we need that there is no more hesitation in -securing them than there would be on the part of a paleontologist in -securing old bones for his purposes. - -For supper, though it is still early, am invited by Simel, an elderly -Jew mail carrier. Have fine meat-and-potato soup, lettuce-and-cucumber -salad (even if the cucumbers from the Holy Cross hothouse are overripe -and bitter), fresh (storage) meat, cooked dried apples, and poor -but hot coffee--all seasoned with the best will and genuine, simple -friendliness. - -Max Simel, whose home is at Ophir, has been in this country 29 years, -and "never needed to buy a quarter's worth of medicine." Has a wife in -Seattle, also a daughter and a son; has not seen them for four years. -Wants me to call on them and tell them I met him. With his companion, -Paul Keating, of Holikachakat, gives me some interesting information. -They tell me independently and then together of an occurrence that -shows what may happen along this great river. A well-known white man -and woman, prospectors on their mail route, have last year thawed and -dug out a shaft, nearly 40 feet deep, through muck and silt, to the -gravel, in which they hoped to get gold; and just before they reached -the gravel they found a piece of calico, old and in bad condition, but -still showing some of its design and color. - -7 p. m. It rains, but wind has moderated, and so near 7 p. m. we start -on our way farther down the river, stopping just long enough at Holy -Cross to attend to my reservation for St. Michael. The agent has no -idea when the boat will go--maybe the 11th, maybe not until the 14th or -later. - -Going on an old leaky scow with an elderly, faded, chewing, not very -talkative but for all that very kindly and accommodating man, who with -one hand holds the steering wheel and with the other most of the time -keeps on bailing. He carries supplies for his store and I my outfit, -camera, and umbrella. Sky has here and there cleared, even patches of -sun appear on far-away clean-cut hills. Water not very rough; make fair -time downstream. Banks flat now, river broad, some hills in distance. - -8.00 p. m. Hills nearer ahead of us. Some of the flats look from -distance like fine tree nurseries. Getting cool. Cloudy ahead. The -banks flat and low, no good site for habitation. Not even fishing camps -here--just long "cut-banks" (banks being cut by the river) and low -beaches. Here and there new bars and islands that are being built by -the river. No birds, no boats, just an occasional floating snag or a -rare solitary gull. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[4] Alaska and Its Resources, p. 19: "Our attention was attracted by -the numerous graves. These are well worth the careful attention of -the ethnologist; many of them are very old. The usual fashion is to -place the body, doubled up, on its side, in a box of plank hewed out -of spruce logs and about 4 feet long; this is elevated several feet -above the ground on four posts, which project above the coffin or box. -The sides are often painted with red chalk, in figures of fur animals, -birds, and fishes." - - -PAIMUTE - -Paimute down river, I am told, has nothing but Eskimo; Holy Cross, but -a few natives now, mainly Indian; above Holy Cross, Indian, Eskimo only -as adapted or in admixture. - -July 3, 8.30 p. m. Hills on right now right before us. Behind first a -fish camp of the Holy Cross Mission natives. River narrows and bends. -Two other fish camps become visible. Stop; damp, cold, smoke, fish -smell, a few natives, Eskimo. River now like molten glass, but air damp -and cold, and I must sit behind the engine and keep my hands over the -hot exhaust pipe to keep somewhat comfortable. - -Pass bulging bluffs on right--old stratified shales. - -11.00 p. m. Arrive at our destination about 11 p. m. But a few log huts -on the right side of the river, with few others and a primitive frame -church in the back. A little store and a big storehouse (with skins, -etc.), trader's house (log cabin) a few rods away. Open store, only to -find that a pup had been forgotten there, made a lot of mess and dirt -and ate most of one side of bacon. - -12.00 p. m. Got to bed in the cabin at 12. Spread bed roll on two -reindeer skins which, with fire in the stove, keep me fairly warm. Rain -in night and several earth tremors--common in these parts; feel several -light ones every night and a stronger one occasionally even in daytime -(a big "fault" in the Alaskan range and a proximity to the Aleutian -volcanic zone). - -Awake before 8, but as it still rains nothing can be done, while my man -within a few feet of me still snores; stay in blanket till 9. Modest -breakfast at 10 a. m. - -10.00 a. m. A little house cleaning--watch kitten clean windows of -the many flies, which it eats; and then my man, a Swede by birth, -sailor, self-taught painter (of ships and sea scenes), and musician -(accordion), goes to bail out the boat. Still full of bites that -itch and need a lot of Aseptinol, which in turn makes underwear look -dreadful. And no bath possible. - -Last night met some of the local Eskimo, full bloods, mostly from the -Kuskokwim River. Strong, kinder than the Yukon Indians. But they differ -but little in some cases from the latter. They are medium brown in -color, hair exactly like the Indian, beard also--only the rather flat -(not prominent) mid parts of the face, with rather long and narrow -(upper two-thirds) nose, and the cheek bones protruding more or less -forward, with face long (often), due to the vertical development of the -jaws, helps to distinguish them as Eskimo. There is no clear line of -demarcation between the Indian farther up the river and the Eskimo down -here, yet in some here the Eskimo type is unmistakable. They have more -epicanthus, flatter, longer, and stronger (more massive) face, stronger -frame, rather submedium length of legs, and less brachycephalic (or -more oblong) head, but not the characteristic, narrow and high, -keel-shaped dome that one is used to associate with the Eskimo. - -1 p. m. A little lunch--just a cup of coffee and a few crackers. -Photograph two natives. - -1.30 p. m. Start toward Russian Mission. Trader carries sugar in bags -and tea for camps. - -Near 2. Stop at an Eskimo camp, see sick baby, photograph a few -individuals. Get an ax for a pocketbook--old man happy as a child -at the exchange. Made another one happy this morning in payment for -information with one of my steamer caps. (Pl. 4, _a_.) - -Pass along the still continuing bulging hills on the right. They are -forested over lower parts, barren, though mostly greenish, above. As -usual flats on left, devoid of man. Occasionally a fish camp on right, -or a small village, somewhat different, though in essentials like the -Indian (more gregariousness noticeable--up river mostly individual or -at most two or three families). Every favorable higher flat or low -saddle among the hills on the right and facing the river (or a slough) -is utilized by the natives, but such places are scarce. - -The ax obtained looks as if it had been broken after found, to make of -it a single-edge tool. Tumbled out of a bank. Old Eskimo knew not who -made it. Found some miles below Paimute by the old man. Others found, -but lost. Ivory arrow and spear points also known to natives, but no -one now has any. - -A mountain ahead of us. Sky clouded mostly, high diffuse vapors and -low, heavy but separated cumuli in the east; one would expect soon -a heavy rain. Visibility exceptionally good, horizons far away, -uncommonly clear. Mountains sharply outlined against the sky. - -About 12 miles below Paimute, on left, some higher banks (old silts and -dunes). The ax from the old man had been found here. Stop. Find pottery -12 feet, charcoal 15 feet from surface. Also polished and worked -stones. But most of bank has already been cut off and what remains -shows no signs of man on the top. (Pl. 4, _b_.) - -Cross river obliquely to right bank, just beyond last ("12-mile") hill. -Find at once numerous evidences of stone work along the stony beach. In -an hour have a fair collection, mainly rejects, but interesting. On top -of bank find several mounds and ridges, doubtless dunes, though the one -farthest up the river looks very much like a large oval man-made mound. -Parts of two much-weathered skulls and one bone lay on the top of this. -No definite marks of graves excepting perhaps in one instance. A sign -of old clearing farther down, but no "barabras." A spot well worthy -of exploration. It was, I learned a little later from Nick Williams, -a native who used to act as a pilot on the river, the old mountain -village or "Ingrega-miut," and the site is 12 miles downstream from -Paimute. (Pl. 4, _c_.) - -Beyond are flats and cut banks, both sides, but with hills (old water -front) behind on the right and mountains in front. River here very wide. - -Many of the worked stones, and occasionally, according to native -information, skulls and bones, are washed out from the banks and -deposited (rolling, etc.) lower on the beach in something like strata, -and in that way evidence is being perverted. Some day a new bank or -even a dune may be formed over these secondary deposits and a great -source of possible future error be completed. - -All the natives along the river (to here) like to bury on the lower -slopes of near-by hills. - -To bed on floor of kitchen tent at the fine, clean little place of -Tucker's, at 10.30. At 1.30 the 20 dogs start a fine, sustained, unison -howl song, and I seem to hear an approaching boat. As the Governor of -Alaska is expected, slip on shoes and necktie, brush hair, and run out. -There is a little boat at the little "dock" (the only one seen so far -on the Yukon). Tucker and his son are already there, and I soon hear -that the governor is on the boat, which is that of Mr. Townsend, of the -Fish Commission. In a few minutes we meet, both in shirt sleeves. And -I learn the _Matanuska_, the boat that was to take me from the Russian -Mission to St. Michael, has broken down and is not coming. In her -place, but no telling as to time, will be sent the _Agnes_, a smaller -and slower boat, on which three people have already this season been -"gassed" (overcome by the exhaust gases), one of them jumping into the -river. She has accommodation for four persons at most, and that of the -most primitive, they say. The governor fortunately gives me some hope -that I may be picked up and taken down by the same boat which is taking -him to Holy Cross. He also tells me of a skull for me at one of the -stopping places, Old Hamilton. A frank, good, strong man. - -Boat leaves in a few minutes. Back to bed, but now almost full -daylight--also cold, and so no more than a doze until 6.15, at which -time the boy comes to the kitchen where I was kindly accommodated -to start fire and breakfast. So up with a drowsy head. At 7 -breakfast--coffee, oatmeal, flapjacks, and good company. Everything -about this place is neat, fresh, pleasing--the best individual place -on the river. Cloudy, blustery, cool; can not start, so go 1½ miles -down to Dogfish village, or I-ka-thloy-gia-miut--probably the same as -Zagoskin's I-ka-lig-vig-miut. Only three or four families there now; -nearly all the inhabitants died of influenza in 1900. But already -before reaching the village, in examining the stones along the beach, I -find some chipped ones, and they represent the same industry evidently -as those at the two sites yesterday. Later find numerous chipped -scrapers, pointed hammers, crude cutters and chisels, and a few axes. -Make quite a collection, including a few objects found in possession of -natives. - -This is a good site, above high water. Must be old. Pottery also -encountered occasionally by present occupants, but not one bead; -little if any river cutting here for a long period. Worth exploration. -Photograph another Indianlike Eskimo. Want to buy an old dish from an -Eskimo, border inlaid with six white stones, shaped like an oblong -lozenge with rounded corners, but he wants $20. Lunch all together, -some Eskimo included, at Tucker's, and then as the wind moderates and -the sun comes out, start for the Russian Mission. Mostly still clouds -and cool, with some rain in the mountains to the right. - -Finds and inquiries made at Dogfish village make it positive that the -stone culture there is Eskimo, i. e., of the Eskimo of this region -who are probably not a little mixed with Indians. Their head is but -moderately oblong, not keel shaped. The majority, however, have Eskimo -features. - -But the cupid-bow (double-grooved) axes are not known to have been made -by these people, and when used after being found or brought down from -farther up the river they apparently were broken. One such example was -seen already at Ruby--another one at Anvik--secured; and one found -yesterday at Mountain village. The axes here are most often oblong, -quadrilateral, without groove, or approaching the single-grooved axes -of the Indians in the States. - -July 6. Proceed down the river toward Russian Mission, examining the -banks as closely as possible. Toward evening stop at "Gurtler's," a -short distance above the mission. - -Mr. Gurtler is a German by birth; his wife is half Indian, of Ruby. -She, as well as her 14-year-old daughter, are neat, apt, and very -industrious, quiet and nice mannered. With an Eskimo woman, she cleans -and cuts up--a whole art of its own--on the average over 200 good-sized -salmon a day. Clean place, very good smoking house--much superior to -those up the river, except Tucker's. - -Sleep in a clean bed of theirs; would much prefer my own and the hard -floor, but fear to offend. - - -RUSSIAN MISSION - -Pack my stones and bones collected between here and Holy Cross, and -after lunch go to Russian Mission. Meet Mr. Cris Betsch, the trader, -and find him both friendly and anxious to help. Teacher and her mother -invite me to supper. Before that Mr. Betsch calls in a number of the -older men, and we have a talk about ancient things, but they know -nothing worth while beyond a few score of years at most; they give me, -however, some data and names of old villages. - -A few years ago some human bones and skulls were dug up here and -reburied. Eskimo readily agree to help us find them and to let me -take them. Moreover, they are quite eager to dig up an old medicine -man supposed to be buried under a good-sized (for this country) blue -spruce. They get shovels, soon find some of the old bones and a damaged -skull, and later on, with the help of information given by an elderly -woman, uncover also a female skull. Uncover further the end of two -birch-bark-covered coffins, from Russian time, and would readily dig -them out did I not restrain them; as also with the medicine man. We -shall probably get some such specimens from this locality later, so -there is no need of disturbing the burials. - -Mrs. Barrick, the teacher, gives us a "civilized" supper, at which I -am introduced for the first time to a great and fine Yukon specialty, -namely, smoked raw strips of king salmon, and find them excellent. Then -a good talk with all, after which pack specimens--still somewhat damp, -but it would be difficult to wait--deliver to the post, and am sent to -my place around the hill at a little past 10 p. m. with an invitation -by Mr. Betsch to go to-morrow to "the slough of the 32 kashims (council -or communal house)," about 10 miles down the river. But I have already -been promised by Gurtler to take me down to this place, and so I can -not accept. Just now I need sleep. - -July 7. After breakfast examine banks and beach along Gurtler's place -and find two stone implements, two pieces of decorated pottery, and a -bone of some animal. Wash, dry, and pack, then a cup of coffee--the -Gurtler's have a habit of drinking a second cup at about 10 a. m. each -day--and then, after some of the seemingly inevitable trouble with -motor, start down the river. It rained yesterday; the clouds show low -pressure; it is not warm and the water is somewhat rough. - -Stop a bit at the mission to give Mrs. Barrick a fish and get a bag -or two from Mr. Betsch, and then proceed. From the river the Russian -Mission settlement is seen to be very favorably situated at the foot -of the southern slope of a big hill. But the recency of the flat below -and in front of the church and schoolhouse is clearly seen again. The -site about where the church and school are may--in fact must, it is so -favored--be a very old one, and doubtless a thorough excavation of the -slope from the back of the houses upward would be both easy and very -instructive. The place should by all means receive attention. - -Reach and examine the "32 kashim slough," a beautiful side channel -about 7 miles long; reach about 1½ miles from its entrance, examine -banks and pass through jungle, find tracks of foxes and of a bear, -also see one big beautiful red fox trotting ahead of us on the other -beach--but not a trace of man. Examine also the "mounds" on Grand -Island, but find them to be only dunes. - -Lunch on the beach; remarkably few mosquitoes and no gnats; smoked raw -salmon strips again, and coffee; and at 5 leave for home, it being -impossible so late to go down to the end of the channel. - -On return all going nicely until 5. Then, in a slough 3½ miles from the -Russian Mission, after an examination of another likely site, breakdown -of the motor. Do everything possible to make it go until about 8, but -in vain. Then I take the crazy little rowboat that luckily we took with -us, bail out the water with our shovel, and row to the mission for -help. Get there about 9, send back a launch with some natives, have a -little supper with the teacher, and row home around the hill, reaching -Gurtler's near 11. In a few minutes the launch is towed in and all is -well once more. Mr. Betsch got for us two good native "kantágs" or -wooden dishes. Also we fix to go down to the "32 kashims" to-morrow -once more with Mr. Betsch and the teacher. - -July 8. Up a little after 6; breakfast; and then comes in a native from -the mission with two letters and information that the _Agnes_, the -little mail-carrier boat, has arrived during the night and is waiting -for me to take me to Marshall and to Old Hamilton, whence another -boat will take me in a day or two to St. Michael. So get ready in a -minute, put my baggage on a native's boat, pay my bill, leave another -lot of good friends, and row to the mission. There is the little -dinghy _Agnes_ with its "accommodation" for three passengers already -two-thirds filled up, and towing two big logs as a freight. Put my -things partly in a "bunk," partly on the roof, give good-byes to Betsch -and the teacher, help to push off the boat which is stuck in the mud, -and we are off for another Yukon chapter. - -We pass by the lower end of the "32 kashim" slough--no sign of any -site--all recently made flats. If there is anything left of the old -sites it must be at the foot of the hills, or has been covered with -silt. The site is so favorable that in all probability there was once -there a good-sized settlement, but due to river action and the jungle -it could not be located. Mr. Betsch visited the place that day, and -again with some old natives on another occasion, without being more -fortunate. - -Cloudy, slightly drizzly day, no trace of sun, mists over the tops of -the hills. Could not stand it in the boat, so sitting on my box on the -roof of the boat, wrapped, due to the cold, in a blanket. - -A little below the "32 kashim" slough a small stream enters from -inland--a place to be examined; but this boat can not stop for such a -purpose. - -A half mile or so farther down a few graves and crosses, with remnants -of a native habitation. - -Over 3 miles down, just beyond first bluff, fine site, with low hills -stretching far beyond it--now but a few empty, half-ruined native -houses. Should be explored. - -South of second rocky bluff a live camp, and farther down another. - -The left side of the river is still all flats as far as one can see, -but about 17 miles below Russian Mission human bones came out of a bank -there (on a slough). - - -MARSHALL - -At 3 p. m. reach Marshall, a little cheerful-looking mining town, -high on a bank. See the place, identify the skeleton from the -above-mentioned bank as that of a missing white man, see telegraph -operator, postmaster, teacher, commissioner. Sun comes out, is warm. -Almost no mosquitoes here and no gnats. Hills above and beyond town -belong already to the coast range and are barren of trees, even largely -bare of shrubs and bushes. Leave 4.30. - -Soon after Marshall--after passing by an Eskimo village (white man's -style of buildings)--leave the hills and enter flats on both sides. -This is the beginning of the delta region. River like glass, and it is -warm in the sun but very perceptibly cooler when sun is hidden. - -The boat has only three bunks, and there are five of us with the two -pilots. But on the last trip up, there were, fortunately only for about -eight hours, seven, including two women and a child, and that without -any privacy or conveniences whatsoever. It is almost criminal, and they -charge a very steep fare. However, for me it will soon be over--only -about 36 hours. Still it is hard to believe this is yet in the United -States and presumably under some sort of supervision. - -Which brings me to a realization that the first half of my journey--the -preliminary survey of the Yukon--is slowly closing; a little, and it -will be the sea and other conditions, which also brings the realization -that I have seen much but learned not greatly. What should be done -would be to own a suitable fast boat; to locate on each of the more -important old sites a party for careful, prolonged excavation; and to -try to locate, in the rear of or on the higher places on the present -river flats, more ancient sites than are known to date. These steps, -together with the enlisting of the interest in these matters of every -prospector, miner, and trader, would before many years lead to much -substantial knowledge. - -Friday, July 9. Must keep up these notes, for they alone keep me posted -on the day and date; even then I am not always sure. There are no -Sundays in nature. - -Slept in my bag on the roof of the _Agnes_. Her namesake must have been -one of these goodly but insufficient and but indifferently clean native -women, plodding, doing not a little work, but wanting in many a thing. -It was cold and dreary, but I found an additional blanket, and so, with -mosquito netting about my head--one or two got in anyway--would have -slept quite well had it not been for a dog. At about 1 a. m. we stopped -in front of a little place called also "Mountain Village." And almost -at once we began to hear a most piteous and insistent wail of a dog -who either had colic or thirst or hunger, and he kept it up with but -little stops for what seemed like two hours, making my sleep, at least, -impossible. - -Saturday, July 9. Morning. Cold, cloudy, rough--head almost beginning -to feel uncomfortable, the boat is tossing so much. A teacher comes -aboard with an inflamed hand which I fix; a few questions, the mail -bag, and we are off again. Enter a slough where it is less rough and -warmer. Later the sun will probably come out again. This evening we -shall be at Old Hamilton and then a new anxiety--how to get to St. -Michael. - -Just had a little walk over the roof--my roof, for the other two -passengers prefer to sleep in the gassy, dingy room below, though how -they can stand it is beyond my medical ken. It is four short steps -long, or five half steps in an oblique direction. - -Every object in distance appears magnified all along the river for -many days now. An old snag will look like a boat or a man, hills look -higher, a boat looks much more pretentious than she proves to be on -meeting. - -Firs and spruce have now completely disappeared, also forests of birch, -etc., are reduced to brush both on flats and lower parts of hills. -Very large portion of the hills in distance just greenish with grass -and lichens, not even a brush. - -9.45 a. m. Meet the _Matanuska_ bound upward. Looked from distance like -an ocean steamer; from near, just a lumbering, moderate-sized river -boat with a barge in front. But a whole lot better than ours. - -The scenery has become monotonous. The gray river, although only one -of the "mouths," is broad, and the country is all low. Nothing but -bushy or grassy cut banks on the right, and mud flats, "smoking" under -the wind, to low banks on left. It is a little warmer and the warm sun -shows itself occasionally, but I still need the wrapping of a double -blanket. The wind luckily is with us and the waves not too bad. - -Noon. Passing "Fish village"; a few huts and tents. - -No "camps" here outside the few villages; just an endless dreary waste -and water. - -New Hamilton--a few native huts only now--no whites. - -Reach Old Hamilton--about a dozen houses with a warehouse, a store of -the Northern Commercial Co., and a nice looking but now unoccupied -school. - -Here the governor told me there was somewhere a skull waiting for me, -and the storekeeper would tell me of it. But when we arrive there are -only two or three natives to meet us. The storekeeper, who is also -postmaster, is said to be sick in bed. He is supposed to have an ulcer -or some other bad thing of the stomach. So we go to his house and find -him in bed, with a lot of medicine bottles on a table next to him. Is -alone; no wife. Shows no enthusiasm in seeing me, though heard of my -coming. Reads letters--no attention to me. Gets up--I ask him about his -illness--answers like a man carrying a chip on his shoulder. Goes to -store to attend to mail, and barely asks me to follow. I wait in store; -he finishes mail and goes out--orders the Eskimo present out gruffly, -and to me says, "You may stay in the store; I'll be back." But I wait -and wait, and finally decide the man for some reason is unwilling -to help me. Asked him before he went out about the _Matanuska_, but -he told me she might not be back from Holy Cross in a month, trying -doubtless to discourage me to stay. On going toward the _Agnes_ I find -him sitting on a log and talking to a couple of men from a tugboat that -has arrived--just talk, no business, judging from their laughing. So -I go on the boat, write a few words to Mr. Townsend of the Bureau of -Fisheries, who makes this place his headquarters, and with some feeling -hand this to the man, telling him at the same time that plainly he does -not wish to assist me in any way. This, of course, rouses him; he gets -red and says a few lame words, ending with, "Do you think I would touch -any of them dam things or that I would let any of my men (natives) -touch them? Not on your life!" So I leave Old Hamilton, for he is the -only white man there now. But the place had other distinctions. Until -recently, I am told, they have had a teacher, a young girl, who in her -zeal had the natives collect all the burial boxes with their contents -and had them all thrown into the river. Not long after she accomplished -that she left. The storekeeper told me that "If I want them so bad I -could pick them up (skulls and bones) along the river where the water -washed them out after the teacher threw them in." Luckily there were -not many "Old Hamiltons." - -We met here a boat from St. Michael with Mr. Frank P. Williams, the -well-known postmaster and trader of St. Michael, who comes for the -two men, my fellow passengers. We get acquainted and, to escape the -gases of the _Agnes_, I go with them. The boat is heavier and free -from fumes, though without accommodation. At about 7 p. m. we arrive -at Kotlik, at the mouth of the river--an abandoned wireless station, -a store, and four tents of natives. But the old wireless building, -now the storekeeper's house, is the dwelling place of a clean white -man, Mr. Backlund, who is now "outside," but with whom Mr. Williams -is in some partnership; so we occupy the building. Outside the wind -has risen to half a gale and there are squalls of rain and drizzle. -The _Agnes_ has to "tie to," as she would be swamped in the open. My -boxes and bedding, which were on the roof of the _Agnes_, are soaked, -though the contents will be dry. So both boats are fastened to a little -"dock," and we soon have fire in the stove, supper, and then--it is 11 -p. m.--a bed, not overclean, somewhat smelly, but a bed and free from -mosquitoes, rain, wind, and cold. - -July 10. Up at 6.30. Outside a storm and rain--just like one of the -three-day northeasters with us, and cool. Both boats were to leave, but -are unable to do so. I find that Mr. Williams's tug will come back here -and go to St. Michael on the 13th, so arrange with Mr. Williams to take -me and leave the _Agnes_ for good. This partly because I learn of two -graveyards near, one 1½, the other 4½ miles distant. - -After lunch, rain for a while ceasing, I set out for the nearer burial -place. This is already a tundra country--treeless and bush-less flats -overgrown with a thick coat of moss, into which feet bury themselves -as in a cushion, and dotted with innumerable swampy depressions with -high swamp grass. Walking over all this is very difficult--lucky I have -rubber boots. Even so, it is no easy matter, except where a little -native trail is encountered. - -The graveyard, belonging to the now abandoned little village above -Kotlik, consists of only about half a dozen adult graves. These consist -of boxes of heavy lumber laid on a base raised above the ground -level, and covered with other heavy boards. Some of the burials are -quite recent. Open three older ones. In two the remains are too fresh -yet, but from one secure a good female skeleton, which I pack in a -practically new heavy pail, thrown out probably on the occasion of the -last funeral. Then back, farther out, to avoid notice, through swamps -and over moss, and with a recurring wind-driven drizzle against which -my umbrella is but a weak protection. - -Reach home quite wet and a bit tired. Have to undress and, wrapped in a -blanket, dry my clothes and underwear about the stove. - -Nothing further this day and evening--just wind and heavy low clouds -and rain. - -July 11. Up at 4.40. Weather has moderated. The _Agnes_ left at 4 -and Mr. Williams's boat, due to favorable tide, must soon go also. -Breakfast, and all leave me before 6. - -Yesterday we brought up my needs--i. e., collection of skeletal -material--to the few natives here, explaining to them everything, and -they do not object in the least. One of them, in fact, is to take me -to-day to the more distant cemetery in a rowboat and help me in my work. - -My man, after being sent for, comes at a little after 7. He is a -good-looking and well-behaving Eskimo of about 35. He brings a -good-sized tin rowboat--a whaling or navy boat probably; but "he leaks -a whole lot." The oarlocks are not fastened to the boat, the plate of -one is loose, and the oars are crudely homemade of driftwood and pieces -of lumber fastened on with nails; in one the shaft is crooked, while -the other is much heavier. But we start, with the sky still leaden and -gray but no wind and calm water. I row and he paddles; then he rows -and I paddle. We carry but the camera, a little lunch, a heavier coat -each, and a box and two bags for the specimens. We pass a number of -broods of little ducks, the mother prancing before us until the young -are in safety, and there are several species of new kinds (to me) of -water birds, some of which fly right above us, examining us. In the -distance we see a big abandoned dredge, then a few empty log houses and -"barabras" on the bank of a stream and the edge of the tundra. This -is Pastolik, our destination. There is no one anywhere near, an ideal -condition for work, if work there'll be. And there will be--for almost -immediately upon landing I see, beginning at a few rods distance on the -tundra, a series (about 50) of old graves, in all grades of mossiness -and preservation. A few are, we later find, quite late, but the -majority are old--60 years and over according to information given by -the natives of Kotlik. They do not, except perhaps the few late ones, -seem to belong to anyone still living. Yet "Pashtolik," as they wrote -it then, used to be a place of some importance in the Russian times, -and even later. - -We settle in an empty native house, and I start investigation. The -older graves are found widely spread in several clusters, but a few are -isolated at a distance. - -The graves are all aboveground and resemble in substance those along -the lower Yukon (Bonasila and downward). They consist of a base of -small logs or splits; a rude box about 3 feet long by about 2 feet -wide, of heavy, unpainted, unnailed, split boards; four posts near the -four corners; a cover, unjoined, of two to three heavy split boards; -two crosspieces over this, at head and base, perforated and sliding -over the upright posts, and a few half splits (smaller drift logs split -in two) laid over the top of the crosspieces. - -On the first cover lies as a rule a stone--generally a piece of a slab -or a good-sized pebble--unworked, though now and then showing some -trace of use. The pebble is generally broken. - -When the grave is opened there is usually over the body, as a canopy -on a light frame, a large (probably caribou) skin--rarely birch bark. -Neither covers or envelops the body but simply forms a covering over -it, with some space between it and the body. The body lies flexed, on -left or (rarely) right side, with the head toward (or near) the east -(same as at Bonasila). It is often covered with or enveloped in a -native matting. There are but few traces of clothing on women; none on -men. And very seldom is there anything else in the coffin. - -Some of the oldest graves were found tumbled down and could not be -examined. The moss and roots envelop the bones, and it is a tough job -to get them out; also they eat the bones and destroy them. Even in the -older boxes, however, the downward part of the skeleton--generally the -left--is, due to moisture, usually in much worse state of preservation -than the upper. - -Children have been buried in large native wooden dishes and these were -in some cases placed on the top of adult graves, but more generally -about these, or even apart. - -Many household articles, from matches and pails to dishes, alarm -clocks, lamps, etc., are placed upon the ground near the more recent -dead. Excavation would probably recover here many older objects, though -wood decays. - -The wind has died down and the flat is as full of mosquitoes as a -Jersey salt meadow, and there is an occasional gnat. They bite, and, -having been almost free of the pest at Kotlik, I failed to take my -"juice" along, so just have to do the best possible. The gnats enter -even the eyes, however. - -Work as never before. Decide to utilize the rare opportunity to the -limit, and to take the whole skeletons, not merely the skulls, leaving -only the few fresher ones and those that are badly damaged. A great -Sunday; burial after burial; opening the wooden grave--taking out -and marking on the spot bone after bone--fighting mosquitoes all -the while--and packing temporarily in any convenient receptacle. -Fortunately there are quite a few boxes and pails and oil cans on the -spot, left by the dredge people and the few natives who evidently -sometimes come to the place. At about 2 eat lunch--coffee (the Eskimo -put what was for three cups into about two quarts of water, so there -is but a suggestion of coffee), raw smoked fish for me and eggs with -bacon (left over from breakfast) for my companion, and on again until -about 5 p. m. or a little later. Last two or three hours, however, work -with some difficulty. A gnat bit me in an eyelid, or got into my eye, -and that has now swollen so that I can hardly see with it. My Eskimo, -however, is about all I could wish. He just looks at me working in -a matter-of-fact way, and carries the filled boxes, or looks around -for something I could take with me, and even helps on a few occasions -with the bones, finding evidently the whole proceeding quite right -and natural. Brings me, among other things, an old copper teakettle, -but to his wonder I do not want it and leave it. I find a fine large -walrus-ivory doll and a handsome decorated "kantág" (wooden bowl), -besides smaller objects, and also a large piece of a poor quality clay -pot (no pottery now), with a fragment of a decorated border as on the -lower Yukon. - -Pack up, we load on the boat--lucky now she is so spacious--get into -the shallow river--the tide has run out--push the boat out and start -for home. - -Thus far we had but slight drizzles. But the clouds now grow heavier, -and as we have much farther to row than this morning, due to the low -water, we are caught by showers. The last mile or so we have to hurry, -see a big rain approaching. My man pushes her with a pole while I row -all I can, with both hands, with the heavy oar. Of course the whole -population of Kotlik has to see our arrival. And more, too, for in our -absence a schooner came in with wood and a number of the natives. They -talk, but no one is either angry or excited. We two carry the boxes, -pails, etc.--grass covered--into the house; how lucky I am now alone. -Inside I remove the wet grass from them--the bones, too, are somewhat -wet--then pay my Eskimo $5, which again is taken as a matter-of-fact -thing, without thanks, but he well deserved the amount, even if I rowed -a full half. - -It is 9 p. m. My man comes again, we have a modest supper, he -some left-over meat and I again the smoked fish, which I feel is -strengthening me as well as agreeing with my stomach, and then -to rest, quite earned to-day. Seldom have done as much in a day. -Thirty-three graves collected, with over twenty nearly complete -skeletons, and all restored so that I had to take considerable care not -to go again into some already emptied. But this place should be dug -over. The tundra in a few years swallows up everything on the surface. -It literally buries or assimilates bones and all other objects, the -moss and other vegetation with probably blown dust covering them very -effectively. Finding anything below the surface and that even a foot -or more, as was actually experienced, means something quite different -under these conditions than it might elsewhere. - -Monday, July 12. Slept fairly well and feel refreshed, but the eye -still badly swollen. The Eskimo believe, I think, I got it from the -bones. Yet they are quite sensible--a marked mental difference between -them and the Yukon Indians. - -Breakfast before 7--cereal, raw smoked fish, and coffee. Then pack. -At the store buy empty gasoline boxes, but no nails to be had, and no -packing. Lunch at 1--macaroni, raw smoked fish, sauerkraut, coffee; -then pack again, fix boxes, break old ones to get nails, even pull a -few unnecessary ones from the boards of the house, go see my man's -wife, a hopeless consumptive, and at 6 through with all except -cleaning. Another fair work-day, 12 tightly packed boxes. Then clean -up, burn rubbish, and ready for departure early to-morrow. - -Supper--macaroni, raw smoked fish, greengage plums, a little -sauerkraut, and coffee. Then a little walk outside, watch Eskimo women -and children jump the rope (hilariously, but awkwardly), and go in to -catch up with my notes. Nobody scowls at me, so that although they -probably fear me as a "medicine man" they are not at all resentful for -what I did yesterday. They are grown-up children, much more tractable -than the Indians. But otherwise they show so much in common with the -Indian that the more one sees of them the more he grows drawn to the -belief of the original (and that not so far distant) identity of their -parentage. It seems the Eskimo and the Indian are after all no more -than two diverging fingers of one and the same hand; or they were so -a bit farther back. Mental differences there are, yet these are no -more than may be found in different tribes of the Indians or different -groups of other races. - -Tuesday, July 13. Rise a little after 6. Eye still sore after Sunday's -gnat and sweat and dirt; must use boric acid frequently. An Eskimo -actually said yesterday it was a sickness from touching the bones. A -little breakfast--have no more salmon strips, so just cereal, canned -plums, and coffee. And then with the help of two young Eskimo carry my -spoils and baggage on to the tug, which has come for me. By about 7 -start. Good-by Kotlik, what little there is of it. - -At 9 arrive at Mr. Williams's reindeer camp farther up the coast. There -are five tents and two small log houses of natives--the herders with -their families, dogs, and fish racks; and three whites, Mr. Williams, -owner of the boat and of most of the herd of about 8,000 animals; -Mr. Palmer, of the United States Biological Survey; and a Dane, Mr. -Posielt, here for the Biological Survey of Canada. All are already at -the corral some distance over the hill, branding, counting, etc., the -great reindeer herd, which belong to several owners. - -A short walk along the shore brings me in sight of the herd. The -animals can be heard grunting a good distance off. The herd is so large -and so compact that it looks like a forest of horns. The animals keep -on moving in streams, but remain in the herd. They go to the shore to -drink some of the salty water, instead of salt. All is of interest, -even though the branding, the cutting off of big slices from the ears, -and castration, is rather cruel. - -At lunch, for the first time, reindeer meat, a select steak. It is -tender and decidedly good. Has no special flavor and is poor in fat, -but tender and good. - -Afternoon, once more to the corral, and then various things, including -a photograph of a little impromptu native group. - -Supper once more on reindeer meat. This time prepared as a sort of a -stew with onions--again very good. But we were to leave after supper -for St. Michael and I see no intention to that effect. Instead they all -go once more to the corral to continue the work until about 11 p. m. -So I have to settle for the night, with some hope that we may leave in -the morning. We sleep four side by side in a tent 10 feet wide. Luckily -they had a spare clean blanket or two, and but one of the three snores, -and he like a lady; also the weather has cleared and is warmer, so the -night is fairly good. - -Wednesday, July 14. Morning bright, calm. Breakfast, and all hurry off -to corral without even any explanation--just a few casual words, from -which I understand that we shall not go. So I write whole forenoon, -though feeling none too good about the delay. Had I my own boat, as -one should have in this country, all would be different. As it is I am -utterly helpless. At lunch speak to Mr. Williams; and though not much -willing, he half promises that we may go to St. Michael to-night. - -Afternoon. Walk 8 miles along the beach, to a cape and back, looking -in vain for traces of human habitation and collecting along the beach -what this offers, which outside of some odd, flat, polished stones is -but little. Come back near 6--soon after supper--and hear with much -satisfaction that, after all, we will go to-night to St. Michael. - - RÉSUMÉ - -So ends the Yukon and its immediate vicinity. What has been learned? - -1. The great and easily navigable river, extending for many hundreds of -miles from west to east, could not but have played a material part in -the peopling of Alaska, and quite probably in that of the continent, -and all human movements along it must have left some material remains. -It seems, therefore, a justified inference that the valley of the Yukon -harbors human remains of much scientific value. - -2. Such remains, judging from the present conditions, were left -exclusively along the banks of the river, on the flood-safe elevated -platforms of the banks, and especially about the mouths of the -tributaries of the Yukon of those times. - -3. But the banks and mouths of the past are seldom, if ever, those -of to-day. The river, with its currents, storms, and ice pack every -spring, is changing from year to year. It is ever cutting and eroding -in places, and building bars and islands or covering with flood silts -in others. In many stretches no one can be sure where the banks were -500 or 1,000 years ago, not to speak of earlier periods. - -4. The banks and islands of to-day, therefore, are for the most part -recent formations, in which it would be useless to expect anything very -ancient. And there is nothing like the successive ocean beaches at Nome -and elsewhere, which would guide exploration. - -5. The right hilly side of the river alone seems to offer some hope of -locating some more ancient sites and remains; yet it is quite certain -that the river ran once far to the left, for all the vast flats on that -side are of its construction; so that the more ancient remains of man -may lie in that direction. But there everything is, from the point of -view of archeology, a practically unexplorable jungle and wilderness, -and there is no one there who might make accidental discoveries. - -6. It would seem that the best hope for the archeologist along the -Yukon, so far as the more ancient remains are concerned, lies along the -tributaries of the stream, and that particularly at the old limits of -the more recently made lands. - -7. Nevertheless the banks of the Yukon as they are now are not wholly -barren. Up from Tanana, at the Old Station, probably about Ruby and -Nulato, about Kaltag and the Greyling River, at Bonasila, Holy Cross -and Ghost Creek, and at the Mountain village, Dog village, Russian -Mission, and doubtless a number of other sites, they contain both -cultural and skeletal remains that, if recovered, will be invaluable to -the anthropological history of these regions. - -8. The line of demarcation between the Indians of the Yukon and the -Eskimo, outside of language, is indefinite. Traces of old Eskimo -admixture are perceptible among the Indians far up the river, and the -cultures of the two peoples in many respects merge into each other; -while among the Eskimo of the lower river and farther on there are -physiognomies that it would be hard to separate from the Indian. -Whether all this means simply extensive past mixture, or whether, as -would seem, the Alaska Indians as a whole are nearer physically to the -Eskimo than are the tribes in the States, remains to be determined. -Among the Athapascan Mescalero Apache, who have reached as far south as -New Mexico, a somewhat Eskimoid tinge to the face, especially in young -women, was by no means very unusual 25 years ago when I studied this -tribe. This problem will be touched upon again in this volume. - -9. All along the Yukon, from near Tanana (Old Station) to the mouth -of the river, in the Indian and in the Eskimo region, there prevailed -the same type of winter house, namely, a largely subterranean room -with a subterranean tunnel or corridor entrance; and also a similar -type of summer dwelling, formerly a skin, now a canvas, tent. The -winter dwellings were built within of stout posts and covered with -birch bark and sod, looking from outside much like the present-day -Navaho hogan; while the pits left by them remind one of the -southwestern "pit dwellings," the kashims of the Pueblo kivas. As a -hogan, so these largely subterranean dwellings along the Yukon had a -smoke-air-and-light hole in the center of the top, a fireplace in the -middle of the floor, and benches (of heavy hewn planks in the north) -along the sides. Each village, furthermore, had at least one larger -structure of similar nature, the "kashim," or communal house. All this -may still be traced more or less plainly on the dead sites along the -Yukon, and houses as well as a kashim of this type were seen at Kotlik -and Pastolik, at the mouth of the river. - -10. The native industry of the river presents also much similarity, -though there are differences. - -Pottery, of much the same type and decoration, was made at least as far -as the lower middle Yukon. - -Stone implements were made and used all along the river, and were much -alike. But the double-grooved, cupid-bow ax of the Yukon Indian, hafted -in the center and used for chipping rather than cutting, is lower down -replaced by the same ax, in which one end has been broken off (or -has not been finished), and which is hafted as an adze; or by oblong -quadrilateral flat axes which have not been found up the river. - -The peculiar and apparently very primitive stone industry of Bonasila -is, it seems, just a development of local conditions--nature of most -available stone, and essentially hunting habit of the people that -resulted in many skins which called for numerous scrapers. Nevertheless -the site deserves a thorough further exploration. - -There was apparently not much basketry along the river, the place of -the baskets being taken by the birch-bark dishes of the Indian and the -kantág or ingeniously made wooden dish of the Eskimo part of the river. - -Canoes among the Yukon Indians were mainly of birch bark, while the -Eskimo had mainly skin canoes. - -11. Neither the Indians nor the Eskimo of the Yukon practiced -deformation of the head or of any other part of the body, or dental -mutilation. The Indians as well as the Eskimo occasionally pierced the -septum of the nose, for nose pieces, while the Eskimo cut on each side -a slit in the lower lip for the introduction of labrets. The Eskimo cut -their hair short in a characteristic way, reminding strongly of certain -monks; the Indians left their hair long. But at Anvik the Indians both -cut their hair and wore labrets. They also used the wooden dish. - -12. From all the preceding it appears that there must have been long -and intensive contacts between the Yukon Eskimo and Indians; that, -through war or in peace, they became mutually admixed; and that there -were mutual cultural transmissions. - -13. No further light for the present could be gained on the origin, -antiquity, or early migrations of the Yukon Indian. It was determined, -however, that he represents but one main physical type, and that this -type is the same as that of the Indians of the Tanana and most other -Alaskan Indians of the present time. - -14. Exceptional skeletal remains were washed out from the bank at -Bonasila. They are of Indians (?), but appear to be not those of the -Yukon Indian of to-day. They present a problem which is to be solved by -further exploration of the site. - -15. The Eskimo of the lower parts of the river are in general better -preserved and more coherent than the Indians. They are more tractable -people and are taking more readily to work and civilization. - -16. These Eskimo show, in the majority of cases, fairly typical Eskimo -physiognomies. But their heads are not as those of the northern and -eastern members of the race. The head is less narrow, less high, and -has but now and then a suggestion of the scaphoid form that is so -characteristic of the Greenland, Labrador, or northern Eskimo cranium; -also, the angles of the jaws are less bulging and the lower jaws -themselves do not appear so heavy. - -17. The Yukon Eskimo burials are in all essentials much like those -of the Indians up the river. Here again a cultural connection is -very evident, in this case there having in all probability been an -adaptation of methods by the Eskimo from the Indians. - -18. Archeological prospects along the delta flats occupied by the -Eskimo appear very limited. - - -ST. MICHAEL - -Thursday, July 15. In the morning, after a good trip, reach St. -Michael--quite a town from a distance, with many boats on the shore in -front of it; but soon find that it is largely a dead city and ships' -graveyard, not harbor. With the gold rush over, and the Government -railroad from Seward to the Tanana, men and business have departed. -Before the summer is over most of the large buildings and the fine -large boats are to be demolished, and there will be left but a lonely -village. - -Unload my collections on the old dock. The postman kindly comes down -from his place, which, with Mr. Williams's store, is far up on the -hill above the harbor, the boxes are weighed and stamped for the -parcel post, and relieved of them I go to the hotel and spend the day -in visiting the teacher, the marshal, Mr. Williams's store, where -I see a whole lot of recent Eskimo ceremonial masks decorated with -colors and feathers, and the wireless station to send a message to -the Institution. All native (Eskimo) character is almost gone from -the place, what remains being mainly civilized mix bloods; and also -little, if anything, remains to be collected, particularly now when all -vacant land is thickly overgrown with grass and weeds. An occasional -skull appears, one having been seen recently on the beach and one on -Whale Island, but there is little besides, though things could be found -doubtless by excavation. - -Items of interest in Mr. Williams's store, and also in that of the N. -C. Co., are various articles cut handsomely by the Eskimo from walrus -ivory, both fresh and "fossil" (old and nicely discolored). There are -beads, napkin rings, hairpins, cigar and cigarette holders, and other -objects, generally exceedingly well made and decorated. It is, of -course, well known that the Eskimo are very apt in this work; it is -not, however, so well known that every island or village has certain -specialties and types of decoration. This is so true that an observer -before long can tell in many instances just where a given article has -been made. - -The fossil ivory industry is, it was soon learned, becoming a serious -detriment to archeological work in these regions; of which, however, -more later. - -During the day I find that a small boat, the _Silver Wave_, belonging -to Lomen Bros., will leave St. Michael for Nome that same evening. As -this suits me very well I engage a berth on the boat, help to get my -baggage on deck over a broken landing place, and get ready to depart. - -At 6 leave St. Michael. The _Silver Wave_ is a tub--too short--am -told if it were of proper length they would have to have more help. -Result--very unsteady. Fortunately the weather is fair, and the -captain gives me a berth in his cabin. I had originally a stateroom, -right in the back, with three bunks or beds, so small that one could -barely get into the beds; but there came two mix-breed women with a -girl and so they turned me out and put me in the "hole"--seven bunks -in an ill-ventilated cabin under the deck in the stern of the ship. -She is only about 60 feet long by about 15 broad. As it is I have a -bunk in what would have been a well-ventilated little cabin, had it -not been for rough weather which came on later in the night and which -necessitated the closing of the window. - -Friday, July 16. The rougher weather came and the boat began to pitch -and roll. Luckily I slept for the most part. At about 6.30 the captain -called me to breakfast with him. I got up rather groggy from the sea, -but managed to wash my face and get to the little messroom, where the -cook started to bring eggs, bacon, coffee, etc.--and then I had enough -and had all I could do to reach my bunk again without getting seasick. -I was kept on the verge of it until after 10, when we arrived off Nome. - -This, however, meant no relief. There was no bay, no dock, no shelter -for even such a small boat, and so we anchored a few hundred yards off -the shore along which stretch the long line of unpainted (mostly), -weather-beaten frame dwellings of this northern capital. - -By this time I barely keep my feet, but they lowered a heavy rowboat, -and several of us--there were four other men passengers--are helped -to tumble in. I get back, and to steady myself catch hold of the -borders of the boat, only for this the next moment to be dashed against -the larger boat with my hand between. It was almost too much, the -seasickness and added to it the very painful hurt. Fortunately the -fingers were not crushed, just bruised badly--they might easily have -been mashed to a pulp. - -They row us in and we tumble out on the sand, and there is no one to -receive anybody or take any notice. However, after a while there comes -accidentally an old two-seated Ford. Three of us crowd in, leave the -few bulkier things we brought along on the beach unguarded, and are -driven to the other end of the town, to the Golden Gate Hotel. - -This is a big old frame building, out of plumb in several directions. -There is no one in the spacious lobby. However, after a time some one, -not looking much like a proprietor--more like a groom at work--comes -out from somewhere and without much ado shows us each to a room. Mine -smells musty, old sweat and blankets and mould, and looks out on a -dilapidated tin roof--must ask for another. Finally get one "front" for -$3--the other was only $2.50. Musty too, but fairly large, and with a -double bed with, at last again, clean covers. - -Unshaven--in the khaki worse for rain and work--with fingers so sore -they can not bear a touch, feverish, and head still dizzy--I go to -lunch. On my way stop at Coast Guard building--no one there; at the -Roads Commission--office empty; at the Customs--not a soul. But at the -courthouse they tell me where Judge Lomen sometimes lunches, and so I -go there. It is near by--nothing here is far distant--and so I soon sit -at Mrs. Niebeling's, a justly famed Nome's "for everybody," at a clean -table and to a big civilized dinner. Order reindeer roast--find it this -time, in my condition, not much to boast of--one could hardly tell it -from similarly done beef--and begin on the coffee when in comes a young -man, asks me if I am the doctor, and introduces himself as Mr. Alfred -Lomen, the judge's son; and in a minute or two in comes the judge -himself, a kindly man of something over 70. It all makes me feel a lot -better, though still weak. Have rest of lunch together and talk, but -do not get very far in anything that interests me; but the judge takes -me to the Catholic Fathers here, who have an orphanage somewhere near -where I want next to go, and leaves me with Father Post. The father is -kindly, but himself does not know much, and so makes arrangements for -me to meet next day Father Lafortune, who works among the Eskimo. - -Then I go once more to the Coast Guard building and meet Captain -Ross, in charge. The _Bear_, I learn, has just arrived here, and is -soon going north. She is my godsend, evidently. So Captain Ross sends -me over to see Captain Cochran. The meeting is good, and I have a -promise to be taken to the cape and some other stations. But the _Bear_ -goes first to coal at St. Michael, and then will make a visit to St. -Lawrence Island. So I propose to go to Teller first, see what I can of -the Chukchee-Eskimo "battle field" near there, and be taken from there -by the _Bear_. The priests give me some hope for getting there over an -inland route, but later on tell me one of the boats of the orphanage -which is located in that region is away and the other has broken down, -so that there will be no possibility of making the trip through the -Salt Lake and to Teller. But the _Victoria_ (the Seattle boat to come -to-night) will go to Teller. Unfortunately, if weather is rough or -there are no passengers she will not stop at Nome, so all is again -uncertain. The _Silver Wave_ goes northward next Monday, but I have a -dread of her. All of which is put down merely to show slightly what an -explorer without a boat of his own may expect in these regions. - -Nome, Saturday, July 17. Poor night again--it surely seems to be the -fashion in Alaska. The _Victoria_ came at night (or what should be -night). The ramshackle big frame hotel, with partitions so thin that -they transmit every sound, got about 40 guests, and next room to mine -came to be occupied by two women who had visitors, female and male, -were taken out for a ride after 12 and returned about 2 a. m. One of -them, or their visitor, had a perpetual vocal gush, the others chimed -in now and then, and a strong male voice added the bass from time to -time, with old Fords noisily coming and going outside, and people -going up and down the stairs. So sleep for some hours was out of the -question. And there was nothing to do about it. - -After breakfast went to meet Father Lafortune, a Catholic missionary -priest to the Eskimo, who speaks their language well and who promised -to accompany me to their habitations; and together we spent the -forenoon on one side of the town, among the natives of the Diomedes, -and most of the afternoon on the other end among the people from King -Island. It was a good experience, resulting in seeing a good many of -the Eskimo and getting some information, a few photographs, and quite -a few old specimens. Then we went to the parsonage, where I got a few -good photos from Father Lafortune's collection. He is a matter-of-fact, -always ready to help, natural he-man, rather than a priest and teacher, -and a great practical helper to the natives, who all are his friends. - -Also saw Judge Lomen, arranged for lecture to-morrow, saw Captain Ross -about the _Bear_, and various other people; but there is not much to be -obtained here about old sites and specimens. Telegraphed Institution, -and also to the Russian consul at Montreal for permission to visit the -Great Diomede Island. Evening packing. Natives bring walrus ivory, some -excellent pieces. Weather whole day cloudy, threatening, occasional -showers, cool but not cold. - -Sunday, July 18. Heavy sleep 10 p. m. to 7 a. m., regardless of a -typewriter going in the next room and the women (now quieter, however) -on the other side. - -Forenoon spent in talking with people and attending a little service, -for the natives mainly, at the Catholic Church of Fathers Post and -Lafortune. Poor, simple, but sincere and interesting. - -After lunch more consultations, then a visit to bank where they smelt -gold dust (even to-day), and then a lecture on "The Peopling of -America," at the courthouse. Well attended, and many came to shake -hands after. Then a dinner, with examination of a number of interesting -and valuable specimens, at Judge Lomen's. Among other objects there is -a duplicate, in ivory, of the broken double ax from the Yukon, the two -grooves and even the break being well represented. Evening--examination -of specimens at Reverend Baldwin's. Cloudy, cool, threatening, but -stormy weather abating. - - -ABOUT NOME - -Due to the delay with the _Bear_, the next few days until July 23 were -spent at and about Nome. They proved more profitable than was expected. -Numbers of interesting specimens were found in the possession of some -of the dealers, and more of those of scientific value were secured -either through gift or by purchase for the National Museum. These -collections consisted of objects of stone--i. e., spear points, knives, -axes, etc.--but above all of utensils, spear points, effigies, etc., -some of them of remarkable artistry and decoration, were made of walrus -ivory that through age has turned "fossil." - -Among the stone objects were several axes made of the greenish, hard -nephrite which came from the "Jade Mountain" on the Kobuk River. The -objects from fossil ivory came principally from the St. Lawrence -Island, the Diomede Islands, Cape Wales, unknown parts of the nearer -Asiatic coast, and here and there from the Seward Peninsula. - -A large majority of these objects are now collected by the natives -themselves, who assiduously excavate the old sites, and are sold at -so much per pound as "fossil ivory" to crews of visiting boats or to -merchants at Nome and elsewhere, to be worked up into beads, pendants, -and other objects of semi-jewelry that find ready sale among the whites. - -In addition a certain part of these objects is reserved by the natives, -especially those of the Diomede Islands, and worked up by themselves. -The more striking the coloration of the ivory, the more desirable it is -for the beads, etc., and the less chance of the object, regardless of -its archeological or artistic value, to be preserved. The most artistic -pieces, nevertheless, are usually disposed of separately, bringing -higher prices than could be obtained for beads. - -In this way hundreds of pounds collectively of ancient implements, -statuettes, etc., are recovered each year from the old sites on -both the Asiatic and the American side of the Bering Sea, and are -cut up, their scientific value being lost. Most of the fossil -ivory, fortunately, consists of objects which, though showing man's -workmanship, are of relatively little scientific value; nevertheless -it was seen repeatedly that specimens of real archeological value and -artistic interest would be destroyed if their color and texture made -them suitable for some of the higher-priced jewelry. - -The Eskimo, as repeatedly found later, have not the slightest -hesitation about excavating the old sites, and whatever they can not -use, which as a rule includes animal and human bones, and in fact -everything else except stone tools and ivory, is left in the excavated -soil and lost. The amount of destruction thus accomplished by the -women, children, and even men each year is large and promises to grow -from year to year as long as the supply lasts. This means that unless -scientific exploration of these old sites is hastened there will be -little left before long to study. - -The fossil ivory trade has become such that many of the officers and -the crews even of the visiting vessels, including the revenue cutters, -engage in buying the ivory from the natives and cutting it up in their -spare time into beads and other ornaments. A captain of a well-known -boat who with his crew visited in the summer of 1926 a small island on -which there is an extensive frozen refuse heap containing many bones -and tools of the natives who once occupied the place, exclaimed, "Gad, -there's $50,000 of ivory in sight." - -The boat crew took away about "2 bushels" of it, or all that could be -removed from the extensive frozen pile. I saw some of this ivory later, -all cut up, but with a number of the pieces still showing old human -handiwork, and some beads made of other parts of the lot were brought -later to my office in Washington. - -If American archeology and ethnology are to learn what they need in -these regions it is absolutely essential that they take early steps -for a proper exploration of the old sites, besides which every effort -should be made by the intelligent traders, missionaries, teachers, and -officials to save the more artistic and characteristic pieces of human -workmanship in the old ivory, and bring them with such data as may be -available to the attention of scientific men or institutions. It would -in fact be of much value, and the writer has suggested this to the -Governor of Alaska, to establish a local museum at Nome, where such -objects could be gathered and saved to science. - - -ABORIGINAL REMAINS - -The coast of which Nome is now the human center, up to Cape Wales, -together with the nearer islands, was occupied by the Maiglemiut -(Zagoskin), or Mahlemut (Dall et al.) subdivision of the Eskimo. They -were a strong group, and great traders. During the Russian times the -Aziags, from what is now the Sledge Island, with probably others from -the coast, visited yearly for trading purposes as far as St. Michael -and the Yukon, while the Wales people were known to trade up to fairly -recently as far as Kotzebue, both at the same time having trading -connections with Asia. - -Of these natives, with the exception of those at Wales, there remains -but little. On Sledge Island there are only two dead villages, and on -the coast from Port Clarence to far east of Nome there is not a single -existing native settlement. A few remnants of the people live in Nome, -but they have lost all individuality. - -Dead sites are known to exist from west to east, at Cape Wooley; at -the mouth of the Sonora or Quartz Creek; at the mouth of the Penny -River--some natives are said to still go to fish there in summer; at -the mouth of a small river 3 miles east of Nome; both west (a larger -village) and east (a small site) of Cape Nome; and 18 miles east of -Nome (the "Nook" village). - -Most of these sites have been peopled within the memory of the oldest -inhabitants. - -Thanks to the kind aid of the Reverend Doctor Baldwin, I was able to -visit several of the sites east of Nome, more particularly the Nook -village, and it was still possible to find two skeletons and a skull on -these sites. - -The Nook site must have been one of considerable importance. It -was an especially large village, or rather two near-by villages, -in one of which I counted upward of 30 depressions, remnants of -the semisubterranean houses with vestibules, such as are elsewhere -described from the Yukon. - -Here a clear illustration was had of what changes on sites of this -nature may be wrought in a short time by the elements. - -Fifteen years ago, I was assured, there were still many burials and -skeletal remains scattered along the coast near the Nook village. -Then in 1913 came a great southwestern storm, which at Nome ripped up -the cemetery and carried away some coffins with bodies, scattering -them over the plains in the vicinity. Since that storm not a vestige -remains of any of the burials or bones near the large Nook village. -On prolonged examination I found nothing but sands overgrown with the -usual coast vegetation. Everything had been carried away or buried and -the pits of the houses were evidently themselves largely filled in. - -The burials on this coast west of Golovnin Bay were evidently all of -a simpler nature than those on Norton Sound and the Yukon. There is -plenty of driftwood, but for some reason this was not hewn into boards -with which to make burial boxes. The dead were merely laid upon and -covered with the driftwood, though this was done, as later seen on -Golovnin Bay, rather ingeniously. One of the two skeletons found near -Cape Nome, an adult male, lay simply among the rocks on the lower part -of the slope of the hill. - -Old sites, though often small, may be confidently looked for along all -these coasts in the shelter of every promontory, at the mouth of each -stream, and on the spits which separate the ocean from inland lagoons -(as in the case of the Nook village). - - -NOME--BERING STRAIT--BARROW - -Friday, July 23. Received word to be on the _Bear_, which arrived -yesterday, before 10 o'clock this morning. Due to the shallowness of -the water the boat, though drawing only 18 feet, stands far out from -the shore and makes a pretty sight, looks also quite large in these -waters where there is nothing above a few hundred tons. - -Am soon at home. The captain's cabin, with three beds, is nicely -furnished, but has the disadvantage of being situated at the very rear -of the vessel, above and beyond the screw. There is another passenger, -a teacher-nurse for Barrow. I take the isolated bunk on the right, and -this becomes my corner for the next six weeks. Toward 11 a. m. the wind -begins to freshen, soon after which we leave for St. Lawrence Island. -After midday the wind increases considerably, waves rise, and the -_Bear_ begins to plunge. Before the afternoon is over the wind blows a -half gale and we are being tossed about a great deal. Have to take to -bed. The boat is being tossed up and down and in all directions. Resist -in vain, then at last become ill, and this passes into a long spell of -about the worst seasickness I have ever endured. There were a good many -sick on the _Bear_ that evening and night. - -Saturday, July 24. Wind and water slowly quieting down, and the boat -is approaching Cape Chibukak off St. Lawrence Island, where is located -the main of the two villages of the island, known as Gambell. The -_Bear_ gradually approaches to within about a half mile of the shore, -where we anchor. The water here is quieter, and before long a large -baidar (native skin boat) is shoved off from the land and approaches -our boat. This is the usual procedure when the sea permits. There are -no docks, and closer in there is danger from rocks and shallows. There -are a number of natives in the boat, together with the local teacher, -and each one, including the teacher, carries a smaller or larger bag -of fossil ivory, various articles made of fresh ivory, and some other -objects, for sale to the officers and crew of the boat. They climb on -our deck, where they evidently feel quite at home, and in a few minutes -carry on a busy trade and barter with everyone. I succeed in getting -a fine fossil ivory pick; but the main supply had evidently been -preempted and I only see it later in the possession of the officers, -who kindly let me have what is of less value to them and more to -science. - -Some of the Eskimo bring, in addition to the ivory, other articles -for sale--fish, birds, and the meat of the reindeer, which are for -the ship's messes and constitute very welcome additions to the diet. -Besides all this the natives also frequently bring skins of foxes and -even bear, which also find buyers. In return the boats carry off the -mail and such supplies as they have obtained by barter or purchase. -These visits are mutually enjoyable as well as profitable occasions, -and afford one the opportunity of seeing many of the natives, even if -prevented, as in this case, from visiting their village. - -The Eskimo impress one here as in every further locality as a lively, -cheerful, and intelligent lot, good traders, and advancing in many -ways in civilization. The latter is perhaps especially true of the St. -Lawrence Eskimo, who from what was seen now and later must have had -especially good missionaries and teachers as well as a considerable -freedom from bad influences from the outside. - - -SAVONGA - -About 40 miles east-southeast of Gambell is the second and smaller -village of the St. Lawrence Island, known as Savonga, which was the -object of our next visit. It was here that we were to buy two or three -reindeer carcasses, the animals being killed and dressed for us by the -natives in an astonishingly short time. The little village is prettily -situated on the green flat of the elevated beach. It consists of less -than a dozen modern small frame dwellings. One of these, that of the -headman, Sapilla (who regrettably died during the following winter), -is of two stories--a unique feature for an Eskimo dwelling in these -waters. Here we were visited by three boats and the previous scenes -were repeated, only, due to the proximity of a rich old site, there -were more objects of old ivory. - -The captain made me acquainted with Sapilla, whom I found remarkably -white-man-like in behavior. Then the ship doctor, not feeling very well -after yesterday's storm, filled my pockets with tooth forceps and I was -taken to the shore, to see the women and children who would not venture -out and to attend to any tooth extraction that might be needed. - -We were considerably farther from the shore than even at Gambell, -but I was sent on one of our motor boats and so it did not take long -to land. Upon landing we came to bright and clean and smiling little -groups of women and children, full of color in their cotton dresses, -and I was soon in one of their houses. All these dwellings were built -by the Eskimo themselves, and it was a most gratifying surprise to find -them as clean and wholesome as any similar dwelling of whites could -be. Moreover, these houses were furnished with stoves, chairs, tables, -crockery and other utensils exactly as if they were those of a good -class of whites, with the smell of the seal, which as a rule is so -clinging to and characteristic of the Eskimo house, barely perceptible. - -It was a busy and interesting hour that I spent at Savonga. I saw -probably all the inhabitants that were at home; pulled five teeth--the -teeth of these quite civilized people are no more as sound and solid -as were those of their fathers and mothers--and found and purchased -cheaply many smaller objects of fossil ivory, which they excavate from -a near-by old site. - -These objects are obtained from an old village located on the coast -about 4 miles farther east, on or near the North Cape, visible from -our boat. The natives excavate in this site as far as it thaws every -summer, and find many objects. They, moreover, make an occasional trip -to the two little rocky Punuk islands located about 12 miles south of -the East Cape of the St. Lawrence, which, though accurately charted by -the Russians as early as 1849, yet until the summer of 1926 remained -practically unknown. On one of these islands there is now known to -exist an extensive frozen refuse heap, containing large quantities of -old ivory implements as well as other objects of scientific interest. - -The land visit was a great tonic after the wild and mean preceding -night, and I did not relish at all the _Bear's_ whistle calling us -away. What a great thing it would be if a revenue cutter could for just -one season be given to science! - -Sunday, July 25. Left St. Lawrence 9.30 last night, sea quieting. We -are now passing, on our right, King Island, isolated rocky mass. Day -fair, cool, water getting smooth. - -About 50 miles north one can now see plainly Cape Prince of Wales (pl. -5, _a_), and to the left, hazy, the two Diomedes. We are now 95 miles -from St. Lawrence. On really clear days one could see from here even -the Asiatic heights. Therefore, from the latter on a clear day one sees -the Diomedes, the Cape, the highlands beyond, and King Island, while a -little farther south there is on such a day a good view from Asia of -the St. Lawrence Island. All this was in good weather easily reached -from Asia and must have been utilized from the earliest time in passing -onward from one continent to the other. - -We can now see also much of the coast in the direction of Teller and -the York Mountains behind. - -From hour to hour there is growing on one a profound appreciation -that the Bering Sea was a most favorable amphitheater of migration, -particularly from the less hospitable Asia eastward into America. And -practically the whole trend of native movements to this day is from -Asia toward America. - -Later in the day, now a fine, bright summer day, arrive off Wales. -Here again anchor far out. Last year the _Bear_ grounded here and -our captain is apprehensive. Wales is a straggly village--or two -villages--located on a large, flat sandy spit, dotted with water -pools, and projecting from the Seward Peninsula toward Asia. Near by -are old sites, probably of much archeological value, and in these for -some weeks now excavations have been carried on by Dr. D. Jenness, -of the Victoria Memorial Museum of Ottawa. Here also is located an -exceptionally educated and observant teacher, Mr. Clark M. Garber. - -A big umiak comes to us with many natives bringing the usual trade, and -on it, much to my pleasure, are both Doctor Jenness and Mr. Garber. -Doctor Jenness asks to go with us to the Little Diomede to do some work -there. He has had encouraging experience here, finding evidences of -occupation dating many centuries back, and has collected some valuable -specimens, including a few with the fine old curved-line decoration. -Mr. Garber gives me some valuable information about the skeletal -remains of this place and engages to collect for me, who can not leave -the boat, a few boxes of these specimens, which promise is fulfilled -later. - -The natives are a jolly and sturdy lot, even though they bear, and that -since their earliest contacts with whites, a rather bad reputation. -That this is founded in some fact, at least, is told us in the annals -of the Russians, and is also shown by the little structure on the -hillside off which we are anchored. This has a tragic and at the same -time quaint history. It is the grave of a missionary Doctor Thornton, -who was killed, we are told, by two local young fellows. These were -apprehended, sentenced to die, and were to be shot by their relatives, -which all evidently found quite just. On the appointed day they were -taken out to the burial ground, helped to prepare their burials, one -asked yet to be allowed to go to the village to get a drink, went and -returned, and then both were shot. The executioner of the boy who went -to get the drink is said to have been his uncle. - - -THE DIOMEDES - -Late that night we leave slowly for the Diomede Islands, the nearer -of which is only about 18 miles distant. The two islands lie, as is -well known, just about in the middle of the Bering Strait. One is -known as the larger or Russian, the other as the smaller or American -Diomede. The boundary line between Russia and the United States passes -between the two. Both islands have been occupied since far back by the -Eskimo. To-day there is one small village on the American and two small -settlements on the Russian island. - -July 26. Up at 5.40, breakfast 6, and off in one of our staunch motor -boats, with Jenness, for the Little Diomede. Countless birds flying in -streams about the island. - -The island is just a big rock, with barren flat top and steep sides, -covered where inclination permits with great numbers of larger and -smaller granite bowlders. There is neither tree nor brush here. The -village, if it deserves that name, with a school, occupies an easier -slope, facing the larger island across a strait seemingly about a -mile broad. There are but a few dwellings, due to local necessities -and conditions built above ground and outside of stone. One that was -entered showed a dark fore-room, a storage attic, and a cozy somewhat -lighted living and sleeping back room, entered through a low and narrow -entrance. The houses seem to be built on old débris of habitations, and -there are refuse heaps, one of which was eventually worked in by Doctor -Jenness, though without much profit. - -The bowlder-covered slope above the village was the burial ground of -the natives. (Pl. 5, _b_.) Unfortunately most of the skeletal remains -have been collected by a former teacher and then left and lost. With -Doctor Jenness and the present teacher, himself an Eskimo, we climb -from bowlder to bowlder and collect what remains. The work is both -risky to the limbs and difficult in other respects. The large bowlders -are piled up many deep; and there being little or no soil, there are -all sorts of holes and crevices between and underneath the stones. Deep -in these crevices, completely out of sight or reach, nest innumerable -birds (the little auk), and their chatter is heard everywhere. But into -these impenetrable crevices also have fallen many of the bones and -skulls of the bodies that have been "buried" among the bowlders, and -also doubtless many of the smaller articles laid by the bodies. - -The burials here were made in any suitable space among the rocks. The -body was laid in this space, without any coffin and evidently not much -clothing. About it and on the rocks above were placed various articles. -We found clay lamps, remnants of various wooden objects, the bone end -pieces of lances, and finally one or two pieces of driftwood to mark -the place. Here the bodies decayed and what was left had either tumbled -or was washed by rain into the crevices. It was suggested, however, -that much may have been taken by dogs and foxes. Some of the skulls -and here and there one of the larger bones remained, to eventually be -covered by moss and eroded. With the help of Doctor Jenness and the -teacher I was able to find five male and seven female crania in fair -condition, which will be of much value in the study of this interesting -contingent of the Eskimo. - -No evidence in the graveyard among the rocks of any great antiquity, -nothing more than perhaps a few scores of years. But traces of older -burials would surely be completely lost among the rocks, though they -may lie in the deep crevices and holes where they can not be reached. - -Upon return am treated to a cup of good hot coffee--never can get -a real hot cup of coffee on the boat--and excellent bread, made by -the Eskimo wife of the teacher; and see his family of fine chubby -children. Can not help but kiss his girl of about 10--she is so fresh -and innocent and pretty. Obtain also from the wife of the teacher a -good old hafted "jade" ax, though she hesitates much to part with -it--it used to belong to her grandmother; and from the teacher -himself a number of interesting articles in old ivory. Leave Doctor -Jenness. Have learned to like him much, both for his careful work and -personally, in our short association; and at 11 a. m. return to the -boat. - -Cold, but calm and sunny. Sit on boxes at the very end of the good old -_Bear_. See Asia, the two Diomedes, and Seward Peninsula, all in easy -reach, all like so many features of a big lake. Pass around Greater -Diomede. - -There never could have been any large settlement on the Diomede -Islands--they are not fit for it. The Great Diomede has just two -mediocre sites, which are occupied now each by about half a dozen -dwellings. A small old settlement, a few stone houses, has also once -existed, I am told, on the elevated top of the larger island opposite -the Little Diomede. On the latter only the one visited--everywhere else -the steep slopes or walls come right down into the water, and there -is even no landing possible (or only a precarious one at best) except -where we landed. The old natives of the Little Diomede are said to have -believed that another village had once existed farther out from the -present site and that it has become submerged. The evidence cited (told -by the native teacher) is not conclusive, and no indication of such -a settlement could be seen from the beach. But in front and possibly -beneath the native houses, in the old refuse, there may be remnants of -older dwellings. - -Just passed from Monday to Tuesday, and then back to Monday, all in a -few hours--the day boundary. We are now just north of the Bering Strait -and see all beautifully, in moderate bluish haze. - -A grand panorama of utmost anthropological interest. A big lake, scene -of one of the main migrational episodes of mankind. Sea just wrinkling -some, day calm, mostly sunny, mildly pleasant, with an undertone of -cold. - -How trivial feel here the contentions about the possibilities of -Asiatic migrations into America. There can be no such problem with -those who have seen what we now are witnessing. Here is a great open -pond which on such days as this could be traversed by anyone having as -much as a decent canoe. As a matter of fact it has always been and is -still thus traversed. (Pl. 6, _a_.) The Chukchee carried on a large -trade with America, so much so that we find the Russians complaining -of their interfering with their trade. (Pl. 6, _b_, _c_.) The Diomede -people stand in connection on one hand with the northeastern Asiatics -and on the other hand with the whites as far as Nome, where most of -them go every summer to sell their ivory and its products and bring -back all sorts of provisions. And in the same way the King Islanders -come every summer to Nome, on the east end of which, as the Diomedes on -the west, they have their summer habitations. (Pl. 7, _a_, _b_.) Only -a year or two ago, the natives tell, an Eskimo woman of St. Lawrence -Island set out alone in a canoe with her child to visit a cousin on the -Asiatic coast, 50 miles distant, and returned safe and sound after the -visit was over. - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 5 - -_a_, Cape Prince of Wales from the southeast. (A.H., 1926) - -_b_, Village and cemetery slope, Little Diomede. (A.H., 1926)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 6 - -_a_, Asiatics departing for Siberia from the Little Diomede Island. -(Photo by D. Jenness, 1926) - -_b_, "Chukchis" loading their boat with goods on Little Diomede Island, -before departure for Siberia. (Photo by D. Jenness, 1926) - -_c_, "Chukchis" loading their boat with goods on Little Diomede Island, -before departure for Siberia. (Photo by D. Jenness, 1926)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 7 - -_a_, Eskimos from East Cape arriving at Nome, Alaska - -_b_, East Cape of Asia (to the southward). (Photo by Joe Bernard)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 8 - -A GROUP OF WOMEN AT SHISHMAREF - -(Taken at 2 a. m. by A. H., 1926.)] - -To bed dressed--the captain tells me we shall soon be at Shishmaref, -on the north shore of the Seward Peninsula, and that he will have me -called, if I want to visit the village. - -Awake 11.30 p. m. At 11.45 word comes that we have arrived and a boat -is getting ready. On deck in five minutes. Of course it is still -light--there is no real night any more in these regions. - -Have a cinnamon roll--the night specialty for the crew on the -_Bear_--and a bowl of coffee. The natives, two boats full, already -coming, and a fine full-blooded lot they show themselves to be. They -are accompanied by Mr. Wegner, a big, pleasant young teacher. - -Leave natives trading and set off in ship's boat. The _Bear_ is -anchored about 1⅓ miles off. Fortunately fairly quiet or we should not -be able to go ashore. Teacher and a young English-speaking native go -with us. We have the launch and the skin whaleboat. Anchor first off -shallow beach and transfer into the skin boat for the landing. - -Tuesday, July 27. It is about 12.30 a. m. Many native women, -youngsters, and some men gather about us at the school. Talk to -them--explain what I want, which is mainly skulls and bones--all quite -agreed. Take two young natives, some bags, and proceed to where they -lead me. - -Find, about half a mile from the present village, a big and important -old site, which existed up to the white man's time. But dunes on -which burials were made and house sites have been largely graded -by a fox-farm keeper and trader, Mr. Goshaw. He had gathered many -skulls--shows me a photo of two rows, at least 40--will not tell what -he did with them. Says he sent "many things to the Smithsonian," but -can give no details, "and to the universities," but will not mention -which. Also "buried a lot." Bad business. - -Gathering what is possible from the débris thrown out by the Eskimo -working for the fox farm, we proceed rapidly from mound (dune) to -mound. Find burials still on the surface in situ--i. e., nearly -buried by the rising carpet of the vegetation--but skulls gone. Many -of those on remaining heaps imperfect, but at least something can be -saved. Collect all that is worth collecting. See Mr. Goshaw--get but -little out of him. Donates a few archeological specimens of no great -value--has no more. - -We hurry on to the other village and burial ground, almost a mile west -of the present settlement. Find only a small pile of bones, with one -whole male skeleton of fairly recent date. - -Then back, as fast as possible, the Indians carrying the bags with -bones, and load on boat. My shoes and feet have long since become -thoroughly wet, after which Mr. Wegner loaned me wool socks and native -shoes that protected my feet. But now these must be left behind and I -have to get into my wet, cold shoes--socks too wet. Officers in a hurry -to get back. It is now 3.00 a. m.; the sun rose about 1.30. Pay my men, -change shoes, photograph women (pl. 8) and then men--all pleasant and -willing. See a few poor articles of archeological nature--not worth -getting; and after a hearty handshake with the teacher we take off -through the somewhat rougher water to the whaleboat, then on to the -motor boat and the ship. Arrive with six bags of specimens, reaching -boat just a little after 4. Sleepy captain meets us, but luckily shows -no grudge, though this stop and his loss of sleep were essentially -for me. Though it would seem they could have readily waited for our -going ashore until morning, or have given me a little more time at the -Diomedes, which would have brought us here later. Am too much awake now -and worked up to sleep. Lie down a while but fully awake. Total sleep -last night 2½ hours. But it was worth it, except for the vandalism. - -Pack--inadequate boxes--until 3.30 p. m. Whole collection made last -night put in order. But back and knees stiff. Weather two-thirds fair -(my own estimate), some wind, sea choppy. Lie down but can not sleep. - -At 5.30 off Kotzebue. Due to shallowness of water must anchor far out -of sight. At 6 go to land in ship's larger launch. Waves rather bad, -much tossing about and spray, have to get behind the canvas canopy -that is raised over one seat. It is 15 miles from where the _Bear_ is -anchored to the Kotzebue village--over two hours of (at times) rather -violent tossing up and down and sidewise. Run for a part of the time -not far from beach--a number of isolated, orderly fish camps--lots of -fish drying. Wonder at not getting seasick again--it must be the open -air or difference of movement. - -Kotzebue village lies around a point on a not very high, flat bank, -facing the bay of three rivers (Selavik, Kobuk, Noatak). As we approach -I count over 50 clean tents of Eskimos, about 15 frame houses and -stores, and many skin and other boats on beach or in water. Many -natives hurry to meet us. - -Go ashore. Thomas Berryman, the trader, with the local judge and two -or three other whites come also to meet us. After getting acquainted -inquire about possibility of exploring the Kobuk and reaching the -Koyukuk and Yukon. But all that I learn is uncertain and discouraging. -There are but few native villages on the river, all Eskimo; and higher -up the water is rapid, necessitating much hauling of the boat by -the natives, which is costly; upon which follow three or four days' -portage. The trip would cost much, and no loads over 40 pounds to a man -could be carried. - -Only a few old sites hereabouts are known by those whom I have a chance -to ask. Say there is a somewhat important one at Cape Krusenstern. -Mr. Berryman has from there a big stone (slate) lance. He also has a -huge piece of serpentine, over 80 pounds in weight, with a moderate -depression in top and some cutting (old native work), said to have -been used as a lamp. Wants to keep this and spearhead, but donates an -old rusty tin box full of smaller things and promises to obtain skulls -for us; and I get a similar promise from a man (probably one of Mr. -Berryman's storekeepers) from farther up the country. - -Later meet here Mr. Chance, the school superintendent of these parts; -a young and not prepossessing man, but one who steadily improves on -closer acquaintance. Learn from him of a skeleton recently dug out from -the ground under the schoolhouse. - -See many natives, all Eskimo, good looking, clean, and kind. Some -mix bloods, but the majority pure. Good to moderate stature, well -proportioned though not fat body, medium to somewhat lighter brown -color, physiognomies less typical Eskimo than hitherto and often -strongly like Indian. Too late and dusky to photograph. - -Go to see the teacher and find that the skeleton he dug out was placed -by him in an open box, pushed as far as possible under the rafters of -the floor of the schoolhouse and covered with gravel and earth. There -are four of us--start hurriedly digging for it, remove with shovel, hoe -and arms about a ton of the "filling"--and can not reach the box. It is -10 p. m., the wind rising, officer comes and urges me to get back to -the boat. So must leave with promise that the box will be gotten out -and await me on our return from the north. Have by this time decided -the best policy will be to go with the _Bear_ as far as she may go. -Load empty boxes, some packing--and one of the young white men who have -been digging with us runs up from the distant schoolhouse announcing -that they "struck" the box. Urge him to run back as fast as he can -and get it. Luckily the postmaster and a good many others who came to -see us off delay us; also the transfer of the mail and boxes to the -larger boat. Finally, after a good many anxious looks, I see at last -the two young men appear, one with a wheelbarrow on which is the box -of bones. Bones look not very old, and Eskimoid at first sight, but -take box, which contains a good deal of gravel, carry it through the -very interested Eskimo to the boat, all get in, hurried good-bys to -everybody, and we are off. - -A two and a half hours' trip once more, and the last more than half of -it very rough. Such tossing and dancing and dipping and twisting, with -the spray, fortunately not cold, shooting high up at times, or an angry -wave splashing over. But the boat is large and strong and so eventually -we reach the _Bear_, which was completely out of sight until about an -hour after we started, and in a few minutes off we go to the north. A -little fruit, bed, and know nothing more until near 7 the next morning. -It was a long day--over 25 hours in a stretch without a wink. Yet did -not feel bad; the work and good nature of people about and those met -with, with some success, are good tonics. - -Wednesday, July 28. All of us have to consult the calendar to be sure -of the day and date. - -Sort and wash Berryman's specimens--a nice lot of little things, mainly -of stone, slate, flint, etc. - -Then go after my bones. Find the spray made the earth and gravel in the -box thoroughly wet, so that it is necessary carefully to excavate all -the bones. Find a male, rather short-statured, typically Eskimo. May -have been a burial of the Russian times. Wire for all details. Must -dry bones. Meanwhile try to catch up with notes. Toward evening expect -to be in another village. Weather fair. Have passed the Arctic Circle -during night, but it is not cold nor in any way strange here. Sunset -coloring lasts long and passes into that of sunrise--no real night, no -stars; but moon seen late at night and far to the south. - -May this weather continue, for in rough weather landing at any of these -places--there are no harbors whatever and always shallows and bars and -shoals--would be extremely risky or impossible and my work, for which -I feel ever more eager, would suffer. If only I could see all worth -seeing, and stay a little longer when I find what I am after. - -We reach Kevalina. It is just a schoolhouse and about seven sod houses. -Only a native school teacher, from whom I do not get much. - -No remains or old site very near, but an old village, with "good many -things," exists on the Kevalina River within a few hours' distance (by -canoe) from Kevalina. - -Natives bring old adzes (mounted by them, however), and a harpoon -handle from the old site--bought. - -Spend rest of day in washing, sorting, and packing specimens. - -After supper am invited to the officers' room and given by Lieut. M. -C. Anderson a fine selection of old ivory harpoon heads and other -things. Many of these are from the old site on the St. Lawrence Island, -and especially from little isles off that island named Punuk. All this -strengthens the importance of those islands for regular exploration. - -Thursday, July 29. In anticipation of being called up again during the -night, at Point Hope, which is evidently another important spot for -archeological exploration, for the natives are said to bring many old -articles for sale each year, I do not undress and go to bed earlier, -but have, because of the anticipation, closeness of air, and a cat -jumping on my face just as I am dozing off, a very poor night; and no -call came after all. In the morning there are cold showers, the sky is -much clouded, and the wind keeps on blowing from the north-northwest, -threatening, the officers say, to drive the ice toward this shore, -which would be bad for us. It is cool and disagreeable. We have -anchored to the south of the spit on which stands the village and can -not unload or get ashore. Nor can the natives come here to us. - -The village consists of a schoolhouse, a little mission (Rev. F. W. -Goodman), an accumulation of houses, semi-subterraneans, and tents. A -few tents are also seen a good distance to the right--a reindeer camp. -Otherwise there is nothing but the long, low, sandy, and grassy spit -projecting far out into the ocean. - -Later. The north-northwest still blows, and so the ship has to anchor -to the south of the long spit on the point of which is the village. Of -this but little can be seen, just a few houses, and it seems near and -insignificant. - -The captain is evidently waiting again for the natives to come out, and -I am helpless. Finally, however, a boat is made ready and I am taken -to the shore with the mail. This is piled on the beach, and with two -officers we start to walk toward the dwellings opposite to us, which -are the mission. Heavy walking in the loose sand and gravel of the -steep beach, and as we ascend it is seen the buildings which seemed so -near to the shore are about a mile or more away. - -A man coming toward us--the missionary, Archdeacon Goodman. Tell him -my mission; says he has some business on the ship, but will come, and -there will be no trouble in helping me to a "good deal of what I want," -which sounds fine. - -In the absence of the missionary, go to see the teacher. The school is -over a mile in the direction toward the point. Find him at home and -helpful. In 15 minutes, with his aid, engage two native boys, give two -sacks to each, and send them out over the long flats (old beaches) to -pick up every skull and jaw they can find. They go cheerfully, and we -depart shortly after to see Mr. La Voy, a movie-picture man, who has -been staying here for some time making movie pictures of the natives, -and at the same time collecting all the antiquities they could bring -him. We go to see his collection, but find him not home; has gone for -mail. The rare mail in these regions is, of course, the most important -of events. So back to the school (a good many rods from the sod house -part of the native village to the left), and then--it is now near -noon--to the mission, a good mile from the school and more from the -village. - -Road staked on one side with whale ribs about 2 rods distance. Flats -on both sides show many parts of bleached human bones. They are a part -of the old extensive burial grounds. Unfortunately, about two years -ago the predecessor of the present missionary had most of the skulls -and bones collected and put in a hole in the new cemetery, now seen -in the distance to the right of the mission. This new burial place -is surrounded by a unique whale-rib fence. Reach mission, but no one -there. Does not look good. Try one building and door after another--no -one--learn later that the missionary has no family. Twenty minutes to -1. Nothing remains but to go back to the school for some lunch. So -leave my raincoat, camera, and remaining bags (expecting to do main -work on the buried bones) and hurry back to the school, which I reach -just after 1, and, thanks to their late clock, just in time for a -modest lunch, but with a real hot cup of coffee. Queer that the only -genuinely hot cups of coffee I got on this journey were furnished by -Eskimo--for Mrs. Moyer, the wife of the teacher, is an Eskimo. - -Then comes the mail and Mr. La Voy, and I go to see the latter's -collection. - -Find a mass of old and modern material, of stone, bone, and wood. -All the older things are from an old site on the point. It is an -important and large site, as found later (at least 50 houses), which -the natives (getting coffee, tea, chewing gum, chocolate, candy, -etc., for what they find) are now busy digging over and ruining for -scientific exploration. Women dig as well as men, confining themselves -to from 2 to 3 uppermost feet that have thawed; but even thus finding -a lot of specimens. Bones, of course, and other things are left and no -observation whatever on the site is made. It is a pity. - -Mr. La Voy donates some stone objects, mainly scrapers, and then I go -with a native he employs to the "diggings." Find much already turned -over--one woman actually digging--but very much more still remaining. -Examine everything--site evidently not ancient but of the richest--and -then return with the woman to get some of her "cullings." - -On the way am called by a man whose sod house (semisubterranean) we -pass. We sit on the top of his house and soon establish a regular -trading place, with a big flat stone as a counter. One after another -the native women and men bring out a few articles, good, bad, or -indifferent, lay them on the stone, I select what I want, lay so much -money against the articles, and usually get them. Everybody in the best -of humor. The natives surely enjoy the sport, and so do I, if only I -was not hurried. Thus trade for at least an hour until my pockets are -bulging. Then once more to the school and once more to the mission. In -the latter get my things, as nobody is there yet, Doctor Goodman having -doubtless been delayed on the boat. I hear that there are prospects -of both him and Mr. La Voy going north with us on a little vacation. -Send the coat with spare bags to the school by a native I meet, while I -go to look at the rib cemetery and photograph it. Find the bones have -been interred in its middle and a low mound raised over them, so there -is for the moment nothing to do there. Therefore go over the plain a -little farther, picking up a few odds and ends, a damaged skull, and -finally, from a fairly recent burial box, a fine skull with its lower -jaw. Then attempt to pass a pool of water and sink in the mud to above -my rubber boots, so that the icy water runs in, wetting me thoroughly, -and gurgling henceforth with every step in the shoes. Try to get these -off but can not. The feet must be congested. So spill out all I can by -raising the feet, and then do some hard walking which takes away the -cold. - -Evening, though no dusk approaching. Sit on gravel to empty more -water from shoes, but can still hardly get one off. And just as I -succeed I see, across another long pool, two men, one with a cap of -an officer of the ship, waving their arms, evidently signifying to -me that the time is up and I am to return. Call to them to wait. -Impossible to make them hear me or for me to hear them. All here is -elusive--enchanted-like--distances, sounds. Finally they stop. I catch -up with them after passing a broad ditch, and learn that the ship -is about to sail and they are waiting for me. My coat, however, and -collections are still at the school, over a mile away, so once more -it is necessary to hurry to the school and then back to the ship. So -things go when promises go wrong and one is alone under a constant -apprehension. - -The boys collected four bags full. Moreover, they undertook to bring -them toward the boat, and are bringing the last two just as I approach -the beach. There are Eskimos on the beach with dog teams and sledges -waiting to cart off what was unloaded from the ship. Photograph one -of the teams and then on into the boat and to the _Bear_ with the -four bags, a box full, part of another bag, and all pockets full of -specimens. Only to learn when we reach the boat that both Doctor -Goodman and Mr. La Voy are going with us and that the former after -supper is still to go and get his things from the mission. I have no -boat to go back with, and so lose several hours. - -July 30. Gloomy morning, windy, cool, sea not good. Do not feel easy. -But need to pack. One of the officers, Boatswain Berg, lends me his -short sheepskin coat, and I pack up to lunch. The sea is getting worse. -Have but little lunch and soon after have to take to bed or would again -be sick. To avoid the pitching of the end of the boat where my bed is -I go to the dispensary and lie until 6. From 6 on the sea moderates -somewhat, so that I am able to have a little supper. After that go to -officers' wardroom, play two games of checkers with the doctor, get -some more specimens from two of the officers, and retire. - -When I boarded the _Bear_ it became plain to me that I must earn as -much as possible the sympathetic understanding of my work by both the -officers and the crew, and so I gave two talks, one to the officers and -the other to the men, telling them of our problems in Alaska, of the -meaning and value of such collections as I was making, and of other -matters that I felt would be useful on this occasion. As a result I had -throughout the voyage nothing but the friendliest feelings of all and -their cooperation. Sincere thanks to the officers and the crew of the -_Bear_, from the captain downward. - -Saturday, July 31. At 4.30 a. m. suddenly a heavy bump forward, -followed by several smaller ones. Ship rises and shivers. Have struck -ice floes. Going very slowly. Further bumps at longer or shorter -intervals and occasionally the ship stops entirely. Sea fortunately -much calmer. - -Up at 7. We are in a loose field of ice--aquamarine-blue ice covered -with hillocks of snow, all shapes and sizes, as after a hard winter on -the Hudson, only floes mostly larger and especially deeper. - -Soon after breakfast hear walrus and seals had been observed on the -ice, and shortly before 9 the captain comes down hurriedly to tell us -they have just spied--they now have a man in the crow's nest up on the -foremast--a white bear. - -Run up--everybody pleasurably excited--to the front of the ship. See a -black-looking head of something swimming toward a large ice floe about -500 yards in front of us. As we approach the head reaches the floe, -then a big yellowish paw comes out upon the ice, then the shoulders, -and finally the whole bear. The officers hurry forward, each with a -gun. Soon men all there. Some one fires. Bear stands broadside watching -us. The bullet goes way over. Then other shots--still missing--water -spouting high in many places. Bear bewildered, does not know what to -do, lopes off a little here and there, stops again, looking at us, and -now--we are less than 100 yards from him it seems--a bullet strikes him -above the loin--we can see him jerk and the red spot following. He -runs clumsily, but other shots follow, some seemingly taking effect, -and then he drops, first on his belly, then, twisting, turns over on -his back. A few more movements with his paws and head, and he lies -still, quite dead. Can not but feel sorry for the poor bear, who did -not know why he was being killed, and had no chance. - -A motor boat is lowered and goes to get him. They find on the floe the -remains of a seal on which he fed. Tie a rope to him, drag him into the -water, tow him to the _Bear_, which has stopped and where all stand -on the bows in expectation and with all sorts of cameras, and prepare -to hoist the brute aboard. Captain says it is the second case of this -nature in 20 years. Ropes are fastened about the big body, attached to -a winch, and the big limp form is hauled up, though not without some -difficulty, due to its size and weight. All stand about him, examine, -photograph. They will let the natives at Wainwright skin it and give -them the flesh. It is a middle-sized, full-grown male. It shows only -two wounds, the one in the side and one where the bullet passed through -his mouth, knocking out one of the canines. - -Cold--must put on second suit of underwear. Very gloomy, but storm -abated. No land in sight--above Cape Lombard all is flat. It rains in -that direction. We meander among the floes, now and then bumping and -shivering. Should a wind come up and blow the ice landward we would be -in danger of being closed in and stopped or delayed. - -Evening. Arrive off Wainwright. Village recent--older site 20 miles -away. People the usual type of Eskimo. Visit the village, but soon -return. - -After supper the boat stops--fear the ice. Another passenger is added -here, Jim Allen, the local trader, with a bagful of white fox skins and -a bear skin. Conditions becoming a bit crowded. - -Sunday, August 1. No movement to-day. They are apprehensive of the -ice, and so we stay here, the one place of all where there is nothing -for me to do. Of course there are the natives, but with the constant -uncertainty as to when we shall start and a lack of facilities I can -not do much with them. - -The weather is quiet but still cloudy, though the sun may possibly peep -out. Ice seen in the offing. Would be more interesting to be in it, as -yesterday. The bear has been skinned, cut up, and we shall try some of -its flesh at noon. Rest of day quiet but still mostly cloudy, though -occasionally a little of pale, lukewarm sun. At 3.30 give lecture -to the officers and fellow passengers on the subject of evolution. -Seems quite appreciated. Reading, writing, and walking the deck fills -the time. Ate a little of the bear meat--somewhat tough, otherwise -not much different from reindeer or even beef. If better prepared -(especially roasted on coals) would be quite palatable. - -Yesterday there were several flurries of snow, none to-day, but air -cold enough to make a long stay outside disagreeable. - -Toward evening Captain announces that he is going to try to reach -Barrow, about 80 miles northeastward, and soon after supper we start. -He also tells me we may be there at or not long after midnight and so -to be ready, for the boat will be unable to stop more than an hour or -two. As the only place where a few skulls and bones may be found is -about 1½ miles outside of the village and it takes a good 30 minutes to -make a mile over the tundras, I shall have to rush once more. But I am -promised a man to help me. - -August 2. With clothes on, and anticipation, slept poorly. Ship stopped -about 1 a. m. and I imagined we were off Barrow. But on rising find -that we have gone on and then backward again, encountering ever more -ice. It is cold and foggy outside, and cloudy and gloomy. We now -meander among the big floes, now and then bump into one until the whole -ship heaves and shivers, and occasionally the siren, stop for a while -to diminish the shock. We are now on way back to Wainwright. If we only -could go as far back as Point Hope, where there is so much of interest. -I might have stayed over, but would surely have reproached myself for -missing the remainder of the coast. - -Back off Wainwright, cold, windy, sky gloomy as usual. - -Late in the afternoon go with the trader to land, to visit the site of -an older village, about a mile down the shore. Walk along the beach. -Cold wind, raincoat stiffens. Walrus meat and blubber chunks (slabs, -etc.) along the beach at several places, also a large skinned seal. -Traces, as one nears the village, of worked stones, but all waterworn -and no finished objects. At one place in bank, about 3 feet deep, a -layer of clear blue ice about 20 inches thick--strangely pure ice, not -frozen earth or even inclusion of any dirt or gravel. - -Village site small, along the edge of the low (about 10 feet) bluff. -Count remains of eight dwellings. Some animal bones, but nothing else -on surface or in vicinity. Burial place not seen. Companion says there -is nothing. - -A simple supper at the trader's, prepared by his Eskimo wife, and good -company: Doctor Smith, of the Geological Survey, with two of his men; -Jim Allen, the storekeeper, a big, good-hearted fellow; La Voy, the -big, active movie man, who knows all the gossip and enjoys telling -it with embellishment; and two men of the trader. Menu: Soup, boiled -reindeer meat, underdone biscuits, coffee. - -After supper go to a meeting at the school, where our missionary, -Doctor Goodman, is to talk to the natives. Large schoolroom crowded. -I talk through an interpreter--a serious disadvantage--on cleanliness. -Fine study for me on the many present, though like elsewhere on such -occasions they are mainly women and children. Good many Indianlike -faces, though cheekbones more prominent and more flatness between them. -But hair, low foreheads, eyes (except in children where they are more -superficial, less sunken, and with more epicanthus than in Indians), -lips, and other characteristics the same as in Indians. Some of the -faces are strong, many among the younger pleasant, some of the young -women handsome. A moderate number of mix bloods, even among the adults. -Color of skin in full bloods medium to submedium brown, exactly as in -full-blood Indians along the Yukon, but cheeks more dusky red. - -The behavior of these people is in all important points radically -that of the Indian, but they are more approachable and open and -matter-of-fact people. More easily civilized. Good mechanics. Less -superstitious, more easily converted to white man's religion. And good -singers. Their singing at the meeting in the schoolhouse would have -shamed a good many whites in this respect. - -Except for epidemics, I am told, these natives would more than hold -their own in numbers. They are fecund, if conditions are right. -Sterility is rare. They marry fairly young. - -August 3. Still standing, though we had to pull out farther south and -away from the shore. The water was pretty rough and I had to go to bed -again, but weather moderated. - -We are in touch with the world through the ship's radio, but get more -trash--same all through the radio service in Alaska--than serious news. -Spend time in reading, talking; some play solitaire games; captain and -Allen play cribbage. Deck too small for any outside games, even if it -were not so cold. - -Ice floes floating about us, now scarce, now thicker; water splashing -against them and wearing them out into pillared halls, mushrooms, and -other strange forms. Due to their snow covering, the water upon them, -so far as it results from melting, is sweet, and in it swim many small -fishes. It snowed a bit again to-day. - -August 4. No change, except that the sea is somewhat calmer, and for a -while we have once more seen the sun, but it was hazy and just mildly -warm, while the same wind, from the sea, even though now subdued, has -an icy undertone. It snowed a little this morning. - -Thursday, August 5. Sea calm, atmosphere hazy, but the wind has turned -at last slightly offshore and the sun penetrates through the mists, -until it conquers and shines, warm and bright if not wholly clear, once -more. Ice visible only on the horizon. At 7.15 we start on another -effort to reach Barrow. - -Pass Wainwright, and all is well until after lunch, when fog (though -fortunately not thick) develops and the floes increase until they are -as thick as at the first attempt in this same region. Heavy bumps and -strains follow one another and the boat must often go very slow or -even stop altogether. Sometimes the heavy ship just staggers from the -impact, but the floes are generally broken by the shock and swirl away -out of our way, or scraping the ship pass to the rear. All aboard show -new interest and energy. The forced stops and inaction were dulling -even to the crew. - -File a wireless to be sent from Barrow. It will reach Washington -to-morrow after we shall have started on the return journey. - -Two dogs on board fight fiercely. An officer, the owner of one, trying -to separate them is bitten by his own through a finger. - -A marine, in swinging the heavy lead with which they are constantly -sounding the depth, gets the cord caught about his hand and suffers a -bad sprain with fracture. - -The captain's little black cat, Peter, helps to entertain us by his -antics. No wonder sailors in their often monotonous existence like all -sorts of mascots. - -Friday, August 6. Of course our dates got mixed, and more than one has -to consult the calendar and count. The _Bear_ had to turn back once -more last night; ice too heavy. Anchored, however, not far to south. -This morning very cloudy, rainy, chilly, but wind from near to east, -and so from about 6 a. m. we are once more laboriously on our way. -Now and then a bump, heave, stagger, then again the screw resumes its -cheerful song. We are passing through the most dangerous part of all -the coast here where many vessels have been lost, sometimes whole small -fleets of whalers. But very few come here now--we have seen but one -since leaving Kotzebue. They call this stretch "the boat graveyard." - -Saturday, August 7. Stalled, about 30 miles from Barrow. Anchored in -the protection of a great grounded flat, in a clear pond of water, -with ice all around it, but especially seaward, where the pack seems -solid. Some open water reported beyond it, but wind (wild) keeps from -the wrong quarter and the captain will make no further attempt until -conditions change. Of course it is cloudy again and has rained some -during the night and morning, but the temperature is somewhat higher, -so that one does not need an overcoat and gloves, although the officers -wear their sheep-lined short coats which are nice and warm. - -After noon asked the captain for the skin whaleboat to explore the -shore. The latter is nearly a mile distant and shows about 60 feet high -dirt bluffs. Got the boat and went with the boatswain. Berg, a young -"hand," Weenie, and the movie man, La Voy. Rowed with La Voy. Had a -wholesome two and a half hours exploring. Found a little stream, with -traces of native deer camp (collected two seal skulls); a moderate -number of flowers and grasses (collected some mushrooms); some fossil -shells from the bluffs; and two Eskimo burials. One of these, a -woman, nearly all washed away and lost; of the other, a man, secured -the skull, jaw, one shoulder blade and part of a diseased femur with -corresponding socket (mushroom arthritis), also the two humeri. A good -specimen. Returned, rowing again, near 4. All there playing cribbage -and solitaire. - -Am tempted to walk to Barrow; but there are some streams in the way -which it might be impossible to ford. Moreover, no one knows the -distance. - -Sunday, August 8. Morning finds us once more thwarted, and standing -at our place of refuge. No change in conditions, but there will be a -change of moon to-night, so I at least have hopes. In my travels I -learned too much about the moon not to believe in it. Toward evening -ice begins to move out. - -Monday, August 9. At 12.30 a. m., unexpectedly, a new start. The wind -has turned at last (new moon!) to northeast, but is mild. Soon in ice. -Many bumps and much creaking and shaking. Captain's collie gets scared -and tries to get into our beds, one after another. But very little -sleep under these conditions. - -In the morning we find ourselves in a thicker ice field than any -before, with floes on all sides. Boat barely creeps. Toward 10 a. -m. further progress found almost impossible, and so forced to turn -backward once more. However, can not even go back and so, near 12, -anchor about a mile offshore opposite a small river with lagoon-like -mouth and two tents of natives--"Shinara," or "Shinerara." - -Ask captain for a boat to visit and explore the coast. Consents, and -so at 1 we go forth, about eight of us, with the captain's dog. Reach -Eskimo, photograph the group. All look remarkably Indianlike. Then go -to look for skeletal material. Nothing near, so return for the Eskimo -boy. He leads me about a mile over the highland tundra to two burials -in boxes--not old. Look through crevices shows in one an adolescent, in -the other a female (or a boy) with hair and skin still on. Leave both. - -Then into the boat once more after buying some fossil teeth, and with -the boy Isaac--his father is Abraham--try to go into the river, and -soon get stuck in the stickiest mud (oily shale) imaginable--great work -to clean even the oar with which we had to push ourselves off. Land -then on the beach and for the next two hours explore that side of the -basin. Find remains of two small settlements--seven huts in all, none -very old. - -Gather five skulls with parts of four skeletons, most bones missing; -also some mushrooms, several interesting humeri of seals, and a piece -of pumice-like fossil bone. Near 4.30 begins to rain a bit so we hurry -to boat, and in a little while, after depositing Isaac near his camp, -reach the _Bear_. - -Eskimo on shore had two skinned seal lying on the ground, and there -were many reindeer horns. A pile of them was over a fire, being smoked. - -The wind has been the whole day from the northeast, the long-wished-for -wind, and the ice has moved out sufficiently to induce the captain to -make another start. So at 5 p. m. off we go again, and for quite a -while the screw sings merrily, until we reach some remaining ice, when -there are more bumps and staggers. - -The waters about the ship show, whenever calmer, the heads of swimming -seal, grown and little. But they are wary and keep at a distance. -Otherwise the only live things are an occasional gull, and rarely a -couple of ducks. In the icy water, however, on and about the floes, are -seen again numerous small, dark fish (from the size of a big minnow -to that of a tomcod); and along the shore swim merrily hundreds of -very tame and graceful little snipes, lovely small birds, too little, -luckily, to be hunted. - -Little enthusiasm about my collecting, but the boatswain and some at -least of the men are genuinely helpful. I believe some of the others -are a bit superstitious. But I get some chance at least, and that is -precious. - -Expect to reach Barrow before 12 p. m., and to start back before -morning--a big chance for some sleep again if I want to do some -collecting. Sleep, through the frequent lack of it, has become a kind -of obsession in one's thoughts, yet when there were chances during the -days of waiting it would not come. - -August 9, evening, to 10 next morning. This is a land of odds and -wonders. In the morning things looked hopeless; toward evening the wind -has driven away enough ice to make a narrow open lane near the shore, -and utilizing this we arrived without difficulty at 8 p. m. at the long -unreachable Barrow. At 9 boat takes us ashore. At 9.30 p. m. I start -with an Eskimo and a seaman (Weenie) from the _Bear_ on a collecting -trip over about 3 square miles of tundra behind Barrow, and at 12.30 -return to ship with four bags of skulls and bones. But sleep! Hardly -any since 12.30 last night, and very little after return to-day, for -due to fear of ice they called in everybody from shore before 3 a. m., -and the newcomers keep on walking and talking and banging with their -baggage until 5, when, fearing a return of the ice, we start once more -southward, toward--it feels strange, but it is so--home. It was a -remarkable good fortune, our getting there thus and getting out again, -as we did, without damage. - -Barrow is a good-looking and rather important place. It stretches about -2 miles along the low shore, in three clusters, the two main ones -separated by a lagoon. It has a radio station, a mission hospital, and -a school. There are over 200 natives here, and also quite a few whites, -including Mr. Charles Brower, the trader, observer and collector, with -his native wife and their family, the teacher, the missionary and his -family, and the nurses. - -The burial place here is the most extensive in the Eskimo territory. -Taking the older parts and the new, it covers over a square mile of the -tundra, beginning not far beyond the site of the hospital and extending -to and beyond a small stream that flows over a mile inland. But the -burials were grouped in a few spots, the rest being barren. - -This extensive burial ground is now about exhausted for scientific -purposes, except for such skeletons and objects as may have been -assimilated--i. e. buried--by the tundra. That such exist became quite -evident during our search, and they naturally are the oldest and -most valuable. We secured two good skulls of this nature. They were -completely buried, only a little of the vault showing, and had there -been time we should doubtless have found also parts of the skeletons. -The skulls were discolored brown. - -Of the later skeletal material we found but the leavings, the best -having been carried off by other collectors. There were remnants of -hundreds of skulls and skeletons, but for the most part so damaged as -not to be worth saving. Nevertheless our diligent midnight search was -not in vain, and we brought back four sacks full of specimens, the -Eskimo carrying his with the utmost good nature. The destruction here -is due to sailors and other whites and to dogs, foxes, and reindeer. - -The reindeer herds, going in hundreds over the ground, help materially -to scatter and damage the bones. So, the older material gone, while -the more recent burials are, at least so far as the younger element -is concerned, quite worthless to science, containing many mix bloods -of all sorts--even occasionally with the negro (men from the wrecked -whaleboats). The collection now secured was the last one possible from -this locality, except through excavation. - -Tuesday, August 10. The boat is now crowded. We lost one woman and got -three; also about five or six men--newspaper, movie, radioman, a dog -teamster, a trapper. Quite a variety, in every way, and most are to go -with us at least as far as Nome. They will have to hang up two hammocks -in our little cabin each night, and some must sleep elsewhere. - -Packing the whole morning. Five boxes. My man of last night helping, a -fine, big young fellow. This aid in the work is a great boon to me, -and the transportation of the many specimens by the _Bear_ down to -Seattle or San Francisco will be a fine service to the Institution. - -The older of us, that is those who have been longer on the ship, -feel like veterans and are drawn closer together. The new lot, -heterogeneous, do not attract, particularly one of the women. An older -one, evidently a well-liked nurse, goes off at Wainwright, which we -reach once more at 8 p. m. Here goes off also Jim Allen, the trader, -who is a good fellow in a rough shell and whom I learned to like. He -helped us all a good deal while in the ice. - -The movie man from Point Hope is a somewhat spoiled, gossipy, and -roughshod, but otherwise, a good-hearted big kid--not very wise, but -not mischievous, and more than efficient in his own calling. Is 40, -but already aging, like a weather-beaten poplar--not pine or oak. Is -violently against all "kikes," or eastern money-lending Jews, from whom -he used to borrow at usurious interest and who sold him out once or -twice when he could not pay. - -Lost Jim Allen and dropped the nurse, but are still too many. At 10 p. -m., just as the minister and I have retired, there comes a call for the -former to go up. A couple of Eskimos have arrived, with their friends, -to be married. So he dresses and performs the function. I am too weary -to rise and dress to go and look at it. He says it was quite tame. Then -the anchor, and once more we are off. No ice any more, and the sea has -again a swell, which was absent in the ice-covered waters. - -Wednesday, August 11. Swell, but not bad, though one of the women, -another nurse, is ill, and the other, a "writer," etc., will not get up -for breakfast. Quite a problem now to get washed and shaved. Both the -minister (archdeacon) and the movie man like to use perfumed things, -and the former takes much time with his toilet, so I endeavor as before -to be first up. - -August 12. A great day. Was called a little after 12.30 a. m., after -but little sleep (through anticipation), to examine a site ashore--a -coal mine, a water source, and possibly something human. Two miles to -shore, in semidarkness; no night yet in these regions. A long tramp -over the mossy and grassy tundra; mosquitoes. One native igloo, and -on a little elevation some distance off a grave of a child; otherwise -nothing. After examination of the coal strata, a curious secondary -inclusion in sand and gravel, and the stream of water (good to drink, -even if not clear), we depart and reach ship again after 4 a. m. - -Beginning to be--in fact am already--a "night doctor," for sure. -Never thought I could stand such doings, but am standing it, and that -even with some cold and bothersome night cough. But am sure short on -sleeping, for it is impossible for me to catch up during the days; am -not a day sleeper. I suppose when one is most of the time half hungry -his mind naturally reverts to hunger, as mine does to sleep. - -We are due to-day again at Point Hope, and I am anxious for a little -time there. - -At night. This was a day of harvest. Reached Point Hope about 3 p. m., -but had to go around again to the other side, due to the swell and surf -on the north. I went to shore in the first boat, about 4 p. m. Doctor -Goodman, with whom we are very friendly, was with me and promised to -go over and help me get some men with whom I want to excavate the -burial hole of his predecessor. But when on the shore stays behind -and remains. So we go on with my man from the ship to the whalebone -graveyard. Near there see two Eskimo men with some dogs. They smile; -so I tell them what I want; in two minutes have engaged them; in about -three more we begin to dig, and in about five minutes after strike -first bones. - -My good friend the boatswain, Mr. Berg, comes to help, and as I now -have four to work I take a bag and go on collecting a little more -over the plains beyond where we are. Get a good bag. Find another -good-natured Eskimo, Frank, coming from fishing, engage him to help -carrying and eventually to take place of one of my first workers, who -is an old man. Then we see Doctor Goodman, far away, coming to the -mission. Borrow two more shovels from his stock and a few coal bags. -Meanwhile bone and skull pile is fairly exposed from one side and top -gravel partly removed, so I give up intended trip to old village site -and, as we were given only to 9.30 p. m., go to work on the pile. - -A great deal here. More than anticipated, though all is a jumble, with -the long and other bones of the skeleton on the top. The work is to get -down in the moist gravel, disengage one bone and skull after another -as rapidly as possible, give it a rapid look-over, and either save, if -fairly well preserved or showing some special feature, or discard. If -saved, the specimen is handed to one of the Eskimo, who cleans it of -gravel, lays it out to dry a little, and then places it gently in a bag. - -Many of the bones and skulls were found so damaged that they had to be -left. But much was also good. The strenuous work, however, had to go -on without interruption and at the fullest possible speed, if the main -part of what was there was to be saved. So no supper, no stop for even -a minute, until after 8 p. m. Sixteen bags full, and some of the sacks -quite spacious. At last had to give up--no more time, no sacks, and -lower down everything frozen as hard as flint. The main part, however, -secured--183 good skulls, several hundred lower jaws, and a lot of -long and other bones. This, together with the rest of the material from -this place, ought to give us data of much value. - -But now, how shall the lot be got on the boat. Luckily, one of the -Eskimo that has been working for me has a dog team and sled. So I -engage these; and shortly after we finish putting everything in -order--in the presence now of Doctor Goodman, who comes to look at -us--the man arrives, with a good-sized sled and 13 whitish dogs. Load -all the bags on--and then a sight never to be forgotten--the dogs -pulling the load across the tundra, depressions, gravels, right down to -the water's edge and to the motor boat that is waiting for us. How they -strained, pulled with all will, and obeyed. A wise leader in front, -six pairs behind. No reins, only a few calls from the Eskimo, and they -knew just what to do. Tried to photograph them, but light already -poor--advancing season. (Pl. 9, _a._ _b._) - -Then hurry to the teacher, not home; to La Voy, not home. Find teacher -in tent, sick, trembling; I fear beginning of typhoid. Did not get -anything for me in our absence. La Voy promised to give me some things -from his collections, but now is not here. A native woman, however, -meets me far out on the beach, and I learn she has dug out for me since -our first visit five good skulls from the ground--some, she shows, deep -to above the elbow. She has them near the ship--we go on--on the road -boys and women overtake me with a few things to sell. Then the woman -brings her skulls, in a bag on her back, in excellent condition. I pay -her for her trouble. Reach our boat, and the bell on the _Bear_ rings -9.30. - -The bone pile--the sled and dogs and load over the tundra--the woman -carrying a native (seal) bag with skulls--will be three rare, indelible -pictures. - -On the _Bear_ at 10. A little sandwich, fruit, and a cinnamon cake with -coffee, and to bed. But irritating tire-cough keeps me up for another -hour. - -Friday, 13th. Packing. A nice day. Toward evening stop at Kevalina. -Obtain a few things and pictures. To bed soon, but cough still bothers. -I have nothing for it; there is but little on the boat in the way of -medicines outside of the most ordinary things. - -Saturday, 14th. Up 5.30, early breakfast, and 6.45 start once more -for Kotzebue. The _Bear_ has anchored about 12 miles off, so do not -reach village until 8.35, and have to go back at 9.10. Rush to store, -get boxes, barrels, and packing. And then to the schoolhouse, where -I expect some information about the skeleton found under the house -and obtained on my former visit. Also promised information from Mr. -Chance, the supervisor, about old sites. But Mr. Chance is gone, and no -letter or message--it came later, to Washington. A few words with the -teacher, and one of the boys from our boat is already calling me. - -Return at 11 a. m. and spend the rest of the day packing, finishing -just at supper. A curious sunset at 8, a horizontally banded sun, -several clear-cut, fairly broad, dark bands. Sea getting rougher. - -Sunday, August 15. Bad sea, wind, waves, fog. Have to take to bed and -do without breakfast. Stay in until lunch. We could not stop again at -Shishmareff; could not get ashore. The next stop, late afternoon, is -to be at the Little Diomede, to take off Jenness; but if too rough we -shall go on to Teller. The wind is from the northwest and the foghorn -keeps on blowing. - -The whole day continues rough, foggy, unfriendly. The ship can not stop -at the Diomede, nor go to Teller; obliged to go to Nome. After supper -all chairs and movable articles have to be tied up. Most day in bed, -but escaped real seasickness, and got some sleep. - -Monday, 16. Weather moderated. We are in lee of the mountainous part of -Seward Peninsula. After breakfast off Nome, and at 11 a. m. in town. -First stop at Lomen's. Then from one to another till 4.55 p. m., when -Dan Sutherland, the Alaska Delegate to Congress, escorts me to the -boat. Saw many friends, got some mail, and, best of all, got a fine -deposit collection for the National Museum from Mr. Carl Lomen. The -judge asked me for another lecture for next Saturday, when we are to -see Nome for the last time. - -About 5 a. m. arrive at Golovnin Bay to take water. At this place this -is generally a day of partial rest and recreation for the crew. The -water is taken from a small stream fed by a spring that comes out from -a cave of the mountain, and is put direct into the whaleboats, brought -to ship, and pumped into its tanks. - -Shortly after breakfast the captain gives us the larger motor boat, -and with Mr. Berg and two of the seamen I start for a little survey -trip along the northern shore of the bay. In less than an hour we reach -a sheltered nook with a small stream, where there is an old frame -dwelling with some out-structures, all evidently abandoned, though -various articles of use hang or lie about, including several guns of -old patterns. - -On a bluff to the left of the house are six burials, some old, wood -near all rotten, some more recent. The latter, two in number, both show -a large animal skin covering of the body, besides which the latter -shows remnants of clothing. Secure two good skeletons, practically -complete; also head and a few parts of a newborn (or near) child. A -unique feature--with one of the male skeletons is found a complete -skeleton of an eagle. Could have got also a female skeleton, but was -still unclean, and we perceived a small native motor boat coming -toward us from the reindeer camp about 1½ miles farther inward. So -we replaced everything (outwardly) and started off to meet the native -boat. Found in it two young men and three women. Inquired about old -sites and learned of one about 3 miles farther inward. - -Stopped at the reindeer camp. Found there about a dozen individuals. -Got more information, also a young man to go with us, bought for the -_Bear_ a dozen good-sized silver salmon--caught this morning and lying -for protection against flies, in a pool of water--and left for the old -site "around the point." - -A nice site, but small. Fine beach for bathing if it were in a warmer -climate. Remains of about a half dozen semisubterranean houses. A -copper nail from one shows they were not very ancient. And no burials -left, save one, more recent, of a child, most of which is gone. But -there is a green elevated plane rising from the beach and we soon find -several varieties of berries, especially large and good blueberries, a -variety of huckleberry, and a sort of wine-tasting dwarf blackberry. -Collect enough for immediate consumption--a most welcome diversion in -every way--and get some for the captain. - -Leave near 1 p. m. A little lunch on boat, then once more the reindeer -camp, where the young women make us good hot coffee with as good -biscuits as one could find anywhere. Buy more berries from them, load -our fish (12 salmon ranging about 12 pounds each, for $3), and start -off for another site just around Stony Point. - -Round up one point, then another and another, up to five, and by that -time the going has become so rough that we get much tossed about, ship -water, dog gets frightened and near sick, and just as we reach what we -thought must be the last point there juts out still another. It is now -so rough that the boatswain thinks we could not land, and so nothing -remains but to turn back to the mother boat. Reach there near 3.30 p. -m. Soon all boats are hoisted, and at 4 the _Bear_ is on her way to St. -Michael. - -August 18. Arrived about midnight off St. Michael; must stay outside -due to shoal water. Somewhat rough. - -In the morning boat coaling, dirty work, so all who can go ashore. Meet -Mr. Williams again; buy a few native articles in stores, visit Mrs. -Evans, the teacher-nurse, who has on an occasion successfully amputated -a native's finger. The deputy marshal takes me to his house, gives me -some dried deer meat and smoked salmon strips, and promises to be on a -lookout for specimens for us. Near noon return. Still rough. - -At night a bad blow and the ship tossing a great deal, almost as during -the storm to St. Lawrence. Feel it considerably, but after 3 a. m. wind -and water moderate. Feel effects of it, however, whole morning. For an -explorer to be ever in rough weather subject to seasickness is a horrid -affliction. - -August 19. Off Nome once more. Everything, city, mountains, appear -exceedingly, unnaturally clear--not a good sign. After 9 a. m. go to -town. Soon at the Lomens' headquarters, and the sons, particularly -Carl, bring out three smaller boxes full of things from St. Lawrence -and Nunivak Islands, and give me the choice of all. And after I am -through--near two hours' fast work--Carl adds one beautiful tusk -(carved) from Nunivak Island, and then adds another, and two big bones -of a mammoth, some as gifts, some as an addition to his loan to our -institution. Excellent men. - -Lunch with Ralph and Carl; then a good walk in the open; and then -another lecture. All pleased, and two bring me specimens for our -museum. Slowly back to boat and 4.45 on the _Bear_ again. Nice day, but -getting cooler and blustery. - -Captain Ross comes to port, the graphophone starts its usual jazz songs -next (ward) room, then the supper, all visitors gone, and the _Bear_ -raises anchor to be off for the north once more. - -August 19, evening. A new, final chapter begins with to-day. What will -it contain when over? - -August 20. Rough. Go north until in plain sight of the Diomedes as well -as Cape Wales, and then the captain decides landing would be risky, -if not impossible; and so reluctantly we turn back and proceed toward -Teller. What a tantalizing experience this must have been to poor -Jenness, who is waiting for us on the Little Diomede, a most dreary -place, to be taken off; and I, too, expected collections at both the -Diomedes and the Cape. - -Saturday, August 21. Port Clarence, off Teller. This proved a day never -to be forgotten; for failure of a rigid system, for bad weather, for -strain and endurance, and nearness to almost anything. - -My purpose was to utilize the _Bear's_ visit to Teller for a survey of -a Chukchee-Eskimo battle field, of which I heard repeatedly from the -Yukon onward. Sometime during the earlier half of the last century the -Chukchee from Asia are said to have made an invasion of the peninsula -and to have reached as far as the Salt Lake, east of Teller, when they -were met by the united Eskimo and badly defeated. The exact spot where -this happened is, however, somewhat uncertain, and it was to locate it, -examine, and collect what might be possible of the remains that were -said to be still there that I asked Captain Cochran to let me have one -of the motor boats, to which he kindly consented, uniting the trip with -some topographical observations for his own purposes. - -The evening before I was told by the second officer that we shall -start some time soon after midnight for that part of the old battle -field--there seemed to be two of them--at the eastern point of the Salt -Lake. As a result could not undress, and after ship stopped in Port -Clarence, near 11 p. m., had but a little rest. The call came at 4 a. -m. A little breakfast, a package of lunch, and start at 5.10. - -First note. Ship about 7 miles from Teller. Water deep enough much -nearer, but we came at night. Here there are already dark nights -between about 9 p. m. and 4 a. m., and so they were cautious. - -Second. The officer says he has orders not to stop at Teller, where -there is an old Indian (Dunak) from whom I expected to get exact -bearings, and where there is also a white trader, Mr. Peterson, who -knows the place and might possibly have accompanied us. - -Third. Distances, as usual, longer than estimated. We find eventually -that the destination is about 32 miles from Teller. - -Fourth. A brisk head wind and sea retarding us. - -Fifth. As we approach our spot, a shoal water, with grass, preventing -us from going straight to the most likely place, and no other way -was tried. It is 11 a. m. and already I hear an intimation that we -shall not have time for anything except to make a lunch. This is the -same officer, a very good man at his post but rigid and without much -interest in anything else than his own field, who after 10 miles' trip -to Kotzebue gave us 25 minutes there, when it required 15 minutes alone -to reach the school from the boat. - -So we end by landing on the extremity of a spit there to make lunch, -and I have only the time it takes to prepare the latter. I find, in -hurry, remains of five old semisubterranean dwellings on the northern -side of the point, and about as many low mounds with remnants about of -rotten driftwood--undoubtedly old burials. Probably the skeletons have -been assimilated by the tundra vegetation and blown material. A single -native skull, a female, without face, is lying about. Collected. - -While lunch is being made ready the officer and the boatswain, Mr. -Berg, each shoot a duck. Then the lunch, a hurried loading, and -departure, after some delay in setting the sail, at 1.30 p. m. I saw -nothing that looked like a battle field. Its determination and survey -must be left for some future explorer. - -Sail rapidly. Wind fresh, with us, also waves. Cross Salt Lake, and -Tussoc "River." About 4.30 reach Grantly Harbor and wind increases; -also waves. We run fast, and well enough, but the umiak (skin boat) we -are pulling begins to suffer. It rides crazily and is jerked over the -seething waves. The crossbar by which it is partly held breaks, and now -the boat goes more sidewise, with water lapping over its border and -getting in. Wind now quite a gale, breaking waves everywhere--every -now and then a big one--whitecaps all over. A dim view of Teller in -distance, when the skin boat begins to fill more rapidly and sag. Must -stop engine--waves toss us like mad--one could be thrown bodily out of -the boat if not careful in bending or moving and holding. The sail -comes down and the mast is laid down, a bad piece of work. Berg and -Pete Brant (an elderly trapper with us but formerly of Coast Guard -Service at Nome, a good sailor and knowing these waters) work very -hard and well. The skin boat has to be pulled alongside and bailed out -by young Weenie, a very hard and dangerous task. Mr. Berg's rain hat -("souwester") blows off and is lost in the seething waves. Later Weenie -nearly loses his--snatches it out between the boats with a narrow -escape for his head. Then Weenie climbs into the skin boat--a brave -act--and finishes the bailing, but is much "in" after getting back. -Then our big staunch motor launch starts again at reduced speed. But -the skin boat does great antics and threatens to fill again or break; -so Pete Brant holds the rope and is jerked every now and then, until I -fear that he may any moment be jerked out into the waves and watch to -catch his legs. Fortunately he succeeds in preventing it, but there was -a slim margin. - -It has drizzled or rained, besides the wind, most of the afternoon, -and there is a lot of spray to splashes from the waves. All this has -to be taken as it comes, but the water is not cold, and our boots -and oilskins give protection. Nevertheless my right knee to hip gets -thoroughly wet and chilly, and I was not alone. But there is little -time to think of such things. We see at Teller the waves breaking high -on the shore, some boats already on the beach and others being driven -there, a few people looking helplessly on. - -About 5.50 we round the Teller spit and come in the lee of it into -calmer water. But the visibility over the water is probably not over -a mile now, and we see no trace of the _Bear_. The gasoline supply -is getting rather low; and all are more or less cold, though dressed -warmer than I and, due to their hip-high rubber boots--mine reach only -to the knee--not wet. I now shake a lot with the cold, without being -able to stop it. So we skirt the protecting bluffs southward to where -everyone thinks the _Bear_ is, near a little stream from which they -were to take fresh water. But though we all strain our eyes to the -limit, there is no trace of the ship. - -Thus reach Cape Riley and the stream, which is found dry, without a -drop of water. Get on the pebbly beach, turn skin boat over to get the -water out, and hurry to chop wood. No wood save the water troughs, so -chop these. Must have fire. I warm up a little by running around and -chopping. They pour gasoline on the wood, make a big fire, cook a pot -of coffee, and with bread and preserved meat make a supper, though it -is mainly coffee. - -Near 8 and getting dark. Storm, outside of protection of cliffs, -unabated. There is a second watering place, 7 or 8 miles across the -bay, and our only chance to find the _Bear_ is to rush for this. But to -do this we must go diagonally across the waves and similarly against -the wind--a bad prospect. Also, we have only just about enough gasoline -to reach the place. But there is no help. - -Thus a new start, and before long we are once more in the waves. It is -now quite obscure. The waves break now and then and splash over us. -Before long the skin boat is again sagging and in danger of sinking. -Once more pull alongside and dangerous, exhausting bailing by Weenie. - -And so on, tossed, driven aside, but thanks to the good engine never -stopping. I hold to seat not to be thrown against things or even out; -the others are becoming gruff, irritable. And then Higsby makes out a -faint light far ahead. No one certain, but in a while it seems moving. -A solitary small light somewhere far on the shore, probably, not the -boat. - -But soon another stronger light discerned, seemingly moving to the -left, and later several--the ship in all probability. - -We toss and reel and stagger nearer, but motor still going strong. -For the skin boat they found at last a position in which it takes but -little water. Finally see decisively a blinking light, the mast signal. -We show our lantern a few times. Then the ship looms before us, but -there is still the risky task of getting alongside and aboard. However, -all is accomplished without real damage. - -The cabin--the good and anxious captain--a little canned grapefruit, -and bed. But head falls and rises, the events of the day reappear, -wonder what has become of the trade schooner we saw being driven on the -beach--and so on until consciousness passes into deep sleep. The _Bear_ -is fairly quiet, not in the brunt of the weather. And this eventually -moderates, so that a little after 4 we start again, only to anchor once -more at 6, a little below where last night we had our supper. - -August 22. Cloudy, drizzly, rough still, and wireless news of -widespread bad storms, even in the States. So we shall wait. One more -hope for my collections at the Cape and with Jenness. - -Captain says this morning the officer misunderstood his orders about -Teller. The trip demonstrated a number of things. One of the main and -most gratifying was the sterling quality of the men with me, officer, -boatswain, motorman. Weenie, Pete, in the teeth of real danger. They -were all that men should be under such conditions, which is the best -way I can express it. The trip may have been in vain so far as its -scientific object was concerned, but it brought a number of men face to -face with life's stresses and found their mettle of the truest quality, -without exception, to witness which was worth the whole experience. - -August 22-23. During the night have left Port Clarence and endeavored -once more to reach Wales and the Diomedes, to be again turned away by -fog and rough weather. The captain doubts if there will be any more -decent "spells." The season for this stormy sea is too far advanced. -Unable to land anywhere. - -The day is followed by another horrid night, again off the St. Lawrence -Island. Boat tossing and heaving and rolling, waves reaching and even -splashing over the level of the high upper deck in the back, everything -tied tip and cleared or fastened, a danger in making even a few steps -of being thrown against something, or on the deck of being thrown -overboard, and everything constantly cracking, creaking, with every -few minutes an impact big thud-like or a splash of a wave, the floor -heaving and twisting; and thus from before evening until morning. -Then a trace easier, but the whole day gloomy and rough and the night -again more unsettled. To-day better, wind which began east then -turned northwest, then almost north, now stopped, but a heavy swell -is running, heaving us nearly as much as yesterday. We have gone very -slowly. - -Have arrived off Savonga. The sky is now clear and there is not much -wind, but the swell is and keeps on such that, notwithstanding the -repeated calls of our siren, the Eskimo whom we see above the beach -near their boats, do not dare to launch these and come, nor does the -captain care to risk one of our own launches, though we need fresh -reindeer meat and all would like once more to meet the nice lot of -natives of this village. After a prolonged wait and as conditions show -no improvement, nothing remains but to leave the island. - -Our next stop, if the weather permits, is to be at Nunivak Island. -This is a large island off the Alaskan coast, well below the present -delta of the Yukon and some distance above Kuskokwim Bay. The island -is one of the least explored, and the people living upon it one of -the least known. It is only during the last few years that a trading -and a reindeer post has been established on this island, and only -the second year that there is a teacher. What little is known of the -natives, a branch of the Eskimo, shows that they have many different -habits from those farther north, in clothing, decoration, etc. They -make rather good black pottery, and from this island come the most -elaborate carvings in ivory, reminding strongly of small totem poles. -A photograph of a group of these people, seen at the Lomen Studio at -Nome, showed remarkably broad and short faces, unlike the Eskimo of the -north. All of which made me very anxious to visit the island. - -To be brief such a visit, though promised to me by the captain, could -not be realized. The waters about the island are so imperfectly -charted that in weather that continued half rough it was thought -unwise to risk a landing. I felt this keenly, as the various other -impossibilities of the trip. But I could never forget all the -unexpected help I received from the Revenue Cutter Service, for -which I was deeply grateful, and had to acknowledge the justice of -the captain's position. We came so near that the land birds from the -island were already about us, but then turned toward the Pribilofs and -Unalaska.... - -Only little remains to be told. At the Pribilof Island, St. Paul, we -stopped at night, to take on four live fur seals for the Academy of -Sciences of San Francisco, and there we ran once more into stormy -weather. Here are a few notes from this period: - -August 27. Toward evening again a gale, southwest. At night worse. Ship -tossing rather wildly. No possibility to me of either getting up or -resting. Barely keep from being horribly ill again. - -Later in night ship had to be turned back and just drift. - -August 28. All day the storm continues. I could take no meals, not even -a drop of water. In bed and barely standing it. Ship hove to at last -and just drifting. - -August 29. Gale keeps on just as bad, howling till 1.30 a. m. Then it -moderates somewhat and ship starts going again. Last night we were only -60 miles from Unalaska, now a good deal farther out. Steam, still in -half a gale and big sea, until after midday, when, not without some -difficulty and danger, we reach the fine little protected harbor of -Unalaska. Feel weak, near worn out. - -August 30, p. m. Rest, and all is well again. Secure a little rowboat -and go with old Pete Brant to near-by islands. Storm over for the -day and fair, though not entirely. Row, climb hills, pick berries -and mushrooms, watch a bearlike semiwild pig, out whole afternoon, -returning strengthened, refreshed. Only no appetite yet. Found no -traces of human occupancy, but heard of some in the "Captain's Bay" and -at other spots. - -The few Aleuts in Unalaska at this time show physiognomies akin to the -brachycephalic Indian, and not the Eskimo type. - -August 31-September 1. A new gale, with drizzles. Luckily we are at a -dock, but I can do little. They are cleaning the boilers and coaling. -Evening of 1st have a good dinner--captain and the rest of us from the -_Bear's_ cabin--at a friendly local trader, Louis Strauss, and after -that give lecture on "Man's Origin, etc." Introduction by Capt. Van -Buskirk, local commodore of the Revenue Cutter Service. Lecture well -received, make numerous friends, get good information. Strauss's supper -was the first I could eat with some taste and hunger. But the lecture -did me good. - -September 2. Coaling and overhauling of boilers finished. Gale stopped. -Ship leaves 1 p. m. Day fairly sunny. Everyone sees us off. Harbor and -hills look fine, though sky again clouded. Outside quite a swell after -the gales. Pass the _Haida_, practicing with her cannon. The _Algonkin_ -was here too, with the story of their visit to the Punuk Islands. The -fresh green steep mountains toward the entrance of the harbor are -refreshing to the eye. - -Pass through Akitan. Pass picturesque, especially the outstanding -isolated rocks near the islands. - -Toward evening, far to the left (east), see under the clouds a glorious -icy cone, the "Pogrovemoi," and later a lower but still great mountain -a little farther and to the right an old but not so very old volcano. -Other volcanoes there are, the captain tells me, now hidden by the low -clouds. - -Have a new passenger, Mr. Charles Brower, the trader of Barrow. Came -from the _Brower_, ship of his own company, a little larger and faster -than the _Bear_, and going also to San Francisco, but with poorer -accommodations. Brings with him a box of archeological specimens from -the Barter Island, in the north. Examine them, but find little of -special interest. - -It takes us a little less than 10 days of a fairly good journey to -reach San Francisco. Dock at Oakland late in the evening. The next -morning, after breakfast, the boxes and barrels with collections are -taken on the dock--a big pile. Then the Santa Fe officials kindly -run a flat freight car to the pile, the boxes, etc., are loaded on, -the main part taken to the freight depot, the most valuable ones to -express, shipped, and shortly after what remains of the expedition is -on the Santa Fe Limited for Chicago. It only needs to be added that, -notwithstanding the variety of receptacles and the difficulties of -packing, the collections reached the Institution without damage to -a single specimen. Thanks once more for the help received in making -all safe to the captain and officers of the _Bear_, to Mr. Berg, the -best of boatswains, to the carpenter, and to all those of the crew who -assisted. - - - - -THE YUKON TERRITORY--SITES, THE INDIANS, THE ESKIMO - - -THE TANANA - - -BRIEF HISTORICAL DATA - -The Tanana is the largest tributary of the Yukon. It is over 600 miles -in length, and in its breadth, though not in its volume, it appears -to equal, if not to exceed, the Yukon at their junction. The first -white men to see the mouth of the Tanana were the Russian traders -(about 1860), followed before long by the employees of the Hudson Bay -Co. Dall says that it has long been noted on the old maps of Russian -America, under the name of the River of the Mountain Men, while the -Hudson Bay men called it the Gens-des-Buttes River. (Alaska and Its -Resources, 281-282.) Dall mapped the junction of the river with the -Yukon. The first who descended a part of its course were two traders, -Harper and Bates, who reached the river higher up, sometime in the late -seventies. The name of Harper is preserved by having been given to -the big bend of the stream, 12 miles above its mouth. Its scientific -exploration begins only in 1885, with the passage down nearly its -entire length of Lieut. Henry T. Allen, United States Army;[5] the main -work concerning the geography and geology of the river being done in -1898 by A. H. Brooks.[6] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[5] Allen, Henry T., Military Reconnaissance in Alaska. Comp. Narr. -Expl. Alas., 415-416, 446-452. - -[6] Brooks, A. H., Reconnaissance in the Tanana and White River Basins. -Twentieth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., Washington, 1900, pt. VII, -437-438; also the Geog. and Geol. Alas., U. S. Geol. Surv. Doc. 201, -1906. - - -POPULATION - -The native population of the Tanana has always been remarkably -scarce. Dall obtained an estimate of their whole number as about 150 -families.[7] Petrof, in 1880, thought they numbered perhaps seven -or eight hundred;[8] Allen in 1885 estimated them at between 550 -and 600;[9] Brooks, in 1898, thought there were less than 400;[10] -and the 1910 United States Census gives the total number of the -"Tenan-kutchin," full bloods and mix bloods, as 415.[11] - -According to Brooks (Reconnaissance, 490-491), the Tanana natives were -separated into two geographic contingents, the eastern or highland and -the northwestern or lowland groups. The most easterly group included -the Indian settlements in the vicinity of Forty-mile and Mentasta Pass -trail; the northwestern comprises to-day those from Nenana to the mouth -of the river. - -The Tanana Indians were generally regarded by other natives as -warlike and dangerous, but so far as their relation with the whites -was concerned there was little justification for this notion.[12] -Physically they were reported by Brooks to "average rather better than -the Indians of the Yukon" (Reconnaissance, 492). There are but a few -and scanty other references to them in this connection. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[7] "Their numbers are supposed not to exceed 150 families." Alaska and -Its Resources, p. 108. - -[8] Notes Alas. Ethn., 161. - -[9] Brooks, op. cit, 493. - -[10] Brooks, op. cit., 493. - -[11] Population, III, 1137. - -[12] See Castner, J. C., A Story of Hardship and Suffering in Alaska: -Comp. Narr. Expl. Alaska, 686-709. - - -INDIAN SITES AND VILLAGES ALONG THE TANANA - -_Upper course._--On this much larger part of the river it is possible -to report but indirectly. - -A. H. Brooks, in 1898, reports thus on this subject:[13] "Several -Indian houses are found on and near the Tanana between the Good-paster -and Salchakat and constitute a subgroup of the upper Tanana -Indians. * * * The most thickly settled part of the region is along the -sluggish portions of the lower Tanana. The largest villages are at the -mouth of the Cantwell and Toclat Rivers, and each of these consists -of a number of good cabins. In the intervening region there are a -number of isolated houses and fishing stations, which are marked on the -accompanying map." - -[Illustration: FIGURE 1.--The Tanana River between Nenana and Tanana, -with Indian villages] - -To which Lieutenant Castner, who explored the upper Tanana, adds the -following:[14] "On 750 miles of the Tanana proper and its tributaries I -saw seven small hamlets, and not to exceed 100 Indians--men, women, and -children." - -From information obtained by me at Fairbanks, at the United States -marshal's office and from miners, it appears that the following -villages are better known: - - Village, 150 miles east of Fairbanks. - - Mansfield Lake village, 300 miles east of Fairbanks. - - Tetlen, 410 miles east of Fairbanks. - - East Tetlen, 7 miles southeast of Tetlen. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[13] Brooks, A. H., A Reconnaissance in the White and Tanana River -Basins, Alaska, in 1898: Twentieth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., 1900, -pt. VII, p. 491. - -[14] Castner, op. cit., p. 706. - - -LOWER TANANA, NENANA TO YUKON - -No old sites were learned of on this part of the river, and few, if -any, are probably preserved, due to lowness of banks and extensive -destruction (cutting of the banks) by the river. - -The present Indian villages on the river are as follows: - -1. Nenana (or Tortella), about a mission, half a mile from the railroad -station and town of the same name, on the left bank of the Tanana and -near the mouth of the Nenana River. (Fig. 1.) - -2. "Old Minto," 27 miles from Nenana, right bank; but a small number of -Indians there now. - -3. Village at the mouth of the Tolovana, right bank (where the Tolovana -enters the Tanana); the village is on the distal (downstream) point. -Nearly abandoned; only two families there now. Summer (fishing) camp on -the opposite point. - -4. A small settlement at mouth of Baker Creek, right bank, about 4 -miles upstream from Hot Springs. - -5. "Crossjacket village," on left bank, about 45 miles above Tanana, 40 -miles below Hot Springs. Used to be called "Cosna." Occupied, though -only a few there. - -6. Near 5, but on the opposite bank, a few habitations. - -During the open season the Indians live scattered along the river in -fishing camps. This is especially true along the right bank downstream -from Nenana. - - -THE YUKON BELOW TANANA - - -BRIEF HISTORY - -The Yukon is the principal river of Alaska. It is one of the greatest -and most scenic rivers in the world. It is approximately 2,300 miles -long (from the headwaters of the Lewes River), in its middle and lower -courses ranges at times with its sloughs to several miles in breadth, -and includes many hundreds of islands of its own formation. Its scenery -is still essentially primeval, affected but little by human occupation -or industry. It has, in fact, gone considerably back in these respects -since the gold rush was over. - -This great stream has been known to the white man for less than a -century. Cook, in September of 1778, sailed near, discovering Stuart -Island and Cape Stephens of the St. Michael Island, but missed the -river. - -In 1829 P. E. Chistiakof, director (1826-1830) of the Russian-American -colonies, sent the naval officer Vasilief to explore the coasts between -the Alexander Redoubt (at the mouth of the Nushagak) and the Shaktol -or Norton Sound, and in 1830 Vasilief explored the larger part of the -Kuskokwim River, of which the Russians knew already from their earlier -explorers. Here they heard of an even greater stream to the north. - -In 1831, on the recommendation of Vasilief, Michail Dmitrievich -Tebenkof was sent to Norton Sound with the view of further exploration -and the establishing of a post in that region. Tebenkof discovered -that Cape Stephens was not a part of the mainland but of an island; -and he built here a fortified post which in honor of his patron saint -is called St. Michael, a name which subsequently passed to the whole -island. The post was to serve both trade and further exploration. - -From St. Michael, at the end of 1834, a small party is sent out under -the leadership of an educated "kreol" (son of a native mother and -Russian father), Andrei Glazunof, and on January 26, 1835, they reach -the good-sized Indian village of Anvik, on the Kwikhpak, or Yukon.[15] -From here Glazunof travels down the river to the large village of -Aninulykhtykh-pak (above Holy Cross), the last Indian (as distinguished -from Eskimo) village down the river, whence Glazunof sends most of his -party back to St. Michael and himself proceeds to the Kuskokwim. - -In 1836 the Russians effect the first settlement on the Yukon, at -Ikogmiut (Zagoskin, 6), later known as the Russian Mission. - -In 1838 Malakof, over land portage, reaches Nulato and builds there -a trading post, which, during his absence the next winter, is burned -by the natives. In 1841 Dieriabin rebuilds and fortifies this post, -becomes its headman, and is there eventually (1851) killed by the -Indians. - -In 1841 Lieut. Laurenti Alexief Zagoskin is delegated to explore the -"Kwikhpak," with its portages to the Kotzebue Sound, and the Kuskokwim -River; and in 1843 he navigates and maps 600 miles of the Yukon, or -from about the mouth of the Apkhun (northern) pass to the mouth of the -Novitna River, with approximately 100 miles of each, from their mouth, -of the Koyukuk and of the Ittege (or Innoko) Rivers. - -The Russian post at Nulato remains until the sale of their American -dominions by the Russians to the United States in 1867. From it and -from St. Michael individual Russian traders ranged over the river and -its lower affluents, but there was no further noteworthy scientific -exploration. In 1863, however, Lukin, who after Vasilief and Kolmakof -helped to explore the Kuskokwim, reached to Fort Yukon. - -Meanwhile the river has been visited by both the English and the -Americans. In 1847 Mr. Bell, of the Hudson Bay Co., having heard of the -great stream from some of the Indians who visited the fort on Peels -River, set out in quest of it, accompanied by a native guide, and -reached it by the Rat and the Porcupine Rivers.[16] - -Between 1843 and 1867 the river in its lower and middle reaches is -freely traversed by the Russian traders. In 1851 Nulato is reached by -Lieutenant Barnard, of H. M. S. _Enterprise_, in search of Franklin, -only to be massacred there with some of the Russians and natives by the -offended Indians of the Koyukuk. In 1861 Robert Kennicott traverses -a part of the Yukon, and in 1865 he, with Capt. Charles S. Bulkley, -leads there the expedition of the Western Union Telegraph Co., which is -accompanied by William H. Dall and Frederick Whymper, and results in -much information. Already, however, in 1863, Strahan Jones, commander -of the Peels River Fort, has descended the Yukon to the mouth of -the Novitna River or the uppermost point reached by Zagoskin, thus -completing its identification as one and the same great stream. This -point and the Tanana mark the westernmost penetration by the English -(the Hudson Bay Co.). - -In 1865 begin American explorations proper. In that year, under an -agreement with the Russians, Maj. Robert Kennicott, heading a party -of the Western Union Telegraph explorers, crosses from St. Michael to -Nulato. Kennicott dies in Nulato a year later, but the explorations are -carried on to result eventually in a series of valuable publications, -more particularly by Dall and Whymper.[17] - -The researches under the auspices of the Western Union Telegraph Co., -themselves backed by the Government, are followed by explorations under -the direct auspices of the American Government. Thus, in 1869 there is -a reconnaissance of the river by Capt. C. W. Raymond; in 1883, that by -Lieut. Frederick Schwatka; in 1885 by Lieut. Henry T. Allen; in 1898 -by Capt. W. P. Richardson; and these are succeeded by the geological -surveys of A. H. Brooks and companions.[18] - -From 1878 on commenced placer and mining explorations for gold in -Alaska leading gradually to the eventual great gold rush of the later -nineties, which brought a whole flotilla of large river steamers and -other craft to the Yukon and led to a rapid growth of some of the old -and the establishment of a number of new settlements along its banks. -The rash passed in turn, many of the miners and others departed, boats -became idle and were beached or taken to the St. Michael ship "bone -yard," where, together with most of the buildings, they are now (1926) -being broken up; and the Yukon has reverted in a large measure to its -former primeval, dormant, lonely state. - -Such, in brief, is the white man's history of the Yukon, with all of -which the river remains but half known, at best. It has never been -fully surveyed, which would be a vast and unending task. It contains -a large number of barely known little tributaries that are lost in -the jungle-covered flats with their many pools and lakes. It has -innumerable islands and channels, in which the traveler is easily lost, -and it cuts and builds constantly during the open season. Its valley is -squally and rainy. The stream may one moment be like a great, liquid, -softly flowing mirror, to be in a few minutes churned into an ugly and -dangerous roughness from which every smaller boat must seek shelter. -Its shores are inhospitable, except for the native fisherman and -hunter, and torment man with swarms of gnats and mosquitoes. - -But there is no malaria; no snakes or other poisonous things. And -when the weather is decent the water, the wooded shores, and the -fresh, clean virginal parklike islands have a greatness and charm that -compensate for much. Besides which there is the still more intensive -allure of original exploration. Botany, zoology, and above all -paleontology, find here still a fruitful field, while for anthropology, -and especially archeology, the land is still largely a terra incognita. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[15] There is some confusion about the exact date of Glazunof's -journey, partly due perhaps to the fact that he started on Dec. 30. -Wrangell (Stat. and Ethnog. Nachricht., 138) says that Glazunof's -expedition was outfitted the same year (1833) in which the St. Michael -redoubt was established. In Zeleny's abstract of Zagoskin's report -(p. 212) and by Zagoskin himself (pp. 6, 23) the departure of the -expedition is put a year later, or 1834, which is probably correct. -Dall's remarks (Alaska and Its Resources, 276, 338) on the subject -contain several errors, both of dates and facts. There is also -considerable confusion as to the names Kvikhpak and Yukon. The term -Kvikhpak (Kvikh, river; pak, large) is of Eskimo origin and was applied -by these to that part of the river which they occupied. The name Yukon, -or something near this, is of Indian derivation and was applied to -those parts of the river, below Tanana at least, that were peopled by -the Khotana or Indians. - -[16] Richardson, J., Arctic Searching Expedition, London, 1851, II, 206. - -[17] For details see Dall's Alaska and Its Resources, Boston, 1870. - -[18] See Compilation of Explorations in Alaska, Senate Rept. 1023, -Washington, 1900; and reports on Alaska of the United States Geological -Survey. - - -THE YUKON NATIVES - -Upon their arrival on the Kvikpak and Yukon, the Russians found the -banks of the stream peopled in its upper and middle courses by Indians -and lower down by the Eskimo.[19] The last Indian village downstream -was Aninulykhtykh-pak, since completely gone. Its site is identifiable -with one that used to exist in front of the present mission of Holy -Cross or just above. The first Eskimo village of some note was Paimute. - -As to the Indians of the Yukon and its tributaries, there is a -considerable confusion of names, almost every author using his own -spelling and subdivisions. It is evident that there were two sets of -names of the various Indian contingents, namely the names, sometimes -contemptuous, given to them by outsiders, and the names in use -among themselves, which generally meant the people of this or that -locality. The facts are that they all belonged to the Tinné or Dené -family;[20],[21] that there were two probably related generic names for -them, namely Kutchin (used especially on the upper Yukon) and Khotana -(used mainly along the central and lower parts of the stream); and -that along the Yukon itself, with its channels, there were three main -subdivisions of the people: The Kutchin (with various qualifications) -on the upper parts of the river, down to Fort Yukon; the Yukonikhotana, -from Fort Yukon to Nulato;[22] and the Kain (Petrof) or Kaiyuh (Dall) -Khotana, or Inkaliks (of the Russians), from Nulato to Holy Cross. - -In addition there were the Tenan-kutchin Tenan-khotana or Mountain-men -of the Tanana; and the Yunnaka-khotana (Zagoskin) or Koyukuk-khotana -(Dall), the people of the Koyukuk. - -These groups were settled in a moderate number of permanent or winter -villages along the rivers, in the summer spreading along the streams in -camps. The population found by the first Russian explorer, Glazunof, -from Anvik to Aninulykhtykh-pak, was seemingly a rather large one. He -is reported by Wrangell to have counted, at Anvik, 240 grown males; at -Magimiut, 35; and at Aninulykhtykh-pak 300. At the last-named village -in particular there were present "many people," Glazunof estimating -altogether nearly 700. These figures, except for Magimiut, seem too -large and were not even approached later; but before the next count, -that by Zagoskin, all these settlements had been visited by smallpox; -and at the big village Glazunoff may have seen a potlatch, such as may -still yearly be witnessed at some settlements on the river. - -Zagoskin in 1843 made a detailed and evidently reliable count of all -the villages that became known to him. His data in this respect, as in -others, being of fundamental value, are here given, the Eskimo, for -convenience, being included. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[19] See Auszug aus dem Tagebuche des Schiffer-gehülfen Andreas -Glasunow. In Wrangell. Ferd. v., Statistische und ethnographische -Nachrichten ü. d. Russichen Besitzungen a. d. Nordwestküste v. Amerika. -Ed. by K. C. v. Baer, St. Petersburg, 1839, 137-160. Zagoskin, A., -Pes̆echodnaia opis c̆asti russkick vladenii v. Amerikě. 2 parts, St. -Petĕrsburg. 1847-1848, pp. 1-183, 1-120, and 1-43; with a map. - -[20] Dall, Contr. N. A. Ethn., vol. 1, p. 17. - -[21] Zagoskin: "* * * great family of the Ttynai nation, which occupies -the interior of the mainland of our colonies and known to us under -various names--Yug-elnut, Tutna, Golcanĕ or Kilc̆anĕ [according to the -pronunciation of those giving the information], Kenaici, Inkaliti, -Inkalich-liuatov [distant Inkaliks], and others--names given to them by -the neighboring coastal people." - -[22] Petrof, Ivan, p. 161: "This tribe, comprising the Yunakhotana and -the Kutchakutchin of Dall, inhabits the banks of the Yukon River from -Fort Yukon westward to Nulato." - - -NATIVE VILLAGES ON THE YUKON AND IN THE VICINITY, 1843 (ZAGOSKIN, III, -39-41)[23] - - -----------------------------------------+-------+----------+------- - Villages | Total | Adult | Houses - | | males[24]| - -----------------------------------------+-------+----------+------- - INDIANS | | | - Inkalit-Iugelnut: | | | - Inselnostlende | 33 | 8 | 2 - Khuingitatekhten | 37 | 11 | 3 - Iltenleiden | 100 | 30 | 6 - Tlego | 45 | 14 | 3 - Khuligichagat | 70 | 25 | 5 - Kvygympainag-miut | 71 | 25 | 3 - Vazhichagat | 80 | 18 | 5 - Anvig | 120 | 37 | 5 - Makki | 44 | 9 | 3 - Anilukhtakpak | 170 | 48 | 8 - +-------+----------+------- - Total | 770 | 225 | 43 - +=======+==========+======= - Inkiliks proper: | | | - Kunkhogliuk | 11 | 5 | 2 - Ulukak | 35 | 10 | 4 - Ttutago | 32 | 8 | 2 - Kakoggo-khakat | 9 | 3 | 1 - Khutul-khakat | 16 | 4 | 2 - Khaltag | 9 | 3 | 1 - Khogoltlinde | 60 | 17 | 4 - Takaiak | 81 | 27 | 7 - Khuli-kakat | 11 | 3 | 1 - +-------+----------+------- - Total | 264 | 80 | 24 - +=======+==========+======= - Yunnaka-khotana: | | | - Notaglit | 37 | 8 | 3 - Tlialil-kakat | 27 | 7 | 3 - Toshoshgon | 30 | 5 | 2 - Tok-khakat | 6 | 3 | 1 - Nok-khakat | 50 | 11 | 3 - Kakhliakhlia-kakat | 26 | 7 | 2 - Tsonagogliakhten | 11 | 4 | 1 - Tsogliachten | 7 | 2 | 1 - Khotyl-kakat | 65 | 19 | 4 - Unylgakhtkhokh | 17 | 2 | 2 - Nulato | 13 | 2 | 1 - +-------+----------+------- - Total | 289 | 70 | 23 - +=======+==========+======= - Tlegon-khotana: | | | - Innoko natives seen on the Yukon | 44 | 33 | 3 - Village totality | 45 | 14 | 3 - +-------+----------+------- - Total | 89 | 47 | 6 - +=======+==========+======= - All Indians counted on Yukon and Koyukuk | 1,359 |[25]422 | 132 - +=======+==========+======= - ESKIMO | | | - Kavliunag-miut | 11 | 3 | 1 - Nygyklig-miut | 13 | 4 | 1 - Kanyg-miut | 45 | 11 | 4 - Ankachag-miut | 122 | 32 | 6 - Takchag-miut | 40 | 12 | 3 - Ikuag-miut | 130 | 35 | 6 - Nukhluiag-miut | 60 | 17 | 4 - Ikogmiut | 92 | 22 | 5 - Ikaligvig-miut | 45 | 14 | 3 - Pai-miut | 123 | 35 | 5 - +-------+----------+------- - Total of Kvikhpag-miut | 681 | 185 | 38 - -----------------------------------------+-------+----------+------- - -Dall, referring to 1866-67 (Contr. Am. Ethn., I, 23, 39), estimated the -number of the Yukon Eskimo at 1,000 and that of the Yukon and Koyukuk -Indians, from the mouth of the Tanana downward, at 2,800. Only a few -sites of villages are incidentally given by Dall. - -Ivan Petrof, as a special agent for Alaska of the United States Census -for 1880, reports himself the following Indian settlements and numbers -of inhabitants on the Yukon (Compil. Narrat. Expl. Alaska, 68; gives -also data on Eskimo, but his arrangement and unidentifiable localities -prevent these data from being used here): - - Anvik station and village 94 - Single house 20 - Single house 12 - Single house 15 - Tanakhothaiak 52 - Single house 15 - Chageluk settlements 150 - Khatnotoutze 115 - Kaiakak 124 - Kaltag 45 - Nulato, station and village 163 - Koyukuk settlements 150 - Terentiefs station 15 - Big Mountain 100 - Single house 10 - Sakatalan 25 - Yukokakat 6 - Melozikakat 30 - Mentokakat 20 - Soonkakat 12 - Medvednaia 15 - Novo-kakat 106 - Kozmas 11 - Nuklukaiet 27 - Rampart village 110 - Fort Yukon 82 - -Later demographic records on the Yukon and its tributaries and on the -coast comprise additional data by Petrof, published as a part of the -Eleventh (1890) United States Census and arranged by districts and -linguistic groups; and the data of three subsequent United States -Censuses, 1900, 1910, and 1920, which are given in differing ways, -but in the main by major ethnic and territorial or jurisdictional -subdivisions. - -Due to incomplete enumerations; to the use of native estimates for -actual count (as seems to have been the case with Dall's figures, as -well as others); the different methods and classifications employed; -and the inclusion of units now into one and now into another group -(as with Petrof, who includes three Indian villages below Anvik among -the Eskimo, etc.), the various counts are not comparable and give but -hazy ideas of the true conditions. Yet they are not without value, -particularly in showing the earlier population of the villages and the -relative proportion of the sexes and ages. The more helpful details are -given in the appendix; for still others see references in bibliography. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[23] See also Petrof (Ivan), Tenth Census Rep., Wash., 1880, VIII, 37; -but his transliteration of names is not always correct. - -[24] This doubtless included many subadults. - -[25] 31 per cent, or 1 in 3.2. - - -PRESENT CONDITIONS - -To-day, judging from all the obtained evidence, which comprised -information, the witnessing of a potlatch at Tanana at which were -assembled practically all the Indians above Nulato, and a visit below -the Tanana of nearly all the villages where the Indians still live, the -total number of the Tinneh on the lower Tanana (from Fairbanks to the -mouth of the river) and on the Yukon from Tanana to Anvik, can scarcely -be estimated to reach 1,000. It is probably well below that number. -Moreover, not one-half of the adults and much fewer among the young -are still full bloods. Disease, bad liquor (Yukon), and mostly as yet -imperfect accommodation to changing conditions are steadily diminishing -the numbers. Since our visit many have died from influenza, especially -at Anvik. Their future is not hopeful. On the Tanana, however, and with -the more educated in general, conditions are better, and much good is -being done by the four missions on the two rivers (Nenana, Tanana, -Anvik, and Holy Cross). - -The old Indian settlements along the Yukon are gone, with a few -exceptions. On some of the sites, as at Tanana, Nulato, Kaltag, etc., -there are new villages bearing the old names but built by or in -imitation of whites and sheltering a mixed population. The very names -of not a few of the older Indian sites have gone into oblivion; or the -natives call those they still know by a corruption of a white man's -name, such as "Ulstissen" (for Old Station). Anvik alone has kept its -original site and some of its old character, the mission and the white -trader being across the river. - -In the Eskimo part of the Yukon, below Holy Cross, conditions on the -whole appear to be somewhat better. There has also been a diminution -in population. The majority of the old villages have ceased to exist, -while under the influence of whites some new settlements or names -have appeared. Yet there are respectable remnants of the Eskimo, and, -being better workers than the Indian and seemingly more coherent, -they manage to sustain themselves somewhat better than he does. Their -greatest handicap is disease. The beneficial effect among them of the -old Russian Mission has declined, but there are a number of Government -schools which have a good influence. They are more tractable, sensible, -and in some respects perhaps more able than the Indians. - -But there exists to-day no clear-cut demarcation, geographical, -cultural, or even physical, between the two people. Anvik, the last -Indian village downstream, is in every respect at least as much Eskimo -as Indian; more or less Eskimo-like physiognomies are seen again and -again among the Indians; and Indianlike features are common among the -Eskimo. There has either been an old and considerable admixture on both -sides, or there are some fundamental similarities of the two groups; -perhaps both. - - -ARCHEOLOGY OF THE YUKON - -Up to 1926 no archeological work had been done along the Yukon or -its tributaries, and barring a few isolated specimens there were no -archeological collections from these regions. - -The archeology of the river consists, (1) of the dead but formerly -known villages; (2) of older sites, "dead" and unknown before even -the Russians arrived; and (3) of random stone objects worked by man -that now and then are washed out from the river banks or are found in -working the ground. Except in details conditions are much alike along -the whole river and will best be dealt with as a whole. - - -THE RANDOM SPECIMENS - -Wherever the beach of the river shows more or less of stones that are -not talus or just pebbles, there are generally found stones worked -by man. Such localities are scarce. The first exists between Tanana -(the village) and the mission above it. Here specimens are found -occasionally on the beach and occasionally in the soil of the local -gardens. Other such sites were located at Bonasila, below Anvik, and -in four places between Paimute and the Russian Mission. A few are also -present from Marshall seaward. - -An examination of the terrain adjacent to such parts of the beach shows -mostly, but not always, traces of an old settlement. - -The specimens consist of characteristic axes or adzes, stone scrapers, -hammers, stone knives (along the Eskimo part of the river), tomahawk -heads (probably), objects less well defined, and chips. There may be -semifossilized animal bones, and rarely a bit of charcoal, a piece of -pottery (for details see Narrative), or an object of ivory. - -The ax proper is peculiar. It is a cupid's-bow ax, double-edged, -and with one or two grooves across its middle. (Pl. 10.) It is as a -rule made of heavy basaltic stone, and its edges are sharpened by -polishing. Rough parts may have been polished also on the body. Its -distal surface is convex (from sharp edge to sharp edge), its proximal -surface straight or mildly convex. I succeeded in getting a specimen -remounted recently by one of the Indians near Tanana. This form of an -ax is still remembered by the old Indians when in use. They cut trees -with it, cutting sidewise and detaching the wood in splinters. They -also remember clubs with stone heads, and told me they were carried -on the back over the right shoulder so as to be ready for instant and -effective use. - -These axes have apparently been used by both the Indians and the -Eskimo, but there is an interesting difference. The several specimens I -obtained or saw from Tanana to Ruby were all complete. But from, about -the vicinity of Ruby downstream the bi-edged ax seems to disappear, or, -rather, one-half of it disappears, the butt henceforth either being -left unfinished or one-half of the double ax being broken off and the -remainder being mounted now as an adze on a shorter handle. This form, -and it exclusively, with various secondary modifications, is found over -a wide area among the Eskimo and may reach into Asia, for I obtained a -specimen of it from one of the Diomede Islands. It connects directly -with the Bering Sea Eskimo ivory adze and chisel. On the other hand the -bi-edged ax appears, in various modifications, to extend widely over -Indian Alaska. - -The remaining stone implements need but little mention here. They will -be studied and reported separately by our archeologist. A special -note will, however, be necessary later about the very primitive stone -industry of Bonasila, below Anvik. (See p. 144.) - -Of pottery I have seen no example above Anvik, but this can not be -taken as evidence of its absence above that point. At Anvik, Bonasila, -and farther down the pottery is like that of the western Eskimo. It -is coarse ware, hand shaped, and of rather poor quality. It consists -of small round bowls to fairly large, more or less conical, jars. It -is never painted but is frequently decorated with thumb marks and -especially with grooves running parallel with the border. - -Ivory implements were encountered first at Bonasila and consisted of -a few fine long points barbed on one side, looking like those of the -Eskimo and probably of Eskimo origin. There were also a few tools of -bone, generally scrapers. - -Russian beads, especially those of the large blue variety, are -occasionally encountered, usually singly or in small numbers, -especially in some spots. - -A unique archeological specimen from the lower middle portion of the -Yukon Valley is the large stone dish obtained by Mr. Müller, the trader -at Kaltag. (See p. 34.) - -Besides these random specimens, other cultural objects are found -along the Yukon in connection with old burials. These consist of an -occasional wooden dish, sharpening or polishing stones, rarely a -figurine (doll?) in ivory, Russian snuffboxes, fire sticks, dishes of -birch bark, etc. The cullings in this field are quite poor, but there -has been no excavation of older burials that have been assimilated by -the tundra and lie now in the earth beneath. - -The archeology of the old habitation sites, on the other hand, -particularly perhaps on the Shageluk and between Holy Cross and -Marshall, is decidedly promising and invites careful excavation. - - -LOCATION OF VILLAGES AND SITES ON THE YUKON - -Especial attention was given to the location of the numerous dead -villages and older sites along the Yukon. This task was found, in -most instances, fairly easy with villages that "died" since the -Russo-American occupation, for mostly they still show plain traces and -are generally remembered by the old Indians or even old white settlers. -Their precise allocation on a map, however, is not always easy or -certain. As to the prehistoric sites the search is much more difficult -and depends largely on chance discoveries. - -The villages still existing give only a partial clue, in many cases, -to the old, even where these bore the same name, for on occasions a -village changed its location, though remaining in the same general -vicinity and retaining the same name. Thus there existed at different -times apparently, between the earliest contacts with whites and the -present, at least 2 Nuklukhayets, 2 Lowdens, 3 Nulatos, 3 Kaltags, 2 -Anviks, etc.; besides which there were differences in recording the -names and changes due to efforts at translation of the native term, or -an application by the whites of a new name, often that of a trader or -settler, to an old site. - -In places even late village sites, in others burials, were witnessed -being undermined by the river or the sea. Such sites with their -contents will probably sooner or later be completely lost from this -cause. Many doubtless have thus been lost previously. - -The villages and sites located along the Yukon are here enumerated and -as far as possible charted. Information about them was obtained from -the older Indians or river Eskimo and from such whites as had direct -knowledge in that line. Most of these sites were examined personally, -but in some instances this was impossible. The details concerning those -seen will be found in the Narrative, but a few generalizations may here -be useful. - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 9 - -_a_, My "spoils," loaded on sled, Point Hope. (A. H., 1926) - -_b_, The load is heavy and sledding over sand and gravel difficult. (A. -H., 1926)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 10 - -CHARACTERISTIC STONE AXES. MIDDLE YUKON - -(A. H. coll., 1926.)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 11 - -CRUDE STONE ARTIFACTS, FOUND AT BONASILA, LOWER MIDDLE YUKON - -(A. H. coll., 1926.)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 12 - -CRUDE STONE ARTIFACTS, FOUND AT BONASILA. LOWER MIDDLE YUKON - -(A. H. coll., 1926.)] - -[Illustration: FIGURE 2.--The Yukon from Tanana to below Kokrines] - -[Illustration: FIGURE 3.--The Yukon from below Kokrines to below -Koyukuk] - -The dead village sites are much alike along the whole river. They are -generally located at the mouth, of some inland stream that carries -clear fresh water, particularly if on the other side there is the -protection of a hill. The dwellings were invariably on a flat and were -throughout semisubterranean and of the same general type; which applies -also to the larger communal houses or "cashims." The sites can often be -told from afar in summer by the rich grass that covers them. - -[Illustration: FIGURE 4.--The Yukon from below Koyukuk to Lofkas] - -The burials were as a rule not far from a village and preferably on -the slopes of the nearest hill. They were mostly above ground, but -under the influence of Russians there were also shallow-ground burials. -The latter can readily be told by the sawed planks of the coffins and -the iron nails by which they are fastened. In many places no surface -burials remain or there are mere traces. In such, places little mounds -may betray old burials assimilated by the tundra. Trenching in likely -spots would doubtless reveal others of which no trace remains on the -surface. - -[Illustration: FIGURE 5.--Old map of the Nulato district] - -No excavations of any of these sites have ever been attempted, but many -of the surface burials were disturbed or destroyed by seekers of relics -and the curious vandal, who is present on the Yukon as in other parts -of the country. - -[Illustration: FIGURE 6.--Map of Kaltag and vicinity. (By McLeod)] - -The maps shown here were made under my direction on the basis of -maps and charts provided by the Geological and Geodetic Surveys, in -Washington. Additional old sites will doubtless be located in the -future and may be added to these records. - - -PRE-RUSSIAN SITES - -[Illustration: FIGURE 7.--The Yukon from Bystraia to below Holy Cross] - -As already told in the Narrative, a search for truly ancient sites -along the Yukon has proven largely negative. A more intense and -prolonged archeological survey, with exploratory trenches wherever -there is promise, may one day prove more fruitful. But, as pointed out -before, much can never be expected. Man could at no time have occupied -the Yukon Valley and watershed in large numbers. He would not have -found enough sustenance. Even with fair resources he would hardly have -tarried in these inclement regions as long as the ways toward the south -were open. He never built here of lasting materials and had little -chance to develop or even keep up any higher culture, and since he is -gone the ever-cutting river has taken away whatever it could reach and -scattered it through its silts and gravels. There is nevertheless a -number of small elevated plateaus along the right bank that ought to -be sounded by exploratory pits or trenches, particularly perhaps where -there are traces of later habitations. - -[Illustration: FIGURE 8.--The Yukon from above Holy Cross to below -Mountain Village] - -[Illustration: FIGURE 9.--The Yukon from below Mountain Village to near -Marshall] - -There are, of course, some sites that are older than others. The most -interesting of these was found at Bonasila, beneath the old site of -Makki or Magimute, 18 miles downstream from Anvik. (See Narrative.) The -main facts concerning this site are as follows: - -[Illustration: FIGURE 10.--The Yukon from near Marshall to below -Kavlingnak] - -At the above distance from Anvik, on the right bank of the river and -following a wooded hill, is a low flat backed by rising ground and cut -across by a little stream. The flat is narrow, at present about 300 -feet; and the part above the stream is deeply pitted by the remains of -semisubterranean houses of a "dead" native village, which I believe is -identifiable with the Magimute of the Russians. On the slope behind -the village were still about a score of old surface burials, with an -article here and there of Russian derivation. - -The bank of the flat rises at present only about 4 feet above the beach -of the river, but the flat behind is higher. The bank itself contains -many specimens showing human workmanship, consisting of objects of -stone, birch bark, bone, and rarely also of ivory, besides many -fragments of pottery, many bones of wild Alaskan animals, and here and -there a human skeleton. Some of these objects are low down in the bank. -All the bones from the bank, including the human, and even the rare -points of ivory, are semifossilized; the stone industry is peculiar; -and the human remains differ plainly from both those of the later Yukon -Indian and from those of the Eskimo. They are apparently Indian (see -section on physical characteristics), but a tall Indian of a type that -now is only met with much farther south. - -[Illustration: FIGURE 11.--From above Kobolunuk to mouth of river] - -The stone industry from the bank appeared at first sight so primitive -that even the term "paleolithic" would not fit and the only term -that seemed to meet the situation was "protolithic." It consists -predominantly of scrapers and knockers, with here and there a tool -sharpened for cutting. The scrapers look especially crude. They consist -simply of pieces of smaller or larger andesite-like volcanic slabs -broken to the desired size and chipped more or less roughly along what -was to be the scraping edge. A closer examination of the stones, which -were obtained from a base of a cliff farther down the river, showed, -however, that they were of material which is hard to work, and that the -chipping, under the circumstances, was not really bad. (Pls. 11, 12.) -Pottery must have been fairly plentiful and quite up to the average of -the river, both in make and decoration. - -Two fine long, partly fossilized ivory points picked up formerly on the -site were obtained from Mr. Lawrence. They are handsomely barbed on -one side and show a high grade of skill. They must have come from the -Bering Sea and may belong to the old fine ivory culture of the western -part of that region, of which more later. - -There are also some fairly ancient sites farther down the river (see -Narrative), but just what they are and how old remains to be determined. - -A report on the archeological remains from the bank of Bonasila by Mr. -H. W. Krieger, one of the curators of the Department of Anthropology, -United States National Museum, follows: - - - - -ARCHEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ALASKA - - -ANCIENT STONE CULTURE - -"Until the results of Doctor Hrdlička's Alaskan reconnaissance were -first made known to science it had been generally assumed that Alaskan -and Canadian subboreal regions were archeologically barren. It had been -currently accepted that only as one approached the great river valleys -of the Skeena, the Fraser, and the Columbia could anthropological -exploration be conducted to advantage. One might expect to uncover -cemeteries and ancient village sites only there where a dense and -sedentary population had long been established. Through the discovery -of ancient village sites and centers of population in the lower and -middle Yukon River Valley, Doctor Hrdlička has extended the northern -archeological horizon into the sub-Arctic. - -"Of the many sites examined, the old village site at Bonasila, 18 miles -below the confluence of the Anvik and Yukon Rivers, yielded the most -interesting data. Crudely flaked implements of trap rock with cutting -edges showing evidence of chipping and grinding were uncovered. These -implements are unique among Alaskan artifacts and have no relationship -with known types of Eskimo or Indian stonework. In the shaping technic -employed by their aboriginal makers; in form, and in type; and, -generally, in their undeveloped character, the stone artifacts from -Bonasila and other ancient archeological sites on the middle Yukon may -be classified as primitive neolithic. - -"The stone implements uncovered at Bonasila are so crudely fashioned -and are apparently of such an improvised nature as to suggest an -extreme conservatism in culture development, or perhaps a degeneration, -due largely to lack of better materials. Due to the lack of basalt, -jadeite, or other hard stone in the valley of the lower middle Yukon, -recourse was had to sandstone and trap rock by the primitive makers of -stone axes and celts. - -"Crude pottery vessels and potsherds were discovered associated with -the objects of stone. This ware incorporates elementary decorative -designs distinct from the known historic Eskimo or Indian types of -pottery decoration. There can be no intimation that this ware is -archaic or that it belongs to any archaic culture offshoot from farther -south. It therefore becomes a question of some unknown earlier Asiatic -culture connection that manifested itself in crude forms of flaked and -ground stone implements and in unique pottery forms. It is uncertain -that the ancient fossil ivory culture of northwest Alaska, of which -Doctor Hrdlička has brought in some excellent examples, is in any -manner associated with the primitive neolithic stone and pottery forms -uncovered at Bonasila. It is established, however, beyond a doubt that -both cultures and types of artifacts are Asiatic in origin and have -little or no connection with the culture of the western Eskimo. - -"The Eskimos of the lower Yukon Valley made extensive use of slate and -of jadeite in the production of their polished knives and celts. Slate -knives and polished celts of jadeite are characteristic of Eskimoan -culture throughout the whole of its extent in Alaska. Each of these -materials as well as the finished products shaped from them were -subjects of native barter. Eskimos often undertook long journeys for -their procurement. It is therefore noteworthy that no single object -fashioned from slate or jadeite and but few points of fossilized ivory -were recovered at any of the sites characterized by the primitive stone -culture and pottery of the Bonasila type. - -"The most characteristic finds at Bonasila are the crudely flaked -implements of stone, some of which show incipient chipping and -grinding. The coarse type of pottery is unlike that of the modern -Eskimo in tempering, firing, and decorative design. - -"The stone culture of the site, although rich in forms, is deficient -in technical development and is scarcely worthy of being classed -as neolithic. There were found in numbers the following types of -artifacts: Circular, discoidal stone pebbles with rim fractures due to -use; river wash pebbles of irregular form used as improvised scrapers -and hammerstones; basaltic, discoidal hammerstones with abraded edges -and pitted at the center; large flake saws of trachyte (trap rock) -triangular in section but provided with sharply fractured cutting -edges; slender flaked fragments of trap rock tapered to the form of -wedges with intentionally worked end sections and cutting edges; -crudely flaked stone knives with evidence of secondary chipping at -cutting edges; other knives of thin slabs of trap rock with flaked -and bilaterally ground beveled cutting edges; oblong axes of flaked -sandstone with hafting notches struck off at the edges midway from the -base; abrading tools of sandstone; celts of sandstone with ground and -beveled working edge and notched for hafting as an ax; stone scrapers -with ground and beveled cutting edges; fragmentary perforators of -stone; re-chipped, flaked knives shaped by grinding; roughly worked, -multiple-grooved hammers or mauls; and many stone objects unformed and -unworked but classified generally as hammerstones. - - -THE POTTERY - -"About a hundred pottery shards and smaller pottery vessels were -recovered from the site at Bonasila. Pottery vessels representative of -the Bonasila culture were shaped out of the solid and show no trace of -coiling. In this respect they conform to the generalized north Asiatic -and Eskimo ware. There is, however, no check stamp decorative design -that is applied with a paddle by the Eskimo nor evidence that pottery -vessels had been built up about a basketry base. The paste is light -buff or gray in color, the buff ware being better fired and of the same -color on the inside, while the gray ware is either gray or black on -the inner surface. A well-defined unfired area covers one-half of the -sectional diameter. Both buff and gray wares show evidence of better -firing than in modern Eskimo pottery. Tempering is of coarse fragments -of steatite, which is much more durable than tempering materials such -as blood, feathers, and ashes formerly employed by the primitive Eskimo -potter. - -"The pottery from Bonasila is utilitarian and consists of shallow -spherical lamps, globose bowls, and cooking pots without feet or -bases. The ware is coarse, side walls and bottom varying from 1 to 2 -centimeters in sectional thickness. This type of pottery is practically -duplicated in shards recovered by Doctor Hrdlička from what is now -Eskimo territory in the Yukon Valley near the Russian Mission. It -is probable that further search would bring to light an extensive -region yielding this type of ancient pottery of distinctive design and -unrelated either to Tinné or Eskimo ware. - -"Decorative attempts consist of bold incised parallel transverse -lines on the upper sector of the outer surface of the vessel. Deep -corrugations appear on the inside of the rim flare. Both corrugations -and incised line decorations were made with a paddle or wood splinter -shaped for the purpose. Some of the shards have deeply incised -punctations irregularly encircling the outer surface of the vessel just -below the rim extension. - -"Shallow spherical pottery lamps accompanied surface burials at -Bonasila. These lamps have a less durable tempering material than the -other pottery fragments recovered. The paste is porous and is poorly -fired. Decorative designs incised on the interior surface of the lamps -are reminiscent of typical Eskimo punctate designs as traced on the -inner circumference of rectilinear or curvilinear etchings on ivory and -bone. It is very probable that these pottery lamps are of a later date -and are of Eskimoan handicraft. - - -THE ALASKAN GROOVED STONE AX - -[Pl. 10] - -"The grooved stone ax is a typical New World implement. Its -distribution is limited to tribes of the eastern maize area, the -Pueblo tribes of the Southwest, the Athapascans, and the northern -woodlands tribes. Elsewhere in America grooved stone implements of -any description are rare, although not unknown. The groove for the -attachment of cord or sinew binding is common also to the stone adze, -which is characteristic of Indian tribes of the Pacific Northwest -and of the Eskimo of Arctic America. The distribution of the stone -adze is more intensive but is much less extensive than is that of the -grooved stone ax and appears to be an environmental form borrowed from -the Arctic tribes by the Indian of southeast Alaska and of British -Columbia. - -"The double-bitted, multiple-grooved stone ax has two areas of -distribution in North America. One of these is the country of the -northeastern woodlands Indians, extending as far south as the Central -Atlantic States. The other area of distribution is the extreme -northwest, or the mainland of Alaska. - -"In the collection brought to the National Museum from Alaska by -Doctor Hrdlička are eight grooved stone implements. All but one of -these have cutting edges for use as axes or adzes. The exception, -Cat. No. 332809, U.S.N.M., is a grooved spherical stone maul or club -9.5 centimeters (3.7 inches) long and 7.5 centimeters (2.9 inches) -in sectional diameter. This grooved object was found near Tanana on -the beach of the Yukon River. Like the grooved stone axes in Doctor -Hrdlička's collection, the groove is incomplete. A flattened space -of approximately 2 centimeters is left un-grooved for the hafting of -a flat surfaced handle end with binding, which is passed around the -transverse groove and then through a hole in the wooden handle. - -"Three single-grooved, double-bitted stone axes were collected from -various points on the Yukon River. These are of interest because of -their similar grooving and double cutting edges. Each is identical in -form, each has been shaped by pecking, except in the sector near the -cutting edges where they have been sharpened and polished by grinding. -Between the raised borders of the centrally pecked groove and the -cutting edges the surface has been shaped to a slight concavity by -pecking. In Cat. No. 332805, U.S.N.M., this concavity is replaced by a -well-defined convex bevel. The pecked groove is at right angles to the -longitudinal axis and is comparatively shallow but has a wide diameter -of 2 centimeters or more. The material is uniformly of basalt. The axes -are 20 centimeters or more long, while the sectional diameter varies -from 6 to 10 centimeters according to whether the ax is flattened or -oval in section. - -"Grooved, double-bitted stone axes similar to those collected by Doctor -Hrdlička from the Middle Yukon region have since become known also from -stations farther south in Alaska. One was plowed up in a field near -Matanuska and is now in the chamber of commerce exhibit at Anchorage, -while another was collected in 1927 by the writer from near Chitna, -Alaska. This Alaskan type of grooved ax is practically identical with -that of the central Atlantic seaboard States, as figured by Walter -Hough in the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, volume -60, article 9, page 14. - -"Another grooved type of stone object brought to the National Museum -by Doctor Hrdlička is a stone war club of unusual type. It was found -on the Yukon River beach 1½ miles below the Mission at Tanana. It -is 20 centimeters (7.9 inches) long and is slender, the maximum -sectional diameter being but 3.5 centimeters (1.4 inches). Like the -single-grooved axes, it was shaped by pecking, but much of the surface -was also ground. The reverse or hafting surface is flat; the obverse is -convexly tapered to sharp cutting edges which are at right angles to -the haft. The material is basalt. The hafting grooves, two in number, -are comparatively deep and closely spaced. As to form this stone weapon -is unique, appearing, so far as is known to the writer, nowhere else -on the American Continent. It has been entered on the records of the -National Museum as Cat. No. 332807, U.S.N.M. - -"One form of the double-bitted, multiple-grooved stone axes resembles -closely ivory forms made from walrus tusks in the Bering Sea region. -This form also gives evidence of secondary modification, specimens -having been broken intentionally to reduce the tool to a simple adze. -The material is basalt and its range in the north is limited to the -Eskimo area, but becomes widespread to the south in southeastern Alaska -and in British Columbia. The form of this widely diffused stone adze -is approximated in a series of broken stone axes collected by Doctor -Hrdlička. Two such broken and originally double-bitted axes, Cat. Nos. -332806 and 332810, U.S.N.M., were collected from the banks of the Yukon -at an old village site below Anvik. These axes are broken with a crude -irregular fracture just above the upper transverse groove. Another -stone ax, Cat. No. 332812, U.S.N.M., is from Ruby, Alaska, and is -practically identical with the double-bitted but single-grooved stone -ax from Tanana. - -"It would appear from this brief presentation that there is a -remarkable similarity of form, approaching identity, in the ancient -stone axes from the river valleys of central Alaska. Whether the -particular ax has one cutting edge or is double-bitted; whether it is -provided with one or with two parallel transverse hafting grooves, the -general identity of form remains. The striking thing about the presence -of the double-bitted ax among archeological finds from central Alaska -is that we do not find it represented in such numbers anywhere until it -again reappears in the Atlantic seaboard States. The very interesting -cultural objects discovered by Doctor Hrdlička and supplemented by -my collection in 1927 show that Alaska is far from sterile or fully -known archeologically and make further exploration both promising and -important." - - - - -ANTHROPOLOGY OF THE YUKON - - -Notes on the physique of the Yukon natives are found in the reports -of all the explorers of the river, but they are imperfect and of -little scientific value; the principal ones are given below.[26] -Anthropometric observations on the living people of the middle and -lower Yukon, with its tributaries, are nonexistent.[27] As to crania, -there are a few measurements on two "Yukon Indian" skulls (No. 7530, -and probably No. 7531), and on three crania of the Yukon Eskimo, by -Jeffries Wyman (Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 1868, XI, 452); on one -"Ingaleet" and three "Mahlemut" or Norton Sound Eskimo skulls by George -A. Otis (List of Specimens, etc., 35); and on four skulls collected -by Dall, one from Nulato and the rest presumably from St. Michael, by -Hrdlička (Catal. of Crania, p. 30, Nos. 242925, 242899, 242901, 242936). - -FOOTNOTES: - -[26] Glazunof (Wrangell, Stat. und Ethnog. Nachr., 146-147): "The men -are big, brunette, with bristly black hair." - -Zagoskin (pt. II, 61-62): "The Tinneh belong in general to the American -family of redskins, but marked external differences are perceptible -in those who are mixed with the Eskimo. The Tinneh are of medium -stature, rather dry but well shaped, with oblong face, forehead medium, -upright, frequently hairy, nose broad and straight, hooked, eyes black -and dark brown, rather large * * * expression intelligent, in those -of more distant tribes somber, roving; lips full, compressed; teeth -white, straight; hair straight, black to dark brown, fairly soft; many -of the men hairy over the body and with fairly thick, short mustache -and beard; hands and feet medium, calves small; in general lively, -communicative, cheerful, and very fond of pleasure and song." - -Dall, William H., Alaska and Its Resources, 53-54: "The Ingaliks are, -as a rule, tall, well made, but slender. They have very long, squarely -oval faces, high, prominent cheek bones, large ears, small mouths, -noses, and eyes, and an unusually large lower jaw. The nose is well -formed and aquiline, but small in proportion to the rest of the face. -The hair is long, coarse, and black, and generally parted in the -middle. * * * Their complexion is an ashy brown, perhaps from dirt in -many cases, and they seldom have much color. On the other hand, the -Koyúkuns, with the same high cheek bones and piercing eyes, have much -shorter faces, more roundly oval, of a pale olive hue, and frequently -arched eyebrows and a fine color. They are the most attractive in -appearance of the Indians in this part of the territory, as they are -the most untamable. The women especially are more attractive than those -among the Ingaliks, whose square faces and ashy complexion render the -latter very plain, not to say repulsive." (Some of these statements -were evidently somewhat in error.--A. H.) - -Schwatka, F. (Milit. Reconn. (1883), Comp. Narr. Explor. Alas., 350): -"As regards these Ingaliks as a class, they are, as a rule, of average -height, tolerably well built, but slender, differing in this respect -from the natives farther down the river. They have long black hair and -a complexion brown by nature, but often verging toward black on account -of a liberal covering of dirt." - -See also Richardson, J. (Arctic Search. Exp., I, 379). Jones, S., The -Kutchin Tribes (Smiths. Rept. for 1866, 320-327). Whymper, F., Travel -and Advent., etc.; and later writers (including Bancroft's "Native -Races," etc., I, 127 et seq.). - -[27] Ten (8 m. 2 f.) Loucheux, or Kucha-Kuchin, from the upper Yukon, -were measured by A. J. Stone and reported by F. Boas (Bull. Am. Mus. -Nat. Hist, New York, vol. XIV, pp. 53-68, 1901). - - -THE LIVING INDIAN - -Notes on the living Indians of the Yukon have already been given in the -Narrative. They will be briefly summarized in this place. Measurements -of the living were impracticable during the journey. - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 13 - -TANANA INDIAN WOMAN] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 14 - -CHIEF SAN JOSEPH, NEAR TANANA VILLAGE, ON THE YUKON - -(A. H., 1926.)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 15 - -_a_. Jacob and Andrew, Yukon Indians at Kokrines. Jacob probably has a -trace of white blood. - -(A. H., 1926.) - -_b_, Yukon Indians at Kokrines. (A. H., 1926.)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 16 - -_a_, Marguerite Johnny Yatlen, Koyukuk village. (A. H., 1926) - -_b_, Lucy John, Koyukuk, daughter of a former chief. (A. H., 1926) - -YUKON INDIANS] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 17 - -_a_, George Halfway, Nulato, on the Yukon. (A. H., 1926) - -_b_, Jack Curry, of Nulato, 41 years old. (Now at Ruby, Middle Yukon; -Eskimoid physiognomy) - -_c_, Arthur Malamvot, of Nulato - -YUKON INDIANS] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 18 - -_a_, Indian children, Mission School at Anvik, Lower Middle Yukon - -_b_, Indian children, Mission School at Anvik, Lower Middle Yukon - -_c_, Two women of Anvik, on the Yukon, somewhat Eskimoid] - -_Pure bloods._--The Yukon Indians are a sparse and largely mixed -population. The mixture is especially evident in the children and the -younger generation. It is mainly that with whites, but in the lower -settlements there is also a good deal of older mixture with the Eskimo. -There is fortunately as yet no Negro admixture. - -_General type._--The full bloods are typically Indian, though not of -the pronounced plains type. The type is fairly uniform, but there is -not seldom, even up the river, as elsewhere in Alaska, a suggestion of -something Eskimoid in the physiognomy. - -_Color._--The color in general is near medium brown, ranging to lighter -rather than darker. The hair is the usual full black of the Indian. - -_Stature and strength._--- The stature and build are generally near -medium, rather slightly below than above. - -_Head form._--The head is generally moderately rounded high meso- to -moderately brachycephalic. The face is medium Indian. - -_Body._--The body proportions seldom impress one with unusual strength, -yet some of the men are by no means weaklings. The most fitting term -by which to characterize conditions in this respect is again "medium," -with an occasional deviation one way or the other. - -_Photographs._--The accompanying photographs, taken by the writer from -Tanana to Anvik, show a few of the physiognomies. Some of the girls and -women, as well as boys and men, are quite good looking. (Pls. 13-18.) - -From Anvik downward along the river the type of the people becomes -plainly more Eskimoid and on the whole more robust. But as one can -frequently meet farther up the river individuals who remind one more or -less of the Eskimo, so here it is frequent to see faces that look like -Indian. Whether due to old mixture or to other reason, the fact is that -there is no line of somatological demarcation in the living populations -of the river, and the same applies, as will be seen later, to the -skulls. - - -SKELETAL REMAINS OF THE YUKON - -The first Yukon Indian skull measured was that of a half-chief of -the Nulato group, collected in the early sixties by William H. Dall. -There are now three records of this skull, originally and again now a -Smithsonian specimen, one in Wyman ("Observations on Crania," Proc. -Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 1868, XI, 452, No. 7530), one in the Otis -"Catalogue" (35, No. 259), and one in Hrdlička's "Catalogue of Human -Crania in the United States National Museum Collections" (p. 30, No. -242925). It is a normal, well-developed male skull, which gives no -suggestion of mixture. The true measurements of this "type" specimen, -taken by present-day instruments and methods, are as follows: - - _Yukon Indian skull No. 242925_ - - Vault: - Length cm 18.4 - Breadth cm 14 - Height to bregma cm 13.8 - Cranial index _76.1_ - Mean height index _85.2_ - Height-breadth index _98.6_ - Cranial module - (mean diameter) cm 15.40 - Cranial capacity c. c. 1,520 - Face: - Menton-nasion (teeth but - slightly worn) cm 12.1 - Alveolar point-nasion cm 7.3 - Diameter bizygomatic - maximum cm 14 - Facial index, total _86.4_ - Facial index, upper _52.1_ - Facial angle 69° - Alveolar angle 53.5° - Orbits: - Right-- - Height cm 3.25 - Breadth cm 4.2 - Left-- - Height cm 3.45 - Breadth cm 4 - Mean index _81_ - Nose: - Height cm 5.1 - Breadth cm 2.5 - Index _49_ - Upper alveolar arch: - Length cm 5.7 - Breadth cm 6.7 - Index _85.1_ - Basio-facial diameters: - Basion-alveolar point cm 10.6 - Basion-subnasal point cm 9.4 - Basal-nasion cm 10.5 - -The skull is seen to be mesocephalic, rather high, and of good brain -capacity; the face is of medium Indian proportions; the orbits are -unequal, rather low; the nose is of medium height and breadth; the -upper dental arch, the basic-facial diameters, and the facial and -alveolar angles, are all near medium Indian. - -There was another Indian skull in the five Wyman reported, but its -identity is uncertain. A later collection by Dall included three Indian -female crania from Alaska, but their exact provenience is uncertain; -their measurements are given in my catalogue. - -On the 1926 trip I succeeded in collecting directly from the burials -along the lower middle Yukon 17 adult skulls and skeletons. Such -material is both scarce and difficult to obtain, due to the attitude -of the Indians. All the specimens in the collection are from the -Russian times on the river. A few of the skulls show traces of Eskimoid -in their features, but none offer a suspicion of a mixture with the -whites. The measurements are given below. They partly agree, partly -disagree, with those of the Nulato skull. The vault, the breadth of -the nose, the dimensions of the dental arch, are much alike, but the -height of the face, nose, and orbits in the Nulato specimen is somewhat -lower. These may be tribal but also simply individual differences. -We may generalize by stating that the lower middle Yukon Indian was -mesocephalic, with a fairly high vault, and moderate capacity. The face -was of relatively good height but moderate breadth, resulting in a high -upper facial index. Facial and alveolar prognathism and other features -approach the prevalent Indian medium. - - LOWER MIDDLE YUKON INDIAN CRANIA - - SEX: MALE - - ---------+----------+----------+-----------+----------------+-------- - Catalogue|Collection|Locality |Approximate| Vault: Diameter|Diameter - No. | | |age of |antero-posterior| lateral - | | |subject | maximum| maximum - | | | | (glabella ad| - | | | | maximum)| - ---------+----------+----------+-----------+----------------+-------- - 332512 |A. |Magi |Adults | 18.4| 13.8 - |Hrdlička |(Bonasila)| | | - | | | | | - 332517 |do |Ghost |do | 18.1| 13.8 - | |Creek, | | | - | |near Holy | | | - | |Cross. | | | - | | | | | - 332514 |do |do |do | 18.0| 13.9 - | | | | | - 332503 |do |Greyling |do | [28] (17.3)| (13.4) - | |River | | | - | |(above | | | - | |Anvik). | | | - | | | | | - 332507 |do |Ghost |do | 18.2| 14.1 - | |Creek | | | - | | | | | - 332526 |do |do |do | 18.5| 14.4 - | | | | | - 339752 |H. W. |do |do | 17.5| 13.9 - |Krieger | | | | - | | | | | - 332502 |A. |do |do | 17.8| 14.2 - |Hrdlička | | | | - +================+======== - | (7)| (7) - | | - Total | 126.5| 98.1 - | | - Average | _18.07_| _14.01_ - | | - Minimum | 17.5| 13.8 - | | - Maximum | 18.5| 14.4 - ---------+----------+----------+-----------+----------------+-------- - - ---------+-------------+-------+------+--------------+-------+----------- - Catalogue|Basion-bregma|Cranial| Mean|Height-breadth|Cranial| Capacity, - No. | height| index|height| index| module| in c. c. - | | | index| | |(Hrdlička's - | | | | | | method) - | | | | | | - ---------+-------------+-------+------+--------------+-------+----------- - 332512 | 14.0| _75.0_|_87.0_| _101.4_| 15.40| 1,480 - | | | | | | - | | | | | | - 332517 | 13.4| _76.2_|_83.8_| _97.1_| 15.10| 1,375 - | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | | | | | | - 332514 | 14.0| _77.2_|_87.5_| _100.7_| 15.30| 1,425 - | | | | | | - 332503 | (12.7)| _77.5_|_82.5_| _94.8_|(14.47)| (1,220) - | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | | | | | | - 332507 | 13.2| _77.5_|_81.5_| _93.6_| 15.17| 1,480 - | | | | | | - | | | | | | - 332526 | 13.7| _77._8|_83.5_| _95.1_| 15.53| - | | | | | | - 339752 | 13.5| _79.4_|_86.0_| _97.1_| 14.97| 1,515 - | | | | | | - | | | | | | - 332502 | 13.3| _79.8_|_83.1_| _93.7_| 15.10| 1,370 - | | | | | | - =============+=======+======+==============+=======+=========== - (7)| (_7_)| (_7_)| (_7_)| (7)| (6) - | | | | | - Total 95.1| | | | 106.57| 8,645 - | | | | | - Average _13.59_| _77.5_|_84.7_| _96.9_|_15.22_| _1,441_ - | | | | | - Minimum 13.2| _75.0_|_81.5_| _93.6_| 14.97| 1,370 - | | | | | - Maximum 14.0| _79.8_|_87.5_| _101.4_| 15.53| 1,515 - ---------+-------------+-------+------+--------------+-------+----------- - - ---------+--------+--------+-----------+------+------+-------- - Catalogue| Teeth:|Alveolar| Diameter|Facial|Facial| Basion- - No. | Wear| point-|bizygomatic|index,|index,|alveolar - | menton-| nasion|maximum (c)| total| upper| point - | nasion| height| | (a ×| (b ×| - | height| (b)| |100/c)|100/c)| - | (a)| | | | | - ---------+--------+--------+-----------+------+------+-------- - 332512 |[28]12.3| 7.5| 13.4|_91.8_| _56_| 10.2 - | | | | | | - 332517 | | 7.4| 13.4| |_55.2_| 10.2 - | | | | | | - 332514 | [29]13| 7.7| 13.3|_97.7_|_57.9_| 10.2 - | | | | | | - 332503 |[30]12.8| 8.1| 13.6|_94.1_|_59.6_| 10.5 - | | | | | | - 332507 | [31]| | 14.1| | | - | | | | | | - 332526 | | | | | | - | | | | | | - 332552 | [32]| | 13.6| | | - | | | | | | - 332502 | [28]13| 8.1| 14.1|_92.2_|_57.4_| 10.4 - | | | | | | - | (4)| (5)| (5)| (_4_)| (_5_)| (5) - | | | | | | - Totals | 51.1| 38.8| 67.8| | | 51.5 - | | | | | | - Averages | _12.78_| _7.76_| _13.56_|_93.9_|_57.2_| _10.3_ - | | | | | | - Minimum | 12.3| 7.4| 13.3| 91.8| 55.2| 10.2 - | | | | | | - Maximum | 13| 8.1| 14.1| 97.7| 59.6| 10.5 - | | | | | | - | | | (7)| | | - | | | | | | - Totals | | | 95.5| | | - | | | | | | - Averages | | | _13.64_| | | - | | | | | | - Minimum | | | 13.3| | | - | | | | | | - Maximum | | | 14.1| | | - ---------+--------+--------+-----------+------+------+-------- - - ---------+---------------+-------------+------+--------+--------- - Catalogue|Basion-subnasal|Basion-nasion|Facial|Alveolar| Height - No. | point| | angle| angle| of - | | | | |symphysis - | | | | | - | | | | | - ---------+---------------+-------------+------+--------+--------- - 332512 | 8.9| 10.2| 68.5| 51| 3.9 - | | | | | - 332517 | 8.9| 9.7| 64.5| 51.5| 4 - | | | | | - 332514 | 9.4| 10.4| 69| 63.5| 4.5 - | | | | | - 332503 | 9.5| 10.4| 66.5| 59.5| 3.7 - | | | | | - 332507 | 8.6| 10 | | | 3.7 - | | | | | - 332526 | | 10.4| | | - | | | | | - 332552 | 8.8| 10.1| | | 3.8 - | | | | | - 332502 | 9.2| 9.7| 62| 53| 4.2 - | | | | | - | (7)| (8)| (5)| (5)| (7) - | | | | | - Totals | 63.3| 80.9| | | 27.8 - | | | | | - Averages | _9.04_| _10.11_| _66_| _55_| _3.97_ - | | | | | - Minimum | 8.6| 9.7| 62| 51| 3.7 - | | | | | - Maximum | 9.5| 10.4| 69| 63.5| 4.5 - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - Totals | | | | | - | | | | | - Averages | | | | | - | | | | | - Minimum | | | | | - | | | | | - Maximum | | | | | - ---------+---------------+-------------+------+--------+--------- - - --------+-------+------+------+------ - Cata- |Orbits:| Brea-| Or-| Nose: - logue |Height,| dth,| bital|Height - No. | right,|right,|index,| - | left| left| mean| - | | | | - --------+-------+------+------+------ - 332512 | {3.65| 3.8|} 96 | 5.3 - | {3.65| 3.8|} | - | | | | - 332517 | {3.35| 3.9|} 88.3| 5 - | {3.45| 3.8|} | - | | | | - 332514 | {3.5| 3.7|} 94.6| 5.5 - | {3.5| 3.7|} | - | | | | - 332503 | {3.65| 4|} 91.2| 5.7 - | {3.6| 3.95|} | - | | | | - 332507 | {3.75| 3.85|} 95.5| 5.2 - | {3.7| 3.95|} | - | | | | - 332526 | --| --| --| -- - | | | | - 332552 | {3.5| 3.9|} --| 5.35 - | {3.5| 3.9|} | - | | | | - 332502 | {3.45| 4.15|} 84| 5.8 - | {3.4| 4|} | - | | | | - Right | (7)| (7)| (7)| - Left | (7)| (7)| (7)| (7) - | | | | - Totals | 24.85| 27.30|} --| 37.85 - {r. {l. | 24.80| 27.10|} | - | | | | - Averages| _3.55_|_3.90_| _91_|_5.41_ - {r. {l. | _3.54_|_3.87_|_91.5_|} - | | | | - | | | | - Minimum | 3.35| 3.7|} --| 5 - {r. {l. | 3.4| 3.7|} | - | | | | - Maximum | 3.75| 4.15|} --| 5.8 - {r. {l. | 3.7| 4|} | - --------+-------+------+------+------ - - --------+------+------+-------+--------+------ - Cata- | Brea-| Nasal|Palate:|External| Pal- - logue | dth,| index| exter-|breadth,| atal - No. | max-| | nal| maximum| index - | imum| | length| (b)| (b × - | | | (a)| |100/a) - --------+------+------+-------+--------+------ - 332512 | 2.55| 48.1| 5.5| 6.4|_85.9_ - | | | | | - | | | | | - 332517 | 2.6| 52| 5.6| 6.5|_86.2_ - | | | | | - | | | | | - 332514 | 2.3| 41.8| 5.3| 7|_75.7_ - | | | | | - | | | | | - 332503 | 2.45| 43| 5.4| 6.3|_85.7_ - | | | | | - | | | | | - 332507 | 2.5| 48.1| --| --| -- - | | | | | - | | | | | - 332526 | --| --| --| --| -- - | | | | | - 332552 | 2.5| --| --| --| -- - | | | | | - | | | | | - 332502 | 2.95| 50.9| 5.9| 6.5|_90.8_ - | | | | | - | | | | | - Right | | | | | - Left | (7)| (7)| (5)| (5)| (_5_) - | | | | | - Totals | 17.85| --| 27.7| 32.7| -- - {r. {l. | | | | | - | | | | | - Averages|_2.55_|_47.2_| _5.54_| _6.54_|_84.7_ - {r. {l. | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - Minimum | 2.3|_41.8_| _5.3_| 6.3|_75.7_ - {r. {l. | | | | | - | | | | | - Maximum | 2.95| _52_| 5.9| 7|_90.8_ - {r. {l. | | | | | - --------+------+------+-------+--------+------ - - SEX: FEMALE - - ---------+----------+----------+-----------+----------------+-------- - Catalogue|Collection|Locality |Approximate| Vault: Diameter|Diameter - No. | | |age of |antero-posterior| lateral - | | |subject | maximum| maximum - | | | | (glabella ad| - | | | | maximum)| - ---------+----------+----------+-----------+----------------+-------- - 332506 |A. |Magi |Adults | 18.2| 13.4 - |Hrdlička |(Bonasila)| | | - | | | | | - 332520 |do |Ghost |do | 17.9| 13.2 - | |Creek | | | - | | | | | - 332508 |do |Magi |do | 17.2| 12.8 - | | | | | - 332519 |do |Ghost |do | 16.2| 12.3 - | |Creek | | | - | | | | | - 332510 |do |Magi |do | 17.6| 13.5 - | | | | | - 332504 |do |do |do | 17.9| 13.8 - | | | | | - 332525 |do |Ghost |do | 17.4| 13.5 - | |Creek | | | - | | | | | - 332525 |do |Magi |do | 17.2| 13.4 - | | | | | - 332522 |do |Novi |do | 16.7| 13.4 - | |River | | | - | | | | | - 339751 |H. W. |Magi |do | 16.4| 13.4 - |Krieger | | | | - +================+======== - | (10)| (10) - | | - Totals | 172.7| 132.7 - | | - Averages | _17.27_| _13.27_ - | | - Minimum | 16.4| 12.3 - | | - Maximum | 18.2| 13.8 - ---------+----------+----------+-----------+----------------+-------- - - ---------+-------------+-------+------+--------------+-------+----------- - Catalogue|Basion-bregma|Cranial| Mean|Height-breadth|Cranial| Capacity, - No. | height| index|height| index| module| in c. c. - | | | index| | |(Hrdlička's - | | | | | | method) - | | | | | | - ---------+-------------+-------+------+--------------+-------+----------- - 332506 | 13.1| _73.6_|_82.9_| _97.8_| 14.90 | 1,400 - | | | | | | - | | | | | | - 332520 | 12.7| _73.7_|_81.4_| _96.2_| 14.60 | 1,335 - | | | | | | - | | | | | | - 332508 | 13.1| _74.4_|_87.3_| _102.3_| 14.37 | 1,225 - | | | | | | - 332519 | 12.3| _75.9_|_86.6_| _100.0_| 13.60 | 1,070 - | | | | | | - | | | | | | - 332510 | 13.2| _76.7_|_84.6_| _97.8_| 14.77 | 1,375 - | | | | | | - 332504 | 13.5| _77.1_|_85.4_| _97.8_| 15.07 | 1,355 - | | | | | | - 332525 | 12.5| _77.6_|_81.2_| _92.6_| 14.47 | 1,260 - | | | | | | - | | | | | | - 332525 | 12.6| _77.9_|_82.4_| _94.0_| 14.40 | 1,230 - | | | | | | - 332522 | 12.8| _80.2_|_85.3_| _95.5_| 14.30 | 1,210 - | | | | | | - | | | | | | - 339751 | 12.6| _81.7_|_84.6_| _94.0_| 14.13 | 1,210 - | | | | | | - =============+=======+======+==============+=======+=========== - (10)| (_10_)|(_10_)| (_10_)| (10) | (10) - | | | | | - Totals 128.4| --| -- | --|144.6 | 12,670 - | | | | | - Averages _12.84_| _76.8_|_84.1_| _96.8_|_14.46_| _1,267_ - | | | | | - Minimum 12.3| _73.6_|_81.2_| _92.6_| 13.60 | 1,070 - | | | | | - Maximum 13.5| _81.7_|_87.3_| _102.3_| 15.07 | 1,400 - ---------+-------------+-------+------+--------------+-------+----------- - - ---------+--------+--------+-----------+------+------+-------- - Catalogue| Teeth:|Alveolar| Diameter|Facial|Facial| Basion- - No. | Wear| point-|bizygomatic|index,|index,|alveolar - | menton-| nasion|maximum (c)| total| upper| point - | nasion| height| | (a ×| (b ×| - | height| (b)| |100/c)|100/c)| - | (a)| | | | | - ---------+--------+--------+-----------+------+------+-------- - 332506 |[34]12.1| 7.5| 12.7|_95.3_|_59.1_| 9.9 - | | | | | | - 332520 | --| 6.9| 13.3| --|_51.9_| 10.6 - | | | | | | - 332508 |[35]10.8| -7| 12.6|_85.7_|_55.6_| 9.6 - | | | | | | - 332519 | --| 6.7| 12.1| --|_55.4_| 9.3 - | | | | | | - 332510 | +11.6| -7| -12|_96.7_|_58.3_| 9.7 - | | | | | | - 332504 |[34]13.1| -8| 13.6|_91.8_| _56_| 10.4 - | | | | | | - 332525 | [36]| --| 12.9| --| --| - | | | | | | - 332505 |[37]11.8| 6.8| 12.8|_92.2_|_53.1_| 9.5 - | | | | | | - 322522 | | 7.1| 13.3| --|_54.1_| 9.2 - | | | | | | - 332751 | [38]11| 6.7| 13.1| _-84_|_51.1_| 9.6 - ---------+--------+--------+-----------+------+------+-------- - | (6)| (9)| (10)| (_6_)| (_9_)| (9) - | | | | | | - Totals | 70.4| 63.7| 128.4| --| --| 87.8 - | | | | | | - Averages | _11.73_| _7.08_| _12.84_|_91.7_|_55.1_| _9.76_ - | | | | | | - Minimum | 10.8| 6.7| -12| _-84_|_51.1_| 9.2 - | | | | | | - Maximum | 13.1| -8| 13.6|_96.7_|_59.1_| 10.6 - ---------+--------+--------+-----------+------+------+-------- - - ---------+---------------+-------------+------+--------+--------- - Catalogue|Basion-subnasal|Basion-nasion|Facial|Alveolar| Height - No. | point| | angle| angle| of - | | | | |symphysis - | | | | | - | | | | | - ---------+---------------+-------------+------+--------+--------- - 332506 | 8.8| -10| -69| -54| 3.8 - | | | | | - 332520 | 9.4| 9.7| -63| -52| -- - | | | | | - 332508 | 8.5| 9.9| -71| -51| -3 - | | | | | - 332519 | 7.8| 8.8| 64.5| 42.5| -- - | | | | | - 332510 | 8.4| 9.5| -67| -51| 3.7 - | | | | | - 332504 | 9.1| 10.5| -68| 54.5| 3.9 - | | | | | - 332525 | 8.7| 9.9| | | 3.6 - | | | | | - 332505 | 8.4| 9.6| -70| -51| 3.7 - | | | | | - 322522 | 8.6| -10| 74.5| -64| - | | | | | - 332751 | 8.5| 9.3| -67| 48.5| 3.35 - +===============+=============+======+========+========= - | (10)| (10)| (9)| (9)| (7) - | | | | | - Totals | 86.2| 97.2| | | 25.05 - | | | | | - Averages | _8.62_| _9.72_| _-68_| _-52_| _3.58_ - | | | | | - Minimum | 7.8| 8.8| -63| 42.5| -3 - | | | | | - Maximum | 9.4| 10.5| 74.5| -64| 3.9 - ---------+---------------+-------------+------+--------+--------- - - --------+-------+------+------+------+------ - Cata- |Orbits:| Brea-| Or-| Nose:| Brea- - logue |Height,| dth,| bital|Height| dth, - No. | right,|right,|index,| | max- - | left| left| mean| | imum - | | | | | - --------+-------+------+------+------+------ - 332506 | { 3.55| 3.8|_94.1_| 5.5| 2.2 - | { 3.6| 3.8|} | | - | | | | | - 332520 | { 3.3| 3.7|_90.5_| | 2.4 - | { 3.4| 3.7|} | 4.75| - | | | | | - 332508 | { 3.7| 4|_92.5_| 5.2| 2.5 - | { | |} | | - | | | | | - 332519 | { 3.4| 3.7|_93.9_| 4.7| 2.3 - | { 3.5| 3.65|} | | - | | | | | - 332510 | { 3.3| 3.55|_91.6_| 4.7| 2.3 - | { 3.2| 3.55|} | | - | | | | | - 332504 | { 3.7| 3.95|_91.9_| 5.4| 2.15 - | { 3.65| 4.05|} | | - | | | | | - 332525 | { | |_85.5_| 5.15| 2.2 - | { 3.25| 3.8|} | | - | | | | | - 332505 | { 3.8| 3.95|_94.0_| 4.9| 2.35 - | { 3.6| 3.85|} | | - | | | | | - 332522 | { 3.7| 3.95|_92.4_| 5.45| 2.3 - | { 3.6| 3.95|} | | - | | | | | - 332751 | { 3.1| 3.8|} _84_| 5| 2.4 - | { 3.2| 3.7|} | | - +=======+======+======+======+====== - Right | (9)| (9)| (_9_)| | - Left | (9)| (9)| (_9_)| (10)| (10) - | | | | | - Totals | 31.55| 34.4|} | 50.75| 23.1 - {r. {l. | 31| 34.05|} | | - | | | | | - Averages| _3.51_|_3.82_|_91.7_|_5.07_|_2.31_ - {r. {l. | _3.44_|_3.78_| _91_| | - | | | | | - Minimum | 3.1| 3.55|} | 4.7| 2.15 - {r. {l. | 3.2| 3.55|} | | - | | | | | - Maximum | 3.8| 4|} | 5.5| 2.5 - {r. {l. | 3.65| 4.05|} | | - --------+-------+------+------+------+------ - - --------+------+-------+--------+------ - Cata- | Nasal|Palate:|External| Pal- - logue | index| exter-|breadth,| atal - No. | | nal| maximum| index - | | length| (b)| (b × - | | (a)| |100/a) - --------+------+-------+--------+------ - 332506 | _40_| 5.2| 6.1|_85.2_ - | | | | - | | | | - 332508 |_50.5_| 5.4| 6| _90_ - | | | | - | | | | - 332508 |_48.1_| 5.2| 5.8|_89.7_ - | | | | - | | | | - 332519 |_48.9_| 5.4| 5.5|_98.2_ - | | | | - | | | | - 332510 |_48.9_| 5.3| 6.4|_82.8_ - | | | | - | | | | - 332504 |_39.8_| 5.7| 6.7|_85.1_ - | | | | - | | | | - 332525 |_42.7_| --| --| -- - | | | | - | | | | - 332505 | _48_| 5.3| 5.8|_91.4_ - | | | | - | | | | - 332522 |_42.2_| 5| 6.6|_75.8_ - | | | | - | | | | - 332751 | _48_| 5.3| 6.5|_81.5_ - | | | | - +======+=======+========+====== - Right | | | | - Left |(_10_)| (9)| (9)| (_9_) - | | | | - Totals | | 47.8| 55.4| -- - {r. {l. | | | | - | | | | - Averages|_45.5_| _5.31_| _6.16_|_86.3_ - {r. {l. | | | | - | | | | - Minimum |_39.8_| 5| 5.5|_75.8_ - {r. {l. | | | | - | | | | - Maximum |_50.5_| 5.7| 6.7|_98.2_ - {r. {l. | | | | - --------+------+-------+--------+------ - -FOOTNOTES: - -[28] Premature occlusion of sagittal and subdevelopment of vault; -probably a moron, facial and skeletal parts all normal. - -[29] Medium. - -[30] Slight. - -[31] Moderate. - -[32] Cons. - -[33] Unknown; all lost. - -[34] Slight. - -[35] Cons. - -[36] Medium. - -[37] Moderate. - -[38] U. medium; l. moderate - - -SKELETAL PARTS - -There are seven adult skeletons of males and seven of females. For -present purposes it will suffice to take the males alone and to -restrict consideration to the long bones. The essential data on these -are given on page 160, where they are contrasted with those of North -American Indians in general, and with those of the western Eskimo. - -The bones show both relations to as well as differences from the bones -of Indians in general and fair distinctness from those of the Eskimo. - -Contrasted with the long bones of miscellaneous North American tribes -taken together, the Yukon Indian bones show absolutely slightly -shorter humerus (or arm), somewhat shorter radius (or forearm), a -slightly shorter femur (or upper part of the leg), and a plainly -shorter tibia. These Indians had therefore relatively somewhat shorter -forearm and especially the leg below the knees than their continental -cousins. These facts are plainly evident from the radio-humeral and -tibio-femoral indices of the two groups. In this relative shortness of -the distal parts of the limbs the Yukon Indian approaches the Eskimo, -standing near midway between the Indian in general and the Eskimo. -There might be a ready temptation to attribute this to a mixture with -the Eskimo; but an examination of the records will show that the same -condition, so far at least as the upper limb is concerned (lower?), is -already present in the old Bonasila skeleton, which gives no suggestion -of an Eskimo mixture. It is more likely, therefore, that these are -generalized characteristics of functional origin such as a considerable -use of the small canoes. This view seems to be supported by the -relative strength of the bones. In the Yukon Indian the humerus is -stouter, the femur of the same strength, and the tibia very perceptibly -weaker than they are in Indians in general. In the Eskimo, with even -greater dependence on the canoe, both the humerus and the femur are -notably stouter, while the tibia is weaker, than are similar bones in -the Indians in general. - -The humero-femoral index in the Yukon Indians is unusually high, -indicating a relative shortness of the femur. This character is not -present in the Eskimo, nor in the continental Indian. It is probably -also of old functional origin, though, this for the present must remain -a mere suggestion. - -All of this shows clearly the interest and value of other skeletal -parts than the skull, and particularly of the long bones, for -anthropological studies. - - -SKELETAL REMAINS FROM THE BANK AT BONASILA - -The skeletal material from the bank at Bonasila consists now of -portions of three adult skulls, one male and two females, and of 13 -bones of the male skeleton. All the specimens are more or less stained -by manganese and iron and all are distinctly heavier than normal, -showing some grade of fossilization. They closely resemble in all these -respects the numerous animal bones from the bank and in all differ from -the later surface burials of the place. - - -THE CRANIA - -The male skull, No. 332513, is represented by the frontal bone united -with a larger part of the face, a separated left temporal, and the -right half of the lower jaw. A large Inca bone, recovered from the -beach a year later, may also belong to the same specimen. The missing -parts are probably still somewhere in the sands of the beach where -there is going on a very instructive scattering and redeposition on a 4 -to 6 feet lower level of the contents of the old bank. - -The skull is that of a male of somewhat over 50 years of age, judging -from the moderate to marked wear of the remaining teeth. It is a normal -undeformed specimen, and the same applies to the bones of the skeleton. - -_Notes and measurements._--The frontal shows a medium development, no -slope. The supraorbital ridges are rather weakly developed for a male, -leaving the upper borders of the orbits rather sharp. - - Cm. - - Diameter frontal minimum 9.75 - Diameter frontal maximum 11.8 - Diameter nasion-bregma 11.5 - -The skull as a whole was evidently mesocephalic, and neither low nor -very high. The thickness of the frontal is about medium for an Indian. - -The face is of medium proportions and strength, with rather large -orbits, good interorbital breadth, medium malars, medium broad nose, -and but moderate alveolar prognathism. The nasal bridge is not high, -nasal bones fairly broad, spine moderate, lower borders well defined -though not sharp. The sub-malar (canine) fossae are shallow. - - _Measurements_ - - Alveolar point-nasion height cm 7.8 - Facial breadth about medium - for an Indian. - Nose: - Height cm 5.5 - Breadth, near cm 2.75 - Index _50_ - Left orbit: - Height cm 3.75 - Breadth cm 4 - Index _93.7_ - Minimum interorbital distance cm 2.6 - Upper dental arch: - Length, approximately cm 5.6 - Breadth, approximately cm 7 - Index, approximately _80_ - Lower jaw: - Height at symphysis - approximately cm 4.1 - Thickness at M₂ (with the - tooth held midway between - branches of compass) cm 1.5 - Height of asc. ramus cm 6.9 - Breadth minimum of asc. ramus cm 3.7 - -The condyloid process of the lower jaw is high, mandibular notch deep. -The whole jaw is strong but not thick or massive. It is Indianlike, not -Eskimoid, in all its features. The teeth are of good medium size. - -_Skull No. 333383._--Of this skull I brought the right parietal -with about one-third of the frontal; Mr. Krieger, a year later, the -remainder of the frontal. Other parts are missing. - -The specimen was evidently, a good-size female skull, normal, -undeformed, probably mesocephalic in form, and moderately high. The -thickness of the bones is not above moderate. - - Cm. - Diameter frontal minimum 9.7 - Diameter frontal maximum 12.5 - Diameter nasion-bregma 11.1 - -_Skull No. 333950._--Of the third skull, recovered from the sands of -the beach at low water in 1927 by Mr. Lawrence, there are only the two -parietals. The specimen is that of a young adult female. The bones, -rather submedium in thickness, indicate a skull of slightly smaller -size and slightly shorter than the preceding but of much the same -general type. - -_The skeletal parts of male No. 332513._--Humeri: The long bones all -give the impression of straightness, length, and of a certain gracility -of form combined with strength, but without massiveness. The right -humerus presents a small but distinct supracondylar process, a rarity -among Indians. The fossae are not perforated. Measurements: - - Length, maximum: - Right cm 35.8 - Left cm 35.3 - Major diameter at middle: - Right cm 2.5 - Left cm 2.4 - Minor diameter at middle: - Right cm 1.65 - Left cm 1.6 - Index at middle: - Right _66_ - Left _66.7_ - Type of shaft at middle, - prismatic: - Right cm 1 - Left cm 1 - Right radius: - Length, maximum, near cm 27 - Radio-humeral index, - approximately _75.5_ - -The shaft approaches type IV (quadrilateral). There is but small -curvature. - -Right ulna: Lacks the olecranon; shaft prismatic, with anterior and -posterior surfaces fluted; but a moderate curvature backward upper -third. - - Femora: - Length, bicondylar, right cm 48.2 - Humero-femoral index _74.3_ - Diameter antero-posterior - maximum at middle-- - Right cm 3.05 - Left cm 3.2 - Diameter lateral maximum - at middle-- - Right cm 2.5 - Left cm 2.65 - Index at middle-- - Right _82_ - Left _82.8_ - Diameter maximum at upper - flattening-- - Right cm 3.5 - Left cm 3.7 - Diameter minimum at upper - flattening-- - Right cm 2.1 - Left cm 2.25 - Index at upper flattening-- - Right _60_ - Left _60.8_ - Type shaft at middle-- - Right 1 - Left, near 1 - -The bones, especially the right, are remarkable for their graceful form -and approach to straightness. The linea aspera is high but not massive -or rough. - -Right tibia: Length (?), extremities wanting. A moderate physiological -curvature forward, middle third. - - Diameter antero-posterior at middle, right cm 3.25 - Diameter lateral at middle cm 1.95 - Index at middle _60_ - -The bone is distinctly platycnaemic, as the femora are platymeric and -the humeri platybrachic, a harmony of characters which is often met -with in the continental Indian. - - -ADDITIONAL PARTS - -These include four ribs, the atlas and two lumbar vertebræ. The first -rib approaches the semicircular in type and is rather large, indicating -a spacious chest. Otherwise there is nothing special. - -A comparison of the long bones of this interesting skeleton with those -of the later Indians from the same and near-by localities as well as -with those of the western Eskimo (see table, p. 160) shows a number of -striking conditions. The length of the bones of the skeleton is far -above the mean of both those of Indians and the Eskimo, indicating a -stature of at least 10 centimeters (4 inches) higher. In none of their -characteristics are the bones near to those of the Eskimo, making it -doubly certain that the subject was not of that affiliation. Compared -with those of the later Indians of the same territory, the bones show -in one line remarkable differences, in another remarkable likenesses. -The differences concern all the relative proportions of the shafts--the -bones of the old skeleton give without exception indices that are -markedly lower; they are distinctly more platybrachic, platymeric, -and platycnaemic. But the more basic humero-femoral and radio-humeral -indices are practically the same; showing fundamental identity. The -humero-femoral index is especially important in this case. It is -exceptionally high in the Yukon Indians, due to a relatively long -humerus, and the same condition is seen in the old skeleton. It seems -safe, therefore, to conclude that the owner of the old skeleton was -not only an Indian but an Indian of the same physical stock from which -were derived the later Indians of the Yukon; but he was evidently of -an earlier and different tribe or of a purer derivation than those who -followed. To more fully establish and then trace this type, both as to -its derivation and extension, will be tasks of future importance. - - YUKON INDIANS: MAIN LONG BONES - - SEX: MALES[39] - - -----------------------------+----------------+-------------+-------- - | Yukon Indians | | - +--------+-------+ | - Paired bones | Older| From|Miscellaneous| Western - |skeleton|Russian| North| Eskimos - | at| times| American| - |Bonasila| | Indians| - -----------------------------+--------+-------+-------------+-------- - Humerus: | (2)| (10)| [40](378)|[41](76) - | | | | - Mean length | 35.55| 31.17| 31.8| 30.88 - | | | | - At middle-- | | | | - | | | | - Diameter, major | 2.45| 2.38| 2.22| 2.42 - | | | | - Diameter, minor | 1.68| 1.67| 1.63| 1.82 - | | | | - Index | _66.4_| _70_| _73.1_| _75.2_ - | | | | - Radius: | (1)| (10)| (378)| (76) - | | | | - Mean length | n. 27| 23.61| 24.7| 22.85 - | | | | - Radio-humeral index | n.| _75.7_| _77.7_| _74_ - | _75.5_| | | - | | | | - Femur: | (2)| (14)| [40](902)| (84) - | | | | - Mean length (bycondylar) | 48.2| 41.92| 42.7| 42.70 - | | | | - Humero-femoral index | _74.3_| _74.5_| n. _72.5_|n. _-72_ - | | | | - At middle-- | | | | - | | | | - Diameter, | 3.12| 2.96| 2.95| 3.03 - antero-posterior, maximum| | | | - | | | | - Diameter, lateral | 2.57| 2.58| 2.58| 2.71 - | | | | - Index | _82.4_| _87.1_| _87.3_| _89.5_ - | | | | - At upper flattening-- | | | | - | | | | - Diameter, maximum | 3.60| 3.25| 3.27| 3.37 - | | | | - Diameter, minimum | 2.18| 2.30| 2.42| 2.48 - | | | | - Index | _60.4_| _70.7_| _74_| _73.5_ - | | | | - Tibia: | (1)| (14)| (324)| (84) - | | | | - Mean length | | 34.19| 36.9| 33.61 - | | | | - Tibio-femoral index | | 81.5| 84.4| 78.7 - | | | | - At middle-- | | | | - | | | | - Diameter, | 3.25| 3.04| 3.28| 3.10 - antero-posterior, maximum| | | | - | | | | - Diameter, lateral | 1.95| 2.| 2.16| 2.12 - | | | | - Index | _60_| _66_| _65.8_| _68.5_ - -----------------------------+--------+-------+-------------+-------- - -FOOTNOTES: - -[39] See also data in writer's "Physical Anthropology of the -Lenape," etc., Bull. 62, Bur. Amer. Ethn., Washington, 1916; and his -"Anthropology of Florida," Fla. Hist. Soc. Pub. No. 1, Deland, Fla., -1922. - -[40] These numbers apply to length only; under the other items the -numbers are in some cases smaller, in some larger. The differences are -due to defects in some of the old bones. - -[41] See also data on p. 165. - - -THE YUKON ESKIMO - - -THE LIVING - -As with the Indians farther up the river, the necessities of the -writer's journey did not permit more than visual observations, but in -1927 Henry B. Collins, jr., succeeded in measuring six adult males at -Marshall. - -In general, the people of the Yukon delta and from this to Paimute -are true Eskimo. By this is meant that in the majority of individuals -they can readily be told as a type apart from the Indian and belonging -plainly to that of the extensive family of the Eskimo. But when the -differences are to be defined the task is not easy; some of the -distinguishing marks, though well appreciated, are somewhat intangible. - -The physical differences are essentially those of the physiognomy. The -head is neither narrow nor scaphoid, or even very high. The Indian -face is more prominent and more sculptured; that of the Eskimo appears -fuller, especially in the lower part, and flatter. Part of this is -due to the bony structure, part to the differing amounts of fat. An -eversion of the angles of the lower jaw, which is relatively frequent -and sometimes excessive in the Eskimo male while almost absent in the -Indian, may give the Eskimo face almost a square appearance. Take -with this the seemingly somewhat low Eskimo forehead, the not very -widely open and somewhat on the whole more slanting eye, and the -characteristic Eskimo nose with its rather narrow and not prominent -nasal bridge, the ridiculous monk-like cut of the hair (in the older -males), the often rather full lips with, in the males, a tuft of sparse -mustache above each corner of the mouth; add to all this a mostly -smiling or ready-to-smile "full-moon" expression, and it would be -impossible to take the subject for anything else than an Eskimo. The -Indian's face is more set, less fat, in the males at least, less broad -below, with seemingly a higher forehead, sensibly made-up hair, not -seldom a bit more mustache, and a nose that generally is both broader -and more prominent. - -But the differences are less marked in the women and still less so in -the children, especially where similarly combed and clothed. And there -are, particularly on the Yukon, not a few of both Indian and Eskimo -who even an expert is at a loss where to class. They may be due to old -mixtures; no new ones are taking place; but it seems that there may be -present another important factor, that of a far-back related parentage. - -In the color of the skin and eyes, in the color and nature of the hair, -there is no marked difference between the two peoples of the Yukon. In -stature the Eskimos are slightly higher. - - -MEASUREMENTS ON LIVING YUKON ESKIMO - -The exact provenience of the six men measured at Marshall is uncertain, -but they seemingly were all from the lower Yukon and all were -apparently full-blood Eskimo. But the measurements are rather peculiar. -They are given, for comparison, with those of the western Eskimo -in general (p. 165). They approach nearest to those of the Togiak -Eskimo, well down below the Kuskokwim. They show a higher stature -than all of their relations farther south, except the Togiaks, and -they have a rounder head. They are, in fact, moderate brachycephals, -a very unexpected form in this strain of people. The Togiaks also -are brachycephalic. The vault is relatively somewhat higher than it -is in the other groups, though the height is not excessive. The nose -is slightly lower as well as narrower than it is in all the other -contingents. The face is close to those of St. Lawrence Island. The -ear is perceptibly smaller and especially narrower than elsewhere, but -perhaps the age factor enters into the case. The hand is much like that -of Togiak and St. Lawrence, the index being identical. - -The brachycephaly of the group for the present is hard to explain. It -can not be ascribed to a mixture with the river Indians, for these, as -has been seen from the skulls, were meso- rather than brachycephalic. -There is need here for further inquiry. - - -SKELETAL REMAINS OF YUKON ESKIMO - -As with the Indian, such remains are still rare. Some measurements -of three "Smithsonian Mahlemute" skulls from the Yukon, collected by -William H. Dall, are given by Jeffries Wyman, and probably the same -specimens appear in the Otis Catalogue, the measurements in which are -regrettably not very reliable. These specimens can not now be located, -and the scarce data are of but little value. The three skulls examined -by Wyman were all mesocephalic. - -It is now possible to report on 40 adult skulls from the lower Yukon -and the delta. An abstract of the measurements is given in the -next table. The data indicate a considerable local variation. All -the skulls, or very nearly all, are mesocephalic; but they differ -considerably in height and in all the facial features. The Pilot -Station group, from the apex of the delta, and hence the midst of the -Eskimo territory on the Yukon, is especially peculiar. Both the vault -and the face, in the series as a whole, range from low to high, and -much the same is true of the height of the nose and that of the orbits, -while the palate is exceptionally broad, giving a low index, all of -which would seem to indicate instability or conditions in change, -together probably with admixtures from farther up the river. We need -more material, particularly from the stretch of the river between the -apex of the delta and Paimute. - - YUKON ESKIMO CRANIA - - UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM: - - ------------------------+---------+---------+---------+--------- - | 17 males - +---------+---------+---------+--------- - | Pilot | "Lower | Kashunok| Kotlik - | Station | Yukon" | (of | and - | | | Yukon) |Pastolik - ------------------------+---------+---------+---------+--------- - Number of adult skulls | (3) | (1) | (2) | (11) - Collector | | [42] | [43] | [44] - Vault: | | | | - Length | 18.90 | 18.8 | 18.45 | 18.44 - Breadth | 15.07 | 14.2 | 14.10 | 13.90 - Height | 13.77 | 13.7 | 13.65 | 13.60 - Module | 15.91 | 15.57 | 15.40 | 15.31 - Capacity |1,660 |1,535 |1,468 |1,486 - Cranial index | _79.7_ | _75.5_ | _76.4_ | _75.4_ - Mean height, index | _81.6_ | _83_ | _83.9_ | _84.1_ - Height-breadth, index | _91.4_ | _96.5_ | _96.8_ | _97.8_ - Face: | | | | - Menton-nasion | 12.40 | | | 12.67 - Alveolar point-nasion | 7.85 | 7.1 | 8.25 | 7.78 - Diameter | | | | - bizygomatic maximum | 14.97 | 14.4 | 14.25 | 14.13 - Facial index, total | _82.4_ | | | _90.1_ - Facial index, upper | _52.2_ | _49.3_ | _57.9_ _55_ - Orbits: | | | | - Mean height | 3.58 | 3.55 | 3.80 | 3.67 - Mean breadth | 4.07 | 4 | 3.91 | 3.98 - Mean index | _87.7_ | _88.7_ | _97.1_ | _92.3_ - Nose: | | | | - Height | 5.27 | 5.05 | 5.65 | 5.53 - Breadth | 2.57 | 2.15 | 2.28 | 2.51 - Index | _48.7_ | _42.6_ | _40.3_ | _45.4_ - Upper alveolar arch: | | | | - Length | 5.70 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.57 - Breadth | 7.40 | 6.6 | 6.65 | 6.70 - Index | _77_ | _81.8_ | _81.2_ | _83.4_ - Basi-facial diameters: | | | | - Basion-alveolar point | 10.35 |n. 10.3 | 10.15 | 10.40 - Basion-subnasal point | 9.07 | 9.4 | 9.10 | 9.17 - Basion-nasion | 10.60 | 10.8 | 10.15 | 10.41 - Facial angle | 70 | 74 | 66 | 68 - Alveolar angle | 55 | 60 | 60 | 52 - Height of lower jaw at | | | | - symphysis | 3.63 | | | 3.75 - ------------------------+---------+---------+---------+--------- - - ------------------------+---------+---------+---------+--------- - | 23 females - +---------+---------+---------+--------- - | Paimute | Pilot | Kashunok| Kotlik - | | Station | mouth | and - | | | | Pastolik - ------------------------+---------+---------+---------+--------- - Number of adult skulls | (1) | (3) | (1) | (18) - Collector | [44] | | [43] | [44] - Vault: | | | | - Length | 18.7 | 17.80 | 18.7 | 17.72 - Breadth | 14 | 14 | 13.9 | 3.62 - Height |n. 13.5 | 13.20 | 12.4 | 13.04 - Module | 15.40 | 15 | 15 | 14.81 - Capacity | |1,442 | |1,359 - Cranial index | _74.9_ | _78.7_ | _74.3_ | _76.8_ - Mean height, index |_n. 82.3_| _83_ | _76.1_ | _83.2_ - Height-breadth, index |_n. 96.4_| _94.3_ | _89.2_ | _95.8_ - Face: | | | | - Menton-nasion | | 11.90 | | 11.82 - Alveolar point-nasion | | 7.40 | | 7.49 - Diameter | | | | - bizygomatic maximum | | 13.47 | 13.90 | 13.26 - Facial index, total | | _89.1_ | | _89_ - Facial index, upper | | _55_ | | _56.5_ - Orbits: | | | | - Mean height | | 3.54 | 3.50 | 3.62 - Mean breadth | | 3.89 | 3.80 | 3.86 - Mean index | | _91_ | _92.1_ | _94.1_ - Nose: | | | | - Height | | 5 | 5.50 | 5.19 - Breadth | | 2.33 | 2.45 | 2.31 - Index | | _46.7_ | _44.5_ | _44.5_ - Upper alveolar arch: | | | | - Length | | 5.40 | | 5.45 - Breadth | | 6.60 | | 6.38 - Index | | _81.8_ | | _85.4_ - Basi-facial diameters: | | | | - Basion-alveolar point | | 10.17 | | 10.09 - Basion-subnasal point | | 8.80 | 8.90 | 8.86 - Basion-nasion | | 9.97 | 10.20 | 9.98 - Facial angle | | 67 | | 67 - Alveolar angle | | 52 | | 53 - Height of lower jaw at | | | | - symphysis | | 3.67 | | 3.56 - ------------------------+---------+---------+---------+--------- - -FOOTNOTES: - -[42] Howgate & Schwatka Exp. - -[43] Rev. P. I. Delon. - -[44] A. Hrdlička. - - -SKELETAL PARTS OF THE YUKON ESKIMO - -The next table gives the measurements of the long bones in both sexes -in the Yukon Indian (for comparison), in the Yukon Eskimo, and in the -western Eskimo, the latter coming mainly from the coast south of the -Yukon and from the Nunivak and St. Lawrence Islands. The Yukon Eskimo -material, collected from intact burials by the writer, is unfortunately -limited to the northern mouth of the river. The skeletons from St. -Lawrence Island were collected on the Smithsonian expedition to the -place in 1912 by Riley D. Moore, 1927 expedition by H. B. Collins, jr., -and T. D. Stewart, all of the National Museum. - -The Yukon Eskimo show perceptibly longer bones than do either the -Indians or the southeastern and midwestern Eskimo, indicating a -somewhat taller stature. - -The humerus in the males is less broad than either in the Indians or -the midwestern and southwestern Eskimo and has as a consequence high -shaft index; but in the females the index in the Yukon and western -Eskimo series is identical. The radius is relatively even shorter in -the Yukon that it is in the other Eskimo, giving low radio-humeral -index. - -The femur is notably less platymeric in the male and slightly less so -in the female Yukon Eskimo than it is in both the Indians and the rest -of the southwestern and midwestern Eskimo, giving a higher index at the -upper flattening. The meaning of these facts is not obvious and they -may undergo some modification with more material. - -As to strength, measured by the mean diameter of the shafts, the Yukon -Eskimo in comparison to the southwestern and midwestern show a slightly -weaker humerus, and in the males a slightly weaker femur at middle, -but in the males again, a slightly stronger tibia. If, however, the -mean diameters of the bones are taken in relation to the length of the -bones, then in both sexes and in all the parts the southwestern and -midwestern Eskimo are slightly stronger. This would seem to indicate -more exertion, with harder life, among the coastal and insular than -among the river Eskimo. As a matter of fact Kotlik and the near-by -Pastolik, from which our skeletons came, were favorably situated at the -northern mouth of the river. - -The Yukon Eskimo females, as compared with the males, have a somewhat -weaker and especially somewhat flatter humerus, with a consequently -lower shaft index; they have relatively even a shorter radius, giving -a lower radio-humeral index; their humerus itself is relatively short, -giving a lower humero-femoral index; their femur is relatively somewhat -flatter at the upper flattening, giving a lower index of platymery; -while their tibia is relatively less strong antero-posteriorly, -resulting in an index that is more than four points higher than that of -the males. - - YUKON INDIAN, YUKON ESKIMO, AND WESTERN ESKIMO LONG - BONES[45] - - --------------+--------------------------+-------------------------- - | Male | Female - --------------+------+------+------------+------+------+------------ - Paired bones | Yukon| Yukon|Southwestern| Yukon| Yukon|Southwestern - of the two |Indian|Eskimo| and|Indian|Eskimo| and - sides | | | midwestern| | | midwestern - | | | Eskimo| | | Eskimo - | | | | | | - Humerus: | (10)| (16)| (143)| (4)| (16)| (136) - | | | | | | - Mean length | 31.17| 32.10| 30.69| 28.12| 28.31| 28.40 - (right | | | | | | - and left) | | | | | | - | | | | | | - At middle-- | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Diameter, | 2.38| 2.83| 2.40| 1.90| 2.07| 2.10 - major | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Diameter, | 1.67| 1.80| 1.80| 1.40| 1.51| 1.54 - minor | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Index | _70_|_78.2_| _75.1_|_73.7_|_73.2_| _73.2_ - | | | | | | - Radius: | (10)| (16)| (98)| (4)| (16)| (109) - | | | | | | - Mean length | 23.61| 23.44| 22.90| 21.10| 20.18| 20.50 - | | | | | | - Radio-humeral |_75.7_| _73_| _74.5_| _75_|_71.3_| _72.2_ - index | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Femur: | (14)| (22)| (195)| (8)| (27)| (132) - | | | | | | - Mean length | 41.92| 43.78| 42.50| 40.15| 41.11| 39.36 - (bicond.) | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Humero-femoral|_74.5_| _n.| _72.2_| _73_| _n.| _72.2_ - index | | 73_| | | 69_| - | | | | | | - At middle-- | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Diameter | 2.96| 3.05| 3.08| 2.59| 2.74| 2.69 - antero- | | | | | | - posterior | | | | | | - maximum | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Diameter | 2.58| 2.67| 2.70| 2.45| 2.44| 2.46 - lateral | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Index |_87.1_|_87.6_| _87.6_|_94.7_|_88.8_| _91.5_ - | | | | | | - At upper | | | | | | - flattening-- | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Diameter, | 3.25| 3.31| 3.35| 2.84| 3.02| 3.02 - maximum | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Diameter, | 2.30| 2.57| 2.51| 2.16| 2.27| 2.26 - minimum | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Index |_70.7_|_77.4_| _75_|_75.8_|_75.4_| _74.5_ - | | | | | | - Tibia: | (14)| (22)| (141)| (8)| (27)| (147) - | | | | | | - Mean length | 34.19| 35.14| 33.86| 31.97| 32.01| 31.32 - (I. A.) | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Tibio-femoral |_81.5_|_80.3_| _79.7_|_79.6_|_79.8_| _79.6_ - index | | | | | | - | | | | | | - At middle-- | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Diameter | 3.04| 3.16| 3.12| 2.72| 2.61| 2.71 - antero- | | | | | | - posterior | | | | | | - maximum | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Diameter, | 2| 2.15| 2.12| 1.82| 1.90| 1.89 - lateral | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Index | _66_|_68.3_| _67.9_|_66.9_|_72.8_| _69.9_ - --------------+------+------+------------+------+------+------------ - -FOOTNOTES: - -[45] See also data on p. 160. - - - - -NOTES ON THE ARCHEOLOGY OF THE WESTERN ESKIMO REGION - - -Archeological work in the vast area of the western Eskimo is still in -its infancy. Until the 1926 Smithsonian expedition nothing whatever had -been done in this line in the Eskimo parts of the southwestern coasts -of Alaska[46] or on the Kuskokwim or Yukon Rivers. - -Some time between 1877 and 1881 E. W. Nelson made limited excavations -on St. Michael Island[47] (see p. 170) and also dug on Whale Island. - -In 1912 V. Stefánsson excavated at Barrow.[48] Having two months to -spend at this place he engaged numerous Eskimo of the village and -had them excavate the native village sites in the neighborhood. He -says (p. 388): "It was a small army that turned out to dig wherever -there was a ruin or a kitchen midden, and they worked energetically -and well. While the excavations were not done as methodically and -scientifically as could have been wished, still we were able to get -from them a collection of over 20,000 archaeological specimens within -the space of six weeks. This collection (which is now safely stored in -the American Museum of Natural History) brings out many significant -and some revolutionary ideas with regard to the prehistoric history of -the Eskimo. My method was to dig as much as possible myself, and to -go around as best I could to see the others at work. In many cases I -was able to see the exact position from which the important finds were -taken." The specimens have since in part been described by Wissler.[49] -Stefánsson brought also some archeological specimens from Point Hope, -where, however, no excavations were made; and collected a valuable -series of crania from Point Barrow. - -In 1917-19 excavations near Barrow were conducted by W. B. Van Valin, -leader of the John Wanamaker expedition to northwestern Alaska, for -the University Museum at Philadelphia. The excavations were made in -some mounds located about 8 miles southwest of Barrow and about 1,000 -yards back from the beach on the tundra, and uncovered six old igloos -containing, aside from many cultural objects, the skeletal remains of -83 individuals. These remains have since been found to be those of an -intrusive group of people and to be of special interest.[50] - -In 1924 Rasmussen during the last parts of his great journey gathered -numerous archeological specimens at Point Hope and from other -localities along the west coasts of Alaska. - -In 1926, finally, the year of my survey, some careful initial -excavations, with very interesting results, were carried on at Wales -and on the Little Diomede Island by Dr. D. Jenness, of the National -Museum of Canada, Ottawa. A preliminary report on the results of this -work has been published in the annual report of the National Museum of -Canada for 1926. - -Besides such more professional work a good deal of archeological -collection has been done in the regions under consideration by local -people, particularly traders and teachers; and the demand for specimens -has made assiduous excavators of some of the Eskimo themselves, -particularly at Point Hope and at St. Lawrence Island. - -Beginning with the north, the first white man to be mentioned in -this connection is Charles Brower, the well-known trader at Barrow. -Mr. Brower has not only aided all the explorers who have reached -this northernmost point, but he has also been directly instrumental -in excavating and the making of archeological collections, though, -regrettably, some of these have been scattered. - -During 1925-26 there lived at Point Hope a very active and interesting -man, sent there by the Fox Film Co. to photograph the Eskimo--Mr. -Merle La Voy. La Voy, whom I met at Point Hope and who for a time -became our fellow-passenger on the _Bear_, had not only succeeded -remarkably in his own line, but had also amassed during his stay a -large archeological collection. He did not excavate himself, and -unfortunately paid no attention to the scientific side of the case; but -by offering the natives sugar, tea, chocolate, chewing gum, tobacco, -etc. in exchange for specimens, he so stimulated them that they engaged -most assiduously in the excavation, or rather picking over as they -thawed, of their old ruins, and brought him thousands of objects, some -of which are of considerable interest. At the time of my visit there -were several barrels full of specimens, largely of stone and ivory. -Skulls and bones, regrettably, were neglected and reburied in the -débris. Later this collection was transported to San Francisco, where -it remains at the date of this writing, in Mr. La Voy's possession. - -At Kotzebue Mr. Tom Berryman, the trader, has made some collections of -Eskimo archeological material, from which I benefited for the National -Museum; and the local teacher, Mr. C. S. Replogle, informed me that he -had a large collection at his home in the States. - -At Nome I found a valuable lot of specimens in fossil ivory, pottery, -and stone, in the possession of the well-known Lomen brothers, members -of one of the foremost families in Alaska. The best parts of this -collection I was fortunate to secure for exhibit in the United States -National Museum. - -A large and valuable collection of western Eskimo archeological -material was made some years ago by Dr. Daniel Neuman. A part of this -collection is in the museum at Juneau; the whereabouts of the rest and -of Doctor Neuman himself I was unable to discover. There are several -collections of archeological material from the western Eskimo region at -Seattle and San Francisco, but none represents scientific excavation. - -The names of Joe Bernard, Prof. H. N. Sverdrup, and O. W. Geist should -be mentioned in this connection, all having collected archeological -objects in the western Eskimo region. Many specimens of value -collected by these men and others are in various museums or in private -hands in Fairbanks, along the west coast or in Europe. - -My own small part in the archeology of Bering Sea and the northwestern -coast of Alaska was, as already stated, mainly that of making a survey -of conditions. The object was to obtain a good general view of what -there was in the line of archeological sites and remains, and thus -help to lay a foundation for more organized research in the future. In -addition all possible effort was made to collect and obtain specimens -of distinct archeological value. Both of these endeavors met with -results of some importance. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[46] Dall, W. H., and Jochelson, W., made, as is well known, valuable -excavations in the Aleutian Islands; but the Aleuts were not Eskimos. -(See Cat. of Crania, etc., U.S.N.M., 1924, 39.) - -[47] Nelson, E. W., The Eskimo About Bering Strait; Eighteenth Ann. -Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn., pt. 1, Washington, 1899, p. 263. - -[48] My Life with the Eskimo, N. Y., 1913, 387, 388. See also his The -Stefánsson-Anderson Arctic Expedition: Preliminary Ethnological Report. -Anthrop. Papers Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., XIV, N. Y., 1914. - -[49] Wissler, Clark, Harpoons and Darts in the Stefánsson Collection. -Anthrop. Papers Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., N. Y., 1916, XIV, 401-443. - -[50] See section devoted to this find, p. 318. - - -OLD SITES IN THE REGION OF THE WESTERN ESKIMO - -The shores of the Alaska rivers, the littoral parts of Alaska, the more -northern Bering Sea islands, and those portions of the Asiatic coast -that were once or are still occupied by the Eskimo, are strewn with -"dead" villages and old sites. Many of these dead villages or sites are -historic, having been abandoned, or very nearly so, since the coming -of the whites; some are older, in instances doubtless considerably -older. Collectively they offer a large, almost wholly virginal and -highly important field to American archeology. They may contain much of -the secrets of Eskimo origin and of his cultural, as well perhaps as -physical, evolution. But these secrets are not to be given up easily. -They are held within a perpetually frozen ground, which on one hand -preserves everything, but on the other will not yield its contents -except to assiduous and prolonged labor. - -Ruined or "dead" villages began to be encountered by the earliest -Russian and other explorers. Beechey (1826) tells us that between -approximately the latitude of Nelson Island and Point Barrow (60° 34´ -to 71° 24´ N.) they noticed 19 (Eskimo) villages, some of which were -very small and consisted only of a few huts, and others appeared to -have been deserted a long time.[51] - -Hooper, in 1884, reports Eskimo ruins on the Asiatic side: - -"Near the extremity of the cape [Wankarem] we found the ruins of houses -similar to those now in use by the Innuits, half underground, with -frames of the bones of whales. Probably they were former dwellings -of Innuits, who for some reason crossed the straits and attempted to -establish themselves on the Siberian side. These houses have been found -by different travelers at many places along this coast, and various -causes assigned for the abandonment of the attempt to settle here by -the Innuits. * * * - -"At Cape Wankarem and at other places on the Siberian coast we found -the ruins of houses similar to those now in use by the Innuits. These -houses, which have been found by different travelers at many places -along that coast, are not at all like those used by the Tchuktchis, -which, on account of the migratory habits of the reindeer tribes, -are so constructed that they can be taken down and put up again at -will."[52] - -Ray and Murdoch both speak of old sites. The very spot they selected -for their observatory at Barrow was one of these. Ray says of it: - - "A point about 12 feet above the sea level, lying between the - sea and a small lagoon three-fourths of a mile northeast from - Uglaamie, was finally selected. The soil was firm and as dry as any - unoccupied place in that vicinity, and as it was marked by mounds - of an ancient village would be free from inundation."[53] - -And farther on: - - "That the ancestors of those people have made it their home for - ages is conclusively shown by the ruins of ancient villages and - winter huts along the seashore and in the interior. On the point - where the station was established were mounds marking the site of - three huts dating back to the time when they had no iron and men - 'talked like dogs'; also at Perigniak a group of mounds mark the - site of an ancient village. It stands in the midst of a marsh; - a sinking of the land causing it to be flooded and consequently - abandoned, as it is their custom to select the high and dry points - of land along the seashore for their permanent villages. The fact - of our finding a pair of wooden goggles 26 feet below the surface - of the earth, in the shaft sunk for earth temperatures, points - conclusively to the great lapse of time since these shores were - first peopled by the race of man."[54] - -The village of Sidaru, southwest of Cape Belcher, which in Ray's time -had a population of about 50, has since gone "dead." - -The most direct attention to this subject has been given by Nelson. In -his excellent large memoir on "The Eskimo about Bering Strait"[55] he -states as follows: - -"Ruins of ancient Eskimo villages are common on the lower Yukon -and thence along the coast line to Point Barrow. On the Siberian -shore they were seen from East Cape along the Arctic coast to Cape -Wankarem.... - -"On the shore of the bay on the southern side of St. Michael Island -I dug into an old village site where saucer-shape pits indicated the -places formerly occupied by houses. The village had been burned, as was -evident from the numerous fragments of charred timbers mixed with the -soil. In the few cubic feet of earth turned up at this place were found -a slate fish knife, an ivory spearhead, a doll, and a toy dish, the -latter two cut from bark. The men I had with me from the village at St. -Michael became so alarmed by their superstitious feelings that I was -obliged to give up the idea of getting further aid from them in this -place. I learned afterward that this village had been built by people -from Pastolik, at the mouth of the Yukon, who went there to fish and to -hunt seals before the Russians came to the country. - -"On the highest point of Whale Island, which is a steep islet just -offshore near the present village of St. Michael, were the ruins of a -kashim and of several houses. The St. Michael people told me that this -place was destroyed, long before the Russians came, by a war party from -below the Yukon mouth. The sea has encroached upon the islet until a -portion of the land formerly occupied by the village has been washed -away. The permanently frozen soil at this place stopped us at the depth -of about 2 feet. Here, and at another ancient Unalit village site -which was examined superficially, we found specimens of bone and ivory -carvings which were very ancient, as many of them crumbled to pieces on -being exposed. - -"Along the lower Yukon are many indications of villages destroyed by -war parties. According to the old men these parties came from Askinuk -and Kushunuk, near the Kuskokwim, as there was almost constant warfare -between the people of these two sections before the advent of the -Russians. - -"Both the fur traders and the Eskimo claim that there are a large -number of house sites on the left bank of the Yukon,[56] a few miles -below Ikogmut. This is the village that the Yukon Eskimo say had 35 -kashims, and there are many tales relating to the period when it was -occupied. At the time of my Yukon trips this site was heavily covered -with snow, and I could not see it; but it would undoubtedly well repay -thorough excavation during the summer months. One of the traditions -is that this village was built by people from Bristol Bay, joined by -others from Nunivak Island and Kushunuk. One informant said that -a portion of this village was occupied up to 1848, when the last -inhabitant died of smallpox, but whether or not this is true I was -unable to learn. - -"Another informant told me that near the entrance of Goodnews Bay, near -the mouth of the Kuskokwim, there is a circular pit about 75 feet in -diameter, marking the former site of a very large kashim. A few miles -south of Shaktolik, near the head of Norton Sound, I learned of the -existence of a large village site. Both the Eskimo and the fur traders -who told me of this said that the houses had been those of Shaktolik -people, and that some of them must have been connected by underground -passageways, judging from the ditch-like depressions from one to the -other along the surface of the ground. The Shaktolik men who told me -this said that there were many other old village sites about there and -that they were once inhabited by a race of very small people who have -all disappeared. - -"From the Malemut of Kotzebue Sound and adjacent region I learned that -there are many old village sites in that district. Many of these places -were destroyed by war parties of Tinné from the interior, according to -the traditions of the present inhabitants. - -"On Elephant Point, at the head of the Kotzebue Sound, I saw the site -of an old village, with about 15 pits marking the locations of the -houses. The pits sloped toward the center and showed by their outlines -that the houses had been small and roughly circular, with a short -passageway leading into them, the entire structure having been partly -underground. - -"The Eskimo of East Cape, Siberia, said that there were many old -village sites along the coast in that vicinity. These houses had stone -foundations, many of which are still in place. There is a large ruined -village of this kind near the one still occupied on the cape. - -"On the extreme point of Cape Wankarem, and at its greatest elevation, -just above the present camp of the Reindeer Chukchi, a series of three -sites of old Eskimo villages were found." - -To this, on pages 269 et seq., Nelson adds an account of the villages -that "died" on St. Lawrence Island during the winter of 1879-80. -Capt. C. L. Hooper, in the "Cruise of the Corwin in 1881, Notes and -Observations" (published in Washington, 1884, p. 100) gives the date as -1878-79, and adds further details about these villages. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[51] Beechey, F. W., Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Bering's -Strait. Phila., 1832, 474. - -[52] Hooper, C. L., Report of Arctic Cruise of the Revenue Steamer -_Corwin_, 1881. Washington, 1884, 63, 99. - -[53] Ray, Lieut. P. H., Report of the International Polar Expedition to -Point Barrow, Alaska. Washington, 1885, 22. - -[54] Ray, P. H., Ethnographic Sketch of the Natives. Report of the -International Polar Expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska. Washington, -1885, 37. - -[55] Eighteenth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Eth., pt. 1, Washington, 1900, -263 et seq. - -[56] This is the "village of 32 kashims," which I mention in the -Narrative and of which I heard independently (p. 71). The present -Eskimo claim that it existed on the right bank, about 12 miles below -Russian Mission (Ikogmut). My visit and subsequently that of Mr. Chris -Betsch, the kind and interested trader at Russian Mission, the latter -with an old Eskimo, failed to definitely locate the site, but further -efforts are desirable. - - -PRESENT LOCATION OF ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES - -Through personal visits, wherever possible, and through information -from all available sources, an effort was made to locate and learn -the character of as many of the old sites as could be traced. In this -endeavor I was aided by many whose services are hereby gratefully -acknowledged. Especial thanks are due to Captain Cochran with the -officers and men of the _Bear_, particularly Boatswain H. Berg; to -the Lomen brothers and their esteemed father, at Nome; to Father B. -La Fortune and the Reverend Baldwin at Nome; to Mr. Sylvester Chance, -superintendent of the northwestern district, Bureau of Education; to -Mr. Charles D. Brower, trader at Barrow; to Mr. Jim Allen, trader at -Wainwright; and to Dr. E. P. Walker, head of the Biological Survey of -Alaska. The list to follow, supplemented by maps, will give in brief -the name, location, and description of the remains. - -The old sites occur, (1) in the form of refuse heaps; (2) as late -village sites, smaller or larger areas of ground covered with mostly -circular elevations and depressions, with occasionally the wooden -remains of igloos or kashims, or only partly ruined dwellings; such -remains are the most common; (3) as old village sites in the form of -a long irregular ridge mound or of more or less separate heaps; (4) -as heaps or "mounds" of individual structures. And as "passed" sites, -covered completely by sand or silt and unknown until uncovered through -the washing away by the sea or rivers of some of the deposits. - -In addition there are the remains of burial grounds which are -occasionally marked by small low mounds or hummocks produced by decayed -burials that have been more or less assimilated by the tundra. Stony -beaches with chips, implements, etc., such as are found off old sites -on the Yukon, have not been seen in the region now dealt with in any -instance. - -The ruined dwellings and communal houses throughout this region, -with a few minor exceptions, were of one general type. They were -circular, yurta-shaped, semisubterranean structures, with a more or -less subterranean tunnel approach, built of hewn driftwood and earth. -These dwellings, when the wood decays and the dome falls in, leave -characteristic saucer-and-handle-like depressions. But where such -dwellings were close, and especially where they were heaped up or -superimposed on older ones, the remains, together with the refuse, may -form an irregular elevated ridge or a large irregular mound. - -On the Diomede Islands the dwellings are built of stone, and ruins of -stone houses have been reported to me from inland of the westernmost -parts of the Seward Peninsula. Stone dwellings were also known on -Norton Sound. - -Some of the ridges and heaps, as at Shishmaref, Point Hope, one of -the Punuk Islands, etc., are large and may be up to 15 feet and over -in depth, but mostly the remains are of moderate to small size. The -latter sometimes could easily be confounded with natural formations. -The older remains may superficially be indistinguishable even to an -experienced observer; and if there is anything still more ancient, it -lies somewhere in the old sands and beaches where, except through some -fortunate accident, it can not be discovered. Except for their surface, -the remains are generally frozen hard, and no excavation is possible -except through gradual exposure and the melting of layer after layer by -the warmth of the sun or a melting of the ground with water or by some -other artificial means. - -Some at least of these ruins are rich archeologically. They greatly -exceed in this respect a large majority of village ruins and mounds -in the interior of the continent. This appears from their gradual -excavation by the natives at Barrow, Point Hope, St. Lawrence Island, -and elsewhere. The natives have now for many years been selling -thousands of articles thus obtained to traders, teachers, and crews of -visiting vessels. A regular and growing trade detrimental to archeology -is now being carried on in "fossil ivory," which generally consists of -pieces showing human workmanship and occasionally includes specimens of -rare beauty and importance. - -The archeological contents of such old sites as that near Savonga on -the St. Lawrence Island, or those at Wales, Point Hope, Barrow, etc., -are varied, and in instances exceedingly interesting. They comprise -a large variety of objects of stone, ivory, bone, and wood, while in -the more superficial layers are also found occasionally glass beads or -objects of metal. Some ruins, such as those at Point Hope and Kotzebue, -are very rich in stone objects; others, as those at the St. Lawrence -Island, are rich in articles of ivory and bone. Pottery is generally -scarce. Articles of stone comprise mainly points, knives, adzes, and -lamps; those of wood, goggles and masks; of bone, various parts of -sleds, a large assortment of snow and meat picks, and scrapers; of -ivory, barbed points, harpoons, and lance heads, and a large variety -of tools, fetishes, and ceremonial objects; of clay, a few dishes and -pots for culinary purposes. Traces of objects made of whalebone or even -birch bark may also appear. - -The stones used were mainly slate and flint, but there may also be -met with quartz, quartzite, and especially the Kobuk "jade." The -workmanship is as a rule good to excellent. The arrow points show a -number of interesting, not yet fully known, types, the long blade with -parallel sides predominating. The stone lamps and rare dishes also need -further study. The knives all approach the Asiatic semilunar variety. - -The bones and wooden objects and the pottery from this region are -fairly well covered by the writings of Ray, Murdoch, Nelson, Rau, -Thomas, and others; the masks need further study. - -The most interesting archeological specimens from the region of the -western Eskimo, however, are some of those in "fossil ivory," the term -being applied to walrus ivory that through long lying in the ground -has assumed more or less of a pearly yellow, variegated, sepia-brown -or black color. These objects are known as yet very imperfectly. They -are scarce at and especially north of Point Hope, and again along the -west coast south of Norton Sound. Their center of frequency comprises -seemingly the St. Lawrence Island, some parts of the Asiatic coast, the -Diomedes, and parts of the Seward Peninsula. But they occur at least up -to Point Hope, while west of Bering Strait they are said to appear as -far as the river Kolyma. - -Some of the objects in fossilized ivory show the well-known Eskimo -art, with geometrical design. But besides these there occur here and -there beautiful specimens, harpoon heads, figures, needle cases, etc., -which are of the finest workmanship and which both in form and design -differ from the prevailing Eskimo types. They are examples of high -aboriginal art; and their engraved decorative lines are not geometrical -but beautifully curvilinear. (Fig. 12.) The accompanying illustrations -of specimens I succeeded in obtaining from different sources will show -the nature of this art. (Pls. 19-26.) Isolated specimens of this nature -have been secured before by Nelson, Neuman, Sverdrup, Stefánsson, and -others. Jenness in 1926 dug out a few from the old sites at Wales. -There are several in the Museum of the American Indian in New York. But -the largest and best collection of these remarkable articles is now -that of the United States National Museum.[57] - -[Illustration: FIGURE 12.--Conventionalized design from fossil ivory -specimen shown in Plate 19] - -The large fossil ivory figure (20.3 cm. maximum length, pl. 26) -collected by Mr. Carl Lomen and now in the National Museum is of -special interest. It comes from the Asiatic side. It is a handsomely -made piece, belonging in all probability to the high fossil ivory -culture. Its peculiarity is the bi-bevel face, a face made by two -planes rising to a median ridge. It is so far a unique specimen of its -kind. But with the aid of Mr. H. W. Krieger, curator of ethnology, -United States National Museum, we found similar bi-beveled faces in -wooden figures from northeast Asia, in wooden Eskimo masks from the -Yukon, and in wooden ceremonial figures from Panama. The latter are -shown herewith. (Pl. 27.) The whole presents evidently a nice problem -for the archeologist and student of culture. - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 19 - -TERMINAL PIECE OF A LANCE OR HARPOON. NORTHERN BERING SEA - -Black, high natural polish. Most beautiful piece of the fossil ivory -art. (A. H., 1926, U.S.N.M.)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 20 - -FOSSIL IVORY SPECIMENS SHOWING THE OLD CURVILINEAR DESIGNS. NORTHERN -BERING SEA - -(A. H. coll., 1926, U.S.N.M.)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 21 - -OBJECTS SHOWING THE OLD FOSSIL IVORY ART. NORTHERN BERING SEA - -(U.S.N.M., Nos. 1 and 3, coll. A. H., 1926.)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 22 - -FOSSIL IVORY NEEDLE CASES AND SPEAR HEADS, NORTHERN BERING SEA, SHOWING -FINE WORKMANSHIP - -(A. H. coll., 1926, U.S.N.M.)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 23 - -_a_, Small, finely made objects in fossil ivory and stone (the head), -from the ruins at Port Hope (A. H. coll., 1926.) - -_b_, Old fossil ivory objects, northern Bering Sea. The article to the -right is almost classic in form; it is decorated on both sides. (A. H. -coll., 1926, U.S.N.M.)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 24 - -FOSSIL IVORY COMBS. UPPER BERING SEA - -(A. H. coll., 1926)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 25 - -FOSSIL IVORY OBJECTS FROM THE UPPER BERING SEA REGION. TRANSITIONAL ART - -(Museum of the Agricultural College, Fairbanks, Alaska.)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 26 - -OLD BLACK FINELY CARVED FOSSIL IVORY FIGURE, FROM THE NORTHEASTERN -ASIATIC COAST - -(Loan to U.S.N.M. by Mr. Carl Lomen.)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 27 - -WOODEN FIGURINES FROM A MEDICINE LODGE, CHOCO INDIANS, PANAMA - -(U.S.N.M. colls.)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 28 - -Top: Manche de poignard en ivoire, avec sculpture représentant un -renne. Montastruc (Peccadeau de l'Isle; in de Quatrefages (A.), Hommes -fossiles, Paris, 1884, p. 50) - -Left: Two beautiful knives of fossil mammoth ivory lately made by a -Seward Peninsula Eskimo. (Gift to the U.S.N.M. by A. H., 1926.) - -Right: Two old ceremonial Mexican obsidian knives.] - -I had further the good fortune to secure, through the kindness of -Reverend Baldwin, two handsome and remarkable knives from fossil -mammoth ivory. These knives were said to have been made recently by the -Eskimo of the Seward Peninsula. They are shown in Plate 28. They each -bear on the handle a nicely carved crouching animal figure. With them -are shown, somewhat more reduced, two probably ceremonial knives from -Old Mexico; and also the handle of a late palaeolithic poignard from -France, illustrated by De Quatrefages.[58] Regarding the latter form we -read the following in Mortillet:[59] "D'autres poignées de poignard, -faites dans des données pratiques et artistiques analogues, ont été -recueillies dans diverses collections. Les plus remarquables sont deux -poignées en ivoire trouvées par Peccadeau de l'Isle, à Bruniquel. L'une -se rattachait à la lame, comme dans la pièce précédente, par le train -de derrière; l'autre, au contraire, par la tête." Knives with similar -crouching animal figures on the handle are being made by the King -Islanders. - -Here, evidently, is one more interesting problem for the archeologists. - -The art shown by these objects, the conventionalization, and especially -the decorations, appear to show affinity on one hand to deeper eastern -Asia and on the other to those of the American northwest coast and -even lower. This may prove to mean much or little. The fact that these -specimens establish beyond question is that at one time and up to a -few hundreds of years ago there existed in the lands of the northern -Bering Sea native art superior to that existing there later and at the -present, and comparable with the best native Siberian or American. - -The meaning of this fact seems to me to be of importance. The evidence -suggests, aside from other things, that American cultural developments -may after all not have been purely local or even American, but that -they may, in part at least, have been initiated or carried from Asia. -In view of these and other recent developments it seems rational to -consider that America may have been peopled by far eastern Asiatic -groups that not merely carried with them differences in language and -physique but also in some cases relatively high cultural developments. -But these for the present are mere hypotheses. - -There is no definite indication as yet that the people of the high -fossil ivory art in the northern Bering Sea and neighboring parts were -any others than the ancestors of the Eskimo. The skeletal remains from -these regions, as will be shown later, rather support this view. But -those ancestors may not yet have represented the characteristic present -type of the people. Here, too, nothing definite can be said before the -results of sufficient scientific excavations become available. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[57] MacCurdy described the first specimen of this kind in 1921 as "An -Example of Eskimo Art," in Amer. Anthrop., vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 384-385. -See also Collins (H. B., jr.), Prehistoric Art of the Alaskan Eskimo, -Smith. Misc. Coll., vol. 81, No. 14, 52 pp., Washington, 1929. - -[58] Quatrefages, A. de., Hommes fossiles et hommes sauvages. Paris, -1884. - -[59] Mortillet, G. de., Le préhistorique origine et antiquité de -l'homme. Paris, 1900, 206-207. - - -SITES AND VILLAGES - -The location of the western Eskimo villages has received more or less -attention by most of the explorers in their region from the Russian -time onward; but such efforts are generally limited to the living -villages in the area visited by the observers. - -Perhaps the earliest Russian map of value in this connection on the -Bering Sea region is that which I find in Billings and Gall's Voyage or -"Putěshestvie" of 1791, printed in St. Petersburg 1811. The map bears -no date, but is evidently quite early. It gives three villages on the -western point and north coast of the Seward Peninsula, namely Kiemile -(later Nykhta, now Wales), Chegliukh, and Tykiak. (Pl. 29.) - -The most notable and valuable of the Russian contributions to this -subject is that of Zagoskin. This refers to the period of 1842-1844 and -is contained partly in his "Peshechodnaia Opis," etc. (St. Petersburg, -1847), but especially on his maps. There are, I find, two of these -maps--the "Merkatorskaia Karta Časti Sieverozapadnago Berega Ameriky" -and the "Merkatorskaia Generalnaia Karta Časti Rossijskich Vladěnii v -Amerikě." I came across the first in one copy of Zagoskin's invaluable -account, which should long ago have been translated into English, and -the other in another copy. Part of the second is here reproduced. -(Pl. 30.) Both bear the statement that they were made by Zagoskin -as the result of his explorations on the Yukon in 1842-1844. The -second ("general") map is much the clearer and richer. Both maps, but -especially the second, give a good number of villages, especially about -Norton Sound and along the southern shore of Seward Peninsula. The -orthography differs somewhat on the two charts. - -The Tebenkof Atlas of 1849 includes a remarkably good map of the St. -Lawrence Island. As on other Russian maps it gives the Punuk Islands, -that later are lost by most map makers, and indicates the location of -what probably were all the living settlements of that time, except on -the Punuk. (Fig. 27.) - -Finally, in 1861, Tikhmenief, in his "Istoričeskoie Obozrenie" (history -of Russian America) gives a detailed map with many locations of Eskimo -villages. - -The Aleutian Islands and Kodiak are excellently dealt with by -Veniaminof and also Tikhmenief, though little special attention is -given to the location of the settlements. - -None of the Russian explorers, regrettably, report verbally on the -deserted sites or ruins. But their registration and location of many -villages that have since become "dead" is of much historical as well as -anthropological value. - -[Illustration: FIGURE 13.--World map] - -Of later and particularly American authors who gave attention to the -location of the western Eskimo settlements, the foremost is E. W. -Nelson. Beginning in 1877 with the St. Michael Island and ending with -the cruise of the _Corwin_ in 1881, Nelson made trips down the coast -to the Kuskokwim, up the Yukon to Anvik, over the Bering Sea, the St. -Lawrence Island and parts of the Chukchee Peninsula, and finally, -with the _Corwin_, along the northern coasts to Point Barrow. And -these journeys were devoted largely to biological and ethnological -observations and collections, the latter including the location of the -western Eskimo habitations of that time. His locations are given on the -accompanying map (fig. 15) taken from his classic memoir, "The Eskimo -about Bering Strait," published in 1900 in the Eighteenth Annual Report -of the Bureau of American Ethnology. This memoir contains a section of -"Ruins" (pp. 263-266), a brief account of the recently dead villages -on St. Lawrence Island (p. 269), and an instructive section on Eskimo -burials (pp. 310-322). Nelson brought also the first more substantial -collection of Eskimo crania. - -The next deserving man in these connections is Ivan Petrof. Of -Russian-American extraction, Petrof was charged in 1880 with the -census enumeration of the natives in Alaska, and he later published[60] -a valuable report on his work, together with detailed demographic data -and a map on which are given all the living settlements of his time. -Nelson's map is partly based on Petrof's data. - -Since Nelson and Petrof but little has been done in this field. But -the maps of these two observers have been utilized more or less by -the map makers of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, the -Geological Survey, and other Government agencies concerned with Alaska. -The result is that some of these charts are exceptionally useful to the -anthropological explorer in Alaska; nevertheless the data they carry -are incomplete and the locations or names are not always exact, a good -many of the villages shown are now dead, and old ruins, as usual, have -received no attention. - -[Illustration: FIGURE 14.--Dall's map of the distribution of the tribes -of Alaska and adjoining territory, 1875] - -A very valuable supplement to all the maps has in 1902 been published -by the United States Geological Survey. It is the Geographic Dictionary -of Alaska, by Marcus Baker. This volume, besides brief but serviceable -historical data, gives in alphabetical order nearly all the then-known -names of localities in Alaska, including those of the Eskimo and -Indian settlements; and each name is accompanied by brief but in many -instances most helpful information. This highly deserving volume, -indispensable to every student of Alaska, has for many years been out -of print, but it is understood that a new revised edition is slowly -being prepared. - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 29 - -BILLINGS AND GALL'S MAP OF BERING STRAIT AND NEIGHBORING LANDS, 1811] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 30 - -ESKIMO VILLAGES AND SITES. NORTON SOUND AND BAY AND SEWARD PENINSULA, -AND THE KOTZEBUE SOUND, FROM ZAGOSKIN'S GENERAL MAP, 1847] - -[Illustration: FIGURE 15.--Nelson's map. (Eighteenth Ann. Rept. Bur. -Amer. Ethn., 1898)] - -Other useful publications in these connections are the United States -Coast Pilots of Alaska, the various accounts of travelers, explorers, -and men in collateral branches of science (geology, biology, etc.), -the publications of the Alaska Division of the United States Department -of Education, the annual reports of the Governor of Alaska, and the -decennial reports on Alaska of the United States Census. - -[Illustration: FIGURE 16.--Linguistic map, United States census, 1920] - -The object of the following notes and data is some measure of -usefulness to future anthropological and archeological workers in -Alaska. They are surely incomplete and very imperfect, yet they may be -of some service. - -Archeological and anthropological research in the highly important -western Eskimo region is bound to develop in a not far distant future; -for this is the region through which in all probability America was -peopled. It is this region that promises to solve the problem of the -antiquity of the Eskimo and may throw much light upon the origin of -these people, and one that, as shown, above, has begun to reveal highly -interesting old cultural conditions. And it is a region in which -destruction of the remains by nature, but most so recently by the -natives themselves, proceeds at an alarming pace. - -The information on which these notes and the accompanying charts are -based has been obtained largely from the Russian and other maps, from -local traders, teachers, missionaries, and natives, and from a few -explorers.[61] Only in a minority of cases was it possible to visit -the places in person; to have visited all would have been a task of -pleasure, but would have required a staunch boat of my own and at least -three full seasons. - -Many of the sites to be given are now "dead" and there may be several -old sites in the vicinity of a living village. Others combine ruins -with present habitations. Still others are partly or even wholly -abandoned a part of the year when the inhabitants go camping or -hunting, and are partly or wholly occupied during the rest of the -year. Finally, there are some new settlements, with modern dwellings -and ways, and their number will increase, the Eskimo taking kindly to -civilization and individual property. - -The data to be given here are limited to the Eskimo territory in -southwestern and western Alaska, leaving out those in Siberia where -much is uncertain. Due to the uncertainties of the Prince William Sound -region they will begin with Kodiak Island. There are also on hand, -principally due to Dr. E. P. Walker, numerous locations of old sites -and villages in the Indian parts of southern and southeastern Alaska, -but these will best be reserved for another occasion. - -The Eskimo area will be roughly seen from the accompanying map -published on the basis of the enumeration by the Fourteenth United -States Census of 1920. A very great part of the territory allotted to -the Eskimo, as well as that of the Indian, is barren of any population -or its traces; the divisions represent the hunting grounds or grounds -claimed by each people, not an occupied territory. The data will be -given in south-to-north order. - -Nearly all the settlements in these regions are now, and have evidently -always been, on the shores of the seas and bays, as close to the water -as safety would permit. A few villages and sites occur also, however, -on inland lakes and rivers. The favored locations have been an elevated -flat near the mouth of a fresh-water stream or the outlet of a lagoon, -a sufficiently elevated spit projecting into the sea, or an elevated -bar between the sea and an inland lake. The essentials were an elevated -flat, a supply of fresh drinking water, and a location favorable for -fishing and hunting; if there was some natural protection, so much -the better. There were no inland settlements except on the lakes and -rivers. In a few cases, as at the Kings and the Little Diomede Islands, -very difficult locations were occupied only because outweighed by other -advantages. - -Caves throughout the occupied region north of the Aleutian chain are -absent, and there was therefore no cave habitation. - -None of the settlements were very large, though a few were much larger -than others. They ranged from one or two family camps or houses to -villages of some hundreds of inhabitants. A large majority of the -settlements had from but two or three to approximately a dozen families. - -There were two main types of dwellings, the semisubterranean sod houses -for the winter and the skin tents for summer. In some places the two -were near each other; in others the summer dwellings were in another -and at times fairly distant locality. - -The "zimniki" (in Russian) or winter houses were throughout -the region of one general type. They were fair-sized circular -semisubterranean houses, made of driftwood and earth, and provided with -a semisubterranean entrance vestibule. Their remains are characterized -everywhere by a circular pit with a short straight trench depression, -the same pot-and-handle type as found along the Yukon. Rarely for the -construction of the houses, where driftwood did not suffice, recourse -was had to whale ribs and mandibles. The "letniki," or summer houses, -were constructed on the surface of wood, sod and skins, or of whale -ribs and skins, approaching on one hand the summer huts of various -continental tribes and on the other the "yurts" of the north Asiatic -peoples. The "kashims," or communal houses, were built, much as on the -Yukon, like the family dwellings, but occasionally quadrilateral and -much larger. Smaller semisubterranean storage houses of driftwood and -sod near the winter dwellings were seemingly general. - -Ruins of stone dwellings, without mortar, are said to exist in places -on Norton Sound and Bay and on a lagoon near the western end of the -Seward Peninsula. The few houses on the Little Diomede are made of -loose unhewn stone slabs. The dwellings of the King Islanders are built -on the rocky slope of the island on platforms supported by poles, all -of driftwood. - -There is as a rule an absence of separate refuse heaps near the -villages. The refuse apparently has been dumped about and between the -houses rather than on separate piles. - -Dead villages abound. On consulting the older Russian records, however, -it is seen that nearly all were still "living" as late as the early -forties of the last century. Yet there are sites that were "dead" -already when the Russians came, and the accumulations in other cases -denotes a long occupation. - -The site of a dead village, in summer, is generally marked by richer -and greener vegetation; same as on the Yukon. The site itself is -usually pitted or humped in a line forming a more or less elevated -ridge, or the pits may be disseminated without apparently much order. -And there may be irregular mound-like heaps without external traces of -any structure. - -In the older sites no trace of wood is visible; in the later rotten -posts, crosspieces, parts of the covering of the house or tunnel, or -even a whole habitation may be present. In the old sites the wood is -hewn with stone axes; in the later it is sawed, and there may be nails. - -Older accumulations lie occasionally beneath more recent ones, though -no interruption of continuity may be traceable. Of a superposition of -villages no trace was observable. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[60] Tenth Census, VIII; reprinted in Compilation of Narratives of -Explorations in Alaska. U. S. Senate Rept. 1023, Washington, 1900, -55-281. - -[61] I am especially indebted to the two maps of Zagoskin (one prepared -by himself, one from his data); to the 1849 Russian map of the St. -Lawrence Island; to the various maps of the U. S. Geological Survey -and the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey; to the maps and data of W. -H. Dall, E. W. Nelson, and Ivan Petrof; to the various reports of the -_Corwin_ and other voyages in the Bering Sea and the western Arctic; -to the Geographic Dictionary of Alaska, by Marcus Baker, and to the U. -S. Coast Pilots of Alaska; to the data of the Alaska Division, U. S. -Department of Education; to Dr. E. P. Walker, of the Biological Survey; -to Father La Fortune, the Reverend Baldwin, and to Mr. Carl J. Lomen at -Nome; to Mr. Sylvester Chance, superintendent in 1926 of the schools of -the Kotzebue district; to Messrs. James Allen at Wainwright and Charles -Brower at Barrow; and to numerous other friends who aided me in this -direction. - - -BURIAL GROUNDS - -Due to the impossibility of digging sufficiently deep into the frozen -ground the western Eskimo buried their dead near or on the surface or -among rocks. Occasionally they utilized also, it seems, old dwellings -for this purpose, and in more recent times at least the surface -burials, wherever there was driftwood, would be protected by heavy -rough-hewn planks put together in the form of boxes or by driftwood. -They bear close fundamental resemblance to those of the Yukon. On the -Nunivak Island occur graves made of rough stone slabs piled up without -much order. (Pl. 31, _a_, _b_.) - -Throughout the region the burials were located near the village, but -the distance varied according to local conditions and habits. In some -of the Eskimo villages of the lower Yukon, as at Old Hamilton, some -burials were close to the houses of the living. In the Bering and -Arctic regions the burial grounds, though sometimes of necessity not -far from the houses, as at the Little Diomede, in other places, as at -Point Hope and Barrow, were at a distance extending to beyond a mile -and a half from the village. - -As a rule the wood of burials older than about 80 years was found fully -decayed with the bones secondarily buried. Of earlier burials there is -generally no trace on the surface, but on excavation skeletal remains -are found at various depths below the surface. These characteristic -self-burials, or rather tundra burials, may prove of much importance -to anthropology in the future. As outlined before (see Narrative, pp. -77, 79) the process is a decay of the wood; the sagging down of the -bones, covered more or less by the decayed material; an encroachment of -moss or other vegetation on the little mound thus produced; and gradual -accumulation through wind or water carried materials of more covering -over the bones, until the mound disappears and the remains, generally -still in good condition, are buried as if intentionally inhumed. - -The Eskimo everywhere were found to be exceedingly sensible about the -older, and even recent, skeletal remains, and assisted readily in their -collection, as well as in excavation, offering thus the best possible -conditions for anthropological and archeological work in these regions. - -The notes, charts, and a detailed list of the sites and villages -follow. In numerous cases it was found impossible to say whether a site -was completely "dead" or still occasionally partly occupied, so that -distinctive markings had to be abandoned. - - -PRINCE WILLIAM SOUND, KODIAK ISLAND, ALASKA PENINSULA - -Very largely still a terra incognita for anthropology and archeology. -Partly occupied by Indians (Prince William Sound, Kodiak Island?), -partly by mix-blood Aleut (parts of Peninsula, and of Kodiak), partly -by Eskimo. There is but little skeletal or archeological material from -the whole extensive territory. - - -KODIAK ISLAND AND NEIGHBORHOOD - -[FIG. 17] - -1. _Litnik_ (probably the Russian "Lietnik," the name for a summer -village).--Indian village on Afognak Bay, Afognak Island. This name is -found on a map made by the Fish Commission in 1889. Apparently it is -the Afognak of other maps (G. D. A.).[62] - -2. _Afognak._--On the southwestern part of Afognak Island. Village or -row of scattered dwellings on shore of Afognak Bay, in southwestern -part of Afognak Island. Population in 1890, 409. (G. D. A.) According -to Walker, "an important, occupied native village which has probably -been occupied for a long time. No doubt there are other native villages -in this immediate vicinity." - -3. _Spruce Island._--Ouzinkie, or Uzinki; an occupied native village -and cannery. (E. P. W.).[63] - -[Illustration: FIGURE 17.--Villages and sites on Kodiak Island] - -4. _Eagle Harbour or Ugak Bay._--Possibly the native village "Orlova" -of the Russians. (G. D. A.) - -5. _Kiliuda._--Native village, on the north shore of Kiliuda Bay, -Kodiak. Has been generally written Killuda. (G. D. A.) - -6. _Nunamiut._--Native village, on the shore of Three Saints Harbor, -Kodiak. (G. D. A.) Better known locally as Three Saints Bay. There -was formerly an old native and Russian settlement at this point and -vicinity, and fishing operations are frequently now conducted here. (E. -P. W.) - -7. _Kaguyak._--Village, at Kaguyak Bay, on the southwestern -shore of Kodiak. It may be identical with the Kaniag-miut of the -Russian-American Co., in 1849. (G. D. A.) An old native village at -present occupied by only one or two families. Possibly an old site. (E. -P. W.) - -8. _Aiaktalik._--Village on one of the goose islands, near Kodiak. -Population in 1890, 106. (G. D. A.) An occupied native village -consisting of about a dozen houses, but which has probably been -occupied for a long time. (E. P. W.) - -9. _Akhiok._--Native village on the northern shore of Alitak Bay, -Kodiak. Native name from Petrof, 1880. Apparently identical with -Oohaiack of Lisianski in 1805. (G. D. A.) An occupied native village -consisting of about a couple of dozen houses. This or possibly other -villages in the vicinity have undoubtedly been occupied for a long -time. It is possible that there was a native settlement at Lazy Bay -near this point, for Lazy Bay was formerly a native headquarters for -sea otter hunting. (E. P. W.) - -10. _Karluk._--Village at mouth of Karluk River, Kodiak. Native name -from the Russians. (G. D. A.) - -11. _Uyak._--Bay indenting the northwestern coast of Kodiak; also a -village. Native name from the Russians. Lisianski, 1805, spells it -Oohiack and the village Ooiatsk. Petrof, 1880, writes it Ooiak. Has -also been written Uiak. (G. D. A.) - -12. _Larsen Bay._--A cannery has been located at this point for a -number of years, and there is an old native trail from Larsen Bay to -Karluk River, so presumably natives have frequented this section and -no doubt have at some time had settlements there. Definite information -regarding this is not available. (E. P. W.) - -13. _Uganik._--Native village at head of Uganik Bay. Shown by -Lisianski, 1805, who spells it Oohanick. (G. D. A.) An occupied native -village and one which has apparently been in use for a considerable -period. (E. P. W.) - -FOOTNOTES: - -[62] G. D. A.: Geographic Dictionary of Alaska, by Marcus Baker, U. S. -Geol. Surv., Washington, 1902. - -[63] E. P. W.: Dr. E. P. Walker. - - -ALASKA PENINSULA - -[FIGS. 18, 19] - -Native settlements or old villages at one or more points in Kamishak -Bay, Ursus Cove, or Iliamna Bay are reported, but there is nothing -definite on the subject. (E. P. W.) - -14. _Iliamna._--An occupied native village, and undoubtedly there are -various village sites on Iliamna Lake regarding which information could -be obtained from parties in Iliamna. (E. P. W.) - -15. _Ashivak._--Native village (population 46 in 1880), near Cape -Douglas, Cook Inlet. Native name reported by Petrof in 1880. (G. D. A.) - -16. _Kayayak._--Village, on Svikshak Bay, Shelikof Strait, about -25 miles southwest of Cape Douglas. Tebenkof, 1849, has Kaiaiak -settlement, which has on many charts appeared as Kayayak. (G. D. A.) - -[Illustration: FIGURE 18.--Villages and sites on the proximal half of -Alaska Peninsula] - -17. _Kukak._--Native village on Kukak Bay. Lütke, 1835, has Koukak Bay -and village. (G. D. A.) - -18. _Katmai._--Village, on Katmai Bay, Shelikof Strait, northwest of -Kodiak. This is one of the most important of the native villages. -Population in 1880, 218; in 1890, 132. (G. D. A.) A native village -which was occupied up to the time of the Katmai eruption but was -abandoned at that time. (E. P. W.) - -19. _Cold Bay._--Small village. - -20. _Kanatak._--A native village consisting of about half a dozen -houses until in 1922, when oil activity in the vicinity caused a small -white settlement to locate at this point. This, however, has since been -almost entirely abandoned by whites. (E. P. W.) - -21. _Kuiukuk._--Small village. - -22. _Chignik._--Fishing station on Chignik Bay, Alaska Peninsula. -Population in 1890, 193. (G. D. A.) There are three canneries in this -immediate vicinity, a number of natives, and undoubtedly some native -villages and probably old village sites. (E. P. W.) - -[Illustration: FIGURE 19.--Villages and sites on the distal half of -Alaska Peninsula] - -23. _Kaluiak._--Native village, on the southern shore of Chignik Bay, -Alaska Peninsula. So given by Petrof in 1880 and the Fish Commission in -1888. (G. D. A.) - -24. _Mitrofania._--An old native village which has recently been -abandoned or practically abandoned; was apparently a rather important -village at one time. (E. P. W.) - -25. _Perryville._--A recently established native village consisting of -natives from various points along the Alaska Peninsula who were moved -there primarily by the Bureau of Education since the Katmai eruption. -(E. P. W.) - -26. _Kujulik._--Walker has been informed that there is an old village -site of that name either in this bay or on Kumlik. - -27. Old village mentioned on this island; uncertain. - -28. _Wosnesenski._--An old village site on this island reported. (E. P. -W.) - -29. _Pavlof._--Rev. D. Hotvoitzky, of Belkofski, informed Walker that -there is a very old abandoned village site at the head of this bay. - -30. _Belkofski._--Bay, cape, and village on south coast of Alaska -Peninsula. Named, by the Russians as early as 1835 and probably -earlier. (G. D. A.) The most important occupied native village on the -Alaska Peninsula. Quite an old village and a former headquarters for -sea-otter hunting. (E. P. W.) - -31, 32. _Morzhovoi._--Native village at western end of Alaska -Peninsula. Named Morzhovoi (Walrus) by the Russians. Variously spelled. -There are or were two villages, one called Old Morzhovoi, the other New -Morzhovoi, being about 12 miles apart. Old Morzhovoi was at the head -of Morzhovoi Bay; New Morzhovoi is on Traders Cove, which opens into -Isanotski Strait. The Greek church here is named Protassof, and Petrof, -1880, called the settlement Protassof. (G. D. A.) An occupied native -village. The natives from this village also live during the canning -season at the cannery in False Pass directly across the strait from -Morzhovoi and at Ikatan a short way to the south. (E. P. W.) - -33. _Herendeen._--Walker has been informed that there are some shell -mounds or kitchen middens about this bay. Walter G. Culver, formerly an -employee of the Bureau of Education, but who is at present in Anchorage -in care of the Alaska Railway, can give information regarding this and -can also give information regarding most of the other native villages -along the Alaska Peninsula. (E. P. W.) - -34. _Port Moller._--Eskimo site somewhere in this vicinity; name and -exact location uncertain. - -35. _Unangashik._--A native village, or portage, near Port Heiden. - -36. _Meshik._--A village on Port Heiden. - -37. _Ugashik._--A native village on the Ugashik River. Reported by -Petrof, 1880. - -38. _Igagik (or Egegik)._--A village at the mouth of the Egegik River. - -39. _Kiniak (or Naknak, or Suvorof)._--A village (of "Aleuts," -Sarichef) at mouth of Naknak River, Bristol Bay, south side. - -40. _Pawik (or Pakwik)._--Eskimo village, at mouth of Naknak River, -Bristol Bay, north side. - -41. _Kogiunk._--Eskimo village at mouth of Kvichak River, Bristol Bay. -Native name, reported in 1880 by Petrof, who spelled it Koggiung. (G. -D. A.) - -42. _Lockanok._--Small village. - -43. _Kashanak._--Small old village. - -44. _Kvichak._--Old Eskimo village on river of same name between -Kvichak Bay and Iliamna Lake. - - -BRISTOL BAY TO CAPE ROMANZOF - -From the northern part of Bristol Bay to Cape Romanzof a partial survey -of the coast was made in 1927 by Collins and Stewart (U. S. National -Museum Expedition). In these regions and on the Nunivak Island it -was possible to locate a series of villages some of which are still -"living," others in ruins. In the late seventies of the last century, -as stated before, the coast between Kuskokwim Bay and St. Michael -Island was visited and its villages recorded by Nelson. A detailed -archeological survey of this coast remains for the future. Doctor -Romig, formerly a medical missionary at Bethel, told me of a number of -old sites on the river. Some notes of interest by T. D. Stewart are -given in the details. Mr. F. W. Bundy, for a time my companion on the -_Bear_, told of an old site on the Kuskokwim. In March, 1927, H. W. -Averill, writing from Bethel, tells of a deep-lying old site on the -southern coast of the Kuskokwim Bay. (See details.) And later the same -year Father Philip I. Delon, of the Holy Cross Mission, sent in three -skulls from Kashunuk, in the Yukon delta, with information of much -additional material in that locality. - -45. _Nushagak._--Old Russian post, "Alexandrovsk." Eskimo village, -a few whites; a number of old native sites scattered about head of -Nushagak Bay. - -46. _Ekuk._--Eskimo settlement near the mouth of Nushagak River. Name -from Lütke, 1928, who spelled it Ekouk. Has also been written Yekuk. -(G. D. A.) - -46a. Reported site of Eskimo village. - -47. _Ualik._--Native village, on the western shore of Kulukak Bay, -Bristol Bay, Bering Sea. Given by Petrof, 1880, as Ooallikh and by -Spurr and Post as Oallígamut; i. e., Oallik people. (G. D. A.) - -48. _Togiak._--Old Eskimo settlement. - -49. _Ekilik._--Possibly the same as Togiakmute, reported in 1880 by -Petrof. Eskimo village on the west bank of Togiak River, about 10 miles -from its mouth. Eskimo name obtained by Spurr and Post, in 1898, who -write it Ekilígamut; i. e., Ekilik people. - -50. A small Eskimo village. - -51. _Mumtrak._--Eskimo village at head of Goodnews Bays, Bering -Sea. Population in 1890, 162. Name from Petrof, 1880, who spelled -it Mumtrahamute. (G. D. A.) Visited 1927 by Collins and Stewart; -collections. - -52. Site of a village, at junction of Bessie Creek and Arolic River. - -53. _Arolik._--A village. H. W. Averill of Bethel writes me under date -of March 3, 1927, as follows: "I am sending you some old stone pieces -that came from the Aralic River, a tributary of the lower Kuskokwim -River, that were washed up by a bend in the river from an old village -that is now 6 feet underground." - -[Illustration: FIGURE 20.--Eskimo villages and sites on Nushagak Bay to -Kuskokwim Bay] - -54. _Kwinak._--Eskimo village on the eastern shore of Kuskokwim -Bay, at the mouth of the Kwinak or Kanektok River, Bering Sea. So -given by Sarichef, 1826, and Tebenkof, 1849. Petrof, 1880, writes it -Quinehahamute, or, omitting the termination _mute_, meaning _people_, -it would be Quene-a-ak. (G. D. A.) - -55. _Apokak._--Eskimo village on the eastern shore of Kuskokwim Bay, -at the mouth of Apoka River. According to Nelson, 1878-79, its native -name is Apokagamute; i. e., Apokak people. In the Eleventh Census, -1890, it is called Ahpokagamiut. (G. D. A.) - -56. _Eek._--Eskimo village at mouth of Eek River. - -57. _Akiak._--Eskimo village on the right bank of the Kuskokwim, about -30 miles above Bethel. Petrof, 1880, wrote its name Ackiagmute; i. -e., Akiak people. Spurr and Post, 1898, write Akiagmut, following -Missionary J. H. Kilbuck. (G. D. A.) Reindeer camps in vicinity. - -58. _Bethel._--White and Eskimo settlement and mission at or near the -old Eskimo village Mumtrelega. - -59. _Napaiskak._--Eskimo village on the left bank of the Kuskokwim, -about 4 miles below Bethel. According to Nelson, 1878-79, its native -name is Napaskiagamute, and according to Missionary Kilbuck, 1898, it -is Napaiskagamut; i. e., Napaiskak people. - -60. _Old sites._--Mr. Bundy, my companion for a time on the _Bear_, -gives the following details: "Specimens found about 12 miles below -Bethel, Alaska, at the mouth of the Kuskokwim River, beneath about 10 -or 12 feet of alluvial soil deposits of sand and clay. - -"Mr. Jack Heron, of Bethel, first noted the presence of old implements, -and upon returning with him about August 1, 1923, we found the river -had cut into the bank quite a bit and had brought to view, after the -high waters had receded, additional specimens. - -"Those found included: A large copper kettle of perhaps 8 gallons -capacity of early Russian pattern, several arrowheads of slate or dark -gray flint, and two spearheads of bone with several broken knife blades -of slate and one or two small ivory ornaments resembling birds." - -61. _Napakiak._--Eskimo village on the right bank of the Kuskokwim, -about 10 miles below Bethel. Nelson, 1878, reports the native name as -Napahaiagamute. (G. D. A.) - -62. _Kinak._--Eskimo village on right bank of the lower Kuskokwim. -Visited by Nelson in January, 1879, who reported its native name to be -Kinagamiut; i. e., Kinak people. Its population was at that time about -175. Population in 1880, 60; 1890, 257. (G. D. A.) - -63. Village site (?). - -64. _Kuskovak._--Eskimo village, on the right bank of the Kuskokwim -River, near its mouth. Name from Nelson, who passed near it in January, -1879, and who writes it Kuskovakh. (G. D. A.) - -65. _Popokak._--Native village. - -66. _Kulvagavik._--Eskimo village, on the western side of Kuskokwim -Bay, Bering Sea. Visited by Nelson in January, 1879, and its native -name reported by him to be Koolvagavigamiut. (G. D. A.) - -67. _Kongiganak._--Eskimo village (of about 175 people in 1878) on -north shore of Kuskokwim Bay. Visited by Nelson in December, 1878. (G. -D. A.) - -68. _Anogok._--Eskimo village, on the mainland shore just west of -Kuskokwim Bay, Bering Sea. Visited by Nelson in December, 1878. (G. D. -A.) - -69. _Chalit._--Eskimo village, of about 60 people in 1878, on left bank -of the Kuguklik River, northwest of Kuskokwim Bay. Visited by Nelson in -December, 1878. (G. D. A.) - -[Illustration: FIGURE 21.--Eskimo villages and sites, Kuskokwim Bay to -Scammon Bay] - -70. _Chichinak._--Eskimo village on the mainland, east of Nunivak -Island, Bering Sea. Visited by Nelson in December, 1878. (G. D. A.) - -70a. Old village site. - -71. _Sfaganuk._--Eskimo village, on the mainland, east of Nunivak -Island, Bering Sea. Visited by Nelson in December, 1878. (G. D. A.) - -72. _Agiukchuk._--Eskimo village, on the mainland, east of Nunivak -Island, Bering Sea. Visited by Nelson in December, 1878. (G. D. A.) - -73. _Kashigaluk._--Eskimo village, on Nelson Island, Bering Sea. -Visited by Nelson in December, 1878. (G. D. A.) - -74. _Kaliukluk._--Eskimo village, on Nelson Island, near Cape -Vancouver, Bering Sea. Visited by Nelson in December, 1878. (G. D. A.) - -74a. Old village site. - -75. _Tanunak._--Eskimo village, at Cape Vancouver, Nelson Island, -Bering Sea. Name from Nelson, who visited it in December, 1878. Visited -1927 by Collins and Stewart; collections. - -75a. Village site. - -76. _Ukak._--Eskimo village, in the Yukon Delta, on shore of Hazen Bay. -Visited by Nelson in December, 1878, and its name reported by him as -Ookagamiut; i. e., Ukak people. Petrof, 1880, calls it Ookagamute. (G. -D. A.) - -77. _Unakak._--Eskimo village, in the Yukon Delta, near Hazen -Bay. Nelson, who visited it in December, 1878, reports its name -to be Oonakagamute; i. e., Unakak people. Petrof, 1880, calls it -Oonakagamute. (G. D. A.) - -78. _Kvigatluk._--Eskimo village, in the Big Lake country, between the -Yukon and Kuskokwim. Nelson in 1879 passed near it and reports its name -to be Kvigathlogamute. (G. D. A.) - -79. _Nunochok._--Eskimo village, in the Big Lake region. Visited -by Nelson in January, 1879, who reports its native name to be -Nunochogmute; i. e., Nunochok people. - -80. _Nanvogaloklak._--Eskimo village, in the Big Lake country. Visited -by Nelson in January, 1879. Population in 1880, 100; in 1890, 107. (G. -D. A.) - -81. _Nash Harbor._--Living village, Nunivak Island; school; Collins and -Stewart, 1927, anthropometric data, collections (also from other parts -of island). - -82. _Koot._--Village, Nunivak Island, near Cape Etolin; partly -occupied. Population in 1890, 117. - -83. _Inger._--(In Eleventh Census: Ingeramiut.) Dead village, in -southeast part of Nunivak Island. Population, 1890, 35. - -84. _Kvigak_ (_or Kwik_).--Dead village, southern part of Nunivak -Island. - -85. _Tachikuga._--Dead village, Nunivak Island, below Cape Mohican. - -86. _Kashunuk._--Eskimo village; some collections; skeletal material -in vicinity reported 1927 by Father Delon, of the Holy Cross Mission, -Yukon. - -87. _Askinuk._--Eskimo village on the southern shore of Hooper Bay, -Yukon Delta. Native name, from Nelson. Population 1878, 200. (G. D. A.) - -87a. Village site. - -88. _Agiak._--Eskimo village on promontory north of Hooper Bay. - -88a. Village site. - -89. _Igag._--Small village. - -90. _Kut_ (_Kutmiut_).--Small village on Kut River, head of Scammon Bay. - - -CAPE ROMANZOF TO NORTHERN (APOON) PASS OF THE YUKON AND NORTHWARD - -On this coast there is little information since the time of Nelson. -There are a number of occupied villages as well as of old sites. The -region is bleak and the Eskimo there are reported to live miserably. - -The principal Eskimo villages and sites along the lowermost branch of -the Yukon have been given previously. (Fig. 11.) - -From the northernmost pass of the Yukon to St. Michael Island the -coast is poor in Eskimo remains. A site of interest here is the old -camping ground, with a few permanent houses, of Pastolik, and there -are two small sites farther up the coast. Pastolik to the writer's -visit was still occasionally occupied by a few Eskimo families. There -are only three houses, but a relatively large and old cemetery speaks -of a larger population, probably camping here in tents during the -summer seasons of the past. The burial grounds were found to be rather -extensive and give indications of containing human bones as well as -artifacts below the present surface (buried by the tundra). The main -part of the burial grounds may well repay an excavation. - -ST. MICHAEL ISLAND.--Eskimo remains exist on the northeastern point -of the island beyond the present white man's village, and also on the -rock (Whale Island) opposite this point. During my visit the ground -was so overgrown by high weeds that details were hidden. On this same -northeastern point near the extension of the white settlement is a -small living Eskimo village, most of the inhabitants of which are now -of mixed blood. Across St. Michael Bay are said to be some old traces -of Eskimo, and Nelson reported an old site in the southern part of -the island. Finally at Cape Stephens, in the western extremity of the -island, there is "Stebbins," another living village. Nothing could be -learned of any human remains on the opposite Stuart Island. - -NORTON SOUND.--North of St. Michael Island is Norton Sound and Norton -Bay. Along the east coast of the Sound there are three villages still -occupied, but with old accumulations. It is reported that in this -region there are some ruined houses in which mammoth tusks had been -used in the construction, but nothing definite could be learned as -to the location of these houses and the whole may be but a story. -The village of Unalaklik was of importance in the past and its older -remains would probably repay excavation. Old sites are reported from -the vicinity of Shaktolik and at Cape Denbigh. - -The Norton Bay region (fig. 22), now almost depopulated, had in 1840 a -whole series of moderate-sized living Eskimo settlements, both on the -east and the west shore. These shallows are but little visited, and it -is probable that the remains of the villages and some at least of the -skeletal material of their burying grounds are well preserved. They -call for early attention. - -To the west of Norton Bay, on the southern coast of Seward Peninsula, -is Golovnin[64] Bay. On the eastern shore of this bay are now, as there -were in Russian times, two settlements, but the name of one has been -misplaced. On Zagoskin's map it is clearly seen that the village Ching -or Chinig corresponds in location to what now is the mission, while -what is now called "Cheenik" was in 1840 Ikalik or Ikalikhaig. There -will soon be seen another instance of such a misapplication of the -original names. - -To the west Golovnin Bay is bounded by a large promontory ending in -Rocky Point. To the east of this point is a shallow bay, where I found -a late Eskimo house and on the elevated shore a little to the left four -fairly recent adult burials. Farther down the bay was an Eskimo camp, -without signs of anything older; but Zagoskin's map gives a settlement, -probably also a camp, at this place, named Knikhtak. From this a rocky -point projects eastward into the bay. Behind this point is a shallow -cove with elevated ground above the beach, and at the inland end of -this bay I found the remains of a small old village. Traces of burials -were seen on the elevated ground but skeletal remains were absent. - -On the southwestern shore of the promontory that bounds Golovnin Bay on -the west the Russians (Zagoskin) recorded two villages, the one near -to Rocky Point being Chiukak, that on a point farther northwest being -named Chaimiut. Later the name Chiukak became applied to the former -Chaimiut, while Chiukak proper was dead and forgotten. On latest maps, -such as Chart 9302 United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, neither of -the old names appears. The name Bluff denotes a small settlement in -about the location of the former Chaimiut. Some Eskimo met in Golovnin -Bay said that there are skeletal remains near the original Chiukak, but -an attempt to reach the place failed through rough water. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[64] This is the correct orthography. See Russian maps. - - -SOUTH SHORE OF SEWARD PENINSULA WEST OF BLUFF - -A number of dead villages are found along this coast. The first and -largest is located a few miles west of Port Safety, 18 miles east of -Nome. This was a large village extending for a considerable distance -along the elevated beach separating an inland lagoon from the sea. The -depressions of the dwellings, of the usual dipper-with-handle type, -are very plain. Old settlers at Nome remember when the village was -still occupied. Nearer the sea the beach is said to have been lined -with burials, but the storm of 1913 took or covered everything. (See -Narrative, p. 90.) - -A small Eskimo settlement existed on a rocky elevation east of Cape -Nome. There are some house sites, but the place gives little promise -of archeological importance. We found evidence that the site must have -been occupied until fairly recently. Among the bowlders were found two -skeletons. - -A larger dead village is located near the mouth of a little stream west -of Cape Nome. It is doubtless the Azachagiag of the Zagoskin general -map. It gives no great promise archeologically. - -From Nome to Point Spencer there are several old sites, all "dead"; and -there are one or two recently "dead" villages on Sledge (the old Aiak -or Aziak) Island. Of the coast sites, the most important is reported to -be that at Cape Woolley. It is said to have been the stopping point of -the King Islanders and may have been their old mainland village. - -A number of old sites and burial grounds have been seen or learned of -in Port Clarence and Salt Lake. They are marked on the map, and those -of the lake have been discussed in the Narrative (p. 117). Those on -Salt Lake (Imuruk Basin) deserve attention. - -Between Port Clarence and Cape Prince of Wales only one, and that -evidently not a very large site, was learned of at Cape York. - -The most important site of the peninsula region is doubtless that at -the cape. Thanks to the able local teacher of that time, Mr. Clark -M. Garber, I am able to present a detailed map of this locality. It -is here that Doctor Jenness in 1926 conducted some excavations with -interesting results. But the site has barely been touched. It is the -nearest point to Asia. There are ample indications that it has been -occupied for a long period and by relatively large numbers of people. -Besides the ruined parts and old heaps there are still the skulls and -bones of many burials among the rocks about the village, and there is -evidence that more are in the ground. It is one of the chief sites -of the far northwest for systematic thorough exploration, and such -exploration is a growing necessity for all branches of anthropology -interested in the problems of the Bering Sea and Asiatic-American -connections. - - -SCAMMON BAY, NORTON SOUND, SOUTH COAST OF SEWARD PENINSULA, TO CAPE -RODNEY - -[FIG. 22] - -91. _Melatolik._--A small coast village. - -92. _Bimiut._--A small coast village. - -93. _Kwikak._--Eskimo village on the outer coast in the Yukon Delta, a -little south of the mouth of Black River. Native name, from the Coast -Survey, 1898, which gives it as Kwikagamiut. (G. D. A.) - -[Illustration: FIGURE 22.--Eskimo Villages and sites, Scammon Bay to -Norton Sound and Bay to Cape Rodney] - -94. _Kipniak._--Eskimo village and Coast Survey tidal station at mouth -of Black River in the Yukon Delta. Nelson, 1879, reports its name to be -Kipniaguk and Dall writes it phonetically Kip-nai-ak. (G. D. A.) - -95. _Kogomiut._--A small village. - -96. _Waklarok._--A small village. - -97. _Nunamekrok._--A small village. - -97a. _Eleutak._--A small settlement. - -98. _Nilak._--A small village. - -99. _Kwikluak._--A small village near the mouth of the Kwikluak Pass of -the Yukon, south bank. - -100. _Alakanuk._--A small settlement. - -101. _Kwiguk._--A village on Kwikluak Pass of the Yukon, north bank. - -102. _Kwikpak._--Village near mouth north bank of pass of same name, -Yukon River. - -103. _Nakhliwak._--A small village, occupied part of time, about 2 -miles from mouth of Apoon Pass, Yukon; visited by the writer; small -skeletal collection. - -104. _Kotlik Point._--A store and Eskimo camp (summer) at mouth of -Apoon Pass, north bank. (A. H.) - -105. _Pastolik._--Four Eskimo houses, occupied winter. Extensive burial -ground near. Collections, A. Hrdlička. Good prospects for excavation in -burial places. - -106. _Pikmiktalik._--Eskimo village, near the mouth of Pikmiktalik -River, about 30 miles to the south of St. Michael, western Alaska. (G. -D. A.) - -106a. _Pastoliak._--A site near mouth of next small stream to the -north. A few houses. Some burials. - -107. _St. Michael and Whale Island._--Old sites, northeast end of St. -Michael and on Whale Island, opposite. A small living village near the -point of the main island, mostly mix bloods. (A. H.) - -107a. Dead village. Nelson reports it had been peopled by the Pastolik -Eskimo ("Eskimo about Bering Strait," p. 263). - -108. _Stebbins._--A living Eskimo village at Cape Stephens. - -110. _Golsova._--A small camp at mouth of river of same name. - -111. _Unalakleet_ (_or Unalaklik_).--Important old Eskimo village, -Norton Sound; western end of portage to Yukon. Population in 1880, 100; -in 1890, 175. - -112. _Shaktolik._--Eskimo village, at mouth of Shaktolik River, Norton -Sound. Population in 1880, 60; in 1890, 38. (G. D. A.) Old settlement; -several old sites in this region. - -113. _Nuklit._--Eskimo village, on the eastern shore of Norton Sound, -immediately behind Cape Denbigh. (G. D. A.) Originally given on -Zagoskin's general map. (A. H.) - -113a. _Tapkhalik._--Old village on east shore of Norton Bay. - -114. _Unakhtuglig or Unagtulig._--Originally given on Zagoskin's -general map. (A. H.) - -115. _Kviguk._--Eskimo village, on north shore of Norton Bay, at mouth -of the Kviguk River. Eskimo name, from the Russians. Tikhmenief, -1861, has Kviegmiut and Kvieguk-miut; i. e., Kviguk people. (G. D. A.) -Originally on Zagoskin's general map. - -116. _Kvig-miut._--Old village, above the preceding; originally on -Zagoskin's general map. - -117. _Kvinkhak_ (_now Inglestat_).--Old village at head of Norton Bay. -Originally on Zagoskin's general map. - -118. _Tulukhtulig_ (_at or near Elim_).--Old village on west coast of -Norton Bay. - -119. _Atnik._--Old village below the preceding. - -120. _Camp_ (_Reindeer_). - -121. _Chinig._--Old village at or near the site of present mission; -name now erroneously applied to village at Point Golovnin. - -122. _Ikalikhvig._--Present Cheenik, at Point Golovnin. - -123. Old site; located 1926 (A. H.); a moderate-sized village; not -promising for excavation. - -124. _Knikhtak._--Originally on Zagoskin's general map; now a camp, -no old remains in evidence; a house and four burials on same shore, 2 -miles farther south; collection (A. H.). - -125. _Chiukak._--Dead village; on Zagoskin's general map; some skeletal -material remaining; name now applied to a village farther up the coast. - -126. _Chaimiut._--Dead village; originally on Zagoskin's general map; -name belonged to village nearer the point. - -127. _Ukvikhtulig._--Dead village at Topkok Head; originally on -Zagoskin's general map. - -128. Dead village, 18 miles east of Nome, near Port Safety. (A. H.) - -129. _Azachagiag._--Dead village, west of Cape Nome; originally on -Zagoskin's general map. - -130. _Nome._--Probably small native village at this site in the past. -Now principal white settlement in western Alaska. King Island, Diomede, -and some Wales natives reside on the outskirts during summer. - -131. _Aziak Island_ (_Sledge Island_).--Two dead villages; the -principal one at the northern point of the island. Visited by Collins, -1928. Collections. - -132. _Sinuk._--Small old site. - -133. _King Island_ (_Ukiook_).--Old village, still occupied in winter; -in summer inhabitants live at Nome. - -133a. A village site at Cape Woolley; said to be the stopping place of -the King Islanders. - -134. Dead sites. - -135. Burials. - -136. _Siniak._--Now a Lutheran Mission for the Eskimo. - -[Illustration: - - ·LEGEND· - 1 U·S· PUBLIC SCHOOL· - 2 PRESBY MISSION· - 3 SITE OF ANCIENT VILLAGES· - I UMIAKS OR SKIN BOATS· - X FOOD AND SKIN CACHES· - ✛ NATIVE CEMETERIES· - O IGLOOS OR INNIES· - ⬛ FRAME BUILDINGS· - ·1927· - -FIGURE 23.--Eskimo villages and sites, Wales. (By Clark M. Garber, -1927)] - -137. _Teller._--Old Eskimo site; some still live here with, a few -whites. A few Eskimo camps along Tuksuk Channel. - -138. _Salt Lake_ (_Imuruk Basin_).--Ruins seen on north shore. (A. H.) - -139. Old sites near eastern end of lake; a Chukchee-Eskimo battlefield -in vicinity. (A. H.) - -140. Old village site on the St. Marys River. - -141. Burials reported. - -142. _Wales._--Old Nykhta, Zagoskin's maps; see special description; -collections. - - -THE NORTHERN SHORE OF THE SEWARD PENINSULA - -This shore is but little known to science. It is dangerous of approach -to any except small boats. The only place that could be visited by me -was Shishmaref, a good-sized thriving Eskimo village, on both sides of -which along the sea are remains of old sites with burials. The more -important old settlement was that to the east of the village. Here -are found large and extensive heaps, the tops of which have recently -been leveled for fox cages, the whole site belonging, regrettably, -to a newly established fox farm. It is an old site, though probably -occupied up to white man's times, and is doubtless of some importance. -Excavations would still be possible, as the bulk of the remains is -intact; and though the surface skeletal material has been removed (part -saved for our collections), there are indications of surface burials -(assimilations by the tundra) in the ground. - -Between Wales and Shishmaref are several dead sites, as shown on the -map, and some of them, judging from the information obtained, are of -promise. One of these settlements, "Tapkhaig," was evidently still a -living village at the time of Zagoskin (1840). - -Northeast and east of Shishmaref the coast is known even less than that -to the west. A few miles off Shishmaref I saw from a distance--the boat -could not approach nearer--what to all appearances was a large ridge of -ruins, and from various maps and other sources information was obtained -of several other sites, all of which represent former villages. From -one of these sites on the Bucknell River Mr. Carl Lomen secured a fine -piece of fossil ivory carving, and the site is said to be of much -promise. The whole coast is a virgin field for archeology. - -143. _Mitletukeruk._--Old village site. Visited by Collins, 1928; -collections. - -144. _Tapkhaig or Ekpik._--Old village site, originally shown in -Zagoskin's general map. - -145. _Sinrazat._--Old site. - -146. _Karatuk or Shishmaref._--Living village, with ruins on both -sides. Visited by A. H.; collections. - -147. _Kividlow._--Old site. - -148. Old site reported. - -148a. _Siuk._--Old site. - -149. Old site (?). - -150. _Paapkuk._--Old site. - -151. _Deering._--Recent settlement, but old sites probable in vicinity. - -151a. _Kualing._--Old village, now long dead, shown by Zagoskin. -(General map.) - -[Illustration: FIGURE 24.--Eskimo villages and sites, Seward Peninsula, -Kotzebue Sound, and Arctic Coast, to Kevalina] - -152. _Kiwalik._--A village at mouth of river of same name. - -153. Dead villages reported on the two promontories; promising -archeologically. On Elephant Point Nelson saw the site of an old -village "with about 15 pits marking the locations of the houses." -(Eskimo of Bering Strait, 264.) - -153a. Buckland River. Camp sites. - -153b. Old village site. - -154. Old whaling place, occupied summers only. (S. Chance.) - -155. _Selawik._--Old village. Old igloos and camps at various places in -the Selawik Basin. (S. Chance.) - -156. Camps. (S. Chance.) - -156a. _Chilivik._--A village, now long dead, shown on the general map -of Zagoskin. - -157. Fish camps. (A. H.) - - -KOTZEBUE SOUND, ITS RIVERS AND ITS COAST NORTHWARD TO KEVALINA - -Figure 24 shows the village sites that it was possible to locate in -these regions. Nearly all these are now "dead villages," though some -Eskimo may still occasionally camp in their vicinity. A large present -settlement of the Eskimo, well advanced toward civilization, is found -at Kotzebue, and fish camps extend from here along the shore in the -direction of Cape Blossom. Another important recent living village and -school center is Noorvik on the lower Kobuk River. - -Inquiries as to old sites in this region were greatly assisted by -Mr. Sylvester Chance, at the time of my visit the supervisor of the -Government schools of the district. At my request and with the aid -of the natives Mr. Chance has compiled a list of such sites and -settlements as could still be remembered, and the information has been -incorporated into these records. - -Among the more important ruins of this vicinity are apparently those at -and near Cape Krusenstern, and again those near Kevalina farther to the -northward. Archeological specimens of considerable interest were seen -and partly secured from both localities. The old Kevalina especially -should receive early attention, for it is being excavated by the Eskimo -of the present village, though fortunately this is at some distance. - - -SEWARD PENINSULA, KOTZEBUE SOUND, AND NORTHWARD - -158. _Kotzebue._--Old name: Kikikhtagiuk. (Zagoskin, general map.) -A small white with a large Eskimo settlement. Old burials in ground -(assimilated). A. H. collections. - -159. _Noorvik._--White and native village; school center. - -160. _Oksik._--Old camp, still occupied. (S. Chance.) - -161. _Kiana._--Old village, still occupied. (S. Chance.) - -162. _Shesoalik._--Old camp, still occupied in summer. (S. Chance.) - -162a. _Kubok._--Old village shown on general map of Zagoskin. - -163. _Aniyak._--Old camp, still occupied. (S. Chance.) - -164. Old site reported here; said to be promising archeologically. - -165. _Tikizat._--Eskimo village, at Cape Krusenstern, Arctic Ocean. -Eskimo name, from Petrof, 1880, who reported a population in that year -of 75. - -166. _Kiligmak._--Old camp, still occupied. - -167. _Noatak._--A living village. - -168. Old camp, exact location not certain. (S. Chance.) - -169. _Matthew or Aniyak._--Old camp. - -170. _Ottala._--Camp, occupied. (S. Chance.) - -171. Old site reported; exact location (?). - -172. Old site, rich archeologically, exact location undetermined; small -collection. (A. H.) - -173. _Kevalina._--Living Eskimo village. - -174. _Pingo._--Old dead village. (S. Chance, Jim Allen.) - - -KEVALINA--POINT BARROW - - -POINT HOPE (TIGARA) - -This is the most important ruin as well as living Eskimo village in -Arctic Alaska. It is unanimously declared by the Eskimo of the coast -to be one of the oldest settlements and has always been the largest -native center on the coast. The point was called Golovnin Point by the -early Russians; it was called Point Hope by Beechey in 1826 in honor -of Sir William Johnston Hope. At the time of its visit by the revenue -cutter _Corwin_, 1884, there are said to have been two villages;[65] -the second being possibly at the site of the old whaling station. -Rasmussen, who visited the village about 1924, speaks of it in part -as follows:[66] "Point Hope or Tikeraq, 'the pointing finger,' is -one of the most interesting Eskimo settlements on the whole coast of -Alaska, and has doubtless the largest collection of ruins. The old -village, now deserted, consists of 122 very large houses, but as the -sea is constantly washing away parts of the land and carrying off more -houses, it is impossible to say what may have been the original number. -Probably the village here and its immediate neighborhood had at one -time something like 2,000 souls, or as many as are now to be found -throughout the whole of the Northwest Passage between the Magnetic Pole -and Herschel Island." - -The ruins are to the northwest and west of the present village. Those -to the northwest consist of imposing heaps, which together form an -elevated ridge facing the sea. It is said that this old settlement was -abandoned because of the encroachments upon it by the sea, particularly -during storms. - -The ruins of this main compound have been for several years assiduously -excavated inch by inch by the local Eskimo, and thousands of articles -of great variety, of stone, bone, ivory, and wood, with here and there -in the uppermost layers an object of metal, are being gathered and -sold to all comers. With these are found a few human skulls and bones, -but especially the skulls and bones of various animals, all of which -unfortunately have hitherto been left behind in the mud. But the -probably most valuable central and lower portions of the piles remain. -The locality calls loudly for proper exploration, which will well repay -any museum by the quantity and value of the specimens that are sure to -be recovered. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[65] Healy, M. A. Cruise of the _Corwin_ in the Arctic Ocean 1884. -Washington, 1889, p. 27. - -[66] Rasmussen, Knud, Across Arctic America. New York, London, 1927, -329-330. - - -POINT HOPE TO POINT BARROW - -Information about this part of the northwesternmost coast of Alaska -was obtained principally from Jim Allen, the trader at Wainwright, and -Charles Brower, the trader at Barrow; but parts of the coast were also -examined in person. The number of old sites is rather large, but it -appears that there is not much of special promise until we reach near -Barrow. - -Old "igloos" southwest of Barrow: From 5 to 8 miles southwest of -Barrow and at some distance (up to about 400 yards) from the shore -there existed, and in part still exist, a series of elevations which -the natives of Barrow always regarded as natural. On excavation the -larger of these elevations proved to be old structures with numerous -burials and cultural objects, and the remains, as shown elsewhere, are -exceptional for this coast. Six of these "mounds" have been excavated -by the University of Pennsylvania Expedition (Van Valin), while -several are still remaining. It is very important that these should be -carefully excavated before they are attacked by the natives of Barrow -for mercenary purposes. - - -BARROW AND POINT BARROW - -Two large living villages, with old sites and inhumed (natural) burials -in their vicinity, and with some old remains between them. Barrow is -the most important present mixed settlement and center of civilization -in the Arctic. Besides the school, it contains a mission hospital and -recently a meteorological observatory and wireless station. The tundras -to the east of the village for about 1½ miles show patches of burials, -particularly in the more distant parts of this region on the elevations -to both sides of a small stream. - -Much archeological work remains to be done about Barrow, particularly -in the remainder of the old "igloos." East of Point Barrow the -population is very sparse and no ruins of any note or settlements -are reported before those of the Barter Island and the mouth of the -Colville River. - -175. _Pingishuguruk._--A small old site. - -176. _Ketchemeluk._--A small old site. - -176a. _Ipnot._--Eskimo village on the Arctic coast, near Cape Thomson, -a little south of Point Hope. Name from Petrof, who wrote it Ip-Not and -Ipnot, and reported a population of 40 in 1880. - -177. Old whaling station. - -178. _Point Hope or Tigara._--Eskimo village at Point Hope, Arctic -Ocean. It is Tiekagag-miut of Tikhmenief, 1861; Tikirak of Petrof, -1880, who reports a population in that year of 276. Spelled Tikera in -the Eleventh Census. Herendeen gives Tik-i-rah. The Eskimo name of the -settlement is said to be Tik-i-rah-mum. Visited by A. H.; important -collections. - -179. _Wewuk_ (_or Wevok_).--Eskimo village on the Arctic coast, near -Cape Lisburne. Eskimo name, published by the Hydrographic Office in -1890. (G. D. A.) (Jim Allen.) - -[Illustration: FIGURE 25.--Eskimo villages and sites, Kevalina to Point -Barrow] - -180. _Iniktilik._--Small village, occupied. (S. Chance.) - -181. _Pitmegia._--A small old site at the mouth of river of same name, -north side. (Jim Allen, S. Chance.) - - _e._ _Napayochak._--Old camp, two igloos. (S. Chance.) - - _f._ _Tolageak._--A small old site. (S. Chance.) - - _g._ _Emelik._--A small old site. (S. Chance.) - - _h._ _Pingasoogarook._--Old village, still occupied. (S. Chance.) - - 182. _Umalik._ } - } - 183. _Koochik._ } - } Trapping stations; igloos. (S. Chance.) - 184. } - } - 185. } - -186. _Kokolik._--Eskimo settlement, at Point Lay, Arctic coast. (G. D. -A.) Old but still partly occupied village. (S. Chance.) Kelik. (Jim -Allen.) - -187. _Napayochik._--Old camp, two igloos. (S. Chance.) - -188. _Tolageak._--Old dead igloos. (S. Chance.) - -189. _Utukok._--Old small settlement at northern mouth of Utukok River. - -190. _Emelik._--Old deserted igloo. (S. Chance.) - -191. _Kayakshulik._--A live village at Icy Cape. (Jim Allen, S. Chance.) - -192. _Nokotlik_ (_?_).--Old igloo. (S. Chance.) - -193. _Mitliktavik._--A dead moderate-sized village, about 5 miles below -Kilik. (Jim Allen.) - -194. _Kilimantavic._--Eskimo village, near Wainwright Inlet, Arctic -coast. Tikhmenief, 1861, calls it Kilametagag-miut; Petrof, 1880, calls -it Kolumakturook; Hydrographic Chart 68 calls it Kelamantowruk, while -later charts omit it or call it Kilimantavic. According to Murdoch this -name is Ke-lev-a-tow-tin (sling). (G. D. A.) A large dead village about -20 miles below Wainwright. (Jim Allen.) Kilamitavic. (S. Chance.) - -195. Old abandoned camp. (S. Chance.) - -196. _Wainwright._--A large living native village; some remains of old -habitations on its eastern outskirts. (A. H.) About a mile south of -present settlements are the remains of the old village once occupied by -the Wainwright people. (Jim Allen.) - -197. _Kululin._--Old site. - -198. _Sedaru._--Old dead village. - -199. _Atnik._--Old dead village. (S. Chance.) Possibly same with next. - -200. _Itanik._--On maps Atanik. Old village, still partly occupied. (S. -Chance, Jim Allen.) Called Ataniek in Tikhmenief, 1861. (G. D. A.) - -201. _Pinoshuragin._--Petrof, 1880, shows a native village of this name -(population 29) on the Seahorse Islands. On British Admiralty Chart 593 -(ed. of 1882) it is called Pingoshugarun. (G. D. A.) Pingasoogarook: -Old village, still occupied. (S. Chance.) - -202. _Kokolak._--Two old igloos, still occupied. (S. Chance.) - -203. _Sakamna._--Small camp. - -204. _Sinaru._--Small camp about 22 miles from Barrow; visited by A. -H.; small skeletal collection. - -205. _Walakpa._--A small dead old settlement about 12 miles from Barrow. - -206. _Nunava._--Small camp. - -207. "_Old Igloos._"--A very important site archeologically. Explored -partly by Van Valin. (See special section devoted to this site.) - -208. _Barrow._--Known also as Utkiavik, Uglaamie, or the Cape Smyth -village. Important white and Eskimo settlement. Old remains. Extensive -burial grounds east of village. (A. H. collections.) - -209. _Nunawa._--Remains of old camping site, about 4 miles from Barrow. - -210. _Point Barrow._--The Eskimo Nuwuk. Good-sized living village. -Remains of older habitations. Population in 1853, 309. (G.D.A.) - - -THE ST. LAWRENCE AND DIOMEDE ISLANDS - - -ST. LAWRENCE ISLAND - -Ranking in archeological and anthropological importance with Wales and -in some respects perhaps even exceeding the latter, is the large island -of St. Lawrence, with the almost forgotten little Punuk group at its -eastern extremity. - -[Illustration: FIGURE 26.--Russian map of St. Lawrence Island, 1849. -(Tebenkof)] - -The main island was discovered by Bering on St. Lawrence Day, August -10, 1728, and it was found peopled by the Eskimo. In 1849 an excellent -map of it was published by Tebenkof in Novo-Archangelsk, and on this -map (fig. 26) are indicated about a dozen smaller or larger Eskimo -settlements, some of which, however, are not named and may already have -been "dead." - -About 1878 there were still six settlements with somewhat less than -1,500 Eskimo inhabitants on the island. That winter (1878-79) not less -than 1,000 of the population died of famine (Hooper), three of the -villages becoming completely depopulated and a fourth nearly so. The -Punuk Island village may have become extinct about the same time. - -To-day there are on the St. Lawrence Island but two living settlements, -the main one, now known as Gambell, at the old site of Chibukak on the -northwestern cape, and the other, Savonga, about 40 miles east of it, -near Cape North. - -A number of the old sites on this island, and also that on one of the -Punuks, indicate a long occupation, antedating by far the advent of the -Russians. The accumulations rise in some places to imposing heaps or -ridges. Their frozen contents yield quantities of fossil ivory, all of -which shows the work of man, and among them occur specimens with fine -curvilinear designs and of high scientific as well as artistic value. - -Through Nelson in 1881 and R. D. Moore in 1912 the Smithsonian -Institution has acquired a large quantity of human skeletal material -from the main island, and there is now (1928) an expedition of the -Institution under Collins on the Punuk as well as the St. Lawrence -exploring some of the principal ruins. - - -THE DIOMEDE ISLANDS AND THE ASIATIC COAST - -[FIGS. 27 AND 28] - -The smaller or American Diomede, though a very inhospitable place, -supports, and that evidently since long, a small Eskimo village -of stone houses, below and about which there is a considerable -accumulation of refuse. Doctor Jenness dug here for a short time in -1926. - -The larger or Russian Diomede has two villages, each of which is larger -than the one on the smaller island. There are also said to be some -remains in a broad depression on the eastern side of the island, while -skeletal remains are reported by the natives to exist among the rocks -on the top. This island is in need of thorough attention. Its people -are reputed to be skilled ivory workers. They come yearly to Nome, -where they were visited and seen at their work by the writer. They -bring each year some fossil ivory, said to come mainly from the Asiatic -coast, and among this are occasionally articles of much interest. - -Ruins of Eskimo villages are also present along the coasts of the -Chukchee Peninsula, both those facing the Bering Sea and those along -the Arctic. Very little is definitely known or can be found from the -American Eskimo about these ruins, and some of them may not be Eskimo. -Nelson in his book (p. 265) reports briefly on a few about Cape -Wankarem. Interesting objects of the fossil ivory culture are said -to occur in these old sites as far west as the Kolyma, but nothing -is certain except that there are ruins, that a good number of them -are probably Eskimo, and that fossil ivory, both worked (walrus) and -unworked (mammoth), comes from these coasts. A noteworthy report is -that of a large native cemetery on the Bering Sea side, with hundreds -of burials in rough stone-slab graves. Information of this was given me -by Joe Bernard, well known in connection with Bering Sea explorations, -who had seen the site in person. - -[Illustration: FIGURE 27.--Eskimo villages and sites, St. Lawrence -Island, the Diomedes, and the eastern Asiatic coast] - -211. _Gambell_ (_or Chibukuk_).--Old Eskimo settlement on the northwest -cape of St. Lawrence Island. United States National Museum expedition, -1912, by Riley D. Moore; anthropometric data; important collections. - -212. Small sites, north bay, St. Lawrence Island, indicated on 1849 -Russian map (q. v.). - -213. _Savonga._--A small modern Eskimo village. A. H., 1926; some -collections. - -214. Ruins of an old site 4 miles northeast of Savonga. Important -archeologically. - -215. _Kukuliak._--Dead village. - -216. Former summer site. Given on the 1849 Russian map. - -[Illustration: FIGURE 28.--The Bering Strait Islands] - -217. Important old site with large accumulations on one of the two -Punuk Islands. Explored 1928 by Collins; collections. - -218. _Kialegak._--Dead village. Important archeologically. Partly -explored by Collins, 1928; collections. - -219. _Chitnak._--One of the dead villages of 1879. (Nelson, Hooper.) - -220. _Puguviliak._--One of the dead villages of 1879. (Nelson, Hooper.) - -221. Old site; no details available. - -222. Living small village on the smaller (American) Diomede Island. -Some old accumulations. A. H., 1926, collections; some excavations same -year by D. Jenness. - -223. _Nunarbuk._--Village still occupied, on greater (Russian) Diomede, -located on an elevated slope around the southern cape of the island. -Skeletal and other remains reported on top of mesa. - -224. Village, still occupied, on an elevated saddle near middle of west -coast of island. - -225. Eskimo village, East Cape of Asia. Other villages indicated along -the coast of Chukchee Peninsula. Others on north coast. (See Nelson, -The Eskimo of Bering Strait, p. 265.) - - - - -PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY - - -EARLIER DATA - -The previously published data on the western Eskimo are few in number -and mostly not as well documented as would be desirable. There are, -however, a good number of references to the physical characteristics -of the people by explorers. The main of these are given below. These -references in general are not of much scientific value, yet in some -instances they approach this closely and are of considerable interest -collectively. - -1784, Cook:[67] - - The inlet which we had now quitted, was distinguished by Captain - Cook with the name of Prince William's Sound. * * * The natives - whom we saw were in general of a middling stature, though many of - them were under it. They were square or strong chested, with short - thick necks, and large broad visages which were for the most part - rather flat. The most disproportioned part of their body appeared - to be their heads, which were of great magnitude. Their teeth were - of a tolerable whiteness, broad, well set, and equal in size. Their - noses had full round points, turned up at the tip; and their eyes, - though not small, were scarcely proportioned to the largeness of - their faces. They had black hair which was strong, straight, and - thick. Their beards were in general thin or deficient, but the - hairs growing about the lips, of those who have them, were bristly - or stiff and often of a brownish color; and some of the elderly men - had large, thick straight beards. * * * The complexion of some of - the females, and of the children, is white without any mixture of - red. Many of the men, whom we saw naked, had rather a swarthy cast, - which was scarcely the effect of any stain, as it is not their - custom to paint their bodies. - - Vol. 3, page 31: All the Americans we had seen since our arrival on - that coast (west coast of Alaska) had round, chubby faces, and high - cheek bones, and were rather low of stature. - - Ibid., page 72: _Norton Sound._--The woman was short and squat and - her visage was plump and round. * * * Her husband was well made and - about 5 feet 2 inches in height. His hair was black and short, and - he had but little beard. His complexion was of a light copper cast. - * * * The teeth of both of them were black, and appeared as if they - had been filed down level with the gums. - -1821, Kotzebue:[68] - - _Kotzebue Sound._--The Americans [i. e., Eskimo] are of a middle - size, robust make, and healthy appearance; their countenances * * * - are characterized by small eyes and very high cheek bones. - -1832, Beechey:[69] - - The western Esquimaux appear to be intimately connected with the - tribes inhabiting the northern and northeastern shores of America, - in language, features, manners, and customs. They at the same time, - in many respects, resemble the Tschutschi, from whom they are - probably descended. * * * - - They are taller in stature than the eastern Esquimaux, their - average height being about 5 feet 7½ inches. They are also a better - looking race, if I may judge from the natives I saw in Baffin's - Bay, and from the portraits of others that have been published. At - a comparatively early age, however, they (the women in particular) - soon lose this comeliness, and old age is attended with a haggard - and careworn countenance, rendered more unbecoming by sore eyes - and by teeth worn to the gums by frequent mastication of hard - substances. - -1850, Latham:[70] - - Physically the Eskimo is a Mongol and Asiatic. - - The Eskimos of the Atlantic are not only easily distinguished from - the tribes of American aborigines which lie to the south or west - of them, and with which they come in contact, but they stand in - strong contrast and opposition to them--a contrast and opposition - exhibited equally in appearance, manners, language, and one which - has had full justice done to it by those who have written on the - subject. - - It is not so with the Eskimos of Russian-America, and the parts - that look upon the Pacific. These are so far from being separated - by any broad and trenchant line of demarcation from the proper - Indians or the so-called red race, that they pass gradually - into it, and that in respect to their habits, manner, and - appearance, equally. So far is this the case that he would be a - bold man who should venture, in speaking of the southern tribes - of Russian-America, to say here the Eskimo area ends and here a - different area begins. - -1853, Hooper:[71] - - _Kotzebue Sound Esquimeaux._--The men generally were taller than - the average of Europeans, strongly built and well formed; some - had well-marked features * * *. The women, were generally short, - the visages of the younger ones tolerably good but * * * the - very reverse was the case with the dames of more advanced age. - Their figures inclined to the squat, their mien and expression - promised intelligence and good nature. Although both sexes had in - most instances the round flat face of the Mongolian cast, a few - individuals possessed well-defined, though petite features, and all - had fine eyes. - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 31 - -GRAVES AT NASH HARBOR, NUNIVAK ISLAND - -(Photos by Collins and Stewart, 1927.)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 32 - -SCHOOL CHILDREN AT WALES] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 33 - -_a_, Children, Nunivak Island. (Photo by Collins and Stewart, 1927) - -_b_, Adults, Nunivak Island. (Photo by Collins and Stewart, 1927)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 34 - -KING ISLAND ESKIMO: A FAMILY GROUP] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 35 - -KING ISLAND NATIVE] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 36 - -_a_, Young Eskimo woman, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by Lomen -Bros.) - -_b_, Eskimo, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by F. H. Nowell.) - -A FINE FULL-BLOOD ESKIMO PAIR, NORTHERN BERING SEA REGION] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 37 - -TYPICAL FULL-BLOOD ESKIMO. NORTHERN BERING SEA REGION - -(Photo by Lomen Bros.)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 38 - -ELDERLY MAN, ST. LAWRENCE ISLAND - -(Photos by R. D. Moore, 1912. U.S.N.M.)] - -1853, Seemann, vol. II, pages 49-51:[72] - - _The Eskimos._--By comparing the accounts transmitted by different - writers we find that the various tribes, however widely separated - geographically, differ but slightly from each other in appearance, - manners, customs, or language. They are, however, by no means as - uniform in size as might have been expected. Those inhabiting the - vicinity of Norton and Kotzebue Sounds are by far the finest and - tallest, while those living between Cape Lisburne and Point Barrow - are, like the tribes of the eastern portions of America, much - shorter in stature, and bespeak the inferiority of the districts in - which they live. - - Both sexes are well proportioned, stout, muscular, and active. - The hands and feet are small and beautifully formed, which is - ascribed by some writers to their sedentary habits, but this - cannot be the case, as probably no people take more exercise or - are more constantly employed. Their height varies. In the southern - parts some of the men are 6 feet; in the more northern there is a - perceptible diminution, though by no means to the extent generally - imagined. - - Their faces are flat, their cheek bones projecting, and their eyes - small, deeply set, and, like the eyebrows, black. Their noses - are broad; their ears are large, and generally lengthened by the - appendage of weighty ornaments; their mouths are well formed, their - lips are thin. * * * - - The teeth of the Eskimos are regular, but from the nature of - their food and from their practice of preparing hides by chewing, - are worn down almost to the gums at an early age. Their hair is - straight, black, and coarse; the men have it closely cut on the - crown, like that of a Capuchin friar, leaving a band about two - inches broad, which gradually increases in length towards the back - of the neck; the women merely part their hair in the middle, and, - if wealthy, ornament it with strings of beads. The possession of a - beard is very rare, but a slight moustache is not infrequent. Their - complexion, if divested of its usual covering of dirt, can hardly - be called dark; on the contrary, it displays a healthy, rosy tint, - and were it not for the custom of tattooing the chin some of the - girls might be called pretty, even in the European acceptation of - the term. - -1861, Richardson:[73] - - The Eskimos are remarkably uniform in physical appearance - throughout their far-stretching area, there being perhaps no other - nation in the world so unmixed in blood. Frobisher's people were - struck with their resemblance in features and general aspect to the - Samoyeds and their physiognomy has been held by all ethnologists - to be of the Mongolian or Tartar type. Doctor Latham calls the - Samoyeds Hyperborean Mongolidae, and the Eskimos he ranges among - the American Mongolidae, embracing in the latter group all the - native races of the New World. The Mongol type of countenance is, - however, more strongly reproduced in the Eskimos than in the red - Indians--the conterminous Tinné tribes differing greatly in their - features, and the more remote Indians still more. - - Generally the Eskimos have broadly egg-shaped faces with - considerable prominence of the rounded cheeks caused by the arching - of the cheek bones, but few or no angular projections even in the - old people, whose features are always much weather beaten and - furrowed. The greatest breadth of the face is just below the eyes, - the forehead tapers upward, ending narrowly, but not acutely, and - in like manner the chin is a blunt cone; both the forehead and the - chin recede, the egg outline showing in profile, though not so - strongly, as in a front view. The nose is broad and depressed, but - not in all, some individuals having prominent noses, yet almost all - have wider nostrils than Europeans. The eyes have small and oblique - apertures like the Chinese, and from frequent attacks of ophthalmia - and the effect of lamp smoke in their winter habitations adults of - both sexes are disfigured by excoriated or ulcerated eyelids. The - sight of these people is, from its constant exercise, extremely - keen, and the habit of bringing the eyelids nearly together when - looking at distant objects has in all the grown males produced a - striking cluster of furrows radiating from the outer corners of - each eye over the temples. - - The complexions of the Eskimos when relieved from smoke and dirt - are nearly white and show little of the copper color of the red - Indians. Infants have a good deal of red on the cheeks, and when - by chance their faces are tolerably clean are much like European - children, the national peculiarities of countenance being slighter - at an early age. Many of the young women appear even pretty from - the liveliness and good nature that beams in their countenances. - The old women are frightfully ugly * * *. - - The young men have little beard, but some of the old ones have a - tolerable show of long gray hairs on the upper lip and chin. * * * - The Eskimo beard, however, is in no instance so dense as a European - one. - - The hair of the head is black and coarse, the lips thickish, and - the teeth of the young people white and regular, but the sand that, - through want of cleanliness, mixes with their food, wears the teeth - down at an early age almost to the level of the gums, so that the - incisors often have broad crowns like the molars. - - The average stature of the Eskimos is below the English standard, - but they can not be said to be a dwarfish race. The men vary in - height from about 5 feet to 5 feet 10 inches or even more. They - are a broad-shouldered race, and when seated in their kayaks look - tall and muscular, but when standing lose their apparent height by - a seemingly disproportionate shortness of the lower extremities. - This want of symmetry may arise from the dress, as the proportions - of various parts of the body have not been tested by accurate - measurements. The hands and feet are delicately small and well - formed. Mr. Simpson (Blue Book, 1855) observed an undue shortness - of the thumb in the western Eskimos, which, if it exists farther to - the east, was not noted by the members of the searching expeditions. - -1870, Dall:[74] - - Page 136: The Innuit, as they call themselves, belong to the same - family as the northern and western Eskimo. I have frequently - used the term Eskimo in referring to them, but they are in many - respects very different people. * * * It should be thoroughly and - definitely understood that they are not Indians nor have they any - known relation, physically * * * to the Indian tribes of North - America. Their grammar, appearance, habits, and even their anatomy, - especially in the form of the skull, separate them widely from the - Indian race. On the other hand, it is almost equally questionable - whether they are even distinctly [distantly?] related to the - Chukchees and other probably Mongolian races, of the eastern part - of Siberia. - - The Innuit of Norton Sound and the vicinity are of three tribes, - each of which, while migrating at certain seasons, has its own - peculiar territory. The peninsula between Kotzebue and Norton - Sounds is inhabited by the Kaviaks or Kaviagemut Innuit. The neck - of this peninsula is occupied by the Mahlemut Innuit. The shore - of Norton Sound south of Cape Denbigh to Pastolik is the country - of the Unaleets or Unaligmut Innuit. The habits of these tribes - are essentially similar. They are in every respect superior to any - tribe of Indians with which I am acquainted. - - Their complexion I have described as brunet. The effect of the - sun and wind, especially in summer, is to darken their hue, and - from observing those who lived in the fort, I am inclined to think - that a regular course of bathing would do much toward whitening - them. They are sometimes very tall; I have often seen both men and - women nearly 6 feet in height and have known several instances - where men were taller. Their average height equals that of most - civilized races. Their strength is often very great. I have seen a - Mahlemut take a 100-pound sack of flour under each arm and another - in his teeth and walk with them from the storehouse to the boat, a - distance of some 20 rods, without inconvenience. - - Page 140: The women * * * are often of pleasing appearance, - sometimes quite pretty. They preserve their beauty much longer - than Indian women. Their clear complexion and high color, with - their good humor, make them agreeable companions, and they are - often very intelligent. A noticeable feature is their teeth. These - are always sound and white, but are almost cylindrical, and in - old people are worn down even with the gums, producing a singular - appearance. The eyes are not oblique as in the Mongolian races, but - are small, black, and almost even with the face. The nose is flat - and disproportionately small. Many of the Innuit have heavy beards - and mustaches, while some pull out the former. - - Page 17: I * * * made the acquaintance of a fine-looking young - Mahlemut who * * * introduced me to his wife and child, the latter - about 2 years old. The former was not particularly ugly or pretty. - * * * The husband was a fine-looking, athletic fellow, standing - about 5 feet 5 inches, with a clear brunet complexion, fine color, - dark eyes, and finely arched eyebrows. The flat nose, common to - all the Eskimo tribes, was not very strongly marked in him, and a - pleasant smile, displaying two rows of very white teeth, conquered - any objection I might have felt to his large mouth. The baby looked - like any other baby. * * * - - Page 376: It has been frequently remarked that the Tuski and - Innuit tribes have a Mongolian cast of countenance. This, upon an - actual comparison, will be found to be much less than is usually - supposed. The real points of resemblance are principally in the - complexion, which is somewhat similar, and in the eyes. But the - eyes of the Innuit are not oblique, as in the Chinese. They have - an apparent obliquity, which is due to the peculiar form of the - zygomatic arch, but the eyes themselves are perfectly horizontal. - The prominent characteristics of the Orarian[75] skull are the - strongly developed coronary ridge, the obliquity of the zygoma, and - its greater capacity compared with the Indian cranium. The former - is essentially pyramidal, while the latter more nearly approaches a - cubic shape. - - The mean capacity (in cubic centimeters) of three Tuski skulls - from Plover Bay, according to Doctor Wyman, was 1,505; that of - 20 crania of northern Eskimo, according to Doctor Davis, was - 1,475, and that of 4 Innuit crania of Norton Sound was 1,320; thus - showing a wide variation. The mean capacity of 20 West American - Indian crania was only 1,284.06. The mean height of all the Orarian - skulls above referred to was 136.55 millimeters, against a breadth - of 134.47 millimeters, while the height of the Indian skulls was - 120.14 millimeters, against a breadth of 100.025 millimeters. The - zygomatic diameter of the Orarian crania was 134.92 millimeters, - while that of 12 Indian skulls was 134.65 millimeters. The - Orarian skulls were most dolichocephalic, and the Indian most - brachycephalic. The latter averaged 378.71 cubic centimeters less - capacity than the former. The average height of the Orarians, - except among the stunted tribes of the extreme north, will average - as great as that of their Indian neighbors. The strength and - activity of the former far exceed that of any northern Indians with - whom I am acquainted. - - Page 401: The Kaniagmuts are of middle stature and a complexion - more reddish than that of the Aleutians or more northern Innuit. - They are stoutly built, with large broad faces, and their hair is - coarse, black, and straight. - - Page 407: The Magemuts * * * are tall, finely formed, and have very - fair complexions. Blue eyes are not unknown among them, but their - hair is black and their beards are very light. - - The Ekogmuts. * * * A noticeable feature in many of them is the - extreme hairiness of their persons. Many have very strong black - beards and hairy bodies. - - Page 410: The Point Barrow tribe are said by Richardson to be - called Nuwungmëun. * * * These northern Innuit are very few in - number. * * * Simpson mentions that their thumbs appeared to be - disproportionately short. The same may be true of the Norton Sound - Innuit; at all events, no white man can wear one of their mittens - comfortably until the thumb is lengthened. - -Doctor Otis, of the United States Army Medical Museum, says that -the skulls found in the northern mounds have the same peculiarities -which distinguish all Orarian crania, and that both are instantly -distinguishable from any Indian skulls. - -1874, Bancroft (compilation):[76] - - "The physical characteristics of the Eskimos are: A fair - complexion,[77] the skin, when free from dirt and paint, being - almost white; a medium stature, well proportioned, thickset, - muscular, robust, active,[78] with small and beautifully shaped - hands and feet;[79] a pyramidal head;[80] a broad egg-shaped face; - high rounded cheek bones; flat nose; small oblique eyes; large - mouth; teeth regular, but well worn;[81] coarse black hair closely - cut upon the crown, leaving a monk-like ring around the edge,[82] - and a paucity of beard."[83] - -Simpson, 1875:[84] - - These people are by no means the dwarfish race they were formerly - supposed to be. In stature they are not inferior to many other - races and are robust, muscular, and active, inclining rather to - spareness than corpulence. The tallest individual was found to be 5 - feet 10½ inches, and the shortest 5 feet 1 inch. The heaviest man - weighed 195 pounds, and the lightest 125 pounds. The individuals - weighed and measured were taken indiscriminately as they visited - the ship, and were all supposed to have attained their full - stature. Their chief muscular strength is in the back, which is - best displayed in their games of wrestling. The shoulders are - square, or rather raised, making the neck appear shorter than it - really is, and the chest is deep; but in strength of arm they can - not compete with our sailors. The hand is small, short, broad, - and rather thick, and the thumb appears short, giving an air of - clumsiness in handling anything; and the power of grasping is not - great. The lower limbs are in good proportion to the body, and - the feet, like the hands, are short and broad with a high instep. - Considering their frequent occupations as hunters, they do not - excel in speed nor in jumping over a height or a level space, - but they display great agility in leaping to kick with both feet - together an object hanging as high as the chin, or even above the - head. In walking, their tread is firm and elastic, the step short - and quick; and the toes being turned outward and the knee at each - advance inclining in the same direction, give a certain peculiarity - to their gait difficult to describe. - - The hair is sooty black, without gloss, and coarse, cut in an - even line across the forehead, but allowed to grow long at the - back of the head and about the ears, whilst the crown is cropped - close or shaven. The color of the skin is a light yellowish brown, - but variable in shade, and in a few instances was observed to be - very dark. In the young, the complexion is comparatively fair, - presenting a remarkably healthy sunburnt appearance, through which - the rosy hue of the cheeks is visible; before middle life, however, - this, from exposure, gives place to a weather-beaten appearance, so - that it is difficult to guess their ages. - - The face is flat, broad, rounded, and commonly plump, the cheek - bones high, the forehead low, but broad across the eyebrows, - and narrowing upwards; the whole head becomes somewhat pointed - toward the crown. The nose is short and flat, giving an appearance - of considerable space between the eyes. The eyes are brown, of - different shades, usually dark, seldom if ever altogether black, - and generally have a soft expression; some have a peculiar glitter, - which we call gipsy-like. They slope slightly upwards from the - nose, and have a fold of skin stretching across the inner angle to - the upper eyelid, most perceptible in childhood, which gives to - some individuals a cast of countenance almost perfectly Chinese. - The eyelids seem tumid, opening to only a moderate extent, and the - slightly arched eyebrows scarcely project beyond them. The ears are - by no means large, but frequently stand out sideways. The mouth - is prominent and large, and the lips, especially the lower one, - rather thick and protruding. The jawbones are strong, supporting - remarkably firm and commonly regular teeth. In the youthful - these are in general white, but toward middle age they have lost - their enamel and become black or are worn down to the gums. The - incisors of the lower jaw do not pass behind those of the upper, - but meet edge to edge, so that by the time an individual arrives - at maturity, the opposing surfaces of the eye and front teeth are - perfectly flat, independently of the wear they are subjected to - in every possible way to assist the hands. The expression of the - countenance is one of habitual good humor in the great majority of - both sexes, but is a good deal marred in the men by wearing heavy - lip ornaments. * * * - - While young the women are generally well formed and good looking, - having good eyes and teeth. To a few, who besides possessed - something of the Circassian cast of features, was attributed a - certain degree of brunette beauty. Their hands and feet are small, - and the former delicate in the young, but soon become rough and - coarse when the household cares devolve upon them. Their movements - are awkward and ungainly, and though capable of making long - journeys on foot, it is almost painful to see many of them walk. - Unlike the men, they shuffle along commonly a little sideways, with - the toes turned inwards, stooping slightly forward as if carrying - a burden, and their general appearance is not enhanced by the - coat being made large enough to accommodate a child on the back, - whilst the tight-fitting nether garment only serves to display the - deformity of their bow legs. * * * - - The physical constitution of both sexes is strong, and they bear - exposure during the coldest weather for many hours together without - appearing inconvenienced, further than occasional frostbites on - the cheeks. They also show great endurance of fatigue during their - journeys in the summer, particularly that part in which they - require to drag the family boat, laden with their summer tent and - all their moveables, on a sledge over the ice. - - Extreme longevity is probably not unknown among them; but as they - take no heed to number the years as they pass, they can form - no guess of their own ages, invariably stating "they have many - years." Judging altogether from appearance, a man whom we saw in - the neighborhood of Kotzebue Sound could not be less than 80 years - of age. He had long been confined to his bed and appeared quite - in his dotage. There was another at Point Barrow, whose wrinkled - face, silvery hair, toothless gums, and shrunk limbs indicated an - age nothing short of 75. This man died in the month of April, 1853, - and had paid a visit to the ship only a few days before, when his - intellect seemed unimpaired, and his vision wonderfully acute for - his time of life. There is another still alive, who is said to be a - few years older. - -1877, Dall:[85] - - Page 9: The Orarians are distinguished * * * by a light fresh - yellow complexion, fine color, broad build, scaphocephalic head, - great cranial capacity, and obliquity of the arch of the zygoma. - - Page 17: The Ekogmut inhabit the Yukon delta from about Kipniuk to - Pastolik * * *. Their most noticeable personal peculiarity consists - in their hairy bodies and strong beards. - -1884, Hooper:[86] - - About 3,000 Innuits inhabit the northwest coast of America, from - the Colville River, on the east, to Bering Strait, including - the islands therein, on the west. Many of these came under my - observation while cruising in the Arctic Ocean in command of the - _Corwin_. - - In appearance they are tall and muscular, many being 6 feet in - height, and some were seen that would exceed that even. Their - peculiar dress gives them a squat appearance, and their stature - seems less than it is in reality. The women are much shorter than - the men, but both sexes are strong and active, though not equal - in these respects to the Tchuktchis and other reindeer tribes of - Siberia. - - The face of the Innuit is broad below the eyes, the forehead is - narrow and receding, the chin and lower jaw broad and heavy. The - nose is usually broad and flattened, but not always; occasionally - one is seen whose features are well formed and handsome. In the - young children this is the almost invariable rule; many of them - are really beautiful. The eyes are small and black, and appear to - be slightly oblique, and for this reason, perhaps more than any - other, they have been classed with the Mongolidae. They have large - mouths, thick, loosely hanging lips, and fine, strong teeth. These, - however, from eating raw food, are usually very much worn. The - labrets worn in the lips are hideous-looking things, made of bone, - glass, stone, ivory, or in fact anything within the reach of the - native which can be worked into the requisite shape. - - They have rather light skin, very different from the Indians of the - plains; and in this also they differ from the Tchuktchis, being - much lighter, and when cleansed from the dirt which usually covers - them, and freed from the sunburn and tan due to long exposure, they - become quite fair. They have small, well-formed hands and feet, - much smaller in proportion than white men. This was particularly - noticeable when buying boots and mittens from them for our use; - only the largest sizes made by them could be used at all. They are - generally without beard, but as the men grow old, they sometimes - have a thin, straggling mustache and beard, but it is never full - and regular. The hair is coarse and black. - -1885, Ray:[87] - - Pages 37-38: The following table will show that physically the - Inyu of North American coast does not conform to the typical idea - of the Eskimo. They are robust, healthy people, fairer than the - North American Indian, with brown eyes and straight black hair. - The men are beardless until they attain the age of from 20 to 25 - years, and even then it is very light and scattering, and is always - clipped close in the winter; at this season they also cut off - their eyebrows and tonsure their crown like a priest, with bangs - over their forehead. Their hands and feet are extremely small and - symmetrical; they are graceful in their movements when unincumbered - by heavy clothing. - - Page 46: Physically both sexes are very strong and possess great - powers of endurance. - -1888, Murdoch:[88] - - In stature these people are of a medium height, robust, and - muscular, inclining rather to spareness than corpulence, though - the fullness of the face and the thick fur clothing often gives - the impression of the latter. There is, however, considerable - individual variation among them in this respect. The women are - as a rule shorter than the men, occasionally almost dwarfish, - though some women are taller than many of the men. The tallest - man observed measured 5 feet 9½ inches and the shortest 4 feet 11 - inches. The tallest woman was 5 feet 3 inches in height and the - shortest 4 feet ½ inch. The heaviest man weighed 204 pounds and the - lightest 126 pounds. One woman weighed 192 pounds and the shortest - woman was also the lightest, weighing only 100 pounds. The hands - and feet are small and well shaped, though the former soon become - distorted and roughened by work. We did not observe the peculiar - breadth of hands noticed by Doctor Simpson, nor is the shortness of - the thumb which he mentions sufficient to attract attention. Their - feet are so small that only one of our party, who is much below - the ordinary size, was able to wear the boots made by the natives - for themselves. Small and delicate hands and feet appear to be a - universal characteristic of the Eskimo race and have been mentioned - by most observers from Greenland to Alaska. - - The face is broad, flat, and round, with high cheek bones and - rather low forehead, broad across the brow and narrowing above, - while the head is somewhat pointed toward the crown. The peculiar - shape of the head is somewhat masked by the way of wearing the hair - and is best seen in the skull. The nose is short, with little or - no bridge--few Eskimo were able to wear our spring eyeglasses--and - broad, especially across the alæ nasæ, with a peculiar, rounded, - somewhat bulbous tip, and large nostrils. The eyes are horizontal, - with rather full lids and are but slightly sunken below the level - of the face. - - The mouth is large and the lips full, especially the under - one. The teeth are naturally large, and in youth are white and - generally regular, but by middle age they are generally worn down - to flat-crowned stumps, as is usual among the Eskimo. The color of - the skin is a light yellowish brown, with often considerable ruddy - color on the cheeks and lips. There appears to be much natural - variation in the complexion, some women being nearly as fair as - Europeans, while other individuals seem to have naturally a coppery - color. In most cases the complexion appears darker than it really - is from the effects of exposure to the weather. All sunburn very - easily, especially in the spring, when there is a strong reflection - from the snow. - - The old are much wrinkled, and they frequently suffer from - watery eyes, with large sacks under them, which begin to form at - a comparatively early age. There is considerable variation in - features, as well as complexion, among them, even in cases where - there seems to be no suspicion of mixed blood. There were several - men among them with decided aquiline noses and something of a - Hebrew cast of countenance. The eyes are of various shades of - dark brown--two pairs of light hazel eyes were observed--and are - often handsome. The hair is black, perfectly straight, and very - thick. With the men it is generally coarser than with the women, - who sometimes have very long and silky hair, though it generally - does not reach much below the shoulders. The eyebrows are thin and - the beard scanty, growing mostly upon the upper lip and chin and - seldom appearing under the age of 20. In this they resemble most - Eskimo. Back, however, speaks of the "luxuriant beards and flowing - mustaches" of the Eskimo of the Great Fish River. Some of the older - men have rather heavy black mustaches, but there is much variation - in this respect. The upper part of the body, as much as is commonly - exposed in the house, is remarkably free from hair. The general - expression is good humored and attractive. - - The males, even when very young, are remarkable for their graceful - and dignified carriage. The body is held erect, with the shoulders - square and chest well thrown out, the knees straight, and the - feet firmly planted on the ground. In walking they move with long - swinging elastic strides, the toes well turned out and the arms - swinging. * * * - - I should say that they walked like well-built athletic white men. - The women, on the other hand, although possessing good physiques, - are singularly ungraceful in their movements. They walk at a sort - of shuffling half trot, with the toes turned in, the body leaning - forward, and the arms hanging awkwardly. - - A noticeable thing about the women is the remarkable flexibility of - the body and limbs and the great length of time they can stand in a - stooping posture. * * * Both men and women have a very fair share - of muscular strength. Some of the women especially showed a power - of carrying heavy loads superior to most white men. We were able to - make no other comparisons of their strength with ours. Their power - of endurance is very great, and both sexes are capable of making - long distances on foot. Two men sometimes spend 24 hours tramping - through the rough ice in search of seals, and we knew of instances - where small parties made journeys of 50 or 75 miles on foot without - stopping to sleep. - - The women are not prolific. Although all the adults are or have - been married, many of them are childless, and few have more than - two children. One woman was known to have at least four, but - investigations of this sort were rendered extremely difficult by - the universal custom of adoption. Doctor Simpson heard of a "rare - case" where one woman had borne seven children. We heard of no - twins at either village, though we obtained the Eskimo word for - twins. - -1890, Murdoch:[89] - - The people who live on the extreme northwest corner of our - continent are far from being an ugly or an ill-made race. Though - they are not tall--a man of 5 feet 10 inches is a tall man among - them--they are well proportioned, broad shouldered, and deep - chested. The men, as a rule, are particularly well "set up," like - well-drilled soldiers and walk and stand with a great deal of grace - and dignity. - - The women do not have such good figures, but are inclined to - slouchiness. They are seldom inclined to be fleshy, though their - plump, round faces, along with their thick fur clothing, often - give them the appearance of being fat. They generally have round, - full faces, with rather high cheek bones, small, rounded noses, - full lips, and small chins. Still, you now and then see a person - with an oval face and aquiline nose. Many of the men are very good - looking, and some of the young women are exceedingly pretty. Their - complexion is a dark brunet, often with a good deal of bright color - on the cheeks and especially on the lips. They sunburn very much, - especially in the spring, when the glare of the sun is reflected - from the snow. They have black or dark-brown eyes and abundant - black hair. The women's hair is often long and silky. When they are - young they have white and regular teeth, but these are worn down to - stumps before middle life is reached. Cheerful and merry faces are - the rule. - -1890, Kelly:[90] - - _Personal appearance._--There are three types observable among the - Arctic Eskimos of Alaska. The tall, cadaverous natives of Kangoot, - Seelawik, Koovuk, and Kikiktowruk, on Kotzebue Sound, who live on - fish, ptarmigans, and marmots. They always have a hungry look and - habitually wear a grin of fiendish glee at having circumvented an - adverse fate. There is a tendency among these people to migrate - north. - - Then there is the tall, strongly knit type of the Nooatoks, a - gigantic race, of a splendid physique that would be remarkable in - any part of the world. - - Rugged as the mountains among which they live, vigorous and - courageous, they stop at nothing but the impossible to accomplish - a desired end. Their food supply is the reindeer, mountain sheep, - ptarmigans, and fish. There are many of the coast natives of this - type, but they lack the healthy glow and the indomitable will of - the Nooatoks. - - The third type is the short, stumpy one, probably that of the old - Eskimo before the admixture with southern tribes, now found on the - Arctic coast. * * * - - The Eskimos have coarse, black hair, some with a tinge of brown. - Many of the coast people of both sexes are bald from scrofulous - eruptions. Males have the crown of the head closely cropped, so - that reindeer may not see the waving locks when the hunter creeps - behind bunch grass. They have black eyes and high cheek bones. The - bones of the face are better protected from the severity of the - climate by a thicker covering of flesh than southern races. - - Among the coast people the nose is broad and flat, with very little - or no ridge between the eyes. The adult males have short mustaches, - and some of the elder ones--more noticeable in the interior--have - rough, scraggy beards. Generally their beard is very scant, and - most of them devote otherwise idle hours to pulling out the hairs. - -1900, Nelson:[91] - - The Eskimo from Bering Strait to the lower Yukon are fairly - well-built people, averaging among the men about 5 feet 2 or 3 - inches in height. The Yukon Eskimo and those living southward - from that river to the Kuskokwim are, as a rule, shorter and more - squarely built. The Kuskokwim people are darker of complexion than - those to the northward, and have rounder features. The men commonly - have a considerable growth of hair on their faces, becoming at - times a thin beard 2 or 3 inches in length, with a well-developed - mustache. No such development of beard was seen elsewhere in the - territory visited. - - The people in the coast region between the mouths of the Kuskokwim - and the Yukon have peculiarly high cheek bones and sharp chins, - which unite to give their faces a curiously pointed, triangular - appearance. At the village of Kaialigamut I was impressed by the - strong development of the superciliary ridge. From a point almost - directly over the pupil of the eye and extending thence inward to - the median line of the forehead is a strong bony ridge causing the - brow to stand out sharply. From the outer edge of this the skull - appears as though beveled away to the ears, giving the temporal - area a considerable enlargement beyond that usually shown. This - curious development of the skull is rendered still more striking by - the fact that the bridge of the nose is low, as usual among these - people, so that the shelf-like projection of the brow stands out in - strong relief. It is most strongly marked among the men and appears - to be characteristic at this place. Elsewhere in this district it - was noted only rarely here and there. - - All of the people in the district about Capes Vancouver and - Romanzof, and thence to the Yukon mouth, are of unusually light - complexion. Some of the women have a pale, slightly yellowish - color, with pink cheeks, differing but little in complexion from - that of a sallow woman of Caucasian blood. This light complexion is - so exceptionally striking that wherever they travel these people - are readily distinguished from other Eskimo, and before I visited - their territory I had learned to know them by their complexion - whenever they came to St. Michael. - - The people of the district just mentioned are all very short and - squarely built. Inland from Cape Vancouver lies the flat marshy - country about Big Lake, which is situated between the Kuskokwim - and the Yukon. It is a well-populated district and its inhabitants - differ from those near the coast at the capes referred to, in being - taller, more slender, and having more squarely cut features. They - also differ strikingly from any other Eskimo with whom I came in - contact, except those on Kowak River, in having the bridge of the - nose well developed and at times sufficiently prominent to suggest - the aquiline nose of our southern Indian tribes. - - The Eskimo of the Diomede Islands in Bering Strait, as well as - those of East Cape and Mechigme and Plover Bays on the Siberian - coast, and of St. Lawrence Island are tall, strongly built people - and are generally similar in their physical features. These are - characterized by the unusual heaviness of the lower part of the - face due to the very square and massive lower jaw, which, combined - with broad, high cheek bones and flattened nose, produces a wide, - flat face. These features are frequently accompanied with a low - retreating forehead, producing a decidedly repulsive physiognomy. - The bridge of the nose is so low and the cheek bones so heavy that - a profile view will frequently show only the tip of the person's - nose, the eyes and upper portion of the nose being completely - hidden by the prominent outline of the cheek. Their eyes are less - oblique than is common among the people living southward from - the Yukon mouth. Among the people at the northwestern end of St. - Lawrence Island there is a greater range of physiognomy than was - noted at any other of the Asiatic localities. - - The Point Hope people on the American coast have heavy jaws and - well-developed superciliary ridges. At Point Barrow the men are - remarkable for the irregularity of their features, amounting to - a positive degree of ugliness, which is increased and rendered - specially prominent by the expression produced by the short, - tightly drawn upper lip, the projecting lower lip, and the small - beady eyes. The women and children of this place are in curious - contrast, having rather pleasant features of the usual type. - - The Eskimo from Upper Kowak and Noatak Rivers who were met at - the summer camp on Hotham Inlet are notable for the fact that a - considerable number of them have hook noses and nearly all have a - cast of countenance very similar to that of the Yukon Tienné. They - are a larger and more robustly built people than these Indians, - however, and speak the Eskimo language. They wear labrets, practice - the tonsure, and claim to be Eskimo. * * * Among them was seen one - man having a mop of coarse curly hair, almost negroid in character. - The same feature was observed in a number of men and women on the - Siberian coast between East Cape and Plover Bay. This latter is - undoubtedly the result of the Chukchi-Eskimo mixture, and in the - case of the man seen at Hotham Inlet the same result had been - brought about by the Eskimo-Indian combination. Among the Eskimo - south of Bering Strait on the American coast not a single instance - of this kind was observed. The age of the individuals having - this curly hair renders it quite improbable that it came from an - admixture of blood with foreign voyagers, since some of them must - have been born at a time when vessels were extremely rare along - these shores. As a further argument against this curly hair having - come from white men, I may add that I saw no trace of it among a - number of people having partly Caucasian blood. As a general thing, - the Eskimo of the region described, have small hands and feet and - the features are oval in outline, rather flat and with slightly - oblique eyes. - - Children and young girls have round faces and often are - very pleasant and attractive in feature, the angular race - characteristics becoming prominent after the individuals approach - manhood. The women age rapidly, and only a very small proportion of - the people live to an advanced age. - - The Malemut and the people of Kaviak Peninsula, including those of - the islands in Bering Strait are tall, active, and remarkably well - built. Among them it is common to see men from 5 feet 10 inches to - 6 feet tall and of proportionate build. I should judge the average - among them to be nearly or quite equal in height to the whites. - - Among the coast Eskimos, as a rule, the legs are short and poorly - developed, while the body is long with disproportionately developed - dorsal and lumbar muscles, due to so much of their life being - passed in the kaiak. - - The Eskimo of the Big Lake district, south of the Yukon, and from - the Kaviak Peninsula, as well as the Malemut about the head of - Kotzebue Sound, are on the contrary very finely proportioned and - athletic men who can not be equaled among the Indians of the Yukon - region. * * * There were a number of half-blood children among the - Eskimo, resulting from the intercourse with people from vessels and - others, who generally show their Caucasian blood by large, finely - shaped, and often remarkably beautiful brown eyes. The number of - these mixed bloods was not very great. - -1905, Jackson:[92] - - The Eskimos of Alaska are a much finer race physically than their - kindred of Greenland and Labrador. In the extreme north, at Point - Barrow, and along the coast of Bering Sea they are of medium size. - At Point Barrow the average height of the males is 5 feet 3 inches - and average weight 153 pounds; of the women, 4 feet 11 inches and - weight 135 pounds. On the Nushagak River the average weight of the - men is from 150 to 167 pounds. From Cape Prince of Wales to Icy - Cape along the Arctic Coast and on the great inland rivers emptying - into the Arctic Ocean they are a large race, many of them being 6 - feet and over in height.[93] They are lighter in color and fairer - than the North American Indian, have black and brown eyes, black - hair, some with a tinge of brown, high cheek bones, fleshy faces, - small hands and feet, and good teeth. The men have thin beards. - -1916, Hawkes:[94] - - The Alaskan Eskimo are a taller and more symmetrical people than - their brethren of the central and eastern districts. They lack - that appearance of stoutness and squatness inherent in the eastern - stock, and for proportion and development of the various parts of - the body they do not compare unfavorably with Indians and whites. - It is not unusual to find in an Alaskan Eskimo village several - men who are 6 feet tall, with magnificent shoulders and arms and - bodily strength in proportion. The usual height, however, is about - 168 centimeters for men, which is some 10 centimeters above the - height of the eastern Eskimo. * * * The average for women among the - western Eskimo is 158 centimeters, which approximates the height - of the men in the Hudson Bay region, 158 centimeters (Boas). The - female type in Alaska is taller and slimmer than in the east, and - the width of the face is considerably less. Eskimo women of large - stature are often seen in the northern section of Alaska. The - individual variation here is more conspicuous than in Labrador or - Hudson Bay. - -1923, Jenness:[95] - - In his report on the Copper Eskimos, D. Jenness gives excellent - descriptive notes on this group with references to others. These - notes, too voluminous to be transcribed, may well be consulted in - these connections. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[67] Cook, Capt. James, and Capt. James King. A Voyage to the Pacific -Ocean. London, 1784, II, vol. 2, p. 300. - -[68] Kotzebue, Otto von, A voyage of discovery into the South Sea and -Bering Strait, 1815-1818, vol. 1, p. 209. London, 1821. - -[69] Beechey, F. W., Narrative of a voyage to the Pacific and Bering -Strait. Philadelphia, 1832, pp. 474-476. - -[70] Latham, Robert G., The varieties of man. London, 1850, pp. 290-292. - -[71] Hooper, W. H., Ten months among the tents of the Tuski. London, -1853, pp. 223-224. - -[72] Seemann, Berthold, Narrative of the voyage of H. M. S. _Herald_. -London, 1853, vols. I-II. On the Anthropology of Western Eskimo Land -and on the Desirability of Further Arctic Research. J. Anthrop. Soc., -London, 1865, vol. III, p. 301. - -[73] Richardson, Sir John, The Polar Regions. Edinburgh, 1861, p. 301. - -[74] Dall, W. H., Alaska and Its Resources. Boston, 1870. - -[75] Orarian, a term used by the author to distinguish the tribes of -Innuit, Aleutians, and Asiatic Eskimo from the natives known under the -name of Indian, in allusion to the universal coastwise distribution of -the former. - -[76] Bancroft, Hubert H., The Native Races of the Pacific States. Vol. -I, New York, 1874. Wild Tribes, p. 45. - -[77] _Color._--"Their complexion, if divested of its usual covering -of dirt, can hardly be called dark."--Seemann's Voy. _Herald_, -vol. II, p. 51. "In comparison with other Americans of a white -complexion."--McCulloh's Aboriginal Hist. of America, p. 20. "White -complexion, not copper coloured."--Dobb's Hudson's Bay, p. 50. "Almost -as white as Europeans."--Kalm's Travels, vol. II, p. 263. "Not darker -than that of a Portuguese."--Lyon's Journal, p. 224. "Scarcely a shade -darker than a deep brunet."--Parry's Third Voyage, p. 493. "Their -complexion is light."--Dall's Alaska, p. 381. "Eyewitnesses agree in -their superior lightness of complexion over the Chinooks."--Pickering's -Races of Man, U. S. Ex. Ex., IX, 28. At Coppermine River they are "of -a dirty copper color; some of the women, however, are more fair and -ruddy."--Hearne's Travels, p. 166. "Considerably fairer than the Indian -tribes."--Simpson's Nar., p. 110. At Cape Bathurst "the complexion -is swarthy, chiefly, I think, from exposure and the accumulation of -dirt."--Armstrong's Nar., p. 192. "Show little of the copper color of -the Red Indians."--Richardson's Pol. Reg., p. 303. "From exposure to -weather they become dark after manhood."--Richardson's Nar., I, 343. - -[78] _Proportions._--"Both sexes are well proportioned, stout, -muscular, and active."--Seemann's Voy. _Herald_, II, 50. "A stout, -well-looking people."--Simpson's Nar., pp. 110, 114. "Below the mean -of the Caucasian race."--Doctor Hayes in Historic Magazine, vol. I, p. -6. "They are thick set, have a decided tendency to obesity, and are -seldom more than 5 feet in height."--Figuier's Human Race, p. 211. -At Kotzebue Sound "tallest man was 5 feet 9 inches; tallest woman 5 -feet 4 inches."--Beechey's Voy., I, 360. "Average height was 5 feet 4½ -inches"; at the mouth of the Mackenzie they are of "middle stature, -strong, and muscular."--Armstrong's Nar., 149, 192. "Low, broad set, -not well made nor strong."--Hearne's Trav., p. 166. "The men were in -general stout."--Franklin's Nar., I, 29. "Of a middle size, robust -make, and healthy appearance."--Kotzebue's Voy., I, 209. "Men vary -in height from about 5 feet to 5 feet 10 inches."--Richardson's Pol. -Reg., p. 304. "Women were generally short." "Their figure inclines to -squat."--Hooper's Tuski, p. 224. - -[79] _Hands and feet._--"Tous les individus qui appartiennent à la -famille des Esquimaux se distinguent par la petitesse de leurs pieds -et de leurs mains, et la grosseur énorme de leurs têtes."--De Pauw, -Recherches Phil. I, 262. "The hands, and feet are delicately small and -well formed."--Richardson's Pol. Reg., p. 304. "Small and beautifully -made."--Seemann's Voy. Herald, II, 50. At Point Barrow "Their hands, -notwithstanding the great amount of manual labor to which they are -subject, were beautifully small and well formed, a description equally -applicable to their feet."--Armstrong's Nar., p. 101. - -[80] _Head._--"The head is of good size, rather flat superiorly, but -very fully developed posteriorly, evidencing a preponderance of the -animal passions; the forehead was for the most part low and receding; -in a few it was somewhat vertical but narrow."--Armstrong's Nar., p. -193. Their cranial characteristics "are the strongly developed coronary -ridge, the obliquity of the zygoma, and its greater capacity compared -with the Indian cranium. The former is essentially pyramidal, while -the latter more nearly approaches a cubic shape."--Dall's Alaska, p. -376. "Greatest breadth of the face is just below the eyes, the forehead -tapers upwards, ending narrowly but not acutely, and in like manner the -chin is a blunt cone."--Richardson's Pol. Reg., p. 302. Doctor Gall, -whose observations on the same skulls presented him for phrenological -observation are published by M. Louis Choris, thus comments upon the -head of a female Eskimo from Kotzebue Sound: "L'organe de l'instinct de -la propagation se trouve extrêmement dévelopé pour une tête de femme." -He finds the musical and intellectual organs poorly developed, while -vanity and love of children are well displayed. "En général," sagely -concluded the doctor, "cette tête femme présentait une organization -aussi heureuse que celle de la plupart des femmes d'Europe."--Voy. -Pitt., pt. II, p. 16. - -[81] _Face._--"Large, fat, round faces, high cheek bones, small hazel -eyes, eyebrows slanting like the Chinese, and wide mouths."--Beechey's -Voy., I, 345. "Broad, flat faces, high cheek bones."--Doctor Hayes in -Hist. Mag., I, p. 6. Their "teeth are regular, but from the nature -of their food and from their practice of preparing hides by chewing, -are worn down almost to the gums at an early age."--Seemann's Voy. -_Herald_, II, 51. At Hudson Strait, "broad, flat, pleasing face; small -and generally sore eyes; given to bleeding at the nose."--Franklin's -Nar., I, 29. "Small eyes and very high cheek bones."--Kotzebue's Voy., -I, 209. "La face plate, la bouche ronde, le nez petit sans être écrase, -le blanc de l'oeil jaunâtre, l'iris noir et peu brillant."--De Pauw, -Recherches Phil., I, 262. They have "small, wild-looking eyes, large -and very foul teeth, the hair generally black, but sometimes fair, -and always in extreme disorder."--Brownell's Indian Races, p. 467. -"As contrasted with the other native American races, their eyes are -remarkable, being narrow and more or less oblique."--Richardson's Nar., -I, 343. "Expression of face intelligent and good natured. Both sexes -have mostly round, flat faces, with Mongolian cast."--Hooper's Tuski, -p. 223. - -[82] _Hair._--"Allowed to hang down in a club to the -shoulder."--Richardson's Pol. Reg., p. 305. "Their hair is -straight, black, and coarse."--Seemann's Voy. _Herald_, II, 51. A -fierce expression characterized them on the McKenzie River, which -"was increased by the long, disheveled hair flowing about their -shoulders."--Armstrong's Nar., p. 149. - -[83] _Beard._--"The old men had a few gray hairs on their chins, but -the young ones, though grown up, were beardless."--Beechey's Voy., I, -322. "The possession of a beard is very rare, but a slight mustache is -not infrequent."--Seemann's Voy. _Herald_, II, 51. "As the men grow old -they have more hair on the face than red Indians."--Richardson's Nar., -I, 343. "Generally an absence of beard and whiskers."--Armstrong's -Nar., p. 193. "Beard is universally wanting."--Kotzebue's Voy., I, -252. "The young men have little beard, but some of the old ones -have a tolerable show of long, gray hairs on the upper lip and -chin."--Richardson's Pol. Reg., p. 303. "All have beards."--Bell's -Geography, V, 294. Kirby affirms that in Alaska "many of them have a -profusion of whiskers and beard."--Smiths. Report, 1864, p. 416. - -[84] Simpson, John, Observations on the Western Eskimo and the Country -They Inhabit. _In_ A Selection of Papers on Arctic Geography and -Ethnology, Pres. by the Roy. Geogr. Soc., London, 1875, pp. 238-246. - -[85] Dall, W. H., Tribes of the Extreme Northwest. Contribution to -North American Ethnology, I, Washington, 1877. - -[86] Hooper, C. L., Report of cruise of the revenue steamer _Corwin_, -1881. Washington, 1884, p. 101. - -[87] Ray, P. H., Ethnographic sketch of the natives. Report of the -International Polar Expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska. Washington, -1885. - -[88] Murdoch, J., Ethnological results of the Point Barrow expedition. -Ninth Ann. Rept. Bur. Ethn., 1887-88, pp. 33-39, Washington, 1892. - -[89] Murdoch, J., Dress and physique of the Point Barrow Eskimos. -Popul. Sci. Month., Dec., 1890, 222-223. - -[90] Kelly, J. W., Arctic Eskimos in Alaska and Siberia. Revised and -edited by Sheldon Jackson. Bull. No. 3, Soc. Alaskan Nat. Hist. and -Ethnol., Sitka, 1890, p. 15. - -[91] Nelson, Edward W., The Eskimo about Bering Strait. Eighteenth Ann. -Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn., Washington, 1900, pp. 26-29. - -[92] Jackson, Sheldon, Our barbarous Eskimos in northern Alaska. The -Metropol. Mag., Vol. XXII, New York, June, 1905, pp. 257-271. - -[93] Either a bad misprint or bad error.--A. H. - -[94] Hawkes, Ernest William, Skeletal measurements and observations of -the Point Barrow Eskimo, with comparisons with other Eskimo groups. Am. -Anthrop., n. s. XVIII, No. 2, pp. 206-207, Lancaster, 1916. - -[95] Jenness, D., Physical characteristics of the Copper Eskimos. Rept. -Canad. Arct. Exp. 1913-1918. Ottawa, 1923, p. 38. - - -OLDER ANTHROPOMETRIC DATA ON THE WESTERN ESKIMO - - -STATURE AND OTHER MEASUREMENTS ON THE LIVING - -The earliest actual measurements of the living among the western Eskimo -are those given in Captain Beechey's Narrative (1832, p. 226), where we -read that of the Eskimo of Cape Thompson (north of Kotzebue Sound) "the -tallest man was 5 feet 9 inches (175.3 centimeters), the tallest woman -5 feet 4 inches (162.6 centimeters) in height." As seen before, Beechey -also stated that the stature of the Eskimo increases from the east to -the west. - -In 1881-82, Lieutenant Ray collects and in 1885 reports evidently -careful measurements of 51 men and 30 women from the villages of -Uglaamie, at Cape Smythe, now Barrow, and Nuwuk, on Point Barrow.[96] -An abstract of the data shows as follows: - - Average height: Male, 5 feet 3½ inches (161.3 centimeters); female, - 4 feet 11¾ inches (151.8 centimeters). - Average weight: Male, 153⅗ pounds; female, 135⅔ pounds. - Tallest male: 5 feet 8¾ inches (174.6 centimeters). - Tallest female: 5 feet 3 inches (160 centimeters). - Shortest male: 4 feet 11 inches (149.9 centimeters). - Shortest female: 4 feet ½ inch (123.2 centimeters). - Weight: Male, 126 to 204 pounds; female, 106 to 172 pounds. - -In 1892, in connection with the preparation of the anthropological -exhibits for the World Exposition at Chicago, an extensive effort -was made under the direction of Frederick W. Putnam and Franz Boas -to secure, by the help of a group of specially instructed students, -physical data on many tribes of the American aborigines, and this -included a contingent of the western Eskimo. An abstract of the results -was reported by Boas in 1895.[97] The locality where the Eskimo were -measured is not given, but it was most likely Nome or St. Michael -Island. Thirty-four men gave the high (for the Eskimo) average of 165.8 -centimeters, an unstated number of women an equally elevated average of -155.1 centimeters. No details are given. There is also given the mean -and distribution of the cephalic index on 114 living western Eskimo of -both sexes. (On chart, p. 395, the number is 141.) The mean index was -79.2. There are again, as under Stature, no details as to locality, and -none could be obtained from the author. - -In 1901 Deniker, in his Races of Man (p. 580), reports the stature of -85 Eskimo of Alaska, doubtless males, as 163 centimeters. There are no -details, no references, and I have not been able to trace the source of -the measurement. - -During the years 1897-1899 A. J. Stone made an extended journey along a -portion of the upper Yukon and through parts of northwestern Alaska and -the Mackenzie River basin, for the American Museum of Natural History. -On this journey he made some measurements of Indian and Eskimo, and -these were published in 1901 by Franz Boas.[98] The Eskimo measured -were the "Nunatagmiut" (11 males, 5 females), of the Noatak River, -Alaska, and the "Koukpagmiut," (12 males, 6 females), east of the mouth -of the Mackenzie. The Noataks, who alone interest us more closely here, -gave the relatively high (for Eskimo) stature of 167.9 centimeters in -the men and 155.6 centimeters in the women. The number of subjects is -small and there may possibly have been some unconscious selection; -yet it is clear that in this group there are numerous fairly tall -individuals. - - STONE'S DATA ON THE NOATAK RIVER ESKIMO - - -------------------+-------+-------++-------------------+-------+------- - | Males |Females|| | Males |Females - | (11) | (5) || | (11) | (5) - -------------------+-------+-------++-------------------+-------+------- - Stature | 167.9 | 155.6 ||Height of nose | 5.63 | 5.3 - Stretch of arms | 173.0 | 159.2 ||Width of nose | 3.76 | 3.34 - Height of shoulder | 139.7 | 128.4 ||Index of stretch of| | - Length of arm | 73.9 | 66.0 || arms |103.1 |102.4 - Height sitting | 86.8 | 81.8 ||Index of arm | | 42.6 - Width of shoulders | 38.0 | 34.2 ||Index of height | | - Length of head | 18.9 | 18.1 || sitting | 52.6 | 52.4 - Width of head | 15.45| 14.26||Index of width of | | - Width of face | 15.57| 14.46|| shoulders | 22.6 | 22 - Height of face | 12.84| 11.98||Cephalic index | 81.6 | 78.8 - -------------------+-------+-------++-------------------+-------+------- - -In addition, Doctor Jenness, in 1913, measured 13 adult male Point Hope -Eskimo for stature, head length, and head breadth.[99] He obtained the -following records: - - +----------+-------+-------+--------++----------+-------+-------+--------+ - | Stature | Head | Head |Cephalic|| Stature | Head | Head |Cephalic| - | |length |breadth| index || |length |breadth| index | - +----------+-------+-------+--------++----------+-------+-------+--------+ - | 160.5 | 19.7 | 15.1 | 76.6 || 174.3 | 18.6 | 15.1 | 81.1 | - | 168.5 | 19.6 | 14.7 | 75.0 || 158.3 | 18.7 | 15.4 | 82.3 | - | 167.3 | 19.4 | 14.5 | 74.7 || 168.2 | 19.2 | 16.3 | 84.9 | - | 162.9 | 21.0 | 14.6 | 69.5 || 167.3 | 18.7 | 15.9 | 85.0 | - | 162.4 | 19.2 | 14.5 | 75.5 || | | | | - | 167.8 | 19.5 | 14.9 | 76.4 ||_Means_[100] | | | - | 170.2 | 18.8 | 14.7 | 78.2 || | | | | - | 170.4 | 18.8 | 14.8 | 78.7 || 168.2 | 19.28| 15.06| _78.1_ | - | 168.3 | 19.4 | 15.3 | 78.8 || | | | | - +----------+-------+-------+--------++----------+-------+-------+--------+ - -Doctor Jenness[101] also gives useful data on the stature and cephalic -index of living Eskimo from other localities which, with the addition -of the sources and a slightly different arrangement, are here -reproduced: - - STATURE - - -------------------------------------+-----------------+----------------- - | Men | Women - Place +-------+---------+-------+--------- - | Cases | Stature | Cases | Stature - -------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+--------- - Smith Sound (Steensby) | 8 | 157.4 | 10 | 145.4 - S. W. Greenland (Hansen) | 21 | 157.6 | 24 | 151.8 - Labrador (Duckworth and Pain) | 11 | 157.7 | 10 | 149.7 - Smith Sound (Hrdlička)[102] | 3 | 157.7 | | - S. E. Greenland (Hansen) | 22 | 160.4 | 23 | 152.9 - Point Barrow (Ray) | 51 | 161.5 | 28 | 153.6 - Hudson Bay (South Island and Aivilik)| | | | - (S. I. 35, Tocher; A. 9, Boas) | 44 | 162.0 | 12 | 151.8 - Mackenzie Delta (Jenness) | 4 | 162.2 | | - N. E. Greenland (Hansen) | 31 | 164.7 | 15 | 155.1 - Coronation Gulf (Jenness) | 82 | 164.8 | 42 | 156.4 - Iglulik, Hudson Bay (Parry) | 20 | 166.0 | 20 | 153.7 - Point Hope (Jenness) | 13 | 166.5 | | - Mackenzie Delta (Stone) | 12 | 167.5 | 6 | 151.5 - Noatak River (Stone) | 11 | 167.9 | 5 | 155.5 - -------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------+--------- - - CEPHALIC INDEX[103] - - ------------------------------+----------------+---------------- - | Men | Women - Place +-------+--------+-------+-------- - | Cases | Index | Cases | Index - ------------------------------+-------+--------+-------+-------- - Mackenzie Delta (Stone) | 12 | 73.9 | | - Mackenzie Delta (Jenness) | 4 | 76.1 | 6 | 75.2 - Southeast Greenland (Hansen) | 22 | 75.7 | 23 | 75.0 - Labrador (Duckworth and Pain) | 11 | 77.0 | 10 | 74.5 - Hudson Bay (Tocher and Boas) | 35 | 77.2 | | - Coronation Gulf (Jenness) | 82 | 77.6 | 42 | 76.6 - Northeast Greenland (Hansen) | 31 | 77.8 | 15 | 76.5 - Smith Sound (Steensby) | 8 | 78.0 | 10 | 77.4 - Southwest Greenland (Hansen) | 21 | 78.1 | 24 | 76.8 - Point Hope (Jenness) | 13 [104]78.3| | - Noatak River (Stone) | 11 | 81.6 | 5 | 78.8 - - ------------------------------+-------+--------+-------+--------- - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[96] Ray, Lieut. P. H., Report of the International Polar Expedition to -Point Barrow, Alaska. Washington, 1885, p. 50. - -[97] Zur Anthropologie der Nordamerikanischen Indianer. Verh. Berl. -Ges. Anthrop., Sitz. Mai 18, 1895 (with Z. Ethnol. for same year). - -[98] A. J. Stone's Measurements of Natives of the Northwestern -Territories. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1901, XIV, pp. 53-68. - -[99] Physical Characteristics of the Copper Eskimo. Rep. Canad. Arch. -Exped. 1913-1918, Ottawa, 1923, Introd., also p. B37. - -[100] By present writer. - -[101] Rep. Canad. Arct. Exped., 1913-1918, B50. - -[102] Added from author's Anthropology of Central and Smith Sound -Eskimo, 1910, 228; the stature of one woman was 146.7. - -[103] Physical Characteristics of the Copper Eskimo. Rep. Canad. Arct. -Exped., 1913-1918, Ottawa, 1923, p. B55. - -[104] The totals of the measurements give _78.1_--A. H. - - -THE SKULL - -The first western Eskimo skull collected for scientific purposes was -apparently that of a female St. Lawrence Islander. It was taken from -the rocks of the island by the Kotzebue party in 1817. It was reported -upon phrenologically in 1822 by Gall.[105] - -In 1839 Morton, in his "Crania Americana" (p. 248), gives measurements -and the illustration of a western Eskimo skull from Icy Cape, collected -by Dr. A. Collie, surgeon of H. M. S. _Blossom_. The principal -measurements of this evidently female skull were: Length, 17.02 -centimeters; breadth, 12.70; height, 12.70. Cephalic index, _74.6_. - -In 1862[106] and 1863[107] Daniel Wilson reports briefly on six -Tchuktchi skulls, which were probably those of Asiatic Eskimo. He says: - - My opportunities for examining Esquimaux crania have been - sufficient to furnish me with very satisfactory data for forming - an opinion on the true Arctic skull form. In addition to the - measurements of 38 skulls, * * * I have recently compared and - carefully measured six Tchuktchi [probably Asiatic coast Eskimo] - skulls, in the collection of the Smithsonian Institution, exhumed - from the burial place of a village called Tergnyune, on the island - of Arikamcheche, at Glassnappe Harbor, west of Bering Strait, and - during a recent visit to Philadelphia I enjoyed the advantage of - examining, in company with Dr. J. Aitken Meigs, a series of 125 - [eastern] Esquimaux crania, obtained by Doctor Hayes during his - Arctic journey of 1860. The comparison between the Tchuktchi and - the true Esquimaux skull is interesting. Without being identical, - the correspondence in form is such as their languages and other - affinities would suggest. Of the former, moreover, the number is - too few, and the derivation of all of them from one cemetery adds - to the chances of exceptional family features; but on carefully - examining the Hayes collection with a view to this comparison, I - found it was quite possible to select an equal number of Esquimaux - crania closely corresponding to the Tchuktchi type, which indeed - presents the most prominent characteristics of the former, only - less strongly marked. - -In Prehistoric Man, Volume II, Plate XV, this author gives also the -measurements of the Icy Cape skull recorded by Morton. - -The principal mean measurements of the six Tchuktchi skulls (both -sexes) were: Height, 17.60 centimeters; breadth, 13.59; height, 13.77; -cranial index, _77.2_. - -The next measurements on western Eskimo crania are those given in 1867 -by J. Barnard Davis (_Thes. cran._). This author measured 6 skulls, 3 -of which were from Port Clarence (Seward Peninsula), 2 from Kotzebue -Sound, and 1 from Cape Lisburne. The measurements, regrettably, are in -inches. They include the greatest glabello-occipital length, greatest -breadth, height (plane of for. magn. to vertex), height of face -(chin-nasion), and breadth of face (d. bizygom. max.). The cranial -index of the 4 specimens identified as male averaged _75.5_ (75-76), -that of the 2 females _77.5_ (77-78). On page 226 the author mentions -also an artificially deformed skull of a Koniag; this was in all -probability a wrong identification for no such deformations are known -from the island (Kodiak). - -In 1868 Jeffries Wyman[108] published measurements of 5 skulls of -"Tsuktshi," the same as those of Daniel Wilson, and of 5 from the Yukon -River, "three of which are Mahlemuts." - -The identification of the specimens was partly erroneous. The data with -corrected identification are republished by Dall (q. v.) in 1877. And -the same skulls figure in all future measurements. - -In 1875 Topinard[109] gives the Barnard Davis measurements in metric -form without, so far as the western Eskimo are concerned, any additions. - -The main measurements of Barnard Davis's western Eskimo skulls, -converted to metric values, follow. The sex identification in some of -the specimens is doubtful. - - ---------------------------------+--------+---------+----------+--------- - | Skull | Breadth |Height (to| Cranial - | length | | vertex) | index - ---------------------------------+--------+---------+----------+--------- - Port Clarence, male | 17.8 | 13.45 | -14 | _75.7_ - Do | 17.8 | 13.45 | 14.2 | _75.7_ - Port Clarence, female | -18 | -14 | 13.45 | _77.5_ - +--------+---------+----------+--------- - Means of the three | 17.86 | 13.64 | 13.59 | _76.4_ - +========+=========+==========+========= - Kotzebue Sound, male | 17.55| 13.2 | 13.45 | _75.4_ - Kotzebue Sound, female | 17.3 | 13.45 | 13.7 | _77.9_ - +--------+---------+----------+--------- - Means of the two (probably | | | | - both females) | 17.4 | 13.35 | 13.6 | _76.6_ - +========+=========+==========+========= - Cape Lisburne, male | 18.3 | 14.2 | -14 | _77.8_ - ---------------------------------+--------+---------+----------+--------- - -The next records are those by George A. Otis, published in 1876 in -the Check List of the Specimens in the Section of Anatomy of the -United States Army Medical Museum, Washington (pp. 13-15). Aside from -those on Greenland crania the author gives here the measurements of 3 -presumably Eskimo skulls collected by Dall; of 2 western Eskimo skulls, -no locality; and of 3 Mahlemut skulls, probably from Norton Sound (St. -Michael Island). In his later (1880) catalogue,[110] page 13, Otis adds -to the above three skulls from Prince William Sound, which, however, -were more probably Indian; the three Mahlemuts, on the other hand, are -given with the Alaskan Indians (p. 35). These data are of but little -value. The Eskimo skulls are the same Smithsonian specimens that were -reported upon in 1868 by Jeffries Wyman. - -In 1878, Rae[111] mentions some measurements or observations on the -skulls of Western Eskimo by Flower, but no records of these could be -located. Rae says: - - I had the privilege of attending the series of admirable lectures - so ably given by Professor Flower at the Royal College of Surgeons - a few weeks ago on the "Comparative Anatomy of Man," from which I - derived much useful information and on one point very considerable - food for thought. - - I allude to the wonderful difference in form exhibited between - the skulls of the Eskimos from the neighborhood of Bering - Strait, and of those inhabiting Greenland, the latter being - extremely dolichocephalic, whilst the former are the very - opposite--brachycephalic, the natives of the intermediate coast, - from the Coppermine River eastward, having mesocephalic heads. - -In 1879 Lucien Carr, in his "Observations on the Crania from the Santa -Barbara Islands, California"[112] (p. 281), gives erroneously Otis's -measurements of Aleut skulls as those of "Alaskan Eskimo." - -Meanwhile W. H. Dall has published (1877) his monograph on the "Tribes -of the Extreme Northwest,"[113] in which he includes Wyman's and also -some of Otis's data on the Eskimo (and Aleut) skulls from Alaska and -Asia. The Tshuktshi are now classed as Asiatic Eskimo, the Mahlemuts as -Eskimo from St. Michael Island. The total number of skulls described in -the former series is 11, in the latter series 6 (of Aleuts the number -of skulls measured is 27 adults and 7 children). The means of the -principal measurements of the Eskimo series, both sexes together, are -as follows: - - JEFFRIES WYMAN'S AND OTIS'S MEASUREMENTS OF WESTERN ESKIMO CRANIA - - --------------------------+--------+---------+--------+--------- - Crania (both sexes) | Length | Breadth | Height | Cranial - | | | | index - --------------------------+--------+---------+--------+--------- - | (11) | (11) | (7) | (11) - Asiatic Eskimo | 17.8 | 14.1 | 13.2 | _79.3_ - | | | | - | (6) | (6) | (6) | (6) - Northwest American Eskimo | 17.5 | 13.2 | 13.1 | _75.1_ - --------------------------+--------+---------+--------+--------- - -There were also taken the weight, capacity, circumference, longitudinal -arch, length of the frontal, parietal, and occipital, "zygomatic -diameter," and in two specimens of each series the facial angle. To-day -these data have but a historical value. - -In 1882, Quatrefages and Hamy,[114] in their "Crania ethnica" (p. -440) give the measurements of two male Kaniagmiouts (Kodiak Indian, -A. Pinart, collector) and one female Mahlemiout. The principal -measurements of these skulls are as follows: - - ----------------------+----------+----------- - | Males (2)| Female (1) - ----------------------+----------+----------- - Skull: | | - Length | 18.6 | 17.9 - Breadth | 14.2 | 13.9 - Height (bas.-bg.) | 14.3 | 13.2 - Cranial index | _76.34_ | _77.65_ - Nose: | | - Length | 5.9 | 5.1 - Breadth | 2.3 | 2.3 - Nasal index | _38.98_ | _45.09_ - Facial index, total | _77.69_ | _70.37_ - Orbital index | _92.68_ | _90.24_ - ----------------------+----------+----------- - -In 1883 Dr. Irving C. Rosse, in his "Medical and Anthropological Notes -on Alaska,"[115] refers to his examination of a number of Eskimo -skulls from the St. Lawrence Island brought to the Army Medical -Museum.[116] There are no measurements outside of a reference to the -capacity, but there are two excellent chromolithographs showing two -female crania, besides a number of outline drawings. - -The next data on the western Eskimo skull are in rather unsatisfactory -condition. They are those of Boas. In his report on the "Anthropologie -der nordamerikanischen Indianer,"[117] Doctor Boas mentions the cranial -index of the Alaska Eskimo to average _77_; and on page 397 he reports -the same index as secured on 37 "Alaska Eskimo" skulls, apparently of -both sexes. The only note relating to these figures is found on page -393, where it is stated that these results proceed from measurements -that had been made for the author at the Peabody Museum, Cambridge, the -American Museum, New York, the Academy of Sciences, Philadelphia, and -the United States Army Medical Museum, Washington; and that he utilized -also the measurements of Barnard Davis and Otis. On 22 of the above -western Eskimo skulls there is also given the length-height index of -_76.6_. There is no information as to either sex or locality. There are -no other measurements. - -Deniker (1901) and later Martin (1914) repeat the data given by Boas. - -In 1890 Tarenetzky[118] publishes measurements and observations on four -Koniag (Kodiak) skulls and one Oglemute (Aglegmute, Alaska Peninsula). -The main measurements (pp. 70-71) are: - - -----------------+----------+-------+-------+-------+---------+---------- - Koneage[119]Koneage|Koneage|Koneage|Means[120] - | | | | | of the | Aglegm- - | | | | |four from| jute - | | | | | Kodiak | (Alaska - | | | | | Island |Peninsula) - -----------------+----------+-------+-------+-------+---------+---------- - Skull: | | | | | | - Length | 17.1 | 16.4 | 17.2 | 16.8 | 16.88 | 19.0 - Breadth | 13.8 | 15.7 | 15.8 | 14.4 | 14.93 | 13.7 - Height | 13.1 | 14.4 | 14.0 | 13.2 | 13.68 | 14.1 - Cranial index| _80.7_ | _95.7_| _91.8_| _85.7_| _88.4_ | _72.1_ - Nose: | | | | | | - Length | 4.7 | 5.3 | 5.7 | 5.9 | 5.40 | 5.8 - Breadth | 2.4 | 2.5 | 2.6 | 2.3 | 2.45 | 2.3 - Nasal index | _51.0_ | _47.1_| _46.6_| _39.0_| _45.4_ | _39.6_ - Orbital index| _87.5_ | _97.6_| _92.7_| _80.9_| _89.7_ | _88.1_ - -----------------+----------+-------+-------+-------+---------+---------- - - -In 1900 Sergi[121] reports on four Kodiak skulls that he examined in -Paris. Two of these are probably Aleut (or Indian). The cranial indices -were, respectively, _75.8_, _78.3_, _88_, and _88.2_. - -In 1916 E. W. Hawkes presented a thesis on the "Skeletal Measurements -and Observations on the Point Barrow Eskimo, with Comparisons from -other Eskimo Groups."[122] The number of skulls measured was 27, -of which 14 were identified as adult males, 5 adult females, 6 -adolescents, and 2 infants. In addition there are measurements by Ralph -Linton of other skeletal parts than the skull of three skeletons. - -The measurements, though the first taken by this author, have evidently -been taken in a painstaking manner and according to modern methods, and -are therefore of some value. An abstract of those on the adults follows: - - PRINCIPAL MEASUREMENTS OF POINT BARROW CRANIA, BY HAWKES - - -------------------+------------+------------- - | Males (14) | Females (5) - -------------------+------------+------------- - Vault: | | - Length | 18.91 | 17.86 - Breadth | 13.73 | 13.58 - Basion-bregma | | - height | 13.86 | 13.30 - Cranial index | _72.65_ | _76.06_ - Height-length | | - index | _73.24_ | _74.45_ - Height-breadth | | - index | _100.68_ | _98.01_ - Face: | | - Diam. bizygom. | | - max | 14.10 | 13.40 - BF:BH | | - proportion | _102.6_ | _98.7_ - Chin-nasion | (6) | (3) - height | 13.15 | 11.60 - Alveolar | (14) | (5) - point-nasion | 7.42 | 6.80 - Facial index, | | - total | _92.13_ | _52.48_ - Facial index, | | - upper | _86.20_ | _54.05_ - Nose: | | - Height | 5.66 | 5.24 - Breadth | 2.30 | 2.18 - Index | _40.69_ | _41.62_ - Orbits: | | - Height | 3.76 | 3.59 - Breadth | 4.13 | 4.05 - Index | _91.3_ | _88.5_ - Dental arch: | | - Length | 5.31 | 6.27 - Breadth | 4.96 | 6.06 - Index | _93.4_ | _96.7_ - -------------------+------------+------------- - -In 1923 Cameron[123] published the following data on six western Eskimo -skulls from Port Clarence, collected by the Canadian Arctic Expedition: - - POST CLARENCE (SEWARD PENINSULA) ESKIMO CRANIA - - -------------------------------------+------------------------------ - Vault | Nose - -------------+-------+------+--------+------+-------+------+-------- - Length |Breadth|Height| Cranial|Length|Breadth|Nasal |Orbital - | | | index | | |index | index - -------------+-------+------+--------+------+-------+------+-------- - Males: | | | | | | | - 18.9 | 13.9 | 14.1 | _73.5_ | 5.9 | 2.5 |_42.4_| _86.4_ - 18.7 | 14.3 | 13.7 | _76.5_ | 5.3 | 2.5 |_47.2_| _85.7_ - 18.8 | 13.25 | 14.2 | _70.2_ | 6.0 | 2.2 |_36.7_| _86.4_ - 17.8 | 13.0 | 13.3 | _73.4_ | | | | _88.9_ - 19.2 | 13.7 | | _71.4_ | | | | - Mean: 18.68 | 13.63 | 13.82| _72.97_| 5.73 | 2.40 |_41.9_| _86.9_ - Female: 17.85| 13.1 | 12.8 | _73.1_ | | | | - -------------+-------+------+--------+------+-------+------+-------- - -The last contribution to the craniology of the western Eskimo before -the present report are the data embodied in my "Catalogue of Human -Crania in the United States National Museum Collections," published in -1924.[124] These data are embodied in those of the present report. - -For ready survey the old records on western Eskimo crania are given -in the following table. A sex distinction in the earlier reports was -mostly impracticable or remained doubtful. - - PREVIOUS MEASUREMENTS OF WESTERN ESKIMO SKULLS - - ---------------------------------------+-------------------------------- - | Vault - +------+-------+------+---------- - |Length|Breadth|Height| Cranial - | | | | index - ---------------------------------------+------+-------+------+---------- - 1 Icy Cape, ♀ (Morton, 1839) | 17.02| 12.70 | 12.70| _74.6_ - 6 Asiatic Eskimo ("Tschuktchi"): | | | | - mean (Daniel Wilson, 1862) | 17.60| 13.59 | 13.77| _77.2_ - 3 Port Clarence (Barnard Davis, | | | | - 1867) | 17.86| 13.64 | 13.59| _76.4_ - 2 Kotzebue Sound, ♀ (Barnard | | | | - Davis, 1867) | 17.40| 13.35 | 13.60| _76.6_ - 11 Asiatic Eskimo (Wyman and Otis, | | | | - 1868-1876) | 17.80| 14.10 | 13.20| _79.3_ - 6 N. W. Amer. Eskimo (St. Michael | | | | - Island) (Wyman and Otis, 1868-1876) | 17.50| 13.20 | 13.10| _75.1_ - 2 Kodiak Island, ♂ (Quatrefages and | | | | - Hamy, 1882) | 18.60| 14.20 | 14.30| _76.35_ - 1 Kodiak, ♀ (Quatrefages and Hamy, | | | | - 1882) | 17.90| 13.90 | 13.20| _77.65_ - (37 western Eskimo)[125] (Boas, 1895) | | | | (_77_) - 4 Kodiak Island, ♀[126] (Tarenetzky, | | | | - 1900) | 16.88| 14.93 | 13.68| _88.4_ - | | | |{2:_77.1_ - 4 Kodiak Island,[127] (Sergi, 1900) | | | |{2:_88.1_ - 14 Point Barrow, ♂ (Hawkes, 1916) | 18.91| 13.73 | 13.86| _72.65_ - 5 Point Barrow, ♀ (Hawkes, 1916) | 17.86| 13.58 | 13.30| _76.1_ - 5 Port Clarence, ♂ (Cameron, 1923) | 18.68| 13.63 | 13.82| _73_ - 1 Port Clarence, ♀ (Cameron, 1923) | 17.85| 13.10 | 12.80| _73.1_ - ---------------------------------------+------+-------+------+---------- - - ---------------------------------------+---------------------+------- - | Nose | - +------+-------+------+Orbital - |Length|Breadth|Index |index - | | | | - ---------------------------------------+------+-------+------+------- - 1 Icy Cape, ♀ (Morton, 1839) | | | | - 6 Asiatic Eskimo ("Tschuktchi"): | | | | - mean (Daniel Wilson, 1862) | | | | - 3 Port Clarence (Barnard Davis, | | | | - 1867) | | | | - 2 Kotzebue Sound, ♀ (Barnard | | | | - Davis, 1867) | | | | - 11 Asiatic Eskimo (Wyman and Otis, | | | | - 1868-1876) | | | | - 6 N. W. Amer. Eskimo (St. Michael | | | | - Island) (Wyman and Otis, 1868-1876) | | | | - 2 Kodiak Island, ♂ (Quatrefages and | | | | - Hamy, 1882) | 5.9 | 2.3 |_39_ | - 1 Kodiak, ♀ (Quatrefages and Hamy, | | | | - 1882) | 5.1 | 2.3 |_45.1_| - (37 western Eskimo)[125] (Boas, 1895) | | | | - 4 Kodiak Island, ♀[126] (Tarenetzky, | | | | - 1900) | 5.4 | 2.45 |_45.4_|_89.7_ - |} | | | - 4 Kodiak Island,[127] (Sergi, 1900) |} | | | - 14 Point Barrow, ♂ (Hawkes, 1916) | 5.66| 2.30 |_40.7_|_91.3_ - 5 Point Barrow, ♀ (Hawkes, 1916) | 5.24| 2.18 |_41.6_|_88.5_ - 5 Port Clarence, ♂ (Cameron, 1923) | 5.73| 2.40 |_41.9_|_86.9_ - 1 Port Clarence, ♀ (Cameron, 1923) | | | | - ---------------------------------------+------+-------+------+------- - -FOOTNOTES: - -[105] Voyage pittoresque autour du Monde, by Louis Choris, Paris, 1822, -pp. 15, 16. - -[106] Wilson, Daniel, Prehistoric man. Two vols. Lond., 1862; II, pl. -15; 3d ed., 1876, II, 192, 15. - -[107] Wilson, Daniel, Physical ethnology. Smithsonian Report for 1862, -Washington, 1863, pp. 261-262. The measurements of the Tchuktchi are -given in the Prehistoric Man, vol. II, Table 16. - -[108] Observations on Crania. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., XI, 440-462. -Boston, 1868. - -[109] Topinard, P., Mesures craniometriques des Esquimaux. Rev. -d'Anthrop., 1873, II, 499-522. - -[110] List of the specimens in the Anatomical Section of the Army -Medical Museum. Washington, 1880. - -[111] Rae, John, Eskimo skulls. J. Anthrop. Inst. Gr. Brit, London, -1878, VII, 142. - -[112] Rep. U. S. Geogr. Surv. W. of 100 Merid., vol. VII. - -[113] U. S. Geog. and Geol. Surv. Rocky Mt. Reg. Contributions to North -American Ethnology, I. Washington, 1877, p. 63 et seq. - -[114] Quatrefages, A. de, and Hamy, E. T., Crania ethnica. Paris, 1882, -438, 440. - -[115] Cruise of the _Corwin_ in 1881. Washington, 1883, p. 38. - -[116] Now in the Division of Physical Anthropology of the U. S. -National Museum. - -[117] 1895, Verh. Berliner, Ges. Anthrop. p. 367 et seq. - -[118] Tarenetzky, Al., Beitrüge zur Craniologie der Ainos auf Sachalin. -Mem. Acad. imp. Sc. St. Pétersb., 1890, XXXVII, No. 13, 1-55. - -[119] Most if not all the Kodiak skulls are doubtless females, the -Oglemute a male. Quite probably also the Kodiak skulls are those of -Aleuts and not of Eskimo. - -[120] By present author. - -[121] Sergi, G., Crani Esquimesi. Atti della società Romana di -antropologia, Roma, 1900, VII, 2, 93-102. - -[122] Am. Anthrop., 1916, XVIII, 203-244. - -[123] Cameron, John, Osteology of the western and central Eskimo. Rep. -Canad. Arctic Exp., 1913-1918. Ottawa, 1923. With a report on the teeth -by S. G. Ritchie and J. S. Bagnall. Table and means by the present -writer. - -[124] No. 1: The Eskimo, Alaska and Related Indians, Northeastern -Asiatics. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1924, LXIII; sep., 51 pp. - -[125] No details; series comprises specimens measured by Wyman, Otis, -and Barnard Davis. - -[126] Probably Aleuts, not Eskimo. - -[127] Not the same with those of Tarenetzky; two probably Aleut. - - -PRESENT DATA ON THE WESTERN ESKIMO - - -THE LIVING - -Barring the Aleutian and Pribilof Islands in the south and the -Chukchee territory in the west, the Bering Sea is wholly the sea of -the Eskimo, the Indians occupying the inland but reaching nowhere to -the coast. There is doubtless much of significance in this remarkable -distribution. It is now quite certain that the Eskimo has not been -pressed out by the Indian; there are as a rule no traces of him farther -inland than where he has been within historic times. On the other hand -no Indian remnants or remains are known from any part of the coasts or -islands within the Eskimo region; though the study of the older sites -in these regions has barely as yet begun, besides which (see Narrative) -it is a serious question whether really old sites could now be located -in these regions at all even if they had once existed. At all events -the Eskimo appears from all indications to be the latest comer, and -judging from his remains his occupancy here is not geologically -ancient; it is one to be counted, apparently, in many hundreds of -years rather than in thousands. The Aleuts in the south are, as I have -pointed out in the Catalogue (No. 1, 1924, p. 39), not Eskimo but -Indians, related to the general Alaska Indian type; and the Pribilof -Islands appear never to have been occupied until fairly recently, when -a good number of Aleuts, mostly mixed bloods, have been transported and -established there in the interest of the seal fisheries. - - -MEASUREMENTS OF LIVING WESTERN ESKIMO - -Thanks to Moore, Collins, and Stewart, all of the National Museum, -instructed by me and working with the same instruments, we now have -several small to fair series of measurements on the living western -Eskimo of both sexes. They are tabulated below. They are the first made -on these groups and will be of much interest both in general and in -connection with the measurements made on the skulls and bones of most -of the same people. The main points shown are as follows: - -_Stature._--The stature of the males ranges from markedly to moderately -submedium. There is a considerable similarity. Only the Yukon group -and that of Togiak reach near or slightly above medium, the general -human medium for males approaching 165 centimeters. The female stature -on the St. Lawrence Island averages 12 centimeters less than that of -the males, which is about the difference found in most other peoples. -At Hooper Bay, and especially at the Nunivak Island, the difference is -less, indicating either that the males are slightly stunted or that the -growth of the females is somewhat favored. - -_Height sitting._--The height-sitting-stature index ranges from -slightly to quite notably higher than it is in other races, indicating -a tendency toward a relatively long trunk and somewhat short limbs. -A study of the long bones shows that this is due especially, if not -wholly, to the relative shortness of the tibia; and the subdevelopment -of this bone may, it seems, be ascribed to a great deal of squatting -both at home during the long winters and in the canoes. The male Eskimo -show more difference from other males in this respect than the Eskimo -females show from other females.[128] - -_Arm span._--Relatively to the stature the length of the arms in the -Eskimo males is shorter than it is in other racial groups, though there -appears to be some inequality in this respect. This shortness would be -especially marked if we compared the arm span with the height sitting. -It is due essentially to a shortness of the distal half of the upper -limbs. The males once more show this disproportion more as compared -to other males than the females compared with others of their sex. -(See comp. data in Old Americans.) This may be connected in some way -with the male Eskimo work and habits; or it may be an expression of a -correlative subdevelopment with that of the lower limbs. It is a good -point for further study. - -_The head._--The head, especially when taken in relation to the -stature, is of good size, particularly on the Nunivak Island and on the -Yukon. This agrees with what is known of the Eskimo head, skull, and -brain elsewhere. - -The size of the Eskimo head--which is not caused by a thick skull--will -best be appreciated by contrasting it with that of civilized whites. -In whites in general the mean head diameter or cephalic module ranges -in males from approximately 15.70 to 16.40; in the male western Eskimo -groups the range is 15.87 to 16.08, and 16.11 in the group at Marshall -on the Yukon. The percentage relation of the module to stature in 12 -groups of male whites, including the old Americans, averages _9.31_ -to _10.11_; in the male Eskimo groups it is from _9.57_ to _9.94_. -In females, the cephalic module is 15.57 in the old Americans, 15.36 -to 15.68 in the Eskimo; the relation of the module to stature in the -former being _9.59_, in the latter _10.15_ to _10.25_. - -In the western Eskimo woman the head dimensions are particularly -favorable. In the old American whites the mean head diameter in the -female is to that of the male on the average as _95_ to 100; in the two -main groups of the western Eskimo it is as _96.1_ and _96.7_ to 100. -Nothing is known as to the cause of this apparently favorable status of -the Eskimo woman; it is another interesting point for further inquiry. - -In shape, the head of the western Eskimo is highly mesocephalic to -moderately brachycephalic and of only fair height, and it seldom -approaches the scaphoid or dome-shaped. It is not the narrow, high, -keeled skull of the northeastern and often the northern Eskimo. The -physiognomy, the characteristics of the body, and the mentality and -behavior, are in general typical Eskimo; but the form of the vault is -substantially different. It is a form which approaches on one side -that of the northwesternmost Indian, and on the other that of the -northeastern and Mongoloid Asiatics. More must be said about this when -we come to consider the skull. - -_The forehead._--Anthropometric studies have shown repeatedly[129] that -the height of the forehead is not a safe gauge of intelligence, as -commonly believed, but is controlled by the variable height of the hair -line. Thus the common full-blood American Negro laborer and servant -show a slightly higher forehead than the educated old American whites. - -Something of a similar nature is found in the Eskimo. As seen in -the following table, in the males the western Eskimo forehead is -absolutely, and especially relatively to stature, higher than it is -in the whites. In the females the absolute height in the two races is -identical, but relatively to stature the Eskimo again shows a clear -though somewhat lesser advantage. The condition is apparently not due -to the size of the head, for this is not greater than in the whites, -in the males; while in the females, where the Eskimo shows a slightly -larger head than the white in relation to stature, the forehead fails -to correspond. - - DIMENSIONS OF FOREHEAD - - ---------------------------------------+---------------+---------------- - |Western Eskimo | Old Americans - +-------+-------+-------+-------- - | Male | Female| Male | Female - ---------------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------- - | _cm._ | _cm._ | _cm._ | _cm._ - Height, nasion to hair line | 6.86 | 6.45 | 6.59 | 6.45 - Percentage relation to stature | _4.23_| _4.23_| _3.78_| _3.80_ - Breadth: Diameter frontal minimum | 10.58 | 10.54 | 10.59 | 10.12 - Percentage relation of diameter frontal| | | | - minimum to breadth of face | _71.1_| _73.7_|_76.4_ |_77.8_ - Forehead index (H × 100)/(B) | _64.8_| _61.2_|_63.7_ |_62.1_ - ---------------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------- - -With the lower breadth of the forehead, conditions are also -interesting. The absolute figures for the two races show a reversal. -The height of the forehead is larger in the Eskimo than in the white -males, equal in the females; the lower frontal breadth is equal -in the males but larger in the Eskimo than in the white female. -Proportionately to stature, which is so much lower in the Eskimo, both -sexes of the latter show an advantage in the dimension over the white. - -The percental relation of the breadth of the forehead to that of the -face reflects the excess of the latter in the Eskimo, particularly the -male. There is evidently not a full direct correlation between the two -dimensions. Yet relatively to its height the face is broader in the -females than in the males (see below), which is doubtless not without -influence on the lower breadth of the forehead in the former. - -To summarize, the western Eskimo forehead exceeds in area that of the -American whites, in both sexes, and that particularly in relation to -stature. As to the individual measurements, the male Eskimo forehead -as contrasted with that of the white is especially high, the female -especially broad. - -To which should be added that in the Eskimo the spheno-temporal region -is often remarkably full, almost bulging, so that, contrary to what may -be observed in the Negro, the frontal maximum diameter is also probably -larger than in the whites, all of which doubtless has significance, -even though this is not yet fully understood. - -_The face._--The principal measurements and relations are given below. -They show a face large and especially broad. Moreover, relatively -to its height the face is especially broad in the Eskimo female, -in connection doubtless with the well-known excess of the work (in -softening leather, etc.) of her jaws, with consequent development of -the muscles of mastication, which in turn broaden the zygoma. - - DIMENSIONS OF THE FACE - - ----------------------------------+-----------------+-------------------- - | Western Eskimo | Old American whites - ----------------------------------+-----------------+-------------------- - | _Male_ _Female_| _Male_ _Female_ - Height, menton-nasion | 12.67 11.64 | 12.15 11.09 - Females to males (M = 100) | _91.9_ | _91.3_ - Diameter bizygomatic maximum | 14.88 14.30 | 13.87 12.99 - Females to males (M = 100) | _96.1_ | _93.6_ - Facial index, anatomic |_85.2_ _81.4_ | _87.6_ _85.4_ - Facial module (or mean diameter), | | - anatomic | 13.77 12.97 | 13.01 12.04 - Female to male (M = 100) | _94.2_ | _92.5_ - Percentage relation of female and | | - male to stature | _8.49_ _8.50_| _7.46_ _7.44_ - ----------------------------------+-----------------+-------------------- - -The great size of the Eskimo face is especially apparent in the -relations of the mean diameter of the face to stature; it is in this -respect no less than 12 per cent in excess of that of the whites in the -males and 12.5 per cent in the females.[130] - -_Lower facial breadth._--Due to the great development of the masseter -muscles and the consequent frequent lesser or greater eversion of the -angles of the lower jaw, the bigonial diameter in the Eskimo is very -large, particularly when taken in relation to stature, and in such -relation it looms especially large in the females. Compared with the -old American whites, the bigonial breadth in its relation to stature is -higher in the Eskimo males by 15.5 per cent, in the Eskimo females by -17.7 per cent. And measurements of Eskimo lower jaws in general show -that this breadth in the western contingents is not exceptional. - - LOWER FACIAL BREADTH - - --------------------------------+-------------------+------------------- - |Western Eskimo (St.| Old Americans - | Lawrence Island) | - --------------------------------+-------------------+------------------- - | _Males_ _Females_| _Males_ _Females_ - Diameter bigonial | 11.78 11.18 | 10.63 9.84 - Female vs. male | _94.9_ | _92.6_ - Percentage relation to stature | _7.21_ _7.39_ | _6.09_ _6.08_ - Percentage relation to breadth |_80_ _79.5_ |_76.7_ _75.8_ - relation to breadth of face | | - --------------------------------+-------------------+------------------- - -_The nose._--The nose of the western Eskimo promises to be of much -importance in the study of Eskimo origins in general. Nowhere in this -region is it like the nose of the northern or northeastern groups. It -is decidedly broader. Its breadth is intermediary between that of the -Alaska and other Indians and that of the northern and northeastern -Eskimo, connecting with both, and these characteristics are so -generalized throughout western Alaska and the Bering Sea islands that -they can not possibly be attributed to Indian or other admixture. Nor -can this relatively broad nose of the western Eskimo be well attributed -to environmental effects, i. e., to a broadening of a formerly narrow -nose through climatic conditions. There do not appear to be any such -conditions. The only rational explanation seems to be that this is the -more original condition of the Eskimo nose, and that the northern and -northeastern narrowness is a later derivation. More may be said on this -point when we come to consider the skeletal remains. - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 39 - -THE WALES PEOPLE - -(Photo by Lomen Bros.)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 40 - -THE LONG AND BROAD-FACED TYPES, WALES - -(Photo by Lomen Bros.)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 41 - -_a_, Broad-faced and low-vaulted Eskimo, St. Lawrence Island. (Photo by -R. D. Moore, 1912. U.S.N.M.) - -_b_, Broad-faced type, St. Lawrence Island. (Photo by R. D. Moore, -1912. U.S.N.M.)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 42 - -_a_, A young man from Seward Peninsula. - -_b_, A boy from St. Lawrence Island. - -THE LONG-FACED TYPE] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 43 - -A "HYPERESKIMO," KING ISLAND. EXCESSIVELY DEVELOPED FACE] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 44 - -ESKIMO "MADONNA" AND CHILD, NORTHERN BERING SEA REGION - -(Photo by Lomen Bros.)] - -The Eskimo nose is also high, which goes with the height of the -whole face; that in turn evidently is attributable to more work and -demand--in brief, more mastication. The nose, face, lower jaw, and -other parts of the Eskimo anatomy offer rare opportunities for studies -in the heredity of acquired characters. - - NOSE MEASUREMENTS - - --------+----------------------------+---------------------- - | American whites | - +----------------+-----------+ Western Eskimo - | Old Americans | Old | - | and immigrants | Americans | - +----------------+-----------+-------------+-------- - | Males | Females | Males | Females - --------+----------------+-----------+-------------+-------- - | (13 groups) | | (6 groups) | - Height | 4.95-5.4 | 4.94 | 5.47-6.03 | 5.03 - Breadth | 3.45-3.6 | 3.25 | 3.82-3.93 | 3.61 - Index | _62.5-73_ | _66_ | _63.7-71.9_ | _71.9_ - --------+----------------+-----------+-------------+-------- - -_The mouth._--The western Eskimo mouth is large. It is considerably -larger (wider) than in the old American whites, though these are of -much higher stature. In relation to stature the width of the western -Eskimo mouth exceeds that in the white old Americans by 13 per cent -in the males and by nearly 14 per cent in the females, but there is -a close relation with that of a large group of Indians. The details -follow: - - MOUTH WIDTH - - ---------------------+----------------+----------------+---------------- - | Western Eskimo | 16 tribes of | - | (Nunivak and | Indians of the | Old American - | St. Lawrence | Southwest and | whites. - | Islands) |northern Mexico.| - +-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+-------- - |Males | Females|Males | Females|Males | Females - ---------------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+-------- - Width | 5.73 5.44 | 5.85 5.49 | 5.37 4.95 - Females versus males | _94.9_ | _93.8_ | _92.3_ - Percentage relation |_3.53_ _3.57_|_3.50_ _3.55_|_3.07_ _3.08_ - relation to stature|_3.53_ _3.57_|_3.50_ _3.55_|_3.07_ _3.08_ - ---------------------+----------------+----------------+---------------- - -_The ears._--The ears of the western Eskimo are large. They are -especially long. They exceed in both size and relative length those of -whites, but are in both respects much more like those of the American -Indian. The excess in length, both in the Eskimo and the Indian, is -especially marked when this measurement is taken in relation to stature. - -Relatively to its length, the ear of the female Eskimo in all our -groups is somewhat narrow, giving a lower index. This is not observed -in the available whites and Indians. - -None of the series below are affected seriously by the age factor; -though with an organ so much influenced by age as the ear the ideal way -would be to compare only groups of the same age. - - EARS - - -----------------------+---------------+---------------+--------------- - | Western | Miscellaneous | Old American - | Eskimo | North American| whites - | | Indian | (Labor Ser.) - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- - | Males |Females| Males |Females| Males |Females - -----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- - Height of left ear | 7.05 | 6.61 | 7.25 | 6.95 | 6.69 | 6.10 - Breadth of left ear | 3.82 | 3.49 | 3.90 | 3.70 | 3.79 | 3.47 - Ear index |_54.2_ |_52.8_ |_53.2_ |_53.6_ |_56.7_ |_56.9_ - Percentage relation of | | | | | | - ear length to stature| _4.34_| _4.33_| _4.25_| _4.35_| _3.84_| _3.68_ - =======================+=======+=======+=======+===+===+=======+======= - | Western Eskimo groups | Whites in general - -----------------------+---------------------------+------------------- - Height of left ear | 6.71- 7.40 6.49-6.73 | 6.20- 6.69 - Breadth of left ear | 3.72- 4.04 3.45-3.57 | 3.58- 3.79 - Ear index | _53.3 -58.9_ _52.3 -53.1_ | _56 -58.6_ - -----------------------+---------------------------+------------------- - -_The chest._--The best measurements of the chest, experience has -shown, are the antero-posterior and lateral diameters at the nipple -height in the males and at the corresponding level of the upper border -of the fourth costal cartilages in the females. They give not merely -the individual dimensions but also their relation, which is of much -ontogenic as well as other interest, and their mean gives the chest -module which in relation to the stature is anthropologically as well as -individually (medically) important. - -The table following gives the chest measurements in the western Eskimo, -in a large group of Indians (my older data), and in the old American -whites as well as others. - -The Eskimo chest is large. In the males, in addition, it is very deep. -Compared to that of the white old Americans it is markedly deeper in -the males and broader in the females, notwithstanding the fact that the -Americans are much taller. It is even larger, besides being relatively -deeper in the males and somewhat broader in the females, than it is -in many tribes of the Indian. Only tall and bulky Indians such as the -Sioux show a chest that is absolutely somewhat larger, but in relation -to stature, with which the dimensions of the chest stand in close -correlation,[131] the Eskimo prevails even in this instance. This -excess in chest development in the Eskimo must be ascribed in the main -to his occupations and exertions, particularly again, it would seem, in -connection with the canoe. - - CHEST MEASUREMENTS - - ------------------+-----------------+-----------------+----------------- - | | 16 tribes of | - | Western Eskimo, | southwestern | Old Americans - | Nunivak Island | and New Mexico | - | | Indians | - +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------- - | Males | Females| Males | Females| Males | Females - ------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------- - Stature | 161.8 | 153.1 | 167.3 |-155. | 174.3 | 161.8 - Breadth | 29.97 | 28.63 | 29.89 | 28.21 | 29.76 | 26.62 - Depth | 24.63 | -22. | 22.77 | 21.91 | 21.70 | 20.03 - Index | _82.2_ | _76.8_ | _76.15_| _77.66_| _72.9_ | _75.3_ - Module | 27.30 | 25.32 | 26.33 | 25.06 | 25.73 | 23.32 - Module vs. stature| _16.87_| _16.53_| _15.74_| _16.17_| _14.75_| _14.41_ - ==================+=+======+========++=======+======+=+========+======== - | 4 other groups | 72 Sioux | - | of western | Indians, | 12 other groups - | Eskimo, males | males | of white males - --------------------+----------------+--------------+------------------- - Stature | -160.6-166. | -174. | 163.4-171.6 - Breadth | -29.6-30. | 31.92 | -25.9-28. - Depth | -23.-24.75 | -26. | 20.9-22.6 - Index | _76.7-83.3_ | _81.4_ | _72.9-81.5_ - Module | 26.97 | 28.96 | 23.4-25.7 - Module vs. stature | _16.56_ | _16.64_ | _14.22-14.84_ - --------------------+----------------+--------------+------------------- - -_The hand._--The hand of the Eskimo is small, both absolutely and -relatively to stature. But it is rather broad relative to its length, -giving a high index. The index is higher than that of any of the groups -available for comparison, white or Indian, excepting a few groups of -immigrant whites, laborers. - - HAND - - ----------+-----------+-----------+-------+------- - |Western Eskimo, (group | 16 tribes of - | means) | southwestern - | | and Mexican - | | Indians - ----------+-----------+-----------+-------+------- - Left hand:| Males | Females | Males |Females - ----------+-----------+-----------+-------+------- - Length |17.35-18.42|16.60-16.85| 18.53 | 17.20 - | | | | - Breadth | 8.60-8.90 | 7.78-8.20 | 8.51 | 7.71 - | | | | - Percentage| _10.96_ | _10.94_ |_11.07_|_11.13_ - relation | | | | - of hand | | | | - length to | | | | - stature | | | | - ----------+-----------+-----------+-------+------- - - ----------+-------+-------+----------- - | Old Americans | 12 groups - | | of - | | immigrant - | | whites - ----------+-------+-------+----------- - Left hand:| Males |Females| Males - ----------+-------+-------+----------- - Length | 19.28 | 17.34 | - | | | - Breadth | 9.18 | 7.87 | - | | | - Percentage|_11.05_|_10.70_|_-11.-11.3_ - relation | | | - of hand | | | - length to | | | - stature | | | - ----------+-------+-------+----------- - - -----+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- - |Western Eskimo | Southwestern | Sioux - | | and Mexican | - | | Indians | - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- - | Males |Females| Males |Females| Males |Females - -----+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- - Hand | 49.5 | 47.5 | 45.9 | 44.8 | 47.6 | - index| | | | | | - -----+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- - - -----+-------+-------+---------+------- - | Old American | 12 other groups - | whites | of whites - | | - +-------+-------+---------+------- - | Males |Females| Males |Females - -----+-------+-------+---------+------- - Hand | 47.6 | 45.4 |47.6-50.3| - index| | | | - -----+-------+-------+---------+------- - - 72 Sioux males: _11.40._ - -_The foot._--The foot of the western Eskimo, like his hand, is both -absolutely and relatively to stature rather short, but it is broad, -giving a high breadth-length index. Its actual breadth perceptibly -exceeds that of the much taller old American whites, though not -reaching that of any of the immigrant laborers. - -Contrary to what was seen in the case of the hand, the relative -proportions of the Eskimo foot, as expressed by the index, are almost -identical with those of the southwestern and Mexican Indians. The Sioux -foot is relatively longer, and so is that of whites except southern -Italians, who, though their foot as a whole is larger, give the same -index as the Eskimo. - - FOOT - - ---------------+---------------+--------------- - | | 16 tribes of - | Western | southwestern - | Eskimo | and Mexican - | | Indians - +-------+-------+-------+------- - | Males |Females| Males |Females - ---------------+-------+-------+-------+------- - Left foot: | | | | - Length | 24.23 | 22.13 | 25.42 | 23.30 - Breadth | 9.72 | 8.70 | 10.15 | 9.07 - Percentage | | | | - relation foot | | | | - length-stature|_14.94_|_14.51_|_15.19_|_15.08_ - ---------------+-------+-------+-------+------- - - ---------------+---------------+------------- - | | 12 groups - | Old Americans |of immigrant - | | whites - | | - +-------+-------+------------- - | Males |Females| Males - ---------------+-------+-------+------------- - Left foot: | | | - Length | 26.12 | 23.33 | - Breadth | 9.49 | 8.36 | - Percentage | | | - relation foot | | | - length-stature|_14.97_|_14.42_|_15.36-15.73_ - ---------------+-------+-------+------------- - - -----------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- - | | Southwestern | - | Western | and Mexican | Sioux - | Eskimo | Indians | - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- - | Males |Females| Males |Females| Males |Females - -----------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- - Foot index | 40.1 | 39.3 | 39.9 | 38.9 | 37.1 | - -----------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- - - -----------+-------+-------+---------+------- - | | - | Old American | 12 other groups - | whites | of whites - +-------+-------+---------+------- - | Males |Females| Males |Females - -----------+-------+-------+---------+------- - Foot index | 36.3 | 35.8 |37.9-40.1| - -----------+-------+-------+---------+------- - - 72 Sioux males: _15.40._ - -_Girth of the calf._--The western Eskimo, like the American Indians, -are characterized by a rather slender calf. The size of the calf -correlates in a large measure with stature. Reducing our measurements -to calf girth-stature ratios, these are seen to be much alike in the -three racial groups used for comparison, namely the Eskimo, the Indian, -and the old American white. But this is deceptive. The correlation of -size of calf with stature is not uniform (see "Old Americans," p. 348) -for all stature groups; as the scale in stature descends the calf is -relatively stouter. If we take white Americans of approximately the -same stature with the Eskimo here considered, there appears a higher -ratio, showing that stature for stature the girth of the calf of the -Eskimo is smaller, notwithstanding his generally more ample supply of -adipose tissue. Once more his relation is closer with the Indian. The -Eskimo and the Indian women are especially much alike, while the white -women make a marked exception--their calfs (as well as thighs) have -more fat than is found in those of their Eskimo and Indian sisters. - - MEASUREMENTS OF THE LEG - - ---------------------+------------------+------------------ - | | Southwestern - | Western | and Mexican - | Eskimo | Indians - | | (16 tribes) - ---------------------+------------------+------------------ - | _Male_ _Female_ | _Male_ _Female_ - | | - Maximum girth of | 33.6 31.4 | 34.1 32 - left calf | | - | | - Percentage relation | _20.7_ _20.6_ | _20.52_ _20.54_ - to stature | | - | | - Percentage relation | | - to stature | | - | | - in those approaching | | - | | - the Eskimo stature | | - | | - Females v. males | _93.5_ | _93.9_ - (M=100) | | - ---------------------+------------------+------------------ - - ---------------------+----------------- - | - | Old white - | Americans - | - ---------------------+----------------- - | _Male_ _Female_ - | - Maximum girth of | 36.1 35.5 - left calf | - | - Percentage relation | _20.3_ _21.95_ - to stature | - | - Percentage relation | - to stature | - | - in those approaching | - | - the Eskimo stature | _21.6_ _22.3_ - | - Females v. males | _98.3_ - (M=100) | - ---------------------+----------------- - -FOOTNOTES: - -[128] For comparative data on these and other proportions see writer's -Old Americans, Baltimore, 1925; also Topinard's and Martin's textbooks. - -[129] See Old Americans; also the writer's The natives of Kharga Oasis, -Egypt, Smiths. Misc. Coll., Washington, 1912; Anthropology of the -Chippewa, Holmes Anniv. Vol., Washington, 1916; and Measurements of the -Negro, Am. J. Phys. Anthrop., 1928, XII, No. 1. - -[130] A word of slight caution is due here. In all these cases -the proper way would be to compare the Eskimo with whites of same -mean stature. But we have no such whites available. As it is the -comparisons must be taken merely as approximations, but they are so -close approximations that the substance of the conclusions is probably -correct. - -[131] The chest dimensions correlate with stature, respectively the -trunk height, and the breadth correlates with the depth; but both are -influenced by function. - - -PHYSIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS - -Due to various difficulties which do not exist to that extent -elsewhere, the physiological observations on the Eskimo are neither -as numerous or extended as would be desirable; yet there are some -data of value. They extend to the pulse, respiration, temperature, -and dynamometric tests of hand pressure. They were made mainly on St. -Lawrence and Nunivak Islands, by Moore, Collins, and Stewart. They -quite agree, especially after elimination of some records that are -clearly erroneous or abnormal. The tests should be extended with even -more rigid precautions in future work among the Eskimo. - -The results are given below. They were all made in the summer season -and on healthy subjects, yet there were numerous indications of -temporary disorders, pathological or functional. Even after a careful -elimination of the obvious cases of such disorders not a few minor -irregularities have doubtless remained, so that the data can not be -taken for more than fairly close approximations to the normal. - -The data show remarkably low pulse, respiration rate and temperature -close to those of whites, with a submedium hand pressure. (For -comparative data see "Old Americans.") The low pulse is also -characteristic in the Indian, as I have repeatedly pointed out before -(see especially my "Physiological and Medical Observations among the -Indians," etc., Bull. 34, Bur. Amer. Ethn., Washington, 1908). - -The dynamometric tests agree also better with those on the Indians -than with those on whites; they are valid only as to the hands, and -they embody not only the strength of the muscles but also that of the -conscious impulse behind them. The age factor, of importance, does not -here enter materially into the case. - - PULSE, RESPIRATION, TEMPERATURE, AND STRENGTH - - ST. LAWRENCE ISLAND ESKIMO - - MALES--ALL - - +----------+----------------+----------------+----------------------+ - |Pulse[132]|Respiration[133]|Temperature[134]| Strength | - | | | |(Collins dynamometer) | - + + + +-----------+----------+ - | | | | Pressure | Pressure | - | | | |right hand |left hand | - +----------+----------------+----------------+-----------+----------+ - | (63) | (54) | (61) | (60) | (60) | - | | | | | | - | 62.1 | 20.1 | 98.64 | 34.36 | 28.75 | - | | | | | | - | (40-78) | (15-25) | (97.6-99.4) |(19.5-45.5)|(19.5-44) | - | | | | | | - | (47) | (47) | (47) | (57) | (57) | - | | | | | | - |[135]61.3 | [135]20.4 | [135]98.84 |[135]34.34 |[135]29.78| - | | | | | | - +----------+----------------+----------------+-----------+----------+ - - FEMALES--SUSPICIOUS CASES ELIMINATED - - +----------+----------------+----------------+-----------+----------+ - | (25) | (25) | (25) | (47) | (47) | - | | | | | | - | 72.4 | 20 | 99.13 | 20.13 | 16.81 | - | | | | | | - | (54-84) | (15-23) | (98.4-99.9) | (14.5-29) |(12-22.5) | - +----------+----------------+----------------+-----------+----------+ - - NUNIVAK ISLAND ESKIMO - - +----------+----------------+----------------+ - |Pulse[132]|Respiration[133]| emperature[134]| - +----------+----------------+----------------+ - | _Males_ | | | - | (6) | (6) | (6) | - | 63.2 | 18.2 | 98.05 | - | (52-68) | (16-21) | (97.8-98.4) | - +----------+----------------+----------------+ - -The details of these six records were: - - +------------+-------------+-------+-------------+-------------+ - | Age (year) | Time of day | Pulse | Respiration | Temperature | - | | (p. m.) | | | | - +------------+-------------+-------+-------------+-------------+ - | 40 | 4.40 | 60 | 21 | 98.1 | - | 33 | 2 | 66 | 18 | 97.8 | - | 19 | 2.30 | 68 | 18 | 98.2 | - | 45 | 1.25 | 68 | 18 | 98.4 | - | 40 | 1.30 | 64 | (14) | 97.8 | - +------------+-------------+-------+-------------+-------------+ - -In connection with the pressure tests in the two hands, some -interesting comparisons are possible between the Eskimo here dealt with -and the old white Americans. As all the tests were made with the same -instrument and method the results inspire confidence. It is in details -of this nature that the anthropologist finds again and again the most -striking proofs of the basal unity of the living races and their -necessarily common origin somewhere in the past. - - PRESSURE FORCE IN THE HANDS IN THE WESTERN ESKIMO AND OLD WHITE - AMERICANS - - -------------------------------------+----------------+--------------- - | Western Eskimo | Old Americans - +-------+--------+-------+------- - | Male | Female | Male | Female - -------------------------------------+-------+--------+-------+------- - Pressure: | _Kg._ _Kg._ | _Kg._ _Kg._ - Right hand | 34.36 20.13 | 41.8 23.3 - Left hand | 28.75 16.81 | 36.1 19.4 - Percentage relation of left to right |_83.7_ _83.5_ |_86.4_ _83.6_ - Percentage relation of female to male| | - (M = 100) | | - Right hand | _55.8_ | _55.5_ - Left hand | _53.7_ | _53.7_ - -------------------------------------+----------------+--------------- - -FOOTNOTES: - -[132] Sitting, at rest, no signs of any health disorder. - -[133] Sitting, at rest. - -[134] Sitting, at rest, sub lingua. - -[135] Subjects where all three determinations were not possible and the -most suspicious ones (abnormally above or below the mean) eliminated. - - -SUMMARY OF OBSERVATIONS ON THE LIVING WESTERN ESKIMO[136] - -These Eskimo are generally of submedium stature, occasionally reaching -medium. The distal parts of their extremities are relatively short. -Walk in adult males somewhat awkward. - -In head form they are highly mesocephalic to moderately brachycephalic; -the height of the head averages about medium. The head is of good size, -especially when taken in relation to stature. The forehead is above -medium in both height and breadth. - -The face is large in all dimensions, generally full and rather flat. -In men it not seldom approaches a square form. The lower jaw region is -largely developed, the angles of the lower jaw are broad to protruding. - -The nose is of fair breadth, with bridge somewhat narrow above and on -the whole only moderately high. The mouth is large, lips medium to -somewhat above. The ears are long. Beard spare on sides of face, mostly -sparse on chin; mustache sparse and often limited to tufts above the -corners of the mouth. Expression generally good-natured, smiling. - -The chest is large, in females broad, in males especially deep. There -is but a mild lumbar curve and no steatopygy. The lower limbs in -females are less stout and shapely than they are in whites. The hands -and feet are small, but, particularly the foot, relatively broad. - -Temperature and respiration approach those in normal whites, though -they appear frequently to be slightly higher; pulse normally is slow. - -Dynamometric tests of strength (pressure, both hands) give somewhat -lower records than in whites. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[136] Incorporated in this are writer's own observations. - - -REMARKS - -The most noteworthy and important result of these studies on the living -western Eskimo is the evidence, coming to light again and again, of -their fundamental somatic relations to the Indian. These relations are -too numerous and weighty to be accidental. Nor can they be ascribed to -mixture with the Indian in such far-away groups as the St. Lawrence -Islanders, who so long as known have never had any direct or even -indirect contact with Indians. These relations in dimensions and -relative proportions of the body, and in physiological characteristics -such as the slow normal pulse, are supplemented by many phases of -behavior, and often by a more or less Indianlike physiognomy. They -inevitably lead to the conclusion that the Eskimo and the Indian are in -the root members of the same family. They are two digits of the same -hand, separate and diverging, yet at base joined to and derived from -the same source. And this source, according to many indications, is the -paleo-asiatic, "mongoloid," stem of northern Asia. The western Eskimo -shows to be nearer this source than his more northern and northeastern -relatives, indicating either that he is a later comer, or, which is -more probable, that he has changed less in the south than in the north. -It may be possible to say something more on this subject after the -skeletal remains have been considered. - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 45 - -YOUNG WOMAN, NORTHERN BERING SEA REGION - -(Photo by Lomen Bros.)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 46 - -YOUNG WOMEN, FULL-BLOOD ESKIMOS, SEWARD PENINSULA - -(Photo by Lomen Bros.)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 47 - -A POINT HOPE GROUP] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 48 - -_a_, Eskimo woman, Kevalina. (Photo on the _Bear_ by A. H., 1926. -U.S.N.M.) - -_b_, The body build of an adult Eskimo woman. Upper Bering Sea] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 49 - -ELDERLY WOMAN, ST. LAWRENCE ISLAND - -(Photos by R. D. Moore, 1912. U.S.N.M.)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 50 - -_a_, Yukon Eskimo, below Paimute. (A. H., 1926) - -_b_, Norton Sound Eskimo woman and child. (A. H., 1926)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 51 - -ESKIMO, INDIANLIKE; NORTHERN BERING SEA REGION - -(Photos by Lomen Bros.)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 52 - -ESKIMO, INDIANLIKE; NORTHERN BERING SEA REGION - -(Photos by Lomen Bros.)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 53 - -ESKIMO, INDIANLIKE; NORTHERN BERING SEA REGION - -(Photos by Lomen Bros.)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 54 - -ESKIMO, INDIANLIKE; NORTHERN BERING SEA REGION - -(Photo by Lomen Bros.)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 55 - -ESKIMO, INDIANLIKE; NORTHERN BERING SEA REGION - -(Photo by Lomen Bros.)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 56 - -ESKIMO, INDIANLIKE; ARCTIC REGION - -(Photo by Lomen Bros.)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 57 - -SIBERIAN ESKIMO AND CHILD, INDIAN TYPE] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 58 - -_a_, Mrs. Sage, Kevalina. Fine Indian type. Born on Notak. Both parents -Notak "Eskimo." (A. H., 1926.) - -_b_, Eskimo family, Indianlike; near Barrow. (A. H., 1926.)] - - WESTERN ESKIMO: MEASUREMENTS ON THE LIVING - - [Measurements by Collins and Stewart, except as noted] - - -----------------------+------------------------------------------------- - | Males--Locality - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------- - | | |Tanunuk|Nunivak| Hooper|Marshall, - |Kulukak| Togiak|(Nelson| Island| Bay | Lower - | | |Island)| | | Yukon - -----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------- - Date of record | (1927)| (1927)| (1927)| (1927)|(1927) | (1927) - Subjects measured | (8)| (4)| (4)| (19)| (20) |[137](6) ) - Age | Adult.| Adult.| Adult.| Adult.|Adult. | Adult. - | | | | | | - Stature |160.6 |166 |162.7 |161.8 |162.5 | 163.8 - Height sitting | 86 | 89.75 | 90.62 | 88.86 | 89.48 | 90.22 - Height-sitting-stature | | | | | | - index |_53.55_|_53.95_|_55.69_|_55.70_|_55.06_| _55.08_ - Arm span vs. stature | +2.8 | +6.7 | +5.5 | +2.7 | +.7 | +5.1 - Head: | | | | | | - Length | 19.06 | 18.95 | 19.37 | 19.70 | 19.13 | 19.05 - Breadth | 15.56 | 15.70 | 15.37 | 15.48 | 15.57 | 15.85 - Height[140] | 12.98 | 13.02 | 12.90 | 13.07 | 13.11 | 13.43 - Cephalic module | 15.87 | 15.89 | 15.88 | 16.08 | 15.94 | 16.11 - Cephalic index |_81.7_ |_82.9_ |_79.4_ |_78.6_ |_81.3_ | _83.3_ - Mean height index |_75_ |_75.2_ |_74.3_ |_74.3_ |_75.6_ | _77_ - Face: | | | | | | - Menton-crinion | 19.70 | 20.05 | 19.70 | 19.23 | 19.41 | 19.85 - Menton-nasion | 12.89 | 12.87 | 12.58 | 12.74 | 12.47 | 12.78 - Diameter | | | | | | - bizygomatic | | | | | | - maximum | 14.74 | 15.27 | 14.95 | 14.99 | 14.97 | 14.85 - Physiognomic | | | | | | - facial index |_72.3_ |_76.2_ |_75.9_ |_78.2_ |_77.1_ | _74.8_ - Anatomical | | | | | | - facial index |_87.4_ |_84.2_ |_85.7_ |_85_ |_83.3_ | _86.1_ - Height of forehead | | | | | | - (nasion-hair line) | 6.81 | 7.18 | 7.12 | 6.49 | 6.94 | 7.07 - Breadth of forehead | | | | | | - (diameter | | | | | | - front--minimum) | 10.26 | 10.75 | 10.65 | 10.54 | 10.35 | 10.38 - Diameter bigonial | | | | | | - Nose: | | | | | | - Height | 5.65 | 6.03 | 5.57 | 5.58 | 5.48 | 5.42 - Breadth | 3.88 | 3.82 | 3.85 | 3.89 | 3.89 | 3.60 - Nasal index |_68.7_ |_63.7_ |_69.1_ |_69.8_ |_71_ | _66.4_ - Mouth: Breadth | 5.64 | 5.82 | 5.70 | 5.87 | 5.74 | 5.70 - Ear (left): | | | | | | - Height | 6.71 | 7.17 | 7.18 | 7.05 | 6.79 | 6.52 - Breadth | 3.76 | 3.82 | 3.72 | 3.91 | 3.69 | 3.38 - Ear index |_56.4_ |_53.3_ |_58.9_ |_55.5_ |_54.3_ | _51.9_ - Chest: | | | | | | - Breadth | 29.58 | 29.65 | 29.70 | 29.97 | | - Depth | 24.10 | 24.35 | 24.75 | 24.63 | | - Chest index |_81.5_ |_82.1_ |_83.3_ |_82.2_ | | - Hand (left): | | | | | | - Length | 17.35 | 17.87 | 17.55 | 18.42 | 17.61 | 18.12 - Breadth | 8.68 | 8.60 | 8.90 | 8.81 | 8.76 | 8.70 - Hand index |_52.9_ |_48.1_ |_50.7_ |_47.8_ |_49.7_ | _48_ - Foot (left): | | | | | | - Length | | 24.82 | 24.05 | 24.31 | 23.88 | - Breadth | | 9.88 | 9.90 | 9.81 | 9.40 | - Foot index | |_37.8_ |_41.2_ |_40.4_ |_39.4_ | - Leg: Circumference, | | | | | | - maximum | | 32.62 | 34.42 | 33.56 | 33.64 | - -----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------- - - ---------------------------------+--------------------------------------- - Males | Females--Locality - +---------+-------------+--------+-------+-------- - | St. | Kanakanak,| Nunivak| Hooper| St. - | Lawrence| Bristol | Island| Bay |Lawrence - | Island | Bay | | | Island - -----------------------+---------+-------------+--------+-------+-------- - Date of record | (1912) | (1927) | (1927) |(1927) | (1912) - Subjects measured |[138](63)| [139](10) | (24) | (2) |[138](48) - Age | Adult. | Near | Adult. | Adult.| Adult. - | | adult. | | | - Stature | 163.3 | 147.8 | 153.1 |153 |151.35 - Height sitting | 88.4 | (83.08) | 84.36 | 83.80 | 84.07 - Height-sitting-stature | | | | | - index | _54.13_| (_56.21_)| _55.10_|_54.77_|_55.55_ - Arm span vs. stature | +.6 | +1.5 | -.7 | (?) | -.7 - Head: | | | | | - Length | 19.33 | 18.10 | 18.85 | 18.85 | 18.56 - Breadth | 15.40 | 15.26 | 15 | 15.30 | 14.77 - Height[140] | 13.23 | 13.01 | 12.81 | 12.90 | 12.76 - Cephalic module | 15.99 | 15.46 | 15.55 | 15.68 | 15.36 - Cephalic index | _79.7_ | _84.3_ | _79.6_ |_81.2_ |_79.6_ - Mean height index | _76.2_ | _79_ | _79_ |_75.5_ |_76.6_ - Face: | | | | | - Menton-crinion | 20.01 | 18.73 | 18.45 | 18 | 18.03 - Menton-nasion | 12.68 | (11.79) | 12.11 | 11.50 | 11.31 - Diameter | | | | | - bizygomatic | | | | | - maximum | 14.73 | (13.95) | 14.31 | 14.55 | 14.03 - Physiognomic | | | | | - facial index | _73.6_ | (_62.9_) | _77.6_ |_80.8_ |_77.8_ - Anatomical | | | | | - facial index | _86.7_ | _84.6_ | _84.6_ |_79_ |_80.6_ - Height of forehead | | | | | - (nasion-hair line) | 7.33 | 6.94 | 6.34 | 6.50 | 6.72 - Breadth of forehead | | | | | - (diameter | | | | | - front--minimum) | 10.94 | 10.62 | 10.38 | 10.65 | 10.58 - Diameter bigonial | 11.78 | | | | 11.18 - Nose: | | | | | - Height | 5.47 | (5.02) | 5.17 | | 4.89 - Breadth | 3.93 | (3.35) | 3.59 | | 3.63 - Nasal index | _71.9_ | _66.7_ | _69.4_ | |_74.4_ - Mouth: Breadth | 5.60 | (4.81) | 5.56 | | 5.32 - Ear (left): | | | | | - Height | 7.40 | (5.99) | 6.49 | 6.60 | 6.73 - Breadth | 4.04 | (3.49) | 3.45 | 3.45 | 3.57 - Ear index | _54.6_ | (_58.3_) | _53.1_ |_52.3_ |_53_ - Chest: | | | | | - Breadth | 29.96 | (27.43) | 28.63 | | - Depth | 23 | (19.39) | 22 | | - Chest index | _76.7_ |[141](_70.7_)|_76.8_ | | - Hand (left): | | | | | - Length | 17.94 | (15.90) | 16.62 | 16.85 | 16.60 - Breadth | 8.63 | (7.53) | 7.82 | 8.20 | 7.78 - Hand index | _48_ | _47.4_ | _47.1_ |_48.7_ |_46.7_ - Foot (left): | | | | | - Length | 24.07 | (22.08) | 22.27 | 22.15 | 21.98 - Breadth | 9.61 | (8.55) | 8.85 | 8.65 | 8.59 - Foot index | _39.9_ | (_38.7_) | _40.6_ |_39.1_ |_39.1_ - Leg: Circumference, | | | | | - maximum | ----- | (32.39) | 32.12 | 29.70 | 32.33 - -----------------------+---------+-------------+--------+-------+-------- - -FOOTNOTES: - -[137] Measurements by Collins. - -[138] Measurements by R. D. Moore. - -[139] Oldest girls of an orphanage. - -[140] From the base line of the 2 meatus; this and all other -measurements, including those of 1912, were taken by Hrdlička's methods -and with his instruments. (See his "Anthropometry," Wistar Institute, -Philadelphia, 1920.) - -[141] Subadult in chest. - - -PRESENT DATA ON THE SKULL AND OTHER SKELETAL REMAINS OF THE WESTERN -ESKIMO - - -THE SKULL - -Until recently collections of skeletal remains of the western Eskimo -were confined largely to skulls. The material in our own institutions -comprised a small collection of Mahlemut (St. Michael Island) and -"Chukchee" (Asiatic Eskimo) crania made in the early sixties by W. H. -Dall; a larger series of crania gathered in 1881 on St. Michael and St. -Lawrence Islands by E. W. Nelson; 28 skulls with 3 skeletons brought in -1898 by E. A. McIlheny from Point Barrow; a valuable lot of skulls from -Indian Point, Siberia, with a few from St. Lawrence Island, collected -by W. Bogoras; and some scattered specimens by other explorers. To -this were added in 1912 an important collection of skulls, with a -few skeletons, made by Riley D. Moore, at that time my aide, on St. -Lawrence Island; an important lot of crania gathered a few years -later by V. Stefánsson at Point Barrow; and a third large and highly -interesting lot, this time of both skulls and skeletons, collected near -Barrow for the University Museum at Philadelphia in 1917-1919 by W. -B. Van Valin. But none of the later material was described excepting -the McIlheny collection which, in 1916, was reported upon by E. W. -Hawkes.[142] - -During the survey which is the subject of this report a special effort -was made to collect all the older skeletal material along the Bering -Sea and Arctic coasts that could be reached, and the result was the -bringing back of some 450 crania, nearly 50 with skeletons, and many -separate parts of the skeleton; nearly all of the specimens proceeding -from localities thus far not represented in the collections. To which -were added in 1927 nearly 200 skulls with a good number of skeletons -gathered by H. B. Collins, jr., assistant curator in the Department -of Anthropology, United States National Museum, and my aide, T. D. -Stewart, on Nunivak Island and along the west coast of Alaska from -Bristol Bay to near the Yukon delta.[143] - -We thus have now a relatively vast amount of skeletal material on the -western Eskimo; it is essentially a virginal material; it is well -identified as to locality; and the specimens are mostly in very good -condition. - -Aside from Hawkes's thesis, nothing of note had been published on -these collections until 1924, when the first number of my Catalogue -of Human Crania in the United States National Museum Collections -appeared, which includes the principal measurements on 290 skulls of -the western Eskimo. Since then, in view of the growing importance of -the subject, I have remeasured every specimen reported before; have -measured personally all the new collections; and thanks to the kindness -of those in charge have been enabled to extend the measurements to -all the collections of Eskimo crania, both from Alaska and elsewhere, -that were preserved up to the spring of 1928 at the National Museum at -Ottawa, the American Museum of Natural History of New York, and the -Wistar Institute of Philadelphia, which now contains the University -Museum collections. The total records reach now to 1,283 adult skulls -from practically all important parts of the total Eskimo area, besides -a considerable quantity of other bones of the skeleton. The main -results of the work will be given here, the detailed measurements being -reserved for another number of the Catalogue. - -To save repetitions and possible confusion and to show more clearly the -status of the southwestern and midwestern Eskimo, the entire cranial -material will be dealt with in this section, and previous records on -the northeastern and a few other groups of the Eskimo will not be drawn -upon to preserve the advantage of dealing with data obtained by the -same methods, instruments, and observer. - -In presenting the records it is found expedient, both on geographical -and anthropological grounds, to make but three groupings. The first -of these comprises the Eskimo from their southernmost limit to Norton -Sound and the Bering Sea islands; the second group takes in Seward -Peninsula (or the larger part of it) and the Arctic coast to Point -Barrow; while the third embraces all the Eskimo east of Point Barrow. -The first of these three groups is remarkably homogeneous, the second -and third show each some exceptional units. It may be said at once that -the dialectic subdivisions of Dall, Nelson, and others, in a large -majority of cases are not found to be accompanied by corresponding -physical differences, so that in a somatological classification they -become submerged. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[142] Skeletal Measurements and Observations of the Point Barrow -Eskimo, Amer. Anthrop., n. s. XVIII, pp. 203-244, Lancaster, 1916. - -[143] In 1928 Mr. Collins brought another important accession to these -collections. - - -SKULL SIZE - -The external size of the skull is best expressed by the cranial -module or mean of the three principal diameters; the internal size, -respectively the volume of the brain, by the "cranial capacity." - -The module among the southwestern and midwestern Eskimo averages 15.44 -centimeters in the males and 14.77 centimeters in the females. For -people of submedium stature these are good dimensions. Fifty-two male -and 40 female skulls of the much taller Sioux (writer's unpublished -data) give the modules of only 15.25 and 14.27 centimeters; while 6 -male and 9 female Munsee Indians, also tall,[144] give practically the -same values as these Eskimos, namely 15.48 centimeters for the males -and 14.75 centimeters for the females. - -Not all the western groups, however, give equally favorable -proportions. In general, the coast people below Norton Sound, and -especially below the Yukon, give, so far as the males are concerned, -the lowest values. It is interesting to note that it is precisely -these people who among the western Eskimo are reputed to be about the -lowest also in culture. The Togiak and near-by Kulukak males showed, -as seen before, also about the smallest head in the living. The St. -Lawrence Island males stand just about the middle, but the females of -this island, as, interestingly, also in the living, show markedly less -favorably. The Nunivak skulls, as with the living, are somewhat above -the average, while in the small Pilot Station (Yukon) group, just as -in the near-by contingent of Marshall among the living, the males have -the largest heads in this western territory. The lower Yukon Eskimo -were also shown, it may be recalled, to be of a higher stature than -the majority of the coast people. It is a group that deserves further -attention. - -The module of the female skull does not evidently stand always in -harmony with that of the male. The most striking example of this is -shown, as already mentioned, by the St. Lawrence Island females, -both skulls and the living. The females of this isolated island are -also unduly short, but their small head is not entirely due to the -defective stature. There must exist on this island, it would seem, some -conditions that are disadvantageous to the female. In the small groups, -such as that from the Little Diomede, the disharmonies are doubtless -partly due to small numbers of specimens, but there may also be other -factors, such as the bringing in of women from other places.[145] - -Taking the mean of all the groups equalizes conditions, and it is seen -that the module in both sexes is almost identical with that of the more -northern groups, to Point Barrow. But the north Arctic and northeastern -groups give a cranial module that in both sexes is somewhat higher, -though their stature, according to the available data (Deniker, Boas, -Duckworth, Steensby, Thalbitzer), is not superior. - -A very remarkable showing is that of the percentage relation of -the female to male skull size in the three large groupings. In the -first two it is identical, in the third it differs less than could -confidently be expected among the closest relatives. Another remarkable -fact is that this important relation is found to be much like that -in the Eskimo in various groups of Indians; thus it was _96_ in the -Indians of Arkansas and Louisiana,[4] _95.5_ in the Munsee of New -Jersey,[146] and _96.4_ in the Indian skulls of California.[147] But -it is only _93.6_ in the Sioux (52 male, 40 female skulls) and differs -more or less also in other tribes and peoples. A comprehensive study of -this relation, with due respect to age, will some day well repay the -effort. - - ESKIMO: CRANIAL MODULE ((L+B+H)/3) - - MALES IN ASCENDING ORDER - - _Southwestern and midwestern_ - - Males Females - (5) (7) - Togiak 15.21 14.73 - (4) (6) - Mumtrak 15.22 14.68 - (3) (2) - Southwestern Alaska 15.25 14.90 - (9) (4) - Hooper Bay 15.30 14.68 - (8) (6) - St. Michael Island 15.30 14.72 - (5) (7) - Little Diomede Island 15.33 15.09 - Pastolik and Yukon (14) (20) - Delta 15.34 14.83 - (145) (128) - St. Lawrence Island 15.42 14.27 - Golovnin Bay to Cape (4) (2) - Nome 15.52 14.65 - (46) (70) - Nunivak Island 15.53 14.90 - (13) (16) - Indian Point (Siberia) 15.54 14.88 - (3) (2) - Chukchee 15.56 15.05 - (4) (1) - Port Clarence 15.57 (14.57) - (9) (16) - Nelson Island 15.59 14.64 - (3) (3) - Pilot Station, Yukon 15.91 15 - General averages, (275) (290) - approximately _15.44_ _14.77_ - Females vs. males - (M = 100) _95.7_ - - _Northwestern_ - - (2) (1) - Kotzebue Sound 15.05 (14.67) - (12) (8) - Shishmaref 15.19 14.71 - (132) (84) - Point Hope 15.37 14.72 - (47) (52) - Point Barrow 15.45 14.75 - (35) (34) - Barrow and vicinity 15.46 14.66 - (27) (24) - Old Igloos near Barrow 15.52 14.72 - (19) (14) - Wales 15.66 14.86 - General averages, (274) (217) - approximately _15.39_ _14.73_ - Females vs. males - (M = 100) _95.7_ - - _Northern and northeastern_ - - (49) (52) - Greenland 15.51 14.72 - Hudson Bay and (5) (2) - vicinity 15.55 14.57 - Baffin Land and (16) (17) - vicinity 15.55 15.04 - (6) (10) - Northern Arctic 15.63 14.85 - (9) (6) - Southampton Island 15.65 15.18 - (7) (2) - Smith Sound 15.81 15.15 - General averages, (92) (89) - approximately _15.62_ _14.92_ - Females vs. males - (M = 100) _95.5_ - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[144] Bull. 62, Bur. Amer. Ethn., p. 22, Nos. 326-313. - -[145] More or less danger in such cases as these lies in erroneous -sexing of the skulls. Due to experience, care, and especially to the -relatively numerous accompanying bones or skeletons, this danger in the -present series has been reduced to the minimum. - -[146] Bull. 62, Bur. Amer. Ethn., p. 23. - -[147] Cat. Crania, U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 2. - - -MODULE AND CAPACITY - -A comparison of considerable interest is also that of the cranial -module or mean diameter, to the capacity of the same skulls. This -comparison reveals an important sex factor.[148] Relatively to the -module, the capacity is very appreciably smaller in the female than -it is in the male. This is a universal condition to which, so far as -known, there are occasional individual but no group exceptions. It -appears very clearly in the Eskimo. In 283 western male Eskimo skulls -in which we have so far measured the capacity,[149] the module averages -15.38 centimeters, the capacity 1,490 cubic centimeters; while in 382 -female skulls thus far gauged the former averages 14.82 centimeters, -the latter 1,337 cubic centimeters. The percentage relation of the -capacity to the module, the numbers taken as a whole, is _96.8_ in the -males but only _90.2_ in the females. This means that relatively to the -external size of the skull the female Eskimo brain is 6.66 per cent -smaller. Similar sex disproportion exists in other American groups as -well as elsewhere. Some day when suitable data accumulate it will be of -much interest to study this condition on a wider scale. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[148] See writer's "Relation of the Size of the Head and Skull to -Capacity in the Two Sexes," Am. J. Phys. Anthrop., 1925, VIII, No. 3. - -[149] All measured de novo by my aide, T. D. Stewart; for procedure see -my "Anthropometry." - - -ADDITIONAL REMARKS ON CRANIAL MODULE - -Before we leave this subject, it may be well to point out two -noteworthy facts apparent from the data on the northwestern and -northeastern groups. The first is that the figures on both sexes -from Barrow and Point Barrow are very nearly the same, suggesting -strongly the identity of the people of the two settlements; and the -Point Hope group is in close relation. The second fact is the curious -identity of the old Igloo group, 8 miles southwest of Barrow, with the -Greenlanders. The import of this will be seen later. - - -SKULL SHAPE - -Utilizing the materials of the Otis and Barnard Davis Catalogues and -with measurements taken for him on additional specimens in several of -our museums, Boas, in 1895 (Verh. Berl. anthrop. Ges., 398), as already -mentioned, reported the cranial index of 37 "western Eskimo" skulls -of both sexes (without giving localities or details) as _77_. He also -reports in the same place (p. 391) the cephalic index of 61 probably -male living "Alaska Eskimo," again without locality, as _79.2_. These -rather high indices and the relatively elevated stature (61 subjects, -165.8 centimeters) lead him to believe (p. 376) that both are probably -due to an admixture with the Alaskan Indian, though the report contains -no measurements of the latter. - -The data that it is now possible to present may perhaps throw a new -light on the matter. As was already seen in part from the data on -the living, the head resp. the skull tends to relative shortness and -broadness throughout the southwestern, midwestern, and Bering Sea -region (excepting parts of the Seward Peninsula). Important groups in -this region, particularly those on some of the islands, had little or -no contact with the Indian. The cranial index in most of the groups of -the southwestern and midwestern Eskimo equals or even exceeds that of -the Indian. And Eskimo groups with a relatively elevated cranial index -are met with even in the far north, as at Point Hope, Hudson Bay, and -Smith Sound.[150] Finally, the shorter and broader head connects with -that of the Asiatic Eskimo and that of the Chukchee, as well as other -northeastern Asiatics.[151] - -The records now available show the highest cranial indices to occur on -the coast between Bristol Bay and the Yukon and on lower Yukon itself, -while the lowest indices of the midwest area, though still mesocranic, -occur in the aggregate of Nunivak Island and the mouths of the Yukon. -Another geographical as well as somatological aggregate is that of the -people of the St. Lawrence and Diomede Islands and of Indian Point, -Siberia, the cranial index in these three localities being identical. - - ESKIMO: CRANIAL INDEX - - Mean of both sexes ((Male+Female index)/2) on 1,281 adult skulls. - - IN DESCENDING ORDER - - _Southwestern and midwestern_ - - (11) - Togiak 80.1 - (13) - Hooper Bay 79.7 - (10) - Mumtrak 79.6 - (6) - Pilot Station, Lower Yukon 79.3 - (5) - Chukchee (Siberia) 78.6 - (26) - Nelson Island 78 - (6) - Southwestern Alaska 77.7 - (32) - Indian Point (Siberia) 77.4 - (12) - Little Diomede Island 77.4 - (299) - St. Lawrence Island 77.2 - (5) - Port Clarence 76.6 - (34) - Pastolik and Yukon Delta 76.1 - (14) - St. Michael Island 75.7 - (116) - Nunivak Island 75.6 - - _Northwestern_ - - (222) - Point Hope 76.0 - Kotzebue Sound and Kobuk (3) - River 75.4 - (22) - Shishmaref 74.5 - (101) - Point Barrow 74.1 - (73) - Barrow 73.5 - (33) - Wales 73.5 - (7) - Golovnin Bay [152]72.6 - (52) - Igloos, southwest of Barrow 69.7 - - _Northern and northeastern_ - - (7) - Hudson Bay and vicinity 76.3 - (9) - Smith Sound 76.2 - (15) - Southampton Island 74.8 - (15) - Northern Arctic 73.6 - (33) - Baffin Land and vicinity 73.2 - (101) - Greenland 71.9 - -The Seward Peninsula shows sudden differences. There are a few -localities along its southern coast where the cranial type belongs -apparently to the Bering Sea and southern area. One site at Port -Clarence was one of these. But already at Golovnin Bay, which is -not far from Norton Sound and St. Michael Island, and according to -the evidence of the most recent collections (Collins 1928), also at -Sledge Island, there is a sudden appearance of marked dolichocrany, -which is repeated at Wales, on the western extremity of the peninsula, -approached at Shishmaref, the main Eskimo settlement on its northern -shore, and, judging from some fragmentary material seen at the -eastern end of the Salt Lake, also in the interior. The cause of this -distinctive feature in the Seward Peninsula is for the present elusive. -The little known territory urgently needs a thorough exploration. - -The distribution of the cranial index farther north along the western -coast shows several points of interest. The first is the exceptional -position of Point Hope, one of the oldest and most populous settlements -in these regions, which by its cranial index seems to connect with the -Bering Sea groups. The second is the closeness, once more, of Barrow -and Point Barrow. The third and greatest is the presence, in a small -cluster of old igloos 8 miles down the coast from Barrow, of a group of -people that finds no counterpart in its cranial index and, as will be -seen later, also in some other characteristics, in the entire western -region; in fact, in the whole Eskimo territory outside of Greenland. -As noted before, the size of the head in this group is also closest to -that of Greenland. These peculiar facts indicate a problem that will -call for separate consideration. - -The northern and northeastern groups, with the exception of the -mesocranic Hudson Bay and Smith Sound contingents, and the very -dolichocranic Greenlanders, show dolichocrany much the same as that of -Barrow and Point Barrow. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[150] Compare writer's "An Eskimo Brain," Amer. Anthrop. n. s., -vol. III, pp. 454-500, New York, 1901; and his "Contribution to the -Anthropology of Central and Smith Sound Eskimo," Anthrop. Papers, Amer. -Mus. Nat. Hist., V, pt. 2, New York, 1910. - -[151] Compare, besides present data, measurements by Bogoras in his -report on "The Chukchee," Mem. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1904-9, XI, 33; 148 -male and 49 female adults gave him the mean stature of 162.2 and -152, -the mean cephalic index of _82_ and _81.8_. - -[152] Including 4 female skulls collected by Collins in 1928 and -received too late for general inclusion into these series. - - -HEIGHT OF THE SKULL - -This is a measurement of much value, both alone and as a supplement to -the cranial index, for skulls with the same index may be high or low -and thus really of a radically distinct type. - -The height of the vault is best studied in its relation to the other -cranial dimensions, particularly to the mean of the length and breadth, -with both of which it correlates. But in the Eskimo it is also of -interest to compare the height with the breadth of the skull alone. -The former relation is known as the mean height index and the latter -as the height-breadth index. Both mean the percentage value of the -basion-bregma height as compared to the other dimensions. - -The mean height index H/(Mean of L+B), advocated independently by the -writer since 1916 (Bull. 62, Bur. Amer. Ethn., p. 116), is proving -of much value in differentiation of types and has already become -a permanent feature in all writers' work on the skull. There is a -corresponding index also on the living. - -In the American Indian the averages of the index range from -approximately 76 to 90. (See Catalogue of Crania, U. S. Nat. Mus., Nos. -I and II.) Where the series of specimens are sufficiently large the -index does not differ materially in the two sexes. Indices below 80 may -be regarded as low, those between 80 and 84 as medium, and those above -84 as high.[153] - -The southwestern and midwestern Eskimo skulls show mean height indices -that may be characterized as moderate to slightly above medium. In -general the broader and shorter skulls show lower indices, approaching -thus in all the characters of the vault the Mongolian skulls of Asia. -(Compare Catalogue Crania, U. S. Nat. Mus., No. I.) The Indian Point, -St. Lawrence Island, and Little Diomede Island skulls are again, as -with the cranial index, very close together, strengthening the evidence -that the three constitute the same group of people. (Pls. 59, 60.) - -The northwestern Eskimo and most of those of the northeast have -relatively high vault. Barrow and Point Barrow are once more almost -the same. The Point Hope group shows a high vault, though also rather -broad. The somewhat broad Hudson Bay crania are but moderately high, -like those of the southwestern Eskimo. The northern Arctic skulls give -smaller height than would be expected with their type; the Southampton -Island specimens give higher. The old Igloo group from near Barrow -stands again close to Greenland; its skull is even a trace narrower -and higher, standing in both respects at the limits of the Eskimo. -The whole, as with the cranial index, shows evidently a rich field of -evolutionary conditions. - - ESKIMO: CRANIAL MEAN HEIGHT INDEX - - (H-FLOOR-LINE OF AUD. MEATUS TO BG×100) - --------------------------------------- - MEAN OF L+B - - MEAN OF BOTH SEXES IN ASCENDING ORDER - - _Southwestern and midwestern_ - - (11) - Togiak 81.8 - (25) - Nelson Island 82.1 - (6) - Southwest Alaska 82.3 - (6) - Pilot Station, Yukon 82.3 - (10) - Mumtrak 82.5 - (13) - Hooper Bay 82.7 - (116) - Nunivak Island 83.3 - (5) - Chukchee 83.3 - (34) - Pastolik and Yukon Delta 83.4 - (4) - Port Clarence 83.4 - (29) - Indian Point (Siberia) 83.8 - (279) - St. Lawrence Island 84.1 - (12) - Little Diomede Island 84.5 - (14) - St. Michael Island 85.1 - - _Northwestern_ - - (69) - Barrow 83.8 - (99) - Point Barrow 84.1 - Kotzebue Sound and Kobuk (2) - River 84.4 - (20) - Shishmaref 84.5 - (33) - Wales 85.0 - (216) - Point Hope 85.7 - (4) - Golovnin Bay--Cape Nome 85.9 - (51) - Igloos, southwest of Barrow 86.3 - - _Northern and northeastern_ - - (7) - Hudson Bay and vicinity 82.2 - (15) - Northern Arctic 82.7 - (33) - Baffin Land and vicinity 84.4 - (9) - Smith Sound 85.1 - (101) - Greenland 85.1 - (15) - Southampton Island 85.5 - -The height-breadth index (H×100)/(B) of the Eskimo skull shows in -substance the same conditions as did the mean height index, but while -less informative or dependable on one side, on the other it accentuates -the relative narrowness of the skull in some of the groups. - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 59 - -SKULLS FROM OLD BURIALS, POINT HOPE; RIGHT SKULL SHOWS LOW VAULT. -(U.S.N.M.)] - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 60 - -SKULLS FROM OLD BURIALS, POINT HOPE; RIGHT SKULL SHOWS LOW VAULT. -(U.S.N.M.)] - - ESKIMO: HEIGHT-BREADTH INDEX OF THE SKULL - - MEAN OF BOTH SEXES IN ASCENDING ORDER - - _Southwestern and midwestern_ - - (12) - Togiak 91.9 - (6) - Pilot Station, Lower Yukon 92.8 - (10) - Mumtrak 93.1 - (5) - Chukchee 93.1 - (13) - Hooper Bay 93.2 - (25) - Nelson Island 93.7 - (5) - Yukon Delta 94.7 - (5) - Southwest Alaska 95.2 - (12) - Little Diomede Island 96.3 - (279) - St. Lawrence Island 96.5 - (116) - Nunivak Island 96.7 - (31) - Indian Point (Siberia) 96.7 - (29) - Pastolik 96.8 - (6) - Cape Nome and Port Clarence 97.0 - (14) - St. Michael Island 98.2 - - _Northwestern_ - - (99) - Point Barrow 98.7 - (69) - Barrow 98.8 - (20) - Shishmaref 98.9 - (216) - Point Hope 99.2 - Kotzebue Sound and Kobuk (3) - River 99.6 - (33) - Wales 100.3 - (51) - Igloos, southwest of Barrow 105.0 - - _Northern and eastern_ - - (7) - Hudson Bay and vicinity 95.3 - (16) - North Arctic 97.8 - (9) - Smith Sound 98.3 - (15) - Southampton Island 99.8 - (33) - Baffin Land and vicinity 99.9 - (101) - Greenland 101.8 - -FOOTNOTES: - -[153] These subdivisions are somewhat arbitrary and may, as data -accumulate and are better understood, be found to need some -modification. - - -THE FACE - -The facial dimensions of the Eskimo skull offer a number of points of -unusual interest. The face is absolutely and especially relatively to -stature very large in all measurements. It is particularly high between -the upper alveolar point and nasion. - -The large size of the Eskimo face will best be appreciated from a few -figures. - - FACIAL DIMENSIONS OF THE WESTERN AND OTHER ESKIMO CRANIA COMPARED - WITH THOSE OF THE SIOUAN AND ALGONQUIAN TRIBES - - -----------------+-------------------+---------------+------+---------- - | Southwestern and | Eskimo |Siouan|Algonquian - | midwestern Eskimo | in general |tribes| tribes - +----------+--------+------+--------+------+---------- - |Mean of 14| 10 | 27 | 22 | 12 | 15 - | groups | groups |groups| groups |groups| groups - | (male) |(female)|(male)|(female)|(male)| (female) - -----------------+----------+--------+---------------+------+---------- - Total height | | | | | | - (ment.-nas.) | 12.60 | (11.63)| 12.52| (11.59)| 12.26| 12.11 - Upper height | | | | | | - (alv. pt.-nas.)| 7.87 | (7.29)| 7.79| (7.21)| 7.52| 7.35 - Diameter | | | | | | - bizyg. max. | 14.25 | (13.27)| 14.26| (13.22)| 14.16| 13.89 - Module of | | | | | | - upper face | | | | | | - (U. H. + B)/2 | 11.06 | (10.28)| 11.03| (10.22)| 10.84| 10.62 - -----------------+----------+--------+------+--------+------+-------- - -So far as known there are no larger faces among the Indians than -those of the Sioux, yet they remain very perceptibly, in all three -measurements, behind the Eskimo. No face as large as that of the -Eskimo is known, in fact, from anywhere else in the world. In whites -the mean diameter of the largest faces (see data in Martin's Lehrbuch -Anthrop., 789-791) does not exceed 10.36 centimeters. The above showing -assumes especial weight when it is recalled that both the Siouan and -the Algonquian tribes are among the tallest there are on the American -Continent. The cause of the large size of the Eskimo face can only be -the excessive use of the jaws; no other reason even suggests itself. -But the character may already be more or less hereditary. It furnishes -another attractive subject for further investigation. - -With its large dimensions the face of the Eskimo skull presents -generally also large orbits, large molars, submedium prominence and -breadth of the nasal bridge, shallow suborbital (canine) fossae, -large dental arch above medium teeth, and a large and stout lower jaw -with broad not seldom more or less everted angles, giving the whole a -characteristic appearance. With partial exception of the orbits and the -nose, which are subject also to other factors, all these features of -the Eskimo face are explainable as strengthenings resulting from the -increased function of mastication. - -The main dimensions of the cranial face in the three large groupings of -the Eskimo are given in the next table. - - WESTERN AND OTHER ESKIMO: FACIAL DIMENSIONS IN THE SKULL - - ----------------+----------------------------------- - | Males - +------+------+-------+------------- - | | Alve-| Diam- | Cranial - | Men- | olar | eter | facial - | ton- |point-| bizy- | index - |nasion|nasion|gomatic+------+------ - | | |maximum| Total| Upper - +------+------+-------+------+------ - Groups | (9) | (14) | (14) | (8) | (14) - Southwestern | | | | | - and midwestern| 12.60| 7.87 | 14.25 |_88.2_|_55.3_ - Groups | (5) | (7) | (7) | (5) | (7) - Northwestern | 12.58| 7.73 | 14.23 |_88.3_|_54.4_ - Groups | (5) | (6) | (6) | (5) | (5) - North Arctic and| | | | | - northeastern | 12.22| 7.69 | 14.32 |_85.9_|_53.7_ - ----------------+------+------+-------+------+------ - - ----------------+----------------------------------- - | Females - +------+------+-------+------------- - | | Alve-| Diam- | Cranial - | Men- | olar | eter | facial - | ton- |point-| bizy- | index - |nasion|nasion|gomatic+------+------ - | | |maximum| Total| Upper - +------+------+-------+------+------ - Groups | (8) | (10) | (10) | (8) | (10) - Southwestern | | | | | - and midwestern| 11.63| 7.29 | 13.27 |_87.7_|_54.9_ - Groups | (2) | (7) | (7) | (2) | (7) - Northwestern | 11.55| 7.19 | 13.18 |_88.2_|_54.6_ - Groups | (3) | (5) | (5) | (3) | (5) - North Arctic and| | | | | - northeastern | 11.61| 7.13 | 13.15 |_85.7_|_54.2_ - ----------------+------+------+-------+-----+------- - -These data show a number of interesting conditions. The height of the -upper face (alveolar point-nasion) is greatest in the southwestern and -midwestern groups, is slightly lower in the northwesterners, and still -further slightly lower in the north Arctic and the northeast. On the -other hand the facial breadth is slightly higher in the north and east, -and that although the vault has become mostly decidedly narrower. - -These facts are shown best by the upper facial index, which in the -males descends quite perceptibly in the west from the south to the -north and in the Arctic from the west to the east. In the females there -is a parallel gradual diminution in the upper facial height from the -south to the north and then east, but the facial breadth diminishes -very slightly also instead of increasing, as a result of which the -upper facial index shows only minor differences; yet these differences -are in the same direction as those in the males. - -These matters are involved with a number of factors--the stature, the -breadth of the vault, and the development and direct influence of the -temporal muscles, besides hereditary conditions. Their proper study -will necessitate even more--in fact, much more--material than is now at -our disposal. - -The following table gives the distribution of the upper cranial facial -index in the various groups. Of the two indices that of the whole face, -including the lower jaw, is the less valuable; first, because the jaw -is often absent; second, because it is influenced by the height of -the lower jaw, which does not correlate perfectly with the upper; and -third, on account of the wear of the teeth, which in such people as the -Eskimo is very common and diminishes more or less the total height of -the face. Its averages in the three main groupings have already been -given. Its figures are not very exceptional. - - ESKIMO SKULLS: FACIAL INDEX, UPPER - - MEAN OF BOTH SEXES IN ASCENDING ORDER - - _Southwestern and Midwestern_ - - (6) - Pilot Station, Lower Yukon 53.6 - (5) - Cape Nome and Port Clarence 54.0 - (10) - Hooper Bay 54.4 - (9) - Mumtrak 54.5 - (93) - Nunivak Island 54.6 - (262) - St. Lawrence Island 54.9 - (8) - Togiak and vicinity 55.0 - (24) - Indian Point (Siberia) 55.1 - (23) - Nelson Island 55.2 - (4) - Southwestern Alaska 55.4 - (10) - St. Michael Island 55.5 - (25) - Pastolik 55.7 - (4) - Chukchee 55.8 - (11) - Little Diomede Island 56.0 - - _Northwestern_ - - (190) - Point Hope 52.8 - (2) - Kotzebue 53.7 - (17) - Shishmaref 54.1 - (42) - Igloos north of Barrow 54.1 - (41) - Barrow 54.8 - (75) - Point Barrow 55.2 - (31) - Wales 55.4 - - _Northern and northeastern_ - - (9) - Smith South 51.7 - (14) - Southampton Island 52.3 - (23) - Baffin Land and vicinity 53.8 - (90) - Greenland 54.1 - (7) - Hudson Bay and vicinity 54.3 - (11) - Northern Arctic 56.6 - -The upper facial index of the Eskimo skull is high, though there -is considerable group variation. The reason is the height of the -upper face, for which the accompanying considerable expansion of the -zygomatic arches does not fully compensate. In the white groups this -index ranges from approximately _50_ to _54_; it averages _52.9_ in -15 Algonquian and _53.1_ in 12 Siouan tribes. The means in the large -Eskimo groupings are from a little below _54_ to a little over _55_. -Its regional differences have already been mentioned. Sex differences -in the index are very small. There are a number of points of -significant agreement, the foremost of which is once more that in the -case of Barrow and Point Barrow, and especially that of the Old Igloos -near Barrow and Greenland. - - -THE NOSE - -Equally as engaging as the whole face of the Eskimo skull is the -cranial nose. Our data throw much light on this feature also. - -Where the dimensions of the whole face are altered by some cause the -nose can not remain unaffected. This is especially true of its height, -which correlates directly and closely with that of the face proper; -the correlation of the breadth of the nose with that of the face is -weaker and more irregular, but not absent where not counteracted by -other factors. Accordingly with the high Eskimo upper face there is -found also a high nose, both being the highest known to anthropometry. -But the nasal breadth, instead of responding to the considerable facial -breadth, has become smaller, until in some of the Eskimo groups it is -the smallest of all known human groups. There is plainly another potent -factor in action here. This factor could conceivably be connected -simply with the above-average growth of the facial bones; but if this -were so then individuals with smaller development of these bones -ought to have broader noses, and vice versa. This point can readily -be tested. Taking the largest and best cranial series, that of St. -Lawrence Island, and selecting the skulls with the smallest and the -largest faces, the facts come out as follows: - - ----------------------+------------------------+------------------------ - | Smallest development | Largest development - | of face | of face - +-------+-------+--------+-------+-------+-------- - | Face | Face |Breadth | Face | Face |Breadth - | height|breadth|of nasal| height|breadth|of nasal - |(upper)| |aperture| | |aperture - ----------------------+-------+-------+--------+-------+-------+-------- - 10 males | 7.52 | 13.64 | 2.37 | 8.46 | 14.79| 2.49 - 10 females | 6.81 | 12.56 | 2.37 | 7.54 | 14.02| 2.40 - Percentage relation | | | | | | - of breadth of nose | | | | | | - to mean diameter of | | | | | | - face: | | | | | | - Male | | | _22.4_ | | | _21.4_ - Female | | | _24.5_ | | | _22.2_ - ----------------------+-------+-------+--------+-------+-------+-------- - -The above data show that while the narrow nose in the Eskimo is to some -extent affected by the large development in these people of the facial -bones, yet there must be also other factors. - -But if not wholly connected with the development of the facial bones, -then some of the causes of the narrow nose in the Eskimo must either be -inherited from far back or must be due to influences outside the face -itself. - -Pushing the character far back would be no explanation of its original -cause, but it may be shown that such a procedure would not be -justified. In the following important table are given the now available -data on the breadth of the nasal aperture of the Eskimo, group by -group and area by area, and these data show that narrow nose is by no -means universal in this family. The nasal aperture is broader in the -southwest and midwest than in the northwest, and broader in the latter -region than in the Arctic north, and the northeast. In general it is -seen that the farther northward and northeastward the narrower the -nose, until it reaches beyond that of all other human groups; while in -the west and southwest it gradually approaches until it reaches the -nasal breadth of the Indian. And that this latter condition is not -due to Indian admixture is shown by the fact that among the broadest -noses are those of the Eskimo in Siberia and those on the St. Lawrence -Island, where there was no known contact with the Indian, while the -narrower noses are along the midwestern coast, where Indian admixture -might have been possible. - - ESKIMO: BREADTH OF THE NASAL APERTURE - - BOTH SEXES TAKEN TOGETHER IN DESCENDING ORDER - - _Southwestern and midwestern_ - - (5) - Southwestern Alaska 2.50 - (31) - Indian Point (Siberia) 2.48 - (5) - Chukchee 2.47 - (6) - Pilot Station, Lower Yukon 2.45 - (280) - St. Lawrence Island 2.42 - (29) - Pastolik 2.41 - (13) - Hooper Bay 2.39 - (10) - Mumtrak 2.38 - (6) - Cape Nome and Port Clarence 2.38 - (23) - Nelson Island 2.37 - (9) - Togiak and vicinity 2.36 - (4) - Yukon Delta 2.34 - (107) - Nunivak Island 2.33 - (11) - Little Diomede Island 2.32 - (13) - St. Michael Island 2.21 - - _Northwestern_ - - (3) - Kotzebue 2.41 - (34) - Wales 2.37 - (20) - Shishmaref 2.36 - (56) - Barrow 2.35 - (211) - Point Hope 2.33 - (92) - Point Barrow 2.30 - (48) - Igloos, north of Barrow 2.30 - - _Northern and northeastern_ - - (9) - Smith Sound 2.29 - (15) - Northern Arctic 2.26 - (14) - Southampton Island 2.25 - (29) - Baffin Land and vicinity 2.25 - (98) - Greenland 2.23 - (7) - Hudson Bay and vicinity 2.19 - -It is hardly possible, therefore, to assume that a narrow nose is an -_ancient_ inheritance of the Eskimo. From the facts now at hand it -seems much more probable that the Eskimo nose or respiratory nasal -aperture was not originally very narrow, but that it gradually acquired -this character as the people extended farther north and northeastward; -and there appears to be but one potent factor that could influence -this development and that increases from south to north, namely, cold. -A narrowing of the aperture can readily be understood as a protective -development for the throat and the organs of respiration. - -It is not easy to see how the bony structures respond to the effects of -cold or heat, but that they do, particularly where these are aggravated -by moisture, has long been appreciated, and shown fairly conclusively -through studies on the nasal index by Thomson and later by Thomson -and Buxton.[154] An even more satisfactory study would have been that -of the nasal breadth alone. Perhaps the normal variation with the -elimination of the less fit are the main agencies. - -The next two tables show other interesting conditions. The first of -these, seen best from the more general data, are the relations of the -nasal dimensions and index in the two sexes. The females in all the -three large groupings have a higher nasal index than the males. This is -a general condition among the Indians as well as in other races. It is -usually due to a relative shortness of the female nose. This condition -is very plain in the Eskimo. The female nose is actually narrower than -the male, due to correlation with shorter stature and lesser facial -breadth, yet the index is higher. The reason can most simply be shown -by comparing the general mean nasal breadth and height in the two -sexes. The breadth in the female is approximately 96.2 per cent of that -in the male; the height is only 92.7 per cent. - - NASAL DIMENSIONS IN WESTERN AND OTHER ESKIMO CRANIA - - ------------------+-----------------------+----------------------- - | Males | Females - Area +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- - | Height|Breadth| Index | Height|Breadth| Index - ------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- - Groups | (14) | (14) | (14) | (10) | (10) | (10) - Southwestern | | | | | | - and Midwestern | 5.46 | 2.42 | _44.3_| 5.06 | 2.32 | _45.8_ - ------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- - Groups | (7) | (7) | (7) | (6) | (6) | (6) - Northwestern | 5.42 | 2.37 | _43.7_| 5.06 | 2.30 | _45.4_ - ------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- - Groups | (6) | (6) | (6) | (5) | (5) | (5) - Northern Arctic | | | | | | - and northeastern| 5.38 | 2.28 | _42.4_| 4.95 | 2.18 | _44.0_ - ------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- - -Detailed group data on the nasal index show that this ranges from _47.7_ -on the Yukon to _41.8_ in the northernmost contingent of the Eskimo at -Smith Sound. The Kotzebue group that shows even a higher index than on -the Yukon is too small to have much weight. Barrow and Point Barrow are -once more nearly the same, as are the Old Igloos and Greenland; and -there are some other interesting relations. - - ESKIMO SKULLS: NASAL INDEX - - BOTH SEXES TAKEN TOGETHER IN DESCENDING ORDER - - _Southwestern and midwestern_ - - (6) - Pilot Station, Lower Yukon 47.7 - (5) - Southwestern Alaska 47.5 - (31) - Indian Point (Siberia) 46.5 - (13) - Hooper Bay 46.2 - (6) - Cape Nome and Port Clarence 46.0 - (280) - St. Lawrence Island 45.8 - (5) - Chukchee 45.6 - (10) - Mumtrak 45.2 - (107) - Nunivak Island 45.1 - (9) - Togiak and vicinity 45.0 - (29) - Pastolik 44.9 - (23) - Nelson Island 44.6 - (11) - Little Diomede Island 44.5 - (13) - St. Michael Island 42.9 - (4) - Yukon Delta 42.7 - - _Northwestern_ - - (3) - Kotzebue 49.0 - (20) - Shishmaref 46.0 - (34) - Wales 45.3 - (211) - Point Hope 44.9 - (56) - Barrow and vicinity 44.0 - (48) - Igloos north of Barrow 44.0 - (92) - Point Barrow 43.5 - - _Northern and northeastern_ - - (7) - Hudson Bay and vicinity 44.6 - (15) - North Arctic 44.1 - (29) - Baffin Land and vicinity 43.8 - (98) - Greenland 43.6 - (14) - Southampton Island 43.0 - (9) - Smith Sound 41.8 - -FOOTNOTES: - -[154] Thomson, Arthur, The correlation of isotherms with variations -in the nasal index. Proc. Seventeenth Intern. Cong. Med., London, -1913, Sec. I, Anatomy and Embryology, pt. II, 89; Thomson, Arthur, and -Buxton, L. H. D., Man's nasal index in relation to certain climatic -conditions, Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst., LIII, 92-122, London, 1923. -Additional references in these publications; also in the latter an -extensive list of data on nasal index in many parts of the world. - - -THE ORBITS - -In many American groups the orbits are notoriously variable, yet their -mean dimensions and index are of value. - -The Eskimo orbits have long been known for their ample proportions. -Their mean height and breadth are larger than those of any other -known people and the excess is especially apparent when proportioned -to stature. Taking the family as a whole, the mean height of the two -orbits in males averages approximately 3.64 centimeters, the mean -breadth 4.03 centimeters; while the males of 23 Algonquian tribes give -for the same items 3.42 and 3.93, and those of 12 Siouan tribes 3.58 -and 3.96 centimeters. - -The general averages for the female Eskimo approach for orbital height -3.52 centimeters, for breadth 3.89 centimeters, dimensions which also -surpass those in the females of any other known human group. - -These large dimensions of the Eskimo orbit are, however, on closer -examination into the matter, found not to be racial characters except -in a secondary way. They are the direct consequence of the high and -broad face. The correlation of the orbital height and breadth with the -height and breadth of the face are shown by the following figures. -These figures indicate also some additional details of interest. - - ESKIMO ORBITS: RIGHT AND LEFT - - MALES - - ---------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------- - | Height | Breadth | Index - ---------------------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+------- - | Right | Left | Right | Left | Right | Left - ---------------------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+------- - | (145) | (145) | (145) - St. Lawrence Island | 3.67 3.68 | 4.05 4.01 | _90.7_ _91.8_ - | (41) | (41) | (41) - Nunivak Island | 3.59 3.59 | 4.05 4.-- | _88.7_ _89.7_ - | (120) | (120) | (120) - Point Hope | 3.63 3.63 | 4.05 4.01 | _89.6_ _90.5_ - | (46) | (46) | (46) - Greenland | 3.64 3.65 | 4.02 3.96 | _90.6_ _92.1_ - ---------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------- - - FEMALES - - ---------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------- - | (128) | (128) | (128) - St. Lawrence Island | 3.62 3.60 | 3.92 3.89 | _91.7_ _92.6_ - | (58) | (58) | (58) - Nunivak Island | 3.50 3.52 | 3.88 3.84 | _90.2_ _91.6_ - | (70) | (70) | (70) - Point Hope | 3.54 3.54 | 3.91 3.88 | _90.5_ _91.4_ - | (45) | (45) | (45) - Greenland | 3.55 3.56 | 3.86 3.83 | _91.9_ _92.9_ - ---------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------- - -The general orbital index of the Eskimo is close to _90_ in the males, -_90.5_ in the females. Such orbits are classed as also _relatively_ -high or _megaseme_, a character in which they resemble many of the -American Indians. Thus the male crania of the Siouan tribes give the -practically identical general index of _90.5_. - -The slightly higher index in the females is the rule to which there are -but few exceptions, and those in individual groups where the numbers -of specimens may not be sufficient. The same tendency is observable in -the Indians, and appears in fact to be panhuman. It is due to slightly -lesser relative height as compared to the breadth of the orbit in -the males, which condition is due in all probability to the greater -development in the males of the frontal sinuses and supraorbital arches. - - ESKIMO CRANIA: DIMENSIONS OF THE ORBITS IN RELATION TO THOSE OF THE - FACE - - ORBITAL HEIGHT VERSUS UPPER FACIAL HEIGHT - - +---------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | Males | - +-----------------------+---------------------+-----------------------+ - | (10) | (10) | (10) | - |Lowest faces (7.2-7.4) | Average faces (7.8) | Highest faces (8.4-9) | - +----------+------------+---------+-----------+----------+------------+ - | Face | Orbits | Face | Orbits | Face | Orbits | - +----------+------------+---------+-----------+----------+------------+ - | 7.37 | 3.62 | 7.80 | 3.65 | 8.55 | 3.78 | - +==========+============+=========+===========+==========+============+ - | Females | - +-----------------------+---------------------+-----------------------+ - | (10) | (10) | (14) | - |Lowest faces (6.4-6.8) | Average faces (7.3) |Highest faces (7.8-8.4)| - +----------+------------+---------+-----------+----------+------------+ - | Face | Orbits | Face | Orbits | Face | Orbits | - +----------+------------+---------+-----------+----------+------------+ - | 6.69 | 3.54 | 7.30 | 3.56 | 7.89 | 3.67 | - +----------+------------+---------+-----------+----------+------------+ - - PERCENTAGE RELATIONS OF ORBITS TO FACE - - +-----------------------+---------------------+-----------------------+ - | _49.1_ | _46.8_ | _44.2_ | - +=======================+=====================+=======================+ - | _53_ | _48.7_ | _46.6_ | - +-----------------------+---------------------+-----------------------+ - - ORBITAL BREADTH VERSUS FACIAL BREADTH - - +---------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | Males | - +-----------------------+---------------------+-----------------------+ - | (10) | (17) | (10) | - | Narrowest faces | Average faces (14.2)| Broadest faces | - | (13.4 and below) | | (14.9 and above) | - +----------+------------+---------+-----------+----------+------------+ - | Face | Orbits | Face | Orbits | Face | Orbits | - +----------+------------+---------+-----------+----------+------------+ - | 13.30 | 3.96 | 14.20 | 4.01 | 15.11 | 4.17 | - +==========+============+=========+===========+==========+============+ - | Females | - +-----------------------+---------------------+-----------------------+ - | (10) | (14) | (10) | - | Narrowest faces | Average faces (13.3)| Broadest faces | - | (12.7 and below) | | (13.9 and above) | - +----------+------------+---------+-----------+----------+------------+ - | Face | Orbits | Face | Orbits | Face | Orbits | - +----------+------------+---------+-----------+----------+------------+ - | 12.57 | 3.74 | 13.30 | 3.88 | 14.09 | 3.98 | - +----------+------------+---------+-----------+----------+------------+ - - PERCENTAGE RELATIONS OF ORBITS TO FACE - - +-----------------------+---------------------+-----------------------+ - | _29.8_ | _28.4_ | _28.2_ | - +=======================+=====================+=======================+ - | _29.8_ | _29.2_ | _27.6_ | - +-----------------------+---------------------+-----------------------+ - -Individual variation in the orbital index of the Eskimo is extensive, -reaching from slightly below _80_ to well over _100_. It extends -more or less over the whole Eskimo area, without conveying definite -indication anywhere of either a mixture or of a special evolutionary -tendency. Yet it occasions group differences that eventually might -prove evolutionary, though they may merely represent the next or higher -order of variability, namely, that of groups within a family. - - ORBITAL DIMENSIONS AND INDEX IN ESKIMO SKULLS - - --------------------+---------------------+--------------------- - | Males | Females - Area +------+-------+------+------+-------+------ - | Mean | Mean | Mean | Mean | Mean | Mean - |height|breadth|index |height|breadth|index - --------------------+------+-------+------+------+-------+------ - | (13) | (13) | (13) | (13) | (13) | (13) - South and Midwestern| 3.63 | 4.01 |_90.6_| 3.56 | 3.87 |_92.1_ - | (6) | (6) | (6) | (6) | (6) | (6) - Northwestern | 3.62 | 4.02 |_90.1_| 3.51 | 3.92 |_89.7_ - Northern Arctic and | (5) | (5) | (5) | (5) | (5) | (5) - northeastern | 3.65 | 4.07 |_89.5_| 3.54 | 3.91 |_90.6_ - --------------------+------+-------+------+------+-------+------ - -The group differences in the orbital index of the Eskimo skull are -shown in the next table. They elude a satisfactory explanation, -unless recourse is had to the above suggested theory of normal group -variability within a family. They have about the same range in the -three large areas, which would seem to support this theory. - -Group relations are indicated in the cases of Pastolik-Yukon Delta-St. -Michael Island; Point Barrow-Barrow; and Old Igloos-Greenland. - - ESKIMO SKULLS: MEAN INDEX OF THE ORBITS - - BOTH SEXES TAKEN TOGETHER IN ASCENDING ORDER - - _Southwestern and midwestern_ - - (10) - Mumtrak 88.4 - (11) - Little Diomede Island 89.4 - (6) - Cape Nome and Port Clarence 89.7 - (101) - Nunivak Island 90.1 - (31) - Indian Point (Siberia) 90.3 - (5) - Chukchee 90.6 - (6) - Pilot Station, Lower Yukon 91.0 - (5) - Southwest Alaska 91.4 - (271) - St. Lawrence Island 91.7 - (24) - Nelson Island 91.9 - (13) - Hooper Bay 92.5 - (29) - Pastolik 93.2 - (7) - Togiak 93.3 - (4) - Yukon Delta 93.8 - (13) - St. Michael Island 94.4 - - _Northwestern_ - - (3) - Kotzebue 86.1 - (20) - Shishmaref 88.9 - (34) - Wales 89.4 - (85) - Point Barrow 90.3 - (200) - Point Hope 90.4 - (53) - Barrow 91.1 - (43) - Igloos north of Barrow 91.1 - - _Northern and northeastern_ - - (9) - Smith Sound 87.6 - (13) - Southampton Island 88.4 - (28) - Baffin Land and vicinity 90.0 - (16) - Northern Arctic 91.0 - (94) - Greenland 91.6 - (7) - Hudson Bay and vicinity 92.3 - - -THE UPPER ALVEOLAR ARCH - -The dental arches correlate with function (use), with stature, with -the dimensions of the face, and with those of the teeth. The western -as well as other Eskimo show arches that are about equal in absolute -dimensions to those of our taller Indians, such as the Munsee, -Arkansas, and Louisiana;[155] but relatively to stature the Eskimo arch -is decidedly larger. - -The upper dental arch index (L×100/B), now being used in preference -to the unwieldy "uranic index" (B×100/L) of Turner, is rather high, -showing that the arch is relatively, as well as absolutely, broad. The -same index in the Munsee averaged in the males _82.8_, in the females -_82.7_; in the Arkansas and Louisiana mound skulls _84.4_ in the males -and _85.1_ in the females. Data are needed here for more extensive -comparisons. - - ESKIMO CRANIA: ALVEOLAR ARCH - - --------------------+----------------------------------- - | Males - +--------+--------+---------+------- - |External|External| Module | Index - | length | breadth| (mean |L×100/B - | | |diameter)| - --------------------+--------+--------+---------+------- - 11 groups: | | | | - Southwestern and| | | | - Midwestern | 5.56 | 6.66 | 6.11 | _83.5_ - 6 groups: | | | | - Northwestern | 5.63 | 6.61 | 6.12 | _85.1_ - 5 groups: | | | | - Northern Arctic | | | | - and | | | | - northeastern | 5.68 | 6.75 | 6.21 | _84.2_ - --------------------+--------+--------+---------+------- - - --------------------+----------------------------------- - | Females - +--------+--------+---------+------- - |External|External| Module | Index - | length | breadth| (mean |L×100/B - | | |diameter)| - --------------------+--------+--------+---------+------- - 11 groups: | | | | - Southwestern and| | | | - Midwestern | 5.34 | 6.38 | 5.86 | _83.8_ - 6 groups: | | | | - Northwestern | 5.38 | 6.31 | 5.85 | _85.2_ - 5 groups: | | | | - Northern Arctic | | | | - and | | | | - northeastern | 5.37 | 6.28 | 5.83 | _85.6_ - --------------------+--------+--------+---------+------- - - ESKIMO SKULLS: LENGTH-BREADTH INDEX OF THE UPPER ALVEOLAR ARCH - - BOTH SEXES TAKEN TOGETHER IN ASCENDING ORDER - - _Southwestern and Midwestern_ - - (5) - Pilot Station, Lower Yukon 79.4 - (8) - Togiak and vicinity 80.5 - (4) - Chukchee 81.1 - (12) - Hooper Bay 81.7 - (9) - Mumtrak 81.7 - (9) - Little Diomede Island 82.2 - (234) - St. Lawrence Island 83.0 - (10) - St. Michael Island 84.3 - (22) - Pastolik 84.4 - (90) - Nunivak Island 84.4 - (4) - Southwest Alaska 84.7 - (5) - Cape Nome and Port Clarence 84.9 - (22) - Indian Point (Siberia) 85.0 - (22) - Nelson Island 85.5 - - _Northwestern_ - - (39) - Igloos north of Barrow 84.1 - (14) - Shishmaref 84.4 - (171) - Point Hope 84.6 - (31) - Wales 84.9 - (38) - Barrow 85.8 - (66) - Point Barrow 87.1 - - _Northern and northeastern_ - - (9) - Smith Sound 82.7 - (13) - Southampton Island 83.7 - (7) - Hudson Bay and vicinity 84.4 - (23) - Baffin Land and vicinity 85.7 - (89) - Greenland 85.9 - (10) - Northern Arctic 86.5 - -Sex differences in the index are small, nevertheless the females tend -to show a slightly higher index, due to relatively slightly smaller -breadth of the arch. - -The size of the arch and its index differ but little over the three -main areas of the Eskimo territory, yet there are slight differences. -They appear plainly in the following table. Notwithstanding the fact -that on the whole the southwestern and midwestern groups are somewhat -taller than those of the far north and northeast, the largest palate, -in the males at least, is found in the latter area. - -In the southwest and midwest the upper alveolar arch is relatively -(as well as absolutely, barring one group) somewhat broad and short. -This may be in correlation with the broader head in this area, just -as the absolutely slightly longer palates over the rest of the Eskimo -territory and particularly (in males) in the northeast may correlate -with the longer heads in those regions. This point may be tested on -our splendid material from St. Lawrence Island. Taking the broadest -and the narrowest skulls from this locality, the following data are -obtained for the proportions of the upper dental arch: - - ESKIMO CRANIA: DENTAL ARCH AND FORM OF SKULL - - ST. LAWRENCE ISLAND MATERIAL - - -----------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - | Males | Females - -----------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - | Narrowest| Broadest| Narrowest| Broadest - | skulls| skulls| skulls| skulls - | (C. I.|(80.6-83.1)|(70.3-74.2)|(80.9-83.8) - |70.7-73.5)| | | - -----------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Length | 5.68| 5.58| 5.52| 5.20 - | | | | - Breadth | 6.83| 6.77| 6.66| 6.36 - | | | | - Index | _83.2_| _82.4_| _82.9_| _82.7_ - | | | | - Mean diameter | 6.26| 6.18| 6.09| 5.78 - | | | | - Mean cranial diameter | | | | - (cranial module) of | 15.61| 15.49| 14.97| 14.73 - same skulls | | | | - | | | | - Percentage relation | | | | - of mean dental arch | | | | - diameter to the mean | _40.1_| _39.8_| _40.7_| _39.2_ - diameter of the skull | | | | - | | | | - Length of same skulls | 19.21| 18.10| 18.35| 17.25 - | | | | - Percentage relation of | | | | - length of dental arch | _29.5_| _30.8_| _30.1_| _30.1_ - to that of skull | | | | - -----------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - -The above figures show several conditions. The first is that the arch -is quite distinctly larger in the narrow than in the broad skulls -in both sexes. The second fact is that the skull (vault) itself is -slightly larger in the narrow-headed. The third is that the length of -the arch is somewhat greater in the narrow and long skulls than it is -in the broad and shorter, relatively to the skull size. The fourth -is that there appears a close correlation, more particularly in the -females, between the length of the arch and that of the skull. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[155] See Bull. 62, Bur. Am. Ethn., and writer's Report on an -Additional Collection of Skeletal Remains from Arkansas and Louisiana, -published with Clarence B. Moore's report on the Antiquities of the -Ouachita Valley, Philadelphia, 1909. - - -THE BASION-NASION DIAMETER - -The anterior basal length (basion-nasion) is a measurement of -importance, though its full meaning in anthropology is not yet entirely -clear. From data quoted by Martin (Lehrb., 715-716) it appears to -average in whites up to 10.3 centimeters in males and up to 10.1 -centimeters in females, and is known to correlate closely with the -length of the vault. Secondarily it also correlates with stature. - -Data on American Indians are not yet generally available, though in -preparation. The Munsee skulls gave the writer for the diameter the -means of 10.27 for the males and 10.02 for the females; the mound -skulls from Arkansas and Louisiana gave 10.45 for the males and 9.77 -for the females. - -An abstract of the data on the Eskimo skulls is given in the next -table. The values for the measurement are rather high, especially for -such short people. The percentage relation of the measurement to the -length of the skull appears also to be high. Manouvrier (1882, quoted -in Martin, Lehrb., 716) found this relation in French skulls to be -_53.6_ in the males and _54.7_ in the females. - - ESKIMO CRANIA: BASION-NASION LENGTH - - ---------------------------------+-------------------+------------------- - | Groups of males | Corresponding - | | groups of females - +--------+----------+--------+---------- - | | Its | | Its - | Basion-|percentage| Basion-|percentage - | nasion | relation | nasion | relation - |diameter|to length |diameter|to length - | | of skull | | of skull - ---------------------------------+--------+----------+--------+---------- - | (13) | (13) | (13) | (13) - Southwestern and Midwestern | 10.38 | _56.4_ | 9.85 | _55.7_ - | (6) | (6) | (6) | (6) - Northwestern | 10.58 | _56.4_ | 10.06 | _56.3_ - | (5) | (5) | (5) | (5) - Northern Arctic and northeastern | 10.65 | _56.2_ | 10.06 | _55.4_ - ---------------------------------+--------+----------+--------+---------- - -The female measurement to that of the male, in the Eskimo, is as _94.9_ -to 100. As a similar relation of the cranial modules in the two sexes -is close to _95.7_, the anterior basal length would seem to be at a -little disadvantage in the female Eskimo skull. - -The same condition is seen also when the basion-nasion diameter is -compared with the length of the skull. In the males, notwithstanding -the fact that the length of the vault is increased through the -development of the frontal sinuses and not infrequently also through -that of the occipital ridges, the percentage relation of the -basion-nasion to the maximum total length of the vault is approximately -_56.3_, in the females but _55.8_. It seems therefore safe to say that -in the Eskimo, in general, that part of the brain anterior to the -foramen magnum is relatively somewhat better developed in the males -than in the females. - -But to this there are some exceptions. Thus it may be seen in the -general table which follows that in the northwestern groups conditions -in this respect are equalized; and in the succeeding detailed table -it will be noted that while the males exceed the females in this -particular in 14 of the groups, in 5 groups conditions are equal -(or within one decimal), and in 5 the female percentage exceeds -slightly that in the males. In the numerically best represented groups -conditions are nearly equal, with the males nevertheless slightly -favored. - - ESKIMO SKULLS: BASION-NASION LENGTH AND ITS RELATION TO LENGTH - OF SKULL - - SEXES SEPARATELY IN ASCENDING ORDER - - -----------------------------+--------------+-------------- - | Males | Females - +--------------+-------------- - | B-N. | B-N. - |BN×100/Skull l|BN×100/Skull l - -----------------------------+--------------+-------------- - _Southwestern | | - and Midwestern_ | | - | (4) | (7) - Little Diomede Island | 10.18 _56.2_| 9.91 _54.9_ - | (3) | (2) - Chukchee | 10.20 _54.8_| 10.00 _54.8_ - | (3) | (3) - Pilot Station (Yukon) | 10.27 _54.3_| 9.97 _56_ - | (9) | (4) - Hooper Bay | 10.29 _57.6_| 9.70 _55.7_ - | (4) | (6) - Mumtrak | 10.32 _57_ | 9.52 _55.1_ - | (146) | (133) - St. Lawrence Island | 10.36 _56.3_| 9.93 _56.1_ - | (3) | - Yukon Delta | 10.37 _55.8_| - | (11) | (18) - Pastolik | 10.41 _56.5_| 9.98 _56.3_ - | (8) | (6) - St. Michael Island | 10.44 _57.3_| 9.98 _56.3_ - | (9) | (15) - Nelson Island | 10.46 _55.8_| 9.73 _55.9_ - | (3) | (7) - Togiak | 10.47 _57.2_| 9.56 _55.7_ - | (3) | (2) - Southwestern Alaska | 10.47 _57.6_| 9.80 _54.8_ - | (15) | (16) - Indian Point and Puotin | 10.54 _56.5_| 9.97 _56.5_ - | (46) | (69) - Nunivak Island | 10.55 _56.1_| 10.02 _56_ - | | - _Northwestern_ | | - | (2) | - Kotzebue | 10.45 _57.3_| - | (133) | (82) - Point Hope | 10.48 _57_ | 10.00 _56.9_ - | (12) | (8) - Shishmaref | 10.50 _56.8_| 10.20 _57.5_ - | (47) | (52) - Point Barrow | 10.54 _56.2_| 9.94 _55.5_ - | (35) | (34) - Barrow | 10.61 _55.9_| 10.01 _56.3_ - | (19) | (15) - Wales | 10.64 _56.7_| 10.01 _55.5_ - | (27) | (24) - Igloos north of Barrow | 10.70 _55.6_| 10.18 _56.2_ - | | - _Northern and northeastern_| | - | (16) | (17) - Baffin Land and vicinity | 10.51 _55.6_| 10.11 _55.2_ - | (5) | (2) - Hudson Bay and vicinity | 10.60 _56.4_| 9.75 _55.6_ - | (48) | (52) - Greenland | 10.60 _55.9_| 10.13 _56.2_ - | (5) | (10) - Northern Arctic | 10.68 _56.1_| 10.07 _55.3_ - | (7) | - Smith Sound | 10.70 _56.4_| - | (9) | (5) - Southampton Island | 10.83 _57.3_| 10.34 _56.9_ - ----------------------------------------------------------- - -An interesting point is that in the north and northeast, where the -skulls are longest, there is evidently a slightly greater relative -development of the occipital portion of the vault, or slightly lesser -development of the frontal portion. - -Some additional points of interest appear when the basion-nasion: -skull-length index, taken collectively for the two sexes, is compared -in the different groups. All these comparisons suffer, naturally, -from unevenness and often insufficiency of the numbers of specimens, -yet some of the results are very harmonious with those brought out -repeatedly by other data. Thus the St. Lawrence material stands once -more close to the medium of the southwestern and midwestern groups; -Barrow and Point Barrow are almost identical; and so are the Old Igloos -from near Barrow and Greenland. The St. Michael islanders show very -favorably in the midwest, the Shishmarefs in the northwest and the -Southampton islanders in the northeast. - - ESKIMO SKULLS: BASION-NASION LINE IN RELATION TO SKULL LENGTH - - (BN×100/SL) - - BOTH SEXES TOGETHER IN ASCENDING ORDER - - _Southwestern and midwestern_ - - (5) - Chukchee 54.8 - (6) - Pilot Station, Lower Yukon 55.2 - (11) - Little Diomede Island 55.6 - (24) - Nelson Island 55.9 - (115) - Nunivak Island 56.0 - (10) - Mumtrak 56.1 - (279) - St. Lawrence Island 56.2 - (5) - Southwestern Alaska 56.2 - (29) - Pastolik 56.4 - (10) - Togiak 56.5 - (31) - Indian Point and vicinity - (Siberia) 56.5 - (13) - Hooper Bay 56.6 - (14) - St. Michael Island 56.8 - - _Northwestern_ - - (51) - Igloos southwest of Barrow 55.9 - (99) - Point Barrow 55.9 - (69) - Barrow 56.1 - (34) - Wales 56.1 - (215) - Point Hope 57.0 - (20) - Shishmaref 57.1 - - _Northern and northeastern_ - - (33) - Baffin Land and vicinity 55.4 - (10) - Northern Arctic 55.7 - (7) - Hudson Bay and vicinity 56.0 - (100) - Greenland 56.1 - (7) - Smith Sound (male) 56.4 - (14) - Southampton Island 57.1 - -The next table gives the percentage relations of the basion-nasion -diameter to the mean diameter of the skull. The correlation of the two -is even closer than in the case of the skull length, and the grouping, -while in the main alike, seems in general even more in harmony with -that in previous comparisons. The St. Lawrence Island females are very -exceptional, as was also apparent in other connections. The unusual -smallness of their skull (compare section on Cranial module) is -evidently due to a poor development of its posterior half. - - ESKIMO CRANIA: PERCENTAGE RELATION OF THE BASION-NASION DIAMETER TO - MEAN CRANIAL DIAMETER (CRANIAL MODULE) - - (BN×100/CM) - - BOTH SEXES TOGETHER IN ASCENDING ORDER - - _Southwestern and Midwestern_ - - Pilot Station, Yukon 65.6 - Chukchee 66.0 - Little Diomede Island 66.1 - Hooper Bay 66.4 - Nelson Island 66.7 - Togiak 66.9 - Southwest Alaska 67.3 - Indian Point, Siberia 67.4 - Mumtrak 67.4 - Nunivak Island 67.6 - Pastolik 67.6 - St. Michael Island 68.0 - St. Lawrence Island: - Male 67.2 - Female (69.6) - - _Northwestern_ - - Wales 67.7 - Point Barrow 67.8 - Point Hope 68.1 - Barrow 68.4 - Old Igloos 69.0 - Shishmaref 69.2 - - _Northern Arctic and northeastern_ - - Baffin Land 67.4 - Hudson Bay 67.6 - Smith Sound (male) 67.6 - North Arctic 68.1 - Greenland 68.5 - Southampton Island 68.7 - - -PROGNATHISM - -Since better understood, the subject of facial prognathism has lost -much of its allure in anthropology; yet the matter is not wholly -without interest. - -Facial protrusion is as a rule secondary to and largely caused by -alveolar protrusion, which in turn is caused by the size and shape of -the dental arch; and the dental arch is generally proportional to the -size of the teeth. The form of the arch is, however, quite influential. -With the teeth identical in size a narrow arch will be more, a broad -arch less protruding, and a narrow arch with small teeth may protrude -more than a broad one with larger teeth. Another influence is that of -the height of the upper face, the same arch protruding more in a low -face than in a high one. And still another factor is the incline of the -front teeth, though this affects merely the appearance of prognathism -and not its measurements. - -There are different ways of measuring facial prognathism, and with -sufficient care all may be effective; I prefer, for practical reasons, -linear measurements from the basion, which, together with the facial -and subnasal heights, give triangles that can readily be reconstructed -on paper and allow a direct measurement of both the facial and the -alveolar angle. The three needed diameters from basion are taken, the -first to the "prealveolar point," or the _most anterior_ point on the -upper dental arch above the incisors; the second to the "subnasal -point," or the point on the left (for convenience) of the nasal -aperture, where the outer part of its border passes into that which -belongs to the subnasal portion of the maxilla (the point where the -subnasal slant begins); and the third to nasion. The facial height is -that from the alveolar point (_lowest_ point of the upper alveolar -border in the median line) to nasion; while for the subnasal height, -which can not be measured directly, I utilize the difference between -the facial and nasal heights, which is very close to the needed -dimension. - -The important basion-nasion diameter has already been considered. That -to the subnasal point needs no comment. That to the prealveolar point -shows in the western and other Eskimo as follows: - - ESKIMO CRANIA: BASION-PREALVEOLAR POINT DIAMETER - - ALL ESKIMO - - Males: - Mean diameter centimeters 10.54 - Mean relation to length of skull per cent _56.3_ - Females: - Diameter centimeters 9.99 - Relation per cent _55.8_ - - MALES - - A = Basion prealveolar point diameter - B = Its relation to length of skull - - +------------------+------------------+------------------+ - | Southwestern and | Northwestern | Northern Arctics | - | midwestern | | and northeastern | - +------------------+------------------+------------------+ - | _A_ _B_ | _A_ _B_ | _A_ _B_ | - | 10.38 _56.4_ | 10.58 _56.4_ | 10.65 _56.2_ | - | Mean skull lengths | - | 18.41 | 18.75 | 18.96 | - +------------------+------------------+------------------+ - | FEMALES | - +------------------+------------------+------------------+ - | 9.85 _55.7_ | 10.06 _56.3_ | 10.06 _55.4_ | - | Mean skull lengths | - | 17.69 | 17.86 | 18.15 | - +------------------+------------------+------------------+ - -As in other details, so here there is a remarkable similarity between -the skulls from the three large areas, pointing both to the unity of -the people and to absence of heterogeneous admixtures. As the skull -length increases so does the basi-alveolar line, but the relative -proportions of the two remain very nearly the same. - -The relative value of the basi-alveolar length in the males, compared -to the length of the skull, is in general about 0.5 per cent higher -than it is in the females. This is just about the excess of the -relative proportion of the length of the male dental arch when compared -to the same skull dimension. The general mean skull length in the -Eskimo male approximates 18.705, in female 17.899 centimeters; the mean -length of the arch is, in the male, close to 5.625, in the female 5.365 -centimeters; and the percentage relation of the latter to the former -is _30.6_ in the males, _30_ in the females. The relatively slightly -greater basi-alveolar length in the males is evidently, therefore, at -least partly due to the relatively longer male dental arch, which in -turn is doubtless due to the somewhat larger teeth in the males.[156] - -Notwithstanding the just discussed slight sex difference in the -Eskimo, the facial angle, i. e., the angle between the basi-alveolar -line and the line nasion-alveolar point, is equal in the two sexes. -This equalization is due largely, if not wholly, to the effect in the -males of the relatively longer basio-nasion diameter (v. a.), while -the alveolar angle, or that between the basi-alveolar and the subnasal -lines, is in general by about 1 per cent lower in the females (males, -56°; females, 55°), indicating a slightly greater slant of the subnasal -region in the female, which can only be due to a relatively slightly -shorter in this sex of the basion-subnasal point diameter. As a matter -of fact, the percentage relation of this diameter to the length of the -skull amounts in the males to _56.3_, in the females to but _55.6_. - -Compared to that in the Indians, the facial angle in the Eskimo skulls -shows close affinities. Its value (69°) is very nearly the same as in -the mound skulls from Arkansas and Louisiana (males 70.7°, females -69°). In other Indians it ranges from close to 68° to 71.5°. In the -Munsee it reached 73.5°. In whites, according to Rivet's data,[157] it -ranges from about 72° to 75°; in a group of negroes it was 68.5°. In -American and other negro crania measured by me[158] it ranged from 67° -to 70.5°, in Melanesians from 66° to 68°, in Australians from 67° to -69°. - -The _alveolar angle_ is more variable. It shows considerable -individual, sex, and group differences. It averages slightly to -moderately higher, which means a more open angle or less slant in the -males than in the females. In the Eskimo as a whole it was seen to -be approximately 56° in the males, 55° in the females; in the Munsee -Indians (Bull. 62, Bur. Amer. Ethn.) it was males 59°, females 57°; -in the Arkansas and Louisiana skulls (J. Ac. Sci., Phila., 1909, XIV) -it averaged males 55°, females 52°. In my catalogue material it shows -a group variation of 46.5° to 55.5° in the negro, 47.5° to 52.5° in -the Australians, 46.5° to 50.5° in the Melanesians. In the whites it -generally exceeds 60°. - -Differences in facial and alveolar protrusion among the Eskimo -according to area are small, yet they are not wholly absent. The -figures below show that in the southwesterners and midwesterners, where -the skull is more rounded, the prognathism is smallest; and that toward -the north and northeast, where the skull is narrower and the palate -(dental arch) tends to become longer, prognathism increases. The "Old -Igloo" group shows once more such affinity with the Greenlanders that -it is placed with the third subdivision. - - ESKIMO SKULLS: FACIAL AND ALVEOLAR ANGLE WITH PRINCIPAL AREAS - - ----------------+---------------------------+--------------------------- - | Males | Females - +-------+---------+---------+-------+---------+--------- - | South-| | North | South-| | North - | and |Northwest| and | and |Northwest| and - |midwest| |northeast|midwest| |northeast - ----------------+-------+---------+---------+-------+---------+--------- - Groups | (13) | (5) | (6) | (13) | (5) | (6) - Facial angle | 68 | 69 | 70 | 67.5 | 69 | 70 - Alveolar angle | 55 | 56 | 55 | 54 | 55 | 54.5 - ----------------+-------+---------+---------+-------+---------+--------- - -Individual group differences in the facial and alveolar angle are -moderate, yet evidently not negligible. (See next table.) The most -prognathic, especially in the subnasal region, are the skulls from -Nelson Island. A marked alveolar slant is also present in the Pilot -Station Yukon group, and in Greenland. The least prognathic are -the St. Michael Islanders, the Point Hope people, and those from -Southampton Island. St. Lawrence stands once more near the middle of -the southwesterners and midwesterners, and there are to be seen the -principal old relations. - -The main points shown by the above conditions are the group -variability, particularly in the southwest and midwest; the tendency, -on the whole, toward a slightly greater prognathy, both facial and -alveolar, in this same area; and the evidence that the alveolar slant -has some individuality. - - ESKIMO SKULLS: GROUP CONDITIONS IN FACIAL AND ALVEOLAR ANGLE[159] - - _South and Midwest_ - - Facial Alveolar - angle angle - (20) - Nelson Island 66.3 51.5 - (4) - Southwest Alaska 66.8 54.5 - (4) - Chukchee 66.8 57.0 - (21) - Indian Point 67.0 56.5 - (8) - Togiak 67.0 54.0 - (242) - St. Lawrence Island 67.8 55.3 - (86) - Nunivak Island 67.8 56.5 - (23) - Pastolik 68.3 54.8 - (10) - Hooper Bay 68.3 55.3 - (10) - Little Diomede Island 68.5 57.5 - (9) - Mumtrak 68.8 55.3 - (5) - Pilot Station, Yukon 68.8 52.0 - (10) - St. Michael Island 70.0 56.8 - - _Northwest_ - - (11) - Sledge Island 69.5 54.9 - (31) - Wales 67.8 56.0 - (17) - Shishmaref 68.3 55.8 - (73) - Point Barrow 69.5 56.0 - (43) - Barrow 69.8 56.8 - (181) - Point Hope 70.5 56.5 - - _North and northeast_ - - (11) - North Arctic 68.5 54.5 - (24) - Baffin Land 70.0 55.0 - (87) - Greenland 69.8 53.8 - (35) - Old Igloos near Barrow 70.3 55.8 - (7) - Hudson Bay 70.3 56.8 - (12) - Southampton Island 71 55 - - ESKIMO CRANIA - - SOUTHWESTERN AND WESTERN ALASKA, BERING SEA ISLANDS, AND ASIATIC - COAST - - MALES - - -----------+-------+------+---------+---------+------+-------+-------+ - | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - | Prince|Kodiak| Unalaska| Nushagak|Togiak|Mumtrak|Nunivak| - |William|Island|Peninsula| Bay and| | | Island| - | Sound| | |Kanakanak| | | | - | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - -----------+-------+------+---------+---------+------+-------+-------+ - Vault: | (1)| (1)| (1)| (1)| (4)| (4)| (46)| - | | | | | | | | - Length | 18.1| 18.6| 17.8| 17.4| 18.30| 18.10| 18.81| - | | | | | | | | - | (1)| (1)| (1)| (1)| (4)| (4)| (46)| - | | | | | | | | - Breadth | 13.8| 14.4| 14.1| 14.4| 14.20| 14.20| 14.09| - | | | | | | | | - | (1)| (1)| (1)| (1)| (4)| (4)| (46)| - | | | | | | | | - Height | 12.8| 14| 13.6| 13.4| 13.25| 13.35| 13.69| - | | | | | | | | - | (1)| (1)| (1)| (1)| (4)| (4)| (46)| - | | | | | | | | - Cranial | 14.90| 15.67| 15.17| 15.07| 15.25| 15.22| 15.53| - Module | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - | (1)| (1)| | (1)| (3)| (4)| (46)| - | | | | | | | | - Capacity | 1,380| 1,485| --| 1,440| 1,447| 1,465| 1,504| - | | | | | | | | - | (_1_)| (_1_)| (_1_)| (_1_)| (_4_)| (_4_)| (_46_)| - | | | | | | | | - Cranial | _76.2_|_77.4_| _79.2_| _82.3_|_77.6_| _78.5_| _75_| - Index | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - | (_1_)| (_1_)| (_1_)| (_1_)| (_4_)| (_4_)| (_46_)| - | | | | | | | | - Mean | _80.3_|_84.8_| _85.3_| _84.3_|_81.6_| _82.7_| _83.2_| - height | | | | | | | | - Index | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - | (_1_)| (_1_)| (_1_)| (_1_)| (_4_)| (_4_)| (_46_)| - | | | | | | | | - Height- | _90.7_|_97.2_| _96.4_| _93_|_93.3_| _94_| _97.1_| - breadth | | | | | | | | - index | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - Face: | | (1)| | (1)| (2)| (3)| (24)| - | | | | | | | | - Menton- | --| 11.8| --| 12.6| 12.90| 12.17| 12.95| - nasion | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - | (1)| (1)| | (1)| (3)| (3)| (43)| - | | | | | | | | - Nasion- | 7.5| 7.8| --| 7.6| 8| 7.60| 7.83| - upper | | | | | | | | - alveolar | | | | | | | | - point | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - | (1)| (1)| (1)| (1)| (3)| (4)| (45)| - | | | | | | | | - Diameter- | 13.4| 14.8| 14.1| 14.6| 14.07| 13.90| 14.32| - bizygomatic| | | | | | | | - maximum | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - | | (_1_)| | (_1_)| (_2_)| (_3_)| (_24_)| - | | | | | | | | - Facial | --|_79.7_| --| _86.3_|_95.6_| _88.8_| _90.3_| - Index, | | | | | | | | - total | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - | (_1_)| (_1_)| | (_1_)| (_3_)| (_3_)| (_43_)| - | | | | | | | | - Facial | _56_|_49.3_| --| _52.1_|_56.9_| _55.5_| _54.6_| - Index, | | | | | | | | - upper | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - Basio- | (1)| (1)| (3)| | (1)| (3)| (42)| - facial: | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - Basion | 11| 10.5| 10.43| | 10| 10.43| 10.65| - alveolar | | | | | | | | - point | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - | (1)| (1)| (1)| (1)| (3)| (4)| (44)| - | | | | | | | | - Basion- | 9.4| 9.4| 9| 8.6| 9.37| 9.12| 9.51| - subnasal | | | | | | | | - point | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - | (1)| (1)| (1)| (1)| (3)| (4)| (46)| - | | | | | | | | - Basion- | 10.4| 10.8| 10.2| 9.9| 10.47| 10.32| 10.55| - nasion | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - | (_1_)| (_1_)| | (_1_)| (_4_)| (_3_)| (_41_)| - | | | | | | | | - Facial | _65.5_| _72_| | _67.5_| _68_| _69_| _68_| - angle | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - | (_1_)| (_1_)| | (_1_)| (_4_)| (_3_)| (_41_)| - | | | | | | | | - Alveolar | _48.5_|_56.5_| | _49_|_56.5_| _55_| _58_| - angle | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - Orbits: | (1)| (1)| (1)| (1)| (3)| (4)| (42)| - | | | | | | | | - Mean height| 3.47| 3.55| 3.62| 3.67| 3.64| 3.45| 3.59| - | | | | | | | | - | (1)| (1)| (1)| (1)| (3)| (4)| (42)| - | | | | | | | | - Mean | 3.85| 4.07| 4| 3.9| 3.95| 4.09| 4.02| - breadth | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - | (_1_)| (_1_)| (_1_)| (_1_)| (_3_)| (_4_)| (_42_)| - | | | | | | | | - Mean index | _90.2_|_87.1_| _90.7_| _94.2_|_92.2_| _84.3_| _89.2_| - | | | | | | | | - Nose: | (1)| (1)| (1)| (1)| (3)| (4)| (44)| - | | | | | | | | - Height | 4.9| 5.1| 5.4| 5.3| 5.57| 5.49| 5.35| - | | | | | | | | - | (1)| (1)| (1)| (1)| (3)| (4)| (44)| - | | | | | | | | - Breadth | 2.4| 2.45| 2.45| 2.45| 2.35| 2.54| 2.35| - | | | | | | | | - | (_1_)| (_1_)| (_1_)| (_1_)| (_3_)| (_4_)| (_44_)| - | | | | | | | | - Index | _49_| _48_| _45.4_| _46.2_|_42.2_| _46.3_| _43.8_| - | | | | | | | | - Upper | (1)| (1)| | (1)| (3)| (3)| (44)| - alveolar | | | | | | | | - arch: | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - Length | 5.9| 5.6| | 5.5| 5.60| 5.40| 5.66| - | | | | | | | | - | (1)| (1)| | (1)| (3)| (3)| (44)| - | | | | | | | | - Breadth | 6.9| 6.8| | 6.6| 6.43| 6.63| 6.79| - | | | | | | | | - | (_1_)| (_1_)| | (_1_)| (_3_)| (_3_)| (_44_)| - | | | | | | | | - Index | _87_|_82.4_| | _83.3_| _87_| _81.4_| _83.4_| - | | | | | | | | - | | (1)| | (1)| (2)| (4)| (28)| - | | | | | | | | - Lower jaw: | | 3.3| | 4| 3.8| 3.55| 4| - Height at | | | | | | | | - symphysis | | | | | | | | - -----------+-------+------+---------+---------+------+-------+-------+ - - -----------+-------+------+------+--------+--------+ - | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | Nelson|Hooper| Lower| Pilot| Kotlik| - | Island| Bay| Yukon|Station,| and| - |Tanunok| | and| lower|Pastolik| - |Village| | delta| Yukon| | - | | | | | | - -----------+-------+------+------+--------+--------+ - Vault: | (9)| (9)| (3)| (3)| (11)| - | | | | | | - Length | 18.73| 17.86| 18.57| 18.90| 18.44| - | | | | | | - | (9)| (9)| (3)| (3)| (11)| - | | | | | | - Breadth | 14.44| 14.43| 14.13| 15.07| 13.90| - | | | | | | - | (9)| (9)| (3)| (3)| (11)| - | | | | | | - Height | 13.60| 13.60| 13.67| 13.77| 13.60| - | | | | | | - | (9)| (9)| (3)| (3)| (11)| - | | | | | | - Cranial | 15.59| 15.30| 15.46| 15.91| 15.31| - Module | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | (9)| (9)| (3)| (3)| (11)| - | | | | | | - Capacity | 1,556| 1,519| 1,490| 1,660| 1,486| - | | | | | | - | (_9_)| (_9_)| (_3_)| (_3_)| (_11_)| - | | | | | | - Cranial | _77.2_|_80.8_|_76.1_| _79.7_| _75.4_| - Index | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | (_9_)| (_9_)| (_3_)| (_3_)| (_11_)| - | | | | | | - Mean | _82_|_84.2_|_83.6_| _81.6_| _84.1_| - height | | | | | | - Index | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | (_9_)| (_9_)| (_3_)| (_3_)| (_11_)| - | | | | | | - Height- | _94.2_|_94.2_|_96.7_| _91.4_| _97.8_| - breadth | | | | | | - index | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Face: | (7)| (7)| | (3)| (7)| - | | | | | | - Menton- | 13| 12.44| --| 12.40| 12.67| - nasion | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | (9)| (8)| (3)| (2)| (9)| - | | | | | | - Nasion- | 8.19| 7.69| 7.87| 7.85| 7.78| - upper | | | | | | - alveolar | | | | | | - point | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | (9)| (9)| (3)| (3)| (9)| - | | | | | | - Diameter- | 14.44| 14.17| 14.30| 14.97| 14.13| - bizygomatic| | | | | | - maximum | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | (_7_)| (_7_)| | (_2_)| (_7_)| - | | | | | | - Facial | _90.5_|_87.4_| --| _82.4_| _90.1_| - Index, | | | | | | - total | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | (_9_)| (_8_)| (_3_)| (_2_)| (_9_)| - | | | | | | - Facial | _56.7_|_54.1_| _55_| _52.2_| _55_| - Index, | | | | | | - upper | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Basio- | (7)| (8)| (3)| (2)| (7)| - facial: | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Basion | 10.61| 10.25| 10.20| 10.35| 10.40| - alveolar | | | | | | - point | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | (9)| (9)| (3)| (3)| (10)| - | | | | | | - Basion- | 9.28| 9.12| 9.20| 9.07| 9.17| - subnasal | | | | | | - point | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | (9)| (9)| (3)| (3)| (11)| - | | | | | | - Basion- | 10.46| 10.29| 10.37| 10.27| 10.41| - nasion | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | (_7_)| (_8_)| (_3_)| (_2_)| (_7_)| - | | | | | | - Facial | _66_| _68_| _69_| _70.5_| _69_| - angle | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | (_7_)| (_8_)| (_3_)| (_2_)| (_7_)| - | | | | | | - Alveolar | _53_|_55.5_|_59.5_| _53_| _56_| - angle | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Orbits: | (9)| (9)| (3)| (3)| (11)| - | | | | | | - Mean height| 3.75| 3.66| 3.76| 3.57| 3.67| - | | | | | | - | (9)| (9)| (3)| (3)| (11)| - | | | | | | - Mean | 4.08| 3.92| 3.94| 4.07| 3.98| - breadth | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | (_9_)| (_9_)| (_3_)| (_3_)| (_11_)| - | | | | | | - Mean index | _92_|_93.4_|_95.5_| _87.7_| _92.3_| - | | | | | | - Nose: | (9)| (9)| (3)| (3)| (11)| - | | | | | | - Height | 5.59| 5.41| 5.45| 5.37| 5.44| - | | | | | | - | (9)| (9)| (3)| (3)| (11)| - | | | | | | - Breadth | 2.41| 2.43| 2.23| 2.57| 2.51| - | | | | | | - | (_9_)| (_9_)| (_3_)| (_3_)| (_11_)| - | | | | | | - Index | _43_|_44.9_| _41_| _47.8_| _46.2_| - | | | | | | - Upper | (8)| (8)| (3)| (2)| (7)| - alveolar | | | | | | - arch: | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Length | 5.73| 5.46| 5.40| 5.70| 5.57| - | | | | | | - | (8)| (8)| (3)| (2)| (7)| - | | | | | | - Breadth | 6.68| 6.65| 6.63| 7.40| 6.70| - | | | | | | - | (_8_)| (_8_)| (_3_)| (_2_)| (_7_)| - | | | | | | - Index | _85.8_|_82.1_|_81.4_| _77_| _83.4_| - | | | | | | - | (8)| (8)| | (3)| (11)| - | | | | | | - Lower jaw: | 3.91| 3.63| | 3.63| 3.75| - Height at | | | | | | - symphysis | | | | | | - -----------+-------+------+------+--------+--------+ - - -----------+-------+--------+-------+------+------+------- - | | | | Northeastern Asia - | | | +------+------+------- - | St.| St.| Little|Indian|Puotin|Chukchi - |Michael|Lawrence|Diomede| Point| (NW.| (in or - | Island| Island| Island| (E.| of E.| near - | | | | Cape)| Cape)| Bering - | | | | | |Strait) - -----------+-------+--------+-------+------+------+------- - Vault: | (8)| (153)| (5)| (14)| (2)| (3) - | | | | | | - Length | 18.23| 18.40| 18.12| 18.59| 18.95| 18.63 - | | | | | | - | (8)| (153)| (5)| (14)| (2)| (3) - | | | | | | - Breadth | 13.84| 14.19| 14.28| 14.32| 14.45| 14.67 - | | | | | | - | (8)| (145)| (5)| (13)| (2)| (3) - | | | | | | - Height | 13.83| 13.68| 13.60| 13.68| 14.30| 13.37 - | | | | | | - | (8)| (145)| (5)| (13)| (2)| (3) - | | | | | | - Cranial | 15.30| 15.42| 15.33| 15.54| 15.90| 15.56 - Module | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | (8)| (142)| (5)| | | (3) - | | | | | | - Capacity | 1,461| 1,462| 1,470| --| --| 1,490 - | | | | | | - | (_8_)| (_153_)| (_5_)|(_14_)| (_2_)| (_3_) - | | | | | | - Cranial | _75.9_| _77.1_| _78.8_| _77_|_76.3_| _78.7_ - Index | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | (_8_)| (_145_)| (_5_)|(_13_)| (_2_)| (_3_) - | | | | | | - Mean | _86.2_| _84_| _83.9_| _83_|_85.6_| _80.3_ - height | | | | | | - Index | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | (_8_)| (_145_)| (_5_)|(_13_)| (_2_)| (_3_) - | | | | | | - Height- | _99.9_| _96.4_| _95.2_|_95.2_|_98.9_| _91.1_ - breadth | | | | | | - index | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Face: | (2)| (24)| | | | - | | | | | | - Menton- | 12.20| 12.70| --| --| --| -- - nasion | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | (7)| (139)| (5)| (10)| (2)| (2) - | | | | | | - Nasion- | 7.86| 7.82| 7.58| 7.91| 8.05| 8.10 - upper | | | | | | - alveolar | | | | | | - point | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | (8)| (148)| (5)| (14)| (2)| (3) - | | | | | | - Diameter- | 13.99| 14.20| 13.52| 14.37| 14.65| 14.53 - bizygomatic| | | | | | - maximum | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | (_2_)| (_24_)| | | | - | | | | | | - Facial | _87.8_| _88.8_| --| --| --| -- - Index, | | | | | | - total | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | (_7_)| (_13_)| (_5_)|(_10_)| (_2_)| (_2_) - | | | | | | - Facial | _56.4_| _55.1_| _56.1_|_55.7_| _55_|_55.7_ - Index, | | | | | | - upper | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Basio- | (7)| (131)| (4)| (8)| (2)| (2) - facial: | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Basion | 10.21| 10.43| 10.25| 10.40| 10.95| 10.50 - alveolar | | | | | | - point | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | (8)| (143)| (4)| (13)| (2)| (3) - | | | | | | - Basion- | 9.04| 9.26| 9.12| 9.35| 9.80| 9.10 - subnasal | | | | | | - point | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | (8)| (145)| (4)| (13)| (2)| (3) - | | | | | | - Basion- | 10.44| 10.36| 10.18| 10.48| 10.90| 10.20 - nasion | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | (_7_)| (_131_)| (_4_)| (_8_)| (_2_)| (_2_) - | | | | | | - Facial | _69_| _67.5_| _68_| _67_| _68_| _66_ - angle | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | (_7_)| (_131_)| (_4_)| (_8_)| (_2_)| (_2_) - | | | | | | - Alveolar | _56.5_| _56.5_| _55.5_| _57_| _58_| _57.5_ - angle | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Orbits: | (8)| (145)| (5)| (14)| (2)| (3) - | | | | | | - Mean height| 3.74| 3.68| 3.45| 3.80| 3.60| 3.66 - | | | | | | - | (8)| (145)| (5)| (14)| (2)| (3) - | | | | | | - Mean | 4.04| 4.03| 3.88| 4.10| 4.25| 4.01 - breadth | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | (_8_)| (_145_)| (_5_)|(_14_)| (_2_)| (_3_) - | | | | | | - Mean index | _93.3_| _91.2_| _89.1_|_92.7_|_84.7_| _91.1_ - | | | | | | - Nose: | (8)| (148)| (5)| (14)| (2)| (3) - | | | | | | - Height | 5.36| 5.42| 5.30| 5.57| 5.47| 5.63 - | | | | | | - | (8)| (148)| (5)| (14)| (2)| (3) - | | | | | | - Breadth | 2.26| 2.45| 2.36| 2.55| 2.50| 2.30 - | | | | | | - | (_8_)| (_148_)| (_5_)|(_14_)| (_2_)| (_3_) - | | | | | | - Index | _42.1_| _45.2_| _44.6_|_45.7_|_45.7_| _40.8_ - | | | | | | - Upper | (7)| (121)| (5)| (8)| (2)| (2) - alveolar | | | | | | - arch: | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Length | 5.44| 5.63| 5.38| 5.57| 5.70| 5.95 - | | | | | | - | (7)| (121)| (5)| (8)| (2)| (2) - | | | | | | - Breadth | 6.63| 6.79| 6.46| 6.66| 6.60| 7.15 - | | | | | | - | (_7_)| (_121_)| (_5_)| (_8_)| (_2_)| (_2_) - | | | | | | - Index | _82.1_| _82.9_| _83.3_|_83.6_|_86.4_| _83.2_ - | | | | | | - | (2)| (26)| | | (2)| - | | | | | | - Lower jaw: | 3.65| 3.62| | | 3.90| - Height at | | | | | | - symphysis | | | | | | - -----------+-------+--------+-------+------+------+------- - - SEWARD PENINSULA TO POINT BARROW AND EASTWARD TO GREENLAND - - MALES - - -----------+--------+-------+-------+--------+------+----------+ - |Golovnin| Cape| Sledge| Port| Wales|Shishmaref| - | Bay| Nome| Island|Clarence| | | - | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - -----------+--------+-------+-------+--------+------+----------+ - Vault: | (3)| (1)| (5)| (4)| (19)| (13)| - | | | | | | | - Length | 19.23| 18| 19.16| 18.88| 18.75| 18.49| - | | | | | | | - | (3)| (1)| (5)| (4)| (19)| (13)| - | | | | | | | - Breadth | 13.67| 13.5| 13.72| 13.78| 13.64| 13.65| - | | | | | | | - | (3)| (1)| (5)| (3)| (19)| (12)| - | | | | | | | - Height | 14.13| 13.6| 14.02| 13.90| 13.92| 13.48| - | | | | | | | - | (3)| (1)| (5)| (3)| (19)| (12)| - | | | | | | | - Cranial | 15.68| 15.03| 15.63| 15.57| 15.66| 15.19| - module | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (3)| (1)| (5)| | (18)| (11)| - | | | | | | | - Capacity | 1,483| 1,325| 1,498| | 1,474| 1,395| - | | | | | | | - | (_3_)| (_1_)| (_5_)| (_4_)|(_19_)| (_13_)| - | | | | | | | - Cranial | _71.1_| _75_| _71.6_| _73_|_72.8_| _73.8_| - index | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_3_)| (_1_)| (_5_)| (_3_)|(_19_)| (_12_)| - | | | | | | | - Mean | _85.9_| _86.1_| _85.3_| _84.8_|_85.9_| _84_| - height | | | | | | | - index | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_3_)| (_1_)| (_5_)| (_3_)|(_19_) (_12_)| - | | | | | | | - Height- | _103.4_|_100.7_|_102.2_| _99_| _102_ _98.8_| - breadth | | | | | | | - index | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Face: | (3)| (1)| (4)| (1)| (12)| (6)| - | | | | | | | - Menton- | 12.67| 12.6| 12.73| 13| 12.74 12.30| - nasia | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (3)| (1)| (5)| (3)| (16) (10)| - | | | | | | | - Upper alv. | 7.97| 8| 7.83| 7.73| 7.81 7.60| - pt.-nasion | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (3)| (1)| (5)| (3)| (18) (10)| - | | | | | | | - Diameter- | 14.37| 14.3| 14.20| 14.17| 14.16| 14.20| - bizygomatic| | | | | | | - maximum | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_3_)| (_1_)| (_4_)| (_1_)|(_12_)| (_6_)| - | | | | | | | - Facial | _88.2_| _88.1_| _89.3_| _89.7_| _90_| _87.2_| - index, | | | | | | | - total | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_3_)| (_1_)| (_5_)| (_3_)|(_16_)| (_10_)| - | | | | | | | - Facial | _55.5_| _55.9_| _55.2_| _54.6_|_55.2_| _53.6_| - index, | | | | | | | - upper | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Basio- | (2)| (1)| (5)| (3)| (17)| (10)| - facial: | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Basion- | 10.4| 10.9| 10.62| 10.87| 10.55| 10.60| - alveolar | | | | | | | - point | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (3)| (1)| (5)| (3)| (18)| (11)| - | | | | | | | - Basion- | 9.57| 9.9| 9.58| 9.63| 9.43| 9.44| - subnasal | | | | | | | - point | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (3)| (1)| (5)| (3)| (19)| (12)| - | | | | | | | - Basion- | 10.87| 10.8| 10.88| 10.77| 10.64| 10.50| - nasion | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_2_)| (_1_)| (_5_)| (_8_)|(_16_)| (_10_)| - | | | | | | | - Facial | _69.5_| _67.5_| _70_| _68_|_68.5_| _68.5_| - angle | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_2_)| (_1_)| (_5_)| (_8_)|(_16_)| (_10_)| - | | | | | | | - Alveolar | _60.5_| _59_| _57_| _53.5_| _57_| _56_| - angle | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Orbits: | (3)| (1)| (5)| (3)| (19)| (11)| - | | | | | | | - Mean height| 3.66| 3.42| 3.64| 3.62| 3.67| 3.60| - | | | | | | | - | (3)| (1)| (5)| (3)| (19)| (11)| - | | | | | | | - Mean | 4.20| 4.05| 4.03| 4.03| 4.09| 3.98| - breadth | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_3_)| (_1_)| (_5_)| (_3_)|(_19_)| (_11_)| - | | | | | | | - Mean index | _87.1_| _84.6_| _90.3_| _89.9_|_89.8_| _90.4_| - | | | | | | | - Nose: | (3)| (1)| (5)| (3)| (19)| (11)| - | | | | | | | - Height | 5.57| 5.7| 5.59| 5.37| 5.39| 5.35 - | | | | | | | - | (3)| (1)| (5)| (3)| (19)| (11)| - | | | | | | | - Breadth | 2.35| 2.55| 2.35| 2.35| 2.41| 2.39| - | | | | | | | - | (_3_)| (_1_)| (_5_)| (_3_)|(_19_)| (_11_)| - | | | | | | | - Index | _42.2_| _44.7_| _42_| _43.8_|_44.8_| _44.6_| - | | | | | | | - Upper | (3)| (1)| (5)| (3)| (17)| (9)| - alveolar | | | | | | | - arch: | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Length | 6.13| 6.1| 5.70| 5.90| 5.69| 5.74| - | | | | | | | - | (3)| (1)| (5)| (3)| (17)| (9)| - | | | | | | | - Breadth | 7| 6.9| 6.83| 6.80| 6.76| 6.79| - | | | | | | | - | (_3_)| (_1_)| (_5_)| (_3_)|(_17_)| (_9_)| - | | | | | | | - Index | _87.6_| _88.4_| _83.5_| _86.8_|_84.2_| _84.6_| - | | | | | | | - Lower jaw: | (3)| (1)| (4)| (1)| (16)| (7)| - Height at | | | | | | | - symphysis | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | 4| 3.85| 3.61| 4.2| 3.91| 3.78| - -----------+--------+-------+-------+--------+------+----------+ - - -----------+--------+-------+--------+---------+------+--------+ - |Kotzebue| Point| Barrow| Old| Point|Northern| - | | Hope| and| Igloos,|Barrow| Arctic| - | | |vicinity|southwest| | | - | | | |of Barrow| | | - | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - -----------+--------+-------+--------+---------+------+--------+ - Vault: | (2)| (131)| (37)| (27)| (49)| (5)| - | | | | | | | - Length | 18.25| 18.40| 18.90| 19.25| 18.74| 19.04| - | | | | | | | - | (2)| (131)| (37)| (27)| (49)| (5)| - | | | | | | | - Breadth | 13.50| 13.86| 13.73| 13.30| 13.84| 14.08| - | | | | | | | - | (2)| (128)| (35)| (27)| (47)| (5)| - | | | | | | | - Height | 13.40| 13.90| 13.78| 14.02| 13.78| 13.76| - | | | | | | | - | (2)| (128)| (35)| (27)| (47)| (5)| - | | | | | | | - Cranial | 15.05| 15.39| 15.46| 15.52| 15.44| 15.63| - module | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (2)| (126)| --| | (5)| --| - | | | | | | | - Capacity | 1,398| 1,474| --| | 1,324| --| - | | | | | | | - | (_2_)|(_131_)| (_37_)| (_27_)|_(49)_| _(5)_| - | | | | | | | - Cranial | _74_| _75.3_| _72.6_| _69.1_|_73.9_| _74_| - index | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_2_)|(_128_)| (_35_)| (_27_)|(_47_)| (_5_)| - | | | | | | | - Mean | _84.4_| _86.2_| _84.6_| _86.2_|_84.7_| _83._1| - height | | | | | | | - index | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_2_)|(_128_)| (_35_)| (_27_)|(_47_)| (_5_)| - | | | | | | | - Height- | _99.3_|_100.3_| _99.6_| _105.5_|_99.6_| _97.7_| - breadth | | | | | | | - index | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Face: | (1)| (4)| --| (16)| (2)| (1)| - | | | | | | | - Menton- | (11.8)| 12.40| --| 12.39| 13.10| 14| - nasia | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (1)| (118)| (21)| (261)| (37)| (5)| - | | | | | | | - Upper alv. | (7.3)| 7.52| 7.89| 7.71| 7.86| 8.02| - pt.-nasion | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (2)| (124)| (26)| (26)| (44)| (5)| - | | | | | | | - Diameter- | (13.85)| 14.31| 14.34| 14.16| 14.26| 14.44| - bizygomatic| | | | | | | - maximum | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_1_)| (_4_)| --| (_16_)| (_2_)| (_1_)| - | | | | | | | - Facial | _88.1_| _6.7_| --| _86.9_|_90.7_| _94.6_| - index, | | | | | | | - total | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_1_)|(_114_)| (_20_)| (_24_)|(_36_)| (_5_)| - | | | | | | | - Facial | _54.5_| _52.5_| _55_| _54.5_|_55.1_| _55.5_| - index, | | | | | | | - upper | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Basio- | (1)| (105)| (21)| (20)| (36)| (5)| - facial: | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Basion- | 10.7| 10.31| 10.39| 10.45| 10.39| 10.46| - alveolar | | | | | | | - point | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (2)| (123)| (28)| (27)| (45)| (5)| - | | | | | | | - Basion- | (9.20)| 9.28| 9.31| 9.33| 9.23| 9.20| - subnasal | | | | | | | - point | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (2)| (128)| (35)| (27)| (47)| (5)| - | | | | | | | - Basion- | (10.45)| 10.49| 10.61| 10.70| 10.54| 10.68| - nasion | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_1_)|(_105_)| --| --|(_36_)| (_5_)| - | | | | | | | - Facial | _68.5_| _70_| --| --| _69_| _69_| - angle | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_1_)|(_105_)| --| --|(_36_)| (_5_)| - | | | | | | | - Alveolar | _54_| _57_| --| --| _56_| _55_| - angle | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Orbits: | (2)| (118)| (28)| (25)| (43)| (5)| - | | | | | | | - Mean height| 3.48| 3.63| 3.60| 3.62| 3.61| 3.82| - | | | | | | | - | (2)| (118)| (28)| (25)| (43)| (5)| - | | | | | | | - Mean | 4.05| 4.03| 4.04| 3.97| 4.02| 4.22| - breadth | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_2_)|(_118_)| (_28_)| (_25_)|(_43_)| (_5_)| - | | | | | | | - Mean index | _85.9_| _90.1_| _89.2_| _91.3_|_89.9_| _90.5_| - | | | | | | | - Nose: | (2)| (126)| (29)| (27)| (46)| (5)| - | | | | | | | - Height (4.95)| 5.36| 5.52| 5.45| 5.48| 5.44| - | | | | | | | - | (2)| (126)| (29)| (27)| (46)| (5)| - | | | | | | | - Breadth | 2.22| 2.39| 2.39| 2.37| 2.31| 2.32| - | | | | | | | - | (_2_)|(_126_)| (_29_)| (_27_)|(_46_)| (_5_)| - | | | | | | | - Index | _44.9_| _44.6_| _43.4_| _43.6_|_42.2_| _42.6_| - | | | | | | | - Upper | (1)| (99)| (15)| (23)| (33)| (4)| - alveolar | | | | | | | - arch: | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Length | 5.5| 5.55| 5.59| 5.57| 5.63| 5.80| - | | | | | | | - | (1)| (99)| (15)| (23)| (33)| (4)| - | | | | | | | - Breadth | 5.8| 6.54| 6.45| 6.68| 6.47| 6.70| - | | | | | | | - | (_1_)| (_99_)| (_15_)| (_23_)|(_33_)| (_4_)| - | | | | | | | - Index | _94.8_| _84.9_| _86.6_| _83.4_|_86.9_| _86.6_| - | | | | | | | - Lower jaw: | (1)| (4)| (2)| (22)| (2)| (1)| - Height at | | | | | | | - symphysis | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | 3.8| 3.82| 3.95| 3.72| 3.9| 4.2| - -----------+--------+-------+--------+---------+------+--------+ - - -----------+---------+-----------+------+--------+------+--------- - | Melville|Southampton|Hudson| Baffin| Smith|Greenland - |Peninsula| Island| Bay| Land,| Sound| - | | | and|northern| | - | | |Ungava| Devon,| | - | | | Bay| and| | - | | | |vicinity| | - -----------+---------+-----------+------+--------+------+--------- - Vault: | (1)| (9)| (5)| (16)| (7)| (49) - | | | | | | - Length | 19.6| 18.91| 18.78| 18.91| 18.96| 8.97 - | | | | | | - | (1)| (9)| (5)| (16)| (7)| (49) - | | | | | | - Breadth | 13.7| 14.03| 14.10| 13.83| 14.37| 13.61 - | | | | | | - | (1)| (9)| (5)| (16)| (7)| (49) - | | | | | | - Height | 13.6| 14.01| 13.76| 13.87| 14.06| 13.95 - | | | | | | - | (1)| (9)| (5)| (16)| (7)| (49) - | | | | | | - Cranial | 15.63| 15.65| 15.55| 15.55| 15.81| 15.51 - module | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | | (9)| (1)| | (7)| (42) - | | | | | | - Capacity | | 1,563| 1,450| | 1,566| 1,518 - | | | | | | - | (_1_)| (_9_)| (_5_)| (_16_)| (_7_)| (_49_) - | | | | | | - Cranial | _70_| _74.2_|_75.1_| _73.1_|_75.8_| _71.8_ - index | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | (_1_)| (_9_)| (_5_)| (_16_)| (_7_)| (_49_) - | | | | | | - Mean | _81.7_| _85.1_|_83.7_| _84.9_|_84.4_| _85.7_ - height | | | | | | - index | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | (_1_)| (_9_)| (_5_)| (_16_)| (_7_)| (_49_) - | | | | | | - Height- | _99.3_| _99.8_|_97.6_| _100.5_|_97.8_| _102.5_ - breadth | | | | | | - index | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Face: | (1)| (6)| (4)| (6)| (6)| (12) - | | | | | | - Menton- | 12.8| 12.63| 12.18| 12.27| 12.13| 12.38 - nasia | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | (1)| (9)| (5)| (12)| (7)| (46) - | | | | | | - Upper alv. | 8| 7.67| 7.56| 7.61| 7.64| 7.61 - pt.-nasion | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | --| (9)| (5)| (16)| (7)| (47) - | | | | | | - Diameter- | --| 14.48| 14.06| 14.22| 14.69| 14.05 - bizygomatic| | | | | | - maximum | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | --| (_6_)| (_4_)| (_6_)| (_6_)| (_12_) - | | | | | | - Facial | --| _87.2_| _87_| _85.9_|_82.4_| _87.1_ - index, | | | | | | - total | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | --| (_9_)| (_5_)| (_12_)| (_7_)| (_45_) - | | | | | | - Facial | --| _53_|_53.8_| _53.7_| _52_| _54.1_ - index, | | | | | | - upper | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Basio- | --| (8)| (5)| (12)| (7)| (42) - facial: | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Basion- | --| 10.76| 10.58| 10.41| 10.26| 10.54 - alveolar | | | | | | - point | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | --| (9)| (5)| (16)| (7)| (47) - | | | | | | - Basion- | --| 9.52| 9.52| 9.24| 9.39| 9.32 - subnasal | | | | | | - point | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | --| (9)| (5)| (16)| (7)| (48) - | | | | | | - Basion- | --| 10.83| 10.60| 10.51| 10.70| 10.60 - nasion | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | --| (_9_)| (_5_)| --| (_7_)| (_42_) - | | | | | | - Facial | --| _69_|_69.5_| --|_71.4_| _70_ - angle | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | --| (_9_)| (_5_)| --| (_7_)| (_42_) - | | | | | | - Alveolar | --| _53_| _59_| --|_57.7_| _56_ - angle | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Orbits: | (1)| (9)| (5)| (15)| (7)| (47) - | | | | | | - Mean height| 3.9| 3.67| 3.58| 3.56| 3.54| 3.64 - | | | | | | - | (1)| (9)| (5)| (15)| (7)| (47) - | | | | | | - Mean | 4.3| 4.06| 3.97| 3.98| 4.11| 3.99 - breadth | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | (_1_)| (_9_)| (_5_)| (_15_)| (_7_)| (_47_) - | | | | | | - Mean index | _90.7_| _90.3_| _90_| _88.8_|_86.7_| _91.4_ - | | | | | | - Nose: | (1)| (9)| (5)| (16)| (7)| (48) - | | | | | | - Height | 5.4| 5.43| 5.14| 5.32| 5.73| 5.24 - | | | | | | - | (1)| (9)| (5)| (16)| (7)| (48) - | | | | | | - Breadth | 2.45| 2.30| 2.23| 2.31| 2.27| 2.27 - | | | | | | - | (_1_)| (_9_)| (_5_)| (_16_)| (_7_)| (_48_) - | | | | | | - Index | _45_| _42.3_|_45.3_| _43.4_|_39.7_| _43.3_ - | | | | | | - Upper | --| (9)| (5)| (11)| (7)| (44) - alveolar | | | | | | - arch: | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Length | --| 5.84| 5.78| 5.63| 5.50| 5.63 - | | | | | | - | --| (9)| (5)| (11)| (7)| (44) - | | | | | | - Breadth | --| 6.94| 6.72| 6.72| 6.74| 6.63 - | | | | | | - | --| (_9_)| (_5_)| (_11_)| (_7_)| (_44_) - | | | | | | - Index | --| _84.2_| _86_| _83.8_|_81.6_| _85_ - | | | | | | - Lower jaw: | --| (6)| (4)| (7)| (6)| (16) - Height at | | | | | | - symphysis | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | --| 3.67| 3.56| 3.83| 3.52| 3.76 - -----------+---------+-----------+------+--------+------+--------- - - WESTERN, NORTHERN, AND EASTERN ESKIMO - - FEMALES - - -----------+---------+------+-------+-------+------+------+---------- - | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | Unalaska|Togiak|Mumtrak|Nunivak|Nelson|Hooper| Yukon - |Peninsula| | | Island|Island| Bay| Delta - | | | | | | |(Kashunok) - | | | | | | | and lower - | | | | | | | Yukon - -----------+---------+------+-------+-------+------+------+---------- - Vault: | (2)| (7)| (6)| (70)| (17)| (4)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Length | 17.90| 17.17| 17.27| 17.89| 17.42| 17.42| 18.7 - | | | | | | | - | (2)| (7)| (6)| (70)| (17)| (4)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Breadth | 13.70| 14.17| 13.92| 13.65| 13.71| 13.70| 13.95 - | | | | | | | - | (2)| (7)| (6)| (70)| (16)| (4)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Height | 13.10| 12.86| 12.85| 13.15| 12.78| 12.62| 13 - | | | | | | | - | (2)| (7)| (6)| (70)| (16)| (4)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Cranial | 14.90| 14.73| 14.68| 14.90| 14.64| 14.68| (15.22) - Module | | | | | | | - | (2)| (6)| (4)| (66)| (14)| (4)| -- - | | | | | | | - Capacity | 1,352| 1,375| 1,376| 1,353| 1,334| 1,246| -- - | | | | | | | - | (_2_)| (_7_)| (_6_)| (_70_)|(_17_)| (_4_)| (_2_) - | | | | | | | - Cranial | _76.5_|_82.7_| _80.6_| _76.3_|_78.7_|_78.6_| _74.6_ - Index | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_2_)| (_7_)| (_6_)| (_70_)|(_16_)| (_4_)| (_2_) - | | | | | | | - Mean | _82.9_| _82_| _82.4_| _83.4_|_82.1_|_81.1_| (_79.2_) - height | | | | | | | - Index | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_2_)| (_7_)| (_6_)| (_70_)|(_16_)| (_4_)| (_2_) - | | | | | | | - Height- | _95.6_|_90.7_| _92.3_| _96.4_|_93.2_|_92.2_| (_92.8_) - breadth | | | | | | | - index | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Face: | | (2)| (4)| (27)| (10)| (2)| - | | | | | | | - Menton- | | 12.1| 11.3| 11.62| 11.62| 11.80| - nasion | | | | | | | - height | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (2)| (4)| (6)| (52)| (14)| (2)| - | | | | | | | - Alveolar | 7.80| 7.30| 7.05| 7.27| 7.18| 7.30| - point- | | | | | | | - nasion | | | | | | | - height | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (2)| (4)| (6)| (63)| (15)| (4)| (1) - | | | | | | | - Diameter- | 13.40| 13.12| 13.1| 13.27| 13.37| 13.37| 13.9 - bizygomatic| | | | | | | - maximum | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | --| (_2_)| (_4_)| (_26_)|(_10_)| (_2_)| -- - | | | | | | | - Facial | --|_93.1_| _84.8_| _88.2_| _87_|_88.4_| -- - Index, | | | | | | | - total | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_2_)| (_4_)| (_6_)| (_51_)|(_14_)| (_2_)| -- - | | | | | | | - Facial | _58.2_|_55.6_| _53.6_| _54.8_|_53.6_|_54.7_| -- - Index, | | | | | | | - upper | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Basio- | (2)| (4)| (6)| (45)| (14)| (2)| -- - facial: | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Basion- | 10.05| 9.78| 9.53| 10.17| 10.06| 9.60| -- - alveolar | | | | | | | - point | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (2)| (4)| (6)| (60)| (15)| (4)| (1) - | | | | | | | - Basion- | 8.80| 8.55| 8.50| 8.97| 8.76| 8.55| 8.9 - subnasal | | | | | | | - point | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (2)| (7)| (6)| (69)| (15)| (4)| (1) - | | | | | | | - Basion- | 9.80| 9.56| 9.52| 10.02| 9.73| 9.70| 10.2 - nasion | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_2_)| (_4_)| (_6_)| (_45_)|(_13_)| (_2_)| -- - | | | | | | | - Facial | _65.5_| _66_| _68.5_| _67.5_|_66.5_|_68.5_| -- - angle | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_2_)| (_4_)| (_6_)| (_45_)|(_13_)| (_2_)| -- - | | | | | | | - Alveolar | _54.5_|_51.5_| _55.5_| _55_| _50_| _55_| -- - angle | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Orbits: | (2)| (3)| (6)| (59)| (15)| (4)| (1) - | | | | | | | - Mean height| 3.65| 3.59| 3.53| 3.51| 3.50| 3.56| 3.5 - | | | | | | | - | (2)| (3)| (6)| (59)| (15)| (4)| (1) - | | | | | | | - Mean | 3.92| 3.85| 3.81| 3.86| 3.81| 3.89| 3.8 - breadth | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_2_)| (_3_)| (_6_)| (_59_)|(_15_)| (_4_)| (_1_) - | | | | | | | - Index | _93_|_93.5_| _92.6_| _91_|_91.8_|_91.7_| _92.1_ - | | | | | | | - Nose: | (2)| (5)| (6)| (63)| (14)| (4)| (1) - | | | | | | | - Height | 5.32| 5.06| 5.03| 4.99| 5.06| 4.95| 5.5 - | | | | | | | - | (2)| (5)| (6)| (63)| (14)| (4)| (1) - | | | | | | | - Breadth | 2.58| 2.32| 2.23| 2.32| 2.34| 2.35| 2.45 - | | | | | | | - | (_2_)| (_5_)| (_6_)| (_63_)|(_14_)| (_4_)| (_1_) - | | | | | | | - Index | _47.5_|_45.8_| _44.2_| _46.4_|_46.3_|_47.5_| _44.5_ - | | | | | | | - Palate: | (2)| (4)| (6)| (46)| (14)| (2)| -- - | | | | | | | - Length | 5.55| 5.18| 5.03| 5.39| 5.39| 5.25| -- - | | | | | | | - | (2)| (4)| (6)| (46)| (14)| (2)| -- - | | | | | | | - Breadth | 6.55| 6.40| 6.13| 6.31| 6.32| 6.45| -- - | | | | | | | - | (_2_)| (_4_)| (_6_)| (_46_)|(_14_)| (_4_)| -- - | | | | | | | - Index | _84.7_|_80.9_| _82.1_| _84.4_|_85.3_|_81.4_| -- - | | | | | | | - | --| (2)| (3)| (32)| (11)| (4)| -- - | | | | | | | - Lower jaw: | --| 3.50| 3.30| 3.48| 3.40| 3.40| -- - Height at | | | | | | | - symph. | | | | | | | - -----------+---------+------+-------+-------+------+------+---------- - - -----------+--------+--------+-------+--------+-------+------+-------- - | | | | | | Northeastern - | | | | | | Asia - | | | | | +------+-------- - | Pilot| Kotlik| St.| St.| Little|Indian|Chukchee - |Station,| and|Michael|Lawrence|Diomede| Point| - | lower|Pastolik| Island| Island| Island| | - | Yukon| | | | | | - | | | | | | | - -----------+--------+--------+-------+--------+-------+------+-------- - Vault: | (3)| (18)| (6)| (140)| (7)| (16)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Length | 17.8| 17.72| 17.72| 17.69| 18.04| 17.64| 18.25 - | | | | | | | - | (3)| (18)| (6)| (140)| (7)| (16)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Breadth | 14| 13.62| 13.38| 13.60| 13.71| 13.74| 14.30 - | | | | | | | - | (3)| (18)| (6)| (128)| (7)| (16)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Height | 13.20| 13.04| 13.07| 13.21| 13.50| 13.25| 13.60 - | | | | | | | - | (3)| (18)| (6)| (128)| (7)| (16)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Cranial | 15| 14.81| 14.72| 14.87| 15.09| 14.88| 15.38 - Module | | | | | | | - | (3)| (18)| (6)| (120)| (6)| --| (2) - | | | | | | | - Capacity | 1,442| 1,359| 1,293| 1,335| 1,359| --| 1,512 - | | | | | | | - | (_3_)| (_18_)| (_6_)| (_140_)| (_7_)|(_16_)| (_2_) - | | | | | | | - Cranial | _78.7_| _76.8_| _75.5_| _77.4_| _76_|_77.9_| _78.4_ - Index | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_3_)| (_18_)| (_6_)| (_128_)| (_7_)|(_16_)| (_2_) - | | | | | | | - Mean | _83_| _83.2_| _84_| _84.2_| _85_|_84.5_| _83.6_ - height | | | | | | | - Index | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_3_)| (_18_)| (_6_)| (_128_)| (_7_)|(_16_)| (_2_) - | | | | | | | - Height- | _94.3_| _95.8_| _97.6_| _96.5_| _98.4_|_96.4_| _95.1_ - breadth | | | | | | | - index | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Face: | (2)| (15)| (3)| (23)| --| --| (1) - | | | | | | | - Menton- | 11.90| 11.82| 11.5| 11.49| --| --| 11.40 - nasion | | | | | | | - height | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (3)| (16)| (3)| (120)| (6)| (13)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Alveolar | 7.40| 7.49| 7.13| 7.29| 7.38| 7.41| 7.40 - point- | | | | | | | - nasion | | | | | | | - height | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (3)| (16)| (5)| (128)| (7)| (14)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Diameter- | 13.47| 13.26| 13.12| 13.31| 13.09| 13.34| 13.25 - bizygomatic| | | | | | | - maximum | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_2_)| (_15_)| (_3_)| (_23_)| --| --| (_1_) - | | | | | | | - Facial | _89.1_| _89_| _88.2_| _86.9_| --| --| _85.7_ - Index, | | | | | | | - total | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_3_)| (_16_)| (_3_)| (_120_)| (_6_)|(_12_)| (_2_) - | | | | | | | - Facial | _55_| _56.5_| _54.7_| _54.8_| _56_| _55_| _55.9_ - Index, | | | | | | | - upper | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Basio- | (3)| (16)| (3)| (111)| (6)| (13)| (2) - facial: | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Basion- | 10.17| 10.09| 9.77| 10.04| 9.73| 10.14| 10.10 - alveolar | | | | | | | - point | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (3)| (18)| (6)| (119)| (6)| (15)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Basion- | 8.80| 8.86| 8.80| 8.88| 8.78| 8.95| 9.05 - subnasal | | | | | | | - point | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (3)| (18)| (6)| (128)| (7)| (16)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Basion- | 9.97| 9.98| 9.98| 9.93| 9.91| 9.97| 10 - nasion | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_3_)| (_16_)| (_3_)| (_111_)| (_6_)|(_13_)| (_2_) - | | | | | | | - Facial | _67_| _67.5_| _71_| _68_| _69_| _67_| _67.5_ - angle | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_3_)| (_16_)| (_3_)| (_111_)| (_6_)|(_13_)| (_2_) - | | | | | | | - Alveolar | _51_| _53.5_| _57_| _54_| _59.5_ _54_| _56.5_ - angle | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Orbits: | (3)| (18)| (5)| (121)| (6)| (15)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Mean height| 3.54| 3.62| 3.61| 3.60| 3.60| 3.59| 3.41 - | | | | | | | - | (3)| (18)| (5)| (121)| (6)| (15)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Mean | 3.89| 3.86| 3.78| 3.91| 4.01| 3.90| 3.79 - breadth | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_3_)| (_18_)| (_5_)| (_121_)| (_6_)|(_15_)| (_2_) - | | | | | | | - Index | _91_| _94.1_| _95.5_| _92.1_| _89.7_|_91.9_| _90.1_ - | | | | | | | - Nose: | (3)| (18)| (5)| (127)| (6)| (15)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Height | 5| 5.19| 4.95| 5.13| 5.15| 5.16| 5.20 - | | | | | | | - | (3)| (18)| (5)| (127)| (6)| (15)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Breadth | 2.33| 2.31| 2.17| 2.39| 2.28| 2.45| 2.65 - | | | | | | | - | (_3_)| (_18_)| (_5_)| (_127_)| (_6_)|(_15_)| (_2_) - | | | | | | | - Index | _46.7_| _44.5_| _43.8_| _46.6_| _44.4_|_47.4_| _50.5_ - | | | | | | | - Palate: | (3)| (15)| (3)| (109)| (4)| (12)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Length | 5.40| 5.45| 5.40| 5.37| 5.30| 5.44| 5.45 - | | | | | | | - | (3)| (15)| (3)| (109)| (4)| (12)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Breadth | 6.60| 6.38| 6.23| 6.46| 6.52| 6.40| 6.90 - | | | | | | | - | (_3_)| (_15_)| (_3_)| (_109_)| (_4_)|(_12_)| (_2_) - | | | | | | | - Index | _81.8_| _85.4_| _86.6_| _83.0_| _81.2_| _85_| _79_ - | | | | | | | - | (2)| (17)| (4)| (25)| --| --| (1) - | | | | | | | - Lower jaw: | 3.67| 3.56| 3.39| 3.18| --| --| 3.2 - Height at | | | | | | | - symph. | | | | | | | - -----------+--------+--------+-------+--------+-------+------+-------- - - FEMALES - - -----------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+----------+-------- - | Seward Peninsula | | | | - +--------+-------+-------+ | | | - |Golovnin| Cape| Sledge| Port| Wales|Shishmaref|Kotzebue - | Bay| Nome| Island|Clarence| | | Sound - | | | | | | | and - | | | | | | | Kobuk - | | | | | | | River - | | | | | | | - -----------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+----------+-------- - Vault: | (4)| (2)| (9)| (3)| (15)| (10)| (1) - | | | | | | | - Length | 17.92| 17.70| 18.13| 17.63| 18.05| 17.73| 17.2 - | | | | | | | - | (4)| (2)| (9)| (3)| (15)| (10)| (1) - | | | | | | | - Breadth | 13.22| 13.25| 13.50| 13.50| 13.35| 13.29| 13.4 - | | | | | | | - | (4)| (2)| (9)| (3)| (15)| (9)| (1) - | | | | | | | - Height | 13.20| 13| 13.22| 12.90| 13.21| 13.16| 13.4 - | | | | | | | - | (4)| (2)| (9)| (3)| (15)| (9)| (1) - | | | | | | | - Cranial | 14.78| 14.65| 14.95| 14.68| 14.87| 14.72| 14.67 - Module | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (4)| (2)| (8)| (1)| (15)| (6)| - | | | | | | | - Capacity | 1,345| 1,290| 1,374| 1,285| 1,359| 1,239| - | | | | | | | - | (4)| (2)| (9)| (3)| (15)| (10)| (1) - | | | | | | | - Cranial | 73.8| 74.8| 74.5| 76.6| 73.9| 75| 77.9 - Index | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_4_)| (_2_)| (_9_)| (_3_)| (_15_)| (_9_)| (_1_) - | | | | | | | - Mean | _84.8_| _83.9_| _83.6_| _82.9_| _84_| _84.9_| _87.6_ - height | | | | | | | - Index | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_4_)| (_2_)| (_9_)| (_3_)| (_15_)| (_9_)| (_1_) - | | | | | | | - Height- | _99.8_| _98.1_| _97.9_| _95.5_| _99_| _98.9_| _100_ - breadth | | | | | | | - index | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Face: | (_3_)| | (_3_)| | (_11_)| (_1_)| (_1_) - | | | | | | | - Menton- | _12.03_| |_11.93_| |_11.85_| _12_| _11.9_ - nasion | | | | | | | - height | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (3)| (1)| (7)| (1)| (16)| (9)| (1) - | | | | | | | - Alveolar | 7.40| 7.3| 7.30| 6.7| 7.39| 7.20| 7.1 - point- | | | | | | | - nasion | | | | | | | - height | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (4)| (2)| (7)| (1)| (1)| (8)| (1) - | | | | | | | - Diameter- | 13.2 5| 13.15| 13.26| 13.1| 13.29| 13.21| 13.4 - bizygomatic| | | | | | | - maximum | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_3_)| | (_3_)| | (_1_)| (_1_)| (_1_) - | | | | | | | - Facial | _90.9_| | _90.9_| | _89.6_| _91.6_| _88.5_ - Index, | | | | | | | - total | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_3_)| (_1_)| (_7_)| (_1_)| (_1_)| (_8_)| (_1_) - | | | | | | | - Facial | _55.8_| _55.7_| _55.1_| _51.1_| _55.6_| _54.7_| _53_ - Index, | | | | | | | - upper | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Basio- | (3)| (1)| (6)| (1)| (15)| (8)| (1) - facial: | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Basion- | 10.27| 10.3| 10.25| 9.8| 10.24| 10.38| 9.2 - alveolar | | | | | | | - point | (4)| (2)| (7)| (2)| (16)| (8)| (1) - | | | | | | | - Basion- | 9| 8.85| 9.16| 8.8| 9.04| 9.25| 7.9 - subnasal | | | | | | | - point | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (4)| (2)| (8)| (3)| (16)| (9)| (1) - | | | | | | | - Basion- | 10.10| 10.05| 10.29| 9.93| 10.01| 10.16| 9.5 - nasion | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | | (_1_)| (_6_)| (_1_)| (_15_)| (_8_)| - | | | | | | | - Facial | | _67_| _69_| _66_| _67_| _68_| - angle | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | | (_1_)| (_6_)| (_1_)| (_15_)| (_8_)| - | | | | | | | - Alveolar | | _54_| _53_| _41.5_| _55_| _55.5_| - angle | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Orbits: | (4)| (2)| (7)| (2)| (16)| (10)| (1) - | | | | | | | - Mean height| 3.57| 3.52| 3.58| 3.55| 3.52| 3.43| 3.30 - | | | | | | | - | (4)| (2)| (7)| (2)| (16)| (10)| (1) - | | | | | | | - Mean | 3.86| 3.92| 3.98| 3.95| 3.94| 3.90| 3.82 - breadth | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (4)| (2)| (7)| (2)| (16)| (10)| (1) - | | | | | | | - Index | 92.5| 89.8| 90| 89.4| 89.3| 88.1| 86.3 - | | | | | | | - Nose: | (4)| (2)| (7)| (1)| (16)| (10)| - | | | | | | | - Height | 5.20| 5.02| 5.10| 4.9| 5.08| 4.93| 4.9 - | | | | | | | - | (4)| (2)| (7)| (1)| (16)| (10)| (1) - | | | | | | | - Breadth | 2.32| 2.50| 2.26| 2.3| 2.32| 2.33| 2.6 - | | | | | | | - | (_4_)| (_2_)| (_7_)| (_1_)| (_16_)| (_10_)| (_1_) - | | | | | | | - Index | _44.6_| _49.8_| _44.3_| _46.9_| _45.7_| _47.3_| _53.1_ - | | | | | | | - Palate: | (3)| (1)| (6)| (1)| (15)| (6)| - | | | | | | | - Length | 5.77| 5.5| 5.61| 5.3| 5.61| 5.67| 5.5 - | | | | | | | - | (3)| (1)| (6)| (1)| (15)| (6)| (1) - | | | | | | | - Breadth | 6.73| 6.4| 6.46| 6.6| 6.57| 6.67| 6.4 - | | | | | | | - | (_3_)| (_1_)| (_6_)| (_11_)| (_15_)| (_6_)| (_1_) - | | | | | | | - Index | _85.7_| _85.9_| _86.8_| _80.3_| _85.3_| _85_| _85.9_ - | | | | | | | - | (3)| (1)| (4)| | (14)| (1)| (1) - | | | | | | | - Lower jaw: | 3.73| 3.7| 3.60| | 3.56| 3.8| 3.9 - Height at | | | | | | | - symph. | | | | | | | - -----------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+----------+-------- - - -----------+-------+--------+-------+------+--------+-----------+-------- - | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | Point| Barrow| Old| Point|Northern|Southampton| Hudson - | Hope| and|Igloos,|Barrow| Arctic| Island| Bay and - | |vicinity| north| | | |vicinity - | | | of| | | | - | | | Barrow| | | | - | | | | | | | - -----------+-------+--------+-------+------+--------+-----------+-------- - Vault: | (92)| (36)| (25)| (52)| (10)| (6)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Length | 17.5 7| 17.77| 18.11| 17.91| 18.21| 18.17| 17.55 - | | | | | | | - | (92)| (36)| (25)| (52)| (10)| (6)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Breadth | 13.43| 13.23| 12.72| 13.32| 13.36| 13.70| 13.60 - | | | | | | | - | (89)| (34)| (24)| (52)| (10)| (6)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Height | 13.20| 12.97| 13.21| 13.03| 12.99| 13.69| 12.55 - | | | | | | | - | (89)| (34)| (24)| (52)| (10)| (6)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Cranial | 14.72| 14.66| 14.72| 14.75| 14.85| 15.18| 14.57 - Module | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (89)| | | (3)| | (6)| - | | | | | | | - Capacity | 1,316| | | 1,235| | 1,443| - | | | | | | | - | (92)| (36)| (_25_)|(_52_)| (_10_)| (_6_)| (_2_) - | | | | | | | - Cranial | _76.4_| _74.5_| _70.2_|_74.4_| _73.4_| _75.4_| _77.5_ - Index | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_89_)| (_34_)| (_24_)|(_52_)| (_10_)| (_6_)| (_2_) - | | | | | | | - Mean | _85.2_| _82.9_| _86.4_|_83.4_| _82.3_| _85.9_| _80.6_ - height | | | | | | | - Index | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_89_)| (_34_)| (_24_)|(_52_)| (_10_)| (_6_)| (_2_) - | | | | | | | - Height- | _98.2_| _98.1_|_104.6_|_97.8_| _97.2_| _99.9_| _92.3_ - breadth | | | | | | | - index | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Face: | (2)| | (15)| | (1)| (3)| - | | | | | | | - Menton- | 12.05| | 11.21| | 12.7| 11.7| - nasion | | | | | | | - height | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (78)| (22)| (18)| (40)| (7)| (5)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Alveolar | 7.06| 7.18| 7.01| 7.22| 7.43| 7.14| 6.95 - point- | | | | | | | - nasion | | | | | | | - height | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (84)| (23)| (24)| (46)| (7)| (5)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Diameter- | 13.32| 13.16| 13.08| 13.06| 12.96| 13.82| 12.65 - bizygomatic| | | | | | | - maximum | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_2_)| | (_15_)| | | (_3_)| - | | | | | | | - Facial | _88.3_| | _86.8_| | | _84.8_| - Index, | | | | | | | - total | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_77_)| (_21_)| (_18_)|(_39_)| (_6_)| (_5_)| (_2_) - | | | | | | | - Facial | _53.1_| _54.7_| _53.8_|_55.3_| _57.8_| _51.7_| _54.9_ - Index, | | | | | | | - upper | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Basio- | (76)| (22)| (15)| (37)| (6)| (4)| (2) - facial: | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Basion- | 9.72| 9.85| 10.13| 9.77| 10.03| 10.02| 9.4 - alveolar | | | | | | | - point | (83)| (27)| (21)| (46)| (10)| (4)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Basion- | 8.72| 8.86| 9.12| 8.73| 8.85| 9.02| 8.35 - subnasal | | | | | | | - point | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (89)| (34)| (24)| (52)| (10)| (5)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Basion- | 9.89| 10.01| 10.18| 9.94| 10.07| 10.34| 9.75 - nasion | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_75_)| | |(_37_)| (_6_)| | (_2_) - | | | | | | | - Facial | _70_| | | _69_| _68_| | _71.5_ - angle | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_75_)| | |(_37_)| (_6_)| | (_2_) - | | | | | | | - Alveolar | _56.5_| | | _55_| _54_| | _54.5_ - angle | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Orbits: | (83)| (25)| (18)| (42)| (10)| (5)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Mean height| 3.54| 3.61| 3.47| 3.55| 3.50| 3.64| (3.60) - | | | | | | | - | (83)| (25)| (18)| (42)| (10)| (5)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Mean | 3.90| 3.88| 4.01| 3.90| 3.83| 4.05| (3.80) - breadth | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - | (_83_)| (_25_)| (_18_)|(_42_)| (_10_)| (_4_)| (_2_) - | | | | | | | - Index | _90.8_| _93_| _91_|_90.7_| _91.4_| _86.6_|(_94.7_) - | | | | | | | - Nose: | (86)| (27)| (21)| (46)| (9)| (5)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Height | 5.04| 5.19| 5.02| 5.11| 4.83| 5.06| 4.90 - | | | | | | | - | (86)| (27)| (21)| (46)| (9)| (5)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Breadth | 2.28| 2.32| 2.23| 2.29| 2.14| 2.21| 2.15 - | | | | | | | - | (_86_)| (_27_)| (_21_)|(_46_)| (_9_)| (_5_)| (_2_) - | | | | | | | - Index | _45.3_| _44.7_| _44.4_|_44.9_| _44.4_| _43.7_| _43.9_ - | | | | | | | - Palate: | (73)| (23)| (16)| (33)| (6)| (4)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Length | 5.21| 5.22| 5.34| 5.25| 5.38| 5.50| 4.85 - | | | | | | | - | (73)| (23)| (16)| (33)| (6)| (4)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Breadth | 6.19| 6.13| 6.29| 6.01| 6.22| 6.60| 5.85 - | | | | | | | - | (_73_)| (_23_)| (_16_)|(_33_)| (_6_)| (_4_)| (_2_) - | | | | | | | - Index | _84.3_| _85.1_| _84.9_|_87.4_| _86.5_| _83.3_| _82.9_ - | | | | | | | - | (3)| (3)| (17)| | (1)| (2)| (2) - | | | | | | | - Lower jaw: | 3.38| 3.27| 3.38| | 3.7| 3.20| 3.15 - Height at | | | | | | | - symph. | | | | | | | - -----------+-------+--------+-------+------+--------+-----------+-------- - - -----------+--------+------+--------- - | | | - | | | - | Baffin| Smith|Greenland - | Land,| Sound| - | North| | - | Devon,| | - | and| | - |vicinity| | - -----------+--------+------+--------- - Vault: | (17)| (2)| (52) - | | | - Length | 18.33| 18| 18.04 - | | | - | (17)| (2)| (52) - | | | - Breadth | 13.44| 13.80| 12.98 - | | | - | (17)| (2)| (52) - | | | - Height | 13.34| 13.65| 13.12 - | | | - | (17)| (2)| (52) - | | | - Cranial | 15.04| 15.15| 14.72 - Module | | | - | | | - | | (1)| (43) - | | | - Capacity | | 1,510| 1,324 - | | | - | (_17_)| (_2_)| (_52_) - | | | - Cranial | _73.3_|_76.7_| _72_ - Index | | | - | | | - | (_17_)| (_2_)| (_52_) - | | | - Mean | _84_|_85.8_| _84.6_ - height | | | - Index | | | - | | | - | (_17_)| (_2_)| (_52_) - | | | - Height- | _99.3_|_98.9_| _101_ - breadth | | | - index | | | - | | | - Face: | (5)| (2)| (5) - | | | - Menton- | 11.60| 11.20| 11.52 - nasion | | | - height | | | - | | | - | (12)| (2)| (45) - | | | - Alveolar | 7.10| 6.80| 7.05 - point- | | | - nasion | | | - height | | | - | | | - | (14)| (2)| (50) - | | | - Diameter- | 13.27| 13.20| 13.03 - bizygomatic| | | - maximum | | | - | | | - | (_5_)| (_2_)| (_5_) - | | | - Facial | _86.6_|_84.9_| _85.7_ - Index, | | | - total | | | - | | | - | (_11_)| (_2_)| (_45_) - | | | - Facial | _53.9_|_51.5_| _54.1_ - Index, | | | - upper | | | - | | | - Basio- | (12)| (2)| (45) - facial: | | | - | | | - Basion- | 10.13| 9.35| 10.09 - alveolar | | | - point | (13)| (2)| (50) - | | | - Basion- | 9.05| 8.35| 8.94 - subnasal | | | - point | | | - | | | - | (17)| (2)| (52) - | | | - Basion- | 10.11| 9.65| 10.13 - nasion | | | - | | | - | | | (_45_) - | | | - Facial | | | _70_ - angle | | | - | | | - | | | (_45_) - | | | - Alveolar | | | _54_ - angle | | | - | | | - Orbits: | (13)| (2)| (47) - | | | - Mean height| 3.53| 3.51| 3.55 - | | | - | (13)| (2)| (47) - | | | - Mean | 3.88| 3.96| 3.85 - breadth | | | - | | | - | (_13_)| (_2_)| (_47_) - | | | - Index _91.3_|_88.6_| _92.4_ - | | | - Nose: | (13)| (2)| (50) - | | | - Height | 4.98| 5.30| 4.99 - | | | - | (13)| (2)| (50) - | | | - Breadth | 2.20| 2.32| 2.20 - | | | - | (_13_)| (_2_)| (_50_) - | | | - Index | _44.3_|_43.9_| _44_ - | | | - Palate: | (12)| (2)| (45) - | | | - Length | 5.44| 5.20| 5.35 - | | | - | (12)| (2)| (45) - | | | - Breadth | 6.22| 6.20| 6.16 - | | | - | (_12_)| (_2_)| (_45_) - | | | - Index | _87.6_|_83.9_| _86.8_ - | | | - | (5)| (2)| (13) - | | | - Lower jaw: | 3.46| 3.42| 3.40 - Height at | | | - symph. | | | - -----------+--------+------+--------- - -FOOTNOTES: - -[156] Compare writer's Variation in the dimensions of lower molars -in man and anthropoid apes, Am. J. Phys. Anthrop., VI, 423-438, -Washington, 1923. - -[157] Rivet, P., Recherches sur le prognathisme. L'Anthropologie, XX, -pp. 35, 175; Paris, 1909. XXI, pp. 505, 637, 1910. - -[158] Cat. Crania, U. S. Nat. Mus., etc., No. 3. Washington, 1928, 88, -105, 139. - -[159] Lower angles mean higher, higher angles lower facial or alveolar -protrusion. - - - - -SKULLS OF ESKIMO CHILDREN - - -A special effort in our work has been made to secure well-preserved -skulls of children. As elsewhere, so among the Eskimo, more children -die than adults, but conditions are not favorable for the preservation -of their skeletal remains. Most of the bones are done away with or -damaged by animals (foxes, dogs, mice, etc.), while others decay, so -that generally nothing remains of the youngest subjects and but a few -bones and a rare skull of the older children. The total number of such -skulls in our collection now reaches 25. They are all of children -of more than 2 but mostly less than 6 years old, and are all normal -specimens. The principal measurements of their vault--a study of the -face is a subject apart and needing more material--are given in the -following tables. - - - CRANIA OF ESKIMO CHILDREN - - ---------+---------+-----------+-----------+-------+-------+------- - | | | | Vault - ---------+---------+-----------+-----------+-------+-------+------- - Catalogue|Collector| Locality |Deformation| Length|Breadth| Height - No. | | | | | | - | | | | | | - U.S.N.M. | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | | | | | | - 332563 | A. | Pastolik | | 16.4| 13.1| - |Hrdlička | | | | | - | | | | | | - 332566 | do | do | | 15.6| 13| - | | | | | | - 332564 | do | do | | 16.6| 13.8| 12 - | | | | | | - 339037 | Collins | Togiak | | 16.5| 13.4| 12.2 - | and | | | | | - | Stewart | | | | | - | | | | | | - 339087 | do | Nelson | | 16.1| 13.5| 12.8 - | | Island | | | | - | | | | | | - 339088 | do | do | | 16.2| 13.6| 11.6 - | | | | | | - 339056 | do | Mumtrak | | 16.3| 13.8| 12.8 - | | | | | | - 339063 | do | do | | 15.7| 14| 12.2 - | | | | | | - 339113 | do |Hooper Bay | | 16.2| 13.8| - | | | |=======+=======+======= - | | | | (9)| (9)| (6) - | | | | | | - Total | | | | 144.6| 122| 73.6 - | | | | | | - Average | | | |_16.07_|_13.56_|_12.27_ - ---------+---------+-----------+-----------+-------+-------+------- - - ---------+-------+------+-------+-------+-------- - | | | | | - ---------+-------+------+-------+-------+-------- - Catalogue|Cranial| Mean|Height-|Basion-| Basion- - No. | index|height|breadth| nasion| nasion - | | Index| index| |diameter - U.S.N.M. | | | | | vs. - | | | | | length - | | | | |of skull - | | | | | - 332563 | _79.9_| | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - 332566 | _82.8_| | | | - | | | | | - 332564 | _83.1_| _79_| _87_| 8.4| _50.6_ - | | | | | - 339037 | _81.2_|_81.6_| _91_| 9.2| _55.8_ - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - 339087 | _83.8_|_86.5_| _94.8_| 9.2| _57.1_ - | | | | | - | | | | | - 339088 | _84_|_77.9_| _85.3_| 7.8| _48.1_ - | | | | | - 339056 | _84.7_| _85_| _92.7_| 8.9| _54.6_ - | | | | | - 339063 | _89.2_|_82.2_| _87.1_| 8.6| _54.8_ - | | | | | - 339113 | _85.2_| | | | - +=======+======+=======+=======+======== - | (9)| (6)| (6)| (6)| (6) - | | | | | - Total | | | | 52.1| - | | | | | - Average | _84.4_|_82.5_| _89.6_| _8.68_| _54_ - ---------+-------+------+-------+-------+--------+ - - SOUTHWESTERN AND MIDWESTERN ESKIMO - - ---------+---------+-----------+-----------+-------+-------+------- - | | | | Vault - ---------+---------+-----------+-----------+-------+-------+------- - Catalogue|Collector| Locality |Deformation| Length|Breadth| Height - No. | | | | | | - | | | | | | - U.S.N.M. | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | | | | | | - ---------+---------+-----------+-----------+-------+-------+------- - 339172 | H. B. | Nunivak | | 16.9| 12.6| 12 - |Collins, | Island | | | | - |jr., and | | | | | - | T. D. | | | | | - | Stewart | | | | | - | | | | | | - 339153 | do | do | | 17.4| 13.4| 12.4 - | | | | | | - 339198 | do | do | | 16.6| 12.8| 12.7 - | | | | | | - 339222 | H. B. | Nunivak | | 16.8| 13.4| 12.2 - |Collins, | Island | | | | - |jr., and | | | | | - | T. D. | | | | | - |Stewart. | | | | | - | | | | | | - 339197 | do | do | | 17| 13.6| 12.4 - | | | | | | - 339199 | do | do | | 16.1| 13.3| - | | | | | | - 339152 | do | do | | 17| 14.5| 12.6 - | | | |=======+=======+======= - | | | | (7)| (7)| (6) - | | | | | | - Total | | | | 117.8| 93.6| 74.3 - | | | | | | - Average | | | |_16.83_|_13.37_|_12.38_ - | | | |=======+=======+======= - 279569 | R. D. | St. | | 17.6| 13.4| 12.2 - | Moore | Lawrence | | | | - | | Island | | | | - | | | | | | - 279568 | do | do | | 17.1| 13.2| 12.8 - | | | | | | - 279495 | do | do | | 16.8| 13.1| 12.6 - | | | | | | - 279479 | do | do | | 16.8| 13.2| 12.8 - | | | | | | - 279462 | do | do | | 16.2| 13| 12.8 - | | | | | | - 279421 | do | do | | 16.4| 13.4| 12.1 - | | | | | | - 279448 | do | do | | 16.4| 13.5| - | | | | | | - 279591 | do | do | | 14.7| 12.4| - | | | | | | - 279443 | do | do | | 16.4| 13.9| 12.4 - | | | |=======+=======+======= - | | | | (9)| (9)| (7) - | | | | | | - Total | | | | 146.4| 119.1| 87.7 - | | | | | | - Average | | | |_16.27_|_13.23_|_12.53_ - | | | |=======+=======+======= - 99-4106 |G. Comer |Southampton| | 17.4| 13.3| 12.8 - | | Island | | | | - | | | | | | - 4657 | do |Hudson Bay | | 16.9| 13.2| 12.2 - | | | | | | - 7690 | Capt. | Etah, | | 16.6| 13.4| 12.7 - |Bartlett |Smith Sound| | | | - ---------+---------+-----------+-----------+-------+-------+------- - - ---------+-------+------+-------+-------+-------- - | | | | | - ---------+-------+------+-------+-------+-------- - Catalogue|Cranial| Mean|Height-|Basion-| Basion- - No. | index|height|breadth| nasion| nasion - | | Index| index| |diameter - U.S.N.M. | | | | | vs. - | | | | | length - | | | | |of skull - ---------+-------+------+-------+-------+-------- - 339172 | _74.6_|_81.4_| _95.2_| 9.1| _53.8_ - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - 339153 | _77_|_80.5_| _92.5_| 9.2| _52.9_ - | | | | | - 339198 | _77.1_|_86.4_| _99.2_| 8.6| _51.8_ - | | | | | - 339222 | _79.8_|_80.8_| _91_| 9| _53.6_ - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - 339197 | _80_| _81_| _91.2_| 9.1| _53.5_ - | | | | | - 339199 | _82.6_| | | | - | | | | | - 339152 | _85.3_| _80_| _86.9_| 8.7| _51.2_ - +=======+======+=======+=======+======== - | (7)| (6)| (6)| (6)| (6) - | | | | | - Total | | | | 53.7| - | | | | | - Average | _79.5_|_81.6_| _92.5_| _8.95_| _52.8_ - +=======+======+=======+=======+======== - 279569 | _76.1_|_78.7_| _91_| 9.3| _52.8_ - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - 279568 | _77.2_|_84.5_| _97_| 9.3| _54.4_ - | | | | | - 279495 | _78_|_84.3_| _96.2_| 9.1| _54.2_ - | | | | | - 279479 | _78.6_|_85.3_| _97_| 9| _53.6_ - | | | | | - 279462 | _80.3_|_87.7_| _98.5_| 9.2| _56.8_ - | | | | | - 279421 | _81.7_|_81.2_| _90.3_| 8.4| _51.2_ - | | | | | - 279448 | 82.3| | | | - | | | | | - 279591 | 84.3| | | | - | | | | | - 279443 | _84.8_|_81.8_| _89.2_| 8.6| _52.4_ - +=======+======+=======+=======+======== - | (9)| (7)| (7)| (7)| (7) - | | | | | - Total | | | | 62.9| - | | | | | - Average | _81.4_|_84.1_| _94.1_| _8.99_| _54.5_ - +=======+======+=======+=======+======== - 99-4106 | _76.4_|_83.4_| _96.2_| 8.8| _50.6_ - | | | | | - | | | | | - 4657 | _78.1_|_81.1_| _92.4_| 9.1| _53.8_ - | | | | | - 7690 | _80.7_|_84.7_| _94.8_| 9.2| _55.4_ - | | | | | - ---------+-------+------+-------+-------+-------- - - PRINCIPAL CRANIAL INDICES IN CHILDREN COMPARED WITH THOSE IN ADULTS - - -----------+---------+-------+------+-------+------ - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - -----------+---------+-------+------+-------+------ - | |Cranial| Mean|Height-| BN- - | | index|height|breadth| skull - | | | index| index|length - | | | | | index - | | | | | - South |Children | 84.4| 82.5| 89.6| 54 - western | | | | | - and | | | | | - Midwestern | | | | | - Eskimo[160]|Adults | 79.3| 82.3| 93| 56 - |(both | | | | - |sexes) | | | | - | | | | | - Nunivak |{Children| 79.5| 81.6| 92.5| 52.8 - Island | | | | | - |{Adults | 75.6| 83.3| 96.7| 56 - |(both | | | | - |sexes) | | | | - | | | | | - St. |{Children| 81.4| 84.1| 94.1| 54.5 - Lawrence | | | | | - Island |{Adults | 77.3| 84.1| 96.5| 56.2 - |(both | | | | - |sexes) | | | | - | | | | | - All |{Children| _81.8_|_82.7_| _92.1_|_53.8_ - | | | | | - |{Adults | _77.4_|_83.2_| _95.4_|_56.1_ - | | | | | - -----------+---------+-------+------+-------+------ - - -----------+------+-------+------+-------- - | Percentage relation of - | dimensions of the vault in - |adults and children (adults = - | 100) - -----------+------+-------+------+-------- - |Length|Breadth|Height| Basion- - | | | | nasion - | | | |diameter - | | | | - | | | | - South | | | | - western | | | | - and |} 90.1| 96.7| 93.2| 86.5 - Midwestern | | | | - Eskimo[160]| | | | - | | | | - | | | | - | | | | - Nunivak | | | | - Island |} 91.7| 96.4| 92.3| 87.1 - | | | | - | | | | - | | | | - | | | | - St. | | | | - Lawrence |} 90.2| 95.2| 93.2| 88.6 - Island | | | | - | | | | - | | | | - | | | | - All | | | | - }|_90.8_| _96.1_|_92.9_| _87.4_ - -----------+------+-------+------+-------- - -The main interest centers in the comparison of the relative proportions -of these skulls with those of the adults from the same localities. -These comparisons, given in the smaller table, are of considerable -interest. - -The cranial index is considerably higher in the children. On analysis -this is found to be due almost wholly to a greater relative breadth -of the child's skull. During later growth the Eskimo cranium advances -materially more in length than in breadth. A further expansion in -breadth is evidently hindered by some factor outside of the bones -themselves, for nothing appears in these that could constitute such a -hindrance. And the only evident outside factor capable of producing -such an effect are the strong pads of the temporal muscles. - -The mean height index (H × 100/(mean of L + B)) remains much the same -in the children and adults, indicating that the relative increase -during growth in skull length compensates for the lagging increase in -breadth, while the proportion of the height to the mean of the length -and breadth remains fairly stable. - -The much greater growth in length than in breadth of the Eskimo skull -from childhood onward is shown even better in the second part of the -table by a direct comparison of the mean dimensions. The length of the -adult skull is by over 9 per cent, the breadth by less than 4 per cent, -greater than that in childhood in the same groups. - -The adult Eskimo skull has also grown very perceptibly more in height -than in breadth, though somewhat less so than in length. The result is -a notably higher height-breadth index in the adult. Compared to that -in childhood the adult Eskimo skull is therefore relatively markedly -longer, higher, and narrower. - -These facts are probably of more significance than might seem at first -glance; for it is precisely by the same characters, carried still -further, that some of the Eskimo differ from others. Let us compare -two of our largest and best groups, those of St. Lawrence Island and -Greenland: - - ---------------------+---------+--------+---------+--------- - | Number | Skull | Breadth | Height - |of skulls| length | | - | (both | | | - | sexes) | | | - ---------------------+---------+--------+---------+--------- - St. Lawrence Island | (293) | 18.05 | 13.90 | 13.45 - Greenland | (101) | 18.51 | 13.30 | 13.54 - ---------------------+---------+--------+---------+--------- - -The Greenland skull is longer, narrower, and somewhat higher. The -differences are less than those between a child and an adult western -Eskimo, but of the same nature. This apparently speaks strongly for -the development of the Greenland type of Eskimo cranium from the -western. On the other hand, the type of skull shown by the Eskimo child -approaches much more closely than that of the Eskimo adult to the type -of the skull of the Mongol. - -The above are mere observations, not theories, and they carry a strong -indication that mostly we are still floundering only on the borders of -true anthropology, embracing all phases of life and development, which, -if mastered, would give us with beautiful definition many now vainly -sought or barely glimpsed solutions. - -A highly interesting feature is the relatively great development in the -Eskimo, between childhood and the adult stage, of the anterior half of -the skull or basion-nasion dimension. This augments, it is seen, by -even 3.4 per cent more than the length. This growth must involve some -additional factor to those inherent in the bones themselves and in the -attached musculature, and this can only be, it seems, the development -of the anterior half of the brain. Evidently this portion of the brain -between childhood and adult life grows in the Eskimo more rapidly than -that behind the vertical plane corresponding to the basion. It is a -very suggestive condition calling for further study, and thus far -almost entirely wanting in comparative data on other human as well as -subhuman groups. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[160] Same group for adults as for children. - - - - -THE LOWER JAW - - -The lower jaw of the Eskimo deserves a thorough separate study. For -this purpose, however, more jaws in good condition are needed from -various localities, and particularly more jaws accompanying their -skulls. As it is, a large majority of the crania are without the lower -jaw, or the alveolar processes of the latter have become so affected -in life through age and loss of teeth that their value is diminished -or lost. Still another serious difficulty is that the measuring of the -lower jaw is difficult and has not as yet been regulated by general -agreement, so that there is much individualism of procedures with -limited possibilities of comparison. - -One of the principal measurements taken on the available Eskimo -mandibles was the symphyseal height. This is taken by the sliding -calipers and is the height from the lower alveolar point (highest -point of the normal alveolar septum between the middle lower incisors) -to the lowest point on the inferior border of the chin in the median -line.[161] The results are given in the following tables. - - ESK̅IMO LOWER JAW: HEIGHT AT SYMPHYSIS - - ---------+------------------------+------------------------ - | Male | Female - ---------+-------+-------+--------+-------+-------+-------- - - Groups | South-|North- |Northern| South-|North- |Northern - (main) |western|western| and|western|western| and - | and| | eastern| and| | eastern - | mid-| | | mid-| | - |western| | |western| | - | | | | | | - | (9)| (5)| (5)| (9)| (5)| (5) - | | | | | | - Specimens| (116)| (143)| (40)| (121)| (134)| (25) - | | | | | | - Average | 3.75| 3.76| 3.67| 3.38| 3.34| 3.39 - | | | | | | - General | 3.76 | | 3.36 | - mean in | | | | - western | | | | - Eskimo | | | | - | | | | - Percental| _89.4_ - relation | - of | - female | - to male | - (M = 100)| - ---------+-------+-------+--------+-------+-------+-------- - - ------------------------------------------------------+------+-------- - |Males,|Females, - | 19 | 19 - |groups| groups - | (399 | (280 - |jaws) | jaws) - ------------------------------------------------------+------+-------- - General mean for all Eskimo (approximate) | 3.73 | 3.37 - | | - Percental relation of female to the male | | _90.4_ - | | - General mean of total facial height |12.47 | 11.60 - | | - Percental relation of height of jaw to total facial | _30_ | _29_ - height | | - | | - General mean of upper facial height | 7.76 | 7.20 - | | - Percental relation of height of jaw to upper facial | _48_ | _47_ - height | | - ------------------------------------------------------+------+-------- - -Just what these figures mean will best be shown by a table of -comparisons.[162] All these are my own measurements. - - LOWER JAW OF VARIOUS RACES: HEIGHT AT SYMPHYSIS - - -------------------------+------+------+------------- - | | |Female versus - | Male |Female| male - | | | (M = 100) - -------------------------+------+------+------------- - | (399)| (280)| - Eskimo (all) | 3.73| 3.37| _90.4_ - North American Indians: | (36)| (26)| - Sioux | 3.60| 3.22| _89.4_ - | (52)| (50)| - Arkansas | 3.66| 3.24| _88.5_ - | (29)| (21)| - Florida | 3.69| 3.38| _91.4_ - | (9)| (6)| - Munsee | 3.70| 3.40| _91.9_ - | (15)| (14)| - Louisiana | 3.72| 3.29| _88.4_ - | (44)| (30)| - Kentucky | 3.49| 3.18| _91.1_ - -| | |Female versus | Male |Female| male | | | (M = 100) -----------------------------------------+------+------+-------------- -| (50) | (30) | U. S. whites (miscellaneous) | 3.29 | 2.87 | _87.2_ | -(41) | (8) | Negro, full-blood, African and American | 3.54 | 3.14 | -[163]_88.7_ |(261) |(191) | Australians | 3.44 | 3.07 | _89.2_ - -----------------------------------------+------+------+--------------- - - -The table shows the Eskimo jaw to be absolutely the highest at the -symphysis of all those available for comparison, with the female nearly -the highest.[164] Relatively to stature it exceeds decidedly all the -groups, the Indians that come nearest matching it in the absolute -measurement being all much taller than the Eskimo. And the female -Eskimo jaw is relatively high compared with that of the male, being -exceeded in this respect only in three of the Indian groups, in two of -which, however, the showing is due wholly and in one partly to a lesser -height of the male jaw. The relative excess of the female jaw in this -respect seems particularly marked in the northern and northeastern -groups, though it must remain subject to corroboration by further -material. - -The white, Negro, and Australian data have an interest of their own. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[161] Should there be a decided notch in the middle, as happens in rare -specimens, it is rational to take the measurement to the side of the -notch. - -[162] From my Phys. Anthr. of the Lenape, etc., the Anthropology of -Florida, and the Catalogue of Crania. - -[163] Approximately. - -[164] Rudolf Virchow, as far back as 1870, in studying some mandibles -of the Greenland Eskimo, found that the height of the body in the -middle (3.5 centimeters) was greater than that of the lower jaws of -any other racial group available to him for comparison. Archiv. für -Anthrop., IV, p. 77, Braunschweig, 1870. - - -STRENGTH OF THE JAW - -The Eskimo jaw is generally stout. Barring rare exceptions there -is nothing slender about it. The body, moreover, is frequently -strengthened by more or less marked overgrowths of bone lingually below -the alveoli and above the mylohyoid ridge. These neoformations will be -discussed later. - -The strength of the mandible may be measured directly in various -locations on the body. Due to the peculiar build of the body, however, -and especially to its variations, these measurements are by no means -simple and wholly satisfactory. It is hardly necessary in this -connection to review the various attempted methods, none of which -has become standardized. As a result of experience I prefer since -many years to measure the thickness of the body of the jaw at the -second molars, and that in such a way that either the molars, if the -measurement is taken from above, or the lower border of the jaw if -it is taken from below, lies midway between the two branches of the -sliding calipers with which the measurement is taken. The two methods -(from above or below) give results that are nearly alike. In some cases -the one and in others the other is the easier, but wherever the teeth -are lost the measurement from below is perhaps preferable. The records -obtained on the lower jaws of the western Eskimo and other racial -groups are given in the next table. - - THICKNESS OF THE BODY OF THE LOWER JAW AT THE SECOND MOLARS IN THE - WESTERN ESKIMO AND OTHER GROUPS - - ----------------------------------+--------------+-------------+--------- - | Male | Female | Female - +--------------+-------------+versus - |Right |Left |Right |Left | male - | side | side | side | side |(M = 100) - ----------------------------------+--------------+-------------+--------- - | (240) | (243) | - | | | - Western Eskimo millimeters|16.2 16.3|15.1 15.1|_92.9_ - | | | - | (29) | (28) | - | | | - Florida Indians do | 16.6 | 15.5 |_93.4_ - | | | - | (21) | (16) | - | | | - Louisiana Indians do | 16.3 | 15.3 |_93.9_ - | | | - | (58) | (47) | - | | | - Arkansas Indians do | 15.2 | 14.7 |_96.7_ - | | | - | (40) | (22) | - | | | - Kentucky Indians do | 14.7 | 14.2 |_96.6_ - | | | - | (50) | (20) | - | | | - American whites (misc.) do | 14.5 | 12.8 |_88.3_ - ----------------------------------+--------------+-------------+--------- - -The figures show that the Eskimo jaw is very stout. It is exceeded -in thickness only by the jaws of Florida, which in general are the -thickest in America, and in males is about equaled, in females very -slightly exceeded by those of the prehistoric Indians of Louisiana, -who belong to the same Gulf type with the Indians of Florida. The -old Arkansas Indians, though closely related to those of Louisiana, -show a very perceptibly more slender jaw, particularly in the males; -while in an old Kentucky tribe (Green River, C. B. Moore, collector) -the jaws are still less strong. The lower jaws of the American whites -(dissecting-room material) are slightly less stout than even those of -the Indians of Kentucky in the males, and much less so in the females. -The interesting sex differences are shown well in the last column of -the above table. - - -BREADTH OF THE RAMI - -Still another character that reflects the strength of the lower jaw -is the breadth of the rami. The most practicable measurement of this -is the breadth minimum at the constriction of the ascending branches. -A great breadth of the rami is very striking, as is well known, in -the Heidelberg jaw, and the Eskimo have long been known for a marked -tendency in the same direction. The measurements of the lower jaws of -the western Eskimo show as follows: - - LOWER JAWS OF THE WESTERN ESKIMO AND OTHER RACIAL GROUPS: BREADTH - MINIMUM OF THE ASCENDING BRANCHES - - ---------------------------+---------------+---------------+------------- - | | |Female versus - | Male | Female | male - | | | (M = 100) - ----------------------- |----- -+-------+-------+-------+------------- - | Right | Left | Right | Left | - ---------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------------- - | (243) | (240) | (237) | (228) | - Western Eskimo centimeters| 3.99 | 4.03 | 3.68 | 3.70 | _92_ - | (20) | (20) | (13) | (13) | - Florida Indians do | 3.82 | 3.85 | 3.39 | 3.34 | _87.7_ - | (21) | (19) | (19) | (16) | - Louisiana Indians do | 3.72 | 3.72 | 3.29 | 3.27 | _88.2_ - | (62) | (60) | (58) | (61) | - Arkansas Indians do | 3.47 | 3.47 | 3.24 | 3.23 | _93.2_ - | (42) | (40) | (30) | (29) | - Kentucky Indians do | 3.44 | 3.44 | 3.18 | 3.21 | _92.9_ - | (50) | (50) | (20) | (20) | - United States whites | | | | | - (miscellaneous) centimeters| 3.17 | 3.14 | 2.89 | 2.82 | _90.5_ - ------------------------------------------------------------------------ - -The Eskimo jaws, and particularly that of the female (relatively to -other females), have the broadest rami. Otherwise the series range -themselves in the same order as under the measurement of the stoutness -of the body. - - -OTHER DIMENSIONS - -Four other measurements were taken on the jaws, namely the length of -the body (on each side); the height of the two rami; the bigonial -diameter; and the body-ramus angle. The results of the first three may -conveniently be grouped into one table. - - ADDITIONAL MEASUREMENTS ON THE LOWER JAW - - MALE - - -----------------+---------------+-----------+---------------+-------- - |Length of body,|Length of | Height of |Diameter - |each side[165] |body as a | ramus[167] |bigonial - +-------+-------+whole[166] +-------+-------+[168] - | Right | Left | | Right | Left | - -----------------+-------+-------+-----------+-------+-------+-------- - | (236) (236) | (100) | (132) (131) | (201) - Western Eskimo | 10.28 10.28 | 8.03 | 6.45 6.38 | 11.42 - | | (24) | (18) | (22) - Florida Indian | | 8.45 | 6.72 | 10.75 - | | (19) | (15) | (17) - Louisiana Indian | | 8.44 | 7 | 10.67 - | | (62) | (52) | (57) - Arkansas Indian | | 7.88 | 6.52 | 10.49 - | | (42) | (37) | (38) - Kentucky Indian | | 7.45 | 6.48 | 10.48 - U. S. whites | | (50) | (50) | (50) - (miscellaneous)| | 7.57 | 6.53 | 10.11 - -----------------+---------------+-----------+---------------+-------- - - FEMALE - - -----------------+---------------+-----------+---------------+-------- - | (230) (228) | (100) | (134) (128) | (199) - Western Eskimo | 9.61 9.60 | 7.47 | 5.61 5.57 | 10.57 - | | (19) | (18) | (17) - Florida Indian | | 7.72 | 6.02 | 9.70 - | | (16) | (15) | (15) - Louisiana Indian | | 7.38 | 5.77 | 9.90 - | | (57) | (52) | (56) - Arkansas Indian | | 7.46 | 5.85 | 9.58 - | | (30) | (25) | (30) - Kentucky Indian | | 7.12 | 5.64 | 9.45 - U. S. whites | | (20) | (20) | (20) - (miscellaneous)| | 7.02 | 5.87 | 9.12 - -----------------+---------------+-----------+---------------+-------- - - FEMALES TO MALES (M = 100) - - -----------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------- - | Length | Length | Height | Diameter - | each | as a |of rami | bigonial - | side | whole | | - -----------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------- - Western Eskimo | _93.4_ | _93.0_ | _87.3_ | _92.6_ - | | | | - Florida Indian | | _91.4_ | _89.6_ | _90.2_ - | | | | - Louisiana Indian | | _87.4_ | _82.4_ | _92.8_ - | | | | - Arkansas Indian | | _94.6_ | _89.7_ | _91.3_ - | | | | - Kentucky Indian | | _95.6_ | _87.0_ | _90.2_ - | | | | - U. S. whites (miscellaneous) | | _92.7_ | _89.9_ | _90.2_ - -----------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------- - -The Eskimo lower jaw, which, as seen before, is characterized by a high -and stout body and the broadest rami, shows further that these rami are -remarkably low, and that the bigonial spread is extraordinarily broad. -The length of the body, on the other hand, is not very exceptional, -being perceptibly exceeded in some of the Indians. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[165] Sliding calipers: Separate measurement of each half of the -body, from the lowest point on the posterior border of each ramus not -affected by the angle to a point of corresponding height on the line -of the symphysis. The anterior point may, in consequence of a lower -or higher location of the posterior point, range from the chin to -above the middle of the symphysis, but the results are much alike. The -measurement leaves much to be desired, but is the best possible if the -two halves of the body are to be measured separately. - -[166] The length of the whole jaw is measured on Broca's mandibular -goniometer, by laying the jaw firmly on the board, applying the movable -plane to both rami, and recording the distance of the most anterior -point of the chin from the base of the oblique plane. This measurement -is easier than the previous, though on account of the variation in the -angles and the lower part of the posterior border of the rami it is -also not fully satisfactory, and it does not show the differences in -the two halves of the body. - -[167] Sliding calipers: One branch applied so that it touches the -highest points on both the condyle and the coronoid, while the other -is applied to the lowest point of the ramus anterior to the angle, if -the bone here is prominent; if receding, the branch of the compass is -applied to the midpoint on the lower border of the ramus. - -[168] Sliding calipers: Maximum external diameter at the angles; the -maximum points may, exceptionally, be either anterior to or a little -above the angle proper. - - -THE ANGLE - -The angle between the body and the ramus of the lower jaw is known to -differ with the age and sex as well as individually. Not seldom it -differs also, and that sometimes quite appreciably, on the two sides. -Racial differences are as yet uncertain. - -The angle, especially in some specimens, is not easy to measure, and -the position of the jaw may make a difference of several degrees. -Numerous trials have shown that the proper way is to measure the angle -on the two sides separately, and to so place the jaw in each case that -there is no interference with the measurement by either the posterior -or the anterior enlarged end of the condyle. - -Leaving out jaws in which extensive loss of teeth has in all -probability resulted in changes in the angle, the western Eskimo -material gives the following data: - - WESTERN ESKIMO: ANGLE OF THE LOWER JAW - - -----------+-------+-------++----------+-------+------- - | Male | Female|| | Male | Female - -----------+-------+-------++----------+-------+------- - | (224) | (217) || | (218) | (207) - Right side | 119.6°| 124.5°||Left side | 119.5°| 124.3° - -----------+-------+-------++----------+-------+------- - -In the male Munsee Indians the angle was 118°; in those of Arkansas and -Louisiana, 118.5°; in those of Peru (Martin, Lehrb., 884), 119°. In the -whites, males, the average angle approximates 122°; in the Negro, 121° -(Topinard, Martin). - -The angle in the female in the Eskimo is to that of the male as 104 to -100; in the Arkansas and Louisiana series it was 103. In the whites the -proportion seems to be a little higher. - -There are evidently, if we exclude the whites in whom the shortness -of the jaw conduces probably to a wider angle, no marked racial -differences, but the subject needs a more thorough study on large -series of sexually well-identified specimens, carefully selected as to -age. - -The average angle on the right differs in the Eskimo but very slightly -from that on the left, though individually there are frequent -unequalities. - - -RÉSUMÉ - -The Eskimo lower jaw differs substantially in many respects from -that in other races, particularly from that of the whites. It is -characterized by a high and stout body; by broad but low rami; and by -excessive breadth at the angles. The body-ramus angle is moderate. -To which may be added that the chin is generally of but moderate -prominence, and that the bone at the angles in males is occasionally -markedly everted. - - -MANDIBULAR HYPEROSTOSES - -These hypertrophies or hyperostoses are rarely met with also in -the jaws of the Indian and other people. They are symmetric and -characteristic, though often more or less irregular. They generally -extend from the vicinity of the lateral incisors or the canines -backward, forming when more developed a marked bulge on each side -opposite the bicuspids, which gives the inner contour of the jaw when -looked at from above a peculiar elephantine appearance. They may occur -in the form of smooth, oblong, somewhat fusiform swellings, or as a -continuous more or less uneven ridge, or may be represented by from -one to four or five more or less rounded or flattened hard "buttons" -or tumorlike elevations. In development they range from slight to very -marked. - -These hyperostoses have been reported by various observers (Danielli, -Søren Hansen, Rudolf Virchow, Welcker, Duckworth & Pain, Oetteking, -Hrdlička, Hawkes). They received due attention by Fürst and Hansen -in their "Crania Groenlandica" (p. 178). They have been given the -convenient, though both etiologically and morphologically inaccurate, -name of "mandibular torus"; I think mandibular hyperostoses or simply -welts would be better. Fürst and Hansen found them, taking all grades -of development, in 182, or 85 per cent, of 215 lower jaws of Greenland -Eskimo; in 28 jaws, or 13 per cent, they were pronounced, the remainder -being slight to medium. A special examination of 62 lower jaws of -children and 710 lower jaws of adult western Eskimo (with a small -number from Greenland) gives the following record: - - LINGUAL MANDIBULAR HYPEROSTOSES IN THE WESTERN ESKIMO - - CHILDREN - - [62 mandibles, completion of milk dentition to eruption of second - permanent molar] - - ----------+-----------------+-------------+-------------+------------ - |None or | Slight to | | - |indistinguishable| moderate | Medium | Pronounced - ----------+-----------------+-------------+-------------+------------ - Specimens | 47 | [169]10 | [170]5 | - Per cent | _75.8_ | _16.1_ | _8.1_ | - ----------+-----------------+-------------+-------------+------------ - - ADULTS - - [Both sexes. 710 mandibles] - - ----------+-----------------+-------------+-------------+------------ - Specimens | 215 | 356 | 114 | 25 - Per cent | _30.3_ | _50.1_ | _16.1_ | _3.5_ - ----------+-----------------+-------------+-------------+------------ - - ADULTS - - [Sexes separately. M. 350; F. 360 mandibles] - - Column Headings - A: - B: - ----------+-----------------+--------------+--------------+-------------- - |None or | Slight to | | - |indistinguishable| moderate | Medium | Pronounced - ----------+--------+--------+------+-------+------+-------+------+------- - | Males |Females | Males|Females| Males|Females| Males|Females - ----------+--------+--------+------+-------+------+-------+------+------- - Specimens | 71 | 144 |193 | 163 | 67 | 47 | 19 | 6 - Per cent | 20.3 | 40.0 | 55.1 | 45.3 | 19.1 | 13.1 | 5.4 | 1.7 - ----------+--------+--------+------+-------+------+-------+------+------- - -The significance of these hyperostoses is not yet quite clear. -Danielli, who in 1884 reported them[171] in the Ostiaks, Lapps, -a Kirghiz, a Peruvian Indian, and four white skulls, offered no -explanation. For Søren Hansen,[172] who first suggested the resemblance -of these formations to the torus palatinus, "the significance of -this feature, which also occurs in other Arctic races not directly -related to the Eskimos, is not clear." R. Virchow,[173] who reports -"wulstigen und knolligen Hyperostosen" on both the upper and lower jaws -of a Vancouver Island Indian, restricts himself to a brief mention -of the condition with a suggestion as to its causation (see later). -Welcker[174] found them in the skulls of a German (Schiller?), Lett, -and a Chinese, but has nothing to say as to their meaning. Duckworth -and Pain[175] report the "thickening" in 10 out of 32 Eskimo jaws, but -do not discuss the causation; and the same applies to Oetteking,[176] -who reported on a series of Eskimo from Labrador. In 1909 -Gorjanovič-Kramberger[177] somewhat indirectly notes the condition, -without a true appreciation of its meaning. - -In 1910 I had the opportunity to report on the mandibular hyperostoses -in a rare collection of crania and lower jaws of the central and Smith -Sound Eskimo.[178] Of 25 lower jaws of adults and 5 of children, 18, -or 72 per cent, of the former and 2 of the latter showed distinct to -marked lingual hyperostoses, while in the remaining cases the feature -was either doubtful (absorption of the alveolar process) or absent. Two -of the five children showed the peculiarity in a well-marked degree. A -critical consideration of the condition leads me to the conclusion that -it is not pathological, and my remarks were worded (p. 211) as follows: -"A marked and general feature is a pronounced bony reinforcement of -the alveolar arch extending above the mylohyoid line from the canines -or first bicuspids to or near the last molars. This physiological -hyperostosis presents more or less irregular surface and is undoubtedly -of functional origin, the result of extraordinary pressure along the -line of teeth most concerned in chewing; yet its occurrence in infant -skulls indicates that at least to some extent the feature is already -hereditary in these Eskimo." - -In 1912, Kajava[179] reported lingual hyperostotic thickenings on the -lower jaws of 68 adult Lapps, and found the condition in frequent -association with pronounced wear of the teeth. In 1915, finally, Fürst -and C.C. Hansen, in their great volume on "Crania Groenlandica," -approach this question much more thoroughly. They, as also Kajava, -did not know of the writer's report of 1910. They found the "torus" -(p. 181), "also in the mandibles of some various Siberian races in a -not insignificant percentage * * * and also not infrequently among -European races, especially in the Laplanders (30 to 35 per cent)." -They also report the presence of the condition "in a Chinaman," and -saw indications of a good development of it in 17 per cent of 164 -middle ages to prehistoric, and in 12 per cent of later Scandinavian -lower jaws. Their interesting comments on its possible causation, -though at one point seemingly not harmonizing, are as follows (p. -180): "The possibility is not precluded that we have here a formation -which, even though it has at first arisen and been acquired through -mechanical causes, has in the end become a racial character, albeit a -variable one." And page 181: "There seems to be no doubt whatever that -it is a formation connected with Arctic races or Arctic conditions of -life; and, accordingly, it can not safely be assumed to be a racial -character, however difficult it is to regard it as a formation only -acquired individually." - -[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT -PLATE 61 - -WESTERN ESKIMO AND ALEUT (MIDDLE) LOWER JAWS, SHOWING LINGUAL -HYPEROSTOSES. (U.S.N.M.)] - -With both the previously published and the present data, I believe the -subject of these bony formations may now be approached with some hope -of definite conclusions. - -These hyperostoses give no indication of being pathological. They are -formed largely, if not entirely, by compact bone tissues of evidently -normal construction. They never show a trace of attending inflammation -or of ulceration or of breaking down. They resemble occasionally the -osteomae of the vault of the skull, and more distantly the osteomae -of the auditory meatus, but in those cases where the bony swelling -is uniform and in many others they show to be of quite a different -category. (Pl. 61.) - -As a rule these bony protuberances in the Eskimo are not connected -with evidence of pyorrhoea, root abscesses, or any other pathological -condition of the teeth, for those conditions are practically absent -in the older Eskimo skulls; therefore they can not be ascribed to any -irritation due to such conditions, and the Eskimo have no habits that -could possibly be imagined as favoring, through mechanical irritation, -the development of these bony swellings. Wear of the teeth, which -has been thought to stand possibly in a causative relation to these -developments, is common in many races and even in animals (primates, -etc.), without being accompanied by any such formations. - -The development of such overgrowths is not wholly limited, as already -indicated from the cases reported by Danielli (1884) and Virchow -(1889), to the lower jaw, but somewhat similar growths may also be -observed, though much more rarely, both lingually and on the outer -border of the alveolar process of the upper jaw in the molar region. -When present in the latter position they interfere with the measurement -of the external breadth of the dental arch. - -But, if neither pathological themselves nor due to any pathological or -mechanical irritation, then these hyperostoses can only be, it would -seem, of a physiological, ontogenic nature; and if so, then they must -be brought about through a definite need and for a definite purpose or -function. - -These views are supported by their marked symmetry, which is very -apparent even where they are irregular; by the fact that in general -they are not found in the weakest jaws (weak individuals), or again in -the largest and stoutest mandibles (jaws that are strong enough, as it -is); and by the history of their development. - -Our rather extensive present data on children show that these -formations are absent in infancy. They begin to develop in older -childhood, in adolescence, or even during the earlier adult life; they -stop developing at different stages in different individuals, and they -never lead to any deformity of the body of the mandible. - -These overgrowths are further seen to be more common and to more -frequently reach a pronounced development in the males than in the -females. - -What is the effect of these hyperostoses? They strengthen the dental -arch. With them the arch is stronger; without them it would be weaker. -The view is therefore justified that they augment the effectiveness -of the dental arch; which is just what is needed or would be useful -in such people as the Eskimo where the demands on the jaws exceed in -general those in any other people. - -All these appear to be facts of incontrovertible nature; but if so -then we are led to practically the same conclusion that I have reached -in the study of the central and Smith Sound Eskimo, which is that the -lingual mandibular hyperostoses are physiological formations, developed -in answer to the needs of the alveolar portions of the lower jaw. They -could be termed synergetic hyperostoses. - -The process of the development of these strengthening deposits of -bone is probably still largely individual; yet the tendency toward -such developments appears to be already hereditary in the Eskimo, as -indicated by their beginning here and there in childhood. But their -absence in nearly one-third of the Eskimo mandibles, their marked -differences of occurrence and development in the two sexes, and their -occasional presence in the jaws of various other peoples, including -even the whites, speak against the notion of these hyperostoses being -as yet true racial features. - -Taking everything into consideration, the writer is more than ever -convinced that the lingual hyperostoses of the normal lower (as well -as the upper) jaw, in the Eskimo as elsewhere, are physiological, -ontogenic developments, whose object and function is the strengthening -of the lower alveolar process in its lateral portions. Only when -excessively developed, which is very rare, they may, mechanically, -perhaps cause discomfort and thereby approach a pathological condition. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[169] None in the younger children. - -[170] All in older children or adolescents. - -[171] Danielli, J., Arch. p. l'antrop. e l'etnol., 1884, XIV. - -[172] Meddel. om. Grønl., 1887, No. 17. - -[173] Beitr. Kraniol. d. Insul. w. Küste Amer., 1889, 398. - -[174] Arch. Anthrop., 1902, XXVII, 70. - -[175] J. Anthr. Inst., 1900, XXX, 134. - -[176] Abh. und Ber. Zool. und Anthr. Mus., Dresden, 1908, XII. - -[177] Sitzber. preuss. Ak. Wiss., LI-LIII. - -[178] Anthrop. Pap's. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., V, pt. II. - -[179] Verh. Ges. Finn. Zahnärzte, 1912, IX. - - -MAIN REFERENCES - -Danielli,[180] 1884: "Saw the condition in lower jaws of 1 Swede, 1 -Italian, 1 Terra di Lavoro jaw, 1 Slovene, 1 Hungarian, 1 Kirghis, 1 -ancient Peruvian." - -Found hyperostoses in 9 out of 14 Ostiak lower jaws. - -Material: Young 2, adult 6, old 6. - -Hyperostoses in young 1, adult 3, old 5. - -Mantegazza, at his request, examined some Ostiak and Eskimo skulls in -Berlin and found the hyperostoses in 2 Ostiak lower jaws (slight) and -in 1 Eskimo skull from Greenland (marked). - -Found also smaller hyperostoses in the upper jaw ventrally to the -molars ("situate quasi sempre dalla parte interna in corrispondenza dei -molari"): - -Skulls: 2 Italians, 1 Hungarian, 7 Norwegians, 2 Lapps, 5 Ostiaks. - -Plate shows 8 lower jaws, 1 with slight, 7 with marked hyperostoses (1 -symphyseal swellings, 3 tumorlike). - -Refrains from interpretation (could not reach conclusion). - -Virchow,[181] 1889, page 392: In upper jaws of three Santa Barbara -skulls: "An den Alveolarrändern der weiblichen Schädel Nr. 3-6 von -S. Barbara besteht eine höchst eigenthümliche und seltene, knollige -Hyperostosis s. Osteosclerosis alveolaris, wie ich sie in gleicher -Stärke früher nur bei Eskimos gesehen hatte. Ein leichter Ansatz dazu -zeigt sich auch bei dem männlichen Schädel Nr. 4 von S. Cruz. Es dürfte -dieser Zustand, der mit tiefer Abnutzung der Zähne zusammenfält, durch -besonders reizende Nahrung bedingt sein." - -Vancouver Island skulls: "dagegen sehen wir dieselbe alveolare -Hyperostose, die wir bei den Leuten von S. Barbara und weiterhin bei -Eskimos kennen gelernt haben." - -Virchow,[182] 1892: "Der Alveolarrand gleichfalls mit hyperostotischen -Wülsten besetzt, jedoch mehr an der inneren Seite, besonders stark in -der Gegend per Prümolares und Canini, weniger stark in der Gegend der -Incisici." - -Welcker,[183] 1902: "Exostosen der Alveolarränder. Von erheblicher -Beweiskraft können Eigenthümlichkeiten und Abnormitäten des -Knochengewebes under der Knochenoberfläche werden, wenn dieselben, bei -an sich grosser Seltenheit ihres Vorkommens, an einem Oberschädel und -Unterkiefer zugleich vorkommen. - -"So fand ich am Unterkiefer der Gypsabgüsse des sogenannten -Schillerschädels sehr merkwürdige, bis dahin nirgends erwähnte, -erbsenförmige Exostosen an den Alveolen der Eck- und Schneidezähne. -Ganz ähnliche, wenn auch etwas flächere Exostosen zeigen die Alveolen -eben derselben Zähne des Oberschädels, und es beweist dieses seltene -Vorkommen bei dem Zutreffen aller übrigen Zeichen das Zusammengehören -beider Stücke mit hoher Sicherheit. - -"In einer etwas anderen Form, in der dieselben einen geschlossenen, -exostotischen Saum bilden, fand ich Alveolarexostosen bei einem -Lettenschädel (G. Gandras, 47 J., Halle Nr. 52). Hier sind die -Alveolarränder der Schneide-und Eckzähne mit flachen, am Oberkiefer -streifenförmigen (senkrecht gestellten), am Unterkiefer mehr rundlichen -Exostosen besetzt, so dass der sonst papierdünne Zahnflächenrand -beider Kiefer in einen, die Zahnhälse begrenzenden wulst-förmigen -Saum umgewandelt ist. Der gleiche Charakter dieser nicht häufigen -Abnormität an beiden Kiefern giebt die vollste Ueberzeungung der -Zusammengehörigkeit. - -"In schwächerem Grade zeigt diesen Zustand ein Chinesenschädel der -Halle'schen Sammlung (Lie Assie)." - -Fürst,[184] 1908: "Wir haben hier auf diese interessante anatomische -Bildung aufmerksam machen wollen, die, wenn nicht konstant, doch in -sehr hohem Prozentsatze und in bestimmter charakteristischer Form -bei den Eskimos auftritt und in verschiedenen Variationen auf dem -Unterkiefer anderer Rassen, speziell nordischer oder arktischer, -vorkommt.--Wir wollen später eine ausführlichere Beschreibung über den -Torus mandibularis mitteilen." - -Gorjanovič-Kramberger,[185] 1909: "Durch die Ausbiegung der seitlichen -Kieferflächen würde ferner die Druckrichtung der M und P eine gegen die -innere Kieferwandung gerichtete. Als direkte Folge dieses Druckes hat -man die starke Ausladung der entsprechenden lingualen Kieferseiten im -Bereiche der P und M anzusehen, die da eine auffallende Einengung des -inneren Unterkieferraumes bewerkstelligte." - -Hrdlička (A.), 1910. See text. - -Hansen,[186] 1914: "The lower jaws attached to the skulls are -powerfully formed, high, and, above all, very thick, their inner -surface being markedly protruding, rounded, and without any special -prominence of linea mylohyoidea. This peculiarity, which is common -enough, among the Eskimo and certain Siberian tribes, but is otherwise -exceedingly rare, must be regarded as a hyperostosis of the same nature -as the so-called torus palatinus. It is a partly pathological formation -due to a peculiar mode of life rather than a true morphological mark of -race." - -Fürst, C. M., and Hansen, C. C., 1915. See text. - -Cameron,[187] 1923: "In some instances the bony thickening was -excessive. For example, in mandible XIV H-8 the inward bulging of the -bone was so marked that the transverse distance between the inner -surfaces of the body opposite the first molars was reduced to 21.5 -millimeters. This jaw had therefore an extraordinary appearance when -viewed from below. (See fig. 5.) The writer would regard these bulgings -as bone buttresses built up by nature to resist the excessive strain -thrown upon the alveoli of the molar teeth. He exhibited the mandibles -to Prof. H. E. Friesell, dean of the dental faculty, University of -Pittsburgh, and this authority concurred in the opinion expressed -above." A disagreement with this view is expressed by S. G. Ritchie, -pages 64c-65c, same publication. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[180] Danielli, Jacopo, Iperostosi in mandibole umano specialmente -di Ostiacchi, ed anche in mascellari superiore. Archivio per -l'antropologia e l'etnologia, 1884, XIV, 333-346. - -[181] Virchow, E., in Beiträge zur Craniologie der Insulaner von der -Westküste Nordamerikas. Zeitschr. f. Ethnol. Verhandl., 1889, XXI, 395, -401. - -[182] Virchow, R., Crania Ethnica Americana. Berlin, 1892, Tafel XXIII. -A "long-head" male adult of Koskimo, Vancouver Island. - -[183] Welcker, H., Die Zugehörigkeit eines Unterkiefers zu einem -bestimmten Schädel, nebst Untersuchungen über sehr auffällige, -durch Auftrocknung und Wiederanfeuchtung bedingte Gröben und -Formveränderungen des Knochens. Arch. f. Anthropol., 1902, XXVII, 70. - -[184] Fürst, Carl M., Demonstration des Torus mandibularis bei den -Askimos und anderen Rassen. Verhandlungen der Anatomischen Gesellschaft -in Berlin, 1908, Ergänzhft z. Anatom. Anz., 1908, XXXII, 295-296. - -[185] Gorjanovič-Kramberger, K., Der Unterkiefer der Eskimos -(Grönländer) als Träger primitiver Merkmale. Sitzungsberichte der -königlich preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1909, LI. - -[186] Hansen, Søren, Contributions to the anthropology of the East -Greenlanders. Meddelelser om Grønland, Copenhagen, 1914, XXXIX, 169. - -[187] Cameron, John, The Copper Eskimos. Report of the Canadian Arctic -Expedition, 1913-1918. Ottawa, 1923, XII, c. 55. - - - - -SKELETAL PARTS OTHER THAN THE SKULL - - -The skeletal parts of the western Eskimo, outside of the skull, are but -little known. The only records are those on two skeletons (one male, -one female) from Point Barrow by Hawkes,[188] and those on a few bones -from Port Clarence by Cameron.[189] The data on the skeletal parts of -the northern and eastern Eskimo are only slightly richer, being for the -most part fragmentary and scattered.[190] Nor has the time arrived yet -for a comprehensive study of such material, for notwithstanding the -relative abundance in crania and the more resistant individual skeletal -parts, the securing of anywhere near complete skeletons is very -difficult. Nevertheless there is now a good number of the long bones -of the western Eskimo in the possession of the National Museum and -the main data on these, all secured personally by the writer, will be -given. They must for the present remain essentially as so many figures -without adequate discussion and comparisons. Nevertheless a few facts -appear so plainly that they may well be pointed out before concluding -this section. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[188] Amer. Anthrop., 1916, LVIII, 240-243. - -[189] Rep. Canad. Arct. Exp., 1913-1918, Pt. C, 1923, 56-57. - -[190] Mainly by Turner (London, 1886); Duckworth (Cambridge, 1904); -Hrdlička (New York, 1910); Cameron (Ottawa, 1913-1918); also a series -of incidental references and comparisons. - - - WESTERN ESKIMO: THE LONG BONES - - -------------+--------------------------------------------- - | Males - -------------+------------+---------+--------+------------ - Bones of |Southwestern| Seward| Point| Seward - both sides | and|Peninsula| Hope| Peninsula - taken | midwestern| [192]| | and - together |groups [191]| | |northwestern - | | | | Eskimo in - | | | | general - | | | | [193] - -------------+------------+---------+--------+------------ - Humeri: | (143)| (261)| (67)| (100) - | | | | - Length | 30.69| 31.42| 31.07| 31.17 - maximum | | | | - | | | | - At middle-- | | | | - | | | | - Diameter | 2.40| 2.46| 2.46| 2.46 - maximum | | | | - | | | | - Diameter | 1.80| 1.81| 1.86| 1.85 - minimum | | | | - | | | | - Index at | 75.1| 73.8| 75.8| 75.1 - middle | | | | - | | | | - Radii: | (98)| (20)| (15)| (37) - | | | | - Length | 22.90| 23.63| 23.44| 23.50 - maximum | | | | - | | | | - Radio- | | | | - humeral | _74.5_| _75.2_| _75.4_| _75.4_ - index | | | | - (approximate)| | | | - | | | | - Femora: | (195)| (44)| (10)| (60) - | | | | - Length, | 42.50| 43.20| (44.06)| 43.46 - bicond. | | | | - | | | | - Humero- | | | | - femoral | _72.2_| _72.7_| [195]| _71.7_ - index | | |(_70.5_)| - (approximate)| | | | - | | | | - At middle-- | | | | - | | | | - Diameter | | | | - antero- | 3.08| 3.17| (3.33)| 3.21 - posterior | | | | - | | | | - Diameter | 2.70| 2.72| (2.68)| 2.72 - lateral | | | | - | | | | - Index at | _87.6_| _85.8_|(_80.4_)| _84.8_ - middle | | | | - | | | | - At upper | | | | - flattening-- | | | | - | | | | - Diameter | 3.35| 3.34| (3.27)| 3.32 - maximum | | | | - | | | | - Diameter | 2.51| 2.57| (2.58)| 2.59 - minimum | | | | - | | | | - Index at | | | | - upper | _75_| _77_| (_79_)| _78.1_ - flattening | | | | - | | | | - Tibiae: | (141)| (35)| (41)| (79) - | | | | - Length (in | 33.86| 34.52| 36.40| 35.52 - position) | | | | - | | | | - Tibio- | | | | - femoral index| | | | - | | | | - (approximate)| _79.7_| _79.9_| [194]| _81.7_ - | | |(_82.6_)| - At middle-- | | | | - | | | | - Diameter | | | | - | | | | - antero- | 3.12| 3.13| 3.26| 3.19 - posterior | | | | - | | | | - Diameter | 2.12| 2.12| 2.20| 2.16 - lateral | | | | - | | | | - Index at | _67.9_| _67.7_| _67.4_| _67.8_ - middle | | | | - -------------+------------+---------+--------+------------ - - -------------+--------------------------------------------- - | Females - -------------+------------+---------+--------+------------ - Bones of |Southwestern| Seward| Point| Seward - both sides | and|Peninsula| Hope| Peninsula - taken | midwestern| | | and - together | groups| | |northwestern - | | | | Eskimo in - | | | | general - | | | | - -------------+------------+---------+--------+------------ - Humeri: | (136)| (26)| (55)| (83) - | | | | - Length | 28.40| 28.75| 28.83| 28.83 - maximum | | | | - | | | | - At middle-- | | | | - | | | | - Diameter | 2.10| 2.14| 2.16| 2.15 - maximum | | | | - | | | | - Diameter | 1.54| 1.59| 1.63| 1.62 - minimum | | | | - | | | | - Index at | 73.2| 74.4| 75.4| 75.1 - middle | | | | - | | | | - Radii: | (109)| (16)| (8)| (24) - | | | | - Length | 20.50| 21.26| [194]| 21.25 - maximum | | | (21.58)| - | | | | - Radio- | | | | - humeral | _72.2_| _74_|(_74.8_)| _74_ - index | | | | - (approximate)| | | | - | | | | - Femora: | (132)| (26)| | (31) - | | | | - Length, | 39.36| 40.12| | 40.44 - bicond. | | | | - | | | | - Humero- | | | | - femoral | _72.2_| _71.7_| | _71.3_ - index | | | | - (approximate)| | | | - | | | | - At middle-- | | | | - | | | | - Diameter | | | | - antero- | 2.69| 2.85| | 2.88 - posterior | | | | - | | | | - Diameter | 2.46| 2.55| | 2.56 - lateral | | | | - | | | | - Index at | _91.5_| _89.6_| | _88.9_ - middle | | | | - | | | | - At upper | | | | - flattening-- | | | | - | | | | - Diameter | 3.02| 3.04| | 3.06 - maximum | | | | - | | | | - Diameter | 2.26| 2.37| | 2.40 - minimum | | | | - | | | | - Index at | | | | - upper | _74.5_| _78_| | _78.4_ - flattening | | | | - | | | | - Tibiae: | (147)| (18)| (17)| (36) - | | | | - Length (in | 31.32| 31.90| 32.90| 32.50 - position) | | | | - | | | | - Tibio- | | | | - femoral index| | | | - | | | | - (approximate)| _79.6_| _79.5_| | _80.4_ - | | | | - At middle-- | | | | - | | | | - Diameter | | | | - | | | | - antero- | 2.71| 2.71| 2.80| 2.75 - posterior | | | | - | | | | - Diameter | 1.89| 1.93| 1.92| 1.92 - lateral | | | | - | | | | - Index at | _69.9_| _71.3_| _68.8_| _70_ - middle | | | | - -------------+------------+---------+--------+------------ - -The first fact shown by the preceding figures is the slightly greater -length of all the long bones in the midwestern and northwestern groups -as compared with those of the Bering Sea (midwestern and southwestern). -This means naturally that the people of the Seward Peninsula and -northward average somewhat taller in stature. - -The second evident fact is that the people of the Seward Peninsula and -the more northern groups (so far as represented in these collections) -show a slightly greater stature of all the bones than the groups -farther south, showing that they were both a somewhat taller and -somewhat sturdier people. - -The next fact of importance is the remarkable agreement in some -respects in the relative proportions of the main skeletal parts between -the people of the more southern and the more northern groups. The -males are more regular in this respect than the females. The relative -proportions of the humerus and again the tibia at their middle are -identical in the males of the southwestern and midwestern groups and -those farther northward; and the radio-humeral, humero-femoral, and -tibio-femoral indices are all very closely related. Why there should be -less agreement in these respects among the females it is difficult to -say; in all probability the series of specimens are not sufficiently -large. - -The next table presents data and some racial comparisons. Here the -western Eskimo are taken as a unit. They are seen to considerably -resemble the Yukon Indians, but somewhat less so other Indians in -the radio-humeral and tibio-femoral indices, and they resemble all -the Indians in the relative proportions of the femur at its middle. -In other respects there are somewhat more marked differences, -especially between the western Eskimo and the Indians in general. Some -irregularities in the Yukon series may be due to insufficiency of -numbers. - -When compared with the bones of the whites and the negroes the Eskimo -and Indians separate themselves in many respects as a distinct group, -while the white and the negro bones are particularly distinct through -the greater relative thickness of the humerus and tibia at their -middle, and of the femur at its upper flattening; in other words the -Eskimo as well as the Indians are more platybrachic, platymeric and -platycnemic than the whites or the negroes. - -The basic relation of the Eskimo to the Indian bones is quite evident; -though the Eskimo, when compared to Indians outside of Alaska, show a -relatively shorter radius and tibia, indicating the already discussed -relative shortness of the forearm and leg. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[191] Principally Hooper Bay, Nunivak Island, Pastolik, and St. -Lawrence Island. - -[192] Mainly Shishmaref, Wales and Golovnin Bay. - -[193] Including Point Hope. - -[194] Number of radii insufficient. - -[195] Number of femora insufficient. - - -WESTERN ESKIMO, LONG BONES: COMPARATIVE DATA - - MALES - - ---------------+--------+-------+------+----------+-------+------+------- - | | | Femur | | | - ---------------+--------+-------+------+----------+-------+------+------- - |Humerus:| Radio-| Index| Index of|Humero-|Tibia:| Tibio- - | Index|humeral| of| shaft at|femoral| Index|femoral - | of| index| shaft| upper| index| of| index - | shaft| | at|flattening| | shaft| - | at the| |middle| | | at| - | middle| | | | |middle| - | (all| | | | | | - | groups)| | | | | | - ---------------+--------+-------+------+----------+-------+------+------- - | [196]| (135)| (255)| (255)| (243)| (220)| (220) - | (243)| | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Western Eskimo | 75.1| 75| 86.2| 76.5| 72| 67.9| 80.7 - | | | | | | | - | (10)| (10)| (14)| (14)| (10)| (14)| (14) - | | | | | | | - Yukon Indians | 70| 75.7| 87.1| 70.7| 74.5| 66| 81.5 - | | | | | | | - | (448)| (370)| (902)| (902)| (378)|(1259)| (324) - | | | | | | | - Other Indians | 73.3| 77.7| 87.3| 74| 72.5| 66.1| 84.4 - | | | | | | | - | (1930)| (1052)| (207)| (836)| (800)|(1400)| (1216) - | | | | | | | - United States | | | | | | | - whites | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - (miscellaneous)| 83| 73.6| 97| 83| 72.5| 71.1| 82.1 - | | | | | | | - | (112)| (74)| [197]| (48)| (50)| (63)| (68) - | | | (14)| | | | - | | | | | | | - United States | 84.1| 77.3|(91.2)| 86.8| 71.6| 73.9| 84.9 - negroes | | | | | | | - ---------------+--------+-------+------+----------+-------+------+------- - - FEMALES - - ---------------+--------+-------+------+----------+-------+------+------- - | (213)| (133)| (153)| (153)| (153)| (183)| (183) - | | | | | | | - Western Eskimo | 74.1| 73.1| 90.2| 76.5| 71.8| 70| 80 - | | | | | | | - | (348)| (200)| (327)| (248)| (200)| (910)| (384) - | | | | | | | - Other Indians | 70.1| 76.6| 91.8| 70| 72.5| 70| 84.3 - | | | | | | | - | (770)| (424)| (100)| (192)| (290)| (600)| (520) - | | | | | | | - United States | | | | | | | - whites | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - (miscellaneous)| 79.3| 72.7| 97| 77.7| 71.6| 71.9| 81.5 - | | | | | | | - | (52)| (34)| [197]| (48)| (52)| (44)| (48) - | | | (17)| | | | - | | | | | | | - United States | 79.2| 77.2| (100)| 81.1| 70.2| 75.9| 83.7 - negroes | | | | | | | - ---------------+--------+-------+------+----------+-------+------+------- - -FOOTNOTES: - -[196] Bones of both sides. - -[197] Numbers insufficient. - - -LONG BONES IN ESKIMO AND STATURE - -One of the most desirable of possibilities in the anthropometry of any -people, but particularly in groups now extinct, is a correct estimation -of their stature. For this purpose the most useful aid has been found -in the long bones, and various essays have been made by Manouvrier, -Rollet, Topinard, Pearson, and others[198] at preparing tables or -arriving at methods that would enable the student to promptly and -satisfactorily obtain the stature as it was in life from the length -of the long bones. But all these essays were based on observations on -white people, and it has always been recognized that they could not -with equal confidence be applied to other racial groups. They would -in all probability be especially inapplicable to the Eskimo with his -relatively short forearms and legs; yet the possibility of estimating -the stature in many localities of the Eskimo territory, where no living -remain, would be of real value. Fortunately for this purpose there are -now some data on hand which make this possible. - -In 1910, in my Contributions to the Anthropology of the Central and -Smith Sound Eskimo, I was able to report both the stature and the -length of the long bones in two normally developed adult males and -one adult female from Smith Sound. To this it is now possible to add -larger though less direct data from the group of St. Lawrence Island. -We have the stature of many of the living from this place and also the -measurements of numerous long bones from the dead of the same group. -The relations of the two are given below, together with corresponding -data from Smith Sound. There is in general such a striking agreement in -the relative proportions that the latter may, it would seem, be used -henceforth for stature estimates also in other parts of the Eskimo -region. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[198] See section on Estimation of Stature from Parts of the Skeleton, -in author's Anthropometry, Wistar Inst., Philadelphia, 1920. - - -LENGTH OF PRINCIPAL LONG BONES, AND STATURE IN THE LIVING, ON THE ST. -LAWRENCE ISLAND - - ---------+---------------------+---------------------- - | Male | Female - +---------------------+---------------------- - | (63) | (48) - | Mean stature: 163.3 | Mean stature: 151.3 - +----------+----------+----------+----------- - | | Percental| | Percental - | Mean | relation | Mean | relation - |dimensions|to stature|dimensions|to stature - | | (S = 100)| | (S = 100) - ---------+----------+----------+----------+----------- - | (58) | | (49) | - Humerus | 30.41 | _18.6_ | 27.77 | _18.3_ - | (23) | | (35) | - Radius | 23.03 | _14.1_ | 20.77 | _13.7_ - | (100) | | (38) | - Femur | 32.54 | _27.8_ | 38.12 | _25.1_ - | (58) | | (50) | - Tibia | 34.16 | _20.9_ | 31.13 | _20.5_ - ---------+----------+----------+----------+----------- - - -LONG BONES VS. STATURE IN ESKIMO OF SMITH SOUND[199] - - ---------------------------------+---------------+-------- - | Male | Female - ---------------------------------+-------+-------+-------- - | _a_ | _b_ | - Stature | 155.0 | 164.0 | 146.7 - Humerus: | | | - Mean length (of the two) | 28.95| 29.0 | 26.55 - Percental relation to stature | _18.7_| _17.7_| _18.1_ - Radius: | | | - Mean length | 21.3 | 23.2 | 19.85 - Percental relation to stature | _13.7_| _14.1_| _13.5_ - Femur: | | | - Mean length | 39.1 | 42.1 | 38.55 - Percental relation to stature | _25.2_| _25.7_| _26.3_ - Tibia: | | | - Mean length | 30.25| 34.45| 30.9 - Percental relation to stature | _19.5_| _21.0_| _21.1_ - ---------------------------------+-------+-------+-------- - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[199] Hrdlička, A., Contribution to the anthropology of central and -Smith Sound Eskimo. Anthrop. Pap. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., V, pt. 2, 280. -New York, 1910. - - - - -A STRANGE GROUP OF ESKIMO NEAR POINT BARROW - - -In 1917-1919, in the course of the John Wanamaker Expedition for the -University Museum, Philadelphia, W. B. Van Valin, with the help of -Charles Brower, the well-known local trader and collector, excavated -near Barrow a group of six tumuli, which proved in the opinion of Van -Valin to be so many old igloos, containing plentiful cultural as well -as skeletal material. The collections eventually reached the museum, -but due to lack of facilities they were in the main never unpacked. - -I heard of this material first from Mr. Brower, with whom I sailed in -1926 from Barrow southward, and later with Dr. J. Alden Mason I saw -the collection still in the original boxes, at the University Museum. -In April of this year the skeletal remains were transferred to the -Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, and after their transfer I obtained -the permission of Dr. Milton J. Greenman, director of the Wistar -Institute, to examine the material, which was of importance to him in -connection with his own collections from Barrow and southward. A due -acknowledgment for the privilege is hereby rendered to both Doctor -Greenman and Doctor Mason. - -The study proved one of unexpected and uncommon interest. The material -was found to consist of two separate lots. The first of these consisted -of a considerable number of brown colored, more or less complete -skeletons with skulls, proceeding from the "igloos"; while the second -lot comprised a series of whitened isolated skulls, without other -skeletal parts and mostly even without the component lower jaws, -gathered on the tundra near Barrow. At first sight, also, the skulls of -the two groups were seen to present important differences. - -The "igloo" crania, while plainly pure Eskimo, proved to be of a -decidedly exceptional nature for this location. The skulls, in brief, -were not of the general western Eskimo type, but reminded at once -strongly of the skulls from Greenland and Labrador. And they were -exceptionally uniform, showing that they belonged to a definite and -distinct Eskimo group. - -After writing of this to Doctor Mason, he kindly sent me a copy of the -notes and observations on the discovery of the material by W. B. Van -Valin, who was in charge of the excavation. The detailed notes will -soon be published by Doctor Mason. The main information they convey is -as follows: - -The excavations by Van Valin date from 1918-19. They were made in six -large "heaps," approximately 8 miles southwest of Barrow and about -1,000 yards back from the beach on the tundra. Two of the heaps were on -the northern and four on the southern side of a ravine or draw formed -by a drain flowing from inland to the sea. The Eskimo at Barrow knew -nothing about these remains or their people. - -Each of the heaps inclosed what in the excavator's opinion was an -"igloo" made of driftwood and earth; and all contained evidently -undisturbed human skeletons. The total number of bodies of all ages -was counted as 83, and they ranged from infants to old people. There -were many bird and other skins (for covers and clothing), and numerous -utensils. The hair on the bodies was in general "black as a raven." -Most of the bodies lay on "beds" of moss or "ground willows," or -rough-hewn boards. There was no indication of any violence or sudden -death. The bodies at places were in three levels, one above the other; -but there was but moderate uniformity in the orientation of the -bodies. There were found with the burials no traces of dogs (though -there were some sled runners), and no metal, glass, pipes, labrets, -nets, soapstone lamps or dog harness; but there were bows and arrows, -bolas, and ordinary pottery. The cultural objects, Doctor Mason wrote -me, resemble in a smaller measure those of the older Bering Sea, to -a larger extent those of the old northern or "Thule" culture. There -were some jadeite axes, indicating a direct or indirect contact with -Kotzebue Sound and the Kobuk River. - -Some of the bearskin coverings were "as bright and silvery" as the day -the bear was killed (Van Valin); and the frozen bodies were evidently -in a state of preservation approaching that of natural mummies. - -Notwithstanding indications to the contrary, Van Valin reached the -opinion that these remains were not those of regular burials, though -offering no other definite hypothesis. - -Desiring additional information about this highly interesting find, I -wrote to Mr. Brower, who assisted at the excavations, and received the -following answer: - - These mounds are from 5 to 8 miles south of the Barrow village - (Utkiavik). The largest that were opened were the farthest south, - and seemed more like raised lumps on the land than ruins. No doubt - that is the reason no one had bothered them. - - The Eskimo have no traditions of these people. In fact they did not - even suspect the mounds contained human remains until Mr. Van Valin - started to investigate them. - - While Van Valin thought they might be houses, I have always thought - they were burial mounds, as there seemed no family to have been - together at the time of death as often has happened. When whole - families have died from some epidemic, then the man and wife are - together under their sleeping skins. In these mounds each party was - wrapped separate, either in polar bear or musk ox skins; none were - wrapped in deer skins. If male, all his hunting implements were - at his side, and if a female her working tools were with her, as - scrapers, dishes of wood, and stone knives. The men had their bows, - arrows, spears, and often a heavy club, for what purpose unless - used in fighting I could not make out. At the head of each person - was a small receptacle, made of whalebone, and in it or alongside - was a long wing bone that had been used as a drinking tube. In some - cases there seemed to be the remains of food in the platters, but - that was impossible to identify. Most of the bodies were laid on - the ground, a few had the remains of scrub willow under them, while - only in two or three cases had there been driftwood planks under - the bodies; these were crudely hewn with their old stone adzes. - - There seems to have been some sort of driftwood houses over these - bodies at some time, but they decayed and have fallen on the - remains, which were in some cases embedded in the ice. Often before - the frame had broken down earth must have accumulated and covered - the bodies. In these cases the flesh has the consistency of a fine - meal. While with those in the ice in some cases part of the flesh - still remained. In both cases when exposed to the air they rapidly - disintegrated, leaving nothing except the bones. By measurements - they must have been a larger race than the present people. - - When your letter reached here I at once started making inquiries as - to what mounds were still intact; and I find that as far as known - only two of the larger ones have not been opened. The Eskimo have - been opening the mounds ever since they were found, taking from - them all the hunting implements and other material and selling them - aboard the ships for curios. It seems a shame that all this should - be lost to science, and if no one takes an interest in these places - in a year or two they will all be gone. - - I have again made inquiries as to what the present Eskimo think of - these people, but they tell me they have no tradition regarding - them and that they do not know if they were their ancestors or not. - In fact, they are ignorant of where they came from or when they - died. - - To date I do not know of any whaling implement being found with - these old people, neither is any of the framework of these mounds - made from the bones of whales. In some of the implements ivory has - been used. The mounds farthest from the shore were about 400 yards, - those that remain are closer to the beach. Some of the smaller ones - are on the banks of small streams but never very far from shore. - Undoubtedly, however, they were at one time considerably farther - from the sea, but the sea is every year claiming some of this land, - especially where the banks are high along the beach. There the - beach is narrow and during a gale the waves wash out the land at - its base. This is about all that I can tell you of these people. - All credit for finding these mounds belongs to Van Valin. - - Yours truly, - CHAS. D. BROWER. - - -_The material._--The collection as received at the Wistar Institute was -notable for its general dark color, enhanced in many of the specimens -by dark to black remains of the tissues. There was no mineralization -and but little bone decay, though the bones were somewhat brittle. - -There is a scarcity of children and adolescents; there are in fact only -two skulls of subjects less than 20 years of age in the collection. - -The skulls and bones that remain show no violence. - -The remains show a complete freedom from syphilis or other -constitutional disease; the only pathological condition present in some -of the bones being arthritis. This speaks strongly for their preceding -the contact with whites. The surface series, though smaller, shows -three syphilitic skulls. An additional fact of interest is the absence -in both the igloo and the surface series of all marks of scurvy. Such -marks are fairly common farther southward. Finally, none of the skulls -are deformed, either in life or posthumously. - - -ANTHROPOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AND MEASUREMENTS ON THE COLLECTIONS - -_Age._--The first observations made on the igloo material were those as -to the individual ages of the bodies. Such observations are necessarily -rough, yet within sufficiently broad limits fairly reliable. The -criteria are principally the condition of the teeth and that of the -sutures. The possible error in such estimates is, experience has shown, -as a rule well within 10 years in the older and within 5 years in the -young adults or subadults. - -One of the objects of these observations on the "igloo" material was -to get some further light on whether the remains were those of a group -that perished of an epidemic, famine, or some other sudden agency, or -whether they represented just burials. The age distribution of the dead -would differ considerably in the two cases. - - ESTIMATED AGES AT DEATH - - IGLOO MATERIAL - - ------------------------+----------+----------+----------+---------- - | 20 to 25 | 30 to 40 | 45 to 55 | Above 55 - ------------------------+----------+----------+----------+---------- - |_Per cent_|_Per cent_|_Per cent_|_Per cent_ - Males (27) | 11 | 15 | 41 | 33 - Females (25) | 16 | 24 | 44 | 16 - Mean, both sexes | 13.5 | 19 | 42.5 | 25 - ------------------------+----------+----------+----------+---------- - - SURFACE SERIES - - ------------------------+----------+----------+----------+---------- - Males (21) | -- | 5 | 48 | 48 - Females (14) | 29 | 36 | 36 | -- - Mean, both sexes | 11.5 | 17 | 43 | 29.5 - ------------------------+----------+----------+----------+---------- - -The above table shows the data obtained, with those on the surface -material from the same collection and known to be that of ordinary -burials. - -The results do not agree with the composition of the living population -but are apparently near to what might be expected in burials. Taking -the sexes apart, the series from the surface shows a somewhat more -favorable condition for the men, but worse for the women. Taking the -materials, however, regardless of sex, the proportions of ages in -the earlier igloos and in the late surface burials are practically -identical. This points strongly against the idea of the igloo remains -being those of people who either died there of starvation, of an -epidemic, of being smothered, or of some other sudden affliction, and -to their having been just ordinary burials. - -To arrive at something still more definite, if possible, I appealed on -the one hand to the United States Census and on the other to Doctor -Dublin of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Co., New York, for data as to -the distribution of ages among the dead, using the same age-categories -as in the case of the "igloo" material. The data furnished by Miss E. -Foudray through Dr. Wm. H. Davis, Chief Statistician of the Bureau of -the Census, are particularly to the point. They are as follows: - - PER CENT AGE DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN POPULATION IN ALASKA AGED 20 - YEARS AND OVER, ACCORDING TO THE CENSUS OF 1900 - - -----------------------+----------+----------+----------+------------- - | 20 to 24 | 25 to 44 | 45 to 54 | 55 and over - -----------------------+----------+----------+----------+------------- - Males | 17.8 | 54.2 | 15.9 | 12.1 - Females | 19.4 | 53.3 | 15.9 | 11.4 - Both sexes | _18.6_ | _53.7_ | _15.9_ | _11.8_ - -----------------------+----------+----------+----------+------------- - - PER CENT AGE DISTRIBUTION AT DEATH (ESTIMATED) OF INDIAN POPULATION - OF ALASKA IN 1900, WHO, HAD THEY LIVED, WOULD HAVE APPEARED IN THE - CENSUS OF 1910 AT AGES 20 YEARS AND OVER - - -----------------------+----------+----------+----------+------------- - | 20 to 24 | 25 to 44 | 45 to 54 | 55 and over - -----------------------+----------+----------+----------+------------- - Males | 13.2 | 43.9 | 21.3 | 21.6 - Females | 11.9 | 47.0 | 19.5 | 21.6 - Both sexes | _12.6_ | _45.4_ | _20.4_ | _21.6_ - -----------------------+----------+----------+----------+------------- - -There is a remarkable agreement of these figures with those obtained -on both the Igloo and the Barrow surface burial material, except that -for the two middle age series the figures are reversed. This may mean -an error in the two respective estimates on the Indians, or it may mean -that for these two ages the conditions among the Eskimo concerned were -better than they were in 1900 among the Alaska Indians. - -All the above, together with the details on the orderly treatment of -the bodies, and the absence of such conditions as were encountered in -the dead villages on St. Lawrence Island (Hooper, Nelson), inclines -one to the conclusion that the Igloo remains, however exceptional the -method for the Eskimo, were just burials. - - -PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS - -_The skull._--The most noteworthy feature about the Igloo remains is -the marked distinctiveness of the skull. This strikes the observer -at the first sight of the specimens, and the impression is only -strengthened by detail examination. The skulls are very narrow, -long, and high. They differ plainly from anything except occasional -individual specimens, either about Barrow or along the rest of the -west coast of Alaska, with the possible exception of a few groups of -Seward Peninsula. They recall strongly the crania of Labrador and south -Greenland. It is the Labrador-Greenland type throughout, men, women, -and even the two children. It is a group outside of the range of local -variation. It is a strange Eskimo group, either developed here in -former times as it developed in Greenland and Labrador, and possibly -the Seward Peninsula, or one that had come here from places where such -type had already been realized. - -The following data (the individual measurements will appear in a later -number of the Catalogue of Crania) show the differences between the -Igloo and the surface material, the latter both of the Van Valin and -of the author's collections, and the valuable Stefánsson material, -now at the American Museum, from Point Barrow. They need but little -comment. They show clearly on one hand the wholly Eskimo nature of the -Igloo skulls, and on the other their distinctness from those of the -later burials, both of Barrow and Point Barrow. The vault especially is -characteristic--narrow, long, high, more or less keel-shaped. The face -in general is much more alike in the three groups; nevertheless its -absolute height and breadth in the Igloo series are slightly smaller -than in the other two, and there are minor differences in the orbits -and the palate. - - ESKIMO CRANIA, BARROW AND VICINITY - - --------------------+-------------------+----------------- - | Old Igloos | Surface burials, - | | Barrow - --------------------+---------+---------+--------+-------- - | Males | Females | Males |Females - | (27) | (25) | (37) | (36) - --------------------+---------+---------+--------+-------- - Vault: | | | | - Length maximum | 19.25 | 18.11 | 18.90 | 17.77 - Breadth maximum | 13.30 | 12.72 | 13.73 | 13.23 - Basion-bregma | | | | - height | 14.02 | 13.21 | 13.78 | 12.97 - Cranial index | _69.1_ | _70.2_ | _72.6_ | _74.5_ - Height-breadth | | | | - index | _105.5_ | _104.6_ | _99.6_ | _98.1_ - Mean height index | _86.2_ | _86.4_ | _84.6_ | _82.9_ - Cranial module | _15.52_| _14.72_| _15.46_| _14.66_ - Face: | | | | - Height: menton- | | | | - nasion | 12.4 | 11.21 | -- | -- - Height: upper | | | | - alveolar | | | | - point-nasion | 7.7 | 7.01 | 7.89 | 7.18 - Breadth: Diameter | | | | - bizygomatic | | | | - maximum | 14.2 | 13.08 | 14.34 | 13.16 - Facial index, | | | | - total | _86.9_ | _86.8_ | -- | -- - Facial index, | | | | - upper | _54.5_ | _53.8_ | _55_ | _54.7_ - Basion-nasion | 10.70 | 10.18 | 10.61 | 10.01 - Basion-subnasal | | | | - point | 9.33 | 9.12 | 9.31 | 8.86 - Basion-upper | | | | - alveolar point | 10.45 | 10.13 | 10.39 | 9.85 - Lower jaw: Height | | | | - at symphysis | 3.72 | 3.38 | 3.95 | 3.27 - Orbits: | | | | - Mean height | 3.62 | 3.47 | 3.60 | 3.61 - Mean breadth | 3.97 | 4.01 | 4.04 | 3.88 - Mean index | _91.3_ | _91_ | _89.2_ | _93_ - Nose: | | | | - Height | 5.45 | 5.02 | 5.52 | 5.19 - Breadth | 2.37 | 2.23 | 2.39 | 2.32 - Index | _43.6_ | _44.4_ | _43.4_ | _44.7_ - Alveolar arch: | | | | - Length | 5.57 | 5.34 | 5.59 | 5.22 - Breadth | 6.68 | 6.29 | 6.45 | 6.13 - Index | _83.4_ | _84.9_ | _86.6_ | _85.1_ - --------------------+---------+---------+--------+-------- - - --------------------+----------------- - | Surface burials, - | Point Barrow - --------------------+--------+-------- - | Males | Females - | (49) | (52) - --------------------+--------+-------- - Vault: | | - Length maximum | 18.74 | 17.91 - Breadth maximum | 13.84 | 13.32 - Basion-bregma | | - height | 13.78 | 13.08 - Cranial index | _73.9_ | _74.4_ - Height-breadth | | - index | _99.6_ | _97.8_ - Mean height index | _84.7_ | _83.4_ - Cranial module | _15.44_| _14.75_ - Face: | | - Height: menton- | | - nasion | -- | -- - Height: upper | | - alveolar | | - point-nasion | 7.86 | 7.22 - Breadth: Diameter | | - bizygomatic | | - maximum | 14.26 | 13.06 - Facial index, | | - total | -- | -- - Facial index, | | - upper | _55.1_ | _55.3_ - Basion-nasion | 10.54 | 9.94 - Basion-subnasal | | - point | 9.23 | 8.73 - Basion-upper | | - alveolar point | 10.39 | 9.77 - Lower jaw: Height | | - at symphysis | 3.9 | -- - Orbits: | | - Mean height | 3.61 | 3.55 - Mean breadth | 4.02 | 3.90 - Mean index | _89.9_ | _90.7_ - Nose: | | - Height | 5.48 | 5.11 - Breadth | 2.31 | 2.29 - Index | _42.2_ | _44.9_ - Alveolar arch: | | - Length | 5.63 | 5.25 - Breadth | 6.47 | 6.01 - Index | _86.9_ | _87.4_ - --------------------+--------+--------- - -Let us now contrast the Igloo skulls with those of southern Greenland -from the collection of the United States National Museum.[200] The size -of the series is such that they are nicely comparable. And to the two -is added a small recent series (A. H., 1926, and Collins, 1928), from -Golovnin Bay and Sledge Island (Seward Peninsula). - - MAIN MEASUREMENTS OF THE BARROW "IGLOO" AND OF GREENLAND ESKIMO - CRANIA - - ---------+--------------------------+-------------------------- - | Males | Females - ---------+--------+-------+---------+--------+-------+--------- - |Golovnin| Igloos|Greenland|Golovnin| Igloos|Greenland - | Bay and| | | Bay and| | - | Sledge| | | Sledge| | - | Island| | | Island| | - | | | | | | - Number | (8)| (27)| (49)| (13)| (25)| (52) - of | | | | | | - specimens| | | | | | - | | | | | | - Vault: | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Length | 19.20| 19.25| 18.97| 18.03| 18.11| 18.04 - | | | | | | - Breadth | 13.70| 13.30| 13.61| 13.36| 12.72| 12.98 - | | | | | | - Height | 14.08| 14.02| 13.95| 13.21| 13.21| 13.12 - | | | | | | - Cranial | _71.3_| _69.1_| _71.8_| _74.1_| _70.2_| _72_ - index | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Height- | | | | | | - breadth | _102.8_|_105.5_| _102.5_| _97.9_|_104.6_| _101_ - index | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Mean | _85.6_| _86.2_| _85.7_| _84.2_| _86.4_| _84.6_ - height | | | | | | - index | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Module | 15.66| 15.52| 15.51| 14.87| 14.72| 14.72 - | | | | | | - Face: | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Menton- | | | | | | - nasion | 12.70| 12.39| 12.38| 11.98| 11.21| 11.52 - height | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Alveolar | | | | | | - point- | | | | | | - nasion | 7.90| 7.71| 7.61| 7.35| 7.01| 7.05 - height | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Breadth | 14.29| 14.16| 14.05| 13.25| 13.08| 13.03 - | | | | | | - Facial | _88.9_| _86.9_| _87.1_| _90.4_| _86.8_| _85.7_ - index, | | | | | | - total | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Facial | | | | | | - index, | _55.3_| _54.5_| _54.1_| _55.4_| _53.8_| _54.1_ - upper | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Orbits: | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Mean | 3.65| 3.62| 3.64| 3.58| 3.47| 3.55 - height | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Mean | 4.11| 3.97| 3.99| 3.92| 4.01| 3.85 - breadth | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Mean | _88.8_| _91.3_| _91.4_| _91.2_| _91_| _92.4_ - index | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Nose: | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Height | 5.58| 5.45| 5.24| 5.15| 5.02| 4.99 - | | | | | | - Breadth | 2.35| 2.37| 2.27| 2.29| 2.23| 2.20 - | | | | | | - Index | _42.1_| _43.6_| _43.3_| _44.5_| _44.4_| _44_ - ---------+--------+-------+---------+--------+-------+--------- - -A comparison of the Igloo and Greenland series shows striking -similarities; hardly any two geographically separate groups originating -from a single source could reasonably be expected to come nearer. The -Igloo skulls are even narrower in the vault than the Greenlanders, -which means so much farther away from the southwestern, midwestern, and -Asiatic Eskimo; and offer a few other differences, but all these are of -small moment, not affecting the essential relations of the two groups. - -A comparison of the Igloo and Greenland series with the material -from Golovnin Bay and Sledge Island shows also numerous similarities -but with them some rather material differences. The differences are -especially marked in the females, whose characteristics approach -more those of the midwestern Eskimo, which suggests that an important -proportion of them may have been derived from the latter. However, -even the males tend to differ. Both sexes show absolutely a somewhat -broader skull than that of the northerners; in both sexes the skull, -as seen from the cranial module, is slightly larger in the Seward -Peninsula series than in either of the other groups; but the principal -differences are seen in the face, which in the Seward Peninsula group -is perceptibly larger and especially higher than it is in either the -Igloo or the Greenland series. The orbits also in the southerners are -larger and the nose is slightly higher. - -On the whole it may be said that the resemblance of the Igloo crania to -those of Greenland is closer than that to either or both of the series -of Golovnin Bay and Sledge Island. This suggests the possibility that a -similar though not quite the same differentiation in the skull may have -taken place both in the Seward Peninsula and in the far north; though -the possibility of a derivation of any one of the three groups from any -of the others can not be discarded. So far as the skull is concerned a -definite solution of the identity of the Igloo material would have to -be, it would seem, postponed to the future. - -The used data on the Greenland Eskimo skulls agree closely with those -of Fürst and Hansen (Crania Groenlandica, fol., 1915), and also with -the much fewer and scattered records of Virchow, Davis, Duckworth, -Oetteking, Pittard, etc.,[201] on Eskimo skulls from Labrador. - -_Stature and strength._--The bones of the skeleton of the Igloo series -show the people to have been of good height and of above medium Eskimo -robustness. The principal measurements are given below, together -with the corresponding ones on the western and the Yukon Eskimo. The -material is not all that could be wished for, either in numbers or -representation, but it will suffice for rough comparisons. Regrettably -nothing for comparison is available as yet from Greenland or other -parts of the far northeast where we meet with long, narrow, and high -skulls. - - THE LONG BONES OF THE IGLOO PEOPLE AND OTHER ESKIMO BONES OF THE - TWO SIDES TOGETHER - - Column headings: - A: - B: - C: - - -----------+---------------------------+--------------------------- - | Males | Females - -----------+---------------------------+--------------------------- - | Igloo| Seward| Yukon|Igloo | Seward| Yukon - | | Peninsula|Eskimo| | Peninsula|Eskimo - | | and| | | and| - | |northwestern| | |northwestern| - | | Eskimo| | | Eskimo| - | | | | | | - Humerus: | (35)| (100)| (16)| (27) | (83)| (16) - | | | | | | - Length- | 31.17| 31.17| 32.10| 28.41| 28.82| 28.31 - maximum | | | | | | - | | | | | | - At middle: | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Diameter, | 2.47| 2.46| 2.33| 2.11| 2.15| 2.07 - major | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Diameter, | 1.86| 1.85| 1.80| 1.60| 1.62| 1.51 - minor | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Index | _75.2_| _75.1_|_78.2_| _76.1_| _75.1_|_73.2_ - | | | | | | - Radius: | (31)| (37)| (16)| (17) | (24)| (16) - Length, | | | | | | - | | | | | | - maximum | 23.53| 23.50| 23.44| 20.98| 21.35| 20.18 - | | | | | | - Radio- | _75.5_| _75.4_| _73_| _73.8_| _74_|_71.3_ - humeral | | | | | | - index | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Femur: | (33)| (60)| (22)| (25) | (31)| (27) - Length, | | | | | | - | | | | | | - bicondylar | 43.86| 43.46| 43.78| 40.31| 40.44| 41.11 - | | | | | | - Humero- | _71.1_| _71.7_| _73_| _70.5_| _71.3_| _69_ - femoral | | | | | | - index | | | | | | - | | | | | | - At middle: | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Diameter, | | | | | | - antero- | 3.37| 3.21| 3.05| 2.88| 2.88| 2.74 - posterior | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Diameter, | 2.90| 2.72| 2.67| 2.51| 2.56| 2.44 - lateral | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Index | _86.1_| _84.8_|_87.6_| _87.3_| _88.9_ | - | | | | | |_88.8_ - At upper | | | | | | - flattening:| | | | | | - | | | | | | - Diameter, | 3.51| 3.32| 3.31| 3.09| 3.06| 3.02 - maximum | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Diameter, | 2.71| 2.59| 2.57| 2.30| 2.40| 2.27 - minimum | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Index | _77.2_| _78.1_|_77.4_| _74.4_| _78.4_|_75.4_ - | | | | | | - Tibia: | (29)| (79)| (22)| (24) | (36)| (27) - Length in | | | | | | - | | | | | | - position | 35.60| 35.52| 35.14| 31.94| 32.50| 32.01 - | | | | | | - Tibio- | _81.2_| _81.7_|_80.3_| _79.2_| _80.4_|_79.8_ - femoral | | | | | | - index | | | | | | - | | | | | | - At middle: | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Diameter, | | | | | | - antero- | 3.26| 3.19| 3.16| 2.80| 2.75| 2.61 - posterior | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Diameter, | 2.20| 2.16| 2.15| 1.87| 1.92| 1.90 - lateral | | | | | | - | | | | | | - Index | _67.5_| _67.8_|_68.3_| _66.7_| _70_|_72.8_ - -The above table shows some remarkable and interesting conditions. - -The first of the most apparent facts is that the type of the Yukon -Eskimo stands well apart from both of the other series in a number of -essentials, showing that it is not very nearly related and that it may -be left out of consideration. - -On the other hand the long bones from the Seward Peninsula and the -northwest coast, especially those of the males, show very closely to -those of the Igloo group. The male bones of the two series are almost -identical, except that the Igloo bones are somewhat stronger. - -Such close resemblances can hardly be fortuitous. They speak strongly -for the basic identity of the old Igloo people with those of at least -parts of the Seward Peninsula and parts of the northwest coast. If we -take the bones from the Seward Peninsula alone (see p. 314) it is found -that these resemblances still hold. - -The evidence thus shown constitutes a strong indication that the old -Igloo group may be inherently related to that part of the Eskimo -population of Seward Peninsula which shows the long and narrow skull; -but the data offer no light on the questions as to whether the Igloo -group may have been derived from that of the Seward Peninsula or vice -versa, and on the true relation of either or both of these to the -Eskimo of Baffin Land, Greenland, and Labrador. - -To definitely decide the problem of the Igloo group there are needed -data on the long bones of the northeasterners; in the second place it -is highly desirable to know how large and how ancient was the group of -the narrow-headed people on the Seward Peninsula and Sledge Island; and -in the third place it is important that the cultural history of the two -groups be known as thoroughly as possible. All of which are tasks for -the future. - -The possibility of a development of the Igloo cranial type on the -northwest coast itself can not be denied, in view of the facts that -all its characteristics are within the ranges of normal individual -variations on that coast, and that similar developments have evidently -been realized elsewhere. But in such a case it would be logical -to expect, locally or not far away, some ancestry of the group, -and the group would not probably be limited to a little spot and a -few scores of persons. Had the group developed incidentally from a -physically exceptional family, it could not be expected to have been -anywhere nearly as uniform as the group under consideration. The -high degree of uniformity of the Igloo contingent speaks for a well -accomplished differentiation; and as there is no other trace of this -in the conditions near Barrow, and there are no ruins denoting a long -occupation, the evidence is against a local development and for an -immigration of the group. A coming of a small-sized contingent from the -Seward Peninsula would be easy; its coming from Greenland or Labrador -or Baffin Land would surely be difficult, but not impossible to the -Eskimo, who is known to have been a traveler. - -Whatever may be the eventual solution of the Igloo problem, it is plain -that the presence of that group near Barrow, together with the presence -of evidently closely related groups in a part of the Seward Peninsula -and again in the far east of the Eskimo region, offers much food for -thought and investigation. The most plausible possibility would seem -to be a relatively late (within the present millennium) coming of a -physically already well differentiated small group, from either the -south or the east, with a relatively short settlement at the Barrow -site, some local multiplication in numbers, and then extinction partly -through disease, partly perhaps through absorption into a stronger and -newer contingent derived from the western people. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[200] The measurements of this series have been published by the -writer in the first part of the Catalogue of Human Crania in the U. S. -National Museum (Proc. U.S.N.M., 1924, LXIII, art. 12, p. 26), but as a -few errors crept in, the whole series was remeasured by the writer. - -[201] For more exact references see writer's Contribution to the -Anthropology of Central and Smith Sound Eskimo, Anthrop. Papers Am. -Mus. Nat. Hist., N. Y., 1910, V, pt. 2; and the bibliography at the end -of this volume. - - - - -ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO - - -All anthropological research on the Eskimo has naturally one ultimate -object, which is the clearing up of the problems of the origin and -antiquity of this highly interesting human strain; and it may well be -asked what further light on these problems has been shed by the studies -here dealt with. To show this with a proper perspective it will be -requisite to briefly review the previous ideas on these problems. - - -ORIGIN OF THE NAME "ESKIMO" - -According to Charlevoix (Nouv. France, III, 178), the term "Eskimo" -is a corruption of the Abenaki Indian Esquimantsic or the Ojibway -Ashkimeg, both terms meaning "those who eat raw flesh." In the words -of Captain Hooper,[202] "Neither the origin nor meaning of the name -'Esquimaux,' or Eskimo, as it is now spelled, is known. According to -Doctor Rink, the name 'Esquimaux' was first given to the inhabitants of -Southern Labrador as a term of derision by the inhabitants of Northern -Labrador, and means raw-fish eater. Dall says the appellation 'Eskimo' -is derived from a word indicating a sorcerer or shaman in the language -of the northern tribes." - -For Brinton,[203] as for Charlevoix, the term "Eskimo" is derived -from the Algonkin "Eskimantick," "eaters of raw flesh." According to -Chamberlain,[204] Sir John Richardson (Arctic Searching Exp., p. 203) -attempts to derive it from the French words ceux qui miaux (miaulent), -referring to their clamorous outcries on the approach of a ship. -Petitot (Chambers Encyc., Ed. 1880, IV, p. 165, article Esquimaux) -says that at the present day the Crees, of Lake Athabasca, call them -Wis-Kimowok (from Wiyas flesh, aski raw, and mowew to eat), and also -Ayiskimiwok (i. e., those who act in secret). In Labrador the English -sometimes call the Eskimo "Huskies" (loc. cit., p. ix. 7. Chambers -Encyc., article Esquimaux. See Hind. Trav. in Int. of Labr., loc. -cit., and Petitot loc. cit., p. ix.) and Suckemos (Richardson, Arctic -Searching Expedition, p. 202) and Dall (Proc. Am. Ass. Adv. Sci., 1869, -p. 266) says that in Alaska the Tinneh Indians call them "Uskeeme" -(sorcerers). - -The Eskimo call themselves "Innuit," said to be the plural of in-nu, -the man, hence "the people"; the same being as a rule the meaning of -the name by which the various tribes of the Indian call themselves. - -On the Asiatic coast the Eskimo is known as the "Yuit," "Onkilon," -"Chouklouks," or "Namollo"; while in the east appears the name -"Karalit." - -None of this has thrown any light on the origin of the Eskimo. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[202] Hooper, C. L., Cruise of the U. S. revenue steamer _Corwin_, -1881. Washington, 1884, p. 99. - -[203] Brinton, D. C., Myths of the New World, 1868, p. 23. New York. - -[204] Chamberlain, A. F., The Eskimo race and language. Proc. Canadian -Inst., 3d ser., vol. VI, pp. 267-268. Toronto, 1889. - - -OPINIONS BY FORMER AND LIVING STUDENTS - -_Origin in Asia._--Many opinions on the origin of the Eskimo have been -expressed by different authors. Among the earliest of these were those -of missionaries, such as Crantz (1779), and of the early explorers, -such as Steller, v. Wrangell, Lütke and others. They were based on the -general aspect of the Eskimo, particularly that of his physiognomy; and -seeing that in many features he resembled most the mongoloid peoples -of Asia they attached him to these, which meant the conclusion that he -was of Asiatic derivation. Quite soon, however, there began to appear -also the opinions of students of man. The first of these was that of -Blumenbach, as expressed in his Inaugural Thesis of 1781. In this -thesis, more particularly its second edition, he classifies the Eskimo -expressly as a part of the Caucasian or white race. But after obtaining -an Eskimo skull and an Eskimo body he changes his opinion and in -1795-1806 he comes out with a definite classification of the Eskimo as -a member of the Mongolians; and a similar conclusion, with its implied -or expressed consequence of a migration from Asia to America, has been -reached since, mainly on somatological but also in part on linguistic -and cultural bases, by a large number of authors, including Lawrence, -Morton, Pickering, Latham, Flower, Peschel, Topinard, Brinton, Virchow -(1877), Quatrefages and Hamy (1882), Thalbitzer, Bogoras and numerous -others. With all of this, the conception of the Asiatic origin of the -Eskimo has not passed the status of a strong probability, lacking a -final conclusive demonstration. - -A chronological list of the more noteworthy individual statements is -given at the end of this section. - -_Origin in America._--Since the earlier parts of the nineteenth century -the opinion began to be expressed that the Eskimo is not of Asiatic but -of American origin. Already in 1847 Prichard tells us that there are -those who "consider them as belonging to the American family," and he -plainly favors this conception. - -Between 1873 and 1890 the American origin of the Eskimo is repeatedly -asserted by Rink, who for 16 winters and 22 summers lived with the -eastern Eskimo, first as a scientific explorer and later as royal -inspector or governor of the southern Danish settlements in Greenland -(preface by R. Brown to Rink's Tales and Traditions, 1875). In this -opinion, briefly, the Eskimo were derived from the inland Indian tribes -of Alaska; without referring to the origin of the Indian. - -Rink's authoritative opinion was followed or paralleled by Daniel -Wilson (1876), Grote, Krause, Ray, Keane, Brown, and others. In -1887 Chamberlain expresses the somewhat startling additional theory -that it was not the Eskimo who was derived from the Mongolians but -the Mongolians from the Eskimo or their American ancestors. And in -1901-1910 Boas comes to the conclusion that the Eskimo probably -originated from the inland tribes (Indian?) in the Hudson Bay region. - -An interesting case in these connections is that of Rudolf Virchow. In -1877 (see details at the end of this section) he expresses the belief -in the Eskimo coming from Asia; in 1878 he seems to be uncertain; -and in 1885 he comes out in support of the opinion that the original -home of the Eskimo may have been in the western part of the Hudson -Bay region. Among later students of the problem, Steensby[205] and -Birket-Smith[206] incline on cultural grounds to this hypothesis. - -Wissler, not explicit as to the Eskimo in 1917 (The American Indian), -in 1918 (Archæology of the Polar Eskimo) finds, after Steensby, the -most acceptable theory of the Eskimo origin to be that "they expanded -from a parent group in the Arctic Archipelago"; but in 1922, in the -second edition of his The American Indian, he repeats word for word his -opinion of 1917, which appears to favor an Asiatic derivation. - -_Origin in Europe--Identity with Upper Palaeolithic man._--About the -sixties of last century growing discoveries in France of implements, -etc., of later palaeolithic man brought about a realization that -not a few of these implements and other objects, particularly those -of the Magdalenian period, resembled like implements and objects -of the Eskimo; from which, together with the considerations of the -similarities of fauna (reindeer, musk-ox, etc.), and of climate, -there was but a step to a more or less definite identification of the -Magdalenians and Solutreans with the Eskimo. In 1870 Pruner-Bey[207] -claims a similarity between Solutrean and Eskimo skulls. In 1883 these -views received the influential support of De Mortillet (see details). -In 1889 the theory receives strong support from the characteristics -of the Chancelade (Magdalenian) skeleton which Testut declares are in -many respects almost identical with those of the Eskimo. And within -the next few years the notion is upheld by Hamy and Hervé. It remains -sympathetic as late as 1913 to Marcellin Boule, and finds most recent -champions in Morin and Sollas. - -However, there were also many who opposed the effort at a direct -connection of the upper palaeolithic man of Europe and the Eskimo. -Among these were Geikie, Flower, Rae, Daniel Wilson, Robert Brown, -Déchelette, Laloy. At present the theory is supported mainly by Morin -and Sollas, opposed by Steensby, Burkitt, Keith, MacCurdy, and others; -while most students of the Eskimo ignore the question. - -_Other hypotheses._--Besides the preceding ideas which attribute the -origin of the Eskimo to Asia, or America, or old Europe, there were -also others that failed to receive a wider support; and there were -authors and students who remained undecided or were too cautious to -definitely formulate their beliefs. Some of the former as well as the -latter deserve brief mention. - -Gallatin, in 1836, mainly on linguistic grounds, recognizes the -fundamental relation of the Eskimo and the Indian and seems inclined to -the American origin of the former, but makes no clear statement to that -effect. For Meigs (1857), who probably followed an earlier opinion, the -Eskimo came "from the islands of the Polar Sea." C. C. Abbott (1876) -saw Eskimo in the early inhabitants of the Delaware Valley. To Grote -(1875, 1877), the Eskimo were "the existing representatives of the -man of the American glacial epoch"; they were modified Pliocene men. -Nordenskiöld (1885) follows closely Meigs and Grote; the Eskimo may be -"the true autochthones of the Polar regions," having inhabited them -from before the glacial age, during more genial climate. Keane (1886) -believed the Eskimo developed from the Aleuts. For De Quatrefages -(1887), man originated in the Tertiary in northern Asia, spread from -there, and some of his contingents may have reached America and been -the ancestors of the Eskimo; the western tribes of the latter being a -mixture of the Eskimo with Asiatic brachycephals. Nansen (1893) avoids -a discussion of the origin of the Eskimo; and the same caution is -observable more or less in most modern writers. - -The following chart of the more noteworthy opinions regarding the -origin of the Eskimo will show at a glance the diversity of the views -and their lack of conclusiveness. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[205] Contr. Ethn. and Anthropogeog. Polar Eskimos, Med. om Grönl., -XXXIV, Copenhagen, 1910; also, Origin of the Eskimo culture, _ibid._, -1916, 204-218. - -[206] Internat. Congr. Americanists, New York, 1928. - -[207] In Ferry, H. de, Le Maconnais préhistorique, etc., 1 vol, Macon, -1870, with a section by Pruner-Bey. - - -THEORIES AS TO THE ORIGIN OF THE ESKIMO - - Asiatic: - Steller 1743 - Cranz 1779 - Blumenbach 1795 - Lawrence 1822 - Von Wrangell 1839 - Morton 1839 - McDonald 1841 - Latham 1850 - Pickering 1854 - Wilson 1863 - Rae 1865, 1877-78, 1886 - Markham 1865, 1875 - Whymper 1869 - Peschel 1876 - Kuhl 1876 - Petitot 1876 - Topinard 1877 - Virchow 1877 - Dall 1877 - Palmer 1879 - Henry 1879 - Dawson 1880 - Quatrefages 1882, 1887 - Elliot 1886 - Flower 1886 - Brown 1888 - Ratzel 1897 - Hrdlička 1910, 1924 - Thalbitzer 1914 - Fürst and Hansen 1915 - Wissler 1917 - Mathiassen 1921 - Bogoras 1924, 1927 - - American: - Prichard 1847 - Rink 1873, 1888 - Holmes 1873 - Wilson 1876 - Grote 1877 - Krause 1883 - Ray 1885 - Virchow 1885 - Keane 1886, 1887 - Brown 1888 - Murdoch 1888 - Chamberlain 1889 - Quatrefages 1889 - Boas 1907, 1910 - Wissler 1917 - - European or connected with Europe: - Lartet and Christy 1864 - Dawkins 1866 - Hervé 1870 - Abbott 1876 - De Mortillet 1883 - Testut 1889 - Boule 1913 - Sollas 1924, 1927 - - Opposed to Europe: - Brown. - Burkitt. - Déchelette. - Flower. - Geikie. - Keith. - Laloy. - MacCurdy. - Rae. - Steensby. - Wilson. - Hrdlička (1910). - - Miscellaneous and indefinite: - Gallatin 1836 - Richardson 1852 - Meigs 1857 - Grote 1875 - Abbott 1876 - Nordenskiöld 1885 - Keane 1886 - Quatrefages 1887 - Nansen 1893 - Tarenetzky 1900 - Nadaillac 1902 - Jenness 1928 - - -ASIATICS - -Steller, 1743:[208] Several references which indicate that Steller -regarded the Eskimo as related to the northeastern Asiatics. - -Cranz, 1779:[209] Points out the resemblances of the Eskimo (and their -product) to the Kalmuks, Yakuts, Tungus, and Kamchadales, and derives -them from northeastern Asia (forced by other peoples through Tartary to -the farthest northeast of Asia and then to America). - -Blumenbach, 1781:[210] The first of the five varieties of mankind -"and the largest, which is also the primeval one, embraces the whole -of Europe, including the Lapps, * * * and lastly, in America, the -Greenlanders and the Esquimaux, for I see in these people a wonderful -difference from the other inhabitants of America; and, unless I am -altogether deceived, I think they must be derived from the Finns." - -But in his "Beiträge zur Naturgeschichte," 2d ed., Göttingen, 1806, -Blumenbach classes both the Lapps and the Eskimo with the Mongolians -(Anthr. Treatises of Blumenbach, Lond., 1865, p. 304): "The remaining -Asiatics, except the Malays, with the Lapps in Europe, and the -Esquimaux in the north of America, from Bering Strait to Labrador and -Greenland. They are for the most part of a wheaten yellow, with scanty, -straight, black hair, and have flat faces with laterally projecting -cheek bones, and narrowly slit eyelids." - -Von Wrangell, 1839:[211] "* * * ihre sclavische Abhängigkeit von den -Rennthier-Tschuktschen beweist, dass die letztern spätere Einwanderer -und Eroberer des Landes sind, welches sie jetzt inne haben." - - * * * * * - -Lawrence, 1822:[212] "The Mongolian variety * * * includes the numerous -more or less rude, and in great part nomadic tribes, which occupy -central and northern Asia; * * * and the tribes of Eskimaux extending -over the northern parts of America, from Bering Strait to the extremity -of Greenland. * * * - -"The Eskimaux are formed on the Mongolian model, although they inhabit -countries so different from the abodes of the original tribes of -central Asia." - - * * * * * - -Latham, 1850:[213] "Our only choice lies between the doctrine that -makes the American nations to have originated from one or more separate -pairs of progenitors, and the doctrine that either Bering Strait or the -line of islands between Kamskatka and the Peninsula of Alaska, was the -highway between the two worlds--from Asia to America, or vice versa. * -* * Against America, and in favor of Asia being the birthplace of the -human race--its unity being assumed--I know many valid reasons. * * * -Physically, the Eskimo is a Mongol and Asiatic. Philologically, he is -American." - - * * * * * - -1851:[214] "Just as the Eskimo graduate in the American Indian, so do -they pass into the populations of northeastern Asia--language being the -instrument which the present writer has more especially employed in -their affiliation. From the Peninsula of Alaska to the Aleutian chain -of islands, and from the Aleutian chain to Kamskatka is the probable -course of the migration from Asia to America--traced backwards, i. e., -from the goal to the starting point, from the circumference to the -center." - - * * * * * - -Pickering, 1854:[215] "The Arctic Regions seem exclusively possessed by -the Mongolian race." - - * * * * * - -Wilson, 1863:[216] "The same mode of comparison which confirms the -ethnical affinities between the Esquimaux and their insular or Asiatic -congeners, reveals, in some respects, analogies rather than contrast -between the dolichocephalic Indian crania and those of the hyperborean -race." - - * * * * * - -Markham, 1856:[217] "The interesting question now arises--whence -came these Greenland Esquimaux, these Innuit, or men, as they call -themselves, and as I think they ought to be called by us? They are -not descendants of the Skroellings of the opposite American coast, as -has already been seen. It is clear that they can not have come from -the eastward, over the ocean which intervenes between Lapland and -Greenland, for no Esquimaux traces have ever been found on Spitzbergen, -Iceland, or Jan Mayen. We look at them and see at once that they have -no kinship with the red race of America; but a glance suffices to -convince us of their relationship with the northern tribes of Siberia. -It is in Asia, then, that we must seek their origin." - - * * * * * - -Whymper, 1869:[218] "That the coast natives of northern Alaska are but -Americanized Tchuktchis from Asia, I myself have no doubt." - - * * * * * - -Peschel, 1876:[219] "The identity of their language with that of the -Namollo, their skill on the sea, their domestication of the dog, their -use of the sledge, the Mongolian type of their faces, their capability -for higher civilization, are sufficient reasons for answering the -question, whether a migration took place from Asia to America or -conversely from America to Asia, in favor of the former alternative; -yet such a migration from Asia by way of Bering Strait must have -occurred at a much later period than the first colonization of the New -World from the Old one * * *. - -"It is not likely that the Eskimo spread from America to Asia, because -of all Americans they have preserved the greatest resemblance in -racial characters to the Mongolian nations of the Old World, and -in historical times their migrations have always taken place in an -easterly direction." - - * * * * * - -Kuhl, 1876:[220] "Bilden so die Eskimo in der Sprache das Bindeglied -zwischen America und Asien, so ist dies noch viel mehr der Fall in -Bezug auf ihren Typus: dieser stimmt bei den Polarvölkern diesseits und -jenseits der Beringsstrasse 'zum Verwechseln' überein, wie denn auch -ein beständiger Verkehr hinüber und herüber stattfindet. Hierin liegt -der unwiderstehliche Beweis, dass diese Polarvölker wenigstens von -einer Herkunft sind und dass eine Einwanderung von einem Continente in -das andere hier stattgefunden hat. Haben wir nun die Wahl, entweder die -Eskimo aus Asien nach America, oder die Tschuktschen, die dort auf der -Asiatischen Seite wohnen, aus America einwandern zu lassen--wofür sich -auch Stimmen erhoben haben--so werden wir keinen Augenblick zweifelhaft -sein: eine spätere Rückwanderung eines einzelnen Stammes in das Land -der Väter wäre immerhin denkbar; aber wer über die Tschuktschen hinweg -die Sache in's Grosse sieht, kann für die Urzeit nur eine Einwanderung -von Asien nach America, nicht umgekehrt, annehmen, und hierfür finden -wir ausser den allgemeinen Gründen, welche uns der Verlauf unserer -Untersuchungen nahe gebracht, noch zwei besondere Beweise bei den -Eskimo: einmal können wir die Spur ihrer Wanderungen historisch -verfolgen, und diese wären nach Osten gerichtet, sodass sie Grönland, -mit dem heute ihr Name so eng verbunden ist, zuletzt erreichten -(S. 209); sodann haben die Eskimo allein unter den Americanischen -Stämmen das Mongolische Gepräge ganz unversehrt bewahrt--dies bliebe -unerklärlich, wenn sie Americanische Autochthonen wären * * * Einen -deutlichen Hinweis auf die Urheimath Asien enthalten auch die -Wanderungen der Stämme durch das Americanische Continent, soweit wir -dieselben verfolgen können." - - * * * * * - -Dall, 1877:[221] "I see, therefore, no reason for disputing the -hypothesis that America was peopled from Asia originally, and that -there were successive waves of emigration. - -"The northern route was clearly by way of Bering Strait; * * * -Linguistically, no ultimate distinction can be drawn between the -American Innuit and the American Indian. * * * I shall assume, what -is also assumed by Mr. Markham, that the original progenitors of the -Innuit were in a very primitive, low, and barbarous condition. * * * - -"I assume, then, that the larger part of North America may have been -peopled by way of Bering Strait. * * * I believe that this emigration -was vastly more ancient than Mr. Markham supposes, and that it took -place before the present characteristics of races and tribes of North -American savages were developed. * * * - -"My own impression agrees with that of Doctor Rink that the Innuit -were once inhabitants of the interior of America; that they were -forced to the west and north by the pressure of tribes of Indians from -the south; that they spread into the Aleutian region and northwest -coast generally, and possibly simultaneously to the north; that their -journeying was originally tentative, and that they finally settled in -those regions which afforded them subsistence, perhaps after passing -through the greater portion of Arctic America, leaving their traces -as they went in many places unfit for permanent settlement; that -after the more inviting regions were occupied, the pressure from -Indians and still unsatisfied tribes of their own stock, induced still -further emigration, and finally peopled Greenland and the shores of -northeastern Siberia; but that these latter movements were, on the -whole, much more modern, and more local than the original exodus, and -took place after the race characteristics and language were tolerably -well matured. * * * - -"I conclude that at present the Asiatic Innuit range from Koliuchin Bay -to the eastward and south to Anadyr Gulf. * * * - -"To the reflux of the great wave of emigration, which no doubt took -place at a very early period, we may owe the numerous deserted huts -reported by all explorers on the north coasts of Asia, as far east as -the mouth of the Indigirka. At one time, I thought the migration to -Asia had taken place within a few centuries, but subsequent study and -reflection has convinced me that this could not have been the case. No -doubt successive parties crossed at different times, and some of these -may have been comparatively modern." - - * * * * * - -Rae, 1878:[222] "All the Eskimos with whom I have communicated on the -subject, state that they originally came very long ago from the west, -or setting sun, and that in doing so they crossed a sea separating the -two great lands. - -"That these people (the Eskimos) have been driven from their own -country in the northern parts of Asia by some unknown pressure of -circumstances, and obliged to extend themselves along the whole -northern coast line of America and Greenland, appears to be likely, and -that the route followed after crossing Bering Strait was of necessity -along the coast eastward, being hemmed in by hostile Indians on the -south, and driven forward by pressure from the west * * *. - -"Such were my opinions 12 years ago, and their correctness has been -rather confirmed than otherwise, by all that we have since learned. * * -*" - - * * * * * - -1887:[223] "Professor Flower said that his investigation into the -physical characteristics of the Eskimos led him to agree entirely with -Doctor Rae's conclusions derived from other sources. He looked upon -the Eskimos as a branch of the North Asiatic Mongols (of which the -Japanese may be taken as a familiar example), who in their wandering -across the American continent in the eastward direction, isolated -almost as perfectly as an island population would be, hemmed in on -one side by the eternal polar ice, and on the other by hostile tribes -of American Indians, with whom they rarely, if ever, mingled, have -gradually developed special modifications of the Mongolian type, which -increase in intensity from west to east, and are seen in their greatest -perfection in the inhabitants of Greenland. * * * - -"Doctor Rae also thinks that the Eskimos came from across Bering -Strait from Asia. Their traditions and many other things point in that -direction, and they are in no way related to the ancient cave men of -Europe." - - * * * * * - -Dawson, 1880:[224] Eskimo: "On the eastern side of the continent these -poor people have always been separated by a marked line from their -Indian neighbors on the south, and have been regarded by them with the -most bitter hostility. On the west, however, they pass into the Eastern -Siberians, on the one hand, and into the West-coast Indians, on the -other, both by language and physical characters. They and the northern -tribes at least of West-coast Indians, belong in all probability to a -wave of population spreading from Bering Strait." - - * * * * * - -Quatrefages et Hamy; 1882:[225] "Les Esquimaux ou Eskimos, qui se -nomment eux-mêmes Innuits, constituent dans la série mongolique un -groupe exceptionnel, qui diffère à maints égards de ceux qui viennent -de passer sous nos yeux, mais dont l'origine asiatique n'est plus -aujourd'hui contestée et dont les affinités occidentales frappent de -plus en plus les observateurs spéciaux." - - * * * * * - -Brown, 1888:[226] "It is only when we come to the region beginning -at Cape Shelagskii and extending to the East Cape of Siberia that we -find any traces of them. This tract is now held by the coast Tchukchi, -but it was not always their home, for they expelled from this dreary -stretch the Onkilon or Eskimo race who took refuge in or near less -attractive quarters between the East Cape and Anadyrskii Bay." - - * * * * * - -Ratzel, 1897:[227] "If we ask whence they came, Asia seems most -obvious, since between the American and Asiatic coasts of Bering -Straits, intercourse has always been ventured upon even in the rudest -skin-boats. * * * - -"Ethnographic indications also point predominantly to the west. * * * - -"But we have an equal right to suppose a migration from America into -Asia." - -Thalbitzer, 1914:[228] "I still believe (like Rink), that the common -Eskimo mother-group has at one time lived to the west at the Bering -Strait, coming originally from the coasts of Siberia." - - * * * * * - -Fürst and Hansen, 1915:[229] "We are to some extent acquainted with -the diffusion of the Eskimos over the earth, and know that they could -not have come directly from Europe and that Greenland was populated -from the west, one may naturally conclude, as has often been concluded -before, that their descent is from the west, in other words from Asia, -though the time at which such an immigration took place and the racial -type which they then possessed must remain still more hypothetical than -immigration itself." - - * * * * * - -Mathiassen, 1927:[230] "We must therefore imagine that the Thule -culture, with all its peculiar whaling culture, has originated -somewhere in the western regions, in an Arctic area, where whales were -plentiful and wood abundant, and we are involuntarily led toward the -coasts of Alaska and East Siberia north of Bering Strait, the regions -to which we have time after time had to turn in order to find parallels -to types from the Central Eskimo finds. There all the conditions have -been present for the originating of such a culture, and from there -it has spread eastward right to Greenland, seeking everywhere to -adapt itself to the local geographical conditions. And it can hardly -have been a culture wave alone; it must have been a migration. The -similarities between east and west are in many directions so detailed -that it is difficult to explain them without assuming an actual -migration of people from the one place to the other." - - * * * * * - -Jochelson, 1928:[231] "In discussing the question of former Eskimo -occupation of the Siberian Arctic coast a very remote period of time is -not meant, so that in this sense the assumed recent Eskimo migrations -from Asia into America and vice versa do not interfere with the general -theory of the Asiatic origin of the American population." - -FOOTNOTES: - -[208] Steller, G. W., Journal, 1743. Transl. and repr. in Bering's -Voyages, Am. Geog. Soc. Research, ser. I, 2 vols., vol. II, p. 9 et -seq. New York, 1922. - -[209] Cranz, David, Historie von Grönland, Frankf. and Leipz., 1779, -300-301. - -[210] Blumenbach, J. F., Be generis humani varietate nativa. 2d ed., -Goettingen, 1781; in The anthropological treatises of J. F. Blumenbach, -Anthr. Soc. Lond., 1865, p. 99, ftn. 4. - -[211] Von Wrangell, in Baer and Helmersen's "Beiträge zur Kenntniss des -Russischen Reiches," pp. 58-59. St. Petersburg, 1839. - -[212] Lawrence, W., Lectures on physiology, zoology, and the natural -history of man, pp. 511-513. London, 1822. - -[213] Latham, Robert Gordon, The Natural history of the varieties of -man, pp. 289-291. London, 1850. - -[214] Latham, Robert Gordon, Man and his migrations, p. 124. London, -1851. - -[215] Pickering, Charles, The races of man, p. 7. London, 1854. - -[216] Wilson, Daniel, Physical ethnology. Smithsonian Report for 1862, -p. 262. Washington, 1863. - -[217] Markham, C. R., On the origin and migrations of the Greenland -Esquimaux. J. Roy. Geog. Soc., XXXV, p. 90. London, 1865. - -[218] Whymper, Frederick, Travels in Alaska and on the Yukon, p. 214. -New York, 1869. - -[219] Peschel, Oscar, The races of man, pp. 396-97. New York, 1876. - -[220] Kuhl, Dr. Joseph, Die Anfänge des Menschengeschlechts und sein -einheitlicher Ursprung, pp. 315-16. Leipzig, 1876. - -[221] Dall, W. H., Tribes of the extreme northwest. U. S. Geog. and -Geol. Survey, I, pp. 93-105. Washington, 1877. - -[222] Rae, John, Eskimo Migrations. Jour. Anthrop. Inst. Great Britain -and Ireland, VII, pp. 130-131. London, 1878. - -[223] Rae, John, Remarks on the Natives of British North America. Jour. -Anthrop. Inst. Great Britain and Ireland, XVI, p. 200. London, 1887. - -[224] Dawson, J. W., Fossil men and their modern representatives, pp. -48-49. Montreal, 1880. - -[225] Quatrefages, A. de, et Hamy, E. T., Crania ethnica. Les crânes -des races humaines, p. 437. Paris, 1882. - -[226] Brown, Robert, The origin of the Eskimo. The Archaeological -Review, I, No. 4, pp. 238-289. London, 1888. - -[227] Ratzel, Friedrich, The history of mankind, II, pp. 107-108. -London, 1897. - -[228] Thalbitzer, W., The Ammassalik Eskimo. Meddelelser om Grønland, -vol. XXXIX, pt. 1, p. 717. Copenhagen, 1914. - -[229] Fürst, Carl M., and Fr. C. C. Hansen, Crania Groenlandica, p. -228. Copenhagen, 1915. - -[230] Mathiassen, Therkel, Archaeology of the central Eskimos. Report -of the Fifth Thule Expedition 1921-1924, p. 184. Copenhagen, 1927. - -[231] Jochelson, W., Peoples of Asiatic Russia. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., p. -60. New York, 1928. - - -AMERICAN - -Prichard, 1847:[232] "A question has been raised, to what department -of mankind the Esquimaux belong. Some think them a race allied to -the northern Asiatics, and even go so far as to connect them with -the Mongolians. Others, with greater probability, consider them as -belonging to the American family. All the American writers eminent for -their researches in the glottology of the New World, among whom I shall -mention Mr. du Ponceau and Mr. Gallatin, are unanimous in the opinion -that the Esquimaux belong to the same great department of nations as -the Hunting Tribes of North America." - - * * * * * - -Rink, 1890:[233] "* * * kann es wohl keinem Zweifel unterworfen sein, -dass die Eskimos den sogenannten Nordwest-Indianern an der Küste -Alaskas und weiter südwärts am nächsten stehen. Es dürfte deshalb der -Untersuchung werth sein, ob sie nicht auch wirklich als das äusserste -nördliche Glied dieser Völkerstämme zu betrachten wären. Man hat -angenommen, dass diese letzteren, dem Laufe der Flüsse folgend, vom -Binnenlande zur Küste gekommen sind. Sie lernten dann, theilweise und -um so mehr wohl, je weiter nach Norden sich ihren Lebensunterhalt -aus dem Meere zu verschaffen. Die Eskimos endigten damit, sich -ausschliesslich der Jagd auf dem Meere zu widmen, und erlangten dadurch -ihre merkwürdige Fähigkeit, allen Hindernissen des arktischen Klimas -Trotz bieten zu können. Betrachten wir demnach, wie man vermeintlich -noch jetzt die Spuren der Veränderungen beobachten kann, denen sie nach -und nach unterworfen worden sind, indem sie sich, unserer Vermuthung -zufolge, nach Norden und Osten verbreiteten." - -Rink, 1873:[234] "As far as can now be judged, the Eskimo appear -to have been the last wave of an aboriginal American race, which -has spread over the continent from more genial regions, following -principally the rivers and watercourses, and continually yielding to -the pressure of the tribes behind them, until at last they have peopled -the seacoast. * * * - -"The author explains some of the most common traditions from Greenland -as simply mythical narrations of events occurring in the far northwest -corner of America, thereby pointing to the great probability of that -district having been the original home of the nation, in which they -first assumed the peculiarities of their present culture." - -Captain Pim also expressed his belief that "the Eskimo were pure -American aborigines, and not of Asiatic descent." - - * * * * * - -Rink, 1875:[235] "If we suppose the physical conditions and the climate -of the Eskimo regions not to have altered in any remarkable way since -they were first inhabited, their inhabitants of course must originally -have come from more southern latitudes, * * * it appears evident on -many grounds that such a southern tribe has not been a coast people -migrating along the seashore, and turning into Eskimo on passing beyond -a certain latitude, but that they have more probably emerged from -some interior country, following the river banks toward the shores of -the polar sea, having reached which they became a coast people, and, -moreover, a polar-coast people. The Eskimo most evidently representing -the polar-coast people of North America, the first question which -arises seems to be whether their development can be conjectured with -any probability to have taken place in that part of the world. Other -geographical conditions appear greatly to favor such a supposition * -* *. The rivers taking their course to the sea between Alaska and the -Coppermine River, seem well adapted to lead such a migrating people -onward to the polar sea. * * * - -"The probable identity of the 'inlanders' with the Indians has already -been remarked on. When the new coast people began to spread along the -Arctic shores, some bands of them may very probably have crossed Bering -Strait and settled on the opposite shore, which is perhaps identical -with the fabulous country of Akilinek. On the other hand, there is very -little probability that a people can have moved from interior Asia to -settle on its polar seashore, at the same time turning Eskimo, and -afterwards almost wholly emigrated to America. - -"On comparing the Eskimo with the neighboring nations, their physical -complexion certainly seems to point at an Asiatic origin; but, as far -as we know, the latest investigations have also shown a transitional -link to exist between the Eskimo and the other American nations, which -would sufficiently indicate the possibility of a common origin from the -same continent." - - * * * * * - -Rink, 1875:[236] "The author, who has traveled and resided in Greenland -for 20 years, and has studied the native traditions, of which he has -preserved a collection, considers the Eskimo as deserving particular -attention in regard to the question how America has been originally -peopled. He desires to draw the attention of ethnologists to the -necessity of explaining, by means of the mysterious early history of -the Eskimo, the apparently abrupt step by which these people have been -changed from probably inland or riverside inhabitants into a decidedly -littoral people, depending entirely on the products of the Arctic Sea; -and he arrives at the conclusion that, although the question must still -remain doubtful, and dependent chiefly on further investigations into -the traditions of the natives occupying adjacent countries, yet, as far -as can now be judged, the Eskimo appear to have been the last wave of -an aboriginal American race, which has spread over the continent from -more genial regions, following principally the rivers and watercourses, -and continually yielding to the pressure of the tribes behind them, -until at last they have peopled the seacoast. * * * - -"When we consider the existing intercourse between the inhabitants on -both sides of Bering Strait, we find many circumstances to justify the -conclusion that those traditions of the Greenland Eskimo refer to the -origin of the Eskimo sledge dog from the training of the Arctic wolf, -to the first journeys upon the frozen sea, and to intercourse between -the aboriginal Eskimo and the Asiatic coast." - - * * * * * - -Rink, 1886:[237] "Grönland kann ja nur von Westen her seine eskimoische -Bevölkerung empfangen haben. Dasselbe lässt sich mit Wahrscheinlichkeit -auch von den nächsten Nachbarländern jenseits der Davisstrasse -annehmen, und wenn wir diese Vermutung weiter erstrecken, gelangen -wir zum Alaskaterritorium als der wahrscheinlichen Heimat der jetzt -so weit zertreuten arktischen Volkes. Zunächst findet diese Annahme -eine Bestätigung darin, dass die Eskimos hier nicht auf die Küste -beschränkt, sondern auch längs der Flüsse ins Binnenland verbreitet -sind, nur dass der ungeheure Fischreichtum dieser Flüsse es möglich -gemacht haben kann, dass hier ursprünglich eine noch viel grössere -Bevölkerung, als jetzt, sich sammelte, welche durch Auswanderung -das notwendige Kontingent zur Entstehung der auf die Meeresküste -beschränkten Stämme geliefert haben kann." - - * * * * * - -Wilson, 1876:[238] "Some analogies confirm the probability of a portion -of the North American stock having entered the continent from Asia by -Bering Strait or the Aleutian Islands; and more probably by the latter -than the former. * * * - -"In this direction, then, a North American germ of population may have -entered the continent from Asia, diffused itself over the Northwest, -and ultimately reached the valleys of the Mississippi, and penetrated -to southern latitudes by a route to the east of the Rocky Mountains. -Many centuries may have intervened between the first immigration -and its coming in contact with races of the southern continent; and -philological and other evidence indicates that if such a northwestern -immigration be really demonstrable, it is one of very ancient date. But -so far as I have been able to study the evidence, much of that hitherto -adduced appears to point the other way. * * * - -"With Asiatic Esquimaux thus distributed along the coast adjacent to -the dividing sea; and the islands of the whole Aleutian group in the -occupation of the same remarkable stock common to both hemispheres: -The only clearly recognizable indications are those of a current of -migration setting toward the continent of Asia, the full influence of -which may prove to have been more comprehensive than has hitherto been -imagined possible. * * *" - - * * * * * - -Grote, 1877:[239] Regards the Eskimo as the original inhabitants of -North America and believes they extended down to 50° in the eastern and -60° in the western part of the continent. - - * * * * * - -Krause, 1883:[240] "Ueberblickt man nun die gegenwärtige Verbreitung -der Eskimos in Asien, so wird man der Ansicht von Dall und Nordenskiöld -beistimmen, dass die asiatischen Eskimo aus Amerika eingewandert -sind und nicht, wie Steller, Wrangell, und andere vermutheten, -zurückgebliebene Reste einer ehemals zahlreicheren, nach Amerika -hinübergezogenen Bevölkerung. Immerhin würde durch die Annahme -eines amerikanischen Ursprunges der jetzigen Eskimobevölkerung die -Möglichkeit früherer Wanderungen in entgegengesetzter Richtung nicht -ausgeschlossen sein, nur giebt die gegenwärtige Verbreitung keinen -Anhalt für eine solche, und historische Beweise fählen." - - * * * * * - -Ray, 1885:[241] "Of their origin and descent we could get no trace, -there being no record of events kept among them. * * * - -"That they have followed the receding line of ice, which at one time -capped the northern part of this continent, along the easiest lines -of travel is shown in the general distribution of a similar people, -speaking a similar tongue, from Greenland to Bering Strait; in so -doing they followed the easiest natural lines of travel along the -watercourses and the seashore, and the distribution of the race to-day -marks the routes traveled. The seashore led them along the Labrador and -Greenland coasts; Hudson Bay and its tributary waters carried its quota -towards Boothia Land; helped by Back's Great Fish River, the Mackenzie -carried them to the northwestern coast, and down the Yukon they came to -people the shores of Norton Sound and along the coast to Cape Prince -of Wales. They occupied some of the coast to the south of the mouth of -the Yukon, and a few drifted across Bering Strait on the ice, and their -natural traits are still in marked contrast with their neighbors, the -Chuckchee. They use dogs instead of deer, the natives of North America -having never domesticated the reindeer, take their living from the -sea, and speak a different tongue. Had the migration come from Asia it -does not stand to reason that they would have abandoned the deer upon -crossing the straits." - - * * * * * - -Keane, 1886:[242] "Dr. H. Rink, in the current number of the Deutsche -Geographische Blätter (Bermen, 1886) * * * makes it sufficiently -evident that their primeval home must be placed in the extreme -northwest, on the Alaskan shores of the Bering Sea * * * the Aleutian -Islanders, who are treated by Doctor Rink as a branch of the Eskimo -family, but whose language diverges profoundly from, or rather shows no -perceptible affinity at all to, the Eskimo. The old question respecting -the ethnical affinities of the Aleutians is thus again raised, but not -further discussed by our author. To say that they must be regarded as -'ein abnormer Seitenzweig,' merely avoids the difficulty, while perhaps -obscuring or misstating the true relations altogether. For these -islanders should possibly be regarded, not 'as abnormal offshoot,' -but as the original stock from which the Eskimos themselves have -diverged. * * * Doctor Rink himself advances some solid reasons for -bringing the Eskimo, not from Asia at all, or at least not in the first -instance, but from the interior of the North American continent. He -holds, in fact, with some other ethnologists, that they were originally -inlanders, who, under pressure from the American Indians, gradually -advanced along the course of the Yukon, Mackenzie, and other great -rivers, to their present homes on the Bering Sea, and Frozen Ocean." - -No individual or decided standpoint on the question is taken in the -author's Man, Past and Present, 1920 edition. - - * * * * * - -Brown, 1881:[243] "The Eskimo are therefore an essentially American -people, with a meridional range greater than that of any other -race. * * * - -"It is also clear that this migration has always been from west to -east, as also has been that of the Indian tribes; * * * - -"Did these hyperboreans come from Asia or are they evolutions, -differentiations, as it were, of some of the other American races? -That all of the American peoples came originally from Asia, is, I -think, an hypothesis for which a great deal might be said. Unless they -originated there or were autochthonic, an idea which may at once be -dismissed; they could scarcely have come from anywhere else, * * * but -the central question is whether the Eskimo are of a later date than the -Indians or are really Indians compelled to live under less favorable -conditions than the rest of their kinsfolk. The latter will, I think, -be found to be the most reasonable view to adopt. * * * - -"Doctor Rink seems not far from the truth when he indicates the rivers -of Central Arctic America as the region from whence the Eskimo spread -northward. * * * - -"It is not at all improbable that the original progenitors of the race -may have been a few isolated families, members of some small Indian -tribe, or the decaying remnants of a larger one. Little by little they -were expelled from their hunting and fishing grounds on the original -river bank until, finding no place amid the stronger tribes, they -settled in a region where they were left to themselves. * * * - -"It may, however, be taken as proved that the Eskimo are in no respect -and never were a European people; that they are not and never were an -Asiatic one, except to the small extent already described; that the -handful of people settled on the Siberian shore migrated from America, -and that it is very probable the Eskimo came from the interior of -Arctic America, Alaska more likely than from any other part of the -world." - - * * * * * - -Virchow, 1877:[244] "Ich möchte namentlich darauf aufmerksam machen, -dass diejenigen, welche den nächsten Anknüpfungspunkt für die -Urbevölkerung Amerika's bei den Eskimo's suchen, welche ferner die -Sprache und die Formen der Eskimo's nach Asien hinein verfolgen, -leicht ein petitio principii machen dürften, insofern als es wohl sein -könnte, dass sie ein späteres Phänomen für ein früheres halten. Warum -sollte nicht die Einwanderung der Eskimo's von Asien erst erfolgt sein, -nachdem längst andere Theile des Continents ihre Bewohner erhalten -hatten?" - -1878:[245] "Nun ist es sehr bemerkenswerth, dass gegenüber dieser -physiognomischen Aehnlichkeit der Eskimos und der Mongolen eine -absolute Differenze Zwischen ihnen in Bezug auf die Schädelkapsel -existirt" (examined six living Greenland Eskimos). - -1885:[246] "Verbinden wir dieses mit dem Umstande, dass die Sagen -der Ungava-Eskimos stets nach Norden über die Hudson-Strasse -verlegt werden, dass man im Baffin-Lande stets über die Fury- und -Hecla-Strasse fort nach Süden als dem Schauplatz alter Sagen hinweist, -und dass die westlichen Eskimos ebenso den Osten als das Land ihrer -sagenhaften Helden und Stämme betrachten, so gewinnt die Vermuthung an -Wahrscheinlichkeit, dass im Westen des Hudson-Bay-Gebietes die Heimath -der weitverbreiteten Stämme zu suchen ist." - - * * * * * - -Chamberlain, 1889:[247] "In a paper read before the Institute last -year (Proc. Can. Inst., 3d. ser., Vol. V., Fasc. i., October, 1887, p. -70), I advanced the view that instead of the Eskimo being derived from -the Mongolians of northeastern Asia, the latter are on the contrary -descended from the Eskimo, or their ancestors, who have from time -immemorial inhabited the continent of America." - - * * * * * - -Boas, 1901:[248] "All these data seem to me to prove conclusively -that the culture of the Alaskan Eskimo is very greatly influenced by -that of the Indians of the North Pacific coast and by the Athapascan -tribes of the interior. This is in accord with the observation that -their physical type is not so pronounced as the eastern Eskimo type. I -believe, therefore, that H. Rink's opinion of an Alaskan origin of the -Eskimo is not very probable. If pure type and culture may be considered -as significant, I should say that the Eskimo west and north of Hudson -Bay have retained their ancient characteristics more than any others. -If their original home was in Alaska, we must add the hypothesis that -their dispersion began before contact with the Indians. If their home -was east of the Mackenzie, the gradual dispersion and ensuing contact -with other tribes would account for all the observed phenomena. * -* * On the whole, the relations of North Pacific and North Asiatic -cultures are such that it seems plausible to my mind that the Alaskan -Eskimo are, comparatively speaking, recent intruders, and that they at -one time interrupted an earlier cultural connection between the two -continents." - -To which he adds in the second part of this work,[249] speaking of the -Eskimo taboos: "It may perhaps be venturesome to claim that the marked -development of these customs suggests a time when the Eskimo tribes -were inland people who went down to the sea and gradually adopted -maritime pursuits, which, however, were kept entirely apart from their -inland life, although in a way this seems an attractive hypothesis." - -Boas, 1910:[250] "There is little doubt that the Eskimos, whose -life as sea hunters has left a deep impression upon all of their -doings, must probably be classed with the same group of peoples. The -much-discussed theory of the Asiatic origin of the Eskimos must be -entirely abandoned. The investigations of the Jesup North Pacific -Expedition, which it was my privilege to conduct, seem to show that the -Eskimos must be considered as, comparatively speaking, new arrivals in -Alaska, which they reached coming from the east." - - * * * * * - -Clark Wissler, 1917.[251] Page 363: "The New World received a -detachment of early Mongoloid peoples at a time when the main body had -barely developed stone polishing." - -Pages 361-362: "Our review of New World somatic characters revealed -the essential unity of the Indian population. It is also clear that -there are affinities with the Mongoloid peoples of Asia. Hence, we -are justified in assuming a common ancestral group for the whole -Mongoloid-Red stream of humanity. We have already outlined the reasons -for assuming the pristine home of this group to be in Asia." - -Page 335: "For example, the Eskimos, whose first appearance in the New -World must have been in Alaska, spread only along the Arctic coast belt -to its ultimate limits." - -1918[252]. Page 161: "The most acceptable theory of Eskimo origin is -that they expanded from a parent group in the Arctic Archipelago." - -1922.[253] Pages 368, 396, 398: Identical in every word again with that -of 1917. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[232] Prichard, James Cowles, Researches into the physical history of -mankind, vol. V, p. 374. London, 1847. - -[233] Rink, H., Die Verbreitung der Eskimo-Stämme. Congrès -International des Américanistes, 1888, 221-22. Berlin, 1890. - -[234] Rink, H., On the descent of the Eskimo. Mém. Soc. Roy. d. -Antiquaires du Nord; Journ. anthrop. Inst, II, 1873, pp. 104, 106, 108. - -[235] Rink, H., Tales and traditions of the Eskimo, pp. 70, 71, 72, 73. -Edinburgh and London, 1875. - -[236] Rink, H., On the descent of the Eskimo. In a Selection of Papers -on Arctic Geography and Ethnology, Roy. Geog. Soc., pp 230, 232. -London, 1875. - -[237] Rink, H., Die Ostgrönländer in ihrem Verhältnisse zu den übrigen -Eskimostämmen. Deutsch Geographische Blätter, IX, p. 229. Bremen, 1886. - -[238] Wilson, Daniel, Prehistoric man, pp. 343-352. London, 1876. - -[239] Grote, A. R., Buff. Daily Courier, Jan. 7, 1877 (q. by. R. -Virchow, Z. Ethnol., Verh., IX, 1877, p. 69). - -[240] Krause, Aurel, Die Bevölkerungsverhältnisse der -Tschuktschenhalbinsel. Verh. Berl. Ges. Anthrop., etc., in Z. Ethn., -XV, pp. 226-27. 1883. - -[241] Ray, P. H., Ethnographic Sketch of the Natives. Report of the -International Polar Expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska, pt. 2, p. 37. -Washington, 1885. - -[242] Keane, A. H., The Eskimo. Nature, XXXV, pp. 309, 310. London, New -York, 1886-87. - -[243] Brown, Robert, The Origin of the Eskimo. The Archaeological -Review, I, No. 4, pp. 240-250. London, 1888. - -[244] Virchow, R., Anthropologie Amerika's. Verh. Berl. Ges. Anthr., -etc., Jahrg. 1877 (with Z. Ethnol., 1877, IX), pp. 154-55. - -[245] ---- Eskimos. Verh. Berl. Ges. Anthr., etc., 1878, pp. 185-189 -(with Z. Ethnol., 1878, X), p. 186. - -[246] Virchow, R., Eskimos. Verh. Berl. Ges. Anthr., etc., 1885, p. 165 -(with Z. Ethnol., 1885, XVII). - -[247] Chamberlain, A. F., The Eskimo Race and Language. Proc. Can. -Inst., VI, p. 281. Toronto, 1889. - -[248] Boas, F., Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay. Bull. Am. Mus. -Nat. Hist., XV, pp. 369-370. 1907. - -[249] Ibid., XV, pt. 2, pp. 569-570. 1907. - -[250] Boas, Franz, Ethnological Problems in Canada. Jour. Roy. Anthrop. -Inst. Great Britain and Ireland, XL, p. 534. London, 1910. - -[251] Wissler, Clark, The American Indian. New York, 1917. - -[252] ---- Archæology of the Polar Eskimo. Anthrop. Papers, Am. Mus. -Nat. Hist., XXII, pt. 3, p. 161. New York, 1918. - -[253] ---- The American Indian. New York, 1922. - - -EUROPEAN - -Dawkins, 1866:[254] "The sum of the evidence proves that man, in a -hunter state, lived in the south of Gaul on reindeer, musk sheep, -horses, oxen, and the like, at a time when the climate was similar -to that which those animals now inhabit. To what race did he belong? -In solving this the zoological evidence is of great importance. The -reindeer and musk sheep now inhabit the northern part of the American -Continent and are the principal land animals that supply the Esquimaux -with food. The latter of these has departed from the Asiatic Continent, -leaving remains behind to prove that it shared the higher northern -latitudes of Asia with the reindeer, and this latter has retreated -farther and farther north during the historical period. May not the -race that lived on these two animals in southern Gaul have shared also -in their northern retreat, and may it not be living in company with -them still? The truth of such a hypothesis as this is found by an -appeal to the weapons, implements, and habits of life of the Esquimaux. -The fowling spear, the harpoon, the scrapers, the marrow spoons are -the same in the ice huts of Melville Sound as in the ancient dwellings -of southern Gaul. In both there is the same absence of pottery; in -both bones are crushed in the same way for the sake of the marrow, -and accumulate in vast quantities. The very fact of human remains -being found among the relics of the feast is explained by an appeal to -what Captain Parry observed in the island of Igloolik. Among the vast -quantities of bones of walruses and seals, and skulls of dogs and bears -found in the Esquimaux camp, were numbers of human skulls lying about -among the rest, which the natives tumbled into the collecting bags of -the officers without the least remorse. A similar carelessness for the -dead was also observed by Sir J. Ross and Captain Lyon. This presence, -then, of human remains in the south of Gaul is another link binding the -ancient people then living there to the Esquimaux. Their small size -also is additional evidence. - -"The only inference that can be drawn from these premises is that the -people in question were decidedly Esquimaux, related to them precisely -in the same way as the reindeer and musk sheep of those days were to -those now living in the high North American latitudes. The sole point -of difference is the possession of the dog by the latter people, but -in the vast lapse of time between the date of their sojourn in Europe -and the present day the dog might very well have been adopted from some -other superior race, or even reduced under the rule of man from some -wild progenitor. By this discovery a new people is added to those which -formerly dwelt in Europe. The severity of the climate in southern Gaul -is proved by the northern animals above mentioned. As it became warmer -musk sheep, reindeer, and Esquimaux would retreat farther and farther -north until they found a resting place on the American shore of the -great Arctic Sea. Possibly in the case of the Esquimaux the immigration -of other and better-armed tribes might be a means of accelerating this -movement." - - * * * * * - -Hamy, 1870:[255] "Il nous parait, comme à MM. de Quatrefages, -Carter-Blake, Le Hon, etc., que les caractères anatomiques des races -de Furfooz et de Cro-Magnon doivent leur faire prendre place dans le -groupe hyperboréen." - - * * * * * - -Dawkins, 1874[256]: In 1866, Boyd Dawkins, on the basis of the -resemblances between the implements of the Eskimo and those of the -later prehistoric man of Europe, advances the idea that the Eskimo were -close kin to the palaeolithic man of Europe, before the scientific -forum. In his Cave Hunting he says: "Palaeolithic man appeared in -Europe with the arctic mammalia, lived in Europe along with them, -and disappeared with them. And since his implements are of the same -kind as those of the Eskimos, it may reasonably be concluded that he -is represented at the present time by the Eskimos, for it is most -improbable that the convergence of the ethnological and zoological -evidence should be an accident." - -1880:[257] "The probable identity of the cave men with the Eskimos is -considerably strengthened by a consideration of some of the animals -found in the caves. * * * - -"All these points of connection between the cave men and the Eskimos -can, in my opinion, be explained only on the hypothesis that they -belong to the same race * * *." - -The cave man: "From the evidence brought forward in this chapter, there -is reason to believe that he is represented at the present time by the -Eskimos." - - * * * * * - -Mortillet, 1889:[258] "Les Groënlandais, au point de vue -paléoethnologique, présentent un très grand intérêt. Ils paraissent -se relier très intimement aux hommes qui habitaient l'Europe moyenne -pendant l'époque de la Madeleine. Ils seraient les descendants directs -des Magdalèniens. Ils auraient successivement émigré vers le pôle, avec -l'animal caractéristique de cette époque, le renne. Habitués aux froids -les plus rigoureux de l'époque magdalénienne, ils se sont retirés dans -les régions froides du Nord. * * * - -"Comme on le voit, il y a la plus grande ressemblance, tant sous -le rapport physique et moral que sous le rapport artistique et -industriel entre les hommes de la Madeleine et les Groënlandais. Cette -ressemblance est telle que nous pouvons en conclure que les seconds -sont les descendants des premiers." - - * * * * * - -Testut, 1889:[259] "Parmi les races actuelles, celle qui me parait -présenter la plus grande analogie avec l'homme de Chancelade est celle -des Esquimaux qui vivent encore à l'état sauvage dans leg glaces de -l'Amérique septentrionale. Ils ont, en effet, le même crâne que notre -troglodyte quaternaire; leur face est constituée suivant le même type; -ils ont, à peu de chose près, la même taille, le même indice palatin, -le même indice nasal, le même indice orbitaire, le même degré de -torsion de l'humérus, etc. * * * - -"La découverte de Chancelade, en mettant en lumière une analogie -frappante entre le squelette de notre troglodyte périgourdin et celui -des Esquimaux actuels, apporte à cette opinion aussi séduisante que -naturelle, l'appui de l'anthropologie anatomique qui, dans l'espèce, -a une importance capitale. Elle lui est de tous points favorable et -élève à la hauteur d'une vérité probable, je n'ose dire d'une vérité -démontrée, ce qui n'était encore qu'une simple hypothèse." - - * * * * * - -Hervé, 1893:[260] "* * * * par leurs usages et par leurs moeurs, -aussi bien que par leur matériel industriel et artistique, les -Hyperboréens actuels (Tchouktches et Eskimaux) sont extrêmement voisins -des Troglodytes magdaléniens de l'Europe occidentale; à ce point -que Hamy a pu dire 'qu'ils continuent de nos jours, dan les régions -circumpolaires, l'âge du renne de France, de Belgique, de Suisse, -avec ses caractéristiques zoologiques, ethnographiques, etc.' (op. -cit., 366). 'Nous avons vu, d'autre part, que les plus purs d'entre -eux ne diffèrent pas anatomiquement des Magdaléniens. C'est donc au -rameau hyperboréen que nous sommes amenés à rattacher, au point de vue -ethnique, les dernières populations de l'Europe quaternaire.'" - - * * * * * - -Boule, 1913:[261] "On sait d'ailleurs, depuis les travaux de Testut -sur l'Homme de Chancelade, que les relations des Esquimaux sont avec -d'autres Hommes fossiles de nos pays, mais d'un âge géologique plus -récent." - - * * * * * - -Sollas, 1924:[262] The Magdalenians are represented "in part, by the -Eskimo on the frozen margin of the North American Continent and as -well, perhaps, by the Red Indians. * * *" Due to pressure of stronger -peoples, the ancestors of the Eskimo were present to the north; "but -as there was no room for expansion in that direction, it was diverted -toward the only egress possible, and an outflow took place into America -over Bering Strait or the Aleutian Islands. The primitive Eskimo, -already accustomed to a boreal life, extended along the coast." - -1927:[263] "The assemblage of characters presented on the one hand -by the Chancelade skull, and on the other by the Eskimo, are in very -remarkable agreement, and that the onus of discovering a similar -assemblage, but possessed by some other race, rests with those who -refuse to accept what seems to me a very obvious conclusion. * * * - -"Our only reason for any feeling of surprise is, not that Chancelade -man should prove a close relation of the Eskimo, but that so far he -is the only fossil example of his kind of which we have any certain -knowledge." - -FOOTNOTES: - -[254] Dawkins, Boyd, In a Review of Lartet and Christy's "Cavernes du -Périgord" (1864), in the Saturday Review, XXII, p. 713, 1866. [This -review is not signed but is attributed to B. D.] - -[255] Hamy, E. T., Précis de paléontologie humaine, p. 355. Paris, 1870. - -[256] Dawkins, Boyd, Cave Hunting, p. 359. London, 1874. - -[257] Dawkins, Boyd, Early Man in Britain, pp. 240, 241, 245. London, -1880. - -[258] Mortillet, G. de, Les Groënlandais descendants des Magdaléniens. -Bulletins de la Société d'Anthropologie, VI, pp. 868-870. Paris, 1883. - -[259] Testut, L., Recherches anthropologiques sur le squelette -quaternaire de Chancelade (Dordogne). Bull. Soc. d'anthrop., VIII, pp. -243-244. Lyon, Paris, 1889. - -[260] Hervé, Georges, La Race des Troglodytes Magdaléniens. Rev. mens, -de l'École d'anthrop., III, p. 188. Paris, 1893. - -[261] Boule, Marcellin, L'Homme fossile de la Chapelle-aux-Saints, pp. -228. Paris, 1913. - -[262] Sollas, W. J., Ancient hunters and their modern representatives, -pp. 590, 592. New York, 1924. - -[263] Sollas, W. J., The Chancelade skull. J. Roy, Anthrop. Inst., -LVII, pp. 119, 121. London, 1927. - - -OPPOSED TO EUROPEAN - -Rae, 1887:[264] "The typical Eskimo is one of the most specialized of -the human race, as far as cranial and facial characters are concerned, -and such scanty remains as have yet been discovered of the prehistoric -inhabitants of Europe present no structural affinities with him." - - * * * * * - -Laloy, 1898:[265] "Cette théorie est absolument contredite par les -faits." (That is, the theory of the identity of the Eskimo with the -European upper palaeolithic man.) - - * * * * * - -Déchelette, 1908:[266] "C'est en vain qu'on a noté certains traits -d'analogie de l'art et de l'industrie * * * telles analogies -s'expliquent aisément par la parité des conditions de la vie -matérielle." - - * * * * * - -Burkitt, 1921:[267] "Again the Magdalenians have been correlated with -the Eskimos, who inhabit to-day the icebound coastal lands to the north -of the New World, and also the similar lands, on the other side of the -straits, in the northeast corner of Asia. But the vast difference in -place and in time would make any exact correlation very doubtful." - - * * * * * - -MacCurdy, 1924:[268] "If a Magdalenian type exists, it is probably best -represented by the skeleton from Raymonden at Chancelade (Dordogne). -One must not lose sight of the fact that the osteologic record of -fossil man is even yet so fragmentary that there is grave danger of -mistaking individual characters for those on which varieties or species -should be based." - - * * * * * - -Keith, 1925:[269] "In the Chancelade man we are dealing with a member -of a racial stock of a true European kind." - -FOOTNOTES: - -[264] Rae, Dr. John, Remarks on the natives of British North America. -J. Roy. Anthrop. Inst. Great Britain and Ireland, XVI, pp. 200-201. -London, 1887. - -[265] Laloy, L'Anthr., IX, p. 586. 1898. - -[266] Déchelette, J., Manuel d'Archéologie préhistorique, etc., pp. -312. Paris, 1908. - -[267] Burkitt, M. C., Prehistory, p. 307. London, 1921. - -[268] MacCurdy, G. G., Human Origins, V. I, pp. 406-407. New York and -London, 1924. - -[269] Keith, Arthur, The Antiquity of Man, p. 86. London, 1925. - - -MISCELLANEOUS AND INDEFINITE - -Gallatin, 1836:[270] "Whatever may have been the origin of the Eskimo, -it would seem probable that the small tribe of the present sedentary -Tchuktchi on the eastern extremity of Asia is a colony of western -American Eskimo. The language does not extend in Asia beyond that -tribe. That of their immediate neighbors, the "Reindeer," or "Wandering -Tchuktchi," is totally different and belongs to the Kouriak family. - -"There does not seem to be any solid foundation for the opinion of -those who would ascribe to the Eskimaux an origin different from that -of the other Indians of North America. The color and features are -essentially the same; and the differences which may exist, particularly -that in stature, may be easily accounted for by the rigor of the -climate and partly, perhaps, by the nature of their food. The entire -similarity of the structure and grammatical forms of their language -with those of various Indian tribes, however different in their -vocabularies, which will hereafter be adverted to, affords an almost -conclusive proof of their belonging to the same family of mankind." - - * * * * * - -Richardson, 1852:[271] "The origin of the Eskimos has been much -discussed as being the pivot on which the inquiry into the original -peopling of America has been made to turn. The question has been fairly -and ably stated by Doctor Latham in his recent work On the Varieties of -Man, to which I must refer the reader; and I shall merely remark that -the Eskimos differ more in physical aspect from their nearest neighbors -than the red races do from one another. The lineaments have a decided -resemblance to the Tartar or Chinese countenance. On the other hand, -their language is admitted by philologists to be similar to the other -North American tongues in its grammatical structure; so that, as Doctor -Latham has forcibly stated, the dissociation of the Eskimos from their -neighboring nations on account of their physical dissimilarity is met -by an argument for their mutual affinity, deduced from philological -coincidences." - -Meigs, 1857:[272] "A connected series of facts and arguments which -seem to indicate that the Eskimo are an exceedingly ancient people, -whose dawn was probably ushered in by a temperate climate, but whose -dissolution now approaches, amidst eternal ice and snow; that the early -migrations of these people have been from the north southwards, from -the islands of the Polar Sea to the continent and not from the mainland -to the islands; and that the present geographical area of the Eskimo -may be regarded as a primary center of human distribution for the -entire polar zone." - - * * * * * - -Abbott, 1876:[273] "It is fair to presume that the first human beings -that dwelt along the shores of the Delaware were really the same people -as the present inhabitants of Arctic America." - - * * * * * - -Grote, 1875:[274] Basing himself on certain biological reasonings, the -author concludes "that the Eskimos are the existing representatives -of the man of the American glacial epoch, just as the White Mountain -butterfly (_Oeneis semidea_) is the living representative of a colony -of the genus planted on the retiring of the ice from the valley of the -White Mountains." - -In a later communication[275] the author expresses the opinion that -the peopling of America "was effected during the Tertiary; that the -ice modified races of Pliocene man, existing in the north of Asia and -America, forced them southward, and then drew them back to the locality -where they had undergone their original modification. * * * - -"During the process, then, which resulted in the race modification -of the Eskimos, their original numbers must have been decreased by -the slowly but ever increasing cold of the northern regions, until -experience and physical adaptation combined brought them to a state of -comparative stability as a race." - - * * * * * - -Baron Nordenskiöld[276] thought that the Eskimo might probably be -the true "autochthones" of the polar regions, i. e., that they had -inhabited the same previous to the glacial age, at a period when a -climate prevailed here equal to that of northern Italy at present, -as proved by the fossils found at Spitzbergen and Greenland. As it -might be assumed that man had existed even during the Tertiary period, -there was a great deal in favor of the assumption that he had lived in -those parts which were most favorable to his existence. The question -was one of the highest importance, as, if it could be proved that the -Eskimo descended from a race which inhabited the polar regions in the -very earliest times, we should be obliged to assume that there was a -northern (polar) as well as an Asiatic cradle of the human race, which -would open up new fields of research, both to the philologist and the -ethnologist, and probably remnants of the culture and language of the -original race might be traced in the present polar inhabitants of both -Europe and Asia. - - * * * * * - -Keane, 1886:[277] "The Aleutian Islanders, who are treated by Doctor -Rink as a branch of the Eskimo family, but whose language diverges -profoundly from, or rather shows no perceptible affinity at all to, -the Eskimo. The old question respecting the ethnical affinities -of the Aleutians is thus again raised, but not further discussed -by our author. To say that they must be regarded as 'ein abnormer -Seitenzweig,' merely avoids the difficulty, while perhaps obscuring -or misstating the true relations altogether. For these islanders -should possibly be regarded, not as 'an abnormal offshoot,' but as the -original stock from which the Eskimo themselves have diverged." - - * * * * * - -Quatrefages, 1887:[278] From migrations of Tertiary man: Men originated -in Tertiary in northern Asia; spread from here to Europe and over -Asia; "D'autres aussi gagnèrent peut-être l'Amérique et ont pu être -les ancêtres directs des Esquimaux,... Sans même supposer l'existence -passée de la continuité des deux continents, les hommes tertiaires ont -bien pu faire ce que font les riverains actuels du détroit de Behring, -qui vont chaque jour d'Asie en Amérique et reciproquement."... - -"Evidemment la race esquimale est américaine. Au Groënland, au -Labrador, dont personne ne lui a disputé les solitudes glacées, elle a -conservé sa pureté. Elle est encore restée pure quand elle a rencontré -les Peaux-Rouges proprement dits, parce que ceux-ci lui ont fait une -guerre d'extermination qui ne respectait ni les femmes ni les enfants. -Mais, dans le nord-ouest américain, elle s'est trouvée en rapport -avec des populations d'un caractère plus doux et des croisements ont -eu lieu. Or, parmi ces populations, il s'en trouve de brachycéphales. -Tels sont en particulier certaines tribus, confondues à tort sous un -même nom avec les vrais Koluches.... Ces tribus sont de race jaune -et leur crâne ressemble si bien à celui des Toungouses que M. Hamy -les a rattachées directement à cette famille mongole. Les Esquimaux -se sont croisés avec elles; et ainsi ont pris naissance ces tribus, -dont l'origine métisse est attestée par le mélange ou la fusion des -caractères linguistiques aussi bien qu'anatomiques." - - * * * * * - -Nansen, 1893:[279] "So much alone can we declare with any assurance, -that the Eskimos dwelt in comparatively recent times on the coasts -around Bering Strait and Bering Sea--probably on the American -side--and have thence, stage by stage, spread eastward over Arctic -America to Greenland. * * * - -"The likeness between all the different tribes of Eskimos, as well -as their secluded position with respect to other peoples, and the -perfection of their implements, might be taken to indicate that they -are of a very old race, in which everything has stiffened into definite -forms, which can now be but slowly altered. Other indications, however, -seem to conflict with such a hypothesis, and render it more probable -that the race was originally a small one, which did not until a -comparatively late period develop to the point at which we now find it, -and spread over the countries which it at present inhabits." - - * * * * * - -Tarenetzky, 1900:[280] "Die Frage ist bis jetzt noch nicht entschieden -und wird wahrscheinlich auch niemals definitiv entschieden werden -ob die gegenwärtig die Nordostgrenze Asiens und die Nordwestgrenze -Amerikas bewohnenden Polarvölker ursprünglich aus Asien nach Amerika -oder in umgekehrter Richtung zu ihren Wohnsitzen wanderten." - - * * * * * - -De Nadaillac[281] believed that the Eskimo (with some other aboriginal -Americans), now savage and demoralized, have issued from races more -civilized and that they could raise themselves to the old social level -were it not for their struggle with inexorable climate, famines, and -lately also alcoholism. - - * * * * * - -Jenness, 1928:[282] "We still believe that the Eskimos are -fundamentally a single people; that they had their origin in a homeland -not yet determined; but we have learned that they reached their present -condition through a series of complex changes and migrations, the -outlines of which we have hardly begun to decipher." - -FOOTNOTES: - -[270] Gallatin, Albert, A Synopsis of the Indian Tribes of North -America. Archaeologia Americana, II, pp. 13, 14. Cambridge, 1836. - -[271] Richardson, Sir John, Origin of the Eskimos. The Edinburgh New -Philosophical Journal, LII, p. 323. Edinburgh, 1852. - -[272] Meigs, J. Aitken, The cranial characteristics of the races of -men. In Indigenous Races of the Earth, by Nott, J. C., and Gliddon, -George R., Philadelphia, p. 266. London, 1857. - -[273] Abbott, C. C., Traces of American Autochthon. Am. Nat., p. 329. -June, 1876. - -[274] Grote, A. R., Effect of the Glacial Epoch Upon the Distribution -of Insects in North America. Proc. Am. Ass. Adv. Sci., Detroit meeting, -1875, B, Natural History, p. 225. - -[275] Grote, A. R., On the Peopling of America. Bull. Buffalo Soc. Nat. -Sc., III, p. 181-185, 1877. - -[276] Eskimo. Lecture before the Geogr. Soc. of Stockholm, Dec. 19, -1884; abstract in Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc., VII, No. 6, p. 370-371. -London, 1885. - -[277] Keane, A. H., The Eskimo; a commentary. Nature, XXXV, p. 309. -London, New York, 1886-1887. - -[278] Quatrefages, A. de, Histoire Générale des Races Humaines, -introduction l'Etude des Races Humaines, pp. 136, 435. Paris, 1887. - -[279] Nansen, Fridtjof, Eskimo Life, pp. 6, 8. London, 1893. -(Translated by William Archer.) - -[280] Tarenetzky, A., Beiträge zur Skelet-und Schädelkunde der Aleuten, -Konaegen, Kenai und Koljuschen. Mem. Acad. imp d. sc., ix, No. 4, p. 7. -St. Petersburg, 1900. - -[281] Nadaillac, M. de, Les Eskimo. L'Anthropologie, XIII, p. 104. 1902. - -[282] Jenness, D., Ethnological Problems of Arctic America. Amer. -Geogr. Soc. Special Publ. No. 7. New York, 1928. - - -DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS INDICATED BY PRESENT DATA - -The maze of thoughts on the origin of the Eskimo shows one fact -conclusively, which is that the necessary evidence on the subject -has hitherto been insufficient. From whatever side the problem has -been approached, whether linguistically, culturally, from the study -of myths, or even somatologically, the materials were, it is plain, -more or less inadequate and there was not enough for satisfactory -comparisons. The best contributions to Eskimo studies, from the oldest -to the most recent, all accentuate the need for further research, and -more ample collections. - -Another point is that heterogeneous and wide apart as many of the -opinions may seem, yet when the subject is looked upon with a larger -perspective they may often perhaps be harmonized. Thus a belief in an -American origin of the Eskimo need not exclude that in the Asiatic -derivation of his parental stock. Even in the case of the supposed -European derivation the Eskimo are understood to have reached America -through Asia; there is not one suggestion of any importance advocating -the coming of the Eskimo over northwestern Europe and Iceland. Only -the Meigs-Grote-Nordenskiöld theory of an ancient polar race and its -descent southward appears now as beyond the bounds of what would be at -least partly justifiable. - -What is the contribution to the subject of the studies reported in this -treatise, with its relatively great amount of somatological material? -The answer is not easy. - -Even the truly great and precious material at hand is not sufficient. -There are important parts of the Arctic, such as the Hudson Bay region, -Baffin Land, and the central region; several parts of the west coast, -such as the inland waters of the Seward Peninsula and the Eskimo -portions of the Selawik, Kobuk, Noatak, and Yukon Rivers; and above -all the Eskimo part of northeastern Siberia, from which there are -insufficient or no collections. There is, moreover, especially in this -country, a great want of skeletal material from the non-Eskimo Siberian -tribes, and also from the old European peoples that are of most -importance for comparisons. It must be plain, therefore, that even at -present no final deductions are possible. All that can be claimed for -the evidence here brought forth is that it clears, or tends to settle, -certain secondary problems, and that it presents indications of value -for the rest of the question. - -The secondary problems that may herewith be regarded as settled are as -follows: - -1. _Unity or plurality of the race._--The materials at hand give -no substantiation to the possibility of the Eskimo belonging to -more than one basic strain of people. They range in color from tan -or light reddish-yellow to medium brown; in stature from decidedly -short to above the general human medium; in head from brachycephalic -and low to extremely dolichocephalic, high and keel shaped; in eyes -from horizontal to decidedly mongoloid; in orbits from microseme -to hypermegaseme; in nose from fully mesorrhinic to extremely -leptorrhinic; in physiognomy from pure "Indian" to extreme "Eskimo." -Yet all through there runs, both in the living and in the skeletal -remains, so much of a basic identity that no separation into any -distinct original "races" is possible. At most it is permissible to -speak of a few prevalent types. - -2. _Relation._--The general basic prototype of the Eskimo, according -to all evidence, is so closely akin to that of the Indian that the -two can not be fully separated. They appear only as the thumb and the -digits of the same hand, some large old mother stock from which both -gradually differentiated. This appears to be an unavoidable conclusion -from the present anthropological knowledge of the two peoples. - -The next unavoidable deduction is that the mother stock of both -the Eskimo and the Indian can only be identified with the great -yellow-brown stem of man, the home of which was in Asia, but the roots -of which, as has been discussed elsewhere, were probably in ancient -(later paleolithic) Europe.[283] The latter fact may explain the -cultural as well as somatological resemblances between the Eskimo, -as well as the Indian (for the Indian, physically at least, has -much in common with the upper Aurignacians), and the upper glacial -European populations. But such an explanation can not in the light -of present knowledge legitimately be extended to the assumption that -either the Indian complex or the Eskimo originated as such in Europe; -they could be at most but parts of the eventual more or less further -differentiated Asiatic progeny of the upper paleolithic Europeans. - -3. _Mixture._--It has been assumed by Boas and others that the eastern -Eskimo have become admixed with the eastern Indian and the western with -the Alaskan Indian, that the physical and especially craniological -differences between the eastern and western Eskimo were due to such -a mixture, and that both extremes deviated from the type of the pure -Eskimo, who was to be found somewhere in the central Arctic. The -evidence of the present studies does not sustain such an assumption. - -As shown before[284] and is seen more clearly from the present data, -the western Eskimo type is also present or approached in various -localities in the far north (part of Smith Sound, Southampton Island, -part of the Hudson Bay coast, with probable spots in the central Arctic -proper). There is no indication of any central region where the western -Eskimo type would be much "purer" than elsewhere. - -Individual skulls and skeletons in the west, particularly in certain -spots (especially on Seward Peninsula), show the same characteristics -as the most diverging skulls or skeletons in the farthest northeast. - -And both in the west and in the east the most pronounced Eskimo -characteristics exceed similar features in the Indian, indicating -independent development. Such characteristics involve the stature -(taller in the west, shorter in the east than that of the Indian); -the size of the head (everywhere averaging higher in the Eskimo); -dolichocephaly, height of the head, its keel shape (all more pronounced -in the eastern and now and then a western Eskimo than in any Indian -group); the face, nose, orbits, and lower jaw; with the relative -proportions and other characteristics of the skeleton. All these point -to functional and other developments within the Eskimo groups and none -suggest a large Indian admixture. - -It is well known that more or less blood mixture takes place among -all neighboring peoples where contact is possible, even if otherwise -there be much enmity. Such enmity, often in an extreme form, existed -everywhere it seems between the Eskimo and the Indian, as a result of -the encroaching of the former on the latter; there are many statements -to that effect. Within historic times also there are no records of any -adoptions or intermarriages between the two peoples. Nevertheless where -contact took place, as on the rivers and in the southwest as well as -the southeast of the Eskimo territory, some blood mixture, it would -seem, must have developed. The Indian neighbors show it, and it would -be strange if it remained one-sided. But of a mixture extensive enough -to have materially modified the type of the Eskimo in whole large -regions, such as the entire Bering Sea and most of the far northeast, -there is no evidence and little not only probability but even -possibility. Nothing approaching such an extensive mixture is shown by -the near-by Indians; and it would be most exceptional in people of this -nature if a much greater proportion of the mixture was into the Eskimo. - -Finally, a mixture of diverse human types, unless very old, may -be expected to leave numerous physical signs of heterogeneity and -disturbance, none of which is shown by either the western or eastern -Eskimo. Such groups as that of the St. Lawrence Island, or that of -Greenland, are among the most homogeneous human groups known. The range -of variation of their characters is as a rule a strictly normal range, -giving a uniform curve of distribution, which is not consistent with -the notion of any relatively recent material mixture. - -4. _The indications._--The indications of the data and observations -presented in this volume may be outlined as follows: - -The Eskimo throughout their territory are but one and the same broad -strain of people. This strain is fundamentally related to that (or -those) of the American Indian. It is also uncontestably related to the -yellow-brown strains of Asia. - -In many respects, such as pigmentation, build of the body, -physiognomy, large brain, fullness of forehead, fullness of the -fronto-sphenotemporal region, largeness of face and lower jaw, height -of the nose, size and characteristics of the teeth,[285] smallness of -hands and feet, etc., the Eskimos are remarkably alike over their whole -territory. They differ in details, such as stature, form of the head, -and breadth of the nose. But the distribution of these differences is -of much interest and probably significance. Higher statures, broader -heads, and broader noses are found especially in the west, the latter -two particularly in the Bering Sea region; low group statures, narrow -heads and narrow noses reach, with few exceptions, their extremes -in the northeast. Between the two extremes, however, there is no -interruption, but a gradation, with here and there an irregularity. -These conditions speak not of mixture but rather of adaptation and -differentiation. - -They strongly suggest a moderate stream of people, rooted in Asia, of -fairly broad and but moderately high head, of a good medium stature, -with a mesorrhinic nose (and hence probably originally not far -northern), and with many other characteristics in common, reaching -America from northeasternmost Asia after the related Indians, spreading -along the seacoasts as far as it could, not of choice, or choice alone, -but mainly because of the blocking by the Indian of the roads toward -the south and through the interior; and gradually modifying physically -in adaptation to the new conditions and necessities; to climate, newer -modes of life, the demands of the kayak, and above all to the results -of the increased demands on the masticatory organs. - -The narrowness, increased length and increased height of the Eskimo -skull, without change in its size or other characteristics, may readily -be understood as compensatory adaptations, the development of which was -initiated and furthered by the development and mechanical effects of -the muscles of mastication. - -A similar conclusion has been reached in my former study on the central -and Smith Sound Eskimo (1910). It has been approached or reached -independently by other students of the Eskimo, notably Fürst and -Hansen (1915) in their great work on the East Greenlanders. It is a -conclusion of much biological importance for it involves not merely the -development but also the eventual inheritance of new characters. - -Former authors, it was seen, have advanced the theories of an American -origin of the Eskimo. This could only mean that he developed from -the American Indian. And such a development would imply physical -and hereditary changes at least as great as those indicated in the -preceding paragraphs, and in less time. A differentiation commenced -well back in Asia, geographically and chronologically, and advancing, -to its present limits, in America would seem the more probable. - -An origin of the Eskimo in Europe, during the last glacial invasion, -would not only push into the hazy far past the same changes as here -dealt with, but it would at the same time fail to explain the physical -differences within the Eskimo group, and deny any substantial changes -in him during the long time of his migration toward the American -northern coasts. - -[Illustration: FIGURE 29.--Probable movements of people from -northeastern Asia to Alaska and in Alaska. (A. Hrdlička)] - -Absolute proofs of the origin of the Eskimo, as of that of the various -strains of the Indians, are hardly to be expected. Such origins are so -gradual and insidious that they would escape detection even if watched -for while occurring; they are noticed only after sufficient differences -have developed and become established, which takes generations. The -solving of racial origins must depend on sound scientific induction. - -Such induction may not yet be fully possible in the case of the Eskimo. -The evidence is not yet complete. But with the present and other most -recent data there is enough on hand for substantial indications. The -evidence shows that barring some irregularities, due possibly to later -intrusions or refluxes, the farther east in the Eskimo territory the -observer proceeds the more highly differentiated and divergent the -Eskimo becomes, and there is a greater gap between him and his Indian -neighbors, as well as other races. Proceeding from the east westward, -conditions are reversed. In general the farther west we proceed the -less exceptional on the whole the Eskimo becomes and the more he -approximates the Indian, particularly the Indian of Alaska and the -northwest coast. As this can not, in the light of present evidence, be -attributed alone to mixture, it is plain that if it were possible to -proceed a few steps farther in this direction the differences between -the Eskimo and the Indian would fade out so that a distinction between -the two would become difficult if not impossible. - -The facts point, therefore, to an original identity of the source -from which were derived the Indian, more particularly his latest -branches, and the Eskimo, and to the identification of this source -with the palaeo-Asiatic yellow-brown people of lower northern Asia. -The differentiation of the Eskimo from this source must have proceeded -over a fairly long time, and probably started already it would seem -on the northern coasts of Asia, where conditions were present capable -of beginning to shape him into an Eskimo; to be carried on since in -the Bering Sea area and especially in the Seward Peninsula and farther -northward and eastward. In a larger sense the cradle of the Eskimo, -therefore, while starting probably in northeast Asia, covered in -reality a much vaster region, extending from northern Asia and the -Bering Sea to the far American Arctic. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[283] Hrdlička, A., The Peopling of Asia. Proc. Am. Philos. Soc., LX, -535 et seq. 1921; and The Peopling of the Earth. Ibid., LXV, 150, et -seq. 1926. - -[284] Contrib. Anthrop. Central and Smith Sound Eskimo. Anthrop. Papers -Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1910. - -[285] See Amer. J. Phys. Anthrop., VI, Nos. 2 and 4. 1923. - - - - -SUMMARY - - -What is the substance of the results of all these new observations and -studies on the western Eskimo, who is the main subject of this report? -In large lines this may be outlined as follows: - -1. The western Eskimo occupied, uninterrupted by other people (save -in a few spots by the Aleuts), the great stretch of the Alaskan coast -from Prince William Sound and parts of the Unalaska Peninsula to Point -Barrow, all the islands in the Bering Sea except the Aleutians and -Pribilovs, and the northern and western coasts of the Chukchi Peninsula -in Asia. - -They extended some distance inland along the Kuskokwim and Yukon -Rivers; along the interior lakes and rivers of the Seward Peninsula; -along a part of the Selawik River, most (perhaps) of the Kobuk River, -and apparently along the whole Noatak River, communicating over the -land with the lower Colville Basin. But no traces of original Eskimo -settlements have ever been found in the true Alaska inland or along -those parts of the Alaska rivers that constitute the Indian territory. - -2. The present population is sparse, with many unpeopled intervals, -and not highly fecund, but, except when epidemics strike, it no -more diminishes; children and young people are now much in evidence, -hygienic and economic conditions have improved, and the people in -general are well advanced in civilization. Their condition and morale -are rather superior, in places very perceptibly so, to those of the -majority of the Alaska Indians. - -3. Except where there has been more contact with whites, a large -percentage of these Eskimo are still full bloods. They are a sturdy, -cheerful, and liberal yet shrewd lot. They intermarry and mix not -inconsiderably among themselves (between villages). Some of the white -traders have married Eskimo women and raised promising families. -Where larger numbers of whites were or are in proximity clandestine -mixture is apparent. The better educated show often decidedly good -mental, mechanical, business, and artistic abilities. In the isolated -localities, such as St. Lawrence Island, the people have apparently -escaped the period of demoralization that so often attends the passing -from the old to new conditions. - -Tuberculosis and venereal diseases are present but not prevalent; -rachitis seems absent. The people show much endurance, but longevity as -yet is not much in evidence. Alcoholism is almost nonexistent except on -occasions when drink is provided by whites. - -4. The region of the western Eskimo shows a former larger population -of the same people. This is attested by many "dead" villages and old -sites. And this population evidently goes back some centuries at least, -for some of the remains are extensive and both their depth and their -contents give the impression of prolonged duration; though seemingly -all thus far seen could be comprised within the Christian era. - -5. No habitations or remains belonging to a distinct people (Indians) -have thus far come to light anywhere within the territory of the -western Eskimo; and no trace has as yet been found of anything human -that could be attributed to greater antiquity than that of the -Eskimo. But the older beaches and banks where such remains might have -existed have either been covered with storm-driven sands and are now -perpetually frozen, or they have been "cut" away and lost; and there -seems no hope for finding such remains in the interior away from the -sea or streams, for such parts were never under recent geological -conditions favorable for human habitation. - -6. The now known remains consist of the ruins of dwellings and of -accumulated refuse, the two together forming occasionally marked -elevated heaps or ridges. Some of these ridges are over 18 feet deep. -They contain many archeological specimens of stone, ivory, wood, and -bone. The ivory in the older layers is more or less "fossilized." -The upper layers of such remains usually contain some articles of -white man's manufacture (copper, iron, beads); lower layers are -wholly aboriginal. Indian artifacts occur in Eskimo sites only in the -proximity of the Indian on the rivers. - -7. The prevalent or later culture shown by the remains is fairly -rich, of good to relatively rather high grade, and of considerable -uniformity. There are numerous indications of extensive trade in -various articles, particularly those of the Kobuk "jade." - -8. On the Asiatic coast, in the northern parts of the Bering Sea, on -the Seward Peninsula, in the Kotzebue region and at Point Hope, the -deeper portions of the remains give examples of the higher and richer -"fossil ivory culture." This is distinguished by many objects of -high-class workmanship, and by curvilinear to scroll designs. The art -appears to have distinct affinities with, on one hand, deeper Asia, -and on the other with the northwest coast of America and even farther -south. It is not clearly separated from either the contemporaneous -or the later Eskimo art, yet it is of a higher grade and delicacy -and much distinctiveness. It is not yet known where this art begins -geographically, what preceded it, whence it was derived, just how far -it reached along the coasts, or even what was its main center. It seems -best for the present to reserve to it the name of the "fossil ivory -art" (rather than Jenness's too limiting "Bering Sea culture"), and to -defer all conclusions concerning it to the future. - -9. It seems justifiable, however, to point to the significance of -what is already known. This "fossil ivory art" especially, but also -the general culture of the western Eskimo, are highly developed and -differentiated cultures, denoting considerable cultural background, -extended duration, and conditions generally favorable to industrial -and artistic developments. It has, it is already ascertained, certain -affinities in Asia. If this art and the attending culture were -advancing toward America, as seems most probable, then the question of -cultural influences and introductions from Asia to America will have to -be reopened. - -10. Due to the perpetually frozen ground and the consequent necessity -of surface burials, the area of the western Eskimo was, until recently, -relatively rich in skeletal remains lying on the surface. It is no more -so now, due to storms, beasts, missionaries, teachers, and scientific -collectors. But while only a scattering remains of the surface -material, there is much and that of special importance lying in the -ground, mostly self-buried or assimilated by the tundra. This material, -which now and then is accompanied by interesting archeological -specimens, calls for prompt attention; it will help greatly in clearing -local and other problems. - -Occasionally burials were made or dead bodies were left in old houses. -These remains, too, may prove of special value. - -11. Observations on both the living and the skeletal remains in -the western Eskimo area, supplemented by those on the northern -and northeastern Eskimo, are now ample enough to justify certain -generalizations. These are: - -_a._ Barring the Aleuts, who are Indian, the Eskimo throughout belong -somatologically to but one family, and this family appears as a -remarkably pure racial unit, somewhat admixed in the south with the -Aleut, on the western rivers with the Indian, and in the east and a few -spots elsewhere with recent white people. - -_b._ Within this family there is observable a considerable cranial -change, with moderate differences in nasal breadth, stature, and color, -but the general characteristics of the physiognomy, and of the body and -the skeleton, remain remarkably similar. - -_c._ The changes in the skull affect mainly the vault, which, in -dimensions, ranges through all the intermediary grades from moderately -broad, short, and moderately high to pronouncedly narrow, long, and -high, and in form from moderately convex over the top to markedly keel -shaped. - -The distribution of skull form is somewhat irregular, but in general -the broader and shorter heads predominate in the Asiatic and the -southwestern and midwestern American portions of the Eskimo region, -while the longest and narrowest heads are those of parts of the Seward -Peninsula, and especially those from an isolated old settlement near -Barrow with those of Greenland (exclusive of the Smith Sound), Baffin -Land, and, judging from other data, also eastern Labrador. More or less -transitional forms are found between the two extremes, without there -being anywhere a clear line of demarcation. - -The breadth of the nose, too, averages highest in the Asiatic, Bering -Sea, and the more southern Eskimo of the Alaska coast, the least along -the northern Arctic coast and in the northeast. The stature is highest -along the western Alaska rivers and parts of the coast, least in -Greenland and Labrador. - -The skin, while differing within but moderate limits, is apparently -lightest along parts (at least) of the northern Arctic. - -12. The whole distribution of the physical characteristics among the -Eskimo strongly suggests gradual changes--within the family itself; -and as the long, narrow, high skull with keeled dome, occurring in -a few limited localities in the west but principally in southern -Greenland and neighboring territories, appears to be the farthest limit -of the differentiation which finds no parallel in the neighboring -or other peoples, while the form found in northeastern Asia, the -Bering Sea, and southwestern Alaska is near to those of various -surrounding peoples, the inevitable resulting deduction is that, in -the light of our present knowledge, the origin of the Eskimo is to -be looked for in the western rather than the northern Arctic or the -northeastern area, and that particularly in the northern Bering Sea -and the adjacent, particularly perhaps the northern, Asiatic region. -The author is, therefore, led to regard the area between 160° west and -160° east longitude and 60° to 75° north latitude as containing the -primal Eskimo-genic center, and as the source of the oldest Eskimo -or proto-Eskimo extensions, while the larger part of the Eskimo -differentiations is in all probability American. - -13. The earlier notions relating to the western Eskimo, namely, those -that would attribute his physical characteristics to a large admixture -with the Indian, are now untenable for the following reasons: - -_a._ The distribution of the western Eskimo traits and measurements -does not indicate any important heterogeneous mixture. - -_b._ The groups most distant from the Indians, such as the St. Lawrence -or Diomede islanders and the Asiatic Eskimo, show very nearly the same -somatological characteristics as the rest of the southwestern and -midwestern groups. - -_c._ Among the western Eskimo there are no data, no traditions, and no -linguistic or cultural evidence of any considerable Indian admixture. - -_d._ The western contingents of the family do not represent a physical -resultant or means of the more narrow and long-headed type with the -neighboring Indians of Alaska (or elsewhere in the north), but they -equal or even exceed the Indians in the principal features of the -skull, face, and in other particulars. - -14. The nearest physical relatives of the Eskimo are evidently some -of the Chukchi, with probably some other north Asiatic groups; their -nearest basic relatives in general are, according to many indications, -the American Indians. The two families, Indian and Eskimo, appear -much, it may be repeated, like the thumb and fingers of one and the -same hand, the hand being the large, original palaeo-Asiatic source of -both. But the Eskimo are evidently a younger, smaller and still a more -uniform member; which speaks strongly for their later origin, migration -and internal differentiation. - -15. With his numbers, purity of blood, approachability, present -facilities of language, many of the young speaking good English, and -other favorable conditions, the Eskimo offers to anthropology one of -its best opportunities for a thorough study of an important human -group, adapted to highly exceptional natural conditions. 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Inaug.-Diss, - Zürich, 1906. - - - - - - TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES - - Supplied missing anchor for footnote [33] on p. 153. - - Silently corrected simple spelling, grammar, and typographical - errors. - - Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed. - - Enclosed italics font in _underscores_. - - Enclosed bold sans-serif font in ~tildes~. - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Anthropological Survey in Alaska, by Ales Hrdlicka - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA *** - -***** This file should be named 50752-0.txt or 50752-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/0/7/5/50752/ - -Produced by Richard Tonsing, PM for Bureau of American -Ethnology and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by the Bibliothèque nationale -de France (BnF/Gallica) at http://gallica.bnf.fr) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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- page-break-before: always; - page-break-after: always; -} -@media screen -{ - #halftitle - { - margin: 6em 0; - } -} -@media print, handheld -{ - #halftitle - { - page-break-before: always; - page-break-after: always; - margin: 0; - padding-top: 6em; - } -} - -/* Easy Epub/Cover */ - -.covercaption {font-weight: bold; font-size: small;} -@media handheld { - .covercaption { display: none; } -} - -div.tnotes {background-color: #eeeeee; border: 1px solid black; padding: 1em;} -.covernote {visibility: hidden; display: none;} -@media handheld { - .covernote {visibility: visible; display: block;} -} - - </style> - </head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -Project Gutenberg's Anthropological Survey in Alaska, by Ales Hrdlicka - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Anthropological Survey in Alaska - -Author: Ales Hrdlicka - -Release Date: December 23, 2015 [EBook #50752] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA *** - - - - -Produced by Richard Tonsing, PM for Bureau of American -Ethnology and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by the Bibliothèque nationale -de France (BnF/Gallica) at http://gallica.bnf.fr) - - - - - - -</pre> - -<div class="tnotes covernote"> - <p>The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p> -<div id="titlepage"> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - - - - -<h1>ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA</h1> - - -<p class="ph2">By ALEŠ HRDLIČKA -</p> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a><br /><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - - - - -<h2>CONTENTS</h2> - - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="CONTENTS"> -<thead> - <tr> - <th></th> - <th>Page</th> - </tr> -</thead> -<tbody> - <tr> - <td>Introduction</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">General remarks</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Northwest coast—Juneau</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">The Coast Indians</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Notes of archeological interest</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>The writer's trip on the Yukon</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Tanana—Yukon</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Ancient man</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">The Indians at Tanana</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Ruby</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Galena</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Nulato</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Kaltag</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">The Anvik people</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Bonasila</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Holy Cross</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Ghost Creek</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Paimute</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Russian Mission</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Marshall</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">St. Michael</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">About Nome</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_88">88</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Aboriginal remains</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Nome—Bering Strait—Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Savonga</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">The Diomedes</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>The Yukon Territory—Sites, the Indians, the Eskimo</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">The Tanana</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Brief historical data</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Population</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Indian sites and villages along the Tanana</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Lower Tanana, Nenana to Yukon</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">The Yukon below Tanana</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Brief history</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">The Yukon natives</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Native villages</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Present conditions</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Archeology of the Yukon</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">The random specimens</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Location of villages and sites on the Yukon</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Pre-Russian sites</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Archeology of Central Alaska</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Ancient stone culture</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">The pottery</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">The Alaskan grooved stone ax</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_147">147</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Anthropology of the Yukon</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">The living Indian</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Pure bloods</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">General type</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Color</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Stature and strength</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Head form</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Body</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Photographs</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Skeletal remains of the Yukon</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Detailed measurements of skulls</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Lower middle Yukon Indian crania</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Skeletal parts</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Skeletal remains from the bank at Bonasila</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">The crania</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Additional parts</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">The Yukon Eskimo</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">The living</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Measurements on living Yukon Eskimo</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Skeletal remains of Yukon Eskimo</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Skeletal parts of the Yukon Eskimo</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Notes on the archeology of the Western Eskimo region</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Old sites in the region of the Western Eskimo</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Present location of archeological sites</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Sites and villages</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Burial grounds</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_183">183</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Prince William Sound, Kodiak Island, Alaska Peninsula</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Kodiak Island and neighborhood</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Alaska Peninsula</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Bristol Bay to Cape Romanzof</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Cape Romanzof to Northern (Apoon) Pass of the Yukon and northward</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">St. Michael Island</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Norton Sound</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">South shore of Seward Peninsula west of Bluff</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Scammon Bay, Norton Sound, south coast of Seward Peninsula, to Cape Rodney</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_198">198</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">The northern shore of the Seward Peninsula</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Kotzebue Sound, its rivers and its coast northward to Kevalina</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Seward Peninsula, Kotzebue Sound, and northward</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Kevalina—Point Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Point Hope (Tigara)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Point Hope to Point Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Barrow and Point Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">The St. Lawrence and Diomede Islands</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">St. Lawrence Island</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">The Diomede Islands and the Asiatic coast</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Physical anthropology</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_213">213</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Earlier data</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_213">213</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Older anthropometric data on the western Eskimo</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Stature and other measurements on the living</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">The skull</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_231">231</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Present data on the western Eskimo</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_238">238</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">The living</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_238">238</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Measurements of living western Eskimo</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_238">238</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Stature</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_238">238</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Height sitting</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_239">239</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Arm span</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_239">239</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">The head</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_239">239</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">The forehead</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_240">240</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">The face</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Lower facial breadth</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_242">242</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">The nose</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_242">242</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">The mouth</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_243">243</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">The ears</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_243">243</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">The chest</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_244">244</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">The hand</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_245">245</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">The foot</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_246">246</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Girth of the calf</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_246">246</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Physiological observations</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_247">247</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Summary of observations on the living western Eskimo</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_249">249</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Remarks</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Present data on the skull and other skeletal remains of the western Eskimo</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_254">254</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">The skull</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_254">254</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Skull size</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_255">255</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Module and capacity</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_258">258</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Additional remarks on cranial module</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_258">258</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Skull shape</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_258">258</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Height of the skull</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_261">261</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">The face</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_263">263</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">The nose</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_267">267</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">The orbits</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_270">270</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">The upper alveolar arch</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_275">275</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">The basion-nasion diameter</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_277">277</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Prognathism</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_282">282</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Skulls of Eskimo children</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_294">294</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Crania of Eskimo children</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_295">295</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Southwestern and midwestern Eskimo</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_295">295</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Principal cranial indices in children compared with those in adults</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_297">297</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>The lower jaw</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_299">299</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Strength of the jaw</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_301">301</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth of the rami</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_303">303</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Other dimensions</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_303">303</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">The angle</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_305">305</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Résumé</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_306">306</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mandibular hyperostoses</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_306">306</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Main references</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_310">310</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Skeletal parts other than the skull</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_313">313</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">The long bones</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_314">314</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Comparative data</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_315">315</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Long bones in Eskimo and stature</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_316">316</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length of principal long bones, and stature in the living, on the St. Lawrence Island</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_317">317</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Long bones vs. stature in Eskimo of Smith Sound</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_317">317</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>A strange group of Eskimo near Point Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_318">318</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Anthropological observations and measurements on the collections</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_321">321</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Physical characteristics</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_323">323</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Origin and antiquity of the Eskimo</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_329">329</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Origin of the name "Eskimo"</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_329">329</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Opinions by former and living students</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_330">330</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Origin in Asia</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_330">330</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Origin in America</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_330">330</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Origin in Europe—Identity with Upper Palaeolithic man</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_331">331</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Other hypotheses</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_332">332</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Theories as to the origin of the Eskimo</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_333">333</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Asiatics</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_333">333</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">American</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_340">340</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">European</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_347">347</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Opposed to European</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_351">351</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Miscellaneous and indefinite</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_351">351</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Discussion and conclusions indicated by present data</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_355">355</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Summary</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_361">361</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bibliography</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_367">367</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Index</td> - <td class="tdr">629</td> - </tr> -</tbody> -</table></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - - - - -<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="ILLUSTRATIONS"> -<thead> - <tr> - <th></th> - <th></th> - <th>Page</th> - </tr> -</thead> -<tbody> - <tr> - <th></th> - <th>PLATES</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">1.</td> - <td><em>a</em>, "Old Minto" on the Tanana. Indian village. (A. H., 1926.) <em>b</em>, Present Nulato and its cemetery (on hill to the right of the village) from some distance up the river. (A. H., 1926.) <em>c</em>, The Greyling River site, right bank, 22 miles above Anvik; site and graveyard (male skeleton) from top of knoll. (A. H., 1926.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">2.</td> - <td><em>a</em>, View on the Yukon from above Kaltag. (A. H., 1926.) <em>b</em>, Indian burial ground, middle Yukon. (A. H., 1926.) <em>c</em>, Anvik, from the mission. (A. H., 1926.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">3.</td> - <td><em>a</em>, Midnight on the Yukon. <em>b</em>, Lower middle Yukon: painted burial box of a Yukon Indian (before 1884) said to have been a hunter of bielugas (white whales), which used to ascend far up the Yukon</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">4.</td> - <td><em>a</em>, Eskimo camp below Paimute, Yukon River. <em>b</em>, Old "protolithic" site 12 miles down from Paimute, right bank, just beyond "12-mile hill" (skull, bones, stones). <em>c</em>, "Old" site in bank seen in middle of picture, 12 miles down from Paimute, opposite that shown in preceding figure. (A. H., 1926.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">5.</td> - <td><em>a</em>, Cape Prince of Wales from the southeast. (A. H., 1926.) <em>b</em>, Village and cemetery slope. Little Diomede. (A. H., 1926.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">6.</td> - <td><em>a</em>, Asiatics departing for Siberia from the Little Diomede Island. (Photo by D. Jenness, 1926.) <em>b</em>, <em>c</em>, "Chukchis" loading their boat with goods on Little Diomede Island, before departure for Siberia. (Photos by D. Jenness, 1926.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">7.</td> - <td><em>a</em>, Eskimos from East Cape arriving at Nome, Alaska. <em>b</em>, East Cape of Asia (to the southward). (Photo from Joe Bernard.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">8.</td> - <td>A group of women at Shishmaref. (Taken at 2 a. m. by A. H., 1926.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">9.</td> - <td><em>a</em>, My "spoils," loaded on sled, Point Hope. (A. H., 1926.) <em>b</em>, The load is heavy and sledding over sand and gravel difficult. (A. H., 1926.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">10.</td> - <td>Characteristic stone axes, middle Yukon. (A. H. coll., 1926.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">11.</td> - <td>Crude stone artifacts, found at Bonasila, lower middle Yukon. (A. H. coll., 1926.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">12.</td> - <td>Crude stone artifacts, found at Bonasila, lower middle Yukon. (A. H. coll., 1926.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">13.</td> - <td>Tanana Indian woman</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">14.</td> - <td>Chief Sam Joseph, near Tanana village, on the Yukon. (A. H., 1926.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">15.</td> - <td><em>a</em>, Yukon Indians, at Kokrines, Jacob and Andrew. Jacob probably has a trace of white blood. (A. H., 1926.) <em>b</em>, Yukon Indians at Kokrines. (A. H., 1926.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">16.</td> - <td>Yukon Indians. <em>a</em>, Marguerite Johnny Yatlen, Koyukuk village. (A. H., 1926.) <em>b</em>, Lucy John, Koyukuk, daughter of a former chief. (A. H., 1926.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">17.</td> - <td>Yukon Indians. <em>a</em>, George Halfway, Nulato on the Yukon. (A. H., 1926.) <em>b</em>, Jack Curry of Nulato, 41 years. (Now at Ruby, middle Yukon; Eskimoid physiognomy.) <em>c</em>, Arthur Malamvot, of Nulato</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_150">150</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">18.</td> - <td><em>a</em>, Indian children, mission school at Anvik, lower middle Yukon. <em>b</em>, Indian children, mission school at Anvik, lower middle Yukon. <em>c</em>, Two women of Anvik, on the Yukon, somewhat Eskimoid</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">19.</td> - <td>Terminal piece of a lance or harpoon, northern Bering Sea. Black, high natural polish. Most beautiful piece of the fossil ivory art. (A. H., 1926, U.S.N.M.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">20.</td> - <td>Fossil ivory specimens showing the old curvilinear designs. Northern Bering Sea. (A. H. coll., 1926, U.S.N.M.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">21.</td> - <td>Objects showing the old fossil ivory art, northern Bering Sea. (U.S.N.M., Nos. 1 and 3 coll., A. H., 1926.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">22.</td> - <td>Fossil ivory needle cases and spear heads, northern Bering Sea, showing fine workmanship. (A. H. coll., 1926, U.S.N.M.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">23.</td> - <td><em>a</em>, Small, finely made objects in fossil ivory and stone (the head), from the ruins at Point Hope. (A. H. coll., 1926.) <em>b</em>, Old fossil ivory objects, northern Bering Sea. The article to the right is almost classic in form; it is decorated on both sides. (A. H. coll., 1926, U.S.N.M.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">24.</td> - <td>Fossil ivory combs, upper Bering Sea. (A. H. coll., 1926)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">25.</td> - <td>Fossil ivory objects from the upper Bering Sea region. Transitional art. (Museum of the Agricultural College, Fairbanks, Alaska.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">26.</td> - <td>Old black finely carved fossil ivory figure, from the northeastern Asiatic coast. (Loan to U.S.N.M. by Mr. Carl Lomen.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">27.</td> - <td>Wooden figurines from a medicine lodge, Choco Indians, Panama. (U.S.N.M. colls.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">28.</td> - <td>Left: Two beautiful knives lately made of fossil mammoth ivory by a Seward Peninsula Eskimo. (Gift to the U.S.N.M. by A. H., 1926.) Right: Two old ceremonial Mexican obsidian knives. Manche de poignard en ivoire, avec sculpture représentant un renne. Montastruc (Peccadeau de l'Isle; in De Quatrefages (A.)—Hommes fossiles, Paris, 1884, p. 50.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">29.</td> - <td>Billings and Gall's map of Bering Strait and neighboring lands, 1811</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">30.</td> - <td>Eskimo villages and sites, Norton Sound and Bay and Seward Peninsula, and the Kotzebue Sound, from Zagoskin's general map, 1847</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">31.</td> - <td>Graves at Nash Harbor, Nunivak Island. (Photos by Collins and Stewart, 1927.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">32.</td> - <td>The school children at Wales</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">33.</td> - <td><em>a</em>, Children, Nunivak Island. (Photo by Collins and Stewart, 1927.) <em>b</em>, Adults, Nunivak Island. (Photo by Collins and Stewart, 1927.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">34.</td> - <td>King Island Eskimo; a family group</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">35.</td> - <td>King Island native</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">36.</td> - <td>A fine full-blood Eskimo pair, northern Bering Sea region. <em>a</em>, Young Eskimo woman, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by Lomen Bros.) <em>b</em>, Eskimo, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by F. H. Nowell.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">37.</td> - <td>Typical full-blood Eskimo, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by Lomen Bros.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">38.</td> - <td>Elderly man, St. Lawrence Island. (Photos by R. D. Moore, 1912. U.S.N.M.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">39.</td> - <td>The Wales people. (Photo by Lomen Bros.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_242">242</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">40.</td> - <td>The long broad-faced types, Wales. (Photo by Lomen Bros.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_242">242</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">41.</td> - <td><em>a</em>, The broad-faced and low-vaulted Eskimo, St. Lawrence Island. (Photo by R. D. Moore, 1912. U.S.N.M.). <em>b</em>, Broad-faced type, St. Lawrence Island. (Photo by R. D. Moore, 1912. U. S. N. M.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_242">242</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">42.</td> - <td>The long-faced type. <em>a</em>, A young man from Seward Peninsula. <em>b</em>, A boy from St. Lawrence Island</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_242">242</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">43.</td> - <td>A "Hypereskimo," King Island. Excessively developed face</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_242">242</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">44.</td> - <td>Eskimo "Madonna" and child, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by Lomen Bros.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_242">242</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">45.</td> - <td>Young woman, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by Lomen Bros.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">46.</td> - <td>Young women, full-blood Eskimo, Seward Peninsula. (Photo by Lomen Bros.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">47.</td> - <td>A Point Hope group</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">48.</td> - <td><em>a</em>, Eskimo woman, Kevalina. (Photo on the "Bear" by A. H., 1926. U.S.N.M.). <em>b</em>, The body build of an adult Eskimo woman, upper Bering Sea</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">49.</td> - <td>Elderly woman, St. Lawrence Island. (Photos by R. D. Moore, 1912. U.S.N.M.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">50.</td> - <td><em>a</em>, Yukon Eskimo, below Paimute. (A. H., 1926.) <em>b</em>, Norton Sound Eskimo woman and child. (A. H., 1926.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">51.</td> - <td>Eskimo, Indianlike, northern Bering Sea region. (Photos by Lomen Bros.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">52.</td> - <td>Eskimo, Indianlike, northern Bering Sea region. (Photos by Lomen Bros.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">53.</td> - <td>Eskimo, Indianlike, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by Lomen Bros.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">54.</td> - <td>Eskimo, Indianlike, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by Lomen Bros.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">55.</td> - <td>Eskimo, Indianlike, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by Lomen Bros.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">56.</td> - <td>Eskimo, Indianlike, Arctic region. (Photo by Lomen Bros.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">57.</td> - <td>Siberian Eskimo and child, Indian type</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">58.</td> - <td><em>a</em>, Mrs. Sage, Kevalina. Fine Indian type. Born on Notak. Both parents Notak "Eskimo." (Photo by A. H., 1926.) <em>b</em>, Eskimo family, Indianlike, near Barrow. (Photo by A. H., 1926.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">59.</td> - <td>Skulls from old burials, Point Hope; right skull shows low vault. (U.S.N.M.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_262">262</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">60.</td> - <td>Skulls from old burials, Point Hope; right skull shows low vault. (U.S.N.M.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_262">262</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">61.</td> - <td>Western Eskimo and Aleut (middle) lower jaws, showing lingual hyperostoses. (U.S.N.M.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_308">308</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th></th> - <th>TEXT FIGURES</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">1. </td> - <td>The Tanana River between Nenana and Tanana, with Indian villages</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">2.</td> - <td>The Yukon from Tanana to below Kokrines</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">3.</td> - <td>The Yukon from below Kokrines to below Koyukuk</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">4.</td> - <td>The Yukon from below Koyukuk to Lofkas</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">5.</td> - <td>Old map of the Nulato district</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">6.</td> - <td>Map of Kaltag and vicinity. (By McLeod)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">7.</td> - <td>The Yukon from Bystraia to below Holy Cross</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">8.</td> - <td>The Yukon from above Holy Cross to below Mountain Village</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">9.</td> - <td>The Yukon from below Mountain Village to near Marshall</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">10.</td> - <td>The Yukon from near Marshall to below Kavlingnak</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">11.</td> - <td>From above Kobolunuk to mouth of river</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">12.</td> - <td>Conventionalized design from fossil ivory specimen shown in Plate 19</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">13.</td> - <td>World map</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_177">177</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">14.</td> - <td>Dall's map of the distribution of the tribes of Alaska and adjoining territory, 1875</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">15.</td> - <td>Nelson's map, Eighteenth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn., 1898</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">16.</td> - <td>Linguistic map, United States census, 1920</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_180">180</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">17.</td> - <td>Villages and sites on Kodiak Island</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">18.</td> - <td>Villages and sites on the proximal half of Alaska Peninsula</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">19.</td> - <td>Villages and sites on the distal half of Alaska Peninsula</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">20.</td> - <td>Eskimo villages and sites on Nushagak Bay to Kuskokwim Bay</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_191">191</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">21.</td> - <td>Eskimo villages and sites, Kuskokwim Bay to Scammon Bay</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">22.</td> - <td>Eskimo villages and sites, Scammon Bay to Norton Sound and Bay to Cape Rodney</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_198">198</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">23.</td> - <td>Eskimo villages and sites, Wales. (By Clark M. Garber, 1927)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_201">201</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">24.</td> - <td>Eskimo villages and sites, Seward Peninsula, Kotzebue Sound, and Arctic coast, to Kevalina</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">25.</td> - <td>Eskimo villages and sites, Kevalina to Point Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_207">207</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">26.</td> - <td>Russian map of St. Lawrence Island, 1849. (Tebenkof)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">27.</td> - <td>Eskimo villages and sites, St. Lawrence Island, the Diomedes, and the eastern Asiatic coast</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">28.</td> - <td>The Bering Strait Islands</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">29.</td> - <td>Probable movements of people from northeastern Asia to Alaska and in Alaska. (A. Hrdlička)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_360">360</a></td> - </tr> -</tbody> -</table></div> - -<p class="ph1">ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA</p> - -<p class="ph2">By <span class="smcap">Aleš Hrdlička</span> -</p> -<div class="chapter"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - - - - -<h2>INTRODUCTION</h2> - - -<p>Alaska and the opposite parts of Asia hold, in all probability, the -key to the problem of the peopling of America. It is here, and here -alone, where a land of another continent approaches so near to -America that a passage of man with primitive means of navigation -and provisioning was possible. All the affinities of the American -native point toward the more eastern parts of Asia. In Siberia, -Mongolia, Tibet, Manchuria, Formosa, and in some of the islands -off southeastern Asia, living remnants of the same type of man as -the American aborigines are to this day encountered, and it is here -in the farthest northwest where actual passings of parties of natives -between the Asiatic coast and the Bering Sea islands and between -the latter and the American coasts have always, since these parts were -known, been observed and are still of common occurrence.</p> - -<p>With these facts before them, the students of the peopling of this -continent were always drawn strongly to Alaska and the opposite -parts of Asia; but the distances, the difficulties of communication, -and the high costs of exploration in these far-off regions have proven -a serious hindrance to actual investigation. As a result, but little -direct, systematic, archeological or anthropological (somatological) -research has ever been carried out in these regions; though since -Bering's, Cook's, and Vancouver's opening voyages to these parts a -large amount of general, cultural, and linguistic observations on the -natives has accumulated.</p> - -<p>For these observations, which are much in need of a compilation -and critical analysis, science is indebted to the above-named captains; -to the subsequent Russian explorers, and especially to the Russian -clerics who were sent to Alaska as missionaries or priests to the -natives; to various captains, traders, agents, miners, soldiers, and -men in collateral branches of science, who came in contact with the -aborigines; to special United States Government exploratory expeditions, -with an occasional participation of the Biological Survey -and the Smithsonian Institution, such as resulted in the fine "Corwin" -reports and the highly valuable accounts of Leffingwell, Dall,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> -Nelson, and Murdoch; to the separate pieces of scientific work by men -such as Gordon and Jennes; and to Jochelson and Bogoras of the -Jesup exploring expedition of the American Museum.</p> - -<p>As a result of all these contributions, it may be said that there has -been established a fair cultural and linguistic knowledge of the Aleut, -the Eskimo, and the Chukchee, not to speak of the Tlingit, consideration -of which seems more naturally to fall with that of the Indians -of the northwest coast.</p> - -<p>There are also numerous though often very imperfect and occasionally -rather contradictory notes on the physical status of these -peoples, and some valuable cultural and even skeletal collections were -made. Since 1912 we possess also a good series of measurements on -the St. Lawrence Island natives, together with valuable cranial material -from that locality, made, under the direction of the writer, by -Riley D. Moore, at that time aide in the Division of Physical -Anthropology in the United States National Museum.</p> - -<p>The need of a further systematic archeological and somatological -research in this important part of the world was long since felt, and -several propositions were made in this line to the National Research -Council (Hrdlička) and to the Smithsonian Institution (Hough, -Hrdlička); but nothing came of these until the early part of 1926, -when, a little money becoming available, the writer was intrusted -by the Bureau of American Ethnology with the making of an extensive -preliminary survey of Alaska. The objects of the trip were, -in brief, to ascertain as much as possible about the surviving Indians -and Eskimos; to trace all indications of old settlements and migrations; -and to collect such skeletal and archeological material as might -be of importance.</p> - -<p>The trip occupied approximately four months, from the latter -part of May to the latter part of September, affording a full season -in Alaska. It began with the inside trip from Vancouver to Juneau, -where at several of the stopping places groups of the northwest coast -Indians were observed. At Juneau examination was made of the -valuable archeological collections in the local museum. After this -followed a trip with several stops along the gulf, a railroad trip with -some stops to Fairbanks, a return trip to Nenana, a boat trip on the -Tanana to the Yukon, and then, with little boats of various sorts, a -trip with many stops for about 900 miles down the Yukon. This -in turn was followed by a side trip in Norton Sound, after which -transportation was secured to the island of St. Michael and to Nome. -From Nome, after some work in the vicinity, the revenue cutter <em>Bear</em> -took the writer to the St. Lawrence and Diomede Islands, to Cape -Wales, and thence from place to place of scientific interest up to -Barrow. On the return a number of the more important places,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> -besides some new ones, were touched upon, while the visit to others -was prevented by the increasing storms, and the trip ended at -Unalaska.</p> - -<p>Throughout the journey, the writer received help from the Governor, -officials, missionaries, traders, and people of Alaska; from -the captain, officers, and crew of the <em>Bear</em>; and from many individuals; -for all of which cordial thanks are hereby once more rendered. -Grateful acknowledgments are especially due to the following -gentlemen: Governor George A. Parks, of Alaska; Mr. Harry G. -Watson, his secretary; Mr. Karl Thiele, Secretary for Alaska; Judge -James Wickersham, formerly Delegate from Alaska; Father A. P. -Kashevaroff, curator of the Territorial Museum and Library of -Juneau; Dr. William Chase, of Cordova; Mr. Noel W. Smith, general -manager Government railroad of Alaska; Mr. B. B. Mozee, -Indian supervisor, and Dr. J. A. Romig, of Anchorage; Prof. C. E. -Bunnell, president Alaska Agriculture College, at Fairbanks; Mr. and -Mrs. Fullerton, missionaries, at Tanana; Rev. J. W. Chapman and -Mr. Harry Lawrence, at Anvik; Father Jetté and Jim Walker, at -Holy Cross; Mr. C. Betsch, at the Russian Mission; Messrs. Frank -Tucker and E. C. Gurtler, near the mission; Mr. Frank P. Williams, -of St. Michael; Judge G. J. Lomen and his sons and daughter, at -Nome; Rev. Dr. Baldwin, Fathers La Fortune and Post, Captain -Ross, United States Coast Guard, and Mr. Elmer Rydeem, merchant, -at Nome; C. S. Cochran, captain of the <em>Bear</em>, and his officers, particularly -Mr. H. Berg, the boatswain; Rev. F. W. Goodman and -Mr. LaVoy, at Point Hope; the American teachers at Wales, Shishmareff, -Kotzebue, Point Hope, and elsewhere; Messrs. Tom Berryman, -Jim Allen; and Charles Brower, traders, respectively, at Kotzebue, -Wainright, and Barrow; Mr. Sylvester Chance, superintendent -of education, Kotzebue, Alaska; the United States marshals, deputy -marshals, and postmasters along the route; and the numerous traders, -miners, settlers, and others who were helpful with specimens, advice, -guidance, and in other matters.</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">General Remarks</span></h3> - -<p>The account of the survey will be limited in the main to anthropological -and archeological observations; but it is thought best to -give it largely in the form of the original notes made on the spot -or within a few hours after an event. These notes often contain -collateral observations or thoughts which could be excluded, but the -presence of which adds freshness, reliability, and some local atmosphere -to what otherwise would be a rather dry narrative. A preliminary -account of the trip and its results was published in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> -Smithsonian exploration volume for 1926 (Washington, 1927, pp. -137-158).</p> - -<p>Not much reference is possible to previous work of the nature -here dealt with in the parts visited, except in the Aleutian Islands, -where good archeological work was done in the late sixties by -William H. Dall,<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> and in 1909-10 by Waldemar Jochelson.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> - -<p>The archeology and anthropology of the Gulf of Alaska, the inland, -the Yukon Basin, the Bering Sea coasts and islands, and those -of the Arctic coasts up to Point Barrow are but little known. The -archeology is in reality known only from the stone and old ivory -implements that have been incidentally collected and have reached -various institutions where they have been studied; from the excavations -about Barrow, conducted by an expedition of the University -Museum, Philadelphia, in charge of W. B. Van Valin, and by the -trader, Mr. Charles Brower, the results of which have not yet been -published; and from the recent diggings at Wales and on the smaller -Diomede Island by Doctor Jenness.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> Neither Dall, Nelson, Rau, nor -Murdoch conducted any excavations outside the already mentioned -work in the Aleutians.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Dall, Wm. H.: Alaska as it Was and Is; 1865-1895. Bull. Phil. Soc. Wash., 1900, -vol. XIII, 141. On Prehistoric Remains in the Aleutian Islands. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., -November, 1872, vol. IV, 283-287. Explorations on the Western Coast of North America. -Smiths. Rept. for 1873, Wash., 1874, 417-418. On Further Examinations of the -Amaknak Cave. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., 1873, vol. V, 196-200. Notes on Some Aleut -Mummies. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., October, 1874, vol. V. 399-400. Deserted Hearths. -The Overland Monthly, 1874, vol. XIII, 25-30. Alaskan Mummies. Am. Naturalist, 1875, -vol. IX, 433-440. Tribes of the Extreme Northwest. Contrib. N. Am. Ethnol., vol. I, -Wash., 1877. On the Remains of Later Prehistoric Man Obtained from Caves in the -Catharina Archipelago, Alaska Territory, etc. Smiths. Contr. to Knowledge, No. 318, -Wash., 1878.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Jochelson, W., Archæological Investigations in the Aleutian Islands. Carnegie Inst. -of Wash. Publ. No. 367, Wash., D. C., 1925.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Rau, Chas., North American Stone Implements. Smiths. Rept. for 1872, Wash., -1873. Prehistoric Fishing in Europe and North America. Smiths. Contr. to Knowledge, -Wash., 1884, vol. XXV. Thomas, Cyrus, Introduction to the Study of North -American Archæology. Cincinnati, 1898. Jennes, D. Archæological Investigations in -Bering Strait. Ann. Rep. Nat. Mus. Canada for 1926 (Ottawa 1928), pp. 71-80.</p></div></div> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Northwest Coast—Juneau</span></h3> - - -<h4>THE COAST INDIANS</h4> - -<p>Passage was taken on a small steamer from Vancouver. The -boat stopped at a number of settlements on the scenic "inside" -route—which impresses one as a much enlarged and varied trip -through the Catskills—permitting some observations on the Indians -of these parts.</p> - -<p>The main opportunity was had at Aleut Bay. Here many British -Columbia Indians were seen on the dock, belonging to several tribes. -Names of these, as pronounced to me, were unfamiliar. They have -a large agency here; engage in salmon industry. A minority, only, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>full bloods—of the younger a large majority mixed (white blood). -The full bloods all show one marked type, of short to moderate -stature, rather short legs, huge chest and head, i. e., face. Color -near onion-brown, without luster. Indians, but modified locally. -Remind one (chest, stature, stockiness, shortness of neck and legs) -of Peruvian Indians.</p> - -<p>Indians at Prince Rupert same type; color pale brown; eyes and -nose rather small for the faces in some, in others good size. Look -good deal like some Chinese or rather some hand-laboring Chinese -and Japanese look like them.</p> - -<p>Indians at Juneau (the Auk tribe) very similar, but most mixed -with whites.</p> - -<p><em>Juneau.</em>—A week was spent at Juneau, gathering information, obtaining -letters of introduction, and making a few excursions. The -city has an excellent museum devoted to Alaskan history and archeology, -under the able curatorship of Father Andrew P. Kashevaroff, -himself a part of the history of the Territory. The archeological -collections of Alaska Indians and Eskimos are in some respects—e. g., -pottery—more comprehensive than those of any other of -our museums; but they, together with the valuable library, -are housed in a frail frame building, under great risks from both -fire and thieves. Fortunately the latter are still scarce in Alaska, -but the fire risk is great and ever present. The museum is a decided -cultural asset to Juneau.</p> - - -<h4>NOTES OF ARCHEOLOGICAL INTEREST</h4> - -<p><em>Auk Point.</em>—Thanks to Father Kashevaroff and Mr. Charles H. -Flory, the district forester, an excursion was arranged one day to -Auk Point, approximately 15 miles distant, a picturesque wooded -little promontory near which there used to be a settlement of the Auk -Indians. On the point were several burials of shamans and a chief of -the tribe (all other dead being cremated), and near the graves stood -until a short time ago a moderate-sized totem pole. Of all this -we found but bare remnants. The burials of three shamans and one -chief had been in huge boxes above ground; but they had all been -broken into and most of the contents belonging to the dead were -taken away, including the skulls. The skeletal parts of two of the -bodies and a few bones of the chief remained, however, with a few -objects the vandals had overlooked. The latter were placed in the -Juneau Museum while the bones, showing some features of interest, -were collected and sent to Washington. A large painted board near -the graves of the shamans remained, though damaged. The totem -pole, however, had been cut down the year before by a young man -from Juneau, who then severed the head, which he carried home,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> -and left the rest on the beach, from where it was soon washed -away. Thus a group of burials, the only ones known of the once -good-sized Auk tribe, have been despoiled and their record lost to -science. And such a fate is, according to all accounts, rapidly -overtaking similar remains everywhere in southeastern Alaska.</p> - -<p><em>Rare stone lamp (?).</em>—At the museum one of the first and most -interesting objects shown the writer by Father Kashevaroff was a -large, heavy, finely sculptured oblong bowl, made of hard, dark -crystalline stone, decorated in relief on the rim and with a squatting -stone figure, cut from the same piece, near one of the ends. The -bowl looks like a ceremonial lamp, though showing no trace of -oil or carbon. Subsequently four other bowls of this same remarkable -type and workmanship were learned of, two, the best of -the lot, in the University Museum at Philadelphia; one in the -Museum of the American Indian, New York; and one, somewhat inferior -and of reddish stone, in the possession of Mr. Müller, the -trader at Kaltag, on the Yukon (later in that of Mr. Lynn Smith, -marshal at Fairbanks). The localities where the five remarkable -and high-grade specimens have been found range from the Kenai -Peninsula in southwestern Alaska to the lower Yukon. The Juneau -specimen comes from Fish Creek, near Kuik, Cook Inlet (see Descriptive -Booklet Alaska Hist. Mus., Juneau, 1922, pp. 26, 27); that -in the Heye Museum is from the same locality; the one in Philadelphia -was found in the Kenai Peninsula; while that at Kaltag came -from an old Indian site on the Kaiuh slough of the Yukon. Locally, -there is much inclination to regard these specimens as Asiatic, especially -Japanese, and a bronze Japanese Temple medal has been -found near that now at Juneau. On the other hand, a strong suggestion -of similarity to these dishes is presented by some undecorated -large stone lamps from Alaska, and by a class of pottery bowls with -a human figure perched on the rim at one end from some of the -Arkansas mounds, Mexico, and farther southward. (See Mason, -J. A. A remarkable stone lamp from Alaska. The Museum Jour., -Phila., 1928, 170-194.)</p> - -<p><em>Copper mask.</em>—Shortly before leaving Juneau I became acquainted -with Mr. Robert Simpson, manager of the "Nugget" curio shop, and -found in his possession a number of interesting specimens made in -the past by the Tlingit Indians. An outstanding piece was an old -copper mask, which was purchased for the National Museum. -Mr. Simpson obtained it years ago from a native of Yakutat and -stored it with native furs and other articles of value. It originally -belonged to a shaman of the Yakutat tribe and was said to have been -worn by him in sacrificial slave killings, the shaman with the mask -representing some mythical being. It is an exceedingly good and rare -piece of native workmanship.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span></p> - -<p><em>Copper "shield."</em>—Another interesting article secured from Mr. -Simpson is a large old shieldlike plate of beaten copper, decorated -on one side with a characteristic Tlingit engraved design. Mr. Simpson, -in a letter to Doctor Hough, dated June 26, 1926, says: "The -shield, or to speak more correctly the copper plate—for it was not -used as a shield—was the most valuable possession of the Tlingits. -They were usually valued in slaves, this one, at the last known exchange, -having been traded for three slaves. The possessor of four -or five such plates was a man of the utmost wealth. Some claim that -they got these copper plates from the early New England traders and -others that they came from the Copper River. Either is possible. -Lots of the Copper River nuggets were very large and flat and could -have readily been hammered into plate form. I bought this in the -village of Klawak on the west coast of Prince of Wales Island. I -do not know of another one around here. All of the local elderly -natives are familiar with its previous value, and when they have -wandered into my shop to sell things they always made deep obeisance -to this plate."</p> - -<p><em>Talks.</em>—While in Juneau the writer spoke before the Rotarians, -who honored him with a lunch; and later, in the auditorium of the -fine new high school, gave a public lecture on "The Peopling of -America," etc. The object of these and the many subsequent talks in -Alaska was, on the one hand, to reciprocate as far as possible the -kindness and help received on all sides, and on the other to leave -wholesome information and stimulus in things anthropological. The -audience was invariably all that a lecturer could desire, and many -were left everywhere eager for help and cooperation. The aid of -some of these men, including prospectors, miners, settlers, engineers, -foresters, and various officials, may some day prove of much value -in the search for Alaskan antiquities.</p> - -<p><em>Juneau—Seward.</em>—June 8, leave Juneau. It has been raining -every day, with one exception, and is misting now, depriving us of -a view of most of the coast. Wherever there is a glimpse of it, -however, it is seen to be mountainous, wooded below, snowy and icy -higher up, inhospitable, forbidding.</p> - -<p>June 10, arrive at Cordova, a former native and Russian settlement -of some importance. Will stay here large part of the day and -go to see about Indians, old sites, burials, and specimens, the main -hotel keeper, the assistant superintendent of the local railway, the -postmaster, the supervisor of the forests, and Dr. William Chase, -who has been connected with the work of the Biological Survey in -these regions. Mr. W. J. McDonald, the forester, takes me out some -miles into the very rugged country, where there are still plenty of -bear and mountain goat. After which Doctor Chase takes me to the -old Russian and Indian cemetery. There are many graves, mostly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> -Indian, but also a few whites, and even a Chinaman. Russian -crosses are still common. The older Indian part could be easily -excavated. Learn of skulls and bones on "mummy" island in Prince -William Sound.</p> - -<p><em>Indians.</em>—See quite a few. Nearly all appear more or less mixed; -color in these more or less pronounced tan with red in cheeks and -some tendency to paleness. Heads still all brachycephalic and of -only moderate height; faces broad, noses not prominent, in males -tend to large.</p> - -<p>Two adult men, evidently full-bloods—pure Indian type of the -brachycephalic form, head moderate in size, medium short, face not -very large, nose slightly or moderately convex, not prominent, but -all Indian. Color of skin submedium to near medium brown, no trace -of whitish or pink. Stature and build medium; feet rather small; -hair typical Indian, black, straight; beard sparse and short; mustache -sparse, no hair on sides of the face.</p> - -<p>The boat makes two or three more commercial and passenger -stops before reaching Seward, the main one at Valdez, the terminal -of the Richardson Trail to the interior. These stops permit us to -see some fish canneries, which are of both general and anthropological -interest. These establishments employ Japanese, Philippine, and -Chinese labor, and it was found to be quite a task to distinguish -these, and to tell them from the coast Indians. The Chinamen can -be distinguished most often, though not always, the Japanese less -so, while the Filipino usually can not be told from the Indian, even -by an expert. Here was a striking practical lesson in relationships.</p> - -<p><em>Seward—Anchorage.</em>—Seward found to be a fine little town, full -of the same good brand of people that one finds everywhere in -Alaska and who go so far to restore one's faith in humanity. It -is the terminus of the Government railroad to Fairbanks and a port -of some importance.</p> - -<p><em>Indian basketry.</em>—No Indians were seen here, though some come -occasionally. But several of the stores, including that of the Seward -Drug Co. (Mr. Elwyn Swestmann), have an unexpectedly good -supply of decorated Alaska Indian baskets. It was found later, in -fact, that the Alaskan Indians, with the Aleutians, compare well in -basketry with those of Arizona and California.</p> - -<p><em>Anchorage.</em>—June 12-13. Anchorage, on Cook's Inlet, is a good-sized -town for Alaska and the headquarters of the railroad. Here -were met some very good friends, particularly Mr. Noel W. Smith, -general manager of the railroad; Dr. J. H. Romig, formerly of the -Kuskokwim; and Mr. B. B. Mozee, the Indian supervisor. Here, at -Ellis Hall, I lectured on "The Origin and Racial Affiliations of -the Indians," and the large audience included seven male (some full<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> -blood) and two female (mix blood) Indians—of the latter, one very -pretty, approaching a Spanish type of beauty. Near town I also -visited with a launch two small Indian fishing camps. From Doctor -Romig information was obtained about the Indians and some old -sites of the Kuskokwim; and through the kindness of Messrs. Smith -and Mozee I was enabled to visit the Indian school at Eklutna. Here -at Anchorage I also was given the first and rather rare old Indian -stone implement.</p> - -<p>The Indians at the camps included 6 full bloods—4 men, 2 women. -One of the men tested on chest. Typical full-blood results.</p> - -<p>Type of full bloods: Color slightly submedium to medium brown, -never darker; heads, subbrachycephalic to full brachycephalic, -rather small; forehead in men more or less sloping in two; face, -not large, Indian; nose tends to convex but not high. Indian in -features and behavior, but features not as pronounced as general -in the States tribes.</p> - -<p>The full bloods in town: Medium to short stature, not massive -frames, moderate-sized faces, Indian type, but not the pronounced -form; head brachycephalic; hair all black; mustache and beard -scarce, as in Indians in general; color of skin submedium brown. -Children in camp (up to about 5 years) were striking by a relatively -considerable interorbital breadth, otherwise typical Indian.</p> - -<p><em>Birch-bark dishes.</em>—At Anchorage, in several of the stores, but -particularly at one small store, were seen many nicely decorated -birch-bark dishes or receptacles. They are made by inland Indians, -are prettily decorated with colored porcupine quills, and evidently -take the place of the baskets of other tribes. It was difficult to learn -just what Indians made the best or most, though the Tanana -people were mentioned. No such fine assortment of these dishes -was seen after leaving Anchorage.</p> - -<p><em>Eklutna.</em>—Sixteen miles from Anchorage, along the railroad, is -the Indian village and school Eklutna. Mr. Smith made it possible -for me to reach this place on a freight and to be picked up later the -same day by the passenger train.</p> - -<p>At Eklutna was found an isolated but prettily located and well-kept -Indian school, with about fifty children from many parts of -southwestern Alaska. More than half of these children showed -more or less admixture of white blood, but there was a minority of -unquestionable full bloods. There were two children from Kodiak -Island and two or three southern Eskimo. The main impression -after a detailed look at the children was that, while they all showed -clear Indian affinities and some were typically Indian, yet on the -whole there was a prevalent trace of something Eskimoid in the -physiognomies—an observation that was to be repeated more than -once in other parts of Indian Alaska.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span></p> - -<p><em>Burials.</em>—At a few minutes' walk from the school at Eklutna -there is in a clearing of the forest a small Indian village, with a -late graveyard showing Russian influence. A short distance -farther, however, according to the Indians, there is an old burial -place of some magnitude, with traces of graves, although quite -obliterated.</p> - -<p><em>Eklutna—Fairbanks.</em>—Since reaching Seward the almost incessant -drizzles have ceased and the weather has been fine and pleasantly -warm. Everything is green, grass is luxuriant, and there are many -flowers.</p> - -<p>The railroad journey is a regular scenic tour, with its crowning -point a glorious view of Mount McKinley. The trains run only in the -daytime. For the night a stop is made at a railroad hotel, in a -quiet, picturesque location, at the edge of a good-sized river. They -have foxes in cages here and a tame reindeer. There are no natives -in this vicinity.</p> - -<p>There are two interesting passengers on the train, with both of -whom I became well acquainted. One is Joe Bernard, an explorer -and collector (besides his other occupations) in Alaska and Siberia. -He furnishes me with some valuable pictures and much information. -The other man is Captain Wilkins, the flier of Point Barrow fame, -who strikes me as an able and modest man.</p> - -<p>The next day, as the train stops at Nenana, I am met, thanks to a -word sent by Mr. Noel W. Smith, by Chief Thomas and a group of -his people. These behave kindly and tell me of a potlatch to be held -at Tanana "after some days," where they will visit. The chief impresses -me with his rather refined though thoroughly Indian -countenance.</p> - -<p><em>Fairbanks.</em>—Before reaching Fairbanks, the inland capital of -Alaska, I am met by Prof. C. E. Bunnell, head of the Alaska Agricultural -College. This college, located on an elevation about 4 miles -out of the city, I visit with Professor Bunnell soon after arrival, to -find there some interesting paleontological and archeological collections. -Here are fair beginnings which well deserve the good will of -the Alaskans. Unfortunately the college has not yet the means -for any substantial progress or research in these lines, and the collections -are housed in a frame building where they are in serious danger -from fire. But their presence will aid, doubtless, in the saving of -other material of similar nature from the Tanana region, and specimens -of special scientific importance will doubtless be referred to -scientific institutions outside.</p> - -<p>Fairbanks is a good-sized town, built on the wide flats of the -Tanana River. Its population, now reduced, includes some civilized -natives, most of whom, however, are mix breeds. A large petrified -mammoth tusk on the porch of one of the semi-log houses shows<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> -that these are regions of more than ordinary biological interest. And -there is soon an occurrence which demonstrates this further. Mr. -John Buckley, the deputy marshal, takes me to an old Japanese -resident, now a rooming-house keeper, who has had a hobby of collecting -fossils, and who in the end is happy to donate to the National -Museum a fine skull of a fossil Alaskan horse, together with some -other specimens, refusing all payment. Such is the human Alaska, -or at least the most of it.</p> - -<p>Here, too, to a full hall in the library, a lecture is given on "The -Peopling of Alaska and America," after which follows a return to -Nenana to catch a steamer to the Yukon.</p> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - - - - -<h2>THE WRITER'S TRIP ON THE YUKON</h2> - - -<h3>TANANA—YUKON</h3> - -<p>June 17. Nenana: This is a small town on the Tanana, mostly -railroad buildings, with a hospital; there is one street of stores -(three short blocks), most of them now empty. About half a mile -off a small Indian settlement about an Episcopalian mission.</p> - -<p>Country flat on both sides of the rather large river, except for -some hills back of the right shore beyond the railroad bridge, for a -short distance. The river flats seem scarcely 3 or 4 feet above water, -overgrown with brush and a few scrubby trees, later spruce thickets. -Purple flowers (fireweed) strike the eye.</p> - -<p>No relics found at Nenana; no information concerning old sites or -abandoned villages along the stream.</p> - -<p>Physically, the Indians seen at Nenana were submedium brown, -good many still full blood, pure Indian type, brachycephalic, faces -(nose, etc.), however, of but medium prominence. Moderate to good -stature.</p> - -<p>They are all fairly "civilized," wear white men's clothing, to -which on gala occasions are added bands or collars of beadwork, and -speak more or less English. The younger men are evidently good -workers.</p> - -<p>The distance from Nenana to Tanana is given as about 190 miles -by the river.</p> - -<p>The government boat <em>Jacobs</em>, on which we shall go down the -Tanana, is a moderate-sized, shallow-bottomed stern-wheeler, and, -like all such boats on these rivers, will push a heavily laden freight -barge before it. There are about a dozen passengers, the boat -labor, a trader or two. All kindly, open. A few women—most of -both sexes of the Scandinavian type. On barge some horses, a cow, -pigs, chickens.</p> - -<p>Leave after lunch—very good, generous, and pleasant meal in a -local restaurant that would do credit to a large city; only the people<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> -are better, more human. Meals $1, the almost universal price in -Alaska.</p> - -<p>Some quaint expressions: When anyone has been away, especially -to the States, they say he was "outside." I am an "outsider;" -show it "by my collar." Underdone bacon is "easy." To assent -they say "you bet." In a restaurant, to a decent, cheerful girl: -"May I have a little hot coffee?" "You bet!" Which bright -answer is heard so often that one finishes by being shy to ask.</p> - -<p>Dogs, of course, do not pull, but "mush." This is from the Canadian -French "marche." Dogs do not understand "go" or "go on," -only "mush."</p> - -<p>Extensive flats. Below Nenana these flats, plainly recent alluvial, -are said to extend up to 60 miles to the left (southwestward) and to -20 miles to the right. As one passes nearer they are seen to range -from 3 up to about 8 feet above the level of the river at this stage -of water.</p> - -<p>Cabins and fishing camps along the river, mostly flimsy structures, -with a few tents. Indians in some. The Indians are said by the -whites to be pretty lazy, living from day to day; yet they seem -industrious enough in their own camps and in their own way.</p> - -<p>Storage or caches, little houses on stilts. Dog houses in rows. -Curious wheel fish traps, revolving like hay or wheat lifting machines, -run by the current. They scoop out the fish and let them fall -into a box, from which the fisherman collects them twice a day. It -is the laziest fishing that could be devised. The contraption is said -to come from the northwest coast, but has become one of the characteristic -parts of the scenery along the Tanana and the Yukon. -An Indian camp—stacks of cordwood—canoes.</p> - -<p>The day is sunny, moderately warm and rather dry—about as a -warm, dry, fall day with us. The river shows bars, with caught -driftwood; also considerable floating wood. There are seagulls, -said to destroy young ducks and geese and water birds' eggs. -Shores now wooded, mainly poplar, not large. Farther back and -farther down, spruce.</p> - -<p>The river averages about 200 to 300 yards but differs much in -places and there are numerous side channels (sloughs). It is crooked; -many bends. The current is quite marked, stated to run 4 to 6 miles -an hour. The water is charged with grayish-brown silt, part from -glaciers higher above, part from banks that are being "cut." The -banks are entirely silt, no trace of gravel or stone. Indian camps -getting very scarce. Boat making good time, but now and then requires -careful manipulation, with its big, heavy barge in front. Once -driven to shore, but no damage, and after some effort gets away -again. No trouble yet from mosquitoes, but there are some horseflies.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p> - -<p>Pass a large camp—a Finn married to a squaw, and three or four -Indian families—all snug in a clearing of the fresh-looking woods -on the bank of the river.</p> - -<p>Bend after bend in the stream, and boat has to follow them all, -and more, for the current and deeper water are now near this bank -and again at the opposite bank.</p> - -<p>The water in many places is undermining the bank, exposing -frozen strata of silt. The top often falls in without breaking, with -trees and all, and it then looks like heavy, ragged mats hanging over -the bank, with green trees or bushes dipping into the water, and perhaps -a clump of wild roses projecting from the sward. There are -many low bushes of wild roses in this country, pink and red kinds, -now blooming. Also many small bushes of wild berries—cranberries -(low and high), raspberries, dewberries or blueberries.</p> - -<p>Meat is imported even to here from Seattle, and carried far down -the Yukon. When received they place it in a "cellar" or hole dug -down to the frozen ground and place the meat there—a natural and -thoroughly efficient refrigerator.</p> - -<p>Past Old Minto, a little Indian village, a few little log houses in -a row facing the river, with a wheel fish trap in front (pl. 1, <em>a</em>). -Later a few Indian houses and a "road house" with a store at Tolovana. -Most Indians there (and elsewhere here) died of the "flu" -in 1918, the bodies being left and later buried by the Government. -A few isolated little Indian camps.</p> - -<p>The boat ties to trees along the banks. No docks or anything of -that nature. Not many mosquitoes yet, more horseflies, which, however, -do not bother man very much.</p> - -<p>After reaching Hot Springs (right bank), there is seen a long -range of more or less forested, fairly steep-sloped hills along the -right bank, coming right down to the water's edge for miles, with -bush and forested flats opposite. At the end of one of the ravines -with a little stream, right on the bank, remnants of a little glacier -melting very slowly in the sun. Strange contrast, ice and green -touching. Boat making good time along the hills.</p> - -<p>June 18. Hardly any sleep. Sun set after 10 and rose about 2.30, -with no more than dusk between. Then heat in the cabin, and above -all the noises. The boat stuck five hours on a bar and there were all -sorts of jerks and shudders and calls.</p> - -<p>Flats again on both sides, but hills beyond, with just one little -spot of snow. Will be warm day again.</p> - - -<h4>ANCIENT MAN</h4> - -<p>Prospects of old remains of man all along the river are slight if -any. Old silt flats have doubtless been mostly washed away (as now) -and rebuilt. Only on the older parts, now often far from water,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> -could anything remain and there it is all a jungle of forest with undergrowth, -with all surface traces absent (no stone, no shell), and no -one here to find things accidentally. As to the hills that approach -the river, the slopes (shales, overlain by what looks like stratified -mud and silt rock) are mostly of recent exposure, and have doubtless -been receding slowly through erosion, so that the bank line along -them is not old; and their valleys are few, narrow, and were higher -formerly as well as more extended toward where the river flowed -then. The only hopeful spot is about Hot Springs, where fossil -animal remains are said to exist, but here nothing as yet has been -noted suggesting ancient man.</p> - -<p>June 18, 4 p. m. River getting broader. Some low dunes. In -distance a range of bluish hills before us—the hills along the Yukon. -Boat meandering from side to side. Every now and then a necessary -steam blow-out of mud, or a short whistle, hurry of a man over the -top of the barge and of two half-breeds along its side to the prow -to test, with long pointed and graduated poles, the depth of the -water, calling it out to the captain. The calls range from "no -bottom" to "4 feet," at the latter of which the boat begins to touch -and back water.</p> - -<p>5 p. m. Arrived at Tanana, a cheerful looking town, extending -over about half a mile along the right bank of the Yukon, here -about 20 feet high; but now, with the gold rush over, rather "slack" -on both business and population, as are all other Yukon towns. -Somewhat disappointed with the Yukon—not as majestic here as -expected. See storekeeper—introduced by captain. Hear good news. -The Indians have a big potlatch at the mission, 2 miles above. -Tanana Indians expected. And there will be many in attendance. -Rumors of this potlatch were heard before, but this was the first -definite information. Get on a little motor boat with Indians who -were making some purchases, and go to the St. Thomas Episcopal -Mission, Mr. Fullerton in charge.</p> - - -<h4>THE INDIANS AT TANANA</h4> - -<p>The mission above Tanana is beautifully located on the elevated -right Yukon bank, facing Nuklukhayet island and point, the latter, -according to old reports, an old trading and meeting spot of the -Kuchin tribes, and the confluence of the Tanana with the Yukon. -The mission house, located on rising ground, the wooden church -lower down, the cemetery a bit farther up, and the Indian village a -bit farther downstream, with their colors and that of the luxuriant -vegetation, form a picturesque cluster.</p> - -<p>I am kindly received by Mr. Fullerton and his wife and given -accommodation in their house. On the part of the good-sized In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>dian -village everything is life and bustle and we soon are over. -Motor launches owned and operated by the Indians in the river; -dogs, scores of the big, half-wild, noisy sled dogs tied to stakes along -the slope of the bank, fighting stray ones, barking in whole outbursts, -feeding on smelly fish, or digging cooling holes into the bank -in which they hide most of the body from the warm rays of the -sun; and many Indians, about 400 in all, in whole families, in houses, -large canvas tents, cooking, eating, visiting—a busy multitude, but -with white man's clothes, utensils, etc., not nearly so interesting -as a group of more primitive Indians would be.</p> - -<p>Walk, visit, talk, and observe. Note many mix-bloods, especially -among the younger ones and the children. Among the full bloods, -many, about one-half, with features reminding more or less of Eskimoid; -but a few typically Indian, i. e., like most of the States -Indians.</p> - -<p>Medium stature, substantial but not massive build, quite a few of -the older women stout. Color of full bloods generally near medium -brown, features regular Indian but not exaggerated, noses rather -low especially in upper half, eyes and hair Indian. Epicanthus -not excessive in children, absent in adults (traces in younger women), -eyes not markedly oblique. Behavior, Indian.</p> - -<p>The more pronounced Eskimoids have flatter and longer faces, -more oblique eyes, and more marked epicanthus. They should come, -it would seem, from Eskimo admixture. The Tanana Indians -(Nenana) did not, so far as seen, show such physiognomies.</p> - -<p>Toward evening, and especially after supper, natives sing and -dance. Songs of Indian characteristics, and yet different from those -in south; some more expressive. A song "for dead mother," very -sad, affects some to crying aloud (a woman, a man). A wash song—a -row of women and even some men imitating, standing in a row, the -movements in washing, while others sing; humorous. A dance in a -line, curving to a circle, of a more typical Indian character. Late -at night, a war dance, with much supple contortion. Also other -songs and dances up to 2.30 a. m.—heard in bed.</p> - -<p>June 19. With dogs barking and whining and Indians singing, got -little rest. All Indians sleep until afternoon. No chance of doing -anything, so go down to town to get instruments and blanks. Find -that storekeeper has an old stone ax—sells it to me for $1. Also -tells of a farmer who has one—go there with the boat and obtain -it as a gift; told of another one—a Finn—has two, sells them for $1. -Come from the gravelly bank of the river or are dug out in gardening. -There may well have been old settlements in this favorable -location. After return, visit some tents to see sick. Much sickness—eyes, -tuberculosis—now and then probably syphilis.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p> - -<p>Indians relatively civilized, more than expected, and most speak -tolerable English. Have flags, guns, sleep in some cases on iron -beds and under mosquito netting, smoke cigarettes and cigars; and -even play fiddles. Of course some have also learned the white man's -cupidity and vices.</p> - -<p>This day I met with something unexpected, due to perversity of -mix-breed nature. Seeing so many Indians present, and after a -good reception by them the evening preceding, I thought of utilizing -the occasion for taking some measurements. I therefore mentioned -the thing to some of the head men shortly after my arrival -and receiving what seemed assent, went to-day to Tanana to -get my instruments. On coming back and finding a few of the old -men, who were quite friendly, I invited them into the "kashim" -(community house) and began to question them on old sites, etc., -when in came, probably somewhat under the influence of liquor, -a mix-breed to whom I had been introduced the night before and -who at that time acted quite civilly, but now coming forward began -rather loudly and offensively to question about what I wanted here -and about authority, giving me to understand at last quite plainly -that he wanted to "be paid" if I was to take any measurements. -He claimed to be one of the "chiefs," and I would not be allowed -to do anything without his help. His harangue quite disturbed -the other Indians, who evidently were both ashamed and afraid -of the fellow. And as I would not be coerced into employing and -paying him, and there being no one, as I learned, of supreme authority, -the "chief" of these Indians being little more than a figurehead, -it was decided to give up the attempt at measurements. The rest -of the visit was therefore given to further observations and to the -witnessing of the potlatch. Chief Joseph (pl. 14), nominally the -head of these Yukon Indians, expressed his sorrow and tried to -make amends by offering himself.</p> - -<p>The potlatch was evidently in the main a social gathering of -the Yukon Indians, with the Tanana natives as visitors. It consisted -mainly of eating, singing, and dancing, to be terminated -by a big "give-away." This latter was witnessed. It proved a -disappointing and rather senseless affair. The whole transaction -consists in the buying and gathering, and on this occasion giving -away, of all sorts of objects, by some one, or several, who have lost -a husband, wife, mother, etc., during the preceding year. The possessions -of the deceased are included in this and doubtless often -transmit disease. All the color of the observance is now gone. -The goods—blankets, clothing, fabrics, guns, and many other objects, -even pieces of furniture, trunks, or stoves—are gathered in -the open and when the time comes are one after another selected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> -by those dispensing and brought to this or that man or woman of -those who have gathered around. No song, no ceremony, no talks, -no thanking, no "wake" following. Just a poor shadow of something -that formerly may have been a tragic, memorable, and meaning -occasion.</p> - -<p>Returned to Tanana near 10 p. m. and found lodging with a storekeeper -who kept a "hotel." Got a big room, big bed, and when -store closed was alone in the house, the storekeeper sleeping elsewhere.</p> - -<p>June 20. But, Alaska was evidently not made for sleepers. Had -not a wink until after 3 a. m.—daylight, people talking loud and -walking on the board walk outside, and heard so clearly in my -room—loud-laughing girls, the dogs, and at last another boat with -its siren; and every now and then a singing mosquito trying to get -at me through even the small opening left under the sheet for -breathing—there being no netting. Finally doze off, to wake near -9 a. m., but everything closed, deadlike. However, go to a little -frame house for breakfast, and in waiting until it is made find myself -with two elderly men who go to-day down the river with their -boats. One is a former store clerk, etc., and now an "optician"—peddles -eyeglasses down the river; the other was a prospector, miner, -and blacksmith, now an itinerant "jeweler" and a reputed "hootch" -peddler. As the latter—otherwise a pretty good fellow—has a -good-sized though old boat, arrange to go down with him. See the -marshal, storekeeper, settle with my hotel man (had to go at 11 to -awake him), and ready to start.</p> - -<p>The outfit is largely homemade, not imposing, old, unpainted, and -unfit for the rough—but it could be worse. It consists of a scow, -a low, flat-bottomed boat, partly covered with canvas roof on birch -hoops, in which Peake (the owner) carries fresh meat to some one, -a stove, dishes, bedding, and many other things; and the motor boat -proper, in which there is little room except for the machine and its -tender. The latter sits on a soap box; I, on a seat extemporized from -a cylindrical piece of firewood with a little board across it, with my -two boxes and bedding within easy reach. Sit in front of the scow, -except when driven back by spray. But our motor works and so we -start quite well at some time after 11. The arrangement is to stop at -every white man's camp or settlement down to Ruby. I could have -gone on a better boat with its owner, but they charge here $15 a day, -with "keep," and twice the amount for the return of the man and -the boat, which is beyond my resources.</p> - -<p>Tanana—Ruby. The river is clearer than the Tanana, and much -broader. It is a great fine stream and its shores, while mostly still -low on the left, on the right rise here and there into moderate loess<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> -bluffs, far beyond which are seen higher elevations and bluish forested -mountains. All covered with poplar and spruce.</p> - -<p>2.15 p. m. Wind has so increased that the scow bumps and squeaks -and there is danger of opening its seams. Therefore side to the -beach and make lunch—a roast of fat pork, over-salted, canned -spinach, dry bread, and black coffee. All on a simple, old, but efficient -little stove in the boat. Our companion, the oculist, rides not -with us but in a nice little green canoe with a plaything of a gasoline -motor fastened to the backboard, but we all eat and sleep together.</p> - -<p>But a few small Indian camps seen, and no white man's house. -Soon after lunch, however, approach "The Old Station," where -there are a few Indian houses, and later a white man's place (Burchell's). -Stop at the latter. Learn that we are 20 miles from -Tanana and on a 5-mile-long channel. There are here 15 to 40 feet -high loess-like (silt) bluffs with a flat on the top, which latter -was from far back one of the most important sites of the Indians -of these regions. Mr. Burchell and his partner kindly take me back, -with their better boat, to the main old site. Many old graves there, -a few still marked. Traces of dugouts (birch-bark lined), houses, -caches, etc., from Burchell's place to old main site. Important -place that deserves to be thoroughly excavated, though this will -entail no little work. Site was of the choicest, dominant, healthy. -Connects by a trail, still traceable, with the Koyukuk region.</p> - -<p>There are said to be no traces of pottery in any of these parts. -But average to very large stone axes are washed out occasionally -from the banks, and other articles are dug out (long ivory spear, -bone scraper, etc.). Promise of bones, etc., by Mr. Burchell.</p> - -<p>One hundred miles more to Ruby. Near 8 p. m. start again—sun -still high, little wind—endeavor to get to the "bone yard," a great -bank bearing fossils. Fine clean scenery, flat on left, flat to elevated -with grey-blue mountainous beyond on right. Water now calm and -we make good progress. Very few camps—dogs on the beach, fish-drying -racks a little farther, then a little log cabin and perhaps a -tent, with somewhere near by in the river the inevitable fish wheel, -turning slowly with the current.</p> - -<p>Had supper at Burchell's; white fish, boiled potato, coffee, some -canned greens.</p> - -<p>Scenery in spots precious, virginal, flat at the river, elevated behind, -foreground covered by the lighter green of poplars and birches, -with upright, somber, dark spruce behind. Sun on the right, half -moon on the left, and river like a big glassy lake, just rippling a -little here and there. Cooler—need a coat. On right, getting -gradually nearer the mountains.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p> - -<p>Near 10 p. m. Sun still above horizon. On left a long (several -miles), mostly wooded, but here and there denuded, palisade-like -bank, apparently 200-400 feet high—the "graveyard."</p> - -<p>Monday, June 21. Just at sunset last night—after 10 o'clock—came -to the "bone yard" bank—a long curving line of loess bluffs -100 to 300 feet high, steep right to water's edge, riven by many ravines. -Lowest third (approximately) light compact loess; then a -thick layer of river sand (stratified more or less) and small gravel, -then from one-third to nearly two-fifths of darker loess. In spots -quite dark, frozen, but on surface melting, "running," also tumbling -in smaller or larger masses. Wherever darker there emanates from -it and spreads far out over the river a decided mummy-like smell. -Too late to photograph from boat, and no other place available. -Also impracticable to explore with any detail—would take several -days and be a difficult work. The bluffs become gradually lower -downstream. No bones seen from boat, but mostly were not near -enough to discern. A remarkable formation, in many ways, and -in need of masterly study as well as description.</p> - -<p>Night on a low gravelly and pebbly beach. Many mosquitoes. -Mosquito netting found bad—sides too short (gave directions, but -they were disregarded) and mesh not small enough. In a short time -impossible to stay under. Supplemented by old netting of Mr. -Peake, who will sleep under his canvas in the boat; but the old dirty -net has holes in it and the mosquitoes keep on coming through the -two. Fighting them until some time after midnight, then under all -my things—netting, blanket, clothes—find some rest, sleeping until -4.30 a. m. After that—full day, of course—sleep impossible. The -"optician," who slept well under proper Alaska netting, gets up, -wakes my man; we both get up, shake, roll up bedding, have a cat-wash, -then breakfast, and at 6.30 off once more along the beautiful -but not hospitable river.</p> - -<p>Inquiry at a local white man's cabin about fossils and Indian -things negative—has paid no attention, and fossil bones that he -sometimes comes across generally not in good state of preservation.</p> - -<p>Right bank now hilly, with greater hills and then mountains behind. -Warm, river smooth, just a light breeze. How puny we are -in all this greatness.</p> - -<p>A lot of trouble develops with the engine to-day—bad pump. -Will not get to Ruby until evening. Meat, on which I must sit -occasionally, begins to smell, and there are numerous horseflies, -probably attracted by the smell.</p> - -<p>Four p. m. Visit Kokrines, on a high bank, native village, cemetery. -Photograph some natives, are good natured, talk pidgin English. -Clearly considerable old Eskimo admixture, but the substratum<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> -and main portion is Indian. All kind and cheerful here, glad to -have pictures taken. Only white man is a "road-house" keeper; -i. e., storekeeper. Store, however, poorly stocked, probably in all not -over $200 worth of goods. "Optician," who is hoggish, has headache, -but eats and drinks all he can nevertheless. "Jeweler" repaired -his pump, and so we are once more on the way—35 miles more -to Ruby. No trace of any relics at Kokrines.</p> - -<p>River now a mile wide, with many "slews" (side channels, -sloughs), and many low, flat, forested islands. Mountains to right, -higher, traces of snow. Smoke wall from forest fire advancing from -the west—now also smell. Islands beautiful, fresh colors and clean—light -grass on border, then green and grayish poplars, birches, and -alder, from among which rise the blackish green spruces. Little -native fishing camps a mile or two apart, right bank—on left wilderness -of flats, as usual.</p> - -<p>A few miles above Ruby conditions change—high bluffs (rocky) -now on left, flat on right side. Ruby, from a distance and after the -loneliness of the day, looks quite a little town on the left bank, at -the base of the higher ground.</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Ruby</span></h3> - -<p>June 22-23. Our approach to Ruby was very modest. With -Mr. Peake paid off, we just sided against and tied to the bank, on -which are the lowest houses of the village, and carried out my boxes -and bedding on the bank. There two or three men were idly watching -our arrival. I asked about the local marshal, to whom I had a -note, and had my things carried to the combined post office and hotel. -In almost no time I meet Mr. Thomas H. Long, the marshal, become -acquainted with the people about, tell my mission, and begin to collect. -It does not take long for one properly introduced to be thoroughly -and warmly at home in Alaska. The first specimen I get is a -fine fossilized mammoth molar. It is brought to me by Albert -Verkinik, who was about to depart for some mines, but went back to -get the tooth. And he asks no compensation.</p> - -<p>The parts of two days spent at Ruby were quite profitable. Visiting, -and in the jail, were several Indians who could be noted and -photographed. At the old jail there were two skulls of Indians -that were donated. The teacher had two of the characteristic Yukon -two-grooved axes. The postmaster, Mr. H. E. Clarke, gave a collection -of fresh animal skulls. Mr. Louis Pilback donated two mammoth -molars, found 2 miles up the Yukon on Little Melozey Creek, -about 8 feet deep, in the muck right over the gravel. Mrs. Monica -Silas brought me a good old stone knife. Several of the men took -me down to the beach to see a damaged fossil elephant skull, also to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> -see some fossiliferous workings above the town. Another party took -me a few miles up and across the river to see an Indian camp and -near by some old burials. The collections were sent through parcel -post; and the evening before departure I gave a lecture to an attentive -and respectful audience.</p> - -<p>The town itself, however, is now a mere damaged and crumbling -shell of what it was in the heyday of its glory, during the gold rush. -Many of the frame dwellings and stores are empty; the board sidewalks -are rickety and with big holes; and in the air is a general lack -of impetus.</p> - -<p>June 23. Failing to find another suitable boat, I once more made -an arrangement to go farther down the river with Mr. Peake and -his friend. Peake's boat and scow were not much to look at, and -the troubles with the engine, and with its owner's raw swearing at -times, were somewhat trying; but for my purpose the outfit did well -enough, and I was treated very well and given all needed opportunity -to examine what was of importance on the banks. I was -quite sorry when eventually we had to part company, and I know -Mr. Peake has not forgotten my quest, for I heard of his talking -about it to parties, with whom I was very glad to come in contact, -on the Kuskokwim.</p> - -<p>June 23. The sunny evening of my second busy day at Ruby, -near 10 p. m., Peake unexpectedly comes to the hotel to tell me he -will be ready to start to-night, on account of quiet water. His -wash "is being ironed" and will be ready soon. The marshal comes -in, calls the prisoners to take down my baggage, and at 10.15, after -true, hearty good-byes, I am once more in the old scow. Then Peake -goes for his wash, with an Indian woman, and does not come until -near 11. River peaceful, sun shortly set, sky somewhat cloudy, forest -fire on opposite shore below still smoking a great deal. Leaving -good people at Ruby, who promise to help in the future. It is -getting much cooler after a pretty warm day. Will lie on the hard -boxes and try to get a little sleep.</p> - -<p>Thursday, June 24. We went long into the night, then stopped -at a lone cabin. Up timely, but slow start—it is 10.10 a. m. before -we go. The time gained at night lost now—bad habits. Breeze up -the river, occasionally strong, but not severe.</p> - -<p>The cabin was the "Dutchman's," or Meyer's. He came out at -1 a. m. to meet us, at the bark of his big dogs, a good-hearted, -weather-seared prospector, fisherman, and trapper of about 40, alone -with his huskies. Asked me into his little log hut, prepared a place -for my bedding on a frame, burned powder against the mosquitoes, -brought out from cool "cellar" a bottle of root beer he brews, and -then we went to sleep. But dogs kept waking us and Meyer went<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> -out several times to quiet them. Fall asleep at 3.20 and oblivious -until near 7. Meyer forces on me six bottles of root beer, I leave -him some prescriptions, and taking my bed roll we go down to the -boat. My men still sleeping, as I expected. And then slow awakening, -breakfast, and late starting.</p> - -<p>Meyer never saw any Indian bones or stones, but promises cheerfully -to watch for them hereafter and to make inquiries. Of course, -he also, like so many in these lands, tells of a "prospect" of a gold -find, and is quite confident he'll "make good." As usual, also, it -is a "lead" that was "lost" and he believes he has found it. And -all the time the gold is inside, not outside, of these hunters of the -yellow star.</p> - -<p>Hills on the right again; flat islands, banks, etc., on the left. -Meyer's is 18 miles down from Ruby, right bank. About 5 miles -farther down on the slopes of the right bank is a pretty little Indian -graveyard (pl. 1, <em>b</em>), and a little lower down there are three -now empty Indian huts.</p> - -<p>Hills and mountains seen also now beyond the wide flats of the -left bank. The hills on right, along which we pass, are more or less -forested, but often just bushy and grassy. They rise to about 600 -to 700 feet and the slopes are seldom steep. Along their base there -are many elevated platforms, low swells, and nooks, that could have -served of old—as they serve here and there now—for native habitation, -though only few could have accommodated larger villages.</p> - -<p>Pass an Indian camp—the inevitable staked dogs; a swimming -boy—first being seen bathing in the open.</p> - -<p>Whiskey Creek next. Sixty-two dogs, all along the bank, and -each one-half or more in his own cooling hole; holes they dig down -to near the frozen ground. A settler, and two Indians—a photograph. -No relics or bones now, but will watch; promise also to save -some animal skulls, etc.</p> - -<p>Twelve o'clock. Off again. Day better now, less squally, warm.</p> - -<p>Hills above and below lower and earthy—loess, at least much of -it. The right shore is all along sunnier, higher, more beautiful, and -more open to wind (less mosquitoes). These are the reasons, doubtless, -why it was of old and is still the favored side for habitations -by natives as well as whites.</p> - -<p>Just before reaching "Old Lowden," overtaken by a rather crazily -driven small motor boat with four young Indians, who hand us a -crude message for the storekeeper at Galena, telling him that a baby -in the camp is to die to-night. I offer to see the baby. Find a boy -infant about one year or a little over, ill evidently with bronchitis. -Father and mother, each about 30, sit over it brooding in dumb -grief, each on one side. Respond not to my presence, and barely so -to my questions. And when I begin to tell to the fellow who inter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>prets -and is some relative that the baby need not die, and what to -do—I note that he is somewhat under the influence of liquor and a -little flushed—to my dismay he begins to rant against me as a doctor -and against the Government, and wants me perforce, seemingly, to -say that the child is going to die and die to-night. There are two -guns around and I almost anticipate his catching hold of one. The -gist of the piecemeal talk is that they believe I am a Government -doctor, who ought to stay four or five days with them and take over -the child's treatment, and yet the fellow insists that the child will -die before next morning. I do not know what they would say or -do to the doctor if he undertook to stay and the child died—or if it -recovered. It is dismal. They have the idea that the "Government" -is obliged to do all sorts of things for them, without being clear -just what, and that it does not do them. They believe, and try to say -so, that I am sent and paid by the Government to treat them. -Probably they have heard about the Government medical party that -is to examine conditions along the river this summer, and think that -I do not want to do or give what is necessary. I give all the possible -advice, but there is plainly no inclination to follow it. I offer -some medicine; they sneer at medicine. Even the father says he does -not understand it or want it. They are all surly and in a dangerous, -stupid mood. So there is nothing left but to go away as well as -one may.</p> - -<p>On way down the bank a woman is seen cleaning and cutting -fish—knife steel, with wood or ivory handle, of the Chinese and -Eskimo type. A porcupine, bloated, and with flies and maggots on -it already about the nose, mouth, and eyes, lies next to the woman, -and its turn will probably come next after the fish.</p> - -<p>Have modest lunch—canned pears, a bit of cold bacon left from -morning, a bit of cheese, and coffee; and start once more onward. -So much beauty here, and such human discord.</p> - -<p>3.30 p. m. Passing on right bank a line of bluffs, wholly of loess, -about 200 feet high and approximately 4 miles long, and as if shaven -with knife from top to water's edge. After that flats only on both -sides, with but one hill far ahead of us.</p> - -<p>Motor trouble again—same old pump; but not for long; in half -an hour on again. A steamer upward passes us—like a stranger, and -power.</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Galena</span></h3> - -<p>A little town (village), on a flat promontory. An old consumptive -storekeeper—no knowledge of any old implements or skeletal -remains. Lowden village moved here due to mine opposite and better -site. About 10 Indian houses here; inhabitants now mostly in fishing -camps.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></p> - -<p>From Galena down, low shores and islands as on the Tanana, as -far as can be seen, with mountains, grayish blue, in far distance -(and only occasional glimpses). River never less than three-fourths -of a mile and sometimes together with its sloughs and islands several -miles broad. Some geese; occasional rabbit seen on land; otherwise -but little life. First gulls.</p> - -<p>The Indians at Ruby and Galena show here and there an Eskimoid -type, with the younger nearly all mix bloods (with whites). Full -bloods of same type as all along the river, brachycephalic, low to -moderate high vault of head, moderate to medium (rarely above) -stature, medium brown, noses not prominent, concavo-convex, moderately -convex or nearly straight, Indian cast of the face, but quite a -few more or less Eskimoid. Not very bright.</p> - -<p>Sit in the bottom of the scow, in front, before the stove and make -notes. When we stop, jump out to tie the boat; when leaving, push -it off. Getting sunburnt dark. Forgetting once again that I have -a stomach or any other organ. Only sleep, never fully, much less -than ought to; but even that is somehow much more bearable here -than it would be at home.</p> - -<p>6.45 p. m. Suddenly, after a turn, confronted with a steep rocky -promontory about 500 feet high—stratified mud rocks. On side, -high above, a tall white cross; learn later an Indian murdered a -bishop here. A little farther, on a flat below the slope, a small settlement. -A remarkable landmark, known as the Bishop's Rock. Afterwards -again flats, but some more elevated than before to the left. -River like a great looking-glass. Same character of vegetation and -colors as farther above, but details varied.</p> - -<p>At Ruby had made a genuine, effective, Alaska mosquito netting, -and so now feel quite independent of the pest; also have two bottles -of mosquito oil, which helps. Fortunately on the water we are not -bothered.</p> - -<p>Toward night reach Koyukuk River, and later on, Koyukuk village, -a pleasant row of houses, white and native, on a high bank. Here, -at last, pass one good night, sleeping under good mosquito netting -in the house and on the bed of an Italian trader. Also had good supper -of salmon, and good breakfast of bacon and eggs, and so feel -rested and strong.</p> - -<p>Friday, June 25. But in the morning the sky is overcast and every -now and then there is a loose shower. Of course my boon companions -are not ready again until long after 9 o'clock, and then the engine will -not go again, so a longer delay. They were inclined, in fact, to -"lay over," but I urged them on. But they are determined if it rains -a bit more to "tie to" somewhere. Fortunately there is no wind. -About 3 miles below Koyukuk and its flats, the high bluffs with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> -steep more or less shaved-like barren slopes recommence. A gloomy -day.</p> - -<p>About 7 miles down, after a large rocky promontory, a small graveyard -on the side of a hill, with a little native camp about a third of a -mile beyond.</p> - -<p>10.45 a. m. Beautiful wooded great hills, 400 to 800 feet high, all -along the right bank again, with large <strong>V</strong>-shaped valleys between. A -fine, rounded, slightly more than usually elevated island ahead. Left -banks flat.</p> - -<p>Sun coming out a little; cool, but not unpleasant. No more -showers, river smooth, boat making time. Blue hazy mountains far -to the left front.</p> - -<p>Hills to right rocky, strata horizontal to warped, mud rocks, broad -banks of sandy, gravelly or mucky materials, not consolidated, between -hard strata.</p> - -<p>Now and then a small Indian camp, usually two or three tents, -Indians, dogs, boats; some drying fish (not much).</p> - -<p>11.00 a. m. Another isolated little graveyard, right slope, near an -old camp.</p> - -<p>There is no possibility now of excavating any of these graveyards, for -the Indians are in unpleasant disposition toward the Government for -various reasons. But such a place as that near Burchell's could be -excavated as soon as conditions improve. Also that above Ruby and -another opposite and just below Ruby. There are no longer any -superstructures left at these (or but traces), and the graves, as seen -above Ruby, are near (within 2 feet of) the surface.</p> - -<p>No trace or indication of anything older than the double-grooved -ax culture has thus far been seen anywhere in the valley; and large -stretches of present banks are quite barren.</p> - -<p>As we approach Nulato the horizon before us becomes hilly and -mountainous. The sun is now fully out and its warmth is very -pleasant. Pass an Indian woman paddling a canoe; later an Indian -family going upstream in a motor boat. Most of these Indians -possess a motor boat of some sort, and know how to run it, though -it is not in their nature to be overcareful.</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Nulato</span><br /> - -(Pl. 1, <em>b</em>)</h3> - -<p>Arrive midday. Quite a village, as usual along the water front -on a high bank. Large fancy modern surface burial ground with -brightly painted boxes and flying flags on a hill to the right. Met -by local marshal and doctor; my things are taken to a little hospital. -Natives here have poor reputation, but now said to be better. Boys -nearly all mix bloods. Several men and women show Eskimo type,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> -but majority are Indian to somewhat Eskimoid. Soon find they are -not very well disposed—want pay for everything, and much pay. -Have a few specimens, but to obtain anything from them is difficult. -Have been spoiled.</p> - -<p>A visit with the marshal to the site of old Nulato on the proximate -point; nothing there, just a rabbit's skull and a lot of mosquitoes. -Photograph old graveyard (that of old Nulato), on the -distal point beyond the creek.</p> - -<p>Mr. Steinhauser, trader, of Czech descent, helpful and kind. But -nothing further to do here. Steamer that was to be here to-night -or to-morrow will not arrive, just learned, until Tuesday (this is -Friday); and so must engage a little gasoline boat to the next station, -Kaltag, 40 miles down the river.</p> - -<p>Sleep under my new netting in the hospital. In the morning, after -parting with doctor and marshal, start 8.30 a. m. Boat little, shaky, -run by a half-breed boy of about 18. My old scow with Peake and -his companion will stay a day longer. Partly cloudy, warm.</p> - -<p>Pass flats, and come again to similar shaved-off bluffs like yesterday. -We are now running close to the shore so that I can see -everything. Flowers, but not many or many varieties.</p> - -<p>9.50 a. m. Pass (about 8 miles from Nulato) a few burials (old -boxes) on right slope. (Pl. 1, <em>c</em>.) Indian camp about one-half -mile farther, and a few old abandoned huts and caches.</p> - -<p>Everything on and along the river about the same as yesterday, -except in little details. Sky clouded; light clouds, however. The -boy with me has had good schooling (for a native) and is a good -informer. But there is little of archeological or anthropological -interest hereabouts. (Pl. 2, <em>a</em>.)</p> - -<p>12.10 p. m. Another rounded island ahead of us; far beyond it -grayish-blue hills and mountains. Six miles more to Kaltag. But -little life here—a few small birds, a lone robin, a lone gull.</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Kaltag</span></h3> - -<p>1.00 p. m. Kaltag in view—a small modern village on right bank, -less than half the size of Nulato; a nearly compact row of log and -plank houses. Nothing of any special interest seen from distance, -and but little after landing. The old village used to be somewhat -higher up the river.</p> - -<p>There is an old abandoned site also just opposite the present -Kaltag. Another site, "Klenkakaiuh," is, I am told, in the Kaiuh -slough south of Kaltag, in a straight line about 10 miles, but no one -there; and several other old villages in that region along that -slough—same Indians as those of Kaltag. All of Kaltag go there -on occasions, but do not live there permanently any more.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 1</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_1a.jpg" width="700" height="517" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>a</em>, "Old Minto" on the Tanana. Indian village. (A. H., 1926)</p></div> - -<img src="images/plate_1b.jpg" width="700" height="363" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>b</em>, Present Nulato and its cemetery (on hill to right of village) from some distance up the river. -(A. H., 1926)</p></div> - -<img src="images/plate_1c.jpg" width="700" height="335" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>c</em>, The Greyling River site, right bank, 22 miles above Anvik; site and graveyard (male skeleton) -from top of knoll. (A. H., 1926)</p></div> -</div> -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 2</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_2a.jpg" width="700" height="351" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>a</em>, View on the Yukon from above Kaltag. (A. H., 1926)</p></div> - -<img src="images/plate_2b.jpg" width="700" height="355" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>b</em>, Indian burial ground, Middle Yukon. (A. H., 1926)</p></div> - -<img src="images/plate_2c.jpg" width="700" height="360" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>c</em>, Anvik, from the mission. (A. H., 1926)</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p> - -<p>At Kaltag Eskimoid features already predominate and some of -those seen are fully like Eskimo.</p> - -<p>There is a tradition of an Asiatic (Chukchee) attempt at Kaltag -once.</p> - -<p>Later in the afternoon photograph some natives and go with -Mr. Müller, the storekeeper, and Mr. McLeod, the intelligent local -teacher, on the latter's boat, "hunting" along the banks up the -stream. Meet an old Indian (Eskimo type) paddling a birch-bark -canoe, said to be the only canoe of that sort now on the Yukon. -About three-fourths of a mile above the village see caved bank and -find a skull and bones—"split" old burial of a woman.</p> - -<p>A canoe coming, so we all go farther up the beach, pretending to -examine stones. It is only the boy who brought me, however, going -home with some planks, and he grins knowingly.</p> - -<p>After that we locate three exposed coffins, two undisturbed and -covered with sod. These two, for fear of irritating the natives, are -left. But the third is wrapped only in birch bark. It was a powerful -woman. With her a bone tool and a white man's spoon. With -the burial that had tumbled out of the bank there were large blue -and gray beads and three iron bracelets—reserved by the teacher.</p> - -<p>I gather all the larger bones and we put them temporarily in a -piece of canvas. It is hard to collect all—the men are apprehensive—it -might be dangerous for them if detected. Everything smoothed -as much as possible, and we go across the river to examine two fish -nets belonging to the trader. One of these is found empty; but the -other contains five large king salmon, 15 to 20 pounds each, three -drowned, two still alive. The latter are hooked, hoisted to the edge -of the boat, killed with a club, and, full of blood, thrown into the -boat—great, stout, fine fish. To secrete our other findings from the -natives the storekeeper gets a large bundle of grass and ties it to -my package. We shall be bringing "medicine."</p> - -<p>Arrive home, only to learn that against our information the river -boat has left Tanana on schedule time, is now above Koyukuk, and is -expected to arrive at Kaltag before 8 p. m. Hurriedly pack, a few -more photographs, supper, and the smoke of the steamer begins to -be visible. In a little while she is at the bank, my boxes are brought -down, a greeting with old friends on the boat—the same boat -(<em>Jacobs</em>) on which I went from Nenana to Tanana—and we start off -for Anvik.</p> - -<p>Mr. Müller, the trader at Kaltag, German by birth, has a young, -fairly educated Eskimo wife, a good cook, housekeeper, and mother -of one child. The child is an interesting white-Eskimo blend.</p> - -<p>In his store Mr. Müller showed me a good-sized heavy bowl of red -stone with a figure seated in a characteristic way near one end. The -specimen was said to have come from an old site on the Kaiuh and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> -is of the same type as that at the museum in Juneau and the two -in the east, one at the Museum of the American Indian, New York, -and the other at the University Museum, Philadelphia. Regrettably -Mr. Müller would not part with the specimen. (See also p. <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.)</p> - -<p>The natives of Kaltag, so far as seen, are more Eskimoid than -those of any of the other settlements farther up the river.</p> - -<p>Fine evening; sit with a passenger going to Nome, until late. -Learn that the boat to St. Michael is waiting for this boat and will -go right on—not suitable for my work. Also we are to stop but a -few minutes at Anvik, where I am to meet Doctor Chapman, the -missionary.</p> - -<p>Sunday, June 27. About 5 a. m. arrive in the pretty cove of -Anvik. Received on the bank by Doctor Chapman, the head of the -local Episcopalian mission and school, and also the Anvik postmaster. -The doctor for the present is alone, his wife and daughter -having gone to Fairbanks, and so he is also the cook and everything. -In a few minutes, with the help of some native boys, I am with -my boxes in Doctor Chapman's house, and after the boat has left -and the necessities connected with what she left attended to we -have breakfast. I am soon made to feel as much as possible "at -home," and we have a long conversation. Then see a number of -chronic patients and incurables; attend a bit lengthy service in -Doctor Chapman's near-by little church; have a lunch with the -ladies at the school; visit the hill graveyard. They have reburied -all the older remains and there is nothing left. Attend an afternoon -service and give a talk to the congregation of about half a dozen -whites and two dozen more or less Eskimoid Indians on the Indians -and our endeavors; and then do some writing, ending the day by -going out for about a mile and a half along the banks of the Anvik -River, looking in vain for signs of something older, human or -animal. (Pl. 2, <em>c</em>.)</p> - -<p>There are many and bad gnats here just now—how bad I only -learned later, when I found my whole body covered with patches -of their bites; and also many mosquitoes, which proved particularly -obnoxious during the lunch. As the doctor is alone, the three excellent -white ladies of the school, matron and teachers, invited us, as -already mentioned, to lunch with them. We had vegetable soup, -a bit of cheese, two crackers each, a piece of cake, and tea. But I -chose an outlandish chair the seat of which was made of strips of -hide with spaces between; and from the beginning of the lunch to its -end there was a struggle between the proprieties of the occasion and -the mosquitoes that kept on biting me through the spaces in the seat. -Chairs of this type, and I finally told that to the ladies to explain -my seeming restlessness during the meal, should be outlawed in -Alaska.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span></p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Anvik People</span></h3> - -<p>The Anvik people, it will be recalled, were the first Yukon natives -seen by a white man. They were discovered in 1834 by Glazunof, -and since then have occupied the same site, located favorably on a -point between the Anvik and the Yukon Rivers. They belonged -to the Inkalik tribe, a name given to them, according to Zagoskin, -by the coast people and signifying "lousy," from the fact that they -never cut their hair, which in consequence, presumably, harbored -some parasites. Their village was the lowest larger settlement of the -Indians on the Yukon, the Eskimo commencing soon after.</p> - -<p>The Anviks to-day are clearly seen to be a hybrid lot. There are -unmistakable signs of a prevalent old Eskimo mixture. The men -are nearly all more or less Eskimoid, and even the head is not infrequently -narrower, fairly long, jaws much developed. The women, -however, show the Eskimo type less, and the children in a still smaller -measure—they are much more Indian. Yet even some women and -an occasional child are Eskimoid—face flat, long, lower jaw high, -cheek bones prominent forward (like welts on each side of the nose), -whole physiognomy recalling the Eskimo. The more Indianlike -types resemble closely those of the upper Yukon. There is perceptible, -too, some mixture with whites, particularly in the young.</p> - -<p>To bed about 11. Attic warm and window can not be opened -because of the insects. Sleep not very good; some mosquitoes in -room anyway. Wake up after 3 and just begin to doze off again -when the doctor gets up. About 4 he puts his shoes on—one can -hear every sound throughout the frame house, even every yawn—and -then goes to the kitchen where there soon comes the rattling of -pots. At 4.30 comes up to bid me good morning and ask me if I am -ready to get up and have breakfast. A man with a boat is to be -ready at 6 to take me to some old site. So a little after 5 I get up, -shave, dress and go down. Another night to make up for sometime, -somewhere.</p> - -<p>We finish breakfast and the doctor goes to look for the man, but -everything deadlike, no one stirring anywhere. So I pack my stone -specimens from the river above and the bones from Kaltag, etc. It -is 8 a. m. and then at last Harry Lawrence, our man, appears—having -understood to come about that time—and before long we -start, in a good-sized boat, up the Yukon.</p> - -<p>Day mostly cloudy but fairly good; no wind. Must use mosquito -mixture all the time, even after I get on boat, but they quit later. -Am standing on the back of the boat against and over the "house" -over it—inside things shake too much and I can not see enough.</p> - -<p>Passing by fish wheels—heaps of fish in their boxes—some just -being caught and dumped in. Picturesque bluffs passed yesterday<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> -seen to be of volcanic stone, near basalt, not granite, with indication -of minerals. Passing close to vertical cliffs of fissured and fragmented -rocks 200 to 500 feet high—dangerous. Consolidated volcanic -ashes with inclosure of many bowlders—fine lessons in geology. -Slides of soil and vegetation here and there. Large spruces and -altogether a richer vegetation since this particular rock region was -reached. There was in fact a plain line of demarcation in the vegetation -where the rocks changed.</p> - -<p>Sleepy. Afraid to doze and fall off, so go inside. But there the -motor thumps and shakes too much for a nap to be possible.</p> - -<p>About 12 miles upstream from Anvik, on the north bank, the mineralized -rocks and tufa suddenly cease, to be superseded by a line, -several miles long, of sheared-off loess bluffs about 200 feet high. -Here the vegetation changes very perceptibly. Two mammoth jaws -obtained from these deposits have a few years ago been given to Mr. -Gilmore, of the United States National Museum.</p> - -<p>22 to 23 miles up the river, north bank, a fine large platform and an -old native site. Many signs still of pit and tunnel houses. A little -farther upstream a hill with abandoned burials. Excavate a grave -on a promontory over the river—not very old—wet and not much -left of soft parts, but succeed in getting the skeleton. Fine middle-aged -adult, somewhat Eskimoid, about typical for this region. -Carry down in a bag, dry on the beach gravel. Lunch on beach; -cheese, bread, coffee. The site is known as that of the Greyling River. -(Pl. 2, <em>b</em>.)</p> - -<p>Start back a little after 3. Very warm day. River smooth. Sky -looks like there might be a storm later.</p> - -<p>Hear of pottery—40 years ago it was still made at Anvik. Was -black, of poor quality. The women used to put feathers in the clay -"to make the pots stronger." When buried it soon rotted and fell -to pieces. In shapes and otherwise it was much like the Eskimo -pottery. Its decorations consisted of nail or other impressions, in -simple geometrical designs, particularly about the rim. It was -rather gross, but better pieces did occur, though rarely.</p> - -<p>It is becoming plain that there are no known traces of any really -old settlements along the present banks of the Yukon; nothing beyond -a few hundred years at most. If there was anything older no -external signs of it have been noted, and no objects of it have ever -been found. It seems certain that the stone implements thus far seen -were used and made by the pre-Russian and probably even later -Indians. They all belong to the polished-stone variety. No "paleolithic" -type of instrument has yet been seen.</p> - -<p>It is also evident that the Eskimo admixture and doubtless also cultural -influence extended far up the river. The farther down the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> -river, particularly from Ruby, the more the Eskimoid physical characteristics -become marked and the Indian diluted, until at Anvik -most, or at least much, physical and cultural, is clearly Eskimo.</p> - -<p>Have further learned quite definitely that native villages on the -Yukon were seldom if ever stable. Have been known (as at Kaltag -and elsewhere) to have changed location as much as three times -within the last few scores of years, though in general they keep to the -same locality in a larger sense of the word. Anvik alone seems to -have remained on the old site since the advent of the whites.</p> - -<p>Anvik, Tuesday, June 29. Last night gave talk on evolution to -white teachers, etc. Quite appreciated, regardless of previous state -of mentality.</p> - -<p>Caught up with some sleep, even though my attic room was so -hot that the gum from the spruce boards was dropping down on me. -Good breakfast with the doctor—canned grapefruit, corn flakes with -canned milk, bread toasted in the oven, and coffee.</p> - -<p>Pack up my Greyling skeleton—much drier to-day—and dispatch -by parcel post, through the doctor as postmaster.</p> - -<p>Photograph school children and village. Gnats bad and have to -wear substantial underclothing (limbs are already full of dark red -itching blotches where bitten by them) though it is a hot day again.</p> - -<p>The full-blood and especially the slightly mixed children would -be fine, not seldom lovely, were they fully healthy; but their lungs -are often weak or there is some other tubercular trouble.</p> - -<p>The color of the full-bloods, juvenile and others, on the body, is -invariably submedium to near medium brown, the exposed parts -darker; and the chest test (mine) for full-bloodedness holds true. -The young are often good looking; the old rather ugly.</p> - -<p>All adults fishing now, the fish running much since a day or -two; all busy at the fish camps, not many, in the daytime especially, -about the mission.</p> - -<p>At noon air fills with haze—soon recognized as smoke from a fire -which is located at only about a mile, and that with the wind, from -the mission. We all hasten to some of the houses in the brush—find -enough clearing about them for safety. The school here burned -two years ago and so all are apprehensive. Natives from across -the river hasten to their caches. Luckily not much wind.</p> - -<p>After lunch children come running in saying they hear thunder; -one girl saying in their usual choppy, picturesque way, "Outside -is thunder"; another smaller one says, "It hollers above." Before -long a sprinkle and then gradually more and more rain until there -is a downpour followed by several thunderclaps (as with us) and -then some more rain. That, of course, stops the fire from approaching -closer and all is safe. Such storms are rare occurrences -hereabouts.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p> - -<p>My limbs are a sight from the gnats. Must apply Aseptinol. -Worse than any mosquitoes; like the worst chiggers. Poisonous—some -hemolytic substance, which causes also much itching, especially -at night.</p> - -<p>Arrange to leave to-morrow. Good people these, unpretentious, -but white through and through.</p> - -<p>Mr. Lawrence, the local trader, who with his boy was with me -yesterday, is going to take me to an old site down the river and then -to Holy Cross. Donates a fine old ivory arrow point from the site -mentioned. Doctor Chapman gives three old dishes and two stone -axes—haft on one of recent manufacture. The natives seem to have -nothing of this nature, and no old site is near. The nearest is -Bonasila, where we go to-morrow.</p> - -<p>This is truly a fish country. Along the placid Anvik River fish -smell everywhere—dead fish on shore here and there, or fish eggs, -or offal.</p> - -<p>Wednesday, June 30. Hazy and cool, 52° F. Take leave with -friend, Doctor Chapman, then at school, and leave 8 a. m. for -Bonasila.</p> - -<p>The gnat pest was bad this morning—could hardly load my baggage; -had to apply the smear again, but this helps only where -put and for a time only.</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Bonasila</span></h3> - -<p>Close to 10 a. m. arrive at the Bonasila site. Not much—just -a low bank of the big river, not over 4 feet high in front, and -a higher rank grass-covered flat with a little stream on the left and a -hill on the right. But the flat is full of fossae of old barabras -(pit and tunnel dwellings), all wood on surface gone; and there is a -cemetery to the right and behind, on a slope.</p> - -<p>Examine beach and banks minutely until 12. Modest lunch—two -sandwiches, a bit of cake and tea—and then begin to examine the -shore again. Soon after arrival finding bones of animals, some -partly fossilized; beaver, deer, caribou, bear, fox, dog, etc., all -species still living in Alaska, as found later, though no more in the -immediate neighborhood.</p> - -<p>Mosquitoes and gnats bad—use lot of oil. Begin soon to find -remarkably primitive looking stone tools, knockers, scrapers, etc. -Crawl through washed-down trees and brush. Many stones on the -beach show signs of chipping or use. Very crude—a protolithic industry; -but a few pieces better and showing polished edge. Also -plenty of fragments of pottery, not seldom decorated (indented). -Make quite a collection. And then, to cap it, find parts of human -skeleton, doubtless washed out from the bank. Much missing, but a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> -good bit recovered, and that bit is very striking. (See p. <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.) Also -a cut bone (clean cut, as if by a sharp knife) in situ in the mud -of the bank, and a little birch-bark basket still filled with mud from -the bank, with later a larger basket of same nature in situ; could -save but a piece. Conditions puzzling. Was there an older site -under one more recent?</p> - -<p>2 p. m. About 2 p. m. go to the cemetery. About a dozen burials -recognizable. A pest of mosquitoes and gnats—Lawrence soon -bleeds over face and neck, while I keep them off only by frequent -smearing. He soon has to smear, too. Open five graves—placed -above ground, wooden (split and no nails) boxes covered with earth -and sod. Skeletons all in contracted position, head to the east and -lying on right side. Some in poor condition. Three women, one -man, one child. Gnats swarm in the moss and the graves, and with -the smears, here and there a trickle of blood, the killed pests and -the dust, we soon look lovely. But there is enough of interest. -With each burial appears something—with the man two large blue -Russian beads; first woman—a pottery lamp (or dish), iron knife; -with the second two fire sticks, stone objects (sharpeners), partly -decayed clay dish; with the third, a Russian bead and a birch-bark -snuffbox; with the child a "killed" (?) glass bottle of old form -and an iron flask; in the grave of an infant (bones gone) a Russian -bead. A grave of a child—bones burned.</p> - -<p>6.15 p. m. Rest must be left. Lawrence may be enabled to do -some work in the fall. Leave 6.15; carry quite a lot—in sacks, gasoline -cans, lard cans. Wonder how I shall be able to send things from -Holy Cross, and what next. Cool, sky overcast whole day.</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Holy Cross</span></h3> - -<p>Thursday, July 1. Slept on the floor of a little store last night -at Ghost Creek. The Catholic mission at Holy Cross, with all sorts -of room, about 1½ miles down, and where, though late and tired, I -visited Father Jules Jetté, a renowned student of the dialects of the -Yukon Indians, did not offer to accommodate me, and the trader in -their village could only offer me a "bunk" in one little room with -three other people. So after 10 p. m. we went down to the "Ghost -Creek," where I was gladly given a little corner in the store of Alec -Richardson. Of course there were whining dogs outside, right next -to the store on both sides, and they sang at times (or howled) like -wolves, whose blood they seem to carry. And a cat got closed in with -me and was pulling dried fish about, which she chewed, most of the -night it seemed. So there was not much sleep until from about 5 -a. m. to 8.30, after the cat was chased out and the dogs got weary. -Then no breakfast till near 9.30.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span></p> - -<p>Went to mission again to see Father Jetté—he is not of the mission—a -fine old Frenchman and scholar. He was not responsible for -last night and anyway I was spoiled farther up the river. His -meritorious work deserves to be known and published.</p> - -<p>After a very simple lunch packed yesterday's collections from the -Bonasila site—five boxes. The parcel post here alone will cost -$20.40. How odd that the transportation of the collections of a -Government institution must be paid for from the little appropriation -received for scientific work to another department of the same -Government.</p> - -<p>It is cloudy, drizzly, cold. Am endeavoring to leave to-morrow, -but they want $35 to the next station, and the boat does not leave -for St. Michael until the 11th. Fortunately I am able to send away -the collections, and there will surely be some way down the river.</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Ghost Creek</span></h3> - -<p>July 1-2, 10.30 p. m. A night on the Yukon. (Pl. 3, <em>a</em>,) They -have lit a powder against the mosquitoes. Smear the many gnat -bites with Mentholatum—helps but for a while—and having now my -fine meshed netting, my own bedding, and a clean pillow, I feel -fine, safe from all the pests, and ready for a quiet night, all alone.</p> - -<p>Commenced dozing off when a he-cat, who hid in the store at -closing, begins to make all kinds of unnamable noises. Stand it for -a while, but he does not stop and one could never sleep—so crawl -out from the bed, catch the beast, and throw him out.</p> - -<p>In again and settling down, when another cat—did not know there -were two here—begins to mew and tries to force its way out under -the door, which is about 2½ inches above the floor. Persists until -I have to get up the second time. Throw that cat out and in bed -once more.</p> - -<p>In a minute, however, the dogs outside espied the cats and began -a pandemonium of howls and yelps and barks. Try hard, but can -not stand it. Moreover, the last cat got on the roof, where I hear -him walking, and he seems in no hurry to get off. So finally have -to get out, catch the cat on the edge of the roof, throw him back into -the store, and to bed for another trial. But soon have to smear the -body; the bites itch too much. The sleepiness is now quite gone. -A mild amusement as to what next. It must be midnight or later -now, and it has grown cold. One blanket is not sufficient. Doze off -a little, wake up with cold, readjust blanket and flaps of bag, doze -off a little again—the dogs commence to howl, just for a song this -time, in two, three, then a unison. The bites itch bitterly, now here, -now there. The sun has risen; it is real cold, probably no more than -about 40° to 45° F. And so on until 5.30, when at last fall into<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> -a deep, dreamless sleep, regardless of light, cats, dogs, and everything -and sleep until 8.30.</p> - -<p>Wake up, can not believe my watch; but it goes, and so probably -is right. But no one anywhere yet stirring.</p> - -<p>Dress, wash a bit in the muddy river; head feels as if it had been -knocked by something heavy. Make my "roll" of bedding and -then work on notes, putting down faithfully what has transpired. -About 9.30, at last, the storekeeper comes to say they overslept and -that a cup of coffee will be ready before long.</p> - -<p>Friday, July 2. "Ghost Creek" was named so because of many -burials about the creek. The flat between the hills here is about -three-fourths of a mile long by the water front, with rising slopes, -and used to extend considerably farther out, but was "cut" or -washed away by the river. It has been used for a village site and -burial ground by the old Indians of the vicinity. As the banks -tumble away, bone arrow points, barbed and not, stone scrapers, and -other objects wash out. Graves are found in the ground as well as -above it. Russian influence prevalent in the objects buried with the -bodies, but site extends to pre-Russian time. Same type graves as -at Bonasila, with slight local modifications.</p> - -<p>At Bonasila the burials above ground were in boxes of hewn wood, -joined somewhat as the logs in a log house, and without any base. -The body inside was covered with birch bark (three or four pieces), -then covered with the top planks, unfastened, and these in turn -covered with about a foot of earth and sod. At Ghost Creek the -same, but there is an undressed-stake base or platform on which the -sides of the "coffin" rest and with somewhat less earth and sod on -the top of the box. But graves differ here from underground and -birch bark alone (no trace of wood, if any was ever there; but -probably none used) to such aboveground as have iron nails and -sawed planks. Here, as at Bonasila, a few simple articles are -generally found buried at the head, and for these many of the graves -were already despoiled and the skeletal remains scattered or reburied.</p> - -<p>There appears to be no line of demarcation between the underground -and aboveground graves; possibly the latter were winter -burials, but this must be looked into further.</p> - -<p>The bodies here, except the latest, are buried flexed. Exceptionally, -both at Bonasila and here, the planks surrounding the grave -were painted with some mineral pigments which resist decomposition -better than the wood, and decorated in a very good native way with -series of animals and men, caribou, bear, etc. Too faint to photograph, -and too bulky and decayed to take away; but decoration much -superior to ordinary Indian pictographs, and apparently connecting -with the type of art of the northwest coast. It is of interest that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> -practically the same decorated burials were seen by Dall among the -Eskimo of Norton Sound (Unalaklik).<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> In this case it was probably -the Indian habit that was adopted by the near-by Eskimo, for -none of the more northern Eskimo practiced such burials. The habit -was also known in southeastern Alaska. (Pl. 3, <em>b</em>.)</p> - -<p>Jim Walker, the helpful local mix-breed trader, has dug out many -of these graves (alone or with Harry Lawrence), and a good many -of the objects are said to have been taken away by Father O'Hara, -formerly of the Holy Cross Mission.</p> - -<p>According to all indications the stone culture of Bonasila and of -Ghost Creek (1½ miles upstream from Holy Cross) were related, -both passing apparently into the Russian period, and that at Ghost -Creek continuing down to our times, for there is still living here an -old man who belongs to this place which once had a large village. -Much could be done yet and saved in both places.</p> - -<p>Saturday, July 3. At last slept, notwithstanding everything, and -succeeded even in being warm.</p> - -<p>Breakfast 8.30, for a wonder. Two soft-boiled Seattle eggs, two -bits of toast with canned butter (not bad at all), some over-preserved -raspberries, and a faded-looking nearly cold "flapjack" with -sirup, also mediocre tea. But all goes here, and the stomach calls -for no other attention than to fill it.</p> - -<p>Finishing work, getting further information from the old Indian, -writing, and waiting to go away with a trader to Paimute, the first -all-Eskimo village, 25 miles farther down the river. Rains occasionally, -but not very cold. Many gnats when wind moderates.</p> - -<p>Lunch—canned sardines (in this land of fresh salmon!), a bit of -toast, some canned fruit, and that unsavory tea.</p> - -<p>Have utilized this day in a profitable manner. Have learned -that there was another burial ground about half a mile farther upstream, -behind an elevation. So got a rowboat and with Jim -Walker's young boy rowed over. Had to wade through high grass -over a wet flat, and then up the rank grass and bush-covered slope, -and there found a number of old burials. All rifled, but most of -the bones still there. So send boy back, on the quiet—there is above -the store the camp of the old man with an old Indian woman and -sick girl—for some boxes, and meanwhile collect. It is an unceasing -struggle with the mosquitoes and gnats in the tall grass and weeds; -but one after another I find what remains of the usual old box -burials. The bones are mostly in good condition. The boy arrives -with several empty gasoline boxes, we gather drier grass and moss, -and pack right on the spot, eventually get to the boat, strike off as -far as possible from the shore so none could see what is carried, and -proceed to Walker's storehouse. Old Indian and his old crony -nevertheless stand on bank and look long at us. In storehouse boxes -closed, later delivered by the boy to the mail boat, and so that much -is saved; for were it not collected, in a few years the weather, vegetation, -and animals, human and other, would destroy everything.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 3</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_3a.jpg" width="700" height="389" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>a</em>, Midnight on the Yukon</p></div> - -<img src="images/plate_3b.jpg" width="700" height="527" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>b</em>, Lower middle Yukon: Painted burial box of a Yukon Indian (before 1884) said to have been a -hunter of Bielugas (white whales), which used to ascend far up the Yukon</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 4</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_4a.jpg" width="700" height="340" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>a</em>, Eskimo camp below Paimute, Yukon River</p></div> - -<img src="images/plate_4b.jpg" width="700" height="380" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>b</em>, Old "protolithic" site 12 miles down from Paimute, right bank, just beyond "12-mile hill." -(skull, bones, stones)</p></div> - -<img src="images/plate_4c.jpg" width="700" height="376" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>c</em>, "Old" site in bank seen in middle of picture, 12 miles down from Paimute, opposite that shown in -preceding figure. (A. H., 1926)</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span></p> - -<p>Moreover, the utmost care is taken always to leave everything in as -good shape as found; and the remains taken will be treated so well -and may give us so much that we need that there is no more hesitation -in securing them than there would be on the part of a paleontologist -in securing old bones for his purposes.</p> - -<p>For supper, though it is still early, am invited by Simel, an elderly -Jew mail carrier. Have fine meat-and-potato soup, lettuce-and-cucumber -salad (even if the cucumbers from the Holy Cross hothouse -are overripe and bitter), fresh (storage) meat, cooked dried -apples, and poor but hot coffee—all seasoned with the best will and -genuine, simple friendliness.</p> - -<p>Max Simel, whose home is at Ophir, has been in this country 29 -years, and "never needed to buy a quarter's worth of medicine." -Has a wife in Seattle, also a daughter and a son; has not seen them -for four years. Wants me to call on them and tell them I met him. -With his companion, Paul Keating, of Holikachakat, gives me some -interesting information. They tell me independently and then together -of an occurrence that shows what may happen along this great -river. A well-known white man and woman, prospectors on their -mail route, have last year thawed and dug out a shaft, nearly 40 feet -deep, through muck and silt, to the gravel, in which they hoped to -get gold; and just before they reached the gravel they found a piece -of calico, old and in bad condition, but still showing some of its -design and color.</p> - -<p>7 p. m. It rains, but wind has moderated, and so near 7 p. m. -we start on our way farther down the river, stopping just long enough -at Holy Cross to attend to my reservation for St. Michael. The agent -has no idea when the boat will go—maybe the 11th, maybe not until -the 14th or later.</p> - -<p>Going on an old leaky scow with an elderly, faded, chewing, not -very talkative but for all that very kindly and accommodating man, -who with one hand holds the steering wheel and with the other most -of the time keeps on bailing. He carries supplies for his store and I -my outfit, camera, and umbrella. Sky has here and there cleared,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> -even patches of sun appear on far-away clean-cut hills. Water not -very rough; make fair time downstream. Banks flat now, river -broad, some hills in distance.</p> - -<p>8.00 p. m. Hills nearer ahead of us. Some of the flats look from -distance like fine tree nurseries. Getting cool. Cloudy ahead. The -banks flat and low, no good site for habitation. Not even fishing -camps here—just long "cut-banks" (banks being cut by the river) -and low beaches. Here and there new bars and islands that are -being built by the river. No birds, no boats, just an occasional -floating snag or a rare solitary gull.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Alaska and Its Resources, p. 19: "Our attention was attracted by the numerous graves. -These are well worth the careful attention of the ethnologist; many of them are very old. -The usual fashion is to place the body, doubled up, on its side, in a box of plank hewed -out of spruce logs and about 4 feet long; this is elevated several feet above the ground -on four posts, which project above the coffin or box. The sides are often painted with -red chalk, in figures of fur animals, birds, and fishes."</p></div></div> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Paimute</span></h3> - -<p>Paimute down river, I am told, has nothing but Eskimo; Holy -Cross, but a few natives now, mainly Indian; above Holy Cross, -Indian, Eskimo only as adapted or in admixture.</p> - -<p>July 3, 8.30 p. m. Hills on right now right before us. Behind first -a fish camp of the Holy Cross Mission natives. River narrows and -bends. Two other fish camps become visible. Stop; damp, cold, -smoke, fish smell, a few natives, Eskimo. River now like molten -glass, but air damp and cold, and I must sit behind the engine and -keep my hands over the hot exhaust pipe to keep somewhat comfortable.</p> - -<p>Pass bulging bluffs on right—old stratified shales.</p> - -<p>11.00 p. m. Arrive at our destination about 11 p. m. But a few log -huts on the right side of the river, with few others and a primitive -frame church in the back. A little store and a big storehouse (with -skins, etc.), trader's house (log cabin) a few rods away. Open -store, only to find that a pup had been forgotten there, made a lot -of mess and dirt and ate most of one side of bacon.</p> - -<p>12.00 p. m. Got to bed in the cabin at 12. Spread bed roll on -two reindeer skins which, with fire in the stove, keep me fairly warm. -Rain in night and several earth tremors—common in these parts; -feel several light ones every night and a stronger one occasionally -even in daytime (a big "fault" in the Alaskan range and a proximity -to the Aleutian volcanic zone).</p> - -<p>Awake before 8, but as it still rains nothing can be done, while -my man within a few feet of me still snores; stay in blanket till 9. -Modest breakfast at 10 a. m.</p> - -<p>10.00 a. m. A little house cleaning—watch kitten clean windows -of the many flies, which it eats; and then my man, a Swede by birth, -sailor, self-taught painter (of ships and sea scenes), and musician -(accordion), goes to bail out the boat. Still full of bites that itch -and need a lot of Aseptinol, which in turn makes underwear look -dreadful. And no bath possible.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p> - -<p>Last night met some of the local Eskimo, full bloods, mostly from -the Kuskokwim River. Strong, kinder than the Yukon Indians. -But they differ but little in some cases from the latter. They are -medium brown in color, hair exactly like the Indian, beard also—only -the rather flat (not prominent) mid parts of the face, with -rather long and narrow (upper two-thirds) nose, and the cheek -bones protruding more or less forward, with face long (often), due -to the vertical development of the jaws, helps to distinguish them as -Eskimo. There is no clear line of demarcation between the Indian -farther up the river and the Eskimo down here, yet in some here -the Eskimo type is unmistakable. They have more epicanthus, -flatter, longer, and stronger (more massive) face, stronger frame, -rather submedium length of legs, and less brachycephalic (or more -oblong) head, but not the characteristic, narrow and high, keel-shaped -dome that one is used to associate with the Eskimo.</p> - -<p>1 p. m. A little lunch—just a cup of coffee and a few crackers. -Photograph two natives.</p> - -<p>1.30 p. m. Start toward Russian Mission. Trader carries sugar -in bags and tea for camps.</p> - -<p>Near 2. Stop at an Eskimo camp, see sick baby, photograph a -few individuals. Get an ax for a pocketbook—old man happy as a -child at the exchange. Made another one happy this morning in -payment for information with one of my steamer caps. (Pl. 4, <em>a</em>.)</p> - -<p>Pass along the still continuing bulging hills on the right. They -are forested over lower parts, barren, though mostly greenish, above. -As usual flats on left, devoid of man. Occasionally a fish camp on -right, or a small village, somewhat different, though in essentials -like the Indian (more gregariousness noticeable—up river mostly -individual or at most two or three families). Every favorable higher -flat or low saddle among the hills on the right and facing the river -(or a slough) is utilized by the natives, but such places are scarce.</p> - -<p>The ax obtained looks as if it had been broken after found, to make -of it a single-edge tool. Tumbled out of a bank. Old Eskimo knew -not who made it. Found some miles below Paimute by the old man. -Others found, but lost. Ivory arrow and spear points also known -to natives, but no one now has any.</p> - -<p>A mountain ahead of us. Sky clouded mostly, high diffuse vapors -and low, heavy but separated cumuli in the east; one would expect -soon a heavy rain. Visibility exceptionally good, horizons far -away, uncommonly clear. Mountains sharply outlined against the -sky.</p> - -<p>About 12 miles below Paimute, on left, some higher banks (old silts -and dunes). The ax from the old man had been found here. Stop. -Find pottery 12 feet, charcoal 15 feet from surface. Also polished<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> -and worked stones. But most of bank has already been cut off and -what remains shows no signs of man on the top. (Pl. 4, <em>b</em>.)</p> - -<p>Cross river obliquely to right bank, just beyond last ("12-mile") -hill. Find at once numerous evidences of stone work along the stony -beach. In an hour have a fair collection, mainly rejects, but interesting. -On top of bank find several mounds and ridges, doubtless dunes, -though the one farthest up the river looks very much like a large -oval man-made mound. Parts of two much-weathered skulls and -one bone lay on the top of this. No definite marks of graves excepting -perhaps in one instance. A sign of old clearing farther down, -but no "barabras." A spot well worthy of exploration. It was, I -learned a little later from Nick Williams, a native who used to act -as a pilot on the river, the old mountain village or "Ingrega-miut," -and the site is 12 miles downstream from Paimute. (Pl. 4, <em>c</em>.)</p> - -<p>Beyond are flats and cut banks, both sides, but with hills (old -water front) behind on the right and mountains in front. River -here very wide.</p> - -<p>Many of the worked stones, and occasionally, according to native -information, skulls and bones, are washed out from the banks and -deposited (rolling, etc.) lower on the beach in something like strata, -and in that way evidence is being perverted. Some day a new bank -or even a dune may be formed over these secondary deposits and a -great source of possible future error be completed.</p> - -<p>All the natives along the river (to here) like to bury on the lower -slopes of near-by hills.</p> - -<p>To bed on floor of kitchen tent at the fine, clean little place of -Tucker's, at 10.30. At 1.30 the 20 dogs start a fine, sustained, unison -howl song, and I seem to hear an approaching boat. As the Governor -of Alaska is expected, slip on shoes and necktie, brush hair, -and run out. There is a little boat at the little "dock" (the only -one seen so far on the Yukon). Tucker and his son are already -there, and I soon hear that the governor is on the boat, which is -that of Mr. Townsend, of the Fish Commission. In a few minutes -we meet, both in shirt sleeves. And I learn the <em>Matanuska</em>, the -boat that was to take me from the Russian Mission to St. Michael, -has broken down and is not coming. In her place, but no telling -as to time, will be sent the <em>Agnes</em>, a smaller and slower boat, on -which three people have already this season been "gassed" (overcome -by the exhaust gases), one of them jumping into the river. -She has accommodation for four persons at most, and that of the -most primitive, they say. The governor fortunately gives me some -hope that I may be picked up and taken down by the same boat which -is taking him to Holy Cross. He also tells me of a skull for me at -one of the stopping places, Old Hamilton. A frank, good, strong -man.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span></p> - -<p>Boat leaves in a few minutes. Back to bed, but now almost full -daylight—also cold, and so no more than a doze until 6.15, at which -time the boy comes to the kitchen where I was kindly accommodated -to start fire and breakfast. So up with a drowsy head. At 7 breakfast—coffee, -oatmeal, flapjacks, and good company. Everything -about this place is neat, fresh, pleasing—the best individual place -on the river. Cloudy, blustery, cool; can not start, so go 1½ miles -down to Dogfish village, or I-ka-thloy-gia-miut—probably the same -as Zagoskin's I-ka-lig-vig-miut. Only three or four families there -now; nearly all the inhabitants died of influenza in 1900. But -already before reaching the village, in examining the stones along -the beach, I find some chipped ones, and they represent the same -industry evidently as those at the two sites yesterday. Later find -numerous chipped scrapers, pointed hammers, crude cutters and -chisels, and a few axes. Make quite a collection, including a few -objects found in possession of natives.</p> - -<p>This is a good site, above high water. Must be old. Pottery also -encountered occasionally by present occupants, but not one bead; -little if any river cutting here for a long period. Worth exploration. -Photograph another Indianlike Eskimo. Want to buy an old dish -from an Eskimo, border inlaid with six white stones, shaped like an -oblong lozenge with rounded corners, but he wants $20. Lunch all -together, some Eskimo included, at Tucker's, and then as the wind -moderates and the sun comes out, start for the Russian Mission. -Mostly still clouds and cool, with some rain in the mountains to -the right.</p> - -<p>Finds and inquiries made at Dogfish village make it positive that -the stone culture there is Eskimo, i. e., of the Eskimo of this region -who are probably not a little mixed with Indians. Their head is -but moderately oblong, not keel shaped. The majority, however, -have Eskimo features.</p> - -<p>But the cupid-bow (double-grooved) axes are not known to have -been made by these people, and when used after being found or -brought down from farther up the river they apparently were -broken. One such example was seen already at Ruby—another one -at Anvik—secured; and one found yesterday at Mountain village. -The axes here are most often oblong, quadrilateral, without groove, -or approaching the single-grooved axes of the Indians in the States.</p> - -<p>July 6. Proceed down the river toward Russian Mission, examining -the banks as closely as possible. Toward evening stop at -"Gurtler's," a short distance above the mission.</p> - -<p>Mr. Gurtler is a German by birth; his wife is half Indian, of Ruby. -She, as well as her 14-year-old daughter, are neat, apt, and very industrious, -quiet and nice mannered. With an Eskimo woman, she<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> -cleans and cuts up—a whole art of its own—on the average over 200 -good-sized salmon a day. Clean place, very good smoking house—much -superior to those up the river, except Tucker's.</p> - -<p>Sleep in a clean bed of theirs; would much prefer my own and -the hard floor, but fear to offend.</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Russian Mission</span></h3> - -<p>Pack my stones and bones collected between here and Holy Cross, -and after lunch go to Russian Mission. Meet Mr. Cris Betsch, the -trader, and find him both friendly and anxious to help. Teacher -and her mother invite me to supper. Before that Mr. Betsch calls in -a number of the older men, and we have a talk about ancient things, -but they know nothing worth while beyond a few score of years at -most; they give me, however, some data and names of old villages.</p> - -<p>A few years ago some human bones and skulls were dug up here -and reburied. Eskimo readily agree to help us find them and to let -me take them. Moreover, they are quite eager to dig up an old medicine -man supposed to be buried under a good-sized (for this country) -blue spruce. They get shovels, soon find some of the old bones and a -damaged skull, and later on, with the help of information given by -an elderly woman, uncover also a female skull. Uncover further -the end of two birch-bark-covered coffins, from Russian time, and -would readily dig them out did I not restrain them; as also with -the medicine man. We shall probably get some such specimens from -this locality later, so there is no need of disturbing the burials.</p> - -<p>Mrs. Barrick, the teacher, gives us a "civilized" supper, at which I -am introduced for the first time to a great and fine Yukon specialty, -namely, smoked raw strips of king salmon, and find them excellent. -Then a good talk with all, after which pack specimens—still somewhat -damp, but it would be difficult to wait—deliver to the post, and -am sent to my place around the hill at a little past 10 p. m. with an -invitation by Mr. Betsch to go to-morrow to "the slough of the 32 -kashims (council or communal house)," about 10 miles down the -river. But I have already been promised by Gurtler to take me -down to this place, and so I can not accept. Just now I need sleep.</p> - -<p>July 7. After breakfast examine banks and beach along Gurtler's -place and find two stone implements, two pieces of decorated pottery, -and a bone of some animal. Wash, dry, and pack, then a cup -of coffee—the Gurtler's have a habit of drinking a second cup at -about 10 a. m. each day—and then, after some of the seemingly -inevitable trouble with motor, start down the river. It rained yesterday; -the clouds show low pressure; it is not warm and the water -is somewhat rough.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p> - -<p>Stop a bit at the mission to give Mrs. Barrick a fish and get a bag -or two from Mr. Betsch, and then proceed. From the river the -Russian Mission settlement is seen to be very favorably situated at -the foot of the southern slope of a big hill. But the recency of the -flat below and in front of the church and schoolhouse is clearly -seen again. The site about where the church and school are may—in -fact must, it is so favored—be a very old one, and doubtless a -thorough excavation of the slope from the back of the houses -upward would be both easy and very instructive. The place should -by all means receive attention.</p> - -<p>Reach and examine the "32 kashim slough," a beautiful side channel -about 7 miles long; reach about 1½ miles from its entrance, -examine banks and pass through jungle, find tracks of foxes and of -a bear, also see one big beautiful red fox trotting ahead of us on the -other beach—but not a trace of man. Examine also the "mounds" -on Grand Island, but find them to be only dunes.</p> - -<p>Lunch on the beach; remarkably few mosquitoes and no gnats; -smoked raw salmon strips again, and coffee; and at 5 leave for home, -it being impossible so late to go down to the end of the channel.</p> - -<p>On return all going nicely until 5. Then, in a slough 3½ miles -from the Russian Mission, after an examination of another likely site, -breakdown of the motor. Do everything possible to make it go until -about 8, but in vain. Then I take the crazy little rowboat that luckily -we took with us, bail out the water with our shovel, and row to -the mission for help. Get there about 9, send back a launch with some -natives, have a little supper with the teacher, and row home around -the hill, reaching Gurtler's near 11. In a few minutes the launch -is towed in and all is well once more. Mr. Betsch got for us two -good native "kantágs" or wooden dishes. Also we fix to go down to -the "32 kashims" to-morrow once more with Mr. Betsch and the -teacher.</p> - -<p>July 8. Up a little after 6; breakfast; and then comes in a native -from the mission with two letters and information that the <em>Agnes</em>, -the little mail-carrier boat, has arrived during the night and is waiting -for me to take me to Marshall and to Old Hamilton, whence -another boat will take me in a day or two to St. Michael. So get -ready in a minute, put my baggage on a native's boat, pay my bill, -leave another lot of good friends, and row to the mission. There is -the little dinghy <em>Agnes</em> with its "accommodation" for three passengers -already two-thirds filled up, and towing two big logs as a freight. -Put my things partly in a "bunk," partly on the roof, give good-byes -to Betsch and the teacher, help to push off the boat which is stuck in -the mud, and we are off for another Yukon chapter.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></p> - -<p>We pass by the lower end of the "32 kashim" slough—no sign of -any site—all recently made flats. If there is anything left of the old -sites it must be at the foot of the hills, or has been covered with silt. -The site is so favorable that in all probability there was once there -a good-sized settlement, but due to river action and the jungle it -could not be located. Mr. Betsch visited the place that day, and again -with some old natives on another occasion, without being more -fortunate.</p> - -<p>Cloudy, slightly drizzly day, no trace of sun, mists over the tops of -the hills. Could not stand it in the boat, so sitting on my box on -the roof of the boat, wrapped, due to the cold, in a blanket.</p> - -<p>A little below the "32 kashim" slough a small stream enters from -inland—a place to be examined; but this boat can not stop for such -a purpose.</p> - -<p>A half mile or so farther down a few graves and crosses, with -remnants of a native habitation.</p> - -<p>Over 3 miles down, just beyond first bluff, fine site, with low hills -stretching far beyond it—now but a few empty, half-ruined native -houses. Should be explored.</p> - -<p>South of second rocky bluff a live camp, and farther down another.</p> - -<p>The left side of the river is still all flats as far as one can see, -but about 17 miles below Russian Mission human bones came out of -a bank there (on a slough).</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Marshall</span></h3> - -<p>At 3 p. m. reach Marshall, a little cheerful-looking mining town, -high on a bank. See the place, identify the skeleton from the above-mentioned -bank as that of a missing white man, see telegraph operator, -postmaster, teacher, commissioner. Sun comes out, is warm. -Almost no mosquitoes here and no gnats. Hills above and beyond -town belong already to the coast range and are barren of trees, even -largely bare of shrubs and bushes. Leave 4.30.</p> - -<p>Soon after Marshall—after passing by an Eskimo village (white -man's style of buildings)—leave the hills and enter flats on both -sides. This is the beginning of the delta region. River like glass, -and it is warm in the sun but very perceptibly cooler when sun is -hidden.</p> - -<p>The boat has only three bunks, and there are five of us with the two -pilots. But on the last trip up, there were, fortunately only for -about eight hours, seven, including two women and a child, and that -without any privacy or conveniences whatsoever. It is almost criminal, -and they charge a very steep fare. However, for me it will -soon be over—only about 36 hours. Still it is hard to believe this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> -is yet in the United States and presumably under some sort of -supervision.</p> - -<p>Which brings me to a realization that the first half of my journey—the -preliminary survey of the Yukon—is slowly closing; a -little, and it will be the sea and other conditions, which also brings -the realization that I have seen much but learned not greatly. What -should be done would be to own a suitable fast boat; to locate on each -of the more important old sites a party for careful, prolonged excavation; -and to try to locate, in the rear of or on the higher places on -the present river flats, more ancient sites than are known to date. -These steps, together with the enlisting of the interest in these matters -of every prospector, miner, and trader, would before many years -lead to much substantial knowledge.</p> - -<p>Friday, July 9. Must keep up these notes, for they alone keep me -posted on the day and date; even then I am not always sure. There -are no Sundays in nature.</p> - -<p>Slept in my bag on the roof of the <em>Agnes</em>. Her namesake must -have been one of these goodly but insufficient and but indifferently -clean native women, plodding, doing not a little work, but wanting -in many a thing. It was cold and dreary, but I found an additional -blanket, and so, with mosquito netting about my head—one or two -got in anyway—would have slept quite well had it not been for a -dog. At about 1 a. m. we stopped in front of a little place called -also "Mountain Village." And almost at once we began to hear a -most piteous and insistent wail of a dog who either had colic or thirst -or hunger, and he kept it up with but little stops for what seemed -like two hours, making my sleep, at least, impossible.</p> - -<p>Saturday, July 9. Morning. Cold, cloudy, rough—head almost -beginning to feel uncomfortable, the boat is tossing so much. A -teacher comes aboard with an inflamed hand which I fix; a few -questions, the mail bag, and we are off again. Enter a slough where -it is less rough and warmer. Later the sun will probably come out -again. This evening we shall be at Old Hamilton and then a new -anxiety—how to get to St. Michael.</p> - -<p>Just had a little walk over the roof—my roof, for the other two -passengers prefer to sleep in the gassy, dingy room below, though how -they can stand it is beyond my medical ken. It is four short steps -long, or five half steps in an oblique direction.</p> - -<p>Every object in distance appears magnified all along the river for -many days now. An old snag will look like a boat or a man, hills -look higher, a boat looks much more pretentious than she proves to -be on meeting.</p> - -<p>Firs and spruce have now completely disappeared, also forests of -birch, etc., are reduced to brush both on flats and lower parts of hills.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> -Very large portion of the hills in distance just greenish with grass -and lichens, not even a brush.</p> - -<p>9.45 a. m. Meet the <em>Matanuska</em> bound upward. Looked from distance -like an ocean steamer; from near, just a lumbering, moderate-sized -river boat with a barge in front. But a whole lot better than -ours.</p> - -<p>The scenery has become monotonous. The gray river, although -only one of the "mouths," is broad, and the country is all low. -Nothing but bushy or grassy cut banks on the right, and mud flats, -"smoking" under the wind, to low banks on left. It is a little -warmer and the warm sun shows itself occasionally, but I still need -the wrapping of a double blanket. The wind luckily is with us and -the waves not too bad.</p> - -<p>Noon. Passing "Fish village"; a few huts and tents.</p> - -<p>No "camps" here outside the few villages; just an endless dreary -waste and water.</p> - -<p>New Hamilton—a few native huts only now—no whites.</p> - -<p>Reach Old Hamilton—about a dozen houses with a warehouse, -a store of the Northern Commercial Co., and a nice looking but now -unoccupied school.</p> - -<p>Here the governor told me there was somewhere a skull waiting -for me, and the storekeeper would tell me of it. But when we arrive -there are only two or three natives to meet us. The storekeeper, -who is also postmaster, is said to be sick in bed. He is supposed to -have an ulcer or some other bad thing of the stomach. So we go to -his house and find him in bed, with a lot of medicine bottles on a table -next to him. Is alone; no wife. Shows no enthusiasm in seeing me, -though heard of my coming. Reads letters—no attention to me. -Gets up—I ask him about his illness—answers like a man carrying a -chip on his shoulder. Goes to store to attend to mail, and barely -asks me to follow. I wait in store; he finishes mail and goes out—orders -the Eskimo present out gruffly, and to me says, "You may -stay in the store; I'll be back." But I wait and wait, and finally -decide the man for some reason is unwilling to help me. Asked him -before he went out about the <em>Matanuska</em>, but he told me she might -not be back from Holy Cross in a month, trying doubtless to discourage -me to stay. On going toward the <em>Agnes</em> I find him sitting -on a log and talking to a couple of men from a tugboat that has -arrived—just talk, no business, judging from their laughing. So I -go on the boat, write a few words to Mr. Townsend of the Bureau of -Fisheries, who makes this place his headquarters, and with some -feeling hand this to the man, telling him at the same time that -plainly he does not wish to assist me in any way. This, of course, -rouses him; he gets red and says a few lame words, ending with, -"Do you think I would touch any of them dam things or that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> -I would let any of my men (natives) touch them? Not on your -life!" So I leave Old Hamilton, for he is the only white man there -now. But the place had other distinctions. Until recently, I am -told, they have had a teacher, a young girl, who in her zeal had the -natives collect all the burial boxes with their contents and had them -all thrown into the river. Not long after she accomplished that she -left. The storekeeper told me that "If I want them so bad I could -pick them up (skulls and bones) along the river where the water -washed them out after the teacher threw them in." Luckily there -were not many "Old Hamiltons."</p> - -<p>We met here a boat from St. Michael with Mr. Frank P. Williams, -the well-known postmaster and trader of St. Michael, who comes -for the two men, my fellow passengers. We get acquainted and, to -escape the gases of the <em>Agnes</em>, I go with them. The boat is heavier -and free from fumes, though without accommodation. At about 7 -p. m. we arrive at Kotlik, at the mouth of the river—an abandoned -wireless station, a store, and four tents of natives. But the old -wireless building, now the storekeeper's house, is the dwelling place -of a clean white man, Mr. Backlund, who is now "outside," but -with whom Mr. Williams is in some partnership; so we occupy the -building. Outside the wind has risen to half a gale and there are -squalls of rain and drizzle. The <em>Agnes</em> has to "tie to," as she would -be swamped in the open. My boxes and bedding, which were on the -roof of the <em>Agnes</em>, are soaked, though the contents will be dry. So -both boats are fastened to a little "dock," and we soon have fire in -the stove, supper, and then—it is 11 p. m.—a bed, not overclean, -somewhat smelly, but a bed and free from mosquitoes, rain, wind, -and cold.</p> - -<p>July 10. Up at 6.30. Outside a storm and rain—just like one of -the three-day northeasters with us, and cool. Both boats were to -leave, but are unable to do so. I find that Mr. Williams's tug will -come back here and go to St. Michael on the 13th, so arrange with -Mr. Williams to take me and leave the <em>Agnes</em> for good. This partly -because I learn of two graveyards near, one 1½, the other 4½ -miles distant.</p> - -<p>After lunch, rain for a while ceasing, I set out for the nearer -burial place. This is already a tundra country—treeless and bush-less -flats overgrown with a thick coat of moss, into which feet bury -themselves as in a cushion, and dotted with innumerable swampy -depressions with high swamp grass. Walking over all this is very -difficult—lucky I have rubber boots. Even so, it is no easy matter, -except where a little native trail is encountered.</p> - -<p>The graveyard, belonging to the now abandoned little village above -Kotlik, consists of only about half a dozen adult graves. These -consist of boxes of heavy lumber laid on a base raised above the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> -ground level, and covered with other heavy boards. Some of the -burials are quite recent. Open three older ones. In two the remains -are too fresh yet, but from one secure a good female skeleton, -which I pack in a practically new heavy pail, thrown out probably -on the occasion of the last funeral. Then back, farther out, to avoid -notice, through swamps and over moss, and with a recurring wind-driven -drizzle against which my umbrella is but a weak protection.</p> - -<p>Reach home quite wet and a bit tired. Have to undress and, -wrapped in a blanket, dry my clothes and underwear about the -stove.</p> - -<p>Nothing further this day and evening—just wind and heavy low -clouds and rain.</p> - -<p>July 11. Up at 4.40. Weather has moderated. The <em>Agnes</em> left -at 4 and Mr. Williams's boat, due to favorable tide, must soon go -also. Breakfast, and all leave me before 6.</p> - -<p>Yesterday we brought up my needs—i. e., collection of skeletal -material—to the few natives here, explaining to them everything, -and they do not object in the least. One of them, in fact, is to take -me to-day to the more distant cemetery in a rowboat and help me -in my work.</p> - -<p>My man, after being sent for, comes at a little after 7. He is a -good-looking and well-behaving Eskimo of about 35. He brings a -good-sized tin rowboat—a whaling or navy boat probably; but "he -leaks a whole lot." The oarlocks are not fastened to the boat, the -plate of one is loose, and the oars are crudely homemade of driftwood -and pieces of lumber fastened on with nails; in one the shaft -is crooked, while the other is much heavier. But we start, with the -sky still leaden and gray but no wind and calm water. I row -and he paddles; then he rows and I paddle. We carry but the -camera, a little lunch, a heavier coat each, and a box and two bags -for the specimens. We pass a number of broods of little ducks, the -mother prancing before us until the young are in safety, and there -are several species of new kinds (to me) of water birds, some of -which fly right above us, examining us. In the distance we see a -big abandoned dredge, then a few empty log houses and "barabras" -on the bank of a stream and the edge of the tundra. This is Pastolik, -our destination. There is no one anywhere near, an ideal condition -for work, if work there'll be. And there will be—for almost -immediately upon landing I see, beginning at a few rods distance -on the tundra, a series (about 50) of old graves, in all grades of -mossiness and preservation. A few are, we later find, quite late, but -the majority are old—60 years and over according to information -given by the natives of Kotlik. They do not, except perhaps the -few late ones, seem to belong to anyone still living. Yet "Pash<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>tolik," -as they wrote it then, used to be a place of some importance -in the Russian times, and even later.</p> - -<p>We settle in an empty native house, and I start investigation. -The older graves are found widely spread in several clusters, but a -few are isolated at a distance.</p> - -<p>The graves are all aboveground and resemble in substance those -along the lower Yukon (Bonasila and downward). They consist -of a base of small logs or splits; a rude box about 3 feet long by -about 2 feet wide, of heavy, unpainted, unnailed, split boards; four -posts near the four corners; a cover, unjoined, of two to three heavy -split boards; two crosspieces over this, at head and base, perforated -and sliding over the upright posts, and a few half splits (smaller -drift logs split in two) laid over the top of the crosspieces.</p> - -<p>On the first cover lies as a rule a stone—generally a piece of a -slab or a good-sized pebble—unworked, though now and then showing -some trace of use. The pebble is generally broken.</p> - -<p>When the grave is opened there is usually over the body, as a -canopy on a light frame, a large (probably caribou) skin—rarely -birch bark. Neither covers or envelops the body but simply forms -a covering over it, with some space between it and the body. The -body lies flexed, on left or (rarely) right side, with the head toward -(or near) the east (same as at Bonasila). It is often covered with -or enveloped in a native matting. There are but few traces of -clothing on women; none on men. And very seldom is there anything -else in the coffin.</p> - -<p>Some of the oldest graves were found tumbled down and could -not be examined. The moss and roots envelop the bones, and it is a -tough job to get them out; also they eat the bones and destroy them. -Even in the older boxes, however, the downward part of the skeleton—generally -the left—is, due to moisture, usually in much worse -state of preservation than the upper.</p> - -<p>Children have been buried in large native wooden dishes and -these were in some cases placed on the top of adult graves, but more -generally about these, or even apart.</p> - -<p>Many household articles, from matches and pails to dishes, alarm -clocks, lamps, etc., are placed upon the ground near the more recent -dead. Excavation would probably recover here many older objects, -though wood decays.</p> - -<p>The wind has died down and the flat is as full of mosquitoes as a -Jersey salt meadow, and there is an occasional gnat. They bite, and, -having been almost free of the pest at Kotlik, I failed to take my -"juice" along, so just have to do the best possible. The gnats enter -even the eyes, however.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p> - -<p>Work as never before. Decide to utilize the rare opportunity to -the limit, and to take the whole skeletons, not merely the skulls, leaving -only the few fresher ones and those that are badly damaged. A -great Sunday; burial after burial; opening the wooden grave—taking -out and marking on the spot bone after bone—fighting mosquitoes -all the while—and packing temporarily in any convenient -receptacle. Fortunately there are quite a few boxes and pails and -oil cans on the spot, left by the dredge people and the few natives -who evidently sometimes come to the place. At about 2 eat lunch—coffee -(the Eskimo put what was for three cups into about two -quarts of water, so there is but a suggestion of coffee), raw smoked -fish for me and eggs with bacon (left over from breakfast) for my -companion, and on again until about 5 p. m. or a little later. Last -two or three hours, however, work with some difficulty. A gnat bit -me in an eyelid, or got into my eye, and that has now swollen so -that I can hardly see with it. My Eskimo, however, is about all I -could wish. He just looks at me working in a matter-of-fact way, -and carries the filled boxes, or looks around for something I could -take with me, and even helps on a few occasions with the bones, finding -evidently the whole proceeding quite right and natural. Brings -me, among other things, an old copper teakettle, but to his wonder I -do not want it and leave it. I find a fine large walrus-ivory doll -and a handsome decorated "kantág" (wooden bowl), besides smaller -objects, and also a large piece of a poor quality clay pot (no pottery -now), with a fragment of a decorated border as on the lower Yukon.</p> - -<p>Pack up, we load on the boat—lucky now she is so spacious—get -into the shallow river—the tide has run out—push the boat out and -start for home.</p> - -<p>Thus far we had but slight drizzles. But the clouds now grow -heavier, and as we have much farther to row than this morning, -due to the low water, we are caught by showers. The last mile or so -we have to hurry, see a big rain approaching. My man pushes her -with a pole while I row all I can, with both hands, with the heavy -oar. Of course the whole population of Kotlik has to see our arrival. -And more, too, for in our absence a schooner came in with wood and -a number of the natives. They talk, but no one is either angry or -excited. We two carry the boxes, pails, etc.—grass covered—into the -house; how lucky I am now alone. Inside I remove the wet grass -from them—the bones, too, are somewhat wet—then pay my Eskimo -$5, which again is taken as a matter-of-fact thing, without thanks, -but he well deserved the amount, even if I rowed a full half.</p> - -<p>It is 9 p. m. My man comes again, we have a modest supper, he -some left-over meat and I again the smoked fish, which I feel is -strengthening me as well as agreeing with my stomach, and then to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> -rest, quite earned to-day. Seldom have done as much in a day. -Thirty-three graves collected, with over twenty nearly complete skeletons, -and all restored so that I had to take considerable care not to go -again into some already emptied. But this place should be dug -over. The tundra in a few years swallows up everything on the -surface. It literally buries or assimilates bones and all other objects, -the moss and other vegetation with probably blown dust covering -them very effectively. Finding anything below the surface and that -even a foot or more, as was actually experienced, means something -quite different under these conditions than it might elsewhere.</p> - -<p>Monday, July 12. Slept fairly well and feel refreshed, but the -eye still badly swollen. The Eskimo believe, I think, I got it from -the bones. Yet they are quite sensible—a marked mental difference -between them and the Yukon Indians.</p> - -<p>Breakfast before 7—cereal, raw smoked fish, and coffee. Then -pack. At the store buy empty gasoline boxes, but no nails to be had, -and no packing. Lunch at 1—macaroni, raw smoked fish, sauerkraut, -coffee; then pack again, fix boxes, break old ones to get nails, -even pull a few unnecessary ones from the boards of the house, go -see my man's wife, a hopeless consumptive, and at 6 through with all -except cleaning. Another fair work-day, 12 tightly packed boxes. -Then clean up, burn rubbish, and ready for departure early to-morrow.</p> - -<p>Supper—macaroni, raw smoked fish, greengage plums, a little -sauerkraut, and coffee. Then a little walk outside, watch Eskimo -women and children jump the rope (hilariously, but awkwardly), -and go in to catch up with my notes. Nobody scowls at me, so that -although they probably fear me as a "medicine man" they are not -at all resentful for what I did yesterday. They are grown-up children, -much more tractable than the Indians. But otherwise they -show so much in common with the Indian that the more one sees of -them the more he grows drawn to the belief of the original (and that -not so far distant) identity of their parentage. It seems the Eskimo -and the Indian are after all no more than two diverging fingers -of one and the same hand; or they were so a bit farther back. -Mental differences there are, yet these are no more than may be found -in different tribes of the Indians or different groups of other races.</p> - -<p>Tuesday, July 13. Rise a little after 6. Eye still sore after -Sunday's gnat and sweat and dirt; must use boric acid frequently. -An Eskimo actually said yesterday it was a sickness from touching -the bones. A little breakfast—have no more salmon strips, so just -cereal, canned plums, and coffee. And then with the help of two -young Eskimo carry my spoils and baggage on to the tug, which has -come for me. By about 7 start. Good-by Kotlik, what little there -is of it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p> - -<p>At 9 arrive at Mr. Williams's reindeer camp farther up the coast. -There are five tents and two small log houses of natives—the herders -with their families, dogs, and fish racks; and three whites, Mr. -Williams, owner of the boat and of most of the herd of about -8,000 animals; Mr. Palmer, of the United States Biological Survey; -and a Dane, Mr. Posielt, here for the Biological Survey of Canada. -All are already at the corral some distance over the hill, branding, -counting, etc., the great reindeer herd, which belong to several -owners.</p> - -<p>A short walk along the shore brings me in sight of the herd. -The animals can be heard grunting a good distance off. The herd -is so large and so compact that it looks like a forest of horns. The -animals keep on moving in streams, but remain in the herd. They -go to the shore to drink some of the salty water, instead of salt. -All is of interest, even though the branding, the cutting off of big -slices from the ears, and castration, is rather cruel.</p> - -<p>At lunch, for the first time, reindeer meat, a select steak. It is -tender and decidedly good. Has no special flavor and is poor in -fat, but tender and good.</p> - -<p>Afternoon, once more to the corral, and then various things, -including a photograph of a little impromptu native group.</p> - -<p>Supper once more on reindeer meat. This time prepared as a -sort of a stew with onions—again very good. But we were to leave -after supper for St. Michael and I see no intention to that effect. -Instead they all go once more to the corral to continue the work -until about 11 p. m. So I have to settle for the night, with some -hope that we may leave in the morning. We sleep four side by -side in a tent 10 feet wide. Luckily they had a spare clean blanket -or two, and but one of the three snores, and he like a lady; also -the weather has cleared and is warmer, so the night is fairly good.</p> - -<p>Wednesday, July 14. Morning bright, calm. Breakfast, and all -hurry off to corral without even any explanation—just a few casual -words, from which I understand that we shall not go. So I write -whole forenoon, though feeling none too good about the delay. -Had I my own boat, as one should have in this country, all would be -different. As it is I am utterly helpless. At lunch speak to Mr. -Williams; and though not much willing, he half promises that we -may go to St. Michael to-night.</p> - -<p>Afternoon. Walk 8 miles along the beach, to a cape and back, -looking in vain for traces of human habitation and collecting along -the beach what this offers, which outside of some odd, flat, polished -stones is but little. Come back near 6—soon after supper—and hear -with much satisfaction that, after all, we will go to-night to St. -Michael.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span></p> - -<p class="center">RÉSUMÉ</p> - -<p>So ends the Yukon and its immediate vicinity. What has been -learned?</p> - -<p>1. The great and easily navigable river, extending for many hundreds -of miles from west to east, could not but have played a material -part in the peopling of Alaska, and quite probably in that -of the continent, and all human movements along it must have left -some material remains. It seems, therefore, a justified inference that -the valley of the Yukon harbors human remains of much scientific -value.</p> - -<p>2. Such remains, judging from the present conditions, were left -exclusively along the banks of the river, on the flood-safe elevated -platforms of the banks, and especially about the mouths of the -tributaries of the Yukon of those times.</p> - -<p>3. But the banks and mouths of the past are seldom, if ever, those -of to-day. The river, with its currents, storms, and ice pack every -spring, is changing from year to year. It is ever cutting and eroding -in places, and building bars and islands or covering with flood silts -in others. In many stretches no one can be sure where the banks -were 500 or 1,000 years ago, not to speak of earlier periods.</p> - -<p>4. The banks and islands of to-day, therefore, are for the most -part recent formations, in which it would be useless to expect anything -very ancient. And there is nothing like the successive ocean -beaches at Nome and elsewhere, which would guide exploration.</p> - -<p>5. The right hilly side of the river alone seems to offer some hope -of locating some more ancient sites and remains; yet it is quite -certain that the river ran once far to the left, for all the vast flats -on that side are of its construction; so that the more ancient remains -of man may lie in that direction. But there everything is, -from the point of view of archeology, a practically unexplorable -jungle and wilderness, and there is no one there who might make -accidental discoveries.</p> - -<p>6. It would seem that the best hope for the archeologist along the -Yukon, so far as the more ancient remains are concerned, lies along -the tributaries of the stream, and that particularly at the old limits -of the more recently made lands.</p> - -<p>7. Nevertheless the banks of the Yukon as they are now are not -wholly barren. Up from Tanana, at the Old Station, probably about -Ruby and Nulato, about Kaltag and the Greyling River, at Bonasila, -Holy Cross and Ghost Creek, and at the Mountain village, Dog -village, Russian Mission, and doubtless a number of other sites, they -contain both cultural and skeletal remains that, if recovered, will be -invaluable to the anthropological history of these regions.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p> - -<p>8. The line of demarcation between the Indians of the Yukon and -the Eskimo, outside of language, is indefinite. Traces of old Eskimo -admixture are perceptible among the Indians far up the river, and -the cultures of the two peoples in many respects merge into each -other; while among the Eskimo of the lower river and farther on -there are physiognomies that it would be hard to separate from the -Indian. Whether all this means simply extensive past mixture, or -whether, as would seem, the Alaska Indians as a whole are nearer -physically to the Eskimo than are the tribes in the States, remains -to be determined. Among the Athapascan Mescalero Apache, who -have reached as far south as New Mexico, a somewhat Eskimoid -tinge to the face, especially in young women, was by no means very -unusual 25 years ago when I studied this tribe. This problem will -be touched upon again in this volume.</p> - -<p>9. All along the Yukon, from near Tanana (Old Station) to the -mouth of the river, in the Indian and in the Eskimo region, there prevailed -the same type of winter house, namely, a largely subterranean -room with a subterranean tunnel or corridor entrance; and also a -similar type of summer dwelling, formerly a skin, now a canvas, tent. -The winter dwellings were built within of stout posts and covered -with birch bark and sod, looking from outside much like the present-day -Navaho hogan; while the pits left by them remind one of the -southwestern "pit dwellings," the kashims of the Pueblo kivas. As -a hogan, so these largely subterranean dwellings along the Yukon -had a smoke-air-and-light hole in the center of the top, a fireplace -in the middle of the floor, and benches (of heavy hewn planks in the -north) along the sides. Each village, furthermore, had at least one -larger structure of similar nature, the "kashim," or communal house. -All this may still be traced more or less plainly on the dead sites -along the Yukon, and houses as well as a kashim of this type were -seen at Kotlik and Pastolik, at the mouth of the river.</p> - -<p>10. The native industry of the river presents also much similarity, -though there are differences.</p> - -<p>Pottery, of much the same type and decoration, was made at -least as far as the lower middle Yukon.</p> - -<p>Stone implements were made and used all along the river, and -were much alike. But the double-grooved, cupid-bow ax of the -Yukon Indian, hafted in the center and used for chipping rather -than cutting, is lower down replaced by the same ax, in which one -end has been broken off (or has not been finished), and which is -hafted as an adze; or by oblong quadrilateral flat axes which have -not been found up the river.</p> - -<p>The peculiar and apparently very primitive stone industry of -Bonasila is, it seems, just a development of local conditions—nature<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> -of most available stone, and essentially hunting habit of the people -that resulted in many skins which called for numerous scrapers. -Nevertheless the site deserves a thorough further exploration.</p> - -<p>There was apparently not much basketry along the river, the place -of the baskets being taken by the birch-bark dishes of the Indian and -the kantág or ingeniously made wooden dish of the Eskimo part of -the river.</p> - -<p>Canoes among the Yukon Indians were mainly of birch bark, -while the Eskimo had mainly skin canoes.</p> - -<p>11. Neither the Indians nor the Eskimo of the Yukon practiced -deformation of the head or of any other part of the body, or dental -mutilation. The Indians as well as the Eskimo occasionally pierced -the septum of the nose, for nose pieces, while the Eskimo cut on -each side a slit in the lower lip for the introduction of labrets. The -Eskimo cut their hair short in a characteristic way, reminding -strongly of certain monks; the Indians left their hair long. But -at Anvik the Indians both cut their hair and wore labrets. They -also used the wooden dish.</p> - -<p>12. From all the preceding it appears that there must have been -long and intensive contacts between the Yukon Eskimo and Indians; -that, through war or in peace, they became mutually admixed; and -that there were mutual cultural transmissions.</p> - -<p>13. No further light for the present could be gained on the origin, -antiquity, or early migrations of the Yukon Indian. It was determined, -however, that he represents but one main physical type, and -that this type is the same as that of the Indians of the Tanana and -most other Alaskan Indians of the present time.</p> - -<p>14. Exceptional skeletal remains were washed out from the bank -at Bonasila. They are of Indians (?), but appear to be not those -of the Yukon Indian of to-day. They present a problem which is -to be solved by further exploration of the site.</p> - -<p>15. The Eskimo of the lower parts of the river are in general -better preserved and more coherent than the Indians. They are -more tractable people and are taking more readily to work and -civilization.</p> - -<p>16. These Eskimo show, in the majority of cases, fairly typical -Eskimo physiognomies. But their heads are not as those of the -northern and eastern members of the race. The head is less narrow, -less high, and has but now and then a suggestion of the scaphoid -form that is so characteristic of the Greenland, Labrador, or northern -Eskimo cranium; also, the angles of the jaws are less bulging -and the lower jaws themselves do not appear so heavy.</p> - -<p>17. The Yukon Eskimo burials are in all essentials much like -those of the Indians up the river. Here again a cultural connection<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> -is very evident, in this case there having in all probability been an -adaptation of methods by the Eskimo from the Indians.</p> - -<p>18. Archeological prospects along the delta flats occupied by the -Eskimo appear very limited.</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">St. Michael</span></h3> - -<p>Thursday, July 15. In the morning, after a good trip, reach St. -Michael—quite a town from a distance, with many boats on the -shore in front of it; but soon find that it is largely a dead city and -ships' graveyard, not harbor. With the gold rush over, and the Government -railroad from Seward to the Tanana, men and business -have departed. Before the summer is over most of the large buildings -and the fine large boats are to be demolished, and there will -be left but a lonely village.</p> - -<p>Unload my collections on the old dock. The postman kindly comes -down from his place, which, with Mr. Williams's store, is far up on -the hill above the harbor, the boxes are weighed and stamped for -the parcel post, and relieved of them I go to the hotel and spend the -day in visiting the teacher, the marshal, Mr. Williams's store, where -I see a whole lot of recent Eskimo ceremonial masks decorated with -colors and feathers, and the wireless station to send a message to the -Institution. All native (Eskimo) character is almost gone from the -place, what remains being mainly civilized mix bloods; and also -little, if anything, remains to be collected, particularly now when all -vacant land is thickly overgrown with grass and weeds. An occasional -skull appears, one having been seen recently on the beach and -one on Whale Island, but there is little besides, though things could -be found doubtless by excavation.</p> - -<p>Items of interest in Mr. Williams's store, and also in that of the -N. C. Co., are various articles cut handsomely by the Eskimo -from walrus ivory, both fresh and "fossil" (old and nicely discolored). -There are beads, napkin rings, hairpins, cigar and cigarette -holders, and other objects, generally exceedingly well made and -decorated. It is, of course, well known that the Eskimo are very apt -in this work; it is not, however, so well known that every island -or village has certain specialties and types of decoration. This is -so true that an observer before long can tell in many instances just -where a given article has been made.</p> - -<p>The fossil ivory industry is, it was soon learned, becoming a -serious detriment to archeological work in these regions; of which, -however, more later.</p> - -<p>During the day I find that a small boat, the <em>Silver Wave</em>, belonging -to Lomen Bros., will leave St. Michael for Nome that same evening. -As this suits me very well I engage a berth on the boat, help<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> -to get my baggage on deck over a broken landing place, and get -ready to depart.</p> - -<p>At 6 leave St. Michael. The <em>Silver Wave</em> is a tub—too short—am -told if it were of proper length they would have to have more help. -Result—very unsteady. Fortunately the weather is fair, and the -captain gives me a berth in his cabin. I had originally a stateroom, -right in the back, with three bunks or beds, so small that one could -barely get into the beds; but there came two mix-breed women with -a girl and so they turned me out and put me in the "hole"—seven -bunks in an ill-ventilated cabin under the deck in the stern of the -ship. She is only about 60 feet long by about 15 broad. As it is I -have a bunk in what would have been a well-ventilated little cabin, -had it not been for rough weather which came on later in the night -and which necessitated the closing of the window.</p> - -<p>Friday, July 16. The rougher weather came and the boat began -to pitch and roll. Luckily I slept for the most part. At about 6.30 -the captain called me to breakfast with him. I got up rather groggy -from the sea, but managed to wash my face and get to the little -messroom, where the cook started to bring eggs, bacon, coffee, etc.—and -then I had enough and had all I could do to reach my bunk -again without getting seasick. I was kept on the verge of it until -after 10, when we arrived off Nome.</p> - -<p>This, however, meant no relief. There was no bay, no dock, no -shelter for even such a small boat, and so we anchored a few hundred -yards off the shore along which stretch the long line of unpainted -(mostly), weather-beaten frame dwellings of this northern capital.</p> - -<p>By this time I barely keep my feet, but they lowered a heavy rowboat, -and several of us—there were four other men passengers—are -helped to tumble in. I get back, and to steady myself catch hold -of the borders of the boat, only for this the next moment to be -dashed against the larger boat with my hand between. It was almost -too much, the seasickness and added to it the very painful hurt. -Fortunately the fingers were not crushed, just bruised badly—they -might easily have been mashed to a pulp.</p> - -<p>They row us in and we tumble out on the sand, and there is no one -to receive anybody or take any notice. However, after a while there -comes accidentally an old two-seated Ford. Three of us crowd in, -leave the few bulkier things we brought along on the beach unguarded, -and are driven to the other end of the town, to the Golden -Gate Hotel.</p> - -<p>This is a big old frame building, out of plumb in several directions. -There is no one in the spacious lobby. However, after a time some -one, not looking much like a proprietor—more like a groom at work—comes -out from somewhere and without much ado shows us each to a -room. Mine smells musty, old sweat and blankets and mould, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> -looks out on a dilapidated tin roof—must ask for another. Finally -get one "front" for $3—the other was only $2.50. Musty too, but -fairly large, and with a double bed with, at last again, clean covers.</p> - -<p>Unshaven—in the khaki worse for rain and work—with fingers -so sore they can not bear a touch, feverish, and head still dizzy—I go -to lunch. On my way stop at Coast Guard building—no one there; -at the Roads Commission—office empty; at the Customs—not a soul. -But at the courthouse they tell me where Judge Lomen sometimes -lunches, and so I go there. It is near by—nothing here is far distant—and -so I soon sit at Mrs. Niebeling's, a justly famed Nome's -"for everybody," at a clean table and to a big civilized dinner. -Order reindeer roast—find it this time, in my condition, not much to -boast of—one could hardly tell it from similarly done beef—and -begin on the coffee when in comes a young man, asks me if I am the -doctor, and introduces himself as Mr. Alfred Lomen, the judge's -son; and in a minute or two in comes the judge himself, a kindly -man of something over 70. It all makes me feel a lot better, though -still weak. Have rest of lunch together and talk, but do not get -very far in anything that interests me; but the judge takes me to -the Catholic Fathers here, who have an orphanage somewhere near -where I want next to go, and leaves me with Father Post. The -father is kindly, but himself does not know much, and so makes -arrangements for me to meet next day Father Lafortune, who works -among the Eskimo.</p> - -<p>Then I go once more to the Coast Guard building and meet Captain -Ross, in charge. The <em>Bear</em>, I learn, has just arrived here, and -is soon going north. She is my godsend, evidently. So Captain -Ross sends me over to see Captain Cochran. The meeting is good, -and I have a promise to be taken to the cape and some other stations. -But the <em>Bear</em> goes first to coal at St. Michael, and then will make -a visit to St. Lawrence Island. So I propose to go to Teller first, -see what I can of the Chukchee-Eskimo "battle field" near there, -and be taken from there by the <em>Bear</em>. The priests give me some -hope for getting there over an inland route, but later on tell me one -of the boats of the orphanage which is located in that region is away -and the other has broken down, so that there will be no possibility -of making the trip through the Salt Lake and to Teller. But the -<em>Victoria</em> (the Seattle boat to come to-night) will go to Teller. Unfortunately, -if weather is rough or there are no passengers she will -not stop at Nome, so all is again uncertain. The <em>Silver Wave</em> goes -northward next Monday, but I have a dread of her. All of which -is put down merely to show slightly what an explorer without a -boat of his own may expect in these regions.</p> - -<p>Nome, Saturday, July 17. Poor night again—it surely seems to -be the fashion in Alaska. The <em>Victoria</em> came at night (or what<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> -should be night). The ramshackle big frame hotel, with partitions -so thin that they transmit every sound, got about 40 guests, and next -room to mine came to be occupied by two women who had visitors, -female and male, were taken out for a ride after 12 and returned -about 2 a. m. One of them, or their visitor, had a perpetual vocal -gush, the others chimed in now and then, and a strong male voice -added the bass from time to time, with old Fords noisily coming -and going outside, and people going up and down the stairs. So -sleep for some hours was out of the question. And there was nothing -to do about it.</p> - -<p>After breakfast went to meet Father Lafortune, a Catholic missionary -priest to the Eskimo, who speaks their language well and -who promised to accompany me to their habitations; and together -we spent the forenoon on one side of the town, among the natives -of the Diomedes, and most of the afternoon on the other end among -the people from King Island. It was a good experience, resulting -in seeing a good many of the Eskimo and getting some information, -a few photographs, and quite a few old specimens. Then we went to -the parsonage, where I got a few good photos from Father Lafortune's -collection. He is a matter-of-fact, always ready to help, -natural he-man, rather than a priest and teacher, and a great practical -helper to the natives, who all are his friends.</p> - -<p>Also saw Judge Lomen, arranged for lecture to-morrow, saw -Captain Ross about the <em>Bear</em>, and various other people; but there -is not much to be obtained here about old sites and specimens. Telegraphed -Institution, and also to the Russian consul at Montreal for -permission to visit the Great Diomede Island. Evening packing. -Natives bring walrus ivory, some excellent pieces. Weather whole -day cloudy, threatening, occasional showers, cool but not cold.</p> - -<p>Sunday, July 18. Heavy sleep 10 p. m. to 7 a. m., regardless of -a typewriter going in the next room and the women (now quieter, -however) on the other side.</p> - -<p>Forenoon spent in talking with people and attending a little -service, for the natives mainly, at the Catholic Church of Fathers -Post and Lafortune. Poor, simple, but sincere and interesting.</p> - -<p>After lunch more consultations, then a visit to bank where they -smelt gold dust (even to-day), and then a lecture on "The Peopling -of America," at the courthouse. Well attended, and many came to -shake hands after. Then a dinner, with examination of a number -of interesting and valuable specimens, at Judge Lomen's. Among -other objects there is a duplicate, in ivory, of the broken double ax -from the Yukon, the two grooves and even the break being well -represented. Evening—examination of specimens at Reverend Baldwin's. -Cloudy, cool, threatening, but stormy weather abating.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span></p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">About Nome</span></h3> - -<p>Due to the delay with the <em>Bear</em>, the next few days until July 23 -were spent at and about Nome. They proved more profitable than -was expected. Numbers of interesting specimens were found in the -possession of some of the dealers, and more of those of scientific -value were secured either through gift or by purchase for the -National Museum. These collections consisted of objects of stone—i. e., -spear points, knives, axes, etc.—but above all of utensils, -spear points, effigies, etc., some of them of remarkable artistry and -decoration, were made of walrus ivory that through age has turned -"fossil."</p> - -<p>Among the stone objects were several axes made of the greenish, -hard nephrite which came from the "Jade Mountain" on the Kobuk -River. The objects from fossil ivory came principally from the St. -Lawrence Island, the Diomede Islands, Cape Wales, unknown parts -of the nearer Asiatic coast, and here and there from the Seward -Peninsula.</p> - -<p>A large majority of these objects are now collected by the natives -themselves, who assiduously excavate the old sites, and are sold at -so much per pound as "fossil ivory" to crews of visiting boats or to -merchants at Nome and elsewhere, to be worked up into beads, -pendants, and other objects of semi-jewelry that find ready sale -among the whites.</p> - -<p>In addition a certain part of these objects is reserved by the -natives, especially those of the Diomede Islands, and worked up by -themselves. The more striking the coloration of the ivory, the more -desirable it is for the beads, etc., and the less chance of the object, -regardless of its archeological or artistic value, to be preserved. -The most artistic pieces, nevertheless, are usually disposed of separately, -bringing higher prices than could be obtained for beads.</p> - -<p>In this way hundreds of pounds collectively of ancient implements, -statuettes, etc., are recovered each year from the old sites on -both the Asiatic and the American side of the Bering Sea, and are -cut up, their scientific value being lost. Most of the fossil ivory, -fortunately, consists of objects which, though showing man's workmanship, -are of relatively little scientific value; nevertheless it was -seen repeatedly that specimens of real archeological value and artistic -interest would be destroyed if their color and texture made them suitable -for some of the higher-priced jewelry.</p> - -<p>The Eskimo, as repeatedly found later, have not the slightest hesitation -about excavating the old sites, and whatever they can not -use, which as a rule includes animal and human bones, and in fact -everything else except stone tools and ivory, is left in the excavated -soil and lost. The amount of destruction thus accomplished by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> -women, children, and even men each year is large and promises to -grow from year to year as long as the supply lasts. This means that -unless scientific exploration of these old sites is hastened there will -be little left before long to study.</p> - -<p>The fossil ivory trade has become such that many of the officers -and the crews even of the visiting vessels, including the revenue cutters, -engage in buying the ivory from the natives and cutting it up in -their spare time into beads and other ornaments. A captain of a well-known -boat who with his crew visited in the summer of 1926 a small -island on which there is an extensive frozen refuse heap containing -many bones and tools of the natives who once occupied the place, -exclaimed, "Gad, there's $50,000 of ivory in sight."</p> - -<p>The boat crew took away about "2 bushels" of it, or all that could -be removed from the extensive frozen pile. I saw some of this ivory -later, all cut up, but with a number of the pieces still showing old -human handiwork, and some beads made of other parts of the lot -were brought later to my office in Washington.</p> - -<p>If American archeology and ethnology are to learn what they need -in these regions it is absolutely essential that they take early steps -for a proper exploration of the old sites, besides which every effort -should be made by the intelligent traders, missionaries, teachers, and -officials to save the more artistic and characteristic pieces of human -workmanship in the old ivory, and bring them with such data as -may be available to the attention of scientific men or institutions. -It would in fact be of much value, and the writer has suggested -this to the Governor of Alaska, to establish a local museum at Nome, -where such objects could be gathered and saved to science.</p> - - -<h4>ABORIGINAL REMAINS</h4> - -<p>The coast of which Nome is now the human center, up to Cape -Wales, together with the nearer islands, was occupied by the Maiglemiut -(Zagoskin), or Mahlemut (Dall et al.) subdivision of the -Eskimo. They were a strong group, and great traders. During -the Russian times the Aziags, from what is now the Sledge Island, -with probably others from the coast, visited yearly for trading purposes -as far as St. Michael and the Yukon, while the Wales people -were known to trade up to fairly recently as far as Kotzebue, both -at the same time having trading connections with Asia.</p> - -<p>Of these natives, with the exception of those at Wales, there -remains but little. On Sledge Island there are only two dead villages, -and on the coast from Port Clarence to far east of Nome there -is not a single existing native settlement. A few remnants of the -people live in Nome, but they have lost all individuality.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p> - -<p>Dead sites are known to exist from west to east, at Cape Wooley; -at the mouth of the Sonora or Quartz Creek; at the mouth of the -Penny River—some natives are said to still go to fish there in summer; -at the mouth of a small river 3 miles east of Nome; both west -(a larger village) and east (a small site) of Cape Nome; and 18 -miles east of Nome (the "Nook" village).</p> - -<p>Most of these sites have been peopled within the memory of the -oldest inhabitants.</p> - -<p>Thanks to the kind aid of the Reverend Doctor Baldwin, I was -able to visit several of the sites east of Nome, more particularly the -Nook village, and it was still possible to find two skeletons and a -skull on these sites.</p> - -<p>The Nook site must have been one of considerable importance. -It was an especially large village, or rather two near-by villages, in -one of which I counted upward of 30 depressions, remnants of the -semisubterranean houses with vestibules, such as are elsewhere described -from the Yukon.</p> - -<p>Here a clear illustration was had of what changes on sites of this -nature may be wrought in a short time by the elements.</p> - -<p>Fifteen years ago, I was assured, there were still many burials -and skeletal remains scattered along the coast near the Nook village. -Then in 1913 came a great southwestern storm, which at Nome -ripped up the cemetery and carried away some coffins with bodies, -scattering them over the plains in the vicinity. Since that storm -not a vestige remains of any of the burials or bones near the large -Nook village. On prolonged examination I found nothing but sands -overgrown with the usual coast vegetation. Everything had been -carried away or buried and the pits of the houses were evidently -themselves largely filled in.</p> - -<p>The burials on this coast west of Golovnin Bay were evidently all -of a simpler nature than those on Norton Sound and the Yukon. -There is plenty of driftwood, but for some reason this was not hewn -into boards with which to make burial boxes. The dead were merely -laid upon and covered with the driftwood, though this was done, -as later seen on Golovnin Bay, rather ingeniously. One of the two -skeletons found near Cape Nome, an adult male, lay simply among -the rocks on the lower part of the slope of the hill.</p> - -<p>Old sites, though often small, may be confidently looked for along -all these coasts in the shelter of every promontory, at the mouth of -each stream, and on the spits which separate the ocean from inland -lagoons (as in the case of the Nook village).</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Nome—Bering Strait—Barrow</span></h3> - -<p>Friday, July 23. Received word to be on the <em>Bear</em>, which arrived -yesterday, before 10 o'clock this morning. Due to the shallow<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>ness -of the water the boat, though drawing only 18 feet, stands -far out from the shore and makes a pretty sight, looks also quite -large in these waters where there is nothing above a few hundred -tons.</p> - -<p>Am soon at home. The captain's cabin, with three beds, is nicely -furnished, but has the disadvantage of being situated at the very -rear of the vessel, above and beyond the screw. There is another -passenger, a teacher-nurse for Barrow. I take the isolated bunk on -the right, and this becomes my corner for the next six weeks. -Toward 11 a. m. the wind begins to freshen, soon after which we -leave for St. Lawrence Island. After midday the wind increases -considerably, waves rise, and the <em>Bear</em> begins to plunge. Before -the afternoon is over the wind blows a half gale and we are being -tossed about a great deal. Have to take to bed. The boat is being -tossed up and down and in all directions. Resist in vain, then at -last become ill, and this passes into a long spell of about the worst -seasickness I have ever endured. There were a good many sick on -the <em>Bear</em> that evening and night.</p> - -<p>Saturday, July 24. Wind and water slowly quieting down, and -the boat is approaching Cape Chibukak off St. Lawrence Island, -where is located the main of the two villages of the island, known -as Gambell. The <em>Bear</em> gradually approaches to within about a -half mile of the shore, where we anchor. The water here is quieter, -and before long a large baidar (native skin boat) is shoved off from -the land and approaches our boat. This is the usual procedure -when the sea permits. There are no docks, and closer in there is -danger from rocks and shallows. There are a number of natives -in the boat, together with the local teacher, and each one, including -the teacher, carries a smaller or larger bag of fossil ivory, various -articles made of fresh ivory, and some other objects, for sale to -the officers and crew of the boat. They climb on our deck, where -they evidently feel quite at home, and in a few minutes carry on -a busy trade and barter with everyone. I succeed in getting a -fine fossil ivory pick; but the main supply had evidently been preempted -and I only see it later in the possession of the officers, who -kindly let me have what is of less value to them and more to -science.</p> - -<p>Some of the Eskimo bring, in addition to the ivory, other articles -for sale—fish, birds, and the meat of the reindeer, which are for the -ship's messes and constitute very welcome additions to the diet. -Besides all this the natives also frequently bring skins of foxes and -even bear, which also find buyers. In return the boats carry off the -mail and such supplies as they have obtained by barter or purchase. -These visits are mutually enjoyable as well as profitable occasions,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> -and afford one the opportunity of seeing many of the natives, even -if prevented, as in this case, from visiting their village.</p> - -<p>The Eskimo impress one here as in every further locality as a -lively, cheerful, and intelligent lot, good traders, and advancing -in many ways in civilization. The latter is perhaps especially true -of the St. Lawrence Eskimo, who from what was seen now and -later must have had especially good missionaries and teachers as -well as a considerable freedom from bad influences from the outside.</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Savonga</span></h3> - -<p>About 40 miles east-southeast of Gambell is the second and smaller -village of the St. Lawrence Island, known as Savonga, which was -the object of our next visit. It was here that we were to buy two -or three reindeer carcasses, the animals being killed and dressed for -us by the natives in an astonishingly short time. The little village -is prettily situated on the green flat of the elevated beach. It consists -of less than a dozen modern small frame dwellings. One of -these, that of the headman, Sapilla (who regrettably died during the -following winter), is of two stories—a unique feature for an Eskimo -dwelling in these waters. Here we were visited by three boats and -the previous scenes were repeated, only, due to the proximity of -a rich old site, there were more objects of old ivory.</p> - -<p>The captain made me acquainted with Sapilla, whom I found -remarkably white-man-like in behavior. Then the ship doctor, not -feeling very well after yesterday's storm, filled my pockets with -tooth forceps and I was taken to the shore, to see the women and -children who would not venture out and to attend to any tooth extraction -that might be needed.</p> - -<p>We were considerably farther from the shore than even at Gambell, -but I was sent on one of our motor boats and so it did not take -long to land. Upon landing we came to bright and clean and -smiling little groups of women and children, full of color in their -cotton dresses, and I was soon in one of their houses. All these -dwellings were built by the Eskimo themselves, and it was a most -gratifying surprise to find them as clean and wholesome as any -similar dwelling of whites could be. Moreover, these houses were -furnished with stoves, chairs, tables, crockery and other utensils -exactly as if they were those of a good class of whites, with the smell -of the seal, which as a rule is so clinging to and characteristic of -the Eskimo house, barely perceptible.</p> - -<p>It was a busy and interesting hour that I spent at Savonga. I -saw probably all the inhabitants that were at home; pulled five -teeth—the teeth of these quite civilized people are no more as sound -and solid as were those of their fathers and mothers—and found and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> -purchased cheaply many smaller objects of fossil ivory, which they -excavate from a near-by old site.</p> - -<p>These objects are obtained from an old village located on the coast -about 4 miles farther east, on or near the North Cape, visible from -our boat. The natives excavate in this site as far as it thaws every -summer, and find many objects. They, moreover, make an occasional -trip to the two little rocky Punuk islands located about 12 -miles south of the East Cape of the St. Lawrence, which, though -accurately charted by the Russians as early as 1849, yet until the -summer of 1926 remained practically unknown. On one of these -islands there is now known to exist an extensive frozen refuse heap, -containing large quantities of old ivory implements as well as other -objects of scientific interest.</p> - -<p>The land visit was a great tonic after the wild and mean preceding -night, and I did not relish at all the <em>Bear's</em> whistle calling us -away. What a great thing it would be if a revenue cutter could for -just one season be given to science!</p> - -<p>Sunday, July 25. Left St. Lawrence 9.30 last night, sea quieting. -We are now passing, on our right, King Island, isolated rocky mass. -Day fair, cool, water getting smooth.</p> - -<p>About 50 miles north one can now see plainly Cape Prince of -Wales (pl. 5, <em>a</em>), and to the left, hazy, the two Diomedes. We are -now 95 miles from St. Lawrence. On really clear days one could see -from here even the Asiatic heights. Therefore, from the latter on a -clear day one sees the Diomedes, the Cape, the highlands beyond, -and King Island, while a little farther south there is on such a day -a good view from Asia of the St. Lawrence Island. All this was in -good weather easily reached from Asia and must have been utilized -from the earliest time in passing onward from one continent to -the other.</p> - -<p>We can now see also much of the coast in the direction of Teller -and the York Mountains behind.</p> - -<p>From hour to hour there is growing on one a profound appreciation -that the Bering Sea was a most favorable amphitheater of -migration, particularly from the less hospitable Asia eastward into -America. And practically the whole trend of native movements to -this day is from Asia toward America.</p> - -<p>Later in the day, now a fine, bright summer day, arrive off Wales. -Here again anchor far out. Last year the <em>Bear</em> grounded here and -our captain is apprehensive. Wales is a straggly village—or two -villages—located on a large, flat sandy spit, dotted with water pools, -and projecting from the Seward Peninsula toward Asia. Near by -are old sites, probably of much archeological value, and in these -for some weeks now excavations have been carried on by Dr. D.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> -Jenness, of the Victoria Memorial Museum of Ottawa. Here also -is located an exceptionally educated and observant teacher, Mr. Clark -M. Garber.</p> - -<p>A big umiak comes to us with many natives bringing the usual -trade, and on it, much to my pleasure, are both Doctor Jenness and -Mr. Garber. Doctor Jenness asks to go with us to the Little Diomede -to do some work there. He has had encouraging experience here, -finding evidences of occupation dating many centuries back, and -has collected some valuable specimens, including a few with the -fine old curved-line decoration. Mr. Garber gives me some valuable -information about the skeletal remains of this place and engages -to collect for me, who can not leave the boat, a few boxes of these -specimens, which promise is fulfilled later.</p> - -<p>The natives are a jolly and sturdy lot, even though they bear, and -that since their earliest contacts with whites, a rather bad reputation. -That this is founded in some fact, at least, is told us in the -annals of the Russians, and is also shown by the little structure on -the hillside off which we are anchored. This has a tragic and at the -same time quaint history. It is the grave of a missionary Doctor -Thornton, who was killed, we are told, by two local young fellows. -These were apprehended, sentenced to die, and were to be shot by -their relatives, which all evidently found quite just. On the appointed -day they were taken out to the burial ground, helped to -prepare their burials, one asked yet to be allowed to go to the village -to get a drink, went and returned, and then both were shot. The -executioner of the boy who went to get the drink is said to have been -his uncle.</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Diomedes</span></h3> - -<p>Late that night we leave slowly for the Diomede Islands, the -nearer of which is only about 18 miles distant. The two islands -lie, as is well known, just about in the middle of the Bering Strait. -One is known as the larger or Russian, the other as the smaller -or American Diomede. The boundary line between Russia and the -United States passes between the two. Both islands have been occupied -since far back by the Eskimo. To-day there is one small -village on the American and two small settlements on the Russian -island.</p> - -<p>July 26. Up at 5.40, breakfast 6, and off in one of our staunch -motor boats, with Jenness, for the Little Diomede. Countless birds -flying in streams about the island.</p> - -<p>The island is just a big rock, with barren flat top and steep -sides, covered where inclination permits with great numbers of larger -and smaller granite bowlders. There is neither tree nor brush here. -The village, if it deserves that name, with a school, occupies an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> -easier slope, facing the larger island across a strait seemingly about -a mile broad. There are but a few dwellings, due to local necessities -and conditions built above ground and outside of stone. One that -was entered showed a dark fore-room, a storage attic, and a cozy -somewhat lighted living and sleeping back room, entered through -a low and narrow entrance. The houses seem to be built on old -débris of habitations, and there are refuse heaps, one of which was -eventually worked in by Doctor Jenness, though without much -profit.</p> - -<p>The bowlder-covered slope above the village was the burial ground -of the natives. (Pl. 5, <em>b</em>.) Unfortunately most of the skeletal remains -have been collected by a former teacher and then left and lost. -With Doctor Jenness and the present teacher, himself an Eskimo, we -climb from bowlder to bowlder and collect what remains. The work -is both risky to the limbs and difficult in other respects. The large -bowlders are piled up many deep; and there being little or no soil, -there are all sorts of holes and crevices between and underneath the -stones. Deep in these crevices, completely out of sight or reach, nest -innumerable birds (the little auk), and their chatter is heard everywhere. -But into these impenetrable crevices also have fallen many -of the bones and skulls of the bodies that have been "buried" among -the bowlders, and also doubtless many of the smaller articles laid -by the bodies.</p> - -<p>The burials here were made in any suitable space among the rocks. -The body was laid in this space, without any coffin and evidently -not much clothing. About it and on the rocks above were placed -various articles. We found clay lamps, remnants of various wooden -objects, the bone end pieces of lances, and finally one or two pieces -of driftwood to mark the place. Here the bodies decayed and what -was left had either tumbled or was washed by rain into the crevices. -It was suggested, however, that much may have been taken by dogs -and foxes. Some of the skulls and here and there one of the larger -bones remained, to eventually be covered by moss and eroded. With -the help of Doctor Jenness and the teacher I was able to find five -male and seven female crania in fair condition, which will be of -much value in the study of this interesting contingent of the Eskimo.</p> - -<p>No evidence in the graveyard among the rocks of any great antiquity, -nothing more than perhaps a few scores of years. But traces -of older burials would surely be completely lost among the rocks, -though they may lie in the deep crevices and holes where they can -not be reached.</p> - -<p>Upon return am treated to a cup of good hot coffee—never can -get a real hot cup of coffee on the boat—and excellent bread, made -by the Eskimo wife of the teacher; and see his family of fine chubby<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> -children. Can not help but kiss his girl of about 10—she is so -fresh and innocent and pretty. Obtain also from the wife of the -teacher a good old hafted "jade" ax, though she hesitates much -to part with it—it used to belong to her grandmother; and from -the teacher himself a number of interesting articles in old ivory. -Leave Doctor Jenness. Have learned to like him much, both for -his careful work and personally, in our short association; and at 11 -a. m. return to the boat.</p> - -<p>Cold, but calm and sunny. Sit on boxes at the very end of the -good old <em>Bear</em>. See Asia, the two Diomedes, and Seward Peninsula, -all in easy reach, all like so many features of a big lake. Pass around -Greater Diomede.</p> - -<p>There never could have been any large settlement on the Diomede -Islands—they are not fit for it. The Great Diomede has just two -mediocre sites, which are occupied now each by about half a dozen -dwellings. A small old settlement, a few stone houses, has also -once existed, I am told, on the elevated top of the larger island opposite -the Little Diomede. On the latter only the one visited—everywhere -else the steep slopes or walls come right down into the water, -and there is even no landing possible (or only a precarious one at -best) except where we landed. The old natives of the Little Diomede -are said to have believed that another village had once existed farther -out from the present site and that it has become submerged. The -evidence cited (told by the native teacher) is not conclusive, and -no indication of such a settlement could be seen from the beach. But -in front and possibly beneath the native houses, in the old refuse, -there may be remnants of older dwellings.</p> - -<p>Just passed from Monday to Tuesday, and then back to Monday, -all in a few hours—the day boundary. We are now just north of the -Bering Strait and see all beautifully, in moderate bluish haze.</p> - -<p>A grand panorama of utmost anthropological interest. A big lake, -scene of one of the main migrational episodes of mankind. Sea -just wrinkling some, day calm, mostly sunny, mildly pleasant, -with an undertone of cold.</p> - -<p>How trivial feel here the contentions about the possibilities of -Asiatic migrations into America. There can be no such problem -with those who have seen what we now are witnessing. Here is a -great open pond which on such days as this could be traversed by -anyone having as much as a decent canoe. As a matter of fact it -has always been and is still thus traversed. (Pl. 6, <em>a</em>.) The Chukchee -carried on a large trade with America, so much so that we find -the Russians complaining of their interfering with their trade. -(Pl. 6, <em>b</em>, <em>c</em>.) The Diomede people stand in connection on one hand -with the northeastern Asiatics and on the other hand with the whites -as far as Nome, where most of them go every summer to sell their -ivory and its products and bring back all sorts of provisions. And -in the same way the King Islanders come every summer to Nome, -on the east end of which, as the Diomedes on the west, they have -their summer habitations. (Pl. 7, <em>a</em>, <em>b</em>.) Only a year or two ago, -the natives tell, an Eskimo woman of St. Lawrence Island set out -alone in a canoe with her child to visit a cousin on the Asiatic coast, -50 miles distant, and returned safe and sound after the visit was -over.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 5</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_5a.jpg" width="700" height="380" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>a</em>, Cape Prince of Wales from the southeast. (A.H., 1926)</p></div> - -<img src="images/plate_5b.jpg" width="700" height="483" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>b</em>, Village and cemetery slope, Little Diomede. (A.H., 1926)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 6</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_6a.jpg" width="700" height="357" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>a</em>, Asiatics departing for Siberia from the Little Diomede Island. (Photo by D. Jenness, 1926)</p></div> - -<img src="images/plate_6b.jpg" width="700" height="387" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>b</em>, "Chukchis" loading their boat with goods on Little Diomede Island, before departure for Siberia. -(Photo by D. Jenness, 1926)</p></div> - -<img src="images/plate_6c.jpg" width="700" height="366" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>c</em>, "Chukchis" loading their boat with goods on Little Diomede Island, before departure for Siberia. -(Photo by D. Jenness, 1926)</p></div> -</div> -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 7</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_7a.jpg" width="700" height="401" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>a</em>, Eskimos from East Cape arriving at Nome, Alaska</p></div> - -<img src="images/plate_7b.jpg" width="700" height="395" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>b</em>, East Cape of Asia (to the southward). (Photo by Joe Bernard)</p></div> -</div> -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 8</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_8a.jpg" width="700" height="429" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">A Group of Women at Shishmaref</span></p> - -<p>(Taken at 2 a. m. by A. H., 1926.)</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p> - -<p>To bed dressed—the captain tells me we shall soon be at Shishmaref, -on the north shore of the Seward Peninsula, and that he will -have me called, if I want to visit the village.</p> - -<p>Awake 11.30 p. m. At 11.45 word comes that we have arrived and -a boat is getting ready. On deck in five minutes. Of course it is -still light—there is no real night any more in these regions.</p> - -<p>Have a cinnamon roll—the night specialty for the crew on the -<em>Bear</em>—and a bowl of coffee. The natives, two boats full, already -coming, and a fine full-blooded lot they show themselves to be. They -are accompanied by Mr. Wegner, a big, pleasant young teacher.</p> - -<p>Leave natives trading and set off in ship's boat. The <em>Bear</em> is -anchored about 1⅓ miles off. Fortunately fairly quiet or we should -not be able to go ashore. Teacher and a young English-speaking -native go with us. We have the launch and the skin whaleboat. -Anchor first off shallow beach and transfer into the skin boat for -the landing.</p> - -<p>Tuesday, July 27. It is about 12.30 a. m. Many native women, -youngsters, and some men gather about us at the school. Talk to -them—explain what I want, which is mainly skulls and bones—all -quite agreed. Take two young natives, some bags, and proceed to -where they lead me.</p> - -<p>Find, about half a mile from the present village, a big and important -old site, which existed up to the white man's time. But -dunes on which burials were made and house sites have been largely -graded by a fox-farm keeper and trader, Mr. Goshaw. He had -gathered many skulls—shows me a photo of two rows, at least 40—will -not tell what he did with them. Says he sent "many things to -the Smithsonian," but can give no details, "and to the universities," -but will not mention which. Also "buried a lot." Bad business.</p> - -<p>Gathering what is possible from the débris thrown out by the -Eskimo working for the fox farm, we proceed rapidly from mound -(dune) to mound. Find burials still on the surface in situ—i. e., -nearly buried by the rising carpet of the vegetation—but skulls gone. -Many of those on remaining heaps imperfect, but at least something -can be saved. Collect all that is worth collecting. See Mr. Goshaw—<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>get -but little out of him. Donates a few archeological specimens of -no great value—has no more.</p> - -<p>We hurry on to the other village and burial ground, almost a mile -west of the present settlement. Find only a small pile of bones, -with one whole male skeleton of fairly recent date.</p> - -<p>Then back, as fast as possible, the Indians carrying the bags with -bones, and load on boat. My shoes and feet have long since become -thoroughly wet, after which Mr. Wegner loaned me wool socks and -native shoes that protected my feet. But now these must be left -behind and I have to get into my wet, cold shoes—socks too wet. -Officers in a hurry to get back. It is now 3.00 a. m.; the sun rose -about 1.30. Pay my men, change shoes, photograph women (pl. 8) -and then men—all pleasant and willing. See a few poor articles of -archeological nature—not worth getting; and after a hearty handshake -with the teacher we take off through the somewhat rougher -water to the whaleboat, then on to the motor boat and the ship. Arrive -with six bags of specimens, reaching boat just a little after 4. -Sleepy captain meets us, but luckily shows no grudge, though this -stop and his loss of sleep were essentially for me. Though it would -seem they could have readily waited for our going ashore until morning, -or have given me a little more time at the Diomedes, which -would have brought us here later. Am too much awake now and -worked up to sleep. Lie down a while but fully awake. Total sleep -last night 2½ hours. But it was worth it, except for the vandalism.</p> - -<p>Pack—inadequate boxes—until 3.30 p. m. Whole collection made -last night put in order. But back and knees stiff. Weather two-thirds -fair (my own estimate), some wind, sea choppy. Lie down but -can not sleep.</p> - -<p>At 5.30 off Kotzebue. Due to shallowness of water must anchor -far out of sight. At 6 go to land in ship's larger launch. Waves -rather bad, much tossing about and spray, have to get behind the -canvas canopy that is raised over one seat. It is 15 miles from where -the <em>Bear</em> is anchored to the Kotzebue village—over two hours of (at -times) rather violent tossing up and down and sidewise. Run for -a part of the time not far from beach—a number of isolated, orderly -fish camps—lots of fish drying. Wonder at not getting seasick -again—it must be the open air or difference of movement.</p> - -<p>Kotzebue village lies around a point on a not very high, flat bank, -facing the bay of three rivers (Selavik, Kobuk, Noatak). As we approach -I count over 50 clean tents of Eskimos, about 15 frame houses -and stores, and many skin and other boats on beach or in water. -Many natives hurry to meet us.</p> - -<p>Go ashore. Thomas Berryman, the trader, with the local judge -and two or three other whites come also to meet us. After getting ac<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>quainted -inquire about possibility of exploring the Kobuk and reaching -the Koyukuk and Yukon. But all that I learn is uncertain and -discouraging. There are but few native villages on the river, all Eskimo; -and higher up the water is rapid, necessitating much hauling -of the boat by the natives, which is costly; upon which follow three -or four days' portage. The trip would cost much, and no loads -over 40 pounds to a man could be carried.</p> - -<p>Only a few old sites hereabouts are known by those whom I have -a chance to ask. Say there is a somewhat important one at Cape -Krusenstern. Mr. Berryman has from there a big stone (slate) -lance. He also has a huge piece of serpentine, over 80 pounds in -weight, with a moderate depression in top and some cutting (old -native work), said to have been used as a lamp. Wants to keep this -and spearhead, but donates an old rusty tin box full of smaller -things and promises to obtain skulls for us; and I get a similar -promise from a man (probably one of Mr. Berryman's storekeepers) -from farther up the country.</p> - -<p>Later meet here Mr. Chance, the school superintendent of these -parts; a young and not prepossessing man, but one who steadily -improves on closer acquaintance. Learn from him of a skeleton -recently dug out from the ground under the schoolhouse.</p> - -<p>See many natives, all Eskimo, good looking, clean, and kind. -Some mix bloods, but the majority pure. Good to moderate stature, -well proportioned though not fat body, medium to somewhat lighter -brown color, physiognomies less typical Eskimo than hitherto and -often strongly like Indian. Too late and dusky to photograph.</p> - -<p>Go to see the teacher and find that the skeleton he dug out was -placed by him in an open box, pushed as far as possible under the -rafters of the floor of the schoolhouse and covered with gravel and -earth. There are four of us—start hurriedly digging for it, remove -with shovel, hoe and arms about a ton of the "filling"—and can not -reach the box. It is 10 p. m., the wind rising, officer comes and -urges me to get back to the boat. So must leave with promise that -the box will be gotten out and await me on our return from the -north. Have by this time decided the best policy will be to go -with the <em>Bear</em> as far as she may go. Load empty boxes, some packing—and -one of the young white men who have been digging with -us runs up from the distant schoolhouse announcing that they -"struck" the box. Urge him to run back as fast as he can and get it. -Luckily the postmaster and a good many others who came to see us -off delay us; also the transfer of the mail and boxes to the larger -boat. Finally, after a good many anxious looks, I see at last the -two young men appear, one with a wheelbarrow on which is the box -of bones. Bones look not very old, and Eskimoid at first sight, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> -take box, which contains a good deal of gravel, carry it through the -very interested Eskimo to the boat, all get in, hurried good-bys to -everybody, and we are off.</p> - -<p>A two and a half hours' trip once more, and the last more than -half of it very rough. Such tossing and dancing and dipping and -twisting, with the spray, fortunately not cold, shooting high up at -times, or an angry wave splashing over. But the boat is large and -strong and so eventually we reach the <em>Bear</em>, which was completely -out of sight until about an hour after we started, and in a few minutes -off we go to the north. A little fruit, bed, and know nothing -more until near 7 the next morning. It was a long day—over 25 -hours in a stretch without a wink. Yet did not feel bad; the work -and good nature of people about and those met with, with some -success, are good tonics.</p> - -<p>Wednesday, July 28. All of us have to consult the calendar to be -sure of the day and date.</p> - -<p>Sort and wash Berryman's specimens—a nice lot of little things, -mainly of stone, slate, flint, etc.</p> - -<p>Then go after my bones. Find the spray made the earth and -gravel in the box thoroughly wet, so that it is necessary carefully to -excavate all the bones. Find a male, rather short-statured, typically -Eskimo. May have been a burial of the Russian times. Wire for all -details. Must dry bones. Meanwhile try to catch up with notes. -Toward evening expect to be in another village. Weather fair. -Have passed the Arctic Circle during night, but it is not cold nor in -any way strange here. Sunset coloring lasts long and passes into -that of sunrise—no real night, no stars; but moon seen late at night -and far to the south.</p> - -<p>May this weather continue, for in rough weather landing at any of -these places—there are no harbors whatever and always shallows and -bars and shoals—would be extremely risky or impossible and my -work, for which I feel ever more eager, would suffer. If only I could -see all worth seeing, and stay a little longer when I find what I am -after.</p> - -<p>We reach Kevalina. It is just a schoolhouse and about seven sod -houses. Only a native school teacher, from whom I do not get much.</p> - -<p>No remains or old site very near, but an old village, with "good -many things," exists on the Kevalina River within a few hours' distance -(by canoe) from Kevalina.</p> - -<p>Natives bring old adzes (mounted by them, however), and a harpoon -handle from the old site—bought.</p> - -<p>Spend rest of day in washing, sorting, and packing specimens.</p> - -<p>After supper am invited to the officers' room and given by Lieut. -M. C. Anderson a fine selection of old ivory harpoon heads and other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> -things. Many of these are from the old site on the St. Lawrence -Island, and especially from little isles off that island named Punuk. -All this strengthens the importance of those islands for regular -exploration.</p> - -<p>Thursday, July 29. In anticipation of being called up again during -the night, at Point Hope, which is evidently another important -spot for archeological exploration, for the natives are said to bring -many old articles for sale each year, I do not undress and go to bed -earlier, but have, because of the anticipation, closeness of air, and a -cat jumping on my face just as I am dozing off, a very poor night; -and no call came after all. In the morning there are cold showers, -the sky is much clouded, and the wind keeps on blowing from the -north-northwest, threatening, the officers say, to drive the ice toward -this shore, which would be bad for us. It is cool and disagreeable. -We have anchored to the south of the spit on which stands the village -and can not unload or get ashore. Nor can the natives come -here to us.</p> - -<p>The village consists of a schoolhouse, a little mission (Rev. F. W. -Goodman), an accumulation of houses, semi-subterraneans, and tents. -A few tents are also seen a good distance to the right—a reindeer -camp. Otherwise there is nothing but the long, low, sandy, and -grassy spit projecting far out into the ocean.</p> - -<p>Later. The north-northwest still blows, and so the ship has to -anchor to the south of the long spit on the point of which is the village. -Of this but little can be seen, just a few houses, and it seems -near and insignificant.</p> - -<p>The captain is evidently waiting again for the natives to come out, -and I am helpless. Finally, however, a boat is made ready and I -am taken to the shore with the mail. This is piled on the beach, and -with two officers we start to walk toward the dwellings opposite to -us, which are the mission. Heavy walking in the loose sand and -gravel of the steep beach, and as we ascend it is seen the buildings -which seemed so near to the shore are about a mile or more away.</p> - -<p>A man coming toward us—the missionary, Archdeacon Goodman. -Tell him my mission; says he has some business on the ship, but will -come, and there will be no trouble in helping me to a "good deal of -what I want," which sounds fine.</p> - -<p>In the absence of the missionary, go to see the teacher. The school -is over a mile in the direction toward the point. Find him at home -and helpful. In 15 minutes, with his aid, engage two native boys, -give two sacks to each, and send them out over the long flats (old -beaches) to pick up every skull and jaw they can find. They go -cheerfully, and we depart shortly after to see Mr. La Voy, a movie-picture -man, who has been staying here for some time making movie<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> -pictures of the natives, and at the same time collecting all the -antiquities they could bring him. We go to see his collection, but -find him not home; has gone for mail. The rare mail in these regions -is, of course, the most important of events. So back to the school -(a good many rods from the sod house part of the native village to -the left), and then—it is now near noon—to the mission, a good -mile from the school and more from the village.</p> - -<p>Road staked on one side with whale ribs about 2 rods distance. -Flats on both sides show many parts of bleached human bones. They -are a part of the old extensive burial grounds. Unfortunately, about -two years ago the predecessor of the present missionary had most of -the skulls and bones collected and put in a hole in the new cemetery, -now seen in the distance to the right of the mission. This new -burial place is surrounded by a unique whale-rib fence. Reach mission, -but no one there. Does not look good. Try one building and -door after another—no one—learn later that the missionary has no -family. Twenty minutes to 1. Nothing remains but to go back to -the school for some lunch. So leave my raincoat, camera, and remaining -bags (expecting to do main work on the buried bones) and -hurry back to the school, which I reach just after 1, and, thanks to -their late clock, just in time for a modest lunch, but with a real hot -cup of coffee. Queer that the only genuinely hot cups of coffee I -got on this journey were furnished by Eskimo—for Mrs. Moyer, the -wife of the teacher, is an Eskimo.</p> - -<p>Then comes the mail and Mr. La Voy, and I go to see the latter's -collection.</p> - -<p>Find a mass of old and modern material, of stone, bone, and -wood. All the older things are from an old site on the point. It is -an important and large site, as found later (at least 50 houses), which -the natives (getting coffee, tea, chewing gum, chocolate, candy, etc., -for what they find) are now busy digging over and ruining for -scientific exploration. Women dig as well as men, confining themselves -to from 2 to 3 uppermost feet that have thawed; but even thus -finding a lot of specimens. Bones, of course, and other things are -left and no observation whatever on the site is made. It is a pity.</p> - -<p>Mr. La Voy donates some stone objects, mainly scrapers, and then -I go with a native he employs to the "diggings." Find much already -turned over—one woman actually digging—but very much more still -remaining. Examine everything—site evidently not ancient but of -the richest—and then return with the woman to get some of her -"cullings."</p> - -<p>On the way am called by a man whose sod house (semisubterranean) -we pass. We sit on the top of his house and soon establish -a regular trading place, with a big flat stone as a counter. One<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> -after another the native women and men bring out a few articles, -good, bad, or indifferent, lay them on the stone, I select what I want, -lay so much money against the articles, and usually get them. -Everybody in the best of humor. The natives surely enjoy the -sport, and so do I, if only I was not hurried. Thus trade for at -least an hour until my pockets are bulging. Then once more to the -school and once more to the mission. In the latter get my things, -as nobody is there yet, Doctor Goodman having doubtless been delayed -on the boat. I hear that there are prospects of both him and -Mr. La Voy going north with us on a little vacation. Send the coat -with spare bags to the school by a native I meet, while I go to look -at the rib cemetery and photograph it. Find the bones have been -interred in its middle and a low mound raised over them, so there -is for the moment nothing to do there. Therefore go over the -plain a little farther, picking up a few odds and ends, a damaged -skull, and finally, from a fairly recent burial box, a fine skull with -its lower jaw. Then attempt to pass a pool of water and sink in -the mud to above my rubber boots, so that the icy water runs in, -wetting me thoroughly, and gurgling henceforth with every step -in the shoes. Try to get these off but can not. The feet must be -congested. So spill out all I can by raising the feet, and then do -some hard walking which takes away the cold.</p> - -<p>Evening, though no dusk approaching. Sit on gravel to empty -more water from shoes, but can still hardly get one off. And just as -I succeed I see, across another long pool, two men, one with a cap of -an officer of the ship, waving their arms, evidently signifying to -me that the time is up and I am to return. Call to them to wait. -Impossible to make them hear me or for me to hear them. All -here is elusive—enchanted-like—distances, sounds. Finally they -stop. I catch up with them after passing a broad ditch, and learn -that the ship is about to sail and they are waiting for me. My coat, -however, and collections are still at the school, over a mile away, -so once more it is necessary to hurry to the school and then back -to the ship. So things go when promises go wrong and one is -alone under a constant apprehension.</p> - -<p>The boys collected four bags full. Moreover, they undertook to -bring them toward the boat, and are bringing the last two just as -I approach the beach. There are Eskimos on the beach with dog -teams and sledges waiting to cart off what was unloaded from the -ship. Photograph one of the teams and then on into the boat and -to the <em>Bear</em> with the four bags, a box full, part of another bag, and -all pockets full of specimens. Only to learn when we reach the -boat that both Doctor Goodman and Mr. La Voy are going with -us and that the former after supper is still to go and get his things<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> -from the mission. I have no boat to go back with, and so lose -several hours.</p> - -<p>July 30. Gloomy morning, windy, cool, sea not good. Do not -feel easy. But need to pack. One of the officers, Boatswain Berg, -lends me his short sheepskin coat, and I pack up to lunch. The sea -is getting worse. Have but little lunch and soon after have to take -to bed or would again be sick. To avoid the pitching of the end -of the boat where my bed is I go to the dispensary and lie until 6. -From 6 on the sea moderates somewhat, so that I am able to have a -little supper. After that go to officers' wardroom, play two games of -checkers with the doctor, get some more specimens from two of the -officers, and retire.</p> - -<p>When I boarded the <em>Bear</em> it became plain to me that I must earn -as much as possible the sympathetic understanding of my work by -both the officers and the crew, and so I gave two talks, one to the -officers and the other to the men, telling them of our problems in -Alaska, of the meaning and value of such collections as I was making, -and of other matters that I felt would be useful on this occasion. As -a result I had throughout the voyage nothing but the friendliest feelings -of all and their cooperation. Sincere thanks to the officers and -the crew of the <em>Bear</em>, from the captain downward.</p> - -<p>Saturday, July 31. At 4.30 a. m. suddenly a heavy bump forward, -followed by several smaller ones. Ship rises and shivers. Have -struck ice floes. Going very slowly. Further bumps at longer or -shorter intervals and occasionally the ship stops entirely. Sea -fortunately much calmer.</p> - -<p>Up at 7. We are in a loose field of ice—aquamarine-blue ice -covered with hillocks of snow, all shapes and sizes, as after a hard -winter on the Hudson, only floes mostly larger and especially deeper.</p> - -<p>Soon after breakfast hear walrus and seals had been observed on -the ice, and shortly before 9 the captain comes down hurriedly to tell -us they have just spied—they now have a man in the crow's nest up -on the foremast—a white bear.</p> - -<p>Run up—everybody pleasurably excited—to the front of the ship. -See a black-looking head of something swimming toward a large ice -floe about 500 yards in front of us. As we approach the head reaches -the floe, then a big yellowish paw comes out upon the ice, then the -shoulders, and finally the whole bear. The officers hurry forward, -each with a gun. Soon men all there. Some one fires. Bear stands -broadside watching us. The bullet goes way over. Then other -shots—still missing—water spouting high in many places. Bear -bewildered, does not know what to do, lopes off a little here and there, -stops again, looking at us, and now—we are less than 100 yards from -him it seems—a bullet strikes him above the loin—we can see him jerk<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> -and the red spot following. He runs clumsily, but other shots follow, -some seemingly taking effect, and then he drops, first on his belly, -then, twisting, turns over on his back. A few more movements with -his paws and head, and he lies still, quite dead. Can not but feel -sorry for the poor bear, who did not know why he was being killed, -and had no chance.</p> - -<p>A motor boat is lowered and goes to get him. They find on the floe -the remains of a seal on which he fed. Tie a rope to him, drag him -into the water, tow him to the <em>Bear</em>, which has stopped and where -all stand on the bows in expectation and with all sorts of cameras, -and prepare to hoist the brute aboard. Captain says it is the second -case of this nature in 20 years. Ropes are fastened about the big -body, attached to a winch, and the big limp form is hauled up, though -not without some difficulty, due to its size and weight. All stand -about him, examine, photograph. They will let the natives at Wainwright -skin it and give them the flesh. It is a middle-sized, full-grown -male. It shows only two wounds, the one in the side and one -where the bullet passed through his mouth, knocking out one of the -canines.</p> - -<p>Cold—must put on second suit of underwear. Very gloomy, but -storm abated. No land in sight—above Cape Lombard all is flat. -It rains in that direction. We meander among the floes, now and -then bumping and shivering. Should a wind come up and blow the -ice landward we would be in danger of being closed in and stopped -or delayed.</p> - -<p>Evening. Arrive off Wainwright. Village recent—older site 20 -miles away. People the usual type of Eskimo. Visit the village, but -soon return.</p> - -<p>After supper the boat stops—fear the ice. Another passenger is -added here, Jim Allen, the local trader, with a bagful of white -fox skins and a bear skin. Conditions becoming a bit crowded.</p> - -<p>Sunday, August 1. No movement to-day. They are apprehensive -of the ice, and so we stay here, the one place of all where there is -nothing for me to do. Of course there are the natives, but with the -constant uncertainty as to when we shall start and a lack of facilities -I can not do much with them.</p> - -<p>The weather is quiet but still cloudy, though the sun may possibly -peep out. Ice seen in the offing. Would be more interesting to be -in it, as yesterday. The bear has been skinned, cut up, and we shall -try some of its flesh at noon. Rest of day quiet but still mostly -cloudy, though occasionally a little of pale, lukewarm sun. At -3.30 give lecture to the officers and fellow passengers on the subject -of evolution. Seems quite appreciated. Reading, writing, and -walking the deck fills the time. Ate a little of the bear meat—some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>what -tough, otherwise not much different from reindeer or even beef. -If better prepared (especially roasted on coals) would be quite -palatable.</p> - -<p>Yesterday there were several flurries of snow, none to-day, but air -cold enough to make a long stay outside disagreeable.</p> - -<p>Toward evening Captain announces that he is going to try to reach -Barrow, about 80 miles northeastward, and soon after supper we -start. He also tells me we may be there at or not long after midnight -and so to be ready, for the boat will be unable to stop more -than an hour or two. As the only place where a few skulls and -bones may be found is about 1½ miles outside of the village and it -takes a good 30 minutes to make a mile over the tundras, I shall -have to rush once more. But I am promised a man to help me.</p> - -<p>August 2. With clothes on, and anticipation, slept poorly. Ship -stopped about 1 a. m. and I imagined we were off Barrow. But on -rising find that we have gone on and then backward again, encountering -ever more ice. It is cold and foggy outside, and cloudy and -gloomy. We now meander among the big floes, now and then bump -into one until the whole ship heaves and shivers, and occasionally -the siren, stop for a while to diminish the shock. We are now on -way back to Wainwright. If we only could go as far back as Point -Hope, where there is so much of interest. I might have stayed over, -but would surely have reproached myself for missing the remainder -of the coast.</p> - -<p>Back off Wainwright, cold, windy, sky gloomy as usual.</p> - -<p>Late in the afternoon go with the trader to land, to visit the site -of an older village, about a mile down the shore. Walk along the -beach. Cold wind, raincoat stiffens. Walrus meat and blubber -chunks (slabs, etc.) along the beach at several places, also a large -skinned seal. Traces, as one nears the village, of worked stones, but -all waterworn and no finished objects. At one place in bank, about -3 feet deep, a layer of clear blue ice about 20 inches thick—strangely -pure ice, not frozen earth or even inclusion of any dirt or gravel.</p> - -<p>Village site small, along the edge of the low (about 10 feet) bluff. -Count remains of eight dwellings. Some animal bones, but nothing -else on surface or in vicinity. Burial place not seen. Companion -says there is nothing.</p> - -<p>A simple supper at the trader's, prepared by his Eskimo wife, and -good company: Doctor Smith, of the Geological Survey, with two of -his men; Jim Allen, the storekeeper, a big, good-hearted fellow; -La Voy, the big, active movie man, who knows all the gossip and -enjoys telling it with embellishment; and two men of the trader. -Menu: Soup, boiled reindeer meat, underdone biscuits, coffee.</p> - -<p>After supper go to a meeting at the school, where our missionary, -Doctor Goodman, is to talk to the natives. Large schoolroom<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> -crowded. I talk through an interpreter—a serious disadvantage—on -cleanliness. Fine study for me on the many present, though like -elsewhere on such occasions they are mainly women and children. -Good many Indianlike faces, though cheekbones more prominent -and more flatness between them. But hair, low foreheads, eyes (except -in children where they are more superficial, less sunken, and -with more epicanthus than in Indians), lips, and other characteristics -the same as in Indians. Some of the faces are strong, many -among the younger pleasant, some of the young women handsome. -A moderate number of mix bloods, even among the adults. Color -of skin in full bloods medium to submedium brown, exactly as in -full-blood Indians along the Yukon, but cheeks more dusky red.</p> - -<p>The behavior of these people is in all important points radically -that of the Indian, but they are more approachable and open and -matter-of-fact people. More easily civilized. Good mechanics. -Less superstitious, more easily converted to white man's religion. -And good singers. Their singing at the meeting in the schoolhouse -would have shamed a good many whites in this respect.</p> - -<p>Except for epidemics, I am told, these natives would more than -hold their own in numbers. They are fecund, if conditions are -right. Sterility is rare. They marry fairly young.</p> - -<p>August 3. Still standing, though we had to pull out farther -south and away from the shore. The water was pretty rough and -I had to go to bed again, but weather moderated.</p> - -<p>We are in touch with the world through the ship's radio, but get -more trash—same all through the radio service in Alaska—than -serious news. Spend time in reading, talking; some play solitaire -games; captain and Allen play cribbage. Deck too small for any -outside games, even if it were not so cold.</p> - -<p>Ice floes floating about us, now scarce, now thicker; water splashing -against them and wearing them out into pillared halls, mushrooms, -and other strange forms. Due to their snow covering, the water -upon them, so far as it results from melting, is sweet, and in it swim -many small fishes. It snowed a bit again to-day.</p> - -<p>August 4. No change, except that the sea is somewhat calmer, -and for a while we have once more seen the sun, but it was hazy -and just mildly warm, while the same wind, from the sea, even though -now subdued, has an icy undertone. It snowed a little this morning.</p> - -<p>Thursday, August 5. Sea calm, atmosphere hazy, but the wind -has turned at last slightly offshore and the sun penetrates through -the mists, until it conquers and shines, warm and bright if not -wholly clear, once more. Ice visible only on the horizon. At 7.15 -we start on another effort to reach Barrow.</p> - -<p>Pass Wainwright, and all is well until after lunch, when fog -(though fortunately not thick) develops and the floes increase until<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> -they are as thick as at the first attempt in this same region. Heavy -bumps and strains follow one another and the boat must often go -very slow or even stop altogether. Sometimes the heavy ship just -staggers from the impact, but the floes are generally broken by the -shock and swirl away out of our way, or scraping the ship pass -to the rear. All aboard show new interest and energy. The forced -stops and inaction were dulling even to the crew.</p> - -<p>File a wireless to be sent from Barrow. It will reach Washington -to-morrow after we shall have started on the return journey.</p> - -<p>Two dogs on board fight fiercely. An officer, the owner of one, -trying to separate them is bitten by his own through a finger.</p> - -<p>A marine, in swinging the heavy lead with which they are constantly -sounding the depth, gets the cord caught about his hand -and suffers a bad sprain with fracture.</p> - -<p>The captain's little black cat, Peter, helps to entertain us by his -antics. No wonder sailors in their often monotonous existence like -all sorts of mascots.</p> - -<p>Friday, August 6. Of course our dates got mixed, and more than -one has to consult the calendar and count. The <em>Bear</em> had to turn -back once more last night; ice too heavy. Anchored, however, not -far to south. This morning very cloudy, rainy, chilly, but wind -from near to east, and so from about 6 a. m. we are once more laboriously -on our way. Now and then a bump, heave, stagger, then again -the screw resumes its cheerful song. We are passing through the -most dangerous part of all the coast here where many vessels have -been lost, sometimes whole small fleets of whalers. But very few -come here now—we have seen but one since leaving Kotzebue. They -call this stretch "the boat graveyard."</p> - -<p>Saturday, August 7. Stalled, about 30 miles from Barrow. Anchored -in the protection of a great grounded flat, in a clear pond of -water, with ice all around it, but especially seaward, where the pack -seems solid. Some open water reported beyond it, but wind (wild) -keeps from the wrong quarter and the captain will make no further -attempt until conditions change. Of course it is cloudy again and -has rained some during the night and morning, but the temperature -is somewhat higher, so that one does not need an overcoat and -gloves, although the officers wear their sheep-lined short coats which -are nice and warm.</p> - -<p>After noon asked the captain for the skin whaleboat to explore -the shore. The latter is nearly a mile distant and shows about 60 -feet high dirt bluffs. Got the boat and went with the boatswain. -Berg, a young "hand," Weenie, and the movie man, La Voy. -Rowed with La Voy. Had a wholesome two and a half hours -exploring. Found a little stream, with traces of native deer camp<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> -(collected two seal skulls); a moderate number of flowers and grasses -(collected some mushrooms); some fossil shells from the bluffs; and -two Eskimo burials. One of these, a woman, nearly all washed away -and lost; of the other, a man, secured the skull, jaw, one shoulder -blade and part of a diseased femur with corresponding socket -(mushroom arthritis), also the two humeri. A good specimen. Returned, -rowing again, near 4. All there playing cribbage and -solitaire.</p> - -<p>Am tempted to walk to Barrow; but there are some streams in the -way which it might be impossible to ford. Moreover, no one knows -the distance.</p> - -<p>Sunday, August 8. Morning finds us once more thwarted, and -standing at our place of refuge. No change in conditions, but there -will be a change of moon to-night, so I at least have hopes. In my -travels I learned too much about the moon not to believe in it. -Toward evening ice begins to move out.</p> - -<p>Monday, August 9. At 12.30 a. m., unexpectedly, a new start. -The wind has turned at last (new moon!) to northeast, but is mild. -Soon in ice. Many bumps and much creaking and shaking. Captain's -collie gets scared and tries to get into our beds, one after -another. But very little sleep under these conditions.</p> - -<p>In the morning we find ourselves in a thicker ice field than any -before, with floes on all sides. Boat barely creeps. Toward 10 a. m. -further progress found almost impossible, and so forced to turn backward -once more. However, can not even go back and so, near 12, -anchor about a mile offshore opposite a small river with lagoon-like -mouth and two tents of natives—"Shinara," or "Shinerara."</p> - -<p>Ask captain for a boat to visit and explore the coast. Consents, -and so at 1 we go forth, about eight of us, with the captain's dog. -Reach Eskimo, photograph the group. All look remarkably Indianlike. -Then go to look for skeletal material. Nothing near, so return -for the Eskimo boy. He leads me about a mile over the highland -tundra to two burials in boxes—not old. Look through crevices -shows in one an adolescent, in the other a female (or a boy) with -hair and skin still on. Leave both.</p> - -<p>Then into the boat once more after buying some fossil teeth, and -with the boy Isaac—his father is Abraham—try to go into the river, -and soon get stuck in the stickiest mud (oily shale) imaginable—great -work to clean even the oar with which we had to push ourselves -off. Land then on the beach and for the next two hours explore -that side of the basin. Find remains of two small settlements—seven -huts in all, none very old.</p> - -<p>Gather five skulls with parts of four skeletons, most bones missing; -also some mushrooms, several interesting humeri of seals, and a piece<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> -of pumice-like fossil bone. Near 4.30 begins to rain a bit so we hurry -to boat, and in a little while, after depositing Isaac near his camp, -reach the <em>Bear</em>.</p> - -<p>Eskimo on shore had two skinned seal lying on the ground, and -there were many reindeer horns. A pile of them was over a fire, -being smoked.</p> - -<p>The wind has been the whole day from the northeast, the long-wished-for -wind, and the ice has moved out sufficiently to induce -the captain to make another start. So at 5 p. m. off we go again, -and for quite a while the screw sings merrily, until we reach some -remaining ice, when there are more bumps and staggers.</p> - -<p>The waters about the ship show, whenever calmer, the heads of -swimming seal, grown and little. But they are wary and keep at -a distance. Otherwise the only live things are an occasional gull, -and rarely a couple of ducks. In the icy water, however, on and -about the floes, are seen again numerous small, dark fish (from the -size of a big minnow to that of a tomcod); and along the shore swim -merrily hundreds of very tame and graceful little snipes, lovely small -birds, too little, luckily, to be hunted.</p> - -<p>Little enthusiasm about my collecting, but the boatswain and some -at least of the men are genuinely helpful. I believe some of the -others are a bit superstitious. But I get some chance at least, and -that is precious.</p> - -<p>Expect to reach Barrow before 12 p. m., and to start back before -morning—a big chance for some sleep again if I want to do some -collecting. Sleep, through the frequent lack of it, has become a -kind of obsession in one's thoughts, yet when there were chances during -the days of waiting it would not come.</p> - -<p>August 9, evening, to 10 next morning. This is a land of odds and -wonders. In the morning things looked hopeless; toward evening -the wind has driven away enough ice to make a narrow open lane -near the shore, and utilizing this we arrived without difficulty -at 8 p. m. at the long unreachable Barrow. At 9 boat takes us -ashore. At 9.30 p. m. I start with an Eskimo and a seaman (Weenie) -from the <em>Bear</em> on a collecting trip over about 3 square miles -of tundra behind Barrow, and at 12.30 return to ship with four bags -of skulls and bones. But sleep! Hardly any since 12.30 last night, -and very little after return to-day, for due to fear of ice they -called in everybody from shore before 3 a. m., and the newcomers -keep on walking and talking and banging with their baggage until -5, when, fearing a return of the ice, we start once more southward, -toward—it feels strange, but it is so—home. It was a remarkable -good fortune, our getting there thus and getting out again, as we -did, without damage.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p> - -<p>Barrow is a good-looking and rather important place. It stretches -about 2 miles along the low shore, in three clusters, the two main -ones separated by a lagoon. It has a radio station, a mission -hospital, and a school. There are over 200 natives here, and also quite -a few whites, including Mr. Charles Brower, the trader, observer -and collector, with his native wife and their family, the teacher, the -missionary and his family, and the nurses.</p> - -<p>The burial place here is the most extensive in the Eskimo territory. -Taking the older parts and the new, it covers over a square mile of -the tundra, beginning not far beyond the site of the hospital and -extending to and beyond a small stream that flows over a mile inland. -But the burials were grouped in a few spots, the rest being barren.</p> - -<p>This extensive burial ground is now about exhausted for scientific -purposes, except for such skeletons and objects as may have been -assimilated—i. e. buried—by the tundra. That such exist became -quite evident during our search, and they naturally are the oldest -and most valuable. We secured two good skulls of this nature. They -were completely buried, only a little of the vault showing, and had -there been time we should doubtless have found also parts of the -skeletons. The skulls were discolored brown.</p> - -<p>Of the later skeletal material we found but the leavings, the best -having been carried off by other collectors. There were remnants -of hundreds of skulls and skeletons, but for the most part so damaged -as not to be worth saving. Nevertheless our diligent midnight -search was not in vain, and we brought back four sacks full of specimens, -the Eskimo carrying his with the utmost good nature. The -destruction here is due to sailors and other whites and to dogs, foxes, -and reindeer.</p> - -<p>The reindeer herds, going in hundreds over the ground, help -materially to scatter and damage the bones. So, the older material -gone, while the more recent burials are, at least so far as the -younger element is concerned, quite worthless to science, containing -many mix bloods of all sorts—even occasionally with the negro -(men from the wrecked whaleboats). The collection now secured -was the last one possible from this locality, except through excavation.</p> - -<p>Tuesday, August 10. The boat is now crowded. We lost one -woman and got three; also about five or six men—newspaper, movie, -radioman, a dog teamster, a trapper. Quite a variety, in every way, -and most are to go with us at least as far as Nome. They will have -to hang up two hammocks in our little cabin each night, and some -must sleep elsewhere.</p> - -<p>Packing the whole morning. Five boxes. My man of last night -helping, a fine, big young fellow. This aid in the work is a great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> -boon to me, and the transportation of the many specimens by the -<em>Bear</em> down to Seattle or San Francisco will be a fine service to the -Institution.</p> - -<p>The older of us, that is those who have been longer on the ship, -feel like veterans and are drawn closer together. The new lot, -heterogeneous, do not attract, particularly one of the women. An -older one, evidently a well-liked nurse, goes off at Wainwright, -which we reach once more at 8 p. m. Here goes off also Jim Allen, -the trader, who is a good fellow in a rough shell and whom I -learned to like. He helped us all a good deal while in the ice.</p> - -<p>The movie man from Point Hope is a somewhat spoiled, gossipy, -and roughshod, but otherwise, a good-hearted big kid—not very -wise, but not mischievous, and more than efficient in his own calling. -Is 40, but already aging, like a weather-beaten poplar—not pine -or oak. Is violently against all "kikes," or eastern money-lending -Jews, from whom he used to borrow at usurious interest and who -sold him out once or twice when he could not pay.</p> - -<p>Lost Jim Allen and dropped the nurse, but are still too many. -At 10 p. m., just as the minister and I have retired, there comes a -call for the former to go up. A couple of Eskimos have arrived, -with their friends, to be married. So he dresses and performs the -function. I am too weary to rise and dress to go and look at it. -He says it was quite tame. Then the anchor, and once more we -are off. No ice any more, and the sea has again a swell, which was -absent in the ice-covered waters.</p> - -<p>Wednesday, August 11. Swell, but not bad, though one of the -women, another nurse, is ill, and the other, a "writer," etc., will not -get up for breakfast. Quite a problem now to get washed and -shaved. Both the minister (archdeacon) and the movie man like -to use perfumed things, and the former takes much time with his -toilet, so I endeavor as before to be first up.</p> - -<p>August 12. A great day. Was called a little after 12.30 a. m., after -but little sleep (through anticipation), to examine a site ashore—a -coal mine, a water source, and possibly something human. Two -miles to shore, in semidarkness; no night yet in these regions. A -long tramp over the mossy and grassy tundra; mosquitoes. One -native igloo, and on a little elevation some distance off a grave of -a child; otherwise nothing. After examination of the coal strata, -a curious secondary inclusion in sand and gravel, and the stream -of water (good to drink, even if not clear), we depart and reach -ship again after 4 a. m.</p> - -<p>Beginning to be—in fact am already—a "night doctor," for sure. -Never thought I could stand such doings, but am standing it, and -that even with some cold and bothersome night cough. But am<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> -sure short on sleeping, for it is impossible for me to catch up during -the days; am not a day sleeper. I suppose when one is most of -the time half hungry his mind naturally reverts to hunger, as mine -does to sleep.</p> - -<p>We are due to-day again at Point Hope, and I am anxious for a -little time there.</p> - -<p>At night. This was a day of harvest. Reached Point Hope about -3 p. m., but had to go around again to the other side, due to the -swell and surf on the north. I went to shore in the first boat, about -4 p. m. Doctor Goodman, with whom we are very friendly, was -with me and promised to go over and help me get some men with -whom I want to excavate the burial hole of his predecessor. But -when on the shore stays behind and remains. So we go on with my -man from the ship to the whalebone graveyard. Near there see -two Eskimo men with some dogs. They smile; so I tell them what -I want; in two minutes have engaged them; in about three more -we begin to dig, and in about five minutes after strike first bones.</p> - -<p>My good friend the boatswain, Mr. Berg, comes to help, and as I -now have four to work I take a bag and go on collecting a little -more over the plains beyond where we are. Get a good bag. Find -another good-natured Eskimo, Frank, coming from fishing, engage -him to help carrying and eventually to take place of one of my first -workers, who is an old man. Then we see Doctor Goodman, far -away, coming to the mission. Borrow two more shovels from his -stock and a few coal bags. Meanwhile bone and skull pile is fairly -exposed from one side and top gravel partly removed, so I give up -intended trip to old village site and, as we were given only to 9.30 -p. m., go to work on the pile.</p> - -<p>A great deal here. More than anticipated, though all is a jumble, -with the long and other bones of the skeleton on the top. The work -is to get down in the moist gravel, disengage one bone and skull after -another as rapidly as possible, give it a rapid look-over, and either -save, if fairly well preserved or showing some special feature, or -discard. If saved, the specimen is handed to one of the Eskimo, -who cleans it of gravel, lays it out to dry a little, and then places it -gently in a bag.</p> - -<p>Many of the bones and skulls were found so damaged that they -had to be left. But much was also good. The strenuous work, however, -had to go on without interruption and at the fullest possible -speed, if the main part of what was there was to be saved. So no -supper, no stop for even a minute, until after 8 p. m. Sixteen bags -full, and some of the sacks quite spacious. At last had to give up—no -more time, no sacks, and lower down everything frozen as hard -as flint. The main part, however, secured—183 good skulls, several<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> -hundred lower jaws, and a lot of long and other bones. This, together -with the rest of the material from this place, ought to give -us data of much value.</p> - -<p>But now, how shall the lot be got on the boat. Luckily, one of the -Eskimo that has been working for me has a dog team and sled. So -I engage these; and shortly after we finish putting everything in -order—in the presence now of Doctor Goodman, who comes to look at -us—the man arrives, with a good-sized sled and 13 whitish dogs. -Load all the bags on—and then a sight never to be forgotten—the -dogs pulling the load across the tundra, depressions, gravels, right -down to the water's edge and to the motor boat that is waiting for us. -How they strained, pulled with all will, and obeyed. A wise leader -in front, six pairs behind. No reins, only a few calls from the -Eskimo, and they knew just what to do. Tried to photograph them, -but light already poor—advancing season. (Pl. 9, <em>a.</em> <em>b.</em>)</p> - -<p>Then hurry to the teacher, not home; to La Voy, not home. Find -teacher in tent, sick, trembling; I fear beginning of typhoid. Did -not get anything for me in our absence. La Voy promised to give -me some things from his collections, but now is not here. A native -woman, however, meets me far out on the beach, and I learn she has -dug out for me since our first visit five good skulls from the ground—some, -she shows, deep to above the elbow. She has them near the -ship—we go on—on the road boys and women overtake me with a -few things to sell. Then the woman brings her skulls, in a bag on -her back, in excellent condition. I pay her for her trouble. Reach -our boat, and the bell on the <em>Bear</em> rings 9.30.</p> - -<p>The bone pile—the sled and dogs and load over the tundra—the -woman carrying a native (seal) bag with skulls—will be three rare, -indelible pictures.</p> - -<p>On the <em>Bear</em> at 10. A little sandwich, fruit, and a cinnamon cake -with coffee, and to bed. But irritating tire-cough keeps me up for -another hour.</p> - -<p>Friday, 13th. Packing. A nice day. Toward evening stop at -Kevalina. Obtain a few things and pictures. To bed soon, but -cough still bothers. I have nothing for it; there is but little on the -boat in the way of medicines outside of the most ordinary things.</p> - -<p>Saturday, 14th. Up 5.30, early breakfast, and 6.45 start once more -for Kotzebue. The <em>Bear</em> has anchored about 12 miles off, so do not -reach village until 8.35, and have to go back at 9.10. Rush to store, -get boxes, barrels, and packing. And then to the schoolhouse, where -I expect some information about the skeleton found under the house -and obtained on my former visit. Also promised information from -Mr. Chance, the supervisor, about old sites. But Mr. Chance is gone, -and no letter or message—it came later, to Washington. A few<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> -words with the teacher, and one of the boys from our boat is already -calling me.</p> - -<p>Return at 11 a. m. and spend the rest of the day packing, finishing -just at supper. A curious sunset at 8, a horizontally banded sun, -several clear-cut, fairly broad, dark bands. Sea getting rougher.</p> - -<p>Sunday, August 15. Bad sea, wind, waves, fog. Have to take to -bed and do without breakfast. Stay in until lunch. We could not -stop again at Shishmareff; could not get ashore. The next stop, late -afternoon, is to be at the Little Diomede, to take off Jenness; but if -too rough we shall go on to Teller. The wind is from the northwest -and the foghorn keeps on blowing.</p> - -<p>The whole day continues rough, foggy, unfriendly. The ship can -not stop at the Diomede, nor go to Teller; obliged to go to Nome. -After supper all chairs and movable articles have to be tied up. -Most day in bed, but escaped real seasickness, and got some sleep.</p> - -<p>Monday, 16. Weather moderated. We are in lee of the mountainous -part of Seward Peninsula. After breakfast off Nome, and at -11 a. m. in town. First stop at Lomen's. Then from one to another -till 4.55 p. m., when Dan Sutherland, the Alaska Delegate to Congress, -escorts me to the boat. Saw many friends, got some mail, -and, best of all, got a fine deposit collection for the National Museum -from Mr. Carl Lomen. The judge asked me for another lecture for -next Saturday, when we are to see Nome for the last time.</p> - -<p>About 5 a. m. arrive at Golovnin Bay to take water. At this place -this is generally a day of partial rest and recreation for the crew. -The water is taken from a small stream fed by a spring that comes -out from a cave of the mountain, and is put direct into the whaleboats, -brought to ship, and pumped into its tanks.</p> - -<p>Shortly after breakfast the captain gives us the larger motor boat, -and with Mr. Berg and two of the seamen I start for a little survey -trip along the northern shore of the bay. In less than an hour we -reach a sheltered nook with a small stream, where there is an old -frame dwelling with some out-structures, all evidently abandoned, -though various articles of use hang or lie about, including several -guns of old patterns.</p> - -<p>On a bluff to the left of the house are six burials, some old, wood -near all rotten, some more recent. The latter, two in number, both -show a large animal skin covering of the body, besides which the -latter shows remnants of clothing. Secure two good skeletons, -practically complete; also head and a few parts of a newborn (or -near) child. A unique feature—with one of the male skeletons is -found a complete skeleton of an eagle. Could have got also a female -skeleton, but was still unclean, and we perceived a small native motor -boat coming toward us from the reindeer camp about 1½ miles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> -farther inward. So we replaced everything (outwardly) and started -off to meet the native boat. Found in it two young men and three -women. Inquired about old sites and learned of one about 3 miles -farther inward.</p> - -<p>Stopped at the reindeer camp. Found there about a dozen individuals. -Got more information, also a young man to go with us, -bought for the <em>Bear</em> a dozen good-sized silver salmon—caught this -morning and lying for protection against flies, in a pool of water—and -left for the old site "around the point."</p> - -<p>A nice site, but small. Fine beach for bathing if it were in a -warmer climate. Remains of about a half dozen semisubterranean -houses. A copper nail from one shows they were not very ancient. -And no burials left, save one, more recent, of a child, most of which -is gone. But there is a green elevated plane rising from the beach -and we soon find several varieties of berries, especially large and good -blueberries, a variety of huckleberry, and a sort of wine-tasting -dwarf blackberry. Collect enough for immediate consumption—a -most welcome diversion in every way—and get some for the captain.</p> - -<p>Leave near 1 p. m. A little lunch on boat, then once more the -reindeer camp, where the young women make us good hot coffee -with as good biscuits as one could find anywhere. Buy more berries -from them, load our fish (12 salmon ranging about 12 pounds each, -for $3), and start off for another site just around Stony Point.</p> - -<p>Round up one point, then another and another, up to five, and by -that time the going has become so rough that we get much tossed -about, ship water, dog gets frightened and near sick, and just -as we reach what we thought must be the last point there juts out -still another. It is now so rough that the boatswain thinks we could -not land, and so nothing remains but to turn back to the mother -boat. Reach there near 3.30 p. m. Soon all boats are hoisted, and at -4 the <em>Bear</em> is on her way to St. Michael.</p> - -<p>August 18. Arrived about midnight off St. Michael; must stay outside -due to shoal water. Somewhat rough.</p> - -<p>In the morning boat coaling, dirty work, so all who can go ashore. -Meet Mr. Williams again; buy a few native articles in stores, visit -Mrs. Evans, the teacher-nurse, who has on an occasion successfully -amputated a native's finger. The deputy marshal takes me to his -house, gives me some dried deer meat and smoked salmon strips, and -promises to be on a lookout for specimens for us. Near noon return. -Still rough.</p> - -<p>At night a bad blow and the ship tossing a great deal, almost as -during the storm to St. Lawrence. Feel it considerably, but after -3 a. m. wind and water moderate. Feel effects of it, however, whole -morning. For an explorer to be ever in rough weather subject to -seasickness is a horrid affliction.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p> - -<p>August 19. Off Nome once more. Everything, city, mountains, -appear exceedingly, unnaturally clear—not a good sign. After -9 a. m. go to town. Soon at the Lomens' headquarters, and the sons, -particularly Carl, bring out three smaller boxes full of things from -St. Lawrence and Nunivak Islands, and give me the choice of all. -And after I am through—near two hours' fast work—Carl adds one -beautiful tusk (carved) from Nunivak Island, and then adds another, -and two big bones of a mammoth, some as gifts, some as an addition -to his loan to our institution. Excellent men.</p> - -<p>Lunch with Ralph and Carl; then a good walk in the open; and -then another lecture. All pleased, and two bring me specimens for -our museum. Slowly back to boat and 4.45 on the <em>Bear</em> again. Nice -day, but getting cooler and blustery.</p> - -<p>Captain Ross comes to port, the graphophone starts its usual jazz -songs next (ward) room, then the supper, all visitors gone, and the -<em>Bear</em> raises anchor to be off for the north once more.</p> - -<p>August 19, evening. A new, final chapter begins with to-day. -What will it contain when over?</p> - -<p>August 20. Rough. Go north until in plain sight of the Diomedes -as well as Cape Wales, and then the captain decides landing would -be risky, if not impossible; and so reluctantly we turn back and -proceed toward Teller. What a tantalizing experience this must -have been to poor Jenness, who is waiting for us on the Little -Diomede, a most dreary place, to be taken off; and I, too, expected -collections at both the Diomedes and the Cape.</p> - -<p>Saturday, August 21. Port Clarence, off Teller. This proved -a day never to be forgotten; for failure of a rigid system, for bad -weather, for strain and endurance, and nearness to almost anything.</p> - -<p>My purpose was to utilize the <em>Bear's</em> visit to Teller for a survey -of a Chukchee-Eskimo battle field, of which I heard repeatedly -from the Yukon onward. Sometime during the earlier half of the -last century the Chukchee from Asia are said to have made an invasion -of the peninsula and to have reached as far as the Salt Lake, -east of Teller, when they were met by the united Eskimo and badly -defeated. The exact spot where this happened is, however, somewhat -uncertain, and it was to locate it, examine, and collect what -might be possible of the remains that were said to be still there -that I asked Captain Cochran to let me have one of the motor boats, -to which he kindly consented, uniting the trip with some topographical -observations for his own purposes.</p> - -<p>The evening before I was told by the second officer that we shall -start some time soon after midnight for that part of the old battle -field—there seemed to be two of them—at the eastern point of the -Salt Lake. As a result could not undress, and after ship stopped in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> -Port Clarence, near 11 p. m., had but a little rest. The call came at -4 a. m. A little breakfast, a package of lunch, and start at 5.10.</p> - -<p>First note. Ship about 7 miles from Teller. Water deep enough -much nearer, but we came at night. Here there are already dark -nights between about 9 p. m. and 4 a. m., and so they were cautious.</p> - -<p>Second. The officer says he has orders not to stop at Teller, where -there is an old Indian (Dunak) from whom I expected to get exact -bearings, and where there is also a white trader, Mr. Peterson, who -knows the place and might possibly have accompanied us.</p> - -<p>Third. Distances, as usual, longer than estimated. We find eventually -that the destination is about 32 miles from Teller.</p> - -<p>Fourth. A brisk head wind and sea retarding us.</p> - -<p>Fifth. As we approach our spot, a shoal water, with grass, preventing -us from going straight to the most likely place, and no other way -was tried. It is 11 a. m. and already I hear an intimation that we -shall not have time for anything except to make a lunch. This is -the same officer, a very good man at his post but rigid and without -much interest in anything else than his own field, who after 10 -miles' trip to Kotzebue gave us 25 minutes there, when it required -15 minutes alone to reach the school from the boat.</p> - -<p>So we end by landing on the extremity of a spit there to make -lunch, and I have only the time it takes to prepare the latter. I find, -in hurry, remains of five old semisubterranean dwellings on the -northern side of the point, and about as many low mounds with -remnants about of rotten driftwood—undoubtedly old burials. -Probably the skeletons have been assimilated by the tundra vegetation -and blown material. A single native skull, a female, without -face, is lying about. Collected.</p> - -<p>While lunch is being made ready the officer and the boatswain, -Mr. Berg, each shoot a duck. Then the lunch, a hurried loading, -and departure, after some delay in setting the sail, at 1.30 p. m. I -saw nothing that looked like a battle field. Its determination and -survey must be left for some future explorer.</p> - -<p>Sail rapidly. Wind fresh, with us, also waves. Cross Salt Lake, -and Tussoc "River." About 4.30 reach Grantly Harbor and wind -increases; also waves. We run fast, and well enough, but the -umiak (skin boat) we are pulling begins to suffer. It rides crazily -and is jerked over the seething waves. The crossbar by which it is -partly held breaks, and now the boat goes more sidewise, with water -lapping over its border and getting in. Wind now quite a gale, -breaking waves everywhere—every now and then a big one—whitecaps -all over. A dim view of Teller in distance, when the skin -boat begins to fill more rapidly and sag. Must stop engine—waves -toss us like mad—one could be thrown bodily out of the boat if<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> -not careful in bending or moving and holding. The sail comes -down and the mast is laid down, a bad piece of work. Berg and -Pete Brant (an elderly trapper with us but formerly of Coast -Guard Service at Nome, a good sailor and knowing these waters) -work very hard and well. The skin boat has to be pulled alongside -and bailed out by young Weenie, a very hard and dangerous task. -Mr. Berg's rain hat ("souwester") blows off and is lost in the -seething waves. Later Weenie nearly loses his—snatches it out -between the boats with a narrow escape for his head. Then Weenie -climbs into the skin boat—a brave act—and finishes the bailing, but -is much "in" after getting back. Then our big staunch motor -launch starts again at reduced speed. But the skin boat does great -antics and threatens to fill again or break; so Pete Brant holds the -rope and is jerked every now and then, until I fear that he may -any moment be jerked out into the waves and watch to catch his -legs. Fortunately he succeeds in preventing it, but there was a -slim margin.</p> - -<p>It has drizzled or rained, besides the wind, most of the afternoon, -and there is a lot of spray to splashes from the waves. All this has -to be taken as it comes, but the water is not cold, and our boots and -oilskins give protection. Nevertheless my right knee to hip gets -thoroughly wet and chilly, and I was not alone. But there is little -time to think of such things. We see at Teller the waves breaking -high on the shore, some boats already on the beach and others being -driven there, a few people looking helplessly on.</p> - -<p>About 5.50 we round the Teller spit and come in the lee of it into -calmer water. But the visibility over the water is probably not -over a mile now, and we see no trace of the <em>Bear</em>. The gasoline -supply is getting rather low; and all are more or less cold, though -dressed warmer than I and, due to their hip-high rubber boots—mine -reach only to the knee—not wet. I now shake a lot with -the cold, without being able to stop it. So we skirt the protecting -bluffs southward to where everyone thinks the <em>Bear</em> is, near a little -stream from which they were to take fresh water. But though we -all strain our eyes to the limit, there is no trace of the ship.</p> - -<p>Thus reach Cape Riley and the stream, which is found dry, without -a drop of water. Get on the pebbly beach, turn skin boat over to -get the water out, and hurry to chop wood. No wood save the water -troughs, so chop these. Must have fire. I warm up a little by -running around and chopping. They pour gasoline on the wood, -make a big fire, cook a pot of coffee, and with bread and preserved -meat make a supper, though it is mainly coffee.</p> - -<p>Near 8 and getting dark. Storm, outside of protection of cliffs, -unabated. There is a second watering place, 7 or 8 miles across the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> -bay, and our only chance to find the <em>Bear</em> is to rush for this. But to -do this we must go diagonally across the waves and similarly against -the wind—a bad prospect. Also, we have only just about enough -gasoline to reach the place. But there is no help.</p> - -<p>Thus a new start, and before long we are once more in the waves. -It is now quite obscure. The waves break now and then and splash -over us. Before long the skin boat is again sagging and in danger -of sinking. Once more pull alongside and dangerous, exhausting -bailing by Weenie.</p> - -<p>And so on, tossed, driven aside, but thanks to the good engine -never stopping. I hold to seat not to be thrown against things or -even out; the others are becoming gruff, irritable. And then Higsby -makes out a faint light far ahead. No one certain, but in a while -it seems moving. A solitary small light somewhere far on the shore, -probably, not the boat.</p> - -<p>But soon another stronger light discerned, seemingly moving to -the left, and later several—the ship in all probability.</p> - -<p>We toss and reel and stagger nearer, but motor still going strong. -For the skin boat they found at last a position in which it takes but -little water. Finally see decisively a blinking light, the mast signal. -We show our lantern a few times. Then the ship looms before us, -but there is still the risky task of getting alongside and aboard. -However, all is accomplished without real damage.</p> - -<p>The cabin—the good and anxious captain—a little canned grapefruit, -and bed. But head falls and rises, the events of the day reappear, -wonder what has become of the trade schooner we saw being -driven on the beach—and so on until consciousness passes into deep -sleep. The <em>Bear</em> is fairly quiet, not in the brunt of the weather. -And this eventually moderates, so that a little after 4 we start again, -only to anchor once more at 6, a little below where last night we had -our supper.</p> - -<p>August 22. Cloudy, drizzly, rough still, and wireless news of -widespread bad storms, even in the States. So we shall wait. One -more hope for my collections at the Cape and with Jenness.</p> - -<p>Captain says this morning the officer misunderstood his orders -about Teller. The trip demonstrated a number of things. One of -the main and most gratifying was the sterling quality of the men -with me, officer, boatswain, motorman. Weenie, Pete, in the teeth of -real danger. They were all that men should be under such conditions, -which is the best way I can express it. The trip may have been -in vain so far as its scientific object was concerned, but it brought -a number of men face to face with life's stresses and found their -mettle of the truest quality, without exception, to witness which -was worth the whole experience.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p> - -<p>August 22-23. During the night have left Port Clarence and -endeavored once more to reach Wales and the Diomedes, to be again -turned away by fog and rough weather. The captain doubts if -there will be any more decent "spells." The season for this stormy -sea is too far advanced. Unable to land anywhere.</p> - -<p>The day is followed by another horrid night, again off the St. -Lawrence Island. Boat tossing and heaving and rolling, waves -reaching and even splashing over the level of the high upper deck -in the back, everything tied tip and cleared or fastened, a danger -in making even a few steps of being thrown against something, or -on the deck of being thrown overboard, and everything constantly -cracking, creaking, with every few minutes an impact big thud-like -or a splash of a wave, the floor heaving and twisting; and thus from -before evening until morning. Then a trace easier, but the whole -day gloomy and rough and the night again more unsettled. To-day -better, wind which began east then turned northwest, then almost -north, now stopped, but a heavy swell is running, heaving us nearly -as much as yesterday. We have gone very slowly.</p> - -<p>Have arrived off Savonga. The sky is now clear and there is -not much wind, but the swell is and keeps on such that, notwithstanding -the repeated calls of our siren, the Eskimo whom we -see above the beach near their boats, do not dare to launch these -and come, nor does the captain care to risk one of our own launches, -though we need fresh reindeer meat and all would like once more -to meet the nice lot of natives of this village. After a prolonged -wait and as conditions show no improvement, nothing remains but -to leave the island.</p> - -<p>Our next stop, if the weather permits, is to be at Nunivak Island. -This is a large island off the Alaskan coast, well below the present -delta of the Yukon and some distance above Kuskokwim Bay. The -island is one of the least explored, and the people living upon it -one of the least known. It is only during the last few years that -a trading and a reindeer post has been established on this island, -and only the second year that there is a teacher. What little is -known of the natives, a branch of the Eskimo, shows that they have -many different habits from those farther north, in clothing, decoration, -etc. They make rather good black pottery, and from this -island come the most elaborate carvings in ivory, reminding strongly -of small totem poles. A photograph of a group of these people, -seen at the Lomen Studio at Nome, showed remarkably broad and -short faces, unlike the Eskimo of the north. All of which made me -very anxious to visit the island.</p> - -<p>To be brief such a visit, though promised to me by the captain, -could not be realized. The waters about the island are so im<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>perfectly -charted that in weather that continued half rough it was -thought unwise to risk a landing. I felt this keenly, as the various -other impossibilities of the trip. But I could never forget all the -unexpected help I received from the Revenue Cutter Service, for -which I was deeply grateful, and had to acknowledge the justice of -the captain's position. We came so near that the land birds from -the island were already about us, but then turned toward the -Pribilofs and Unalaska....</p> - -<p>Only little remains to be told. At the Pribilof Island, St. Paul, -we stopped at night, to take on four live fur seals for the Academy -of Sciences of San Francisco, and there we ran once more into -stormy weather. Here are a few notes from this period:</p> - -<p>August 27. Toward evening again a gale, southwest. At night -worse. Ship tossing rather wildly. No possibility to me of either -getting up or resting. Barely keep from being horribly ill again.</p> - -<p>Later in night ship had to be turned back and just drift.</p> - -<p>August 28. All day the storm continues. I could take no meals, -not even a drop of water. In bed and barely standing it. Ship -hove to at last and just drifting.</p> - -<p>August 29. Gale keeps on just as bad, howling till 1.30 a. m. -Then it moderates somewhat and ship starts going again. Last night -we were only 60 miles from Unalaska, now a good deal farther out. -Steam, still in half a gale and big sea, until after midday, when, not -without some difficulty and danger, we reach the fine little protected -harbor of Unalaska. Feel weak, near worn out.</p> - -<p>August 30, p. m. Rest, and all is well again. Secure a little rowboat -and go with old Pete Brant to near-by islands. Storm over -for the day and fair, though not entirely. Row, climb hills, pick -berries and mushrooms, watch a bearlike semiwild pig, out whole -afternoon, returning strengthened, refreshed. Only no appetite yet. -Found no traces of human occupancy, but heard of some in the -"Captain's Bay" and at other spots.</p> - -<p>The few Aleuts in Unalaska at this time show physiognomies -akin to the brachycephalic Indian, and not the Eskimo type.</p> - -<p>August 31-September 1. A new gale, with drizzles. Luckily we -are at a dock, but I can do little. They are cleaning the boilers and -coaling. Evening of 1st have a good dinner—captain and the rest -of us from the <em>Bear's</em> cabin—at a friendly local trader, Louis Strauss, -and after that give lecture on "Man's Origin, etc." Introduction -by Capt. Van Buskirk, local commodore of the Revenue Cutter -Service. Lecture well received, make numerous friends, get good -information. Strauss's supper was the first I could eat with some -taste and hunger. But the lecture did me good.</p> - -<p>September 2. Coaling and overhauling of boilers finished. Gale -stopped. Ship leaves 1 p. m. Day fairly sunny. Everyone sees us<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> -off. Harbor and hills look fine, though sky again clouded. Outside -quite a swell after the gales. Pass the <em>Haida</em>, practicing with her -cannon. The <em>Algonkin</em> was here too, with the story of their visit to -the Punuk Islands. The fresh green steep mountains toward the -entrance of the harbor are refreshing to the eye.</p> - -<p>Pass through Akitan. Pass picturesque, especially the outstanding -isolated rocks near the islands.</p> - -<p>Toward evening, far to the left (east), see under the clouds a -glorious icy cone, the "Pogrovemoi," and later a lower but still great -mountain a little farther and to the right an old but not so very old -volcano. Other volcanoes there are, the captain tells me, now hidden -by the low clouds.</p> - -<p>Have a new passenger, Mr. Charles Brower, the trader of Barrow. -Came from the <em>Brower</em>, ship of his own company, a little larger and -faster than the <em>Bear</em>, and going also to San Francisco, but with -poorer accommodations. Brings with him a box of archeological -specimens from the Barter Island, in the north. Examine them, but -find little of special interest.</p> - -<p>It takes us a little less than 10 days of a fairly good journey to -reach San Francisco. Dock at Oakland late in the evening. The -next morning, after breakfast, the boxes and barrels with collections -are taken on the dock—a big pile. Then the Santa Fe officials -kindly run a flat freight car to the pile, the boxes, etc., are loaded -on, the main part taken to the freight depot, the most valuable ones -to express, shipped, and shortly after what remains of the expedition -is on the Santa Fe Limited for Chicago. It only needs to -be added that, notwithstanding the variety of receptacles and the -difficulties of packing, the collections reached the Institution without -damage to a single specimen. Thanks once more for the help -received in making all safe to the captain and officers of the <em>Bear</em>, to -Mr. Berg, the best of boatswains, to the carpenter, and to all those of -the crew who assisted.</p> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - - - - -<h2>THE YUKON TERRITORY—SITES, THE INDIANS, THE -ESKIMO</h2> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Tanana</span></h3> - - -<h4>BRIEF HISTORICAL DATA</h4> - -<p>The Tanana is the largest tributary of the Yukon. It is over -600 miles in length, and in its breadth, though not in its volume, it -appears to equal, if not to exceed, the Yukon at their junction. The -first white men to see the mouth of the Tanana were the Russian -traders (about 1860), followed before long by the employees of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> -Hudson Bay Co. Dall says that it has long been noted on the -old maps of Russian America, under the name of the River of -the Mountain Men, while the Hudson Bay men called it the Gens-des-Buttes -River. (Alaska and Its Resources, 281-282.) Dall -mapped the junction of the river with the Yukon. The first who -descended a part of its course were two traders, Harper and Bates, -who reached the river higher up, sometime in the late seventies. -The name of Harper is preserved by having been given to the -big bend of the stream, 12 miles above its mouth. Its scientific -exploration begins only in 1885, with the passage down nearly its -entire length of Lieut. Henry T. Allen, United States Army;<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> the -main work concerning the geography and geology of the river being -done in 1898 by A. H. Brooks.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h5>FOOTNOTES:</h5> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Allen, Henry T., Military Reconnaissance in Alaska. Comp. Narr. Expl. Alas., 415-416, -446-452.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Brooks, A. H., Reconnaissance in the Tanana and White River Basins. Twentieth -Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., Washington, 1900, pt. <span class="smcap">VII</span>, 437-438; also the Geog. and Geol. -Alas., U. S. Geol. Surv. Doc. 201, 1906.</p></div></div> - - -<h4>POPULATION</h4> - -<p>The native population of the Tanana has always been remarkably -scarce. Dall obtained an estimate of their whole number as about 150 -families.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> Petrof, in 1880, thought they numbered perhaps seven -or eight hundred;<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> Allen in 1885 estimated them at between 550 and -600;<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> Brooks, in 1898, thought there were less than 400;<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> and the -1910 United States Census gives the total number of the "Tenan-kutchin," -full bloods and mix bloods, as 415.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p> - -<p>According to Brooks (Reconnaissance, 490-491), the Tanana natives -were separated into two geographic contingents, the eastern or -highland and the northwestern or lowland groups. The most easterly -group included the Indian settlements in the vicinity of Forty-mile -and Mentasta Pass trail; the northwestern comprises to-day -those from Nenana to the mouth of the river.</p> - -<p>The Tanana Indians were generally regarded by other natives -as warlike and dangerous, but so far as their relation with the whites -was concerned there was little justification for this notion.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> Physically -they were reported by Brooks to "average rather better than -the Indians of the Yukon" (Reconnaissance, 492). There are but -a few and scanty other references to them in this connection.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h5>FOOTNOTES:</h5> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> "Their numbers are supposed not to exceed 150 families." Alaska and Its Resources, -p. 108.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Notes Alas. Ethn., 161.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Brooks, op. cit, 493.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Brooks, op. cit., 493.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Population, <span class="smcap">III</span>, 1137.</p> - -<p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> See Castner, J. C., A Story of Hardship and Suffering In Alaska: Comp. Narr. Expl. -Alaska, 686-709.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></p></div></div> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Indian Sites and Villages Along the Tanana</span></h3> - -<p><em>Upper course.</em>—On this much larger part of the river it is possible -to report but indirectly.</p> - -<p>A. H. Brooks, in 1898, reports thus on this subject:<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> "Several -Indian houses are found on and near the Tanana between the Good-paster -and Salchakat and constitute a subgroup of the upper Tanana -Indians. * * * The most thickly settled part of the region is -along the sluggish portions of the lower Tanana. The largest villages -are at the mouth of the Cantwell and Toclat Rivers, and each -of these consists of a number of good cabins. In the intervening -region there are a number of isolated houses and fishing stations, -which are marked on the accompanying map."</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<img src="images/figure_1a.jpg" width="700" height="406" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Figure 1.</span>—The Tanana River between Nenana and Tanana, with Indian villages</p></div> -</div> - -<p>To which Lieutenant Castner, who explored the upper Tanana, -adds the following:<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> "On 750 miles of the Tanana proper and its -tributaries I saw seven small hamlets, and not to exceed 100 Indians—men, -women, and children."</p> - -<p>From information obtained by me at Fairbanks, at the United -States marshal's office and from miners, it appears that the following -villages are better known:</p> - - -<ul><li>Village, 150 miles east of Fairbanks.</li> - -<li>Mansfield Lake village, 300 miles east of Fairbanks.</li> - -<li>Tetlen, 410 miles east of Fairbanks.</li> - -<li>East Tetlen, 7 miles southeast of Tetlen.</li> -</ul> - -<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Brooks, A. H., A Reconnaissance in the White and Tanana River Basins, Alaska, in -1898: Twentieth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., 1900, pt. <span class="smcap">VII</span>, p. 491.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Castner, op. cit., p. 706.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span></p></div></div> - - -<h4>LOWER TANANA, NENANA TO YUKON</h4> - -<p>No old sites were learned of on this part of the river, and few, if -any, are probably preserved, due to lowness of banks and extensive -destruction (cutting of the banks) by the river.</p> - -<p>The present Indian villages on the river are as follows:</p> - -<p>1. Nenana (or Tortella), about a mission, half a mile from the -railroad station and town of the same name, on the left bank of -the Tanana and near the mouth of the Nenana River. (Fig. 1.)</p> - -<p>2. "Old Minto," 27 miles from Nenana, right bank; but a small -number of Indians there now.</p> - -<p>3. Village at the mouth of the Tolovana, right bank (where the -Tolovana enters the Tanana); the village is on the distal (downstream) -point. Nearly abandoned; only two families there now. -Summer (fishing) camp on the opposite point.</p> - -<p>4. A small settlement at mouth of Baker Creek, right bank, about -4 miles upstream from Hot Springs.</p> - -<p>5. "Crossjacket village," on left bank, about 45 miles above Tanana, -40 miles below Hot Springs. Used to be called "Cosna." -Occupied, though only a few there.</p> - -<p>6. Near 5, but on the opposite bank, a few habitations.</p> - -<p>During the open season the Indians live scattered along the river -in fishing camps. This is especially true along the right bank downstream -from Nenana.</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Yukon Below Tanana</span></h3> - - -<h4>BRIEF HISTORY</h4> - -<p>The Yukon is the principal river of Alaska. It is one -of the greatest and most scenic rivers in the world. It is approximately -2,300 miles long (from the headwaters of the Lewes -River), in its middle and lower courses ranges at times with its -sloughs to several miles in breadth, and includes many hundreds of -islands of its own formation. Its scenery is still essentially primeval, -affected but little by human occupation or industry. It has, in fact, -gone considerably back in these respects since the gold rush was over.</p> - -<p>This great stream has been known to the white man for less than -a century. Cook, in September of 1778, sailed near, discovering -Stuart Island and Cape Stephens of the St. Michael Island, but -missed the river.</p> - -<p>In 1829 P. E. Chistiakof, director (1826-1830) of the Russian-American -colonies, sent the naval officer Vasilief to explore the -coasts between the Alexander Redoubt (at the mouth of the Nushagak) -and the Shaktol or Norton Sound, and in 1830 Vasilief explored -the larger part of the Kuskokwim River, of which the Russians<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> -knew already from their earlier explorers. Here they heard of an -even greater stream to the north.</p> - -<p>In 1831, on the recommendation of Vasilief, Michail Dmitrievich -Tebenkof was sent to Norton Sound with the view of further exploration -and the establishing of a post in that region. Tebenkof discovered -that Cape Stephens was not a part of the mainland but of -an island; and he built here a fortified post which in honor of his -patron saint is called St. Michael, a name which subsequently passed -to the whole island. The post was to serve both trade and further -exploration.</p> - -<p>From St. Michael, at the end of 1834, a small party is sent out -under the leadership of an educated "kreol" (son of a native mother -and Russian father), Andrei Glazunof, and on January 26, 1835, they -reach the good-sized Indian village of Anvik, on the Kwikhpak, or -Yukon.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> From here Glazunof travels down the river to the large -village of Aninulykhtykh-pak (above Holy Cross), the last Indian -(as distinguished from Eskimo) village down the river, whence -Glazunof sends most of his party back to St. Michael and himself -proceeds to the Kuskokwim.</p> - -<p>In 1836 the Russians effect the first settlement on the Yukon, at -Ikogmiut (Zagoskin, 6), later known as the Russian Mission.</p> - -<p>In 1838 Malakof, over land portage, reaches Nulato and builds -there a trading post, which, during his absence the next winter, is -burned by the natives. In 1841 Dieriabin rebuilds and fortifies this -post, becomes its headman, and is there eventually (1851) killed by -the Indians.</p> - -<p>In 1841 Lieut. Laurenti Alexief Zagoskin is delegated to explore -the "Kwikhpak," with its portages to the Kotzebue Sound, and the -Kuskokwim River; and in 1843 he navigates and maps 600 miles of -the Yukon, or from about the mouth of the Apkhun (northern) pass -to the mouth of the Novitna River, with approximately 100 miles of -each, from their mouth, of the Koyukuk and of the Ittege (or -Innoko) Rivers.</p> - -<p>The Russian post at Nulato remains until the sale of their American -dominions by the Russians to the United States in 1867. From it and -from St. Michael individual Russian traders ranged over the river<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> -and its lower affluents, but there was no further noteworthy scientific -exploration. In 1863, however, Lukin, who after Vasilief and Kolmakof -helped to explore the Kuskokwim, reached to Fort Yukon.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile the river has been visited by both the English and -the Americans. In 1847 Mr. Bell, of the Hudson Bay Co., having -heard of the great stream from some of the Indians who visited the -fort on Peels River, set out in quest of it, accompanied by a native -guide, and reached it by the Rat and the Porcupine Rivers.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p> - -<p>Between 1843 and 1867 the river in its lower and middle reaches -is freely traversed by the Russian traders. In 1851 Nulato is reached -by Lieutenant Barnard, of H. M. S. <em>Enterprise</em>, in search of Franklin, -only to be massacred there with some of the Russians and natives -by the offended Indians of the Koyukuk. In 1861 Robert Kennicott -traverses a part of the Yukon, and in 1865 he, with Capt. Charles -S. Bulkley, leads there the expedition of the Western Union Telegraph -Co., which is accompanied by William H. Dall and Frederick -Whymper, and results in much information. Already, however, in -1863, Strahan Jones, commander of the Peels River Fort, has descended -the Yukon to the mouth of the Novitna River or the uppermost -point reached by Zagoskin, thus completing its identification -as one and the same great stream. This point and the Tanana mark -the westernmost penetration by the English (the Hudson Bay Co.).</p> - -<p>In 1865 begin American explorations proper. In that year, under -an agreement with the Russians, Maj. Robert Kennicott, heading a -party of the Western Union Telegraph explorers, crosses from St. -Michael to Nulato. Kennicott dies in Nulato a year later, but the -explorations are carried on to result eventually in a series of valuable -publications, more particularly by Dall and Whymper.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p> - -<p>The researches under the auspices of the Western Union Telegraph -Co., themselves backed by the Government, are followed by explorations -under the direct auspices of the American Government. -Thus, in 1869 there is a reconnaissance of the river by Capt. -C. W. Raymond; in 1883, that by Lieut. Frederick Schwatka; in -1885 by Lieut. Henry T. Allen; in 1898 by Capt. W. P. Richardson; -and these are succeeded by the geological surveys of A. H. Brooks -and companions.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p> - -<p>From 1878 on commenced placer and mining explorations for gold -in Alaska leading gradually to the eventual great gold rush of the -later nineties, which brought a whole flotilla of large river steamers -and other craft to the Yukon and led to a rapid growth of some of -the old and the establishment of a number of new settlements along -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>its banks. The rash passed in turn, many of the miners and others -departed, boats became idle and were beached or taken to the St. -Michael ship "bone yard," where, together with most of the buildings, -they are now (1926) being broken up; and the Yukon has -reverted in a large measure to its former primeval, dormant, lonely -state.</p> - -<p>Such, in brief, is the white man's history of the Yukon, with all of -which the river remains but half known, at best. It has never -been fully surveyed, which would be a vast and unending task. It -contains a large number of barely known little tributaries that are -lost in the jungle-covered flats with their many pools and lakes. -It has innumerable islands and channels, in which the traveler is -easily lost, and it cuts and builds constantly during the open season. -Its valley is squally and rainy. The stream may one moment be -like a great, liquid, softly flowing mirror, to be in a few minutes -churned into an ugly and dangerous roughness from which every -smaller boat must seek shelter. Its shores are inhospitable, except -for the native fisherman and hunter, and torment man with swarms -of gnats and mosquitoes.</p> - -<p>But there is no malaria; no snakes or other poisonous things. And -when the weather is decent the water, the wooded shores, and the -fresh, clean virginal parklike islands have a greatness and charm -that compensate for much. Besides which there is the still more -intensive allure of original exploration. Botany, zoology, and above -all paleontology, find here still a fruitful field, while for anthropology, -and especially archeology, the land is still largely a terra -incognita.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h5>FOOTNOTES:</h5> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> There is some confusion about the exact date of Glazunof's journey, partly due perhaps -to the fact that he started on Dec. 30. Wrangell (Stat. and Ethnog. Nachricht., 138) -says that Glazunof's expedition was outfitted the same year (1833) in which the St. -Michael redoubt was established. In Zeleny's abstract of Zagoskin's report (p. 212) and -by Zagoskin himself (pp. 6, 23) the departure of the expedition is put a year later, or -1834, which is probably correct. Dall's remarks (Alaska and Its Resources, 276, 338) -on the subject contain several errors, both of dates and facts. There is also considerable -confusion as to the names Kvikhpak and Yukon. The term Kvikhpak (Kvikh, river; pak, -large) is of Eskimo origin and was applied by these to that part of the river which they -occupied. The name Yukon, or something near this, is of Indian derivation and was -applied to those parts of the river, below Tanana at least, that were peopled by the -Khotana or Indians.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Richardson, J., Arctic Searching Expedition, London, 1851, <span class="smcap">II</span>, 206.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> For details see Dall's Alaska and Its Resources, Boston, 1870.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> See Compilation of Explorations in Alaska, Senate Rept. 1023, Washington, 1900; and -reports on Alaska of the United States Geological Survey.</p></div></div> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Yukon Natives</span></h3> - -<p>Upon their arrival on the Kvikpak and Yukon, the Russians found -the banks of the stream peopled in its upper and middle courses by -Indians and lower down by the Eskimo.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> The last Indian village -downstream was Aninulykhtykh-pak, since completely gone. Its -site is identifiable with one that used to exist in front of the present -mission of Holy Cross or just above. The first Eskimo village of -some note was Paimute.</p> - -<p>As to the Indians of the Yukon and its tributaries, there is a considerable -confusion of names, almost every author using his own -spelling and subdivisions. It is evident that there were two sets of -names of the various Indian contingents, namely the names, sometimes -contemptuous, given to them by outsiders, and the names in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> -use among themselves, which generally meant the people of this or -that locality. The facts are that they all belonged to the Tinné or -Dené family;<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a>,<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> that there were two probably related generic names -for them, namely Kutchin (used especially on the upper Yukon) and -Khotana (used mainly along the central and lower parts of the -stream); and that along the Yukon itself, with its channels, there -were three main subdivisions of the people: The Kutchin (with various -qualifications) on the upper parts of the river, down to Fort -Yukon; the Yukonikhotana, from Fort Yukon to Nulato;<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> and the -Kain (Petrof) or Kaiyuh (Dall) Khotana, or Inkaliks (of the -Russians), from Nulato to Holy Cross.</p> - -<p>In addition there were the Tenan-kutchin Tenan-khotana or -Mountain-men of the Tanana; and the Yunnaka-khotana (Zagoskin) -or Koyukuk-khotana (Dall), the people of the Koyukuk.</p> - -<p>These groups were settled in a moderate number of permanent or -winter villages along the rivers, in the summer spreading along the -streams in camps. The population found by the first Russian explorer, -Glazunof, from Anvik to Aninulykhtykh-pak, was seemingly -a rather large one. He is reported by Wrangell to have counted, at -Anvik, 240 grown males; at Magimiut, 35; and at Aninulykhtykh-pak -300. At the last-named village in particular there were present -"many people," Glazunof estimating altogether nearly 700. These -figures, except for Magimiut, seem too large and were not even approached -later; but before the next count, that by Zagoskin, all these -settlements had been visited by smallpox; and at the big village -Glazunoff may have seen a potlatch, such as may still yearly be -witnessed at some settlements on the river.</p> - -<p>Zagoskin in 1843 made a detailed and evidently reliable count of -all the villages that became known to him. His data in this respect, -as in others, being of fundamental value, are here given, the Eskimo, -for convenience, being included.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> See Auszug aus dem Tagebuche des Schiffer-gehülfen Andreas Glasunow. In Wrangell. -Ferd. v., Statistische und ethnographische Nachrichten ü. d. Russichen Besitzungen a. d. -Nordwestküste v. Amerika. Ed. by K. C. v. Baer, St. Petersburg, 1839, 137-160. Zagoskin, -A., Pes̆echodnaia opis c̆asti russkick vladenii v. Amerikě. 2 parts, St. Petĕrsburg. -1847-1848, pp. 1-183, 1-120, and 1-43; with a map.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Dall, Contr. N. A. Ethn., vol. 1, p. 17.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Zagoskin: "* * * great family of the Ttynai nation, which occupies the interior -of the mainland of our colonies and known to us under various names—Yug-elnut, Tutna, -Golcanĕ or Kilc̆anĕ [according to the pronunciation of those giving the information], -Kenaici, Inkaliti, Inkalich-liuatov [distant Inkaliks], and others—names given to them -by the neighboring coastal people."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Petrof, Ivan, p. 161: "This tribe, comprising the Yunakhotana and the Kutchakutchin -of Dall, inhabits the banks of the Yukon River from Fort Yukon westward to -Nulato."</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p></div></div> - - -<h4><span class="smcap">Native Villages on the Yukon and in the Vicinity, 1843 (Zagoskin, III, -39-41)</span><a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></h4> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Native Villages on the Yukon and in the Vicinity"> -<thead> - <tr> - <th>Villages</th> - <th>Total</th> - <th>Adult<br />males<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></th> - <th>Houses</th> - </tr> -</thead> -<tbody> - <tr> - <th>INDIANS</th> - <th></th> - <th></th> - <th></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Inkalit-Iugelnut:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Inselnostlende</td> - <td class="tdr">33</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Khuingitatekhten</td> - <td class="tdr">37</td> - <td class="tdr">11</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Iltenleiden</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - <td class="tdr">30</td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Tlego</td> - <td class="tdr">45</td> - <td class="tdr">14</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Khuligichagat</td> - <td class="tdr">70</td> - <td class="tdr">25</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Kvygympainag-miut</td> - <td class="tdr">71</td> - <td class="tdr">25</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Vazhichagat</td> - <td class="tdr">80</td> - <td class="tdr">18</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Anvig</td> - <td class="tdr">120</td> - <td class="tdr">37</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Makki</td> - <td class="tdr">44</td> - <td class="tdr">9</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Anilukhtakpak</td> - <td class="tdr">170</td> - <td class="tdr">48</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Total</td> - <td class="tdr bt bd">770</td> - <td class="tdr bt bd">225</td> - <td class="tdr bt bd">43</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Inkiliks proper:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Kunkhogliuk</td> - <td class="tdr">11</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Ulukak</td> - <td class="tdr">35</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Ttutago</td> - <td class="tdr">32</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Kakoggo-khakat</td> - <td class="tdr">9</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Khutul-khakat</td> - <td class="tdr">16</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Khaltag</td> - <td class="tdr">9</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Khogoltlinde</td> - <td class="tdr">60</td> - <td class="tdr">17</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Takaiak</td> - <td class="tdr">81</td> - <td class="tdr">27</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Khuli-kakat</td> - <td class="tdr">11</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Total</td> - <td class="tdr bt bd">264</td> - <td class="tdr bt bd">80</td> - <td class="tdr bt bd">24</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Yunnaka-khotana:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Notaglit</td> - <td class="tdr">37</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Tlialil-kakat</td> - <td class="tdr">27</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Toshoshgon</td> - <td class="tdr">30</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Tok-khakat</td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Nok-khakat</td> - <td class="tdr">50</td> - <td class="tdr">11</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Kakhliakhlia-kakat</td> - <td class="tdr">26</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Tsonagogliakhten</td> - <td class="tdr">11</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Tsogliachten</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Khotyl-kakat</td> - <td class="tdr">65</td> - <td class="tdr">19</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Unylgakhtkhokh</td> - <td class="tdr">17</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Nulato</td> - <td class="tdr">13</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Total</td> - <td class="tdr bt bd">289</td> - <td class="tdr bt bd">70</td> - <td class="tdr bt bd">23</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tlegon-khotana:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Innoko natives seen on the Yukon</td> - <td class="tdr">44</td> - <td class="tdr">33</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Village totality</td> - <td class="tdr">45</td> - <td class="tdr">14</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Total</td> - <td class="tdr bt bd">89</td> - <td class="tdr bt bd">47</td> - <td class="tdr bt bd">6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">All Indians counted on Yukon and Koyukuk</td> - <td class="tdr bd">1,359</td> - <td class="tdr bd"><a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a>422</td> - <td class="tdr bd">132 <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th>ESKIMO</th> - <th></th> - <th></th> - <th></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Kavliunag-miut</td> - <td class="tdr">11</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Nygyklig-miut</td> - <td class="tdr">13</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Kanyg-miut</td> - <td class="tdr">45</td> - <td class="tdr">11</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Ankachag-miut</td> - <td class="tdr">122</td> - <td class="tdr">32</td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Takchag-miut</td> - <td class="tdr">40</td> - <td class="tdr">12</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Ikuag-miut</td> - <td class="tdr">130</td> - <td class="tdr">35</td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Nukhluiag-miut</td> - <td class="tdr">60</td> - <td class="tdr">17</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Ikogmiut</td> - <td class="tdr">92</td> - <td class="tdr">22</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Ikaligvig-miut</td> - <td class="tdr">45</td> - <td class="tdr">14</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Pai-miut</td> - <td class="tdr">123</td> - <td class="tdr">35</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Total of Kvikhpag-miut</td> - <td class="tdr bt">681</td> - <td class="tdr bt">185</td> - <td class="tdr bt">38</td> - </tr> -</tbody> -</table></div> - -<p>Dall, referring to 1866-67 (Contr. Am. Ethn., I, 23, 39), estimated -the number of the Yukon Eskimo at 1,000 and that of the -Yukon and Koyukuk Indians, from the mouth of the Tanana downward, -at 2,800. Only a few sites of villages are incidentally given -by Dall.</p> - -<p>Ivan Petrof, as a special agent for Alaska of the United States -Census for 1880, reports himself the following Indian settlements -and numbers of inhabitants on the Yukon (Compil. Narrat. Expl. -Alaska, 68; gives also data on Eskimo, but his arrangement and -unidentifiable localities prevent these data from being used here):</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Indian settlements and numbers of inhabitants on the Yukon"> - <tr> - <td>Anvik station and village</td> - <td class="tdr">94</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Single house</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Single house</td> - <td class="tdr">12</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Single house</td> - <td class="tdr">15</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tanakhothaiak</td> - <td class="tdr">52</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Single house</td> - <td class="tdr">15</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chageluk settlements</td> - <td class="tdr">150</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Khatnotoutze</td> - <td class="tdr">115</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kaiakak</td> - <td class="tdr">124</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kaltag</td> - <td class="tdr">45</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nulato, station and village</td> - <td class="tdr">163</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Koyukuk settlements</td> - <td class="tdr">150</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Terentiefs station</td> - <td class="tdr">15</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Big Mountain</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Single house</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sakatalan</td> - <td class="tdr">25</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Yukokakat</td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Melozikakat</td> - <td class="tdr">30</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mentokakat</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Soonkakat</td> - <td class="tdr">12</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Medvednaia</td> - <td class="tdr">15</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Novo-kakat</td> - <td class="tdr">106</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kozmas</td> - <td class="tdr">11</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nuklukaiet</td> - <td class="tdr">27</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Rampart village</td> - <td class="tdr">110</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Fort Yukon</td> - <td class="tdr">82</td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>Later demographic records on the Yukon and its tributaries and -on the coast comprise additional data by Petrof, published as a -part of the Eleventh (1890) United States Census and arranged -by districts and linguistic groups; and the data of three subsequent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> -United States Censuses, 1900, 1910, and 1920, which are given in differing -ways, but in the main by major ethnic and territorial or -jurisdictional subdivisions.</p> - -<p>Due to incomplete enumerations; to the use of native estimates for -actual count (as seems to have been the case with Dall's figures, as -well as others); the different methods and classifications employed; -and the inclusion of units now into one and now into another group -(as with Petrof, who includes three Indian villages below Anvik -among the Eskimo, etc.), the various counts are not comparable and -give but hazy ideas of the true conditions. Yet they are not without -value, particularly in showing the earlier population of the villages -and the relative proportion of the sexes and ages. The more helpful -details are given in the appendix; for still others see references -in bibliography.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h5>FOOTNOTES:</h5> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> See also Petrof (Ivan), Tenth Census Rep., Wash., 1880, VIII, 37; but his transliteration of names -is not always correct.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> This doubtless included many subadults.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> 31 per cent, or 1 in 3.2.</p></div></div> - - -<h4>PRESENT CONDITIONS</h4> - -<p>To-day, judging from all the obtained evidence, which comprised -information, the witnessing of a potlatch at Tanana at which were -assembled practically all the Indians above Nulato, and a visit below -the Tanana of nearly all the villages where the Indians still live, -the total number of the Tinneh on the lower Tanana (from Fairbanks -to the mouth of the river) and on the Yukon from Tanana -to Anvik, can scarcely be estimated to reach 1,000. It is probably -well below that number. Moreover, not one-half of the adults and -much fewer among the young are still full bloods. Disease, bad -liquor (Yukon), and mostly as yet imperfect accommodation to -changing conditions are steadily diminishing the numbers. Since -our visit many have died from influenza, especially at Anvik. Their -future is not hopeful. On the Tanana, however, and with the more -educated in general, conditions are better, and much good is being -done by the four missions on the two rivers (Nenana, Tanana, Anvik, -and Holy Cross).</p> - -<p>The old Indian settlements along the Yukon are gone, with a few -exceptions. On some of the sites, as at Tanana, Nulato, Kaltag, etc., -there are new villages bearing the old names but built by or in imitation -of whites and sheltering a mixed population. The very names -of not a few of the older Indian sites have gone into oblivion; or -the natives call those they still know by a corruption of a white man's -name, such as "Ulstissen" (for Old Station). Anvik alone has kept -its original site and some of its old character, the mission and the -white trader being across the river.</p> - -<p>In the Eskimo part of the Yukon, below Holy Cross, conditions on -the whole appear to be somewhat better. There has also been a -diminution in population. The majority of the old villages have -ceased to exist, while under the influence of whites some new settle<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>ments -or names have appeared. Yet there are respectable remnants -of the Eskimo, and, being better workers than the Indian and seemingly -more coherent, they manage to sustain themselves somewhat -better than he does. Their greatest handicap is disease. The beneficial -effect among them of the old Russian Mission has declined, but -there are a number of Government schools which have a good influence. -They are more tractable, sensible, and in some respects -perhaps more able than the Indians.</p> - -<p>But there exists to-day no clear-cut demarcation, geographical, -cultural, or even physical, between the two people. Anvik, the last -Indian village downstream, is in every respect at least as much -Eskimo as Indian; more or less Eskimo-like physiognomies are seen -again and again among the Indians; and Indianlike features are common -among the Eskimo. There has either been an old and considerable -admixture on both sides, or there are some fundamental similarities -of the two groups; perhaps both.</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Archeology of the Yukon</span></h3> - -<p>Up to 1926 no archeological work had been done along the Yukon -or its tributaries, and barring a few isolated specimens there were no -archeological collections from these regions.</p> - -<p>The archeology of the river consists, (1) of the dead but formerly -known villages; (2) of older sites, "dead" and unknown before even -the Russians arrived; and (3) of random stone objects worked by -man that now and then are washed out from the river banks or are -found in working the ground. Except in details conditions are much -alike along the whole river and will best be dealt with as a whole.</p> - - -<h4>THE RANDOM SPECIMENS</h4> - -<p>Wherever the beach of the river shows more or less of stones -that are not talus or just pebbles, there are generally found stones -worked by man. Such localities are scarce. The first exists between -Tanana (the village) and the mission above it. Here specimens are -found occasionally on the beach and occasionally in the soil of the -local gardens. Other such sites were located at Bonasila, below -Anvik, and in four places between Paimute and the Russian Mission. -A few are also present from Marshall seaward.</p> - -<p>An examination of the terrain adjacent to such parts of the beach -shows mostly, but not always, traces of an old settlement.</p> - -<p>The specimens consist of characteristic axes or adzes, stone scrapers, -hammers, stone knives (along the Eskimo part of the river), -tomahawk heads (probably), objects less well defined, and chips. -There may be semifossilized animal bones, and rarely a bit of char<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>coal, -a piece of pottery (for details see Narrative), or an object of -ivory.</p> - -<p>The ax proper is peculiar. It is a cupid's-bow ax, double-edged, -and with one or two grooves across its middle. (Pl. 10.) It is as -a rule made of heavy basaltic stone, and its edges are sharpened by -polishing. Rough parts may have been polished also on the body. -Its distal surface is convex (from sharp edge to sharp edge), its -proximal surface straight or mildly convex. I succeeded in getting -a specimen remounted recently by one of the Indians near Tanana. -This form of an ax is still remembered by the old Indians when in -use. They cut trees with it, cutting sidewise and detaching the wood -in splinters. They also remember clubs with stone heads, and told -me they were carried on the back over the right shoulder so as -to be ready for instant and effective use.</p> - -<p>These axes have apparently been used by both the Indians and the -Eskimo, but there is an interesting difference. The several specimens -I obtained or saw from Tanana to Ruby were all complete. But -from, about the vicinity of Ruby downstream the bi-edged ax seems -to disappear, or, rather, one-half of it disappears, the butt henceforth -either being left unfinished or one-half of the double ax being -broken off and the remainder being mounted now as an adze on a -shorter handle. This form, and it exclusively, with various secondary -modifications, is found over a wide area among the Eskimo -and may reach into Asia, for I obtained a specimen of it from one -of the Diomede Islands. It connects directly with the Bering Sea -Eskimo ivory adze and chisel. On the other hand the bi-edged ax -appears, in various modifications, to extend widely over Indian -Alaska.</p> - -<p>The remaining stone implements need but little mention here. -They will be studied and reported separately by our archeologist. -A special note will, however, be necessary later about the very primitive -stone industry of Bonasila, below Anvik. (See p. <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.)</p> - -<p>Of pottery I have seen no example above Anvik, but this can -not be taken as evidence of its absence above that point. At Anvik, -Bonasila, and farther down the pottery is like that of the western -Eskimo. It is coarse ware, hand shaped, and of rather poor quality. -It consists of small round bowls to fairly large, more or less conical, -jars. It is never painted but is frequently decorated with thumb -marks and especially with grooves running parallel with the border.</p> - -<p>Ivory implements were encountered first at Bonasila and consisted -of a few fine long points barbed on one side, looking like those of -the Eskimo and probably of Eskimo origin. There were also a few -tools of bone, generally scrapers.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span></p> - -<p>Russian beads, especially those of the large blue variety, are occasionally -encountered, usually singly or in small numbers, especially -in some spots.</p> - -<p>A unique archeological specimen from the lower middle portion -of the Yukon Valley is the large stone dish obtained by Mr. Müller, -the trader at Kaltag. (See p. <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.)</p> - -<p>Besides these random specimens, other cultural objects are found -along the Yukon in connection with old burials. These consist of -an occasional wooden dish, sharpening or polishing stones, rarely a -figurine (doll?) in ivory, Russian snuffboxes, fire sticks, dishes of -birch bark, etc. The cullings in this field are quite poor, but there -has been no excavation of older burials that have been assimilated by -the tundra and lie now in the earth beneath.</p> - -<p>The archeology of the old habitation sites, on the other hand, -particularly perhaps on the Shageluk and between Holy Cross and -Marshall, is decidedly promising and invites careful excavation.</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Location of Villages and Sites on the Yukon</span></h3> - -<p>Especial attention was given to the location of the numerous dead -villages and older sites along the Yukon. This task was found, in -most instances, fairly easy with villages that "died" since the -Russo-American occupation, for mostly they still show plain traces -and are generally remembered by the old Indians or even old white -settlers. Their precise allocation on a map, however, is not always -easy or certain. As to the prehistoric sites the search is much more -difficult and depends largely on chance discoveries.</p> - -<p>The villages still existing give only a partial clue, in many cases, -to the old, even where these bore the same name, for on occasions a -village changed its location, though remaining in the same general -vicinity and retaining the same name. Thus there existed at different -times apparently, between the earliest contacts with whites and -the present, at least 2 Nuklukhayets, 2 Lowdens, 3 Nulatos, 3 Kaltags, -2 Anviks, etc.; besides which there were differences in recording the -names and changes due to efforts at translation of the native term, -or an application by the whites of a new name, often that of a trader -or settler, to an old site.</p> - -<p>In places even late village sites, in others burials, were witnessed -being undermined by the river or the sea. Such sites with their contents -will probably sooner or later be completely lost from this -cause. Many doubtless have thus been lost previously.</p> - -<p>The villages and sites located along the Yukon are here enumerated -and as far as possible charted. Information about them was -obtained from the older Indians or river Eskimo and from such -whites as had direct knowledge in that line. Most of these sites were -examined personally, but in some instances this was impossible. The -details concerning those seen will be found in the Narrative, but a -few generalizations may here be useful.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 9</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_9a.jpg" width="700" height="421" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>a</em>, My "spoils," loaded on sled, Point Hope. (A. H., 1926)</p></div> -<img src="images/plate_9b.jpg" width="700" height="449" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>b</em>, The load is heavy and sledding over sand and gravel difficult. (A. H., 1926)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 429px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 10</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_10a.jpg" width="429" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Characteristic Stone Axes. Middle Yukon</span></p> - -<p>(A. H. coll., 1926.)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 491px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 11</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_11a.jpg" width="491" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Crude Stone Artifacts, Found at Bonasila, Lower Middle Yukon</span></p> - -<p>(A. H. coll., 1926.)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 447px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 12</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_12a.jpg" width="447" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Crude Stone Artifacts, Found at Bonasila. Lower Middle Yukon</span></p> - -<p>(A. H. coll., 1926.)</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<img src="images/figure_2a.jpg" width="700" height="388" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Figure 2.</span>—The Yukon from Tanana to below Kokrines</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<img src="images/figure_3a.jpg" width="700" height="382" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Figure 3.</span>—The Yukon from below Kokrines to below Koyukuk</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The dead village sites are much alike along the whole river. -They are generally located at the mouth, of some inland stream that -carries clear fresh water, particularly if on the other side there is -the protection of a hill. The dwellings were invariably on a flat -and were throughout semisubterranean and of the same general -type; which applies also to the larger communal houses or -"cashims." The sites can often be told from afar in summer by -the rich grass that covers them.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 501px;"> -<img src="images/figure_4a.jpg" width="501" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Figure 4.</span>—The Yukon from below Koyukuk to Lofkas</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The burials were as a rule not far from a village and preferably -on the slopes of the nearest hill. They were mostly above ground, -but under the influence of Russians there were also shallow-ground -burials. The latter can readily be told by the sawed planks of -the coffins and the iron nails by which they are fastened. In -many places no surface burials remain or there are mere traces. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> -such, places little mounds may betray old burials assimilated by the -tundra. Trenching in likely spots would doubtless reveal others of -which no trace remains on the surface.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<img src="images/figure_5a.jpg" width="700" height="291" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Figure 5.</span>—Old map of the Nulato district</p></div> -</div> - -<p>No excavations of any of these sites have ever been attempted, -but many of the surface burials were disturbed or destroyed by -seekers of relics and the curious vandal, who is present on the -Yukon as in other parts of the country.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<img src="images/figure_6a.jpg" width="700" height="529" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Figure 6.</span>—Map of Kaltag and vicinity. (By McLeod)</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The maps shown here were made under my direction on the basis -of maps and charts provided by the Geological and Geodetic Surveys, -in Washington. Additional old sites will doubtless be located -in the future and may be added to these records.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span></p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Pre-Russian Sites</span></h3> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 585px;"> -<img src="images/figure_7a.jpg" width="585" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Figure 7.</span>—The Yukon from Bystraia to below Holy Cross</p></div> -</div> - -<p>As already told in the Narrative, a search for truly ancient sites -along the Yukon has proven largely negative. A more intense and -prolonged archeological survey, with exploratory trenches wherever -there is promise, may one day prove more fruitful. But, as pointed -out before, much can never be expected. Man could at no time -have occupied the Yukon Valley and watershed in large numbers. -He would not have found enough sustenance. Even with fair resources -he would hardly have tarried in these inclement regions as -long as the ways toward the south were open. He never built here -of lasting materials and had little chance to develop or even keep up -any higher culture, and since he is gone the ever-cutting river has -taken away whatever it could reach and scattered it through its -silts and gravels. There is nevertheless a number of small elevated -plateaus along the right bank that ought to be sounded by exploratory -pits or trenches, particularly perhaps where there are traces of -later habitations.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<img src="images/figure_8a.jpg" width="700" height="483" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Figure 8.</span>—The Yukon from above Holy Cross to below Mountain Village</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<img src="images/figure_9a.jpg" width="700" height="544" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Figure 9.</span>—The Yukon from below Mountain Village to near Marshall</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p> - -<p>There are, of course, some sites that are older than others. The -most interesting of these was found at Bonasila, beneath the old -site of Makki or Magimute, 18 miles downstream from Anvik. (See -Narrative.) The main facts concerning this site are as follows:</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<img src="images/figure_10a.jpg" width="700" height="450" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Figure 10.</span>—The Yukon from near Marshall to below Kavlingnak</p></div> -</div> - -<p>At the above distance from Anvik, on the right bank of the river -and following a wooded hill, is a low flat backed by rising ground -and cut across by a little stream. The flat is narrow, at present about -300 feet; and the part above the stream is deeply pitted by the remains -of semisubterranean houses of a "dead" native village, which -I believe is identifiable with the Magimute of the Russians. On the -slope behind the village were still about a score of old surface burials, -with an article here and there of Russian derivation.</p> - -<p>The bank of the flat rises at present only about 4 feet above the -beach of the river, but the flat behind is higher. The bank itself -contains many specimens showing human workmanship, consisting -of objects of stone, birch bark, bone, and rarely also of ivory, besides -many fragments of pottery, many bones of wild Alaskan animals, -and here and there a human skeleton. Some of these objects are low -down in the bank. All the bones from the bank, including the -human, and even the rare points of ivory, are semifossilized; the -stone industry is peculiar; and the human remains differ plainly from -both those of the later Yukon Indian and from those of the Eskimo. -They are apparently Indian (see section on physical characteristics), -but a tall Indian of a type that now is only met with much farther -south.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 366px;"> -<img src="images/figure_11a.jpg" width="366" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Figure 11.</span>—From above Kobolunuk to mouth of river</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span></p> - -<p>The stone industry from the bank appeared at first sight so -primitive that even the term "paleolithic" would not fit and the -only term that seemed to meet the situation was "protolithic." It -consists predominantly of scrapers and knockers, with here and there -a tool sharpened for cutting. The scrapers look especially crude. -They consist simply of pieces of smaller or larger andesite-like volcanic -slabs broken to the desired size and chipped more or less -roughly along what was to be the scraping edge. A closer examination -of the stones, which were obtained from a base of a cliff -farther down the river, showed, however, that they were of material -which is hard to work, and that the chipping, under the circumstances, -was not really bad. (Pls. 11, 12.) Pottery must have been -fairly plentiful and quite up to the average of the river, both in make -and decoration.</p> - -<p>Two fine long, partly fossilized ivory points picked up formerly -on the site were obtained from Mr. Lawrence. They are handsomely -barbed on one side and show a high grade of skill. They must have -come from the Bering Sea and may belong to the old fine ivory -culture of the western part of that region, of which more later.</p> - -<p>There are also some fairly ancient sites farther down the river -(see Narrative), but just what they are and how old remains to be -determined.</p> - -<p>A report on the archeological remains from the bank of Bonasila -by Mr. H. W. Krieger, one of the curators of the Department of -Anthropology, United States National Museum, follows:</p> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - - - - -<h2>ARCHEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ALASKA</h2> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Ancient Stone Culture</span></h3> - -<p>"Until the results of Doctor Hrdlička's Alaskan reconnaissance -were first made known to science it had been generally assumed that -Alaskan and Canadian subboreal regions were archeologically barren. -It had been currently accepted that only as one approached -the great river valleys of the Skeena, the Fraser, and the Columbia -could anthropological exploration be conducted to advantage. One -might expect to uncover cemeteries and ancient village sites only -there where a dense and sedentary population had long been established. -Through the discovery of ancient village sites and centers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> -of population in the lower and middle Yukon River Valley, Doctor -Hrdlička has extended the northern archeological horizon into the -sub-Arctic.</p> - -<p>"Of the many sites examined, the old village site at Bonasila, 18 -miles below the confluence of the Anvik and Yukon Rivers, yielded -the most interesting data. Crudely flaked implements of trap rock -with cutting edges showing evidence of chipping and grinding were -uncovered. These implements are unique among Alaskan artifacts -and have no relationship with known types of Eskimo or Indian -stonework. In the shaping technic employed by their aboriginal -makers; in form, and in type; and, generally, in their undeveloped -character, the stone artifacts from Bonasila and other ancient archeological -sites on the middle Yukon may be classified as primitive -neolithic.</p> - -<p>"The stone implements uncovered at Bonasila are so crudely fashioned -and are apparently of such an improvised nature as to suggest -an extreme conservatism in culture development, or perhaps a -degeneration, due largely to lack of better materials. Due to the -lack of basalt, jadeite, or other hard stone in the valley of the lower -middle Yukon, recourse was had to sandstone and trap rock by the -primitive makers of stone axes and celts.</p> - -<p>"Crude pottery vessels and potsherds were discovered associated -with the objects of stone. This ware incorporates elementary decorative -designs distinct from the known historic Eskimo or Indian -types of pottery decoration. There can be no intimation that this -ware is archaic or that it belongs to any archaic culture offshoot -from farther south. It therefore becomes a question of some unknown -earlier Asiatic culture connection that manifested itself in -crude forms of flaked and ground stone implements and in unique -pottery forms. It is uncertain that the ancient fossil ivory culture -of northwest Alaska, of which Doctor Hrdlička has brought in some -excellent examples, is in any manner associated with the primitive -neolithic stone and pottery forms uncovered at Bonasila. It is -established, however, beyond a doubt that both cultures and types of -artifacts are Asiatic in origin and have little or no connection with -the culture of the western Eskimo.</p> - -<p>"The Eskimos of the lower Yukon Valley made extensive use of -slate and of jadeite in the production of their polished knives and -celts. Slate knives and polished celts of jadeite are characteristic of -Eskimoan culture throughout the whole of its extent in Alaska. -Each of these materials as well as the finished products shaped from -them were subjects of native barter. Eskimos often undertook long -journeys for their procurement. It is therefore noteworthy that no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> -single object fashioned from slate or jadeite and but few points of -fossilized ivory were recovered at any of the sites characterized by -the primitive stone culture and pottery of the Bonasila type.</p> - -<p>"The most characteristic finds at Bonasila are the crudely flaked -implements of stone, some of which show incipient chipping and -grinding. The coarse type of pottery is unlike that of the modern -Eskimo in tempering, firing, and decorative design.</p> - -<p>"The stone culture of the site, although rich in forms, is deficient -in technical development and is scarcely worthy of being classed as -neolithic. There were found in numbers the following types of -artifacts: Circular, discoidal stone pebbles with rim fractures due -to use; river wash pebbles of irregular form used as improvised -scrapers and hammerstones; basaltic, discoidal hammerstones with -abraded edges and pitted at the center; large flake saws of trachyte -(trap rock) triangular in section but provided with sharply -fractured cutting edges; slender flaked fragments of trap rock -tapered to the form of wedges with intentionally worked end sections -and cutting edges; crudely flaked stone knives with evidence of -secondary chipping at cutting edges; other knives of thin slabs of -trap rock with flaked and bilaterally ground beveled cutting edges; -oblong axes of flaked sandstone with hafting notches struck off at -the edges midway from the base; abrading tools of sandstone; celts -of sandstone with ground and beveled working edge and notched -for hafting as an ax; stone scrapers with ground and beveled cutting -edges; fragmentary perforators of stone; re-chipped, flaked -knives shaped by grinding; roughly worked, multiple-grooved -hammers or mauls; and many stone objects unformed and unworked -but classified generally as hammerstones.</p> - - -<h4>THE POTTERY</h4> - -<p>"About a hundred pottery shards and smaller pottery vessels were -recovered from the site at Bonasila. Pottery vessels representative -of the Bonasila culture were shaped out of the solid and show no -trace of coiling. In this respect they conform to the generalized -north Asiatic and Eskimo ware. There is, however, no check stamp -decorative design that is applied with a paddle by the Eskimo nor -evidence that pottery vessels had been built up about a basketry base. -The paste is light buff or gray in color, the buff ware being better -fired and of the same color on the inside, while the gray ware is either -gray or black on the inner surface. A well-defined unfired area covers -one-half of the sectional diameter. Both buff and gray wares show -evidence of better firing than in modern Eskimo pottery. Tempering<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> -is of coarse fragments of steatite, which is much more durable than -tempering materials such as blood, feathers, and ashes formerly employed -by the primitive Eskimo potter.</p> - -<p>"The pottery from Bonasila is utilitarian and consists of shallow -spherical lamps, globose bowls, and cooking pots without feet or -bases. The ware is coarse, side walls and bottom varying from 1 to -2 centimeters in sectional thickness. This type of pottery is practically -duplicated in shards recovered by Doctor Hrdlička from what -is now Eskimo territory in the Yukon Valley near the Russian Mission. -It is probable that further search would bring to light an extensive -region yielding this type of ancient pottery of distinctive -design and unrelated either to Tinné or Eskimo ware.</p> - -<p>"Decorative attempts consist of bold incised parallel transverse -lines on the upper sector of the outer surface of the vessel. Deep -corrugations appear on the inside of the rim flare. Both corrugations -and incised line decorations were made with a paddle or wood -splinter shaped for the purpose. Some of the shards have deeply -incised punctations irregularly encircling the outer surface of the -vessel just below the rim extension.</p> - -<p>"Shallow spherical pottery lamps accompanied surface burials at -Bonasila. These lamps have a less durable tempering material than -the other pottery fragments recovered. The paste is porous and is -poorly fired. Decorative designs incised on the interior surface of -the lamps are reminiscent of typical Eskimo punctate designs as -traced on the inner circumference of rectilinear or curvilinear etchings -on ivory and bone. It is very probable that these pottery lamps -are of a later date and are of Eskimoan handicraft.</p> - - -<h4>THE ALASKAN GROOVED STONE AX<br /> - -[Pl. 10]</h4> - -<p>"The grooved stone ax is a typical New World implement. Its distribution -is limited to tribes of the eastern maize area, the Pueblo -tribes of the Southwest, the Athapascans, and the northern woodlands -tribes. Elsewhere in America grooved stone implements of any description -are rare, although not unknown. The groove for the attachment -of cord or sinew binding is common also to the stone adze, -which is characteristic of Indian tribes of the Pacific Northwest and -of the Eskimo of Arctic America. The distribution of the stone adze -is more intensive but is much less extensive than is that of the grooved -stone ax and appears to be an environmental form borrowed from -the Arctic tribes by the Indian of southeast Alaska and of British -Columbia.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span></p> - -<p>"The double-bitted, multiple-grooved stone ax has two areas of distribution -in North America. One of these is the country of the -northeastern woodlands Indians, extending as far south as the Central -Atlantic States. The other area of distribution is the extreme northwest, -or the mainland of Alaska.</p> - -<p>"In the collection brought to the National Museum from Alaska by -Doctor Hrdlička are eight grooved stone implements. All but one -of these have cutting edges for use as axes or adzes. The exception, -Cat. No. 332809, U.S.N.M., is a grooved spherical stone maul or -club 9.5 centimeters (3.7 inches) long and 7.5 centimeters (2.9 -inches) in sectional diameter. This grooved object was found near -Tanana on the beach of the Yukon River. Like the grooved stone -axes in Doctor Hrdlička's collection, the groove is incomplete. A -flattened space of approximately 2 centimeters is left un-grooved for -the hafting of a flat surfaced handle end with binding, which is -passed around the transverse groove and then through a hole in the -wooden handle.</p> - -<p>"Three single-grooved, double-bitted stone axes were collected from -various points on the Yukon River. These are of interest because -of their similar grooving and double cutting edges. Each is identical -in form, each has been shaped by pecking, except in the sector near -the cutting edges where they have been sharpened and polished by -grinding. Between the raised borders of the centrally pecked groove -and the cutting edges the surface has been shaped to a slight concavity -by pecking. In Cat. No. 332805, U.S.N.M., this concavity -is replaced by a well-defined convex bevel. The pecked groove is -at right angles to the longitudinal axis and is comparatively shallow -but has a wide diameter of 2 centimeters or more. The material is -uniformly of basalt. The axes are 20 centimeters or more long, while -the sectional diameter varies from 6 to 10 centimeters according to -whether the ax is flattened or oval in section.</p> - -<p>"Grooved, double-bitted stone axes similar to those collected by -Doctor Hrdlička from the Middle Yukon region have since become -known also from stations farther south in Alaska. One was plowed -up in a field near Matanuska and is now in the chamber of commerce -exhibit at Anchorage, while another was collected in 1927 by the writer -from near Chitna, Alaska. This Alaskan type of grooved ax is -practically identical with that of the central Atlantic seaboard -States, as figured by Walter Hough in the Proceedings of the United -States National Museum, volume 60, article 9, page 14.</p> - -<p>"Another grooved type of stone object brought to the National -Museum by Doctor Hrdlička is a stone war club of unusual type. -It was found on the Yukon River beach 1½ miles below the Mis<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>sion -at Tanana. It is 20 centimeters (7.9 inches) long and is slender, -the maximum sectional diameter being but 3.5 centimeters (1.4 -inches). Like the single-grooved axes, it was shaped by pecking, -but much of the surface was also ground. The reverse or hafting -surface is flat; the obverse is convexly tapered to sharp cutting -edges which are at right angles to the haft. The material is basalt. -The hafting grooves, two in number, are comparatively deep and -closely spaced. As to form this stone weapon is unique, appearing, -so far as is known to the writer, nowhere else on the American -Continent. It has been entered on the records of the National -Museum as Cat. No. 332807, U.S.N.M.</p> - -<p>"One form of the double-bitted, multiple-grooved stone axes resembles -closely ivory forms made from walrus tusks in the Bering Sea -region. This form also gives evidence of secondary modification, -specimens having been broken intentionally to reduce the tool to a -simple adze. The material is basalt and its range in the north is -limited to the Eskimo area, but becomes widespread to the south in -southeastern Alaska and in British Columbia. The form of this -widely diffused stone adze is approximated in a series of broken -stone axes collected by Doctor Hrdlička. Two such broken and -originally double-bitted axes, Cat. Nos. 332806 and 332810, U.S.N.M., -were collected from the banks of the Yukon at an old village site -below Anvik. These axes are broken with a crude irregular fracture -just above the upper transverse groove. Another stone ax, Cat. -No. 332812, U.S.N.M., is from Ruby, Alaska, and is practically identical -with the double-bitted but single-grooved stone ax from Tanana.</p> - -<p>"It would appear from this brief presentation that there is a remarkable -similarity of form, approaching identity, in the ancient -stone axes from the river valleys of central Alaska. Whether the -particular ax has one cutting edge or is double-bitted; whether it is -provided with one or with two parallel transverse hafting grooves, -the general identity of form remains. The striking thing about the -presence of the double-bitted ax among archeological finds from central -Alaska is that we do not find it represented in such numbers -anywhere until it again reappears in the Atlantic seaboard States. -The very interesting cultural objects discovered by Doctor Hrdlička -and supplemented by my collection in 1927 show that Alaska is far -from sterile or fully known archeologically and make further exploration -both promising and important."</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span></p> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - - - - -<h2>ANTHROPOLOGY OF THE YUKON</h2> - - -<p>Notes on the physique of the Yukon natives are found in the reports -of all the explorers of the river, but they are imperfect and of little -scientific value; the principal ones are given below.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> Anthropometric -observations on the living people of the middle and lower -Yukon, with its tributaries, are nonexistent.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> As to crania, there -are a few measurements on two "Yukon Indian" skulls (No. 7530, -and probably No. 7531), and on three crania of the Yukon Eskimo, -by Jeffries Wyman (Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 1868, XI, 452); on -one "Ingaleet" and three "Mahlemut" or Norton Sound Eskimo -skulls by George A. Otis (List of Specimens, etc., 35); and on four -skulls collected by Dall, one from Nulato and the rest presumably -from St. Michael, by Hrdlička (Catal. of Crania, p. 30, Nos. 242925, -242899, 242901, 242936).</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Glazunof (Wrangell, Stat. und Ethnog. Nachr., 146-147): "The men are big, -brunette, with bristly black hair." -</p> -<p> -Zagoskin (pt. II, 61-62): "The Tinneh belong in general to the American family of -redskins, but marked external differences are perceptible in those who are mixed with the -Eskimo. The Tinneh are of medium stature, rather dry but well shaped, with oblong -face, forehead medium, upright, frequently hairy, nose broad and straight, hooked, eyes -black and dark brown, rather large * * * expression intelligent, in those of more -distant tribes somber, roving; lips full, compressed; teeth white, straight; hair straight, -black to dark brown, fairly soft; many of the men hairy over the body and with fairly -thick, short mustache and beard; hands and feet medium, calves small; in general lively, -communicative, cheerful, and very fond of pleasure and song." -</p> -<p> -Dall, William H., Alaska and Its Resources, 53-54: "The Ingaliks are, as a rule, tall, -well made, but slender. They have very long, squarely oval faces, high, prominent cheek -bones, large ears, small mouths, noses, and eyes, and an unusually large lower jaw. The -nose is well formed and aquiline, but small in proportion to the rest of the face. The -hair is long, coarse, and black, and generally parted in the middle. * * * Their complexion -is an ashy brown, perhaps from dirt in many cases, and they seldom have much -color. On the other hand, the Koyúkuns, with the same high cheek bones and piercing -eyes, have much shorter faces, more roundly oval, of a pale olive hue, and frequently -arched eyebrows and a fine color. They are the most attractive in appearance of the -Indians in this part of the territory, as they are the most untamable. The women especially -are more attractive than those among the Ingaliks, whose square faces and ashy -complexion render the latter very plain, not to say repulsive." (Some of these statements -were evidently somewhat in error.—A. H.) -</p> -<p> -Schwatka, F. (Milit. Reconn. (1883), Comp. Narr. Explor. Alas., 350): "As regards -these Ingaliks as a class, they are, as a rule, of average height, tolerably well built, but -slender, differing in this respect from the natives farther down the river. They have -long black hair and a complexion brown by nature, but often verging toward black on -account of a liberal covering of dirt." -</p> -<p> -See also Richardson, J. (Arctic Search. Exp., I, 379). Jones, S., The Kutchin Tribes -(Smiths. Rept. for 1866, 320-327). Whymper, F., Travel and Advent., etc.; and later -writers (including Bancroft's "Native Races," etc., I, 127 et seq.).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Ten (8 m. 2 f.) Loucheux, or Kucha-Kuchin, from the upper Yukon, were measured -by A. J. Stone and reported by F. Boas (Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist, New York, vol. <span class="smcap">XIV</span>, -pp. 53-68, 1901).</p></div></div> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Living Indian</span></h3> - -<p>Notes on the living Indians of the Yukon have already been given -in the Narrative. They will be briefly summarized in this place. -Measurements of the living were impracticable during the journey.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 425px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 13</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_13a.jpg" width="425" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Tanana Indian Woman</span></p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 678px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 14</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_14a.jpg" width="685" height="700" alt="" /> -<img src="images/plate_14b.jpg" width="678" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Chief San Joseph, near Tanana Village, on the Yukon</span></p> - -<p>(A. H., 1926.)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 15</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_15a.jpg" width="700" height="492" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>a</em>. Jacob and Andrew, Yukon Indians at Kokrines. Jacob probably has a trace of white blood.</p> - -<p>(A. H., 1926.)</p></div> - -<img src="images/plate_15b.jpg" width="700" height="535" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>b</em>, Yukon Indians at Kokrines. (A. H., 1926.)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 16</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_16a.jpg" width="700" height="674" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>a</em>, Marguerite Johnny Yatlen, Koyukuk village. (A. H., 1926)</p></div> - -<img src="images/plate_16b.jpg" width="700" height="674" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>b</em>, Lucy John, Koyukuk, daughter of a former chief. (A. H., 1926)</p></div> - -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Yukon Indians</span></p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 392px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 17</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_17a.jpg" width="423" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>a</em>, George Halfway, Nulato, on the Yukon. (A. H., 1926)</p></div> - -<img src="images/plate_17b.jpg" width="412" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>b</em>, Jack Curry, of Nulato, 41 years old. (Now at Ruby, -Middle Yukon; Eskimoid physiognomy)</p></div> - -<img src="images/plate_17c.jpg" width="392" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>c</em>, Arthur Malamvot, of Nulato</p></div> - -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Yukon Indians</span></p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 18</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_18a.jpg" width="700" height="412" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>a</em>, Indian children, Mission School at Anvik, Lower Middle Yukon</p></div> - -<img src="images/plate_18b.jpg" width="700" height="404" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>b</em>, Indian children, Mission School at Anvik, Lower Middle Yukon</p></div> - -<img src="images/plate_18c.jpg" width="542" height="686" alt="" /> - -<img src="images/plate_18d.jpg" width="532" height="686" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>c</em>, Two women of Anvik, on the Yukon, somewhat Eskimoid</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p> - -<p><em>Pure bloods.</em>—The Yukon Indians are a sparse and largely mixed -population. The mixture is especially evident in the children and -the younger generation. It is mainly that with whites, but in the -lower settlements there is also a good deal of older mixture with the -Eskimo. There is fortunately as yet no Negro admixture.</p> - -<p><em>General type.</em>—The full bloods are typically Indian, though not -of the pronounced plains type. The type is fairly uniform, but there -is not seldom, even up the river, as elsewhere in Alaska, a suggestion -of something Eskimoid in the physiognomy.</p> - -<p><em>Color.</em>—The color in general is near medium brown, ranging to -lighter rather than darker. The hair is the usual full black of the -Indian.</p> - -<p><em>Stature and strength.</em>—- The stature and build are generally near -medium, rather slightly below than above.</p> - -<p><em>Head form.</em>—The head is generally moderately rounded high meso- -to moderately brachycephalic. The face is medium Indian.</p> - -<p><em>Body.</em>—The body proportions seldom impress one with unusual -strength, yet some of the men are by no means weaklings. The most -fitting term by which to characterize conditions in this respect is -again "medium," with an occasional deviation one way or the other.</p> - -<p><em>Photographs.</em>—The accompanying photographs, taken by the -writer from Tanana to Anvik, show a few of the physiognomies. -Some of the girls and women, as well as boys and men, are quite -good looking. (Pls. 13-18.)</p> - -<p>From Anvik downward along the river the type of the people -becomes plainly more Eskimoid and on the whole more robust. But -as one can frequently meet farther up the river individuals who -remind one more or less of the Eskimo, so here it is frequent to see -faces that look like Indian. Whether due to old mixture or to other -reason, the fact is that there is no line of somatological demarcation -in the living populations of the river, and the same applies, as will -be seen later, to the skulls.</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Skeletal Remains of the Yukon</span></h3> - -<p>The first Yukon Indian skull measured was that of a half-chief -of the Nulato group, collected in the early sixties by William H. -Dall. There are now three records of this skull, originally and again -now a Smithsonian specimen, one in Wyman ("Observations on -Crania," Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 1868, XI, 452, No. 7530), one in -the Otis "Catalogue" (35, No. 259), and one in Hrdlička's "Catalogue -of Human Crania in the United States National Museum -Collections" (p. 30, No. 242925). It is a normal, well-developed -male skull, which gives no suggestion of mixture. The true measurements -of this "type" specimen, taken by present-day instruments -and methods, are as follows:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Yukon Indian skull No. 242925"> - <caption><em>Yukon Indian skull No. 242925</em></caption> - <tr> - <td>Vault:</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">18.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">14</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height to bregma</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">13.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Cranial index</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.1</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean height index</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.2</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height-breadth index</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>98.6</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Cranial module (mean diameter)</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">15.40</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Cranial capacity</td> - <td>c. c.</td> - <td class="tdr">1,520</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Face:</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Menton-nasion (teeth but slightly worn)</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">12.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Alveolar point-nasion</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">7.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Diameter bizygomatic maximum</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">14</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Facial index, total</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Facial index, upper</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>52.1</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Facial angle</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">69°</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Alveolar angle</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">53.5°</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Orbits:</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Right—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Height</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">3.25</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">4.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Left—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Height</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">3.45</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean index</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nose:</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">5.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">2.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Index</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>49</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Upper alveolar arch:</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">5.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">6.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Index</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.1</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Basio-facial diameters:</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Basion-alveolar point</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">10.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Basion-subnasal point</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">9.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Basal-nasion</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">10.5</td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The skull is seen to be mesocephalic, rather high, and of good -brain capacity; the face is of medium Indian proportions; the orbits -are unequal, rather low; the nose is of medium height and breadth; -the upper dental arch, the basic-facial diameters, and the facial and -alveolar angles, are all near medium Indian.</p> - -<p>There was another Indian skull in the five Wyman reported, but -its identity is uncertain. A later collection by Dall included three -Indian female crania from Alaska, but their exact provenience is -uncertain; their measurements are given in my catalogue.</p> - -<p>On the 1926 trip I succeeded in collecting directly from the burials -along the lower middle Yukon 17 adult skulls and skeletons. Such -material is both scarce and difficult to obtain, due to the attitude -of the Indians. All the specimens in the collection are from the -Russian times on the river. A few of the skulls show traces of -Eskimoid in their features, but none offer a suspicion of a mixture -with the whites. The measurements are given below. They partly -agree, partly disagree, with those of the Nulato skull. The vault, -the breadth of the nose, the dimensions of the dental arch, are much -alike, but the height of the face, nose, and orbits in the Nulato specimen -is somewhat lower. These may be tribal but also simply individual -differences. We may generalize by stating that the lower -middle Yukon Indian was mesocephalic, with a fairly high vault, -and moderate capacity. The face was of relatively good height but -moderate breadth, resulting in a high upper facial index. Facial -and alveolar prognathism and other features approach the prevalent -Indian medium.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="LOWER MIDDLE YUKON INDIAN CRANIA"> - <caption>LOWER MIDDLE YUKON INDIAN CRANIA</caption> -<col span="12" width="8.3%"></col> - <tr> - <th colspan="0">SEX: MALE</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th>Catalogue No.</th> - <th>Collection</th> - <th>Locality</th> - <th>Approximate age of subject</th> - <th>Vault: Diameter antero-posterior maximum (glabella ad maximum)</th> - <th>Diameter lateral maximum</th> - <th>Basion-bregma height</th> - <th>Cranial index</th> - <th>Mean height index</th> - <th>Height-breadth index</th> - <th>Cranial module</th> - <th>Capacity, in c. c. (Hrdlička's method)</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332512</td> - <td>A. Hrdlička</td> - <td>Magi (Bonasila)</td> - <td>Adults</td> - <td class="tdr">18.4</td> - <td class="tdr">13.8</td> - <td class="tdr">14.0</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.0</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.0</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>101.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr">15.40</td> - <td class="tdr">1,480</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332517</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td>Ghost Creek, near Holy Cross.</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdr">18.1</td> - <td class="tdr">13.8</td> - <td class="tdr">13.4</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>97.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr">15.10</td> - <td class="tdr">1,375</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332514</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdr">18.0</td> - <td class="tdr">13.9</td> - <td class="tdr">14.0</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>100.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr">15.30</td> - <td class="tdr">1,425</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332503</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td>Greyling River (above Anvik).</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdr"><a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a>(17.3)</td> - <td class="tdr">(13.4)</td> - <td class="tdr">(12.7)</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>94.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr">(14.47)</td> - <td class="tdr">(1,220)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332507</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td>Ghost Creek</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdr">18.2</td> - <td class="tdr">14.1</td> - <td class="tdr">13.2</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>93.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr">15.17</td> - <td class="tdr">1,480</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332526</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdr">18.5</td> - <td class="tdr">14.4</td> - <td class="tdr">13.7</td> - <td><em>77.</em>8</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>95.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr">15.53</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>339752</td> - <td>H. W. Krieger</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdr">17.5</td> - <td class="tdr">13.9</td> - <td class="tdr">13.5</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>79.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.0</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>97.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr">14.97</td> - <td class="tdr">1,515</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332502</td> - <td>A. Hrdlička</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdr bd">17.8</td> - <td class="tdr bd">14.2</td> - <td class="tdr bd">13.3</td> - <td class="tdr bd"><em>79.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr bd"><em>83.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr bd"><em>93.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr bd">15.10</td> - <td class="tdr bd">1,370</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4"></td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4">Total</td> - <td class="tdr">126.5</td> - <td class="tdr">98.1</td> - <td class="tdr">95.1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">106.57</td> - <td class="tdr">8,645</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4">Average</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>18.07</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>14.01</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>13.59</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>96.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>15.22</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>1,441</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4">Minimum</td> - <td class="tdr">17.5</td> - <td class="tdr">13.8</td> - <td class="tdr">13.2</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.0</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>93.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr">14.97</td> - <td class="tdr">1,370</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4">Maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">18.5</td> - <td class="tdr">14.4</td> - <td class="tdr">14.0</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>79.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>101.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr">15.53</td> - <td class="tdr">1,515</td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="LOWER MIDDLE YUKON INDIAN CRANIA"> -<col span="12" width="8.3%"></col> - <tr> - <th>Catalogue No.</th> - <th>Teeth: Wear menton-nasion height (a)</th> - <th>Alveolar point-nasion height (b)</th> - <th>Diameter bizygomatic maximum (c)</th> - <th>Facial index, total <span class="overunder"><span class="bb">(a × 100)</span><br />c</span></th> - <th>Facial index, upper <span class="overunder"><span class="bb">(b × 100)</span><br />c</span></th> - <th>Basion-alveolar point</th> - <th>Basion-subnasal point</th> - <th>Basion-nasion</th> - <th>Facial angle</th> - <th>Alveolar angle</th> - <th>Height of symphysis</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332512</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a>12.3</td> - <td class="tdr">7.5</td> - <td class="tdr">13.4</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>56</em></td> - <td class="tdr">10.2</td> - <td class="tdr">8.9</td> - <td class="tdr">10.2</td> - <td class="tdr">68.5</td> - <td class="tdr">51</td> - <td class="tdr">3.9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332517</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">7.4</td> - <td class="tdr">13.4</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr">10.2</td> - <td class="tdr">8.9</td> - <td class="tdr">9.7</td> - <td class="tdr">64.5</td> - <td class="tdr">51.5</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332514</td> - <td class="tdr"><a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a>13</td> - <td class="tdr">7.7</td> - <td class="tdr">13.3</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>97.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>57.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr">10.2</td> - <td class="tdr">9.4</td> - <td class="tdr">10.4</td> - <td class="tdr">69</td> - <td class="tdr">63.5</td> - <td class="tdr">4.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332503</td> - <td class="tdr"><a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>12.8</td> - <td class="tdr">8.1</td> - <td class="tdr">13.6</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>94.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>59.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr">10.5</td> - <td class="tdr">9.5</td> - <td class="tdr">10.4</td> - <td class="tdr">66.5</td> - <td class="tdr">59.5</td> - <td class="tdr">3.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332507</td> - <td class="tdr"><a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">14.1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">8.6</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332526</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">10.4</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332552</td> - <td class="tdr"><a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">13.6</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">8.8</td> - <td class="tdr">10.1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332502</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a>13</td> - <td class="tdr">8.1</td> - <td class="tdr">14.1</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>57.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr">10.4</td> - <td class="tdr">9.2</td> - <td class="tdr">9.7</td> - <td class="tdr">62</td> - <td class="tdr">53</td> - <td class="tdr">4.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr bu">(4)</td> - <td class="tdr bu">(5)</td> - <td class="tdr bu">(5)</td> - <td class="tdr bu">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr bu">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr bu">(5)</td> - <td class="tdr bu">(7)</td> - <td class="tdr bu">(8)</td> - <td class="tdr bu">(5)</td> - <td class="tdr bu">(5)</td> - <td class="tdr bu">(7)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Totals</td> - <td class="tdr">51.1</td> - <td class="tdr">38.8</td> - <td class="tdr">67.8</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">51.5</td> - <td class="tdr">63.3</td> - <td class="tdr">80.9</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">27.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Averages</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>12.78</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>7.76</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>13.56</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>93.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>57.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>10.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>9.04</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>10.11</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>66</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>3.97</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Minimum</td> - <td class="tdr">12.3</td> - <td class="tdr">7.4</td> - <td class="tdr">13.3</td> - <td class="tdr">91.8</td> - <td class="tdr">55.2</td> - <td class="tdr">10.2</td> - <td class="tdr">8.6</td> - <td class="tdr">9.7</td> - <td class="tdr">62</td> - <td class="tdr">51</td> - <td class="tdr">3.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">13</td> - <td class="tdr">8.1</td> - <td class="tdr">14.1</td> - <td class="tdr">97.7</td> - <td class="tdr">59.6</td> - <td class="tdr">10.5</td> - <td class="tdr">9.5</td> - <td class="tdr">10.4</td> - <td class="tdr">69</td> - <td class="tdr">63.5</td> - <td class="tdr">4.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr bu"></td> - <td class="tdr bu"></td> - <td class="tdr bu">(7)</td> - <td class="bu"></td> - <td class="bu"></td> - <td class="bu"></td> - <td class="bu"></td> - <td class="bu"></td> - <td class="bu"></td> - <td class="bu"></td> - <td class="bu"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Totals</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">95.5</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Averages</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>13.64</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Minimum</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">13.3</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Maximum</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">14.1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> -</table><a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="LOWER MIDDLE YUKON INDIAN CRANIA"> -<col span="10" width="10%"></col> - <tr> - <th>Catalogue No.</th> - <th>Orbits: Height, right, left</th> - <th>Breadth, right, left</th> - <th>Orbital index, mean</th> - <th>Nose: Height</th> - <th>Breadth, maximum</th> - <th>Nasal index</th> - <th>Palate: external length (a)</th> - <th>External breadth, maximum (b)</th> - <th>Palatal index <span class="overunder"><span class="bb">(b × 100)</span><br />a</span></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332512</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">3.65<br />3.65</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">3.8<br />3.8</td> - <td class="tdr">96</td> - <td class="tdr">5.3</td> - <td class="tdr">2.55</td> - <td class="tdr">48.1</td> - <td class="tdr">5.5</td> - <td class="tdr">6.4</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.9</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332517</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">3.35<br />3.45</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">3.9<br />3.8</td> - <td class="tdr">88.3</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="tdr">2.6</td> - <td class="tdr">52</td> - <td class="tdr">5.6</td> - <td class="tdr">6.5</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.2</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332514</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">3.5<br />3.5</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">3.7<br />3.7</td> - <td class="tdr">94.6</td> - <td class="tdr">5.5</td> - <td class="tdr">2.3</td> - <td class="tdr">41.8</td> - <td class="tdr">5.3</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332503</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">3.65<br />3.6</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">4<br />3.95</td> - <td class="tdr">91.2</td> - <td class="tdr">5.7</td> - <td class="tdr">2.45</td> - <td class="tdr">43</td> - <td class="tdr">5.4</td> - <td class="tdr">6.3</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332507</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">3.75<br />3.7</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">3.85<br />3.95</td> - <td class="tdr">95.5</td> - <td class="tdr">5.2</td> - <td class="tdr">2.5</td> - <td class="tdr">48.1</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332526</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332552</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">3.5<br />3.5</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">3.9<br />3.9</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">5.35</td> - <td class="tdr">2.5</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332502</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">3.45<br />3.4</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">4.15<br />4</td> - <td class="tdr">84</td> - <td class="tdr">5.8</td> - <td class="tdr">2.95</td> - <td class="tdr">50.9</td> - <td class="tdr">5.9</td> - <td class="tdr">6.5</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.8</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Right</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(7)</td> - <td class="bu"></td> - <td class="bu"></td> - <td class="bu"></td> - <td class="bu"></td> - <td class="bu"></td> - <td class="bu"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Left</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Totals</td> - <td class="tdr">r. 24.85<br />l. 24.80</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">27.30<br />27.10</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">37.85</td> - <td class="tdr">17.85</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">27.7</td> - <td class="tdr">32.7</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Averages</td> - <td class="tdr">r. <em>3.55</em><br />l. <em>3.54</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>3.90</em><br /><em>3.87</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91</em><br /><em>91.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>5.41</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>2.55</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>47.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>5.54</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>6.54</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Minimum</td> - <td class="tdr">r. 3.35<br />l. 3.4</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">3.7<br />3.7</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="tdr">2.3</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>41.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>5.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr">6.3</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">r. 3.75<br />l. 3.7</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">4.15<br />4</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">5.8</td> - <td class="tdr">2.95</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>52</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5.9</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.8</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="LOWER MIDDLE YUKON INDIAN CRANIA"> - <caption>SEX: FEMALE</caption> -<col span="12" width="8.3%"></col> - <tr> - <th>Catalogue No.</th> - <th>Collection</th> - <th>Locality</th> - <th>Approximate age of subject</th> - <th>Vault: Diameter antero-posterior maximum (glabella ad maximum)</th> - <th>Diameter lateral maximum</th> - <th>Basion-bregma height</th> - <th>Cranial index</th> - <th>Mean height index</th> - <th>Height-breadth index</th> - <th>Cranial module</th> - <th>Capacity, in c. c. (Hrdlička's method)</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332506</td> - <td>A. Hrdlička</td> - <td>Magi (Bonasila)</td> - <td>Adult</td> - <td class="tdr">18.2</td> - <td class="tdr">13.4</td> - <td class="tdr">13.1</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>73.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>97.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr">14.90</td> - <td class="tdr">1,400</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332520</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td>Ghost Creek</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdr">17.9</td> - <td class="tdr">13.2</td> - <td class="tdr">12.7</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>73.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>96.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr">14.60</td> - <td class="tdr">1,335</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332508</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td>Magi</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdr">17.2</td> - <td class="tdr">12.8</td> - <td class="tdr">13.1</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>102.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr">14.37</td> - <td class="tdr">1,225</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332519</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td>Ghost Creek</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdr">16.2</td> - <td class="tdr">12.3</td> - <td class="tdr">12.3</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>100.0</em></td> - <td class="tdr">13.60</td> - <td class="tdr">1,070</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332510</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td>Magi</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdr">17.6</td> - <td class="tdr">13.5</td> - <td class="tdr">13.2</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>97.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr">14.77</td> - <td class="tdr">1,375</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332504</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdr">17.9</td> - <td class="tdr">13.8</td> - <td class="tdr">13.5</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>97.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr">15.07</td> - <td class="tdr">1,355</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332525</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td>Ghost Creek</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdr">17.4</td> - <td class="tdr">13.5</td> - <td class="tdr">12.5</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr">14.47</td> - <td class="tdr">1,260</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332525</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td>Magi</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdr">17.2</td> - <td class="tdr">13.4</td> - <td class="tdr">12.6</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>94.0</em></td> - <td class="tdr">14.40</td> - <td class="tdr">1,230</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332522</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td>Novi River</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdr">16.7</td> - <td class="tdr">13.4</td> - <td class="tdr">12.8</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>80.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>95.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr">14.30</td> - <td class="tdr">1,210</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>339751</td> - <td>H. W. Krieger</td> - <td>Magi</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdr">16.4</td> - <td class="tdr">13.4</td> - <td class="tdr">12.6</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>94.0</em></td> - <td class="tdr">14.13</td> - <td class="tdr">1,210</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4"></td> - <td class="tdc bu">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(<em>10</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(<em>10</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(<em>10</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(10)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4">Totals</td> - <td class="tdr">172.7</td> - <td class="tdr">132.7</td> - <td class="tdr">128.4</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">144.6</td> - <td class="tdr">12,670</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4">Averages</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>17.27</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>13.27</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>12.84</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>96.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>14.46</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>1,267</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4">Minimum</td> - <td class="tdr">16.4</td> - <td class="tdr">12.3</td> - <td class="tdr">12.3</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>73.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr">13.60</td> - <td class="tdr">1,070</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4">Maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">18.2</td> - <td class="tdr">13.8</td> - <td class="tdr">13.5</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>102.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr">15.07</td> - <td class="tdr">1,400</td> - </tr> -</table></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="LOWER MIDDLE YUKON INDIAN CRANIA"> -<col span="12" width="8.3%"></col> - <tr> - <th>Catalogue No.</th> - <th>Teeth: Wear menton-nasion height (a)</th> - <th>Alveolar point-nasion height (b)</th> - <th>Diameter bizygomatic maximum (c)</th> - <th>Facial index, total <span class="overunder"><span class="bb">(a × 100)</span><br />c</span></th> - <th>Facial index, upper <span class="overunder"><span class="bb">(b × 100)</span><br />c</span></th> - <th>Basion-alveolar point</th> - <th>Basion-subnasal point</th> - <th>Basion-nasion</th> - <th>Facial angle</th> - <th>Alveolar angle</th> - <th>Height of symphysis</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332506</td> - <td class="tdr"><a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a>12.1</td> - <td class="tdr">7.5</td> - <td class="tdr">12.7</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>95.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>59.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr">9.9</td> - <td class="tdr">8.8</td> - <td class="tdr">-10</td> - <td class="tdr">-69</td> - <td class="tdr">-54</td> - <td class="tdr">3.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332520</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">6.9</td> - <td class="tdr">13.3</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>51.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr">10.6</td> - <td class="tdr">9.4</td> - <td class="tdr">9.7</td> - <td class="tdr">-63</td> - <td class="tdr">-52</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332508</td> - <td class="tdr"><a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a>10.8</td> - <td class="tdr">-7</td> - <td class="tdr">12.6</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr">9.6</td> - <td class="tdr">8.5</td> - <td class="tdr">9.9</td> - <td class="tdr">-71</td> - <td class="tdr">-51</td> - <td class="tdr">-3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332519</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">6.7</td> - <td class="tdr">12.1</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr">9.3</td> - <td class="tdr">7.8</td> - <td class="tdr">8.8</td> - <td class="tdr">64.5</td> - <td class="tdr">42.5</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332510</td> - <td class="tdr">+11.6</td> - <td class="tdr">-7</td> - <td class="tdr">-12</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>96.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>58.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr">9.7</td> - <td class="tdr">8.4</td> - <td class="tdr">9.5</td> - <td class="tdr">-67</td> - <td class="tdr">-51</td> - <td class="tdr">3.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332504</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a>13.1</td> - <td class="tdr">-8</td> - <td class="tdr">13.6</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>56</em></td> - <td class="tdr">10.4</td> - <td class="tdr">9.1</td> - <td class="tdr">10.5</td> - <td class="tdr">-68</td> - <td class="tdr">54.5</td> - <td class="tdr">3.9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332525</td> - <td class="tdr"><a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">12.9</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">8.7</td> - <td class="tdr">9.9</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332505</td> - <td class="tdr"><a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a>11.8</td> - <td class="tdr">6.8</td> - <td class="tdr">12.8</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr">9.5</td> - <td class="tdr">8.4</td> - <td class="tdr">9.6</td> - <td class="tdr">-70</td> - <td class="tdr">-51</td> - <td class="tdr">3.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>322522</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">7.1</td> - <td class="tdr">13.3</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr">9.2</td> - <td class="tdr">8.6</td> - <td class="tdr">-10</td> - <td class="tdr">74.5</td> - <td class="tdr">-64</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332751</td> - <td class="tdr"><a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a>11</td> - <td class="tdr">6.7</td> - <td class="tdr">13.1</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>-84</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>51.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr">9.6</td> - <td class="tdr">8.5</td> - <td class="tdr">9.3</td> - <td class="tdr">-67</td> - <td class="tdr">48.5</td> - <td class="tdr">3.35</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc bu">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(<em>9</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(7)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Totals</td> - <td class="tdr">70.4</td> - <td class="tdr">63.7</td> - <td class="tdr">128.4</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">87.8</td> - <td class="tdr">86.2</td> - <td class="tdr">97.2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">25.05</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Averages</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>11.73</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>7.08</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>12.84</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>9.76</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>8.62</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>9.72</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>-68</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>-52</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>3.58</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Minimum</td> - <td class="tdr">10.8</td> - <td class="tdr">6.7</td> - <td class="tdr">-12</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>-84</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>51.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr">9.2</td> - <td class="tdr">7.8</td> - <td class="tdr">8.8</td> - <td class="tdr">-63</td> - <td class="tdr">42.5</td> - <td class="tdr">-3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">13.1</td> - <td class="tdr">-8</td> - <td class="tdr">13.6</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>96.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>59.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr">10.6</td> - <td class="tdr">9.4</td> - <td class="tdr">10.5</td> - <td class="tdr">74.5</td> - <td class="tdr">-64</td> - <td class="tdr">3.9</td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="LOWER MIDDLE YUKON INDIAN CRANIA"> -<col span="10" width="10%"></col> - <tr> - <th>Catalogue No.</th> - <th>Orbits: Height, right, left</th> - <th>Breadth, right, left</th> - <th>Orbital index, mean</th> - <th>Nose: Height</th> - <th>Breadth, maximum</th> - <th>Nasal index</th> - <th>Palate: external length (a)</th> - <th>External breadth, maximum (b)</th> - <th>Palatal index <span class="overunder"><span class="bb">(b × 100)</span><br />a</span></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332506</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">3.55<br />3.6</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">3.8<br />3.8</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>94.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5.5</td> - <td class="tdr">2.2</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>40</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5.2</td> - <td class="tdr">6.1</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.2</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332520</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">3.3<br />3.4</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">3.7<br />3.7</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr">4.75</td> - <td class="tdr">2.4</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>50.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5.4</td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332508</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">3.7<br />——</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">4<br />——</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5.2</td> - <td class="tdr">2.5</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>48.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5.2</td> - <td class="tdr">5.8</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332519</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">3.4<br />3.5</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">3.7<br />3.65</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>93.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr">4.7</td> - <td class="tdr">2.3</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>48.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5.4</td> - <td class="tdr">5.5</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>98.2</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332510</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">3.3<br />3.2</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">3.55<br />3.55</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr">4.7</td> - <td class="tdr">2.3</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>48.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5.3</td> - <td class="tdr">6.4</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.8</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332504</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">3.7<br />3.65</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">3.95<br />4.05</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5.4</td> - <td class="tdr">2.15</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>39.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5.7</td> - <td class="tdr">6.7</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.1</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332525</td> - <td class="tdr">——<br />3.25</td> - <td class="tdr">——<br />3.8</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5.15</td> - <td class="tdr">2.2</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>42.7</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332505</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">3.8<br />3.6</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">3.95<br />3.85</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>94.0</em></td> - <td class="tdr">4.9</td> - <td class="tdr">2.35</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>48</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5.3</td> - <td class="tdr">5.8</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332522</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">3.7<br />3.6</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">3.95<br />3.95</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5.45</td> - <td class="tdr">2.3</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>42.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="tdr">6.6</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.8</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332751</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">3.1<br />3.2</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">3.8<br />3.7</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="tdr">2.4</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>48</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5.3</td> - <td class="tdr">6.5</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.5</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Right</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(<em>9</em>)</td> - <td class="bu"></td> - <td class="bu"></td> - <td class="bu"></td> - <td class="bu"></td> - <td class="bu"></td> - <td class="bu"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Left</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>9</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>10</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>9</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Total</td> - <td class="tdr">r. 31.55<br />l. 31</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">34.4<br />34.05</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">50.75</td> - <td class="tdr">23.1</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">47.8</td> - <td class="tdr">55.4</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Average </td> - <td class="tdr">r. <em>3.51</em><br />l. <em>3.44</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>3.82</em><br /><em>3.78</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.7</em><br /><em>91</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>5.07</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>2.31</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>45.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>5.31</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>6.16</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.3</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Minimum</td> - <td class="tdr">r. 3.1<br />l. 3.2</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">3.55<br />3.55</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">4.7</td> - <td class="tdr">2.15</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>39.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="tdr">5.5</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.8</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">r. 3.8<br />l. 3.65</td> - <td class="tdr bbox">4<br />4.05</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">5.5</td> - <td class="tdr">2.5</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>50.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5.7</td> - <td class="tdr">6.7</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>98.2</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> Premature occlusion of sagittal and subdevelopment of vault; probably a moron, facial and skeletal parts -all normal.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Medium.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Slight.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Moderate.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Cons.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Unknown; all lost.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Slight.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Cons.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Medium.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Moderate.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> U. medium; l. moderate</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span></p></div></div> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Skeletal Parts</span></h3> - -<p>There are seven adult skeletons of males and seven of females. For -present purposes it will suffice to take the males alone and to restrict -consideration to the long bones. The essential data on these are -given on page <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, where they are contrasted with those of North -American Indians in general, and with those of the western Eskimo.</p> - -<p>The bones show both relations to as well as differences from the -bones of Indians in general and fair distinctness from those of the -Eskimo.</p> - -<p>Contrasted with the long bones of miscellaneous North American -tribes taken together, the Yukon Indian bones show absolutely -slightly shorter humerus (or arm), somewhat shorter radius (or -forearm), a slightly shorter femur (or upper part of the leg), and -a plainly shorter tibia. These Indians had therefore relatively somewhat -shorter forearm and especially the leg below the knees than their -continental cousins. These facts are plainly evident from the radio-humeral -and tibio-femoral indices of the two groups. In this relative -shortness of the distal parts of the limbs the Yukon Indian approaches -the Eskimo, standing near midway between the Indian in -general and the Eskimo. There might be a ready temptation to -attribute this to a mixture with the Eskimo; but an examination of -the records will show that the same condition, so far at least as the -upper limb is concerned (lower?), is already present in the old -Bonasila skeleton, which gives no suggestion of an Eskimo mixture. -It is more likely, therefore, that these are generalized characteristics -of functional origin such as a considerable use of the small canoes. -This view seems to be supported by the relative strength of the bones. -In the Yukon Indian the humerus is stouter, the femur of the same -strength, and the tibia very perceptibly weaker than they are in Indians -in general. In the Eskimo, with even greater dependence on the -canoe, both the humerus and the femur are notably stouter, while -the tibia is weaker, than are similar bones in the Indians in general.</p> - -<p>The humero-femoral index in the Yukon Indians is unusually -high, indicating a relative shortness of the femur. This character -is not present in the Eskimo, nor in the continental Indian. It is -probably also of old functional origin, though, this for the present -must remain a mere suggestion.</p> - -<p>All of this shows clearly the interest and value of other skeletal -parts than the skull, and particularly of the long bones, for anthropological -studies.</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Skeletal Remains from the Bank at Bonasila</span></h3> - -<p>The skeletal material from the bank at Bonasila consists now of -portions of three adult skulls, one male and two females, and of 13 -bones of the male skeleton. All the specimens are more or less<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> -stained by manganese and iron and all are distinctly heavier than -normal, showing some grade of fossilization. They closely resemble -in all these respects the numerous animal bones from the bank and -in all differ from the later surface burials of the place.</p> - - -<h4>THE CRANIA</h4> - -<p>The male skull, No. 332513, is represented by the frontal bone -united with a larger part of the face, a separated left temporal, and -the right half of the lower jaw. A large Inca bone, recovered from -the beach a year later, may also belong to the same specimen. The -missing parts are probably still somewhere in the sands of the -beach where there is going on a very instructive scattering and redeposition -on a 4 to 6 feet lower level of the contents of the old bank.</p> - -<p>The skull is that of a male of somewhat over 50 years of age, judging -from the moderate to marked wear of the remaining teeth. It is -a normal undeformed specimen, and the same applies to the bones -of the skeleton.</p> - -<p><em>Notes and measurements.</em>—The frontal shows a medium development, -no slope. The supraorbital ridges are rather weakly developed -for a male, leaving the upper borders of the orbits rather sharp.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="male skull, No. 332513"> - <tr> - <th></th> - <th>Cm.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Diameter frontal minimum</td> - <td class="tdr">9.75</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Diameter frontal maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">11.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Diameter nasion-bregma</td> - <td class="tdr">11.5</td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The skull as a whole was evidently mesocephalic, and neither low -nor very high. The thickness of the frontal is about medium for -an Indian.</p> - -<p>The face is of medium proportions and strength, with rather large -orbits, good interorbital breadth, medium malars, medium broad -nose, and but moderate alveolar prognathism. The nasal bridge is -not high, nasal bones fairly broad, spine moderate, lower borders -well defined though not sharp. The sub-malar (canine) fossae are -shallow.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="male skull, No. 332513"> - <caption><em>Measurements</em></caption> - <tr> - <td>Alveolar point-nasion height</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">7.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Facial breadth about medium for an Indian.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nose:</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">5.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth, near</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">2.75</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Index</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>50</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Left orbit:</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">3.75</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Index</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>93.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Minimum interorbital distance</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">2.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Upper dental arch:</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length, approximately</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">5.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth, approximately</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Index, approximately</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>80</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Lower jaw:</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height at symphysis approximately</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">4.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Thickness at M<sub>2</sub> (with the tooth held midway between branches of compass)</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">1.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height of asc. ramus</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">6.9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth minimum of asc. ramus</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">3.7</td> - </tr> -</table></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></p> - -<p>The condyloid process of the lower jaw is high, mandibular notch -deep. The whole jaw is strong but not thick or massive. It is Indianlike, -not Eskimoid, in all its features. The teeth are of good -medium size.</p> - -<p><em>Skull No. 333383.</em>—Of this skull I brought the right parietal with -about one-third of the frontal; Mr. Krieger, a year later, the remainder -of the frontal. Other parts are missing.</p> - -<p>The specimen was evidently, a good-size female skull, normal, undeformed, -probably mesocephalic in form, and moderately high. The -thickness of the bones is not above moderate.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Skull No. 333383."> - <tr> - <th></th> - <th>Cm.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Diameter frontal minimum</td> - <td class="tdr">9.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Diameter frontal maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">12.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Diameter nasion-bregma</td> - <td class="tdr">11.1</td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p><em>Skull No. 333950.</em>—Of the third skull, recovered from the sands -of the beach at low water in 1927 by Mr. Lawrence, there are only -the two parietals. The specimen is that of a young adult female. -The bones, rather submedium in thickness, indicate a skull of slightly -smaller size and slightly shorter than the preceding but of much the -same general type.</p> - -<p><em>The skeletal parts of male No. 332513.</em>—Humeri: The long bones -all give the impression of straightness, length, and of a certain -gracility of form combined with strength, but without massiveness. -The right humerus presents a small but distinct supracondylar process, -a rarity among Indians. The fossae are not perforated. Measurements:</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="skeletal parts of male No. 332513"> - <tr> - <td>Length, maximum:</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Right</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">35.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Left</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">35.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Major diameter at middle:</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Right</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">2.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Left</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">2.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Minor diameter at middle:</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Right</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">1.65</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Left</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">1.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Index at middle:</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Right</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>66</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Left</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>66.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Type of shaft at middle, prismatic:</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Right</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Left</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Right radius:</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length, maximum, near</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">27</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Radio-humeral index, approximately</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.5</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The shaft approaches type IV (quadrilateral). There is but small -curvature.</p> - -<p>Right ulna: Lacks the olecranon; shaft prismatic, with anterior -and posterior surfaces fluted; but a moderate curvature backward -upper third.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="skeletal parts of male No. 332513"> - <tr> - <td>Femora:</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length, bicondylar, right</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">48.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Humero-femoral index</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74.3</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Diameter antero-posterior maximum at middle—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Right</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">3.05</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Left</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">3.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Diameter lateral maximum at middle—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Right</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">2.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Left</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">2.65</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Index at middle—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Right</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Left</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.8</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Diameter maximum at upper flattening—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Right</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">3.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Left</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">3.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Diameter minimum at upper flattening—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Right</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">2.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Left</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">2.25</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Index at upper flattening—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Right</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>60</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Left</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>60.8</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Type shaft at middle—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Right</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Left, near</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The bones, especially the right, are remarkable for their graceful -form and approach to straightness. The linea aspera is high but -not massive or rough.</p> - -<p>Right tibia: Length (?), extremities wanting. A moderate physiological -curvature forward, middle third.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Right tibia"> - <tr> - <td>Diameter antero-posterior at middle, right</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">3.25</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Diameter lateral at middle</td> - <td class="tdc">cm</td> - <td class="tdr">1.95</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Index at middle</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>60</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The bone is distinctly platycnaemic, as the femora are platymeric -and the humeri platybrachic, a harmony of characters which is often -met with in the continental Indian.</p> - - -<h4>ADDITIONAL PARTS</h4> - -<p>These include four ribs, the atlas and two lumbar vertebræ. The -first rib approaches the semicircular in type and is rather large, -indicating a spacious chest. Otherwise there is nothing special.</p> - -<p>A comparison of the long bones of this interesting skeleton with -those of the later Indians from the same and near-by localities as -well as with those of the western Eskimo (see table, p. <a href="#Page_160">160</a>) shows -a number of striking conditions. The length of the bones of the -skeleton is far above the mean of both those of Indians and the -Eskimo, indicating a stature of at least 10 centimeters (4 inches) -higher. In none of their characteristics are the bones near to those -of the Eskimo, making it doubly certain that the subject was not of -that affiliation. Compared with those of the later Indians of the -same territory, the bones show in one line remarkable differences, in -another remarkable likenesses. The differences concern all the relative -proportions of the shafts—the bones of the old skeleton give -without exception indices that are markedly lower; they are distinctly -more platybrachic, platymeric, and platycnaemic. But the -more basic humero-femoral and radio-humeral indices are practically<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> -the same; showing fundamental identity. The humero-femoral -index is especially important in this case. It is exceptionally high in -the Yukon Indians, due to a relatively long humerus, and the same -condition is seen in the old skeleton. It seems safe, therefore, to -conclude that the owner of the old skeleton was not only an Indian -but an Indian of the same physical stock from which were derived -the later Indians of the Yukon; but he was evidently of an earlier -and different tribe or of a purer derivation than those who followed. -To more fully establish and then trace this type, both as to its -derivation and extension, will be tasks of future importance.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="YUKON INDIANS: MAIN LONG BONES"> - <caption>YUKON INDIANS: MAIN LONG BONES<br /> - SEX: MALES<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="4" width="16.7%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2">Paired bones</th> - <th colspan="2">Yukon Indians</th> - <th rowspan="2">Miscellaneous North American Indians</th> - <th rowspan="2">Western Eskimos</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Older skeleton at Bonasila</th> - <th>From Russian times</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Humerus:</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a>(378)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a>(76)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean length</td> - <td class="tdr">35.55</td> - <td class="tdr">31.17</td> - <td class="tdr">31.8</td> - <td class="tdr">30.88</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">At middle—</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Diameter, major</td> - <td class="tdr">2.45</td> - <td class="tdr">2.38</td> - <td class="tdr">2.22</td> - <td class="tdr">2.42</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Diameter, minor</td> - <td class="tdr">1.68</td> - <td class="tdr">1.67</td> - <td class="tdr">1.63</td> - <td class="tdr">1.82</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>66.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>70</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>73.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.2</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Radius:</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(378)</td> - <td class="tdc">(76)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean length</td> - <td class="tdr">n. 27</td> - <td class="tdr">23.61</td> - <td class="tdr">24.7</td> - <td class="tdr">22.85</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Radio-humeral index</td> - <td class="tdr">n. <em>75.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Femur:</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - <td class="tdc"><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a>(902)</td> - <td class="tdc">(84)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean length (bycondylar)</td> - <td class="tdr">48.2</td> - <td class="tdr">41.92</td> - <td class="tdr">42.7</td> - <td class="tdr">42.70</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Humero-femoral index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr">n. <em>72.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr">n. <em>-72</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">At middle—</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Diameter, antero-posterior, maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">3.12</td> - <td class="tdr">2.96</td> - <td class="tdr">2.95</td> - <td class="tdr">3.03</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Diameter, lateral</td> - <td class="tdr">2.57</td> - <td class="tdr">2.58</td> - <td class="tdr">2.58</td> - <td class="tdr">2.71</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.5</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">At upper flattening—</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Diameter, maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">3.60</td> - <td class="tdr">3.25</td> - <td class="tdr">3.27</td> - <td class="tdr">3.37</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Diameter, minimum</td> - <td class="tdr">2.18</td> - <td class="tdr">2.30</td> - <td class="tdr">2.42</td> - <td class="tdr">2.48</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>60.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>70.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>73.5</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tibia:</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - <td class="tdc">(324)</td> - <td class="tdc">(84)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean length</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">34.19</td> - <td class="tdr">36.9</td> - <td class="tdr">33.61</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Tibio-femoral index</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">81.5</td> - <td class="tdr">84.4</td> - <td class="tdr">78.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">At middle—</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Diameter, antero-posterior, maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">3.25</td> - <td class="tdr">3.04</td> - <td class="tdr">3.28</td> - <td class="tdr">3.10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Diameter, lateral</td> - <td class="tdr">1.95</td> - <td class="tdr">2.</td> - <td class="tdr">2.16</td> - <td class="tdr">2.12</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>60</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>66</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>65.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>68.5</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<div class="footnotes"><h5>FOOTNOTES:</h5> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> See also data in writer's "Physical Anthropology of the Lenape," etc., Bull. 62, Bur. Amer. Ethn., -Washington, 1916; and his "Anthropology of Florida," Fla. Hist. Soc. Pub. No. 1, Deland, Fla., 1922.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> These numbers apply to length only; under the other items the numbers are in some cases smaller, in -some larger. The differences are due to defects in some of the old bones.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> See also data on p. <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span></p></div></div> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Yukon Eskimo</span></h3> - - -<h4>THE LIVING</h4> - -<p>As with the Indians farther up the river, the necessities of the -writer's journey did not permit more than visual observations, but -in 1927 Henry B. Collins, jr., succeeded in measuring six adult males -at Marshall.</p> - -<p>In general, the people of the Yukon delta and from this to Paimute -are true Eskimo. By this is meant that in the majority of individuals -they can readily be told as a type apart from the Indian and -belonging plainly to that of the extensive family of the Eskimo. -But when the differences are to be defined the task is not easy; some -of the distinguishing marks, though well appreciated, are somewhat -intangible.</p> - -<p>The physical differences are essentially those of the physiognomy. -The head is neither narrow nor scaphoid, or even very high. The -Indian face is more prominent and more sculptured; that of the -Eskimo appears fuller, especially in the lower part, and flatter. Part -of this is due to the bony structure, part to the differing amounts -of fat. An eversion of the angles of the lower jaw, which is relatively -frequent and sometimes excessive in the Eskimo male while almost -absent in the Indian, may give the Eskimo face almost a square appearance. -Take with this the seemingly somewhat low Eskimo forehead, -the not very widely open and somewhat on the whole more -slanting eye, and the characteristic Eskimo nose with its rather -narrow and not prominent nasal bridge, the ridiculous monk-like cut -of the hair (in the older males), the often rather full lips with, in -the males, a tuft of sparse mustache above each corner of the mouth; -add to all this a mostly smiling or ready-to-smile "full-moon" expression, -and it would be impossible to take the subject for anything -else than an Eskimo. The Indian's face is more set, less fat, in the -males at least, less broad below, with seemingly a higher forehead, -sensibly made-up hair, not seldom a bit more mustache, and a nose -that generally is both broader and more prominent.</p> - -<p>But the differences are less marked in the women and still less so -in the children, especially where similarly combed and clothed. And -there are, particularly on the Yukon, not a few of both Indian and -Eskimo who even an expert is at a loss where to class. They may be -due to old mixtures; no new ones are taking place; but it seems that -there may be present another important factor, that of a far-back -related parentage.</p> - -<p>In the color of the skin and eyes, in the color and nature of the -hair, there is no marked difference between the two peoples of the -Yukon. In stature the Eskimos are slightly higher.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span></p> - - -<h4>MEASUREMENTS ON LIVING YUKON ESKIMO</h4> - -<p>The exact provenience of the six men measured at Marshall is -uncertain, but they seemingly were all from the lower Yukon and -all were apparently full-blood Eskimo. But the measurements are -rather peculiar. They are given, for comparison, with those of the -western Eskimo in general (p. <a href="#Page_165">165</a>). They approach nearest to those -of the Togiak Eskimo, well down below the Kuskokwim. They -show a higher stature than all of their relations farther south, except -the Togiaks, and they have a rounder head. They are, in fact, -moderate brachycephals, a very unexpected form in this strain of -people. The Togiaks also are brachycephalic. The vault is relatively -somewhat higher than it is in the other groups, though the -height is not excessive. The nose is slightly lower as well as narrower -than it is in all the other contingents. The face is close to -those of St. Lawrence Island. The ear is perceptibly smaller and -especially narrower than elsewhere, but perhaps the age factor enters -into the case. The hand is much like that of Togiak and St. Lawrence, -the index being identical.</p> - -<p>The brachycephaly of the group for the present is hard to explain. -It can not be ascribed to a mixture with the river Indians, for these, -as has been seen from the skulls, were meso- rather than brachycephalic. -There is need here for further inquiry.</p> - - -<h4>SKELETAL REMAINS OF YUKON ESKIMO</h4> - -<p>As with the Indian, such remains are still rare. Some measurements -of three "Smithsonian Mahlemute" skulls from the Yukon, -collected by William H. Dall, are given by Jeffries Wyman, and -probably the same specimens appear in the Otis Catalogue, the measurements -in which are regrettably not very reliable. These specimens -can not now be located, and the scarce data are of but little -value. The three skulls examined by Wyman were all mesocephalic.</p> - -<p>It is now possible to report on 40 adult skulls from the lower -Yukon and the delta. An abstract of the measurements is given in -the next table. The data indicate a considerable local variation. -All the skulls, or very nearly all, are mesocephalic; but they differ -considerably in height and in all the facial features. The Pilot -Station group, from the apex of the delta, and hence the midst of -the Eskimo territory on the Yukon, is especially peculiar. Both the -vault and the face, in the series as a whole, range from low to high, -and much the same is true of the height of the nose and that of the -orbits, while the palate is exceptionally broad, giving a low index, -all of which would seem to indicate instability or conditions in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> -change, together probably with admixtures from farther up the -river. We need more material, particularly from the stretch of the -river between the apex of the delta and Paimute.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="YUKON ESKIMO CRANIA"> - <caption>YUKON ESKIMO CRANIA<br /> - UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM:</caption> -<col></col> -<col span="8" width="10%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2"></th> - <th colspan="4">17 males</th> - <th colspan="4">23 females</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Pilot Station</th> - <th>"Lower Yukon"</th> - <th>Kashunok (of Yukon)</th> - <th>Kotlik and Pastolik</th> - <th>Paimute</th> - <th>Pilot Station</th> - <th>Kashunok mouth</th> - <th>Kotlik and Pastolik</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Number of adult skulls</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(18)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Collector</td> - <td class="tdc">——</td> - <td class="tdc"><a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a></td> - <td class="tdc"><a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></td> - <td class="tdc"><a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></td> - <td class="tdc"><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></td> - <td class="tdc">——</td> - <td class="tdc"><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></td> - <td class="tdc"><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Vault:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length</td> - <td class="tdr">18.90</td> - <td class="tdr">18.8</td> - <td class="tdr">18.45</td> - <td class="tdr">18.44</td> - <td class="tdr">18.7</td> - <td class="tdr">17.80</td> - <td class="tdr">18.7</td> - <td class="tdr">17.72</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">15.07</td> - <td class="tdr">14.2</td> - <td class="tdr">14.10</td> - <td class="tdr">13.90</td> - <td class="tdr">14</td> - <td class="tdr">14</td> - <td class="tdr">13.9</td> - <td class="tdr">3.62</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height</td> - <td class="tdr">13.77</td> - <td class="tdr">13.7</td> - <td class="tdr">13.65</td> - <td class="tdr">13.60</td> - <td class="tdp">n. 13.5</td> - <td class="tdr">13.20</td> - <td class="tdr">12.4</td> - <td class="tdr">13.04</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Module</td> - <td class="tdr">15.91</td> - <td class="tdr">15.57</td> - <td class="tdr">15.40</td> - <td class="tdr">15.31</td> - <td class="tdr">15.40</td> - <td class="tdr">15</td> - <td class="tdr">15</td> - <td class="tdr">14.81</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Capacity</td> - <td class="tdr">1,660</td> - <td class="tdr">1,535</td> - <td class="tdr">1,468</td> - <td class="tdr">1,486</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1,442</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1,359</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cranial index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>79.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>78.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.8</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mean height, index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>n. 82.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.2</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Height-breadth, index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>96.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>96.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>97.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>n. 96.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>94.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>95.8</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Face:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Menton-nasion</td> - <td class="tdr">12.40</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">12.67</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">11.90</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">11.82</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Alveolar point-nasion</td> - <td class="tdr">7.85</td> - <td class="tdr">7.1</td> - <td class="tdr">8.25</td> - <td class="tdr">7.78</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">7.40</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">7.49</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Diameter bizygomatic maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">14.97</td> - <td class="tdr">14.4</td> - <td class="tdr">14.25</td> - <td class="tdr">14.13</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">13.47</td> - <td class="tdr">13.90</td> - <td class="tdr">13.26</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Facial index, total</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.4</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.1</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.1</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Facial index, upper</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>52.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>49.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>57.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>56.5</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Orbits:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean height</td> - <td class="tdr">3.58</td> - <td class="tdr">3.55</td> - <td class="tdr">3.80</td> - <td class="tdr">3.67</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3.54</td> - <td class="tdr">3.50</td> - <td class="tdr">3.62</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">4.07</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">3.91</td> - <td class="tdr">3.98</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3.89</td> - <td class="tdr">3.80</td> - <td class="tdr">3.86</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>97.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.3</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>94.1</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nose:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height</td> - <td class="tdr">5.27</td> - <td class="tdr">5.05</td> - <td class="tdr">5.65</td> - <td class="tdr">5.53</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="tdr">5.50</td> - <td class="tdr">5.19</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">2.57</td> - <td class="tdr">2.15</td> - <td class="tdr">2.28</td> - <td class="tdr">2.51</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2.33</td> - <td class="tdr">2.45</td> - <td class="tdr">2.31</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>48.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>42.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>40.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>45.4</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>46.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>44.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>44.5</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Upper alveolar arch:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length</td> - <td class="tdr">5.70</td> - <td class="tdr">5.4</td> - <td class="tdr">5.4</td> - <td class="tdr">5.57</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">5.40</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">5.45</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">7.40</td> - <td class="tdr">6.6</td> - <td class="tdr">6.65</td> - <td class="tdr">6.70</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">6.60</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">6.38</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.4</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.8</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Basi-facial diameters:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Basion-alveolar point</td> - <td class="tdr">10.35</td> - <td class="tdr">n. 10.3</td> - <td class="tdr">10.15</td> - <td class="tdr">10.40</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">10.17</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">10.09</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Basion-subnasal point</td> - <td class="tdr">9.07</td> - <td class="tdr">9.4</td> - <td class="tdr">9.10</td> - <td class="tdr">9.17</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">8.80</td> - <td class="tdr">8.90</td> - <td class="tdr">8.86</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Basion-nasion</td> - <td class="tdr">10.60</td> - <td class="tdr">10.8</td> - <td class="tdr">10.15</td> - <td class="tdr">10.41</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">9.97</td> - <td class="tdr">10.20</td> - <td class="tdr">9.98</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Facial angle</td> - <td class="tdr">70</td> - <td class="tdr">74</td> - <td class="tdr">66</td> - <td class="tdr">68</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">67</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">67</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Alveolar angle</td> - <td class="tdr">55</td> - <td class="tdr">60</td> - <td class="tdr">60</td> - <td class="tdr">52</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">52</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">53</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Height of lower jaw at symphysis</td> - <td class="tdr">3.63</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3.75</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3.67</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3.56</td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<div class="footnotes"><h5>FOOTNOTES:</h5> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Howgate & Schwatka Exp.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Rev. P. I. Delon.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> A. Hrdlička.</p></div></div> - - -<h4>SKELETAL PARTS OF THE YUKON ESKIMO</h4> - -<p>The next table gives the measurements of the long bones in both -sexes in the Yukon Indian (for comparison), in the Yukon Eskimo, -and in the western Eskimo, the latter coming mainly from the coast<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> -south of the Yukon and from the Nunivak and St. Lawrence Islands. -The Yukon Eskimo material, collected from intact burials by the -writer, is unfortunately limited to the northern mouth of the river. -The skeletons from St. Lawrence Island were collected on the -Smithsonian expedition to the place in 1912 by Riley D. Moore, -1927 expedition by H. B. Collins, jr., and T. D. Stewart, all of the -National Museum.</p> - -<p>The Yukon Eskimo show perceptibly longer bones than do either -the Indians or the southeastern and midwestern Eskimo, indicating -a somewhat taller stature.</p> - -<p>The humerus in the males is less broad than either in the Indians -or the midwestern and southwestern Eskimo and has as a consequence -high shaft index; but in the females the index in the Yukon and -western Eskimo series is identical. The radius is relatively even -shorter in the Yukon that it is in the other Eskimo, giving low radio-humeral -index.</p> - -<p>The femur is notably less platymeric in the male and slightly less -so in the female Yukon Eskimo than it is in both the Indians and -the rest of the southwestern and midwestern Eskimo, giving a higher -index at the upper flattening. The meaning of these facts is not -obvious and they may undergo some modification with more material.</p> - -<p>As to strength, measured by the mean diameter of the shafts, the -Yukon Eskimo in comparison to the southwestern and midwestern -show a slightly weaker humerus, and in the males a slightly weaker -femur at middle, but in the males again, a slightly stronger tibia. -If, however, the mean diameters of the bones are taken in relation -to the length of the bones, then in both sexes and in all the parts the -southwestern and midwestern Eskimo are slightly stronger. This -would seem to indicate more exertion, with harder life, among the -coastal and insular than among the river Eskimo. As a matter of -fact Kotlik and the near-by Pastolik, from which our skeletons came, -were favorably situated at the northern mouth of the river.</p> - -<p>The Yukon Eskimo females, as compared with the males, have a -somewhat weaker and especially somewhat flatter humerus, with a -consequently lower shaft index; they have relatively even a shorter -radius, giving a lower radio-humeral index; their humerus itself is -relatively short, giving a lower humero-femoral index; their femur is -relatively somewhat flatter at the upper flattening, giving a lower -index of platymery; while their tibia is relatively less strong antero-posteriorly, -resulting in an index that is more than four points higher -than that of the males.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="YUKON INDIAN, YUKON ESKIMO, AND WESTERN ESKIMO LONG BONES"> - <caption>YUKON INDIAN, YUKON ESKIMO, AND WESTERN ESKIMO LONG BONES<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="6" width="12.5%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2">Paired bones of the two sides</th> - <th colspan="3">Male</th> - <th colspan="3">Female</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Yukon Indian</th> - <th>Yukon Eskimo</th> - <th>Southwestern and midwestern Eskimo</th> - <th>Yukon Indian</th> - <th>Yukon Eskimo</th> - <th>Southwestern and midwestern Eskimo</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Humerus:</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(143)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(136)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean length (right and left)</td> - <td class="tdr">31.17</td> - <td class="tdr">32.10</td> - <td class="tdr">30.69</td> - <td class="tdr">28.12</td> - <td class="tdr">28.31</td> - <td class="tdr">28.40</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">At middle—</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Diameter, major</td> - <td class="tdr">2.38</td> - <td class="tdr">2.83</td> - <td class="tdr">2.40</td> - <td class="tdr">1.90</td> - <td class="tdr">2.07</td> - <td class="tdr">2.10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Diameter, minor</td> - <td class="tdr">1.67</td> - <td class="tdr">1.80</td> - <td class="tdr">1.80</td> - <td class="tdr">1.40</td> - <td class="tdr">1.51</td> - <td class="tdr">1.54</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>70</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>78.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>73.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>73.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>73.2</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Radius:</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(98)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(109)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean length</td> - <td class="tdr">23.61</td> - <td class="tdr">23.44</td> - <td class="tdr">22.90</td> - <td class="tdr">21.10</td> - <td class="tdr">20.18</td> - <td class="tdr">20.50</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Radio-humeral index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>73</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>71.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>72.2</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Femur:</td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - <td class="tdc">(22)</td> - <td class="tdc">(195)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(27)</td> - <td class="tdc">(132)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean length (bicond.)</td> - <td class="tdr">41.92</td> - <td class="tdr">43.78</td> - <td class="tdr">42.50</td> - <td class="tdr">40.15</td> - <td class="tdr">41.11</td> - <td class="tdr">39.36</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Humero-femoral index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>n. 73</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>72.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>73</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>n. 69</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>72.2</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">At middle—</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Diameter antero-posterior maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">2.96</td> - <td class="tdr">3.05</td> - <td class="tdr">3.08</td> - <td class="tdr">2.59</td> - <td class="tdr">2.74</td> - <td class="tdr">2.69</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Diameter lateral</td> - <td class="tdr">2.58</td> - <td class="tdr">2.67</td> - <td class="tdr">2.70</td> - <td class="tdr">2.45</td> - <td class="tdr">2.44</td> - <td class="tdr">2.46</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>94.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.5</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">At upper flattening—</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Diameter, maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">3.25</td> - <td class="tdr">3.31</td> - <td class="tdr">3.35</td> - <td class="tdr">2.84</td> - <td class="tdr">3.02</td> - <td class="tdr">3.02</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Diameter, minimum</td> - <td class="tdr">2.30</td> - <td class="tdr">2.57</td> - <td class="tdr">2.51</td> - <td class="tdr">2.16</td> - <td class="tdr">2.27</td> - <td class="tdr">2.26</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>70.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74.5</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tibia:</td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - <td class="tdc">(22)</td> - <td class="tdc">(141)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(27)</td> - <td class="tdc">(147)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean length (I. A.)</td> - <td class="tdr">34.19</td> - <td class="tdr">35.14</td> - <td class="tdr">33.86</td> - <td class="tdr">31.97</td> - <td class="tdr">32.01</td> - <td class="tdr">31.32</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Tibio-femoral index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>80.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>79.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>79.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>79.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>79.6</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">At middle—</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Diameter antero-posterior maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">3.04</td> - <td class="tdr">3.16</td> - <td class="tdr">3.12</td> - <td class="tdr">2.72</td> - <td class="tdr">2.61</td> - <td class="tdr">2.71</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Diameter, lateral</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">2.15</td> - <td class="tdr">2.12</td> - <td class="tdr">1.82</td> - <td class="tdr">1.90</td> - <td class="tdr">1.89</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>66</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>68.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>67.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>66.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>72.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>69.9</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<div class="footnotes"><h5>FOOTNOTES:</h5> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> See also data on p. <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</p></div></div> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - - - - -<h2>NOTES ON THE ARCHEOLOGY OF THE WESTERN -ESKIMO REGION</h2> - - -<p>Archeological work in the vast area of the western Eskimo is still -in its infancy. Until the 1926 Smithsonian expedition nothing whatever -had been done in this line in the Eskimo parts of the southwestern -coasts of Alaska<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> or on the Kuskokwim or Yukon Rivers.</p> - -<p>Some time between 1877 and 1881 E. W. Nelson made limited excavations -on St. Michael Island<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> (see p. <a href="#Page_170">170</a>) and also dug on Whale -Island.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span></p> - -<p>In 1912 V. Stefánsson excavated at Barrow.<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> Having two months -to spend at this place he engaged numerous Eskimo of the village and -had them excavate the native village sites in the neighborhood. He -says (p. 388): "It was a small army that turned out to dig wherever -there was a ruin or a kitchen midden, and they worked energetically -and well. While the excavations were not done as methodically and -scientifically as could have been wished, still we were able to get from -them a collection of over 20,000 archaeological specimens within the -space of six weeks. This collection (which is now safely stored in -the American Museum of Natural History) brings out many significant -and some revolutionary ideas with regard to the prehistoric -history of the Eskimo. My method was to dig as much as possible -myself, and to go around as best I could to see the others at work. In -many cases I was able to see the exact position from which the important -finds were taken." The specimens have since in part been -described by Wissler.<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> Stefánsson brought also some archeological -specimens from Point Hope, where, however, no excavations were -made; and collected a valuable series of crania from Point Barrow.</p> - -<p>In 1917-19 excavations near Barrow were conducted by W. B. Van -Valin, leader of the John Wanamaker expedition to northwestern -Alaska, for the University Museum at Philadelphia. The excavations -were made in some mounds located about 8 miles southwest of -Barrow and about 1,000 yards back from the beach on the tundra, -and uncovered six old igloos containing, aside from many cultural -objects, the skeletal remains of 83 individuals. These remains have -since been found to be those of an intrusive group of people and to -be of special interest.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p> - -<p>In 1924 Rasmussen during the last parts of his great journey -gathered numerous archeological specimens at Point Hope and from -other localities along the west coasts of Alaska.</p> - -<p>In 1926, finally, the year of my survey, some careful initial excavations, -with very interesting results, were carried on at Wales and -on the Little Diomede Island by Dr. D. Jenness, of the National -Museum of Canada, Ottawa. A preliminary report on the results -of this work has been published in the annual report of the National -Museum of Canada for 1926.</p> - -<p>Besides such more professional work a good deal of archeological -collection has been done in the regions under consideration by local -people, particularly traders and teachers; and the demand for specimens -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>has made assiduous excavators of some of the Eskimo themselves, -particularly at Point Hope and at St. Lawrence Island.</p> - -<p>Beginning with the north, the first white man to be mentioned -in this connection is Charles Brower, the well-known trader at -Barrow. Mr. Brower has not only aided all the explorers who -have reached this northernmost point, but he has also been directly -instrumental in excavating and the making of archeological collections, -though, regrettably, some of these have been scattered.</p> - -<p>During 1925-26 there lived at Point Hope a very active and interesting -man, sent there by the Fox Film Co. to photograph the -Eskimo—Mr. Merle La Voy. La Voy, whom I met at Point Hope -and who for a time became our fellow-passenger on the <em>Bear</em>, had -not only succeeded remarkably in his own line, but had also amassed -during his stay a large archeological collection. He did not excavate -himself, and unfortunately paid no attention to the scientific -side of the case; but by offering the natives sugar, tea, chocolate, -chewing gum, tobacco, etc. in exchange for specimens, he so stimulated -them that they engaged most assiduously in the excavation, or -rather picking over as they thawed, of their old ruins, and brought -him thousands of objects, some of which are of considerable interest. -At the time of my visit there were several barrels full of specimens, -largely of stone and ivory. Skulls and bones, regrettably, were -neglected and reburied in the débris. Later this collection was -transported to San Francisco, where it remains at the date of this -writing, in Mr. La Voy's possession.</p> - -<p>At Kotzebue Mr. Tom Berryman, the trader, has made some collections -of Eskimo archeological material, from which I benefited -for the National Museum; and the local teacher, Mr. C. S. Replogle, -informed me that he had a large collection at his home in the States.</p> - -<p>At Nome I found a valuable lot of specimens in fossil ivory, pottery, -and stone, in the possession of the well-known Lomen brothers, -members of one of the foremost families in Alaska. The best parts -of this collection I was fortunate to secure for exhibit in the United -States National Museum.</p> - -<p>A large and valuable collection of western Eskimo archeological -material was made some years ago by Dr. Daniel Neuman. A part -of this collection is in the museum at Juneau; the whereabouts of -the rest and of Doctor Neuman himself I was unable to discover. -There are several collections of archeological material from the -western Eskimo region at Seattle and San Francisco, but none represents -scientific excavation.</p> - -<p>The names of Joe Bernard, Prof. H. N. Sverdrup, and O. W. -Geist should be mentioned in this connection, all having collected -archeological objects in the western Eskimo region. Many speci<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>mens -of value collected by these men and others are in various -museums or in private hands in Fairbanks, along the west coast or in -Europe.</p> - -<p>My own small part in the archeology of Bering Sea and the northwestern -coast of Alaska was, as already stated, mainly that of making -a survey of conditions. The object was to obtain a good general -view of what there was in the line of archeological sites and remains, -and thus help to lay a foundation for more organized research -in the future. In addition all possible effort was made to -collect and obtain specimens of distinct archeological value. Both of -these endeavors met with results of some importance.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Dall, W. H., and Jochelson, W., made, as is well known, valuable excavations in the -Aleutian Islands; but the Aleuts were not Eskimos. (See Cat. of Crania, etc., U.S.N.M., -1924, 39.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Nelson, E. W., The Eskimo About Bering Strait; Eighteenth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. -Ethn., pt. 1, Washington, 1899, p. 263.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> My Life with the Eskimo, N. Y., 1913, 387, 388. See also his The Stefánsson-Anderson -Arctic Expedition: Preliminary Ethnological Report. Anthrop. Papers -Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., XIV, N. Y., 1914.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Wissler, Clark, Harpoons and Darts in the Stefánsson Collection. Anthrop. Papers -Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., N. Y., 1916, XIV, 401-443.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> See section devoted to this find, p. <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</p></div></div> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Old Sites in the Region of the Western Eskimo</span></h3> - -<p>The shores of the Alaska rivers, the littoral parts of Alaska, the -more northern Bering Sea islands, and those portions of the Asiatic -coast that were once or are still occupied by the Eskimo, are strewn -with "dead" villages and old sites. Many of these dead villages or -sites are historic, having been abandoned, or very nearly so, since -the coming of the whites; some are older, in instances doubtless considerably -older. Collectively they offer a large, almost wholly virginal -and highly important field to American archeology. They -may contain much of the secrets of Eskimo origin and of his cultural, -as well perhaps as physical, evolution. But these secrets are -not to be given up easily. They are held within a perpetually -frozen ground, which on one hand preserves everything, but on the -other will not yield its contents except to assiduous and prolonged -labor.</p> - -<p>Ruined or "dead" villages began to be encountered by the earliest -Russian and other explorers. Beechey (1826) tells us that between -approximately the latitude of Nelson Island and Point Barrow -(60° 34´ to 71° 24´ N.) they noticed 19 (Eskimo) villages, some -of which were very small and consisted only of a few huts, and -others appeared to have been deserted a long time.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p> - -<p>Hooper, in 1884, reports Eskimo ruins on the Asiatic side:</p> - -<p>"Near the extremity of the cape [Wankarem] we found the ruins -of houses similar to those now in use by the Innuits, half underground, -with frames of the bones of whales. Probably they were -former dwellings of Innuits, who for some reason crossed the -straits and attempted to establish themselves on the Siberian side. -These houses have been found by different travelers at many places -along this coast, and various causes assigned for the abandonment -of the attempt to settle here by the Innuits. * * *</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span></p> -<p>"At Cape Wankarem and at other places on the Siberian coast we -found the ruins of houses similar to those now in use by the Innuits. -These houses, which have been found by different travelers at many -places along that coast, are not at all like those used by the Tchuktchis, -which, on account of the migratory habits of the reindeer -tribes, are so constructed that they can be taken down and put up -again at will."<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p> - -<p>Ray and Murdoch both speak of old sites. The very spot they -selected for their observatory at Barrow was one of these. Ray says -of it:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>"A point about 12 feet above the sea level, lying between the sea -and a small lagoon three-fourths of a mile northeast from Uglaamie, -was finally selected. The soil was firm and as dry as any unoccupied -place in that vicinity, and as it was marked by mounds of an ancient -village would be free from inundation."<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a></p></div> - -<p>And farther on:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>"That the ancestors of those people have made it their home for -ages is conclusively shown by the ruins of ancient villages and winter -huts along the seashore and in the interior. On the point where -the station was established were mounds marking the site of three -huts dating back to the time when they had no iron and men 'talked -like dogs'; also at Perigniak a group of mounds mark the site of -an ancient village. It stands in the midst of a marsh; a sinking of -the land causing it to be flooded and consequently abandoned, as -it is their custom to select the high and dry points of land along -the seashore for their permanent villages. The fact of our finding -a pair of wooden goggles 26 feet below the surface of the earth, -in the shaft sunk for earth temperatures, points conclusively to the -great lapse of time since these shores were first peopled by the race -of man."<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p></div> - -<p>The village of Sidaru, southwest of Cape Belcher, which in Ray's -time had a population of about 50, has since gone "dead."</p> - -<p>The most direct attention to this subject has been given by Nelson. -In his excellent large memoir on "The Eskimo about Bering -Strait"<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> he states as follows:</p> - -<p>"Ruins of ancient Eskimo villages are common on the lower Yukon -and thence along the coast line to Point Barrow. On the Siberian -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>shore they were seen from East Cape along the Arctic coast to Cape -Wankarem....</p> - -<p>"On the shore of the bay on the southern side of St. Michael Island -I dug into an old village site where saucer-shape pits indicated the -places formerly occupied by houses. The village had been burned, -as was evident from the numerous fragments of charred timbers -mixed with the soil. In the few cubic feet of earth turned up at -this place were found a slate fish knife, an ivory spearhead, a doll, -and a toy dish, the latter two cut from bark. The men I had with -me from the village at St. Michael became so alarmed by their superstitious -feelings that I was obliged to give up the idea of getting -further aid from them in this place. I learned afterward that this -village had been built by people from Pastolik, at the mouth of the -Yukon, who went there to fish and to hunt seals before the Russians -came to the country.</p> - -<p>"On the highest point of Whale Island, which is a steep islet -just offshore near the present village of St. Michael, were the ruins -of a kashim and of several houses. The St. Michael people told me -that this place was destroyed, long before the Russians came, by a -war party from below the Yukon mouth. The sea has encroached -upon the islet until a portion of the land formerly occupied by the -village has been washed away. The permanently frozen soil at this -place stopped us at the depth of about 2 feet. Here, and at another -ancient Unalit village site which was examined superficially, we -found specimens of bone and ivory carvings which were very ancient, -as many of them crumbled to pieces on being exposed.</p> - -<p>"Along the lower Yukon are many indications of villages destroyed -by war parties. According to the old men these parties -came from Askinuk and Kushunuk, near the Kuskokwim, as there -was almost constant warfare between the people of these two sections -before the advent of the Russians.</p> - -<p>"Both the fur traders and the Eskimo claim that there are a large -number of house sites on the left bank of the Yukon,<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> a few miles -below Ikogmut. This is the village that the Yukon Eskimo say had -35 kashims, and there are many tales relating to the period when it -was occupied. At the time of my Yukon trips this site was heavily -covered with snow, and I could not see it; but it would undoubtedly -well repay thorough excavation during the summer months. One -of the traditions is that this village was built by people from Bristol -Bay, joined by others from Nunivak Island and Kushunuk. One -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span>informant said that a portion of this village was occupied up to -1848, when the last inhabitant died of smallpox, but whether or not -this is true I was unable to learn.</p> - -<p>"Another informant told me that near the entrance of Goodnews -Bay, near the mouth of the Kuskokwim, there is a circular pit about -75 feet in diameter, marking the former site of a very large kashim. -A few miles south of Shaktolik, near the head of Norton Sound, I -learned of the existence of a large village site. Both the Eskimo -and the fur traders who told me of this said that the houses had been -those of Shaktolik people, and that some of them must have been -connected by underground passageways, judging from the ditch-like -depressions from one to the other along the surface of the ground. -The Shaktolik men who told me this said that there were many other -old village sites about there and that they were once inhabited by a -race of very small people who have all disappeared.</p> - -<p>"From the Malemut of Kotzebue Sound and adjacent region I -learned that there are many old village sites in that district. Many -of these places were destroyed by war parties of Tinné from the -interior, according to the traditions of the present inhabitants.</p> - -<p>"On Elephant Point, at the head of the Kotzebue Sound, I saw -the site of an old village, with about 15 pits marking the locations -of the houses. The pits sloped toward the center and showed by their -outlines that the houses had been small and roughly circular, with a -short passageway leading into them, the entire structure having been -partly underground.</p> - -<p>"The Eskimo of East Cape, Siberia, said that there were many -old village sites along the coast in that vicinity. These houses had -stone foundations, many of which are still in place. There is a large -ruined village of this kind near the one still occupied on the cape.</p> - -<p>"On the extreme point of Cape Wankarem, and at its greatest -elevation, just above the present camp of the Reindeer Chukchi, a -series of three sites of old Eskimo villages were found."</p> - -<p>To this, on pages <a href="#Page_269">269</a> et seq., Nelson adds an account of the villages -that "died" on St. Lawrence Island during the winter of 1879-80. -Capt. C. L. Hooper, in the "Cruise of the Corwin in 1881, Notes -and Observations" (published in Washington, 1884, p. 100) gives the -date as 1878-79, and adds further details about these villages.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Beechey, F. W., Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Bering's Strait. Phila., -1832, 474.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> Hooper, C. L., Report of Arctic Cruise of the Revenue Steamer <em>Corwin</em>, 1881. Washington, -1884, 63, 99.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Ray, Lieut. P. H., Report of the International Polar Expedition to Point Barrow, -Alaska. Washington, 1885, 22.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Ray, P. H., Ethnographic Sketch of the Natives. Report of the International Polar -Expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska. Washington, 1885, 37.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Eighteenth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Eth., pt. 1, Washington, 1900, 263 et seq.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> This is the "village of 32 kashims," which I mention in the Narrative and of which -I heard independently (p. <a href="#Page_71">71</a>). The present Eskimo claim that it existed on the right -bank, about 12 miles below Russian Mission (Ikogmut). My visit and subsequently that -of Mr. Chris Betsch, the kind and interested trader at Russian Mission, the latter with -an old Eskimo, failed to definitely locate the site, but further efforts are desirable.</p></div></div> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Present Location of Archeological Sites</span></h3> - -<p>Through personal visits, wherever possible, and through information -from all available sources, an effort was made to locate and -learn the character of as many of the old sites as could be traced. In -this endeavor I was aided by many whose services are hereby gratefully -acknowledged. Especial thanks are due to Captain Cochran<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> -with the officers and men of the <em>Bear</em>, particularly Boatswain H. -Berg; to the Lomen brothers and their esteemed father, at Nome; -to Father B. La Fortune and the Reverend Baldwin at Nome; to -Mr. Sylvester Chance, superintendent of the northwestern district, -Bureau of Education; to Mr. Charles D. Brower, trader at Barrow; -to Mr. Jim Allen, trader at Wainwright; and to Dr. E. P. Walker, -head of the Biological Survey of Alaska. The list to follow, supplemented -by maps, will give in brief the name, location, and description -of the remains.</p> - -<p>The old sites occur, (1) in the form of refuse heaps; (2) as late -village sites, smaller or larger areas of ground covered with mostly -circular elevations and depressions, with occasionally the wooden remains -of igloos or kashims, or only partly ruined dwellings; such -remains are the most common; (3) as old village sites in the form of -a long irregular ridge mound or of more or less separate heaps; -(4) as heaps or "mounds" of individual structures. And as -"passed" sites, covered completely by sand or silt and unknown until -uncovered through the washing away by the sea or rivers of some of -the deposits.</p> - -<p>In addition there are the remains of burial grounds which are -occasionally marked by small low mounds or hummocks produced by -decayed burials that have been more or less assimilated by the tundra. -Stony beaches with chips, implements, etc., such as are found off old -sites on the Yukon, have not been seen in the region now dealt with -in any instance.</p> - -<p>The ruined dwellings and communal houses throughout this region, -with a few minor exceptions, were of one general type. They were -circular, yurta-shaped, semisubterranean structures, with a more or -less subterranean tunnel approach, built of hewn driftwood and -earth. These dwellings, when the wood decays and the dome falls -in, leave characteristic saucer-and-handle-like depressions. But -where such dwellings were close, and especially where they were -heaped up or superimposed on older ones, the remains, together with -the refuse, may form an irregular elevated ridge or a large irregular -mound.</p> - -<p>On the Diomede Islands the dwellings are built of stone, and ruins -of stone houses have been reported to me from inland of the westernmost -parts of the Seward Peninsula. Stone dwellings were also -known on Norton Sound.</p> - -<p>Some of the ridges and heaps, as at Shishmaref, Point Hope, one -of the Punuk Islands, etc., are large and may be up to 15 feet and over -in depth, but mostly the remains are of moderate to small size. The -latter sometimes could easily be confounded with natural formations. -The older remains may superficially be indistinguishable even to an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> -experienced observer; and if there is anything still more ancient, it -lies somewhere in the old sands and beaches where, except through -some fortunate accident, it can not be discovered. Except for their -surface, the remains are generally frozen hard, and no excavation is -possible except through gradual exposure and the melting of layer -after layer by the warmth of the sun or a melting of the ground -with water or by some other artificial means.</p> - -<p>Some at least of these ruins are rich archeologically. They greatly -exceed in this respect a large majority of village ruins and mounds -in the interior of the continent. This appears from their gradual -excavation by the natives at Barrow, Point Hope, St. Lawrence -Island, and elsewhere. The natives have now for many years been -selling thousands of articles thus obtained to traders, teachers, and -crews of visiting vessels. A regular and growing trade detrimental -to archeology is now being carried on in "fossil ivory," which generally -consists of pieces showing human workmanship and occasionally -includes specimens of rare beauty and importance.</p> - -<p>The archeological contents of such old sites as that near Savonga -on the St. Lawrence Island, or those at Wales, Point Hope, Barrow, -etc., are varied, and in instances exceedingly interesting. They comprise -a large variety of objects of stone, ivory, bone, and wood, while -in the more superficial layers are also found occasionally glass beads -or objects of metal. Some ruins, such as those at Point Hope and -Kotzebue, are very rich in stone objects; others, as those at the St. -Lawrence Island, are rich in articles of ivory and bone. Pottery is -generally scarce. Articles of stone comprise mainly points, knives, -adzes, and lamps; those of wood, goggles and masks; of bone, various -parts of sleds, a large assortment of snow and meat picks, and scrapers; -of ivory, barbed points, harpoons, and lance heads, and a large -variety of tools, fetishes, and ceremonial objects; of clay, a few dishes -and pots for culinary purposes. Traces of objects made of whalebone -or even birch bark may also appear.</p> - -<p>The stones used were mainly slate and flint, but there may also -be met with quartz, quartzite, and especially the Kobuk "jade." -The workmanship is as a rule good to excellent. The arrow points -show a number of interesting, not yet fully known, types, the long -blade with parallel sides predominating. The stone lamps and rare -dishes also need further study. The knives all approach the Asiatic -semilunar variety.</p> - -<p>The bones and wooden objects and the pottery from this region -are fairly well covered by the writings of Ray, Murdoch, Nelson, -Rau, Thomas, and others; the masks need further study.</p> - -<p>The most interesting archeological specimens from the region of -the western Eskimo, however, are some of those in "fossil ivory," -the term being applied to walrus ivory that through long lying in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> -the ground has assumed more or less of a pearly yellow, variegated, -sepia-brown or black color. These objects are known as yet very -imperfectly. They are scarce at and especially north of Point Hope, -and again along the west coast south of Norton Sound. Their center -of frequency comprises seemingly the St. Lawrence Island, some -parts of the Asiatic coast, the Diomedes, and parts of the Seward -Peninsula. But they occur at least up to Point Hope, while west -of Bering Strait they are said to appear as far as the river Kolyma.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 520px;"> -<img src="images/figure_12a.jpg" width="520" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Figure 12.</span>—Conventionalized design from -fossil ivory specimen shown in Plate 19</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Some of the objects in fossilized ivory show the well-known Eskimo -art, with geometrical design. But besides these there occur here and -there beautiful specimens, harpoon -heads, figures, needle cases, -etc., which are of the finest workmanship -and which both in form -and design differ from the prevailing -Eskimo types. They are -examples of high aboriginal art; -and their engraved decorative -lines are not geometrical but -beautifully curvilinear. (Fig. -12.) The accompanying illustrations -of specimens I succeeded in -obtaining from different sources -will show the nature of this art. -(Pls. 19-26.) Isolated specimens -of this nature have been secured -before by Nelson, Neuman, Sverdrup, -Stefánsson, and others. -Jenness in 1926 dug out a few -from the old sites at Wales. -There are several in the Museum -of the American Indian in New York. But the largest and best -collection of these remarkable articles is now that of the United -States National Museum.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p> - -<p>The large fossil ivory figure (20.3 cm. maximum length, pl. 26) -collected by Mr. Carl Lomen and now in the National Museum is of -special interest. It comes from the Asiatic side. It is a handsomely -made piece, belonging in all probability to the high fossil ivory -culture. Its peculiarity is the bi-bevel face, a face made by two -planes rising to a median ridge. It is so far a unique specimen of -its kind. But with the aid of Mr. H. W. Krieger, curator of -ethnology, United States National Museum, we found similar bi-beveled -faces in wooden figures from northeast Asia, in wooden -Eskimo masks from the Yukon, and in wooden ceremonial figures -from Panama. The latter are shown herewith. (Pl. 27.) The -whole presents evidently a nice problem for the archeologist and -student of culture.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 418px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 19</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_19a.jpg" width="418" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Terminal Piece of a Lance or Harpoon. Northern Bering Sea</span></p> - -<p>Black, high natural polish. Most beautiful piece of the fossil ivory art. (A. H., 1926, U.S.N.M.)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 224px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 20</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_20a.jpg" width="224" height="700" alt="" /> -<img src="images/plate_20b.jpg" width="183" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fossil Ivory Specimens Showing the Old Curvilinear Designs. -Northern Bering Sea</span></p> - -<p>(A. H. coll., 1926, U.S.N.M.)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 21</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_21a.jpg" width="700" height="574" alt="" /> - -<img src="images/plate_21b.jpg" width="700" height="697" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Objects Showing the Old Fossil Ivory Art. Northern -Bering Sea</span></p> - -<p>(U.S.N.M., Nos. 1 and 3, coll. A. H., 1926.)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 22</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_22a.jpg" width="700" height="452" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fossil Ivory Needle Cases and Spear Heads, Northern Bering Sea, Showing Fine Workmanship</span></p> - -<p>(A. H. coll., 1926, U.S.N.M.)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 23</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_23a.jpg" width="700" height="550" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>a</em>, Small, finely made objects in fossil ivory and stone (the head), from the ruins at Port Hope -(A. H. coll., 1926.)</p></div> - -<img src="images/plate_23b.jpg" width="700" height="596" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>b</em>, Old fossil ivory objects, northern Bering Sea. The article to the right is almost classic in form; -it is decorated on both sides. (A. H. coll., 1926, U.S.N.M.)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 24</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_24a.jpg" width="700" height="412" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fossil Ivory Combs. Upper Bering Sea</span></p> - -<p>(A. H. coll., 1926)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 25</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_25a.jpg" width="700" height="422" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fossil Ivory Objects From the Upper Bering Sea Region. Transitional Art</span></p> - -<p>(Museum of the Agricultural College, Fairbanks, Alaska.)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 445px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 26</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_26a.jpg" width="445" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Old Black Finely Carved Fossil Ivory Figure, From the Northeastern -Asiatic Coast</span></p> - -<p>(Loan to U.S.N.M. by Mr. Carl Lomen.)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 27</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_27a.jpg" width="700" height="455" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Wooden Figurines From a Medicine Lodge, Choco Indians, Panama</span></p> - -<p>(U.S.N.M. colls.)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 488px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 28</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_28a.jpg" width="488" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p>Top: Manche de poignard en ivoire, avec sculpture représentant un renne. Montastruc (Peccadeau -de l'Isle; in de Quatrefages (A.), Hommes fossiles, Paris, 1884, p. 50)</p> - -<p>Left: Two beautiful knives of fossil mammoth ivory lately made by a Seward Peninsula Eskimo. -(Gift to the U.S.N.M. by A. H., 1926.)</p> - -<p>Right: Two old ceremonial Mexican obsidian knives.</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span></p> - -<p>I had further the good fortune to secure, through the kindness of -Reverend Baldwin, two handsome and remarkable knives from -fossil mammoth ivory. These knives were said to have been made -recently by the Eskimo of the Seward Peninsula. They are shown in -Plate 28. They each bear on the handle a nicely carved crouching -animal figure. With them are shown, somewhat more reduced, two -probably ceremonial knives from Old Mexico; and also the handle -of a late palaeolithic poignard from France, illustrated by De -Quatrefages.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> Regarding the latter form we read the following in -Mortillet:<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> "D'autres poignées de poignard, faites dans des données -pratiques et artistiques analogues, ont été recueillies dans diverses -collections. Les plus remarquables sont deux poignées en ivoire -trouvées par Peccadeau de l'Isle, à Bruniquel. L'une se rattachait à -la lame, comme dans la pièce précédente, par le train de derrière; -l'autre, au contraire, par la tête." Knives with similar crouching -animal figures on the handle are being made by the King Islanders.</p> - -<p>Here, evidently, is one more interesting problem for the archeologists.</p> - -<p>The art shown by these objects, the conventionalization, and -especially the decorations, appear to show affinity on one hand to -deeper eastern Asia and on the other to those of the American northwest -coast and even lower. This may prove to mean much or little. -The fact that these specimens establish beyond question is that at one -time and up to a few hundreds of years ago there existed in the lands -of the northern Bering Sea native art superior to that existing -there later and at the present, and comparable with the best native -Siberian or American.</p> - -<p>The meaning of this fact seems to me to be of importance. The -evidence suggests, aside from other things, that American cultural -developments may after all not have been purely local or even -American, but that they may, in part at least, have been initiated or -carried from Asia. In view of these and other recent developments -it seems rational to consider that America may have been peopled -by far eastern Asiatic groups that not merely carried with them -differences in language and physique but also in some cases relatively -high cultural developments. But these for the present are mere -hypotheses.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span></p> - -<p>There is no definite indication as yet that the people of the high -fossil ivory art in the northern Bering Sea and neighboring parts -were any others than the ancestors of the Eskimo. The skeletal remains -from these regions, as will be shown later, rather support -this view. But those ancestors may not yet have represented the -characteristic present type of the people. Here, too, nothing definite -can be said before the results of sufficient scientific excavations -become available.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> MacCurdy described the first specimen of this kind in 1921 as "An Example of Eskimo -Art," in Amer. Anthrop., vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 384-385. See also Collins (H. B., jr.), Prehistoric -Art of the Alaskan Eskimo, Smith. Misc. Coll., vol. 81, No. 14, 52 pp., Washington, -1929.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Quatrefages, A. de., Hommes fossiles et hommes sauvages. Paris, 1884.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> Mortillet, G. de., Le préhistorique origine et antiquité de l'homme. Paris, 1900, -206-207.</p></div></div> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Sites and Villages</span></h3> - -<p>The location of the western Eskimo villages has received more or -less attention by most of the explorers in their region from the -Russian time onward; but such efforts are generally limited to the -living villages in the area visited by the observers.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the earliest Russian map of value in this connection on -the Bering Sea region is that which I find in Billings and Gall's -Voyage or "Putěshestvie" of 1791, printed in St. Petersburg 1811. -The map bears no date, but is evidently quite early. It gives three -villages on the western point and north coast of the Seward Peninsula, -namely Kiemile (later Nykhta, now Wales), Chegliukh, and -Tykiak. (Pl. 29.)</p> - -<p>The most notable and valuable of the Russian contributions to this -subject is that of Zagoskin. This refers to the period of 1842-1844 -and is contained partly in his "Peshechodnaia Opis," etc. (St. -Petersburg, 1847), but especially on his maps. There are, I find, -two of these maps—the "Merkatorskaia Karta Časti Sieverozapadnago -Berega Ameriky" and the "Merkatorskaia Generalnaia Karta -Časti Rossijskich Vladěnii v Amerikě." I came across the first in -one copy of Zagoskin's invaluable account, which should long ago -have been translated into English, and the other in another copy. -Part of the second is here reproduced. (Pl. 30.) Both bear the -statement that they were made by Zagoskin as the result of his explorations -on the Yukon in 1842-1844. The second ("general") map -is much the clearer and richer. Both maps, but especially the second, -give a good number of villages, especially about Norton Sound and -along the southern shore of Seward Peninsula. The orthography -differs somewhat on the two charts.</p> - -<p>The Tebenkof Atlas of 1849 includes a remarkably good map of the -St. Lawrence Island. As on other Russian maps it gives the Punuk -Islands, that later are lost by most map makers, and indicates the -location of what probably were all the living settlements of that -time, except on the Punuk. (Fig. 27.)</p> - -<p>Finally, in 1861, Tikhmenief, in his "Istoričeskoie Obozrenie" -(history of Russian America) gives a detailed map with many locations -of Eskimo villages.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span></p> - -<p>The Aleutian Islands and Kodiak are excellently dealt with by -Veniaminof and also Tikhmenief, though little special attention is -given to the location of the settlements.</p> - -<p>None of the Russian explorers, regrettably, report verbally on the -deserted sites or ruins. But their registration and location of many -villages that have since become "dead" is of much historical as -well as anthropological value.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<img src="images/figure_13a.jpg" width="700" height="418" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Figure 13.</span>—World map</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Of later and particularly American authors who gave attention to -the location of the western Eskimo settlements, the foremost is E. W. -Nelson. Beginning in 1877 with the St. Michael Island and ending -with the cruise of the <em>Corwin</em> in 1881, Nelson made trips down the -coast to the Kuskokwim, up the Yukon to Anvik, over the Bering -Sea, the St. Lawrence Island and parts of the Chukchee Peninsula, -and finally, with the <em>Corwin</em>, along the northern coasts to Point Barrow. -And these journeys were devoted largely to biological and -ethnological observations and collections, the latter including the -location of the western Eskimo habitations of that time. His locations -are given on the accompanying map (fig. 15) taken from his -classic memoir, "The Eskimo about Bering Strait," published in 1900 -in the Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology. -This memoir contains a section of "Ruins" (pp. 263-266), a -brief account of the recently dead villages on St. Lawrence Island -(p. <a href="#Page_269">269</a>), and an instructive section on Eskimo burials (pp. <a href="#Page_310">310</a>-322). -Nelson brought also the first more substantial collection of Eskimo -crania.</p> - -<p>The next deserving man in these connections is Ivan Petrof. Of -Russian-American extraction, Petrof was charged in 1880 with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> -census enumeration of the natives in Alaska, and he later published<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> -a valuable report on his work, together with detailed demographic -data and a map on which are given all the living settlements of his -time. Nelson's map is partly based on Petrof's data.</p> - -<p>Since Nelson and Petrof but little has been done in this field. -But the maps of these two observers have been utilized more or less -by the map makers of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, -the Geological Survey, and other Government agencies concerned -with Alaska. The result is that some of these charts are exceptionally -useful to the anthropological explorer in Alaska; nevertheless -the data they carry are incomplete and the locations or names -are not always exact, a good many of the villages shown are now -dead, and old ruins, as usual, have received no attention.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<img src="images/figure_14a.jpg" width="700" height="493" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Figure 14.</span>—Dall's map of the distribution of the tribes of Alaska and adjoining -territory, 1875</p></div> -</div> - -<p>A very valuable supplement to all the maps has in 1902 been -published by the United States Geological Survey. It is the -Geographic Dictionary of Alaska, by Marcus Baker. This -volume, besides brief but serviceable historical data, gives in -alphabetical order nearly all the then-known names of localities in -Alaska, including those of the Eskimo and Indian settlements; and -each name is accompanied by brief but in many instances most -helpful information. This highly deserving volume, indispensable -to every student of Alaska, has for many years been out of print, -but it is understood that a new revised edition is slowly being -prepared.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 29</span><br /></p> -</div> -<a href="images/plate_29a_full.jpg"><img src="images/plate_29a_thumb.jpg" width="400" height="362" alt="" /></a> -<div class="caption"><a href="images/plate_29a_full.jpg"><span class="smcap">Billings and Gall's Map of Bering Strait and Neighboring Lands,</span> -1811</a></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 30</span><br /></p> -</div> -<a href="images/plate_30a_full.jpg"><img src="images/plate_30a_thumb.jpg" width="400" height="353" alt="" /></a> -<div class="caption"><a href="images/plate_30a_full.jpg"><span class="smcap">Eskimo Villages and Sites. Norton Sound and Bay and Seward -Peninsula, and the Kotzebue Sound, from Zagoskin's General Map</span>, -1847</a></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 502px;"> -<img src="images/figure_15a.jpg" width="502" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Figure 15.</span>—Nelson's map. (Eighteenth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn., 1898)</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Other useful publications in these connections are the United -States Coast Pilots of Alaska, the various accounts of travelers, explorers, -and men in collateral branches of science (geology, biology,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> -etc.), the publications of the Alaska Division of the United States -Department of Education, the annual reports of the Governor of -Alaska, and the decennial reports on Alaska of the United States -Census.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 518px;"> -<img src="images/figure_16a.jpg" width="518" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Figure 16.</span>—Linguistic map, United States census, 1920</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The object of the following notes and data is some measure of -usefulness to future anthropological and archeological workers in -Alaska. They are surely incomplete and very imperfect, yet they -may be of some service.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span></p> - -<p>Archeological and anthropological research in the highly important -western Eskimo region is bound to develop in a not far distant -future; for this is the region through which in all probability -America was peopled. It is this region that promises to solve the -problem of the antiquity of the Eskimo and may throw much light -upon the origin of these people, and one that, as shown, above, has -begun to reveal highly interesting old cultural conditions. And it -is a region in which destruction of the remains by nature, but most -so recently by the natives themselves, proceeds at an alarming pace.</p> - -<p>The information on which these notes and the accompanying -charts are based has been obtained largely from the Russian and -other maps, from local traders, teachers, missionaries, and natives, -and from a few explorers.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> Only in a minority of cases was it -possible to visit the places in person; to have visited all would have -been a task of pleasure, but would have required a staunch boat of -my own and at least three full seasons.</p> - -<p>Many of the sites to be given are now "dead" and there may be -several old sites in the vicinity of a living village. Others combine -ruins with present habitations. Still others are partly or even wholly -abandoned a part of the year when the inhabitants go camping or -hunting, and are partly or wholly occupied during the rest of the -year. Finally, there are some new settlements, with modern dwellings -and ways, and their number will increase, the Eskimo taking -kindly to civilization and individual property.</p> - -<p>The data to be given here are limited to the Eskimo territory -in southwestern and western Alaska, leaving out those in Siberia -where much is uncertain. Due to the uncertainties of the Prince -William Sound region they will begin with Kodiak Island. There -are also on hand, principally due to Dr. E. P. Walker, numerous -locations of old sites and villages in the Indian parts of southern -and southeastern Alaska, but these will best be reserved for another -occasion.</p> - -<p>The Eskimo area will be roughly seen from the accompanying map -published on the basis of the enumeration by the Fourteenth United -States Census of 1920. A very great part of the territory allotted -to the Eskimo, as well as that of the Indian, is barren of any population<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> -or its traces; the divisions represent the hunting grounds or -grounds claimed by each people, not an occupied territory. The data -will be given in south-to-north order.</p> - -<p>Nearly all the settlements in these regions are now, and have -evidently always been, on the shores of the seas and bays, as close -to the water as safety would permit. A few villages and sites occur -also, however, on inland lakes and rivers. The favored locations -have been an elevated flat near the mouth of a fresh-water stream -or the outlet of a lagoon, a sufficiently elevated spit projecting into -the sea, or an elevated bar between the sea and an inland lake. The -essentials were an elevated flat, a supply of fresh drinking water, -and a location favorable for fishing and hunting; if there was some -natural protection, so much the better. There were no inland settlements -except on the lakes and rivers. In a few cases, as at the -Kings and the Little Diomede Islands, very difficult locations were -occupied only because outweighed by other advantages.</p> - -<p>Caves throughout the occupied region north of the Aleutian chain -are absent, and there was therefore no cave habitation.</p> - -<p>None of the settlements were very large, though a few were much -larger than others. They ranged from one or two family camps -or houses to villages of some hundreds of inhabitants. A large majority -of the settlements had from but two or three to approximately -a dozen families.</p> - -<p>There were two main types of dwellings, the semisubterranean -sod houses for the winter and the skin tents for summer. In some -places the two were near each other; in others the summer dwellings -were in another and at times fairly distant locality.</p> - -<p>The "zimniki" (in Russian) or winter houses were throughout -the region of one general type. They were fair-sized circular semisubterranean -houses, made of driftwood and earth, and provided -with a semisubterranean entrance vestibule. Their remains are characterized -everywhere by a circular pit with a short straight trench -depression, the same pot-and-handle type as found along the Yukon. -Rarely for the construction of the houses, where driftwood did -not suffice, recourse was had to whale ribs and mandibles. The -"letniki," or summer houses, were constructed on the surface of -wood, sod and skins, or of whale ribs and skins, approaching on one -hand the summer huts of various continental tribes and on the other -the "yurts" of the north Asiatic peoples. The "kashims," or communal -houses, were built, much as on the Yukon, like the family -dwellings, but occasionally quadrilateral and much larger. Smaller -semisubterranean storage houses of driftwood and sod near the -winter dwellings were seemingly general.</p> - -<p>Ruins of stone dwellings, without mortar, are said to exist in -places on Norton Sound and Bay and on a lagoon near the western<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> -end of the Seward Peninsula. The few houses on the Little Diomede -are made of loose unhewn stone slabs. The dwellings of the King -Islanders are built on the rocky slope of the island on platforms supported -by poles, all of driftwood.</p> - -<p>There is as a rule an absence of separate refuse heaps near the -villages. The refuse apparently has been dumped about and between -the houses rather than on separate piles.</p> - -<p>Dead villages abound. On consulting the older Russian records, -however, it is seen that nearly all were still "living" as late as the -early forties of the last century. Yet there are sites that were -"dead" already when the Russians came, and the accumulations in -other cases denotes a long occupation.</p> - -<p>The site of a dead village, in summer, is generally marked by -richer and greener vegetation; same as on the Yukon. The site -itself is usually pitted or humped in a line forming a more or less -elevated ridge, or the pits may be disseminated without apparently -much order. And there may be irregular mound-like heaps without -external traces of any structure.</p> - -<p>In the older sites no trace of wood is visible; in the later rotten -posts, crosspieces, parts of the covering of the house or tunnel, or even -a whole habitation may be present. In the old sites the wood is -hewn with stone axes; in the later it is sawed, and there may be nails.</p> - -<p>Older accumulations lie occasionally beneath more recent ones, -though no interruption of continuity may be traceable. Of a superposition -of villages no trace was observable.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> Tenth Census, <span class="smcap">VIII</span>; reprinted in Compilation of Narratives of Explorations in Alaska. -U. S. Senate Rept. 1023, Washington, 1900, 55-281.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> I am especially indebted to the two maps of Zagoskin (one prepared by himself, one -from his data); to the 1849 Russian map of the St. Lawrence Island; to the various maps -of the U. S. Geological Survey and the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey; to the maps and -data of W. H. Dall, E. W. Nelson, and Ivan Petrof; to the various reports of the <em>Corwin</em> -and other voyages in the Bering Sea and the western Arctic; to the Geographic Dictionary -of Alaska, by Marcus Baker, and to the U. S. Coast Pilots of Alaska; to the data of the -Alaska Division, U. S. Department of Education; to Dr. E. P. Walker, of the Biological -Survey; to Father La Fortune, the Reverend Baldwin, and to Mr. Carl J. Lomen at Nome; -to Mr. Sylvester Chance, superintendent in 1926 of the schools of the Kotzebue district; -to Messrs. James Allen at Wainwright and Charles Brower at Barrow; and to numerous -other friends who aided me in this direction.</p></div></div> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Burial Grounds</span></h3> - -<p>Due to the impossibility of digging sufficiently deep into the frozen -ground the western Eskimo buried their dead near or on the surface -or among rocks. Occasionally they utilized also, it seems, old dwellings -for this purpose, and in more recent times at least the surface -burials, wherever there was driftwood, would be protected by heavy -rough-hewn planks put together in the form of boxes or by driftwood. -They bear close fundamental resemblance to those of the -Yukon. On the Nunivak Island occur graves made of rough stone -slabs piled up without much order. (Pl. 31, <em>a</em>, <em>b</em>.)</p> - -<p>Throughout the region the burials were located near the village, -but the distance varied according to local conditions and habits. In -some of the Eskimo villages of the lower Yukon, as at Old Hamilton, -some burials were close to the houses of the living. In the Bering -and Arctic regions the burial grounds, though sometimes of necessity -not far from the houses, as at the Little Diomede, in other places, -as at Point Hope and Barrow, were at a distance extending to beyond -a mile and a half from the village.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span></p> - -<p>As a rule the wood of burials older than about 80 years was found -fully decayed with the bones secondarily buried. Of earlier burials -there is generally no trace on the surface, but on excavation skeletal -remains are found at various depths below the surface. These characteristic -self-burials, or rather tundra burials, may prove of much -importance to anthropology in the future. As outlined before (see -Narrative, pp. <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>) the process is a decay of the wood; the sagging -down of the bones, covered more or less by the decayed material; an -encroachment of moss or other vegetation on the little mound thus -produced; and gradual accumulation through wind or water carried -materials of more covering over the bones, until the mound disappears -and the remains, generally still in good condition, are buried -as if intentionally inhumed.</p> - -<p>The Eskimo everywhere were found to be exceedingly sensible -about the older, and even recent, skeletal remains, and assisted readily -in their collection, as well as in excavation, offering thus the best -possible conditions for anthropological and archeological work in -these regions.</p> - -<p>The notes, charts, and a detailed list of the sites and villages follow. -In numerous cases it was found impossible to say whether a -site was completely "dead" or still occasionally partly occupied, so -that distinctive markings had to be abandoned.</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Prince William Sound, Kodiak Island, Alaska Peninsula</span></h3> - -<p>Very largely still a terra incognita for anthropology and archeology. -Partly occupied by Indians (Prince William Sound, Kodiak -Island?), partly by mix-blood Aleut (parts of Peninsula, and of -Kodiak), partly by Eskimo. There is but little skeletal or archeological -material from the whole extensive territory.</p> - - -<h4>KODIAK ISLAND AND NEIGHBORHOOD<br /> - -[<span class="smcap">Fig. 17</span>]</h4> - -<p>1. <em>Litnik</em> (probably the Russian "Lietnik," the name for a summer -village).—Indian village on Afognak Bay, Afognak Island. -This name is found on a map made by the Fish Commission in 1889. -Apparently it is the Afognak of other maps (G. D. A.).<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p> - -<p>2. <em>Afognak.</em>—On the southwestern part of Afognak Island. Village -or row of scattered dwellings on shore of Afognak Bay, in -southwestern part of Afognak Island. Population in 1890, 409. -(G. D. A.) According to Walker, "an important, occupied native<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> -village which has probably been occupied for a long time. No doubt -there are other native villages in this immediate vicinity."</p> - -<p>3. <em>Spruce Island.</em>—Ouzinkie, or Uzinki; an occupied native village -and cannery. (E. P. W.).<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 540px;"> -<img src="images/figure_17a.jpg" width="540" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Figure 17.</span>—Villages and sites on Kodiak Island</p></div> -</div> - -<p>4. <em>Eagle Harbour or Ugak Bay.</em>—Possibly the native village -"Orlova" of the Russians. (G. D. A.)</p> - -<p>5. <em>Kiliuda.</em>—Native village, on the north shore of Kiliuda Bay, -Kodiak. Has been generally written Killuda. (G. D. A.)</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span></p> -<p>6. <em>Nunamiut.</em>—Native village, on the shore of Three Saints Harbor, -Kodiak. (G. D. A.) Better known locally as Three Saints -Bay. There was formerly an old native and Russian settlement at -this point and vicinity, and fishing operations are frequently now -conducted here. (E. P. W.)</p> - -<p>7. <em>Kaguyak.</em>—Village, at Kaguyak Bay, on the southwestern shore -of Kodiak. It may be identical with the Kaniag-miut of the Russian-American -Co., in 1849. (G. D. A.) An old native village at -present occupied by only one or two families. Possibly an old -site. (E. P. W.)</p> - -<p>8. <em>Aiaktalik.</em>—Village on one of the goose islands, near Kodiak. -Population in 1890, 106. (G. D. A.) An occupied native village -consisting of about a dozen houses, but which has probably been -occupied for a long time. (E. P. W.)</p> - -<p>9. <em>Akhiok.</em>—Native village on the northern shore of Alitak Bay, -Kodiak. Native name from Petrof, 1880. Apparently identical -with Oohaiack of Lisianski in 1805. (G. D. A.) An occupied native -village consisting of about a couple of dozen houses. This or possibly -other villages in the vicinity have undoubtedly been occupied -for a long time. It is possible that there was a native settlement at -Lazy Bay near this point, for Lazy Bay was formerly a native headquarters -for sea otter hunting. (E. P. W.)</p> - -<p>10. <em>Karluk.</em>—Village at mouth of Karluk River, Kodiak. Native -name from the Russians. (G. D. A.)</p> - -<p>11. <em>Uyak.</em>—Bay indenting the northwestern coast of Kodiak; also -a village. Native name from the Russians. Lisianski, 1805, spells it -Oohiack and the village Ooiatsk. Petrof, 1880, writes it Ooiak. Has -also been written Uiak. (G. D. A.)</p> - -<p>12. <em>Larsen Bay.</em>—A cannery has been located at this point for a -number of years, and there is an old native trail from Larsen Bay -to Karluk River, so presumably natives have frequented this section -and no doubt have at some time had settlements there. Definite -information regarding this is not available. (E. P. W.)</p> - -<p>13. <em>Uganik.</em>—Native village at head of Uganik Bay. Shown by -Lisianski, 1805, who spells it Oohanick. (G. D. A.) An occupied -native village and one which has apparently been in use for a considerable -period. (E. P. W.)</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h5>FOOTNOTES:</h5> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> G. D. A.: Geographic Dictionary of Alaska, by Marcus Baker, U. S. Geol. Surv., Washington, -1902.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> E. P. W.: Dr. E. P. Walker.</p></div></div> - - -<h4>ALASKA PENINSULA<br /> - -[<span class="smcap">Figs. 18, 19</span>]</h4> - -<p>Native settlements or old villages at one or more points in Kamishak -Bay, Ursus Cove, or Iliamna Bay are reported, but there is -nothing definite on the subject. (E. P. W.)</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span></p> - -<p>14. <em>Iliamna.</em>—An occupied native village, and undoubtedly there -are various village sites on Iliamna Lake regarding which information -could be obtained from parties in Iliamna. (E. P. W.)</p> - -<p>15. <em>Ashivak.</em>—Native village (population 46 in 1880), near Cape -Douglas, Cook Inlet. Native name reported by Petrof in 1880. -(G. D. A.)</p> - -<p>16. <em>Kayayak.</em>—Village, on Svikshak Bay, Shelikof Strait, about -25 miles southwest of Cape Douglas. Tebenkof, 1849, has Kaiaiak -settlement, which has on many charts appeared as Kayayak. -(G. D. A.)</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 696px;"> -<img src="images/figure_18a.jpg" width="696" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Figure 18.</span>—Villages and sites on the proximal half of Alaska Peninsula</p></div> -</div> - -<p>17. <em>Kukak.</em>—Native village on Kukak Bay. Lütke, 1835, has -Koukak Bay and village. (G. D. A.)</p> - -<p>18. <em>Katmai.</em>—Village, on Katmai Bay, Shelikof Strait, northwest -of Kodiak. This is one of the most important of the native villages. -Population in 1880, 218; in 1890, 132. (G. D. A.) A native village -which was occupied up to the time of the Katmai eruption but was -abandoned at that time. (E. P. W.)</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span></p> - -<p>19. <em>Cold Bay.</em>—Small village.</p> - -<p>20. <em>Kanatak.</em>—A native village consisting of about half a dozen -houses until in 1922, when oil activity in the vicinity caused a small -white settlement to locate at this point. This, however, has since -been almost entirely abandoned by whites. (E. P. W.)</p> - -<p>21. <em>Kuiukuk.</em>—Small village.</p> - -<p>22. <em>Chignik.</em>—Fishing station on Chignik Bay, Alaska Peninsula. -Population in 1890, 193. (G. D. A.) There are three canneries in -this immediate vicinity, a number of natives, and undoubtedly some -native villages and probably old village sites. (E. P. W.)</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<img src="images/figure_19a.jpg" width="700" height="545" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Figure 19.</span>—Villages and sites on the distal half of Alaska Peninsula</p></div> -</div> - -<p>23. <em>Kaluiak.</em>—Native village, on the southern shore of Chignik -Bay, Alaska Peninsula. So given by Petrof in 1880 and the Fish -Commission in 1888. (G. D. A.)</p> - -<p>24. <em>Mitrofania.</em>—An old native village which has recently been -abandoned or practically abandoned; was apparently a rather important -village at one time. (E. P. W.)</p> - -<p>25. <em>Perryville.</em>—A recently established native village consisting of -natives from various points along the Alaska Peninsula who were -moved there primarily by the Bureau of Education since the Katmai -eruption. (E. P. W.)</p> - -<p>26. <em>Kujulik.</em>—Walker has been informed that there is an old village -site of that name either in this bay or on Kumlik.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span></p> - -<p>27. Old village mentioned on this island; uncertain.</p> - -<p>28. <em>Wosnesenski.</em>—An old village site on this island reported. -(E. P. W.)</p> - -<p>29. <em>Pavlof.</em>—Rev. D. Hotvoitzky, of Belkofski, informed Walker -that there is a very old abandoned village site at the head of this bay.</p> - -<p>30. <em>Belkofski.</em>—Bay, cape, and village on south coast of Alaska -Peninsula. Named, by the Russians as early as 1835 and probably -earlier. (G. D. A.) The most important occupied native village on -the Alaska Peninsula. Quite an old village and a former headquarters -for sea-otter hunting. (E. P. W.)</p> - -<p>31, 32. <em>Morzhovoi.</em>—Native village at western end of Alaska -Peninsula. Named Morzhovoi (Walrus) by the Russians. Variously -spelled. There are or were two villages, one called Old Morzhovoi, -the other New Morzhovoi, being about 12 miles apart. Old Morzhovoi -was at the head of Morzhovoi Bay; New Morzhovoi is on -Traders Cove, which opens into Isanotski Strait. The Greek church -here is named Protassof, and Petrof, 1880, called the settlement -Protassof. (G. D. A.) An occupied native village. The natives -from this village also live during the canning season at the cannery -in False Pass directly across the strait from Morzhovoi and at Ikatan -a short way to the south. (E. P. W.)</p> - -<p>33. <em>Herendeen.</em>—Walker has been informed that there are some -shell mounds or kitchen middens about this bay. Walter G. Culver, -formerly an employee of the Bureau of Education, but who is at -present in Anchorage in care of the Alaska Railway, can give information -regarding this and can also give information regarding most -of the other native villages along the Alaska Peninsula. (E. P. W.)</p> - -<p>34. <em>Port Moller.</em>—Eskimo site somewhere in this vicinity; name -and exact location uncertain.</p> - -<p>35. <em>Unangashik.</em>—A native village, or portage, near Port Heiden.</p> - -<p>36. <em>Meshik.</em>—A village on Port Heiden.</p> - -<p>37. <em>Ugashik.</em>—A native village on the Ugashik River. Reported -by Petrof, 1880.</p> - -<p>38. <em>Igagik (or Egegik).</em>—A village at the mouth of the Egegik -River.</p> - -<p>39. <em>Kiniak (or Naknak, or Suvorof).</em>—A village (of "Aleuts," -Sarichef) at mouth of Naknak River, Bristol Bay, south side.</p> - -<p>40. <em>Pawik (or Pakwik).</em>—Eskimo village, at mouth of Naknak -River, Bristol Bay, north side.</p> - -<p>41. <em>Kogiunk.</em>—Eskimo village at mouth of Kvichak River, Bristol -Bay. Native name, reported in 1880 by Petrof, who spelled it Koggiung. -(G. D. A.)</p> - -<p>42. <em>Lockanok.</em>—Small village.</p> - -<p>43. <em>Kashanak.</em>—Small old village.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span></p> - -<p>44. <em>Kvichak.</em>—Old Eskimo village on river of same name between -Kvichak Bay and Iliamna Lake.</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Bristol Bay to Cape Romanzof</span></h3> - -<p>From the northern part of Bristol Bay to Cape Romanzof a -partial survey of the coast was made in 1927 by Collins and Stewart -(U. S. National Museum Expedition). In these regions and on -the Nunivak Island it was possible to locate a series of villages -some of which are still "living," others in ruins. In the late -seventies of the last century, as stated before, the coast between -Kuskokwim Bay and St. Michael Island was visited and its villages -recorded by Nelson. A detailed archeological survey of this coast -remains for the future. Doctor Romig, formerly a medical missionary -at Bethel, told me of a number of old sites on the river. -Some notes of interest by T. D. Stewart are given in the details. -Mr. F. W. Bundy, for a time my companion on the <em>Bear</em>, told of -an old site on the Kuskokwim. In March, 1927, H. W. Averill, -writing from Bethel, tells of a deep-lying old site on the southern -coast of the Kuskokwim Bay. (See details.) And later the same -year Father Philip I. Delon, of the Holy Cross Mission, sent in -three skulls from Kashunuk, in the Yukon delta, with information -of much additional material in that locality.</p> - -<p>45. <em>Nushagak.</em>—Old Russian post, "Alexandrovsk." Eskimo village, -a few whites; a number of old native sites scattered about -head of Nushagak Bay.</p> - -<p>46. <em>Ekuk.</em>—Eskimo settlement near the mouth of Nushagak River. -Name from Lütke, 1928, who spelled it Ekouk. Has also been written -Yekuk. (G. D. A.)</p> - -<p>46a. Reported site of Eskimo village.</p> - -<p>47. <em>Ualik.</em>—Native village, on the western shore of Kulukak Bay, -Bristol Bay, Bering Sea. Given by Petrof, 1880, as Ooallikh and -by Spurr and Post as Oallígamut; i. e., Oallik people. (G. D. A.)</p> - -<p>48. <em>Togiak.</em>—Old Eskimo settlement.</p> - -<p>49. <em>Ekilik.</em>—Possibly the same as Togiakmute, reported in 1880 -by Petrof. Eskimo village on the west bank of Togiak River, -about 10 miles from its mouth. Eskimo name obtained by Spurr -and Post, in 1898, who write it Ekilígamut; i. e., Ekilik people.</p> - -<p>50. A small Eskimo village.</p> - -<p>51. <em>Mumtrak.</em>—Eskimo village at head of Goodnews Bays, Bering -Sea. Population in 1890, 162. Name from Petrof, 1880, who -spelled it Mumtrahamute. (G. D. A.) Visited 1927 by Collins -and Stewart; collections.</p> - -<p>52. Site of a village, at junction of Bessie Creek and Arolic -River.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span></p> - -<p>53. <em>Arolik.</em>—A village. H. W. Averill of Bethel writes me under -date of March 3, 1927, as follows: "I am sending you some old stone -pieces that came from the Aralic River, a tributary of the lower -Kuskokwim River, that were washed up by a bend in the river from -an old village that is now 6 feet underground."</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 582px;"> -<img src="images/figure_20a.jpg" width="582" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Figure 20.</span>—Eskimo villages and sites on Nushagak Bay to Kuskokwim Bay</p></div> -</div> - -<p>54. <em>Kwinak.</em>—Eskimo village on the eastern shore of Kuskokwim -Bay, at the mouth of the Kwinak or Kanektok River, Bering Sea. -So given by Sarichef, 1826, and Tebenkof, 1849. Petrof, 1880, writes -it Quinehahamute, or, omitting the termination <em>mute</em>, meaning <em>people</em>, -it would be Quene-a-ak. (G. D. A.)</p> - -<p>55. <em>Apokak.</em>—Eskimo village on the eastern shore of Kuskokwim -Bay, at the mouth of Apoka River. According to Nelson, 1878-79,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> -its native name is Apokagamute; i. e., Apokak people. In the -Eleventh Census, 1890, it is called Ahpokagamiut. (G. D. A.)</p> - -<p>56. <em>Eek.</em>—Eskimo village at mouth of Eek River.</p> - -<p>57. <em>Akiak.</em>—Eskimo village on the right bank of the Kuskokwim, -about 30 miles above Bethel. Petrof, 1880, wrote its name Ackiagmute; -i. e., Akiak people. Spurr and Post, 1898, write Akiagmut, -following Missionary J. H. Kilbuck. (G. D. A.) Reindeer camps -in vicinity.</p> - -<p>58. <em>Bethel.</em>—White and Eskimo settlement and mission at or near -the old Eskimo village Mumtrelega.</p> - -<p>59. <em>Napaiskak.</em>—Eskimo village on the left bank of the Kuskokwim, -about 4 miles below Bethel. According to Nelson, 1878-79, its -native name is Napaskiagamute, and according to Missionary Kilbuck, -1898, it is Napaiskagamut; i. e., Napaiskak people.</p> - -<p>60. <em>Old sites.</em>—Mr. Bundy, my companion for a time on the <em>Bear</em>, -gives the following details: "Specimens found about 12 miles below -Bethel, Alaska, at the mouth of the Kuskokwim River, beneath -about 10 or 12 feet of alluvial soil deposits of sand and clay.</p> - -<p>"Mr. Jack Heron, of Bethel, first noted the presence of old implements, -and upon returning with him about August 1, 1923, we -found the river had cut into the bank quite a bit and had brought to -view, after the high waters had receded, additional specimens.</p> - -<p>"Those found included: A large copper kettle of perhaps 8 gallons -capacity of early Russian pattern, several arrowheads of slate -or dark gray flint, and two spearheads of bone with several broken -knife blades of slate and one or two small ivory ornaments resembling -birds."</p> - -<p>61. <em>Napakiak.</em>—Eskimo village on the right bank of the Kuskokwim, -about 10 miles below Bethel. Nelson, 1878, reports the -native name as Napahaiagamute. (G. D. A.)</p> - -<p>62. <em>Kinak.</em>—Eskimo village on right bank of the lower Kuskokwim. -Visited by Nelson in January, 1879, who reported its native -name to be Kinagamiut; i. e., Kinak people. Its population was at -that time about 175. Population in 1880, 60; 1890, 257. (G. D. A.)</p> - -<p>63. Village site (?).</p> - -<p>64. <em>Kuskovak.</em>—Eskimo village, on the right bank of the Kuskokwim -River, near its mouth. Name from Nelson, who passed near -it in January, 1879, and who writes it Kuskovakh. (G. D. A.)</p> - -<p>65. <em>Popokak.</em>—Native village.</p> - -<p>66. <em>Kulvagavik.</em>—Eskimo village, on the western side of Kuskokwim -Bay, Bering Sea. Visited by Nelson in January, 1879, and -its native name reported by him to be Koolvagavigamiut. (G. -D. A.)</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span></p> - -<p>67. <em>Kongiganak.</em>—Eskimo village (of about 175 people in 1878) -on north shore of Kuskokwim Bay. Visited by Nelson in December, -1878. (G. D. A.)</p> - -<p>68. <em>Anogok.</em>—Eskimo village, on the mainland shore just west of -Kuskokwim Bay, Bering Sea. Visited by Nelson in December, 1878. -(G. D. A.)</p> - -<p>69. <em>Chalit.</em>—Eskimo village, of about 60 people in 1878, on left -bank of the Kuguklik River, northwest of Kuskokwim Bay. Visited -by Nelson in December, 1878. (G. D. A.)</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<img src="images/figure_21a.jpg" width="700" height="578" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Figure 21.</span>—Eskimo villages and sites, Kuskokwim Bay to Scammon Bay</p></div> -</div> - -<p>70. <em>Chichinak.</em>—Eskimo village on the mainland, east of Nunivak -Island, Bering Sea. Visited by Nelson in December, 1878. -(G. D. A.)</p> - -<p>70a. Old village site.</p> - -<p>71. <em>Sfaganuk.</em>—Eskimo village, on the mainland, east of Nunivak -Island, Bering Sea. Visited by Nelson in December, 1878. -(G. D. A.)</p> - -<p>72. <em>Agiukchuk.</em>—Eskimo village, on the mainland, east of Nunivak -Island, Bering Sea. Visited by Nelson in December, 1878. -(G. D. A.)</p> - -<p>73. <em>Kashigaluk.</em>—Eskimo village, on Nelson Island, Bering Sea. -Visited by Nelson in December, 1878. (G. D. A.)</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span></p> - -<p>74. <em>Kaliukluk.</em>—Eskimo village, on Nelson Island, near Cape Vancouver, -Bering Sea. Visited by Nelson in December, 1878. -(G. D. A.)</p> - -<p>74a. Old village site.</p> - -<p>75. <em>Tanunak.</em>—Eskimo village, at Cape Vancouver, Nelson Island, -Bering Sea. Name from Nelson, who visited it in December, 1878. -Visited 1927 by Collins and Stewart; collections.</p> - -<p>75a. Village site.</p> - -<p>76. <em>Ukak.</em>—Eskimo village, in the Yukon Delta, on shore of Hazen -Bay. Visited by Nelson in December, 1878, and its name reported -by him as Ookagamiut; i. e., Ukak people. Petrof, 1880, calls it -Ookagamute. (G. D. A.)</p> - -<p>77. <em>Unakak.</em>—Eskimo village, in the Yukon Delta, near Hazen -Bay. Nelson, who visited it in December, 1878, reports its name -to be Oonakagamute; i. e., Unakak people. Petrof, 1880, calls it -Oonakagamute. (G. D. A.)</p> - -<p>78. <em>Kvigatluk.</em>—Eskimo village, in the Big Lake country, between -the Yukon and Kuskokwim. Nelson in 1879 passed near it and reports -its name to be Kvigathlogamute. (G. D. A.)</p> - -<p>79. <em>Nunochok.</em>—Eskimo village, in the Big Lake region. Visited -by Nelson in January, 1879, who reports its native name to be -Nunochogmute; i. e., Nunochok people.</p> - -<p>80. <em>Nanvogaloklak.</em>—Eskimo village, in the Big Lake country. -Visited by Nelson in January, 1879. Population in 1880, 100; in -1890, 107. (G. D. A.)</p> - -<p>81. <em>Nash Harbor.</em>—Living village, Nunivak Island; school; Collins -and Stewart, 1927, anthropometric data, collections (also from -other parts of island).</p> - -<p>82. <em>Koot.</em>—Village, Nunivak Island, near Cape Etolin; partly occupied. -Population in 1890, 117.</p> - -<p>83. <em>Inger.</em>—(In Eleventh Census: Ingeramiut.) Dead village, in -southeast part of Nunivak Island. Population, 1890, 35.</p> - -<p>84. <em>Kvigak</em> (<em>or Kwik</em>).—Dead village, southern part of Nunivak -Island.</p> - -<p>85. <em>Tachikuga.</em>—Dead village, Nunivak Island, below Cape -Mohican.</p> - -<p>86. <em>Kashunuk.</em>—Eskimo village; some collections; skeletal material -in vicinity reported 1927 by Father Delon, of the Holy Cross -Mission, Yukon.</p> - -<p>87. <em>Askinuk.</em>—Eskimo village on the southern shore of Hooper -Bay, Yukon Delta. Native name, from Nelson. Population 1878, -200. (G. D. A.)</p> - -<p>87a. Village site.</p> - -<p>88. <em>Agiak.</em>—Eskimo village on promontory north of Hooper Bay.</p> - -<p>88a. Village site.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span></p> - -<p>89. <em>Igag.</em>—Small village.</p> - -<p>90. <em>Kut</em> (<em>Kutmiut</em>).—Small village on Kut River, head of Scammon -Bay.</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Cape Romanzof to Northern (Apoon) Pass of the Yukon and -Northward</span></h3> - -<p>On this coast there is little information since the time of Nelson. -There are a number of occupied villages as well as of old sites. The -region is bleak and the Eskimo there are reported to live miserably.</p> - -<p>The principal Eskimo villages and sites along the lowermost -branch of the Yukon have been given previously. (Fig. 11.)</p> - -<p>From the northernmost pass of the Yukon to St. Michael Island -the coast is poor in Eskimo remains. A site of interest here is the -old camping ground, with a few permanent houses, of Pastolik, and -there are two small sites farther up the coast. Pastolik to the -writer's visit was still occasionally occupied by a few Eskimo families. -There are only three houses, but a relatively large and old -cemetery speaks of a larger population, probably camping here in -tents during the summer seasons of the past. The burial grounds -were found to be rather extensive and give indications of containing -human bones as well as artifacts below the present surface (buried -by the tundra). The main part of the burial grounds may well -repay an excavation.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">St. Michael Island.</span>—Eskimo remains exist on the northeastern -point of the island beyond the present white man's village, and also -on the rock (Whale Island) opposite this point. During my visit -the ground was so overgrown by high weeds that details were -hidden. On this same northeastern point near the extension of the -white settlement is a small living Eskimo village, most of the inhabitants -of which are now of mixed blood. Across St. Michael -Bay are said to be some old traces of Eskimo, and Nelson reported -an old site in the southern part of the island. Finally at Cape -Stephens, in the western extremity of the island, there is "Stebbins," -another living village. Nothing could be learned of any human -remains on the opposite Stuart Island.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Norton Sound.</span>—North of St. Michael Island is Norton Sound -and Norton Bay. Along the east coast of the Sound there are three -villages still occupied, but with old accumulations. It is reported -that in this region there are some ruined houses in which mammoth -tusks had been used in the construction, but nothing definite could -be learned as to the location of these houses and the whole may be -but a story. The village of Unalaklik was of importance in the -past and its older remains would probably repay excavation. Old<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> -sites are reported from the vicinity of Shaktolik and at Cape -Denbigh.</p> - -<p>The Norton Bay region (fig. 22), now almost depopulated, had in -1840 a whole series of moderate-sized living Eskimo settlements, both -on the east and the west shore. These shallows are but little visited, -and it is probable that the remains of the villages and some at least of -the skeletal material of their burying grounds are well preserved. -They call for early attention.</p> - -<p>To the west of Norton Bay, on the southern coast of Seward -Peninsula, is Golovnin<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> Bay. On the eastern shore of this bay -are now, as there were in Russian times, two settlements, but the -name of one has been misplaced. On Zagoskin's map it is clearly -seen that the village Ching or Chinig corresponds in location to -what now is the mission, while what is now called "Cheenik" was -in 1840 Ikalik or Ikalikhaig. There will soon be seen another -instance of such a misapplication of the original names.</p> - -<p>To the west Golovnin Bay is bounded by a large promontory ending -in Rocky Point. To the east of this point is a shallow bay, -where I found a late Eskimo house and on the elevated shore a little -to the left four fairly recent adult burials. Farther down the bay -was an Eskimo camp, without signs of anything older; but Zagoskin's -map gives a settlement, probably also a camp, at this place, -named Knikhtak. From this a rocky point projects eastward into -the bay. Behind this point is a shallow cove with elevated ground -above the beach, and at the inland end of this bay I found the remains -of a small old village. Traces of burials were seen on the elevated -ground but skeletal remains were absent.</p> - -<p>On the southwestern shore of the promontory that bounds Golovnin -Bay on the west the Russians (Zagoskin) recorded two villages, -the one near to Rocky Point being Chiukak, that on a point farther -northwest being named Chaimiut. Later the name Chiukak became -applied to the former Chaimiut, while Chiukak proper was dead and -forgotten. On latest maps, such as Chart 9302 United States Coast -and Geodetic Survey, neither of the old names appears. The name -Bluff denotes a small settlement in about the location of the former -Chaimiut. Some Eskimo met in Golovnin Bay said that there are -skeletal remains near the original Chiukak, but an attempt to reach -the place failed through rough water.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> This is the correct orthography. See Russian maps.</p></div></div> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">South Shore of Seward Peninsula West of Bluff</span></h3> - -<p>A number of dead villages are found along this coast. The first -and largest is located a few miles west of Port Safety, 18 miles east<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> -of Nome. This was a large village extending for a considerable -distance along the elevated beach separating an inland lagoon from -the sea. The depressions of the dwellings, of the usual dipper-with-handle -type, are very plain. Old settlers at Nome remember when -the village was still occupied. Nearer the sea the beach is said to -have been lined with burials, but the storm of 1913 took or covered -everything. (See Narrative, p. <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.)</p> - -<p>A small Eskimo settlement existed on a rocky elevation east of -Cape Nome. There are some house sites, but the place gives little -promise of archeological importance. We found evidence that the -site must have been occupied until fairly recently. Among the -bowlders were found two skeletons.</p> - -<p>A larger dead village is located near the mouth of a little stream -west of Cape Nome. It is doubtless the Azachagiag of the Zagoskin -general map. It gives no great promise archeologically.</p> - -<p>From Nome to Point Spencer there are several old sites, all -"dead"; and there are one or two recently "dead" villages on Sledge -(the old Aiak or Aziak) Island. Of the coast sites, the most important -is reported to be that at Cape Woolley. It is said to have been -the stopping point of the King Islanders and may have been their -old mainland village.</p> - -<p>A number of old sites and burial grounds have been seen or learned -of in Port Clarence and Salt Lake. They are marked on the map, -and those of the lake have been discussed in the Narrative (p. <a href="#Page_117">117</a>). -Those on Salt Lake (Imuruk Basin) deserve attention.</p> - -<p>Between Port Clarence and Cape Prince of Wales only one, and -that evidently not a very large site, was learned of at Cape York.</p> - -<p>The most important site of the peninsula region is doubtless that -at the cape. Thanks to the able local teacher of that time, Mr. Clark -M. Garber, I am able to present a detailed map of this locality. It -is here that Doctor Jenness in 1926 conducted some excavations with -interesting results. But the site has barely been touched. It is the -nearest point to Asia. There are ample indications that it has been -occupied for a long period and by relatively large numbers of people. -Besides the ruined parts and old heaps there are still the skulls and -bones of many burials among the rocks about the village, and there is -evidence that more are in the ground. It is one of the chief sites of -the far northwest for systematic thorough exploration, and such exploration -is a growing necessity for all branches of anthropology -interested in the problems of the Bering Sea and Asiatic-American -connections.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span></p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Scammon Bay, Norton Sound, South Coast of Seward Peninsula, -to Cape Rodney</span><br /> - -[<span class="smcap">Fig. 22</span>]</h3> - -<p>91. <em>Melatolik.</em>—A small coast village.</p> - -<p>92. <em>Bimiut.</em>—A small coast village.</p> - -<p>93. <em>Kwikak.</em>—Eskimo village on the outer coast in the Yukon -Delta, a little south of the mouth of Black River. Native name, from -the Coast Survey, 1898, which gives it as Kwikagamiut. (G. D. A.)</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 657px;"> -<img src="images/figure_22a.jpg" width="657" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Figure 22.</span>—Eskimo Villages and sites, Scammon Bay to Norton Sound and Bay to -Cape Rodney</p></div> -</div> - -<p>94. <em>Kipniak.</em>—Eskimo village and Coast Survey tidal station at -mouth of Black River in the Yukon Delta. Nelson, 1879, reports -its name to be Kipniaguk and Dall writes it phonetically Kip-nai-ak. -(G. D. A.)</p> - -<p>95. <em>Kogomiut.</em>—A small village.</p> - -<p>96. <em>Waklarok.</em>—A small village.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span></p> - -<p>97. <em>Nunamekrok.</em>—A small village.</p> - -<p>97a. <em>Eleutak.</em>—A small settlement.</p> - -<p>98. <em>Nilak.</em>—A small village.</p> - -<p>99. <em>Kwikluak.</em>—A small village near the mouth of the Kwikluak -Pass of the Yukon, south bank.</p> - -<p>100. <em>Alakanuk.</em>—A small settlement.</p> - -<p>101. <em>Kwiguk.</em>—A village on Kwikluak Pass of the Yukon, north -bank.</p> - -<p>102. <em>Kwikpak.</em>—Village near mouth north bank of pass of same -name, Yukon River.</p> - -<p>103. <em>Nakhliwak.</em>—A small village, occupied part of time, about 2 -miles from mouth of Apoon Pass, Yukon; visited by the writer; small -skeletal collection.</p> - -<p>104. <em>Kotlik Point.</em>—A store and Eskimo camp (summer) at mouth -of Apoon Pass, north bank. (A. H.)</p> - -<p>105. <em>Pastolik.</em>—Four Eskimo houses, occupied winter. Extensive -burial ground near. Collections, A. Hrdlička. Good prospects for -excavation in burial places.</p> - -<p>106. <em>Pikmiktalik.</em>—Eskimo village, near the mouth of Pikmiktalik -River, about 30 miles to the south of St. Michael, western Alaska. -(G. D. A.)</p> - -<p>106a. <em>Pastoliak.</em>—A site near mouth of next small stream to the -north. A few houses. Some burials.</p> - -<p>107. <em>St. Michael and Whale Island.</em>—Old sites, northeast end of -St. Michael and on Whale Island, opposite. A small living village -near the point of the main island, mostly mix bloods. (A. H.)</p> - -<p>107a. Dead village. Nelson reports it had been peopled by the -Pastolik Eskimo ("Eskimo about Bering Strait," p. 263).</p> - -<p>108. <em>Stebbins.</em>—A living Eskimo village at Cape Stephens.</p> - -<p>110. <em>Golsova.</em>—A small camp at mouth of river of same name.</p> - -<p>111. <em>Unalakleet</em> (<em>or Unalaklik</em>).—Important old Eskimo village, -Norton Sound; western end of portage to Yukon. Population in -1880, 100; in 1890, 175.</p> - -<p>112. <em>Shaktolik.</em>—Eskimo village, at mouth of Shaktolik River, -Norton Sound. Population in 1880, 60; in 1890, 38. (G. D. A.) -Old settlement; several old sites in this region.</p> - -<p>113. <em>Nuklit.</em>—Eskimo village, on the eastern shore of Norton -Sound, immediately behind Cape Denbigh. (G. D. A.) Originally -given on Zagoskin's general map. (A. H.)</p> - -<p>113a. <em>Tapkhalik.</em>—Old village on east shore of Norton Bay.</p> - -<p>114. <em>Unakhtuglig or Unagtulig.</em>—Originally given on Zagoskin's -general map. (A. H.)</p> - -<p>115. <em>Kviguk.</em>—Eskimo village, on north shore of Norton Bay, at -mouth of the Kviguk River. Eskimo name, from the Russians.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> -Tikhmenief, 1861, has Kviegmiut and Kvieguk-miut; i. e., Kviguk -people. (G. D. A.) Originally on Zagoskin's general map.</p> - -<p>116. <em>Kvig-miut.</em>—Old village, above the preceding; originally on -Zagoskin's general map.</p> - -<p>117. <em>Kvinkhak</em> (<em>now Inglestat</em>).—Old village at head of Norton -Bay. Originally on Zagoskin's general map.</p> - -<p>118. <em>Tulukhtulig</em> (<em>at or near Elim</em>).—Old village on west coast -of Norton Bay.</p> - -<p>119. <em>Atnik.</em>—Old village below the preceding.</p> - -<p>120. <em>Camp</em> (<em>Reindeer</em>).</p> - -<p>121. <em>Chinig.</em>—Old village at or near the site of present mission; -name now erroneously applied to village at Point Golovnin.</p> - -<p>122. <em>Ikalikhvig.</em>—Present Cheenik, at Point Golovnin.</p> - -<p>123. Old site; located 1926 (A. H.); a moderate-sized village; -not promising for excavation.</p> - -<p>124. <em>Knikhtak.</em>—Originally on Zagoskin's general map; now a -camp, no old remains in evidence; a house and four burials on same -shore, 2 miles farther south; collection (A. H.).</p> - -<p>125. <em>Chiukak.</em>—Dead village; on Zagoskin's general map; some -skeletal material remaining; name now applied to a village farther -up the coast.</p> - -<p>126. <em>Chaimiut.</em>—Dead village; originally on Zagoskin's general -map; name belonged to village nearer the point.</p> - -<p>127. <em>Ukvikhtulig.</em>—Dead village at Topkok Head; originally on -Zagoskin's general map.</p> - -<p>128. Dead village, 18 miles east of Nome, near Port Safety. -(A. H.)</p> - -<p>129. <em>Azachagiag.</em>—Dead village, west of Cape Nome; originally -on Zagoskin's general map.</p> - -<p>130. <em>Nome.</em>—Probably small native village at this site in the past. -Now principal white settlement in western Alaska. King Island, -Diomede, and some Wales natives reside on the outskirts during -summer.</p> - -<p>131. <em>Aziak Island</em> (<em>Sledge Island</em>).—Two dead villages; the principal -one at the northern point of the island. Visited by Collins, -1928. Collections.</p> - -<p>132. <em>Sinuk.</em>—Small old site.</p> - -<p>133. <em>King Island</em> (<em>Ukiook</em>).—Old village, still occupied in winter; -in summer inhabitants live at Nome.</p> - -<p>133a. A village site at Cape Woolley; said to be the stopping place -of the King Islanders.</p> - -<p>134. Dead sites.</p> - -<p>135. Burials.</p> - -<p>136. <em>Siniak.</em>—Now a Lutheran Mission for the Eskimo.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 462px;"> -<img src="images/figure_23a.jpg" width="462" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"> - - -<ul><li>·LEGEND·</li> -<li>1 U·S· PUBLIC SCHOOL·</li> -<li>2 PRESBY MISSION·</li> -<li>3 <span class="smcap">SITE of ANCIENT VILLAGES·</span></li> -<li>I <span class="smcap">UMIAKS or SKIN BOATS·</span></li> -<li>X <span class="smcap">FOOD and SKIN CACHES·</span></li> -<li>✛ NATIVE CEMETERIES·</li> -<li>O <span class="smcap">IGLOOS or INNIES·</span></li> -<li>⬛ FRAME BUILDINGS·</li> -<li>·1927·</li> -</ul> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figure 23.</span>—Eskimo villages and sites, Wales. (By Clark M. Garber, 1927)</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span></p> - -<p>137. <em>Teller.</em>—Old Eskimo site; some still live here with, a few -whites. A few Eskimo camps along Tuksuk Channel.</p> - -<p>138. <em>Salt Lake</em> (<em>Imuruk Basin</em>).—Ruins seen on north shore. -(A. H.)</p> - -<p>139. Old sites near eastern end of lake; a Chukchee-Eskimo battlefield -in vicinity. (A. H.)</p> - -<p>140. Old village site on the St. Marys River.</p> - -<p>141. Burials reported.</p> - -<p>142. <em>Wales.</em>—Old Nykhta, Zagoskin's maps; see special description; -collections.</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Northern Shore of the Seward Peninsula</span></h3> - -<p>This shore is but little known to science. It is dangerous of approach -to any except small boats. The only place that could be -visited by me was Shishmaref, a good-sized thriving Eskimo village, -on both sides of which along the sea are remains of old sites with -burials. The more important old settlement was that to the east -of the village. Here are found large and extensive heaps, the tops -of which have recently been leveled for fox cages, the whole site -belonging, regrettably, to a newly established fox farm. It is an -old site, though probably occupied up to white man's times, and -is doubtless of some importance. Excavations would still be possible, -as the bulk of the remains is intact; and though the surface skeletal -material has been removed (part saved for our collections), there are -indications of surface burials (assimilations by the tundra) in the -ground.</p> - -<p>Between Wales and Shishmaref are several dead sites, as shown -on the map, and some of them, judging from the information obtained, -are of promise. One of these settlements, "Tapkhaig," was -evidently still a living village at the time of Zagoskin (1840).</p> - -<p>Northeast and east of Shishmaref the coast is known even less than -that to the west. A few miles off Shishmaref I saw from a distance—the -boat could not approach nearer—what to all appearances was a -large ridge of ruins, and from various maps and other sources information -was obtained of several other sites, all of which represent -former villages. From one of these sites on the Bucknell River Mr. -Carl Lomen secured a fine piece of fossil ivory carving, and the site -is said to be of much promise. The whole coast is a virgin field for -archeology.</p> - -<p>143. <em>Mitletukeruk.</em>—Old village site. Visited by Collins, 1928; -collections.</p> - -<p>144. <em>Tapkhaig or Ekpik.</em>—Old village site, originally shown in -Zagoskin's general map.</p> - -<p>145. <em>Sinrazat.</em>—Old site.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span></p> - -<p>146. <em>Karatuk or Shishmaref.</em>—Living village, with ruins on both -sides. Visited by A. H.; collections.</p> - -<p>147. <em>Kividlow.</em>—Old site.</p> - -<p>148. Old site reported.</p> - -<p>148a. <em>Siuk.</em>—Old site.</p> - -<p>149. Old site (?).</p> - -<p>150. <em>Paapkuk.</em>—Old site.</p> - -<p>151. <em>Deering.</em>—Recent settlement, but old sites probable in vicinity.</p> - -<p>151a. <em>Kualing.</em>—Old village, now long dead, shown by Zagoskin. -(General map.)</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<img src="images/figure_24a.jpg" width="700" height="559" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Figure 24.</span>—Eskimo villages and sites, Seward Peninsula, Kotzebue Sound, and Arctic -Coast, to Kevalina</p></div> -</div> - -<p>152. <em>Kiwalik.</em>—A village at mouth of river of same name.</p> - -<p>153. Dead villages reported on the two promontories; promising -archeologically. On Elephant Point Nelson saw the site of an old -village "with about 15 pits marking the locations of the houses." -(Eskimo of Bering Strait, 264.)</p> - -<p>153a. Buckland River. Camp sites.</p> - -<p>153b. Old village site.</p> - -<p>154. Old whaling place, occupied summers only. (S. Chance.)</p> - -<p>155. <em>Selawik.</em>—Old village. Old igloos and camps at various -places in the Selawik Basin. (S. Chance.)</p> - -<p>156. Camps. (S. Chance.)</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span></p> - -<p>156a. <em>Chilivik.</em>—A village, now long dead, shown on the general -map of Zagoskin.</p> - -<p>157. Fish camps. (A. H.)</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Kotzebue Sound, Its Rivers and Its Coast Northward to Kevalina</span></h3> - -<p>Figure 24 shows the village sites that it was possible to locate in -these regions. Nearly all these are now "dead villages," though some -Eskimo may still occasionally camp in their vicinity. A large -present settlement of the Eskimo, well advanced toward civilization, -is found at Kotzebue, and fish camps extend from here along the -shore in the direction of Cape Blossom. Another important recent -living village and school center is Noorvik on the lower Kobuk -River.</p> - -<p>Inquiries as to old sites in this region were greatly assisted by Mr. -Sylvester Chance, at the time of my visit the supervisor of the Government -schools of the district. At my request and with the aid -of the natives Mr. Chance has compiled a list of such sites and -settlements as could still be remembered, and the information has -been incorporated into these records.</p> - -<p>Among the more important ruins of this vicinity are apparently -those at and near Cape Krusenstern, and again those near Kevalina -farther to the northward. Archeological specimens of considerable -interest were seen and partly secured from both localities. The old -Kevalina especially should receive early attention, for it is being -excavated by the Eskimo of the present village, though fortunately -this is at some distance.</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Seward Peninsula, Kotzebue Sound, and Northward</span></h3> - -<p>158. <em>Kotzebue.</em>—Old name: Kikikhtagiuk. (Zagoskin, general -map.) A small white with a large Eskimo settlement. Old burials -in ground (assimilated). A. H. collections.</p> - -<p>159. <em>Noorvik.</em>—White and native village; school center.</p> - -<p>160. <em>Oksik.</em>—Old camp, still occupied. (S. Chance.)</p> - -<p>161. <em>Kiana.</em>—Old village, still occupied. (S. Chance.)</p> - -<p>162. <em>Shesoalik.</em>—Old camp, still occupied in summer. (S. Chance.)</p> - -<p>162a. <em>Kubok.</em>—Old village shown on general map of Zagoskin.</p> - -<p>163. <em>Aniyak.</em>—Old camp, still occupied. (S. Chance.)</p> - -<p>164. Old site reported here; said to be promising archeologically.</p> - -<p>165. <em>Tikizat.</em>—Eskimo village, at Cape Krusenstern, Arctic Ocean. -Eskimo name, from Petrof, 1880, who reported a population in that -year of 75.</p> - -<p>166. <em>Kiligmak.</em>—Old camp, still occupied.</p> - -<p>167. <em>Noatak.</em>—A living village.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span></p> - -<p>168. Old camp, exact location not certain. (S. Chance.)</p> - -<p>169. <em>Matthew or Aniyak.</em>—Old camp.</p> - -<p>170. <em>Ottala.</em>—Camp, occupied. (S. Chance.)</p> - -<p>171. Old site reported; exact location (?).</p> - -<p>172. Old site, rich archeologically, exact location undetermined; -small collection. (A. H.)</p> - -<p>173. <em>Kevalina.</em>—Living Eskimo village.</p> - -<p>174. <em>Pingo.</em>—Old dead village. (S. Chance, Jim Allen.)</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Kevalina—Point Barrow</span></h3> - - -<h4>POINT HOPE (TIGARA)</h4> - -<p>This is the most important ruin as well as living Eskimo village -in Arctic Alaska. It is unanimously declared by the Eskimo of the -coast to be one of the oldest settlements and has always been the -largest native center on the coast. The point was called Golovnin -Point by the early Russians; it was called Point Hope by Beechey -in 1826 in honor of Sir William Johnston Hope. At the time of its -visit by the revenue cutter <em>Corwin</em>, 1884, there are said to have been -two villages;<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> the second being possibly at the site of the old whaling -station. Rasmussen, who visited the village about 1924, speaks of -it in part as follows:<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> "Point Hope or Tikeraq, 'the pointing finger,' -is one of the most interesting Eskimo settlements on the whole coast -of Alaska, and has doubtless the largest collection of ruins. The -old village, now deserted, consists of 122 very large houses, but as -the sea is constantly washing away parts of the land and carrying -off more houses, it is impossible to say what may have been the original -number. Probably the village here and its immediate neighborhood -had at one time something like 2,000 souls, or as many as are -now to be found throughout the whole of the Northwest Passage -between the Magnetic Pole and Herschel Island."</p> - -<p>The ruins are to the northwest and west of the present village. -Those to the northwest consist of imposing heaps, which together -form an elevated ridge facing the sea. It is said that this old -settlement was abandoned because of the encroachments upon it by -the sea, particularly during storms.</p> - -<p>The ruins of this main compound have been for several years -assiduously excavated inch by inch by the local Eskimo, and thousands -of articles of great variety, of stone, bone, ivory, and wood, -with here and there in the uppermost layers an object of metal, are -being gathered and sold to all comers. With these are found a few -human skulls and bones, but especially the skulls and bones of various -animals, all of which unfortunately have hitherto been left behind in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span>the mud. But the probably most valuable central and lower portions -of the piles remain. The locality calls loudly for proper exploration, -which will well repay any museum by the quantity and -value of the specimens that are sure to be recovered.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h5>FOOTNOTES:</h5> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> Healy, M. A. Cruise of the <em>Corwin</em> in the Arctic Ocean 1884. Washington, 1889, p. 27.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> Rasmussen, Knud, Across Arctic America. New York, London, 1927, 329-330.</p></div></div> - - -<h4>POINT HOPE TO POINT BARROW</h4> - -<p>Information about this part of the northwesternmost coast of -Alaska was obtained principally from Jim Allen, the trader at -Wainwright, and Charles Brower, the trader at Barrow; but parts -of the coast were also examined in person. The number of old sites -is rather large, but it appears that there is not much of special -promise until we reach near Barrow.</p> - -<p>Old "igloos" southwest of Barrow: From 5 to 8 miles southwest -of Barrow and at some distance (up to about 400 yards) from -the shore there existed, and in part still exist, a series of elevations -which the natives of Barrow always regarded as natural. On -excavation the larger of these elevations proved to be old structures -with numerous burials and cultural objects, and the remains, as -shown elsewhere, are exceptional for this coast. Six of these -"mounds" have been excavated by the University of Pennsylvania -Expedition (Van Valin), while several are still remaining. It is -very important that these should be carefully excavated before they -are attacked by the natives of Barrow for mercenary purposes.</p> - - -<h4>BARROW AND POINT BARROW</h4> - -<p>Two large living villages, with old sites and inhumed (natural) -burials in their vicinity, and with some old remains between them. -Barrow is the most important present mixed settlement and center of -civilization in the Arctic. Besides the school, it contains a mission -hospital and recently a meteorological observatory and wireless station. -The tundras to the east of the village for about 1½ miles show -patches of burials, particularly in the more distant parts of this -region on the elevations to both sides of a small stream.</p> - -<p>Much archeological work remains to be done about Barrow, particularly -in the remainder of the old "igloos." East of Point Barrow -the population is very sparse and no ruins of any note or settlements -are reported before those of the Barter Island and the mouth -of the Colville River.</p> - -<p>175. <em>Pingishuguruk.</em>—A small old site.</p> - -<p>176. <em>Ketchemeluk.</em>—A small old site.</p> - -<p>176a. <em>Ipnot.</em>—Eskimo village on the Arctic coast, near Cape -Thomson, a little south of Point Hope. Name from Petrof, who -wrote it Ip-Not and Ipnot, and reported a population of 40 in 1880.</p> - -<p>177. Old whaling station.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span></p> - -<p>178. <em>Point Hope or Tigara.</em>—Eskimo village at Point Hope, Arctic -Ocean. It is Tiekagag-miut of Tikhmenief, 1861; Tikirak of Petrof, -1880, who reports a population in that year of 276. Spelled Tikera -in the Eleventh Census. Herendeen gives Tik-i-rah. The Eskimo -name of the settlement is said to be Tik-i-rah-mum. Visited by -A. H.; important collections.</p> - -<p>179. <em>Wewuk</em> (<em>or Wevok</em>).—Eskimo village on the Arctic coast, -near Cape Lisburne. Eskimo name, published by the Hydrographic -Office in 1890. (G. D. A.) (Jim Allen.)</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<img src="images/figure_25a.jpg" width="700" height="638" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Figure 25.</span>—Eskimo villages and sites, Kevalina to Point Barrow</p></div> -</div> - -<p>180. <em>Iniktilik.</em>—Small village, occupied. (S. Chance.)</p> - -<p>181. <em>Pitmegia.</em>—A small old site at the mouth of river of same -name, north side. (Jim Allen, S. Chance.)</p> - -<p> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><em>e.</em> <em>Napayochak.</em>—Old camp, two igloos. (S. Chance.)</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><em>f.</em> <em>Tolageak.</em>—A small old site. (S. Chance.)</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><em>g.</em> <em>Emelik.</em>—A small old site. (S. Chance.)</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><em>h.</em> <em>Pingasoogarook.</em>—Old village, still occupied. (S. Chance.)</span><br /> -<br /> -182. <em>Umalik.</em> <span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">}</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 8em;">}</span><br /> -183. <em>Koochik.</em> <span style="margin-left: 2em;">}</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 8em;">} Trapping stations; igloos. (S. Chance.)</span><br /> -184. <span style="margin-left: 6em;">}</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 8em;">}</span><br /> -185. <span style="margin-left: 6em;">}</span><br /> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span></p> - -<p>186. <em>Kokolik.</em>—Eskimo settlement, at Point Lay, Arctic coast. -(G. D. A.) Old but still partly occupied village. (S. Chance.) -Kelik. (Jim Allen.)</p> - -<p>187. <em>Napayochik.</em>—Old camp, two igloos. (S. Chance.)</p> - -<p>188. <em>Tolageak.</em>—Old dead igloos. (S. Chance.)</p> - -<p>189. <em>Utukok.</em>—Old small settlement at northern mouth of Utukok -River.</p> - -<p>190. <em>Emelik.</em>—Old deserted igloo. (S. Chance.)</p> - -<p>191. <em>Kayakshulik.</em>—A live village at Icy Cape. (Jim Allen, S. -Chance.)</p> - -<p>192. <em>Nokotlik</em> (<em>?</em>).—Old igloo. (S. Chance.)</p> - -<p>193. <em>Mitliktavik.</em>—A dead moderate-sized village, about 5 miles -below Kilik. (Jim Allen.)</p> - -<p>194. <em>Kilimantavic.</em>—Eskimo village, near Wainwright Inlet, Arctic -coast. Tikhmenief, 1861, calls it Kilametagag-miut; Petrof, 1880, -calls it Kolumakturook; Hydrographic Chart 68 calls it Kelamantowruk, -while later charts omit it or call it Kilimantavic. According -to Murdoch this name is Ke-lev-a-tow-tin (sling). (G. D. A.) A -large dead village about 20 miles below Wainwright. (Jim Allen.) -Kilamitavic. (S. Chance.)</p> - -<p>195. Old abandoned camp. (S. Chance.)</p> - -<p>196. <em>Wainwright.</em>—A large living native village; some remains -of old habitations on its eastern outskirts. (A. H.) About a mile -south of present settlements are the remains of the old village once -occupied by the Wainwright people. (Jim Allen.)</p> - -<p>197. <em>Kululin.</em>—Old site.</p> - -<p>198. <em>Sedaru.</em>—Old dead village.</p> - -<p>199. <em>Atnik.</em>—Old dead village. (S. Chance.) Possibly same with -next.</p> - -<p>200. <em>Itanik.</em>—On maps Atanik. Old village, still partly occupied. -(S. Chance, Jim Allen.) Called Ataniek in Tikhmenief, 1861. -(G. D. A.)</p> - -<p>201. <em>Pinoshuragin.</em>—Petrof, 1880, shows a native village of this -name (population 29) on the Seahorse Islands. On British Admiralty -Chart 593 (ed. of 1882) it is called Pingoshugarun. -(G. D. A.) Pingasoogarook: Old village, still occupied. (S. -Chance.)</p> - -<p>202. <em>Kokolak.</em>—Two old igloos, still occupied. (S. Chance.)</p> - -<p>203. <em>Sakamna.</em>—Small camp.</p> - -<p>204. <em>Sinaru.</em>—Small camp about 22 miles from Barrow; visited -by A. H.; small skeletal collection.</p> - -<p>205. <em>Walakpa.</em>—A small dead old settlement about 12 miles from -Barrow.</p> - -<p>206. <em>Nunava.</em>—Small camp.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span></p> - -<p>207. "<em>Old Igloos.</em>"—A very important site archeologically. Explored -partly by Van Valin. (See special section devoted to this -site.)</p> - -<p>208. <em>Barrow.</em>—Known also as Utkiavik, Uglaamie, or the Cape -Smyth village. Important white and Eskimo settlement. Old remains. -Extensive burial grounds east of village. (A. H. collections.)</p> - -<p>209. <em>Nunawa.</em>—Remains of old camping site, about 4 miles from -Barrow.</p> - -<p>210. <em>Point Barrow.</em>—The Eskimo Nuwuk. Good-sized living village. -Remains of older habitations. Population in 1853, 309. -(G.D.A.)</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">The St. Lawrence and Diomede Islands</span></h3> - - -<h4>ST. LAWRENCE ISLAND</h4> - -<p>Ranking in archeological and anthropological importance with -Wales and in some respects perhaps even exceeding the latter, is -the large island of St. Lawrence, with the almost forgotten little -Punuk group at its eastern extremity.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<img src="images/figure_26a.jpg" width="700" height="396" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Figure 26.</span>—Russian map of St. Lawrence Island, 1849. (Tebenkof)</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The main island was discovered by Bering on St. Lawrence Day, -August 10, 1728, and it was found peopled by the Eskimo. In 1849 -an excellent map of it was published by Tebenkof in Novo-Archangelsk, -and on this map (fig. 26) are indicated about a dozen smaller -or larger Eskimo settlements, some of which, however, are not named -and may already have been "dead."</p> - -<p>About 1878 there were still six settlements with somewhat less than -1,500 Eskimo inhabitants on the island. That winter (1878-79) not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> -less than 1,000 of the population died of famine (Hooper), three of -the villages becoming completely depopulated and a fourth nearly so. -The Punuk Island village may have become extinct about the same -time.</p> - -<p>To-day there are on the St. Lawrence Island but two living settlements, -the main one, now known as Gambell, at the old site of Chibukak -on the northwestern cape, and the other, Savonga, about 40 -miles east of it, near Cape North.</p> - -<p>A number of the old sites on this island, and also that on one of the -Punuks, indicate a long occupation, antedating by far the advent -of the Russians. The accumulations rise in some places to imposing -heaps or ridges. Their frozen contents yield quantities of fossil -ivory, all of which shows the work of man, and among them occur -specimens with fine curvilinear designs and of high scientific as well -as artistic value.</p> - -<p>Through Nelson in 1881 and R. D. Moore in 1912 the Smithsonian -Institution has acquired a large quantity of human skeletal material -from the main island, and there is now (1928) an expedition of the -Institution under Collins on the Punuk as well as the St. Lawrence -exploring some of the principal ruins.</p> - - -<h4>THE DIOMEDE ISLANDS AND THE ASIATIC COAST<br /> - -[<span class="smcap">Figs. 27 and 28</span>]</h4> - -<p>The smaller or American Diomede, though a very inhospitable -place, supports, and that evidently since long, a small Eskimo village -of stone houses, below and about which there is a considerable -accumulation of refuse. Doctor Jenness dug here for a short time -in 1926.</p> - -<p>The larger or Russian Diomede has two villages, each of which is -larger than the one on the smaller island. There are also said -to be some remains in a broad depression on the eastern side of the -island, while skeletal remains are reported by the natives to exist -among the rocks on the top. This island is in need of thorough -attention. Its people are reputed to be skilled ivory workers. They -come yearly to Nome, where they were visited and seen at their -work by the writer. They bring each year some fossil ivory, said -to come mainly from the Asiatic coast, and among this are occasionally -articles of much interest.</p> - -<p>Ruins of Eskimo villages are also present along the coasts of the -Chukchee Peninsula, both those facing the Bering Sea and those -along the Arctic. Very little is definitely known or can be found -from the American Eskimo about these ruins, and some of them -may not be Eskimo. Nelson in his book (p. 265) reports briefly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> -on a few about Cape Wankarem. Interesting objects of the fossil -ivory culture are said to occur in these old sites as far west as the -Kolyma, but nothing is certain except that there are ruins, that a -good number of them are probably Eskimo, and that fossil ivory, -both worked (walrus) and unworked (mammoth), comes from these -coasts. A noteworthy report is that of a large native cemetery -on the Bering Sea side, with hundreds of burials in rough stone-slab -graves. Information of this was given me by Joe Bernard, -well known in connection with Bering Sea explorations, who had -seen the site in person.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 553px;"> -<img src="images/figure_27a.jpg" width="553" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Figure 27.</span>—Eskimo villages and sites, St. Lawrence Island, the Diomedes, and the -eastern Asiatic coast</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span></p> - -<p>211. <em>Gambell</em> (<em>or Chibukuk</em>).—Old Eskimo settlement on the -northwest cape of St. Lawrence Island. United States National -Museum expedition, 1912, by Riley D. Moore; anthropometric data; -important collections.</p> - -<p>212. Small sites, north bay, St. Lawrence Island, indicated on 1849 -Russian map (q. v.).</p> - -<p>213. <em>Savonga.</em>—A small modern Eskimo village. A. H., 1926; -some collections.</p> - -<p>214. Ruins of an old site 4 miles northeast of Savonga. Important -archeologically.</p> - -<p>215. <em>Kukuliak.</em>—Dead village.</p> - -<p>216. Former summer site. Given on the 1849 Russian map.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<img src="images/figure_28a.jpg" width="700" height="508" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Figure 28.</span>—The Bering Strait Islands</p></div> -</div> - -<p>217. Important old site with large accumulations on one of the -two Punuk Islands. Explored 1928 by Collins; collections.</p> - -<p>218. <em>Kialegak.</em>—Dead village. Important archeologically. Partly -explored by Collins, 1928; collections.</p> - -<p>219. <em>Chitnak.</em>—One of the dead villages of 1879. (Nelson, -Hooper.)</p> - -<p>220. <em>Puguviliak.</em>—One of the dead villages of 1879. (Nelson, -Hooper.)</p> - -<p>221. Old site; no details available.</p> - -<p>222. Living small village on the smaller (American) Diomede Island. -Some old accumulations. A. H., 1926, collections; some excavations -same year by D. Jenness.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span></p> - -<p>223. <em>Nunarbuk.</em>—Village still occupied, on greater (Russian) -Diomede, located on an elevated slope around the southern cape of -the island. Skeletal and other remains reported on top of mesa.</p> - -<p>224. Village, still occupied, on an elevated saddle near middle of -west coast of island.</p> - -<p>225. Eskimo village, East Cape of Asia. Other villages indicated -along the coast of Chukchee Peninsula. Others on north coast. -(See Nelson, The Eskimo of Bering Strait, p. 265.)</p> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - - - - -<h2>PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY</h2> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Earlier Data</span></h3> - -<p>The previously published data on the western Eskimo are few in -number and mostly not as well documented as would be desirable. -There are, however, a good number of references to the physical -characteristics of the people by explorers. The main of these are -given below. These references in general are not of much scientific -value, yet in some instances they approach this closely and are of -considerable interest collectively.</p> - -<p>1784, Cook:<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The inlet which we had now quitted, was distinguished by Captain Cook -with the name of Prince William's Sound. * * * The natives whom we -saw were in general of a middling stature, though many of them were under -it. They were square or strong chested, with short thick necks, and large -broad visages which were for the most part rather flat. The most disproportioned -part of their body appeared to be their heads, which were of great magnitude. -Their teeth were of a tolerable whiteness, broad, well set, and equal -in size. Their noses had full round points, turned up at the tip; and their -eyes, though not small, were scarcely proportioned to the largeness of their -faces. They had black hair which was strong, straight, and thick. Their -beards were in general thin or deficient, but the hairs growing about the lips, -of those who have them, were bristly or stiff and often of a brownish color; -and some of the elderly men had large, thick straight beards. * * * The -complexion of some of the females, and of the children, is white without any -mixture of red. Many of the men, whom we saw naked, had rather a swarthy -cast, which was scarcely the effect of any stain, as it is not their custom to -paint their bodies.</p> - -<p>Vol. 3, page 31: All the Americans we had seen since our arrival on that -coast (west coast of Alaska) had round, chubby faces, and high cheek bones, -and were rather low of stature.</p> - -<p>Ibid., page 72: <em>Norton Sound.</em>—The woman was short and squat and her -visage was plump and round. * * * Her husband was well made and about -5 feet 2 inches in height. His hair was black and short, and he had but little -beard. His complexion was of a light copper cast. * * * The teeth of both -of them were black, and appeared as if they had been filed down level with -the gums.</p></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span></p> -<p>1821, Kotzebue:<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><em>Kotzebue Sound.</em>—The Americans [i. e., Eskimo] are of a middle size, robust -make, and healthy appearance; their countenances * * * are characterized -by small eyes and very high cheek bones.</p></div> - -<p>1832, Beechey:<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The western Esquimaux appear to be intimately connected with the tribes inhabiting -the northern and northeastern shores of America, in language, features, -manners, and customs. They at the same time, in many respects, resemble -the Tschutschi, from whom they are probably descended. * * *</p> - -<p>They are taller in stature than the eastern Esquimaux, their average height -being about 5 feet 7½ inches. They are also a better looking race, if I may -judge from the natives I saw in Baffin's Bay, and from the portraits of others -that have been published. At a comparatively early age, however, they (the -women in particular) soon lose this comeliness, and old age is attended with a -haggard and careworn countenance, rendered more unbecoming by sore eyes -and by teeth worn to the gums by frequent mastication of hard substances.</p></div> - -<p>1850, Latham:<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Physically the Eskimo is a Mongol and Asiatic.</p> - -<p>The Eskimos of the Atlantic are not only easily distinguished from the -tribes of American aborigines which lie to the south or west of them, and with -which they come in contact, but they stand in strong contrast and opposition -to them—a contrast and opposition exhibited equally in appearance, manners, -language, and one which has had full justice done to it by those who have -written on the subject.</p> - -<p>It is not so with the Eskimos of Russian-America, and the parts that look -upon the Pacific. These are so far from being separated by any broad and -trenchant line of demarcation from the proper Indians or the so-called red -race, that they pass gradually into it, and that in respect to their habits, manner, -and appearance, equally. So far is this the case that he would be a bold -man who should venture, in speaking of the southern tribes of Russian-America, -to say here the Eskimo area ends and here a different area begins.</p></div> - -<p>1853, Hooper:<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><em>Kotzebue Sound Esquimeaux.</em>—The men generally were taller than the average -of Europeans, strongly built and well formed; some had well-marked -features * * *. The women, were generally short, the visages of the younger -ones tolerably good but * * * the very reverse was the case with the dames -of more advanced age. Their figures inclined to the squat, their mien and expression -promised intelligence and good nature. Although both sexes had in -most instances the round flat face of the Mongolian cast, a few individuals -possessed well-defined, though petite features, and all had fine eyes.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 31</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_31a.jpg" width="700" height="455" alt="" /> -<img src="images/plate_31b.jpg" width="700" height="460" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Graves at Nash Harbor, Nunivak Island</span></p> - -<p>(Photos by Collins and Stewart, 1927.)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 32</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_32a.jpg" width="700" height="414" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">School Children at Wales</span></p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 33</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_33a.jpg" width="700" height="583" alt="" /> -<img src="images/plate_33b.jpg" width="700" height="666" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>a</em>, Children, Nunivak Island. (Photo by Collins and Stewart, 1927)</p> - -<p><em>b</em>, Adults, Nunivak Island. (Photo by Collins and Stewart, 1927)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 34</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_34a.jpg" width="700" height="487" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">King Island Eskimo: A Family Group</span></p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 428px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 35</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_35a.jpg" width="428" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">King Island Native</span></p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 593px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 36</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_36a.jpg" width="558" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>a</em>, Young Eskimo woman, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by Lomen Bros.)</p></div> -<img src="images/plate_36b.jpg" width="593" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>b</em>, Eskimo, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by F. H. Nowell.)</p></div> - -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">A Fine Full-blood Eskimo Pair, Northern Bering Sea Region</span></p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 512px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 37</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_37a.jpg" width="512" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Typical Full-blood Eskimo. Northern Bering Sea Region</span></p> - -<p>(Photo by Lomen Bros.)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 555px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 38</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_38a.jpg" width="559" height="700" alt="" /> -<img src="images/plate_38b.jpg" width="555" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Elderly Man, St. Lawrence Island</span></p> - -<p>(Photos by R. D. Moore, 1912. U.S.N.M.)</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span></p> - -<p>1853, Seemann, vol. II, pages 49-51:<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><em>The Eskimos.</em>—By comparing the accounts transmitted by different writers -we find that the various tribes, however widely separated geographically, differ -but slightly from each other in appearance, manners, customs, or language. -They are, however, by no means as uniform in size as might have been -expected. Those inhabiting the vicinity of Norton and Kotzebue Sounds are -by far the finest and tallest, while those living between Cape Lisburne and -Point Barrow are, like the tribes of the eastern portions of America, much -shorter in stature, and bespeak the inferiority of the districts in which -they live.</p> - -<p>Both sexes are well proportioned, stout, muscular, and active. The hands -and feet are small and beautifully formed, which is ascribed by some writers -to their sedentary habits, but this cannot be the case, as probably no people -take more exercise or are more constantly employed. Their height varies. In -the southern parts some of the men are 6 feet; in the more northern there is -a perceptible diminution, though by no means to the extent generally imagined.</p> - -<p>Their faces are flat, their cheek bones projecting, and their eyes small, -deeply set, and, like the eyebrows, black. Their noses are broad; their ears -are large, and generally lengthened by the appendage of weighty ornaments; -their mouths are well formed, their lips are thin. * * *</p> - -<p>The teeth of the Eskimos are regular, but from the nature of their food and -from their practice of preparing hides by chewing, are worn down almost to -the gums at an early age. Their hair is straight, black, and coarse; the men -have it closely cut on the crown, like that of a Capuchin friar, leaving a band -about two inches broad, which gradually increases in length towards the back -of the neck; the women merely part their hair in the middle, and, if wealthy, -ornament it with strings of beads. The possession of a beard is very rare, -but a slight moustache is not infrequent. Their complexion, if divested of its -usual covering of dirt, can hardly be called dark; on the contrary, it displays -a healthy, rosy tint, and were it not for the custom of tattooing the chin -some of the girls might be called pretty, even in the European acceptation of -the term.</p></div> - -<p>1861, Richardson:<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The Eskimos are remarkably uniform in physical appearance throughout -their far-stretching area, there being perhaps no other nation in the world so -unmixed in blood. Frobisher's people were struck with their resemblance in -features and general aspect to the Samoyeds and their physiognomy has been -held by all ethnologists to be of the Mongolian or Tartar type. Doctor Latham -calls the Samoyeds Hyperborean Mongolidae, and the Eskimos he ranges among -the American Mongolidae, embracing in the latter group all the native races of -the New World. The Mongol type of countenance is, however, more strongly -reproduced in the Eskimos than in the red Indians—the conterminous Tinné -tribes differing greatly in their features, and the more remote Indians still -more.</p> - -<p>Generally the Eskimos have broadly egg-shaped faces with considerable -prominence of the rounded cheeks caused by the arching of the cheek bones, but -few or no angular projections even in the old people, whose features are always -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span>much weather beaten and furrowed. The greatest breadth of the face is just -below the eyes, the forehead tapers upward, ending narrowly, but not acutely, -and in like manner the chin is a blunt cone; both the forehead and the chin -recede, the egg outline showing in profile, though not so strongly, as in a -front view. The nose is broad and depressed, but not in all, some individuals -having prominent noses, yet almost all have wider nostrils than Europeans. -The eyes have small and oblique apertures like the Chinese, and from frequent -attacks of ophthalmia and the effect of lamp smoke in their winter habitations -adults of both sexes are disfigured by excoriated or ulcerated eyelids. The -sight of these people is, from its constant exercise, extremely keen, and the -habit of bringing the eyelids nearly together when looking at distant objects -has in all the grown males produced a striking cluster of furrows radiating -from the outer corners of each eye over the temples.</p> - -<p>The complexions of the Eskimos when relieved from smoke and dirt are -nearly white and show little of the copper color of the red Indians. Infants -have a good deal of red on the cheeks, and when by chance their faces are -tolerably clean are much like European children, the national peculiarities of -countenance being slighter at an early age. Many of the young women appear -even pretty from the liveliness and good nature that beams in their countenances. -The old women are frightfully ugly * * *.</p> - -<p>The young men have little beard, but some of the old ones have a tolerable -show of long gray hairs on the upper lip and chin. * * * The Eskimo -beard, however, is in no instance so dense as a European one.</p> - -<p>The hair of the head is black and coarse, the lips thickish, and the teeth of -the young people white and regular, but the sand that, through want of cleanliness, -mixes with their food, wears the teeth down at an early age almost to -the level of the gums, so that the incisors often have broad crowns like the -molars.</p> - -<p>The average stature of the Eskimos is below the English standard, but they -can not be said to be a dwarfish race. The men vary in height from about -5 feet to 5 feet 10 inches or even more. They are a broad-shouldered race, -and when seated in their kayaks look tall and muscular, but when standing -lose their apparent height by a seemingly disproportionate shortness of the -lower extremities. This want of symmetry may arise from the dress, as the -proportions of various parts of the body have not been tested by accurate -measurements. The hands and feet are delicately small and well formed. -Mr. Simpson (Blue Book, 1855) observed an undue shortness of the thumb in -the western Eskimos, which, if it exists farther to the east, was not noted by -the members of the searching expeditions.</p></div> - -<p>1870, Dall:<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Page 136: The Innuit, as they call themselves, belong to the same family as -the northern and western Eskimo. I have frequently used the term Eskimo -in referring to them, but they are in many respects very different -people. * * * It should be thoroughly and definitely understood that they are not -Indians nor have they any known relation, physically * * * to the Indian -tribes of North America. Their grammar, appearance, habits, and even their -anatomy, especially in the form of the skull, separate them widely from the -Indian race. On the other hand, it is almost equally questionable whether -they are even distinctly [distantly?] related to the Chukchees and other probably -Mongolian races, of the eastern part of Siberia.</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> -<p>The Innuit of Norton Sound and the vicinity are of three tribes, each of -which, while migrating at certain seasons, has its own peculiar territory. The -peninsula between Kotzebue and Norton Sounds is inhabited by the Kaviaks -or Kaviagemut Innuit. The neck of this peninsula is occupied by the Mahlemut -Innuit. The shore of Norton Sound south of Cape Denbigh to Pastolik -is the country of the Unaleets or Unaligmut Innuit. The habits of these -tribes are essentially similar. They are in every respect superior to any -tribe of Indians with which I am acquainted.</p> - -<p>Their complexion I have described as brunet. The effect of the sun and -wind, especially in summer, is to darken their hue, and from observing those -who lived in the fort, I am inclined to think that a regular course of bathing -would do much toward whitening them. They are sometimes very tall; I -have often seen both men and women nearly 6 feet in height and have known -several instances where men were taller. Their average height equals that -of most civilized races. Their strength is often very great. I have seen a -Mahlemut take a 100-pound sack of flour under each arm and another in his -teeth and walk with them from the storehouse to the boat, a distance of some -20 rods, without inconvenience.</p> - -<p>Page 140: The women * * * are often of pleasing appearance, sometimes -quite pretty. They preserve their beauty much longer than Indian -women. Their clear complexion and high color, with their good humor, make -them agreeable companions, and they are often very intelligent. A noticeable -feature is their teeth. These are always sound and white, but are almost -cylindrical, and in old people are worn down even with the gums, producing a -singular appearance. The eyes are not oblique as in the Mongolian races, -but are small, black, and almost even with the face. The nose is flat and -disproportionately small. Many of the Innuit have heavy beards and mustaches, -while some pull out the former.</p> - -<p>Page 17: I * * * made the acquaintance of a fine-looking young Mahlemut -who * * * introduced me to his wife and child, the latter about 2 -years old. The former was not particularly ugly or pretty. * * * The husband -was a fine-looking, athletic fellow, standing about 5 feet 5 inches, with a -clear brunet complexion, fine color, dark eyes, and finely arched eyebrows. -The flat nose, common to all the Eskimo tribes, was not very strongly marked -in him, and a pleasant smile, displaying two rows of very white teeth, conquered -any objection I might have felt to his large mouth. The baby looked -like any other baby. * * *</p> - -<p>Page 376: It has been frequently remarked that the Tuski and Innuit -tribes have a Mongolian cast of countenance. This, upon an actual comparison, -will be found to be much less than is usually supposed. The real points of -resemblance are principally in the complexion, which is somewhat similar, and -in the eyes. But the eyes of the Innuit are not oblique, as in the Chinese. -They have an apparent obliquity, which is due to the peculiar form of the -zygomatic arch, but the eyes themselves are perfectly horizontal. The prominent -characteristics of the Orarian<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> skull are the strongly developed coronary -ridge, the obliquity of the zygoma, and its greater capacity compared with the -Indian cranium. The former is essentially pyramidal, while the latter more -nearly approaches a cubic shape.</p> - -<p>The mean capacity (in cubic centimeters) of three Tuski skulls from Plover -Bay, according to Doctor Wyman, was 1,505; that of 20 crania of northern -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span>Eskimo, according to Doctor Davis, was 1,475, and that of 4 Innuit crania of -Norton Sound was 1,320; thus showing a wide variation. The mean capacity -of 20 West American Indian crania was only 1,284.06. The mean height of all -the Orarian skulls above referred to was 136.55 millimeters, against a breadth -of 134.47 millimeters, while the height of the Indian skulls was 120.14 millimeters, -against a breadth of 100.025 millimeters. The zygomatic diameter of -the Orarian crania was 134.92 millimeters, while that of 12 Indian skulls was -134.65 millimeters. The Orarian skulls were most dolichocephalic, and the -Indian most brachycephalic. The latter averaged 378.71 cubic centimeters less -capacity than the former. The average height of the Orarians, except among -the stunted tribes of the extreme north, will average as great as that of their -Indian neighbors. The strength and activity of the former far exceed that -of any northern Indians with whom I am acquainted.</p> - -<p>Page 401: The Kaniagmuts are of middle stature and a complexion more -reddish than that of the Aleutians or more northern Innuit. They are stoutly -built, with large broad faces, and their hair is coarse, black, and straight.</p> - -<p>Page 407: The Magemuts * * * are tall, finely formed, and have very -fair complexions. Blue eyes are not unknown among them, but their hair -is black and their beards are very light.</p> - -<p>The Ekogmuts. * * * A noticeable feature in many of them is the extreme -hairiness of their persons. Many have very strong black beards and -hairy bodies.</p> - -<p>Page 410: The Point Barrow tribe are said by Richardson to be called -Nuwungmëun. * * * These northern Innuit are very few in -number. * * * Simpson mentions that their thumbs appeared to be disproportionately -short. The same may be true of the Norton Sound Innuit; at all events, no -white man can wear one of their mittens comfortably until the thumb is -lengthened.</p></div> - -<p>Doctor Otis, of the United States Army Medical Museum, says that -the skulls found in the northern mounds have the same peculiarities -which distinguish all Orarian crania, and that both are instantly -distinguishable from any Indian skulls.</p> - -<p>1874, Bancroft (compilation):<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>"The physical characteristics of the Eskimos are: A fair complexion,<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> the -skin, when free from dirt and paint, being almost white; a medium stature, -well proportioned, thickset, muscular, robust, active,<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> with small and beautifully -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span>shaped hands and feet;<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> a pyramidal head;<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> a broad egg-shaped face; -high rounded cheek bones; flat nose; small oblique eyes; large mouth; teeth -regular, but well worn;<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> coarse black hair closely cut upon the crown, leaving -a monk-like ring around the edge,<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> and a paucity of beard."<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a></p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span></p> - -<p>Simpson, 1875:<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>These people are by no means the dwarfish race they were formerly supposed -to be. In stature they are not inferior to many other races and are -robust, muscular, and active, inclining rather to spareness than corpulence. -The tallest individual was found to be 5 feet 10½ inches, and the shortest -5 feet 1 inch. The heaviest man weighed 195 pounds, and the lightest 125 -pounds. The individuals weighed and measured were taken indiscriminately -as they visited the ship, and were all supposed to have attained their full -stature. Their chief muscular strength is in the back, which is best displayed -in their games of wrestling. The shoulders are square, or rather raised, -making the neck appear shorter than it really is, and the chest is deep; but -in strength of arm they can not compete with our sailors. The hand is -small, short, broad, and rather thick, and the thumb appears short, giving -an air of clumsiness in handling anything; and the power of grasping is not -great. The lower limbs are in good proportion to the body, and the feet, -like the hands, are short and broad with a high instep. Considering their -frequent occupations as hunters, they do not excel in speed nor in jumping -over a height or a level space, but they display great agility in leaping to -kick with both feet together an object hanging as high as the chin, or even -above the head. In walking, their tread is firm and elastic, the step short -and quick; and the toes being turned outward and the knee at each advance -inclining in the same direction, give a certain peculiarity to their gait difficult -to describe.</p> - -<p>The hair is sooty black, without gloss, and coarse, cut in an even line across -the forehead, but allowed to grow long at the back of the head and about the -ears, whilst the crown is cropped close or shaven. The color of the skin is -a light yellowish brown, but variable in shade, and in a few instances was -observed to be very dark. In the young, the complexion is comparatively fair, -presenting a remarkably healthy sunburnt appearance, through which the -rosy hue of the cheeks is visible; before middle life, however, this, from -exposure, gives place to a weather-beaten appearance, so that it is difficult to -guess their ages.</p> - -<p>The face is flat, broad, rounded, and commonly plump, the cheek bones high, -the forehead low, but broad across the eyebrows, and narrowing upwards; -the whole head becomes somewhat pointed toward the crown. The nose is -short and flat, giving an appearance of considerable space between the eyes. -The eyes are brown, of different shades, usually dark, seldom if ever altogether -black, and generally have a soft expression; some have a peculiar -glitter, which we call gipsy-like. They slope slightly upwards from the nose, -and have a fold of skin stretching across the inner angle to the upper eyelid, -most perceptible in childhood, which gives to some individuals a cast of countenance -almost perfectly Chinese. The eyelids seem tumid, opening to only a -moderate extent, and the slightly arched eyebrows scarcely project beyond -them. The ears are by no means large, but frequently stand out sideways. -The mouth is prominent and large, and the lips, especially the lower one, -rather thick and protruding. The jawbones are strong, supporting remarkably -firm and commonly regular teeth. In the youthful these are in general -white, but toward middle age they have lost their enamel and become black -or are worn down to the gums. The incisors of the lower jaw do not pass behind -those of the upper, but meet edge to edge, so that by the time an individual -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span>arrives at maturity, the opposing surfaces of the eye and front teeth -are perfectly flat, independently of the wear they are subjected to in every -possible way to assist the hands. The expression of the countenance is one -of habitual good humor in the great majority of both sexes, but is a good deal -marred in the men by wearing heavy lip ornaments. * * *</p> - -<p>While young the women are generally well formed and good looking, having -good eyes and teeth. To a few, who besides possessed something of the Circassian -cast of features, was attributed a certain degree of brunette beauty. -Their hands and feet are small, and the former delicate in the young, but soon -become rough and coarse when the household cares devolve upon them. Their -movements are awkward and ungainly, and though capable of making long -journeys on foot, it is almost painful to see many of them walk. Unlike the -men, they shuffle along commonly a little sideways, with the toes turned inwards, -stooping slightly forward as if carrying a burden, and their general -appearance is not enhanced by the coat being made large enough to accommodate -a child on the back, whilst the tight-fitting nether garment only serves -to display the deformity of their bow legs. * * *</p> - -<p>The physical constitution of both sexes is strong, and they bear exposure -during the coldest weather for many hours together without appearing inconvenienced, -further than occasional frostbites on the cheeks. They also show -great endurance of fatigue during their journeys in the summer, particularly -that part in which they require to drag the family boat, laden with their summer -tent and all their moveables, on a sledge over the ice.</p> - -<p>Extreme longevity is probably not unknown among them; but as they take -no heed to number the years as they pass, they can form no guess of their -own ages, invariably stating "they have many years." Judging altogether -from appearance, a man whom we saw in the neighborhood of Kotzebue Sound -could not be less than 80 years of age. He had long been confined to his bed -and appeared quite in his dotage. There was another at Point Barrow, whose -wrinkled face, silvery hair, toothless gums, and shrunk limbs indicated an age -nothing short of 75. This man died in the month of April, 1853, and had paid -a visit to the ship only a few days before, when his intellect seemed unimpaired, -and his vision wonderfully acute for his time of life. There is another -still alive, who is said to be a few years older.</p></div> - -<p>1877, Dall:<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Page 9: The Orarians are distinguished * * * by a light fresh yellow -complexion, fine color, broad build, scaphocephalic head, great cranial capacity, -and obliquity of the arch of the zygoma.</p> - -<p>Page 17: The Ekogmut inhabit the Yukon delta from about Kipniuk to -Pastolik * * *. Their most noticeable personal peculiarity consists in their hairy -bodies and strong beards.</p></div> - -<p>1884, Hooper:<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>About 3,000 Innuits inhabit the northwest coast of America, from the Colville -River, on the east, to Bering Strait, including the islands therein, on the -west. Many of these came under my observation while cruising in the Arctic -Ocean in command of the <em>Corwin</em>.</p> - -<p>In appearance they are tall and muscular, many being 6 feet in height, and -some were seen that would exceed that even. Their peculiar dress gives them -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span>a squat appearance, and their stature seems less than it is in reality. The -women are much shorter than the men, but both sexes are strong and active, -though not equal in these respects to the Tchuktchis and other reindeer tribes -of Siberia.</p> - -<p>The face of the Innuit is broad below the eyes, the forehead is narrow and -receding, the chin and lower jaw broad and heavy. The nose is usually broad -and flattened, but not always; occasionally one is seen whose features are well -formed and handsome. In the young children this is the almost invariable -rule; many of them are really beautiful. The eyes are small and black, and -appear to be slightly oblique, and for this reason, perhaps more than any other, -they have been classed with the Mongolidae. They have large mouths, thick, -loosely hanging lips, and fine, strong teeth. These, however, from eating raw -food, are usually very much worn. The labrets worn in the lips are hideous-looking -things, made of bone, glass, stone, ivory, or in fact anything within the -reach of the native which can be worked into the requisite shape.</p> - -<p>They have rather light skin, very different from the Indians of the plains; -and in this also they differ from the Tchuktchis, being much lighter, and when -cleansed from the dirt which usually covers them, and freed from the sunburn -and tan due to long exposure, they become quite fair. They have small, well-formed -hands and feet, much smaller in proportion than white men. This was -particularly noticeable when buying boots and mittens from them for our -use; only the largest sizes made by them could be used at all. They are generally -without beard, but as the men grow old, they sometimes have a thin, -straggling mustache and beard, but it is never full and regular. The hair is -coarse and black.</p></div> - -<p>1885, Ray:<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Pages 37-38: The following table will show that physically the Inyu of -North American coast does not conform to the typical idea of the Eskimo. -They are robust, healthy people, fairer than the North American Indian, with -brown eyes and straight black hair. The men are beardless until they attain -the age of from 20 to 25 years, and even then it is very light and scattering, -and is always clipped close in the winter; at this season they also cut off -their eyebrows and tonsure their crown like a priest, with bangs over their -forehead. Their hands and feet are extremely small and symmetrical; they -are graceful in their movements when unincumbered by heavy clothing.</p> - -<p>Page 46: Physically both sexes are very strong and possess great powers of -endurance.</p></div> - -<p>1888, Murdoch:<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>In stature these people are of a medium height, robust, and muscular, inclining -rather to spareness than corpulence, though the fullness of the face and the -thick fur clothing often gives the impression of the latter. There is, however, -considerable individual variation among them in this respect. The women are -as a rule shorter than the men, occasionally almost dwarfish, though some -women are taller than many of the men. The tallest man observed measured -5 feet 9½ inches and the shortest 4 feet 11 inches. The tallest woman was -5 feet 3 inches in height and the shortest 4 feet ½ inch. The heaviest man -weighed 204 pounds and the lightest 126 pounds. One woman weighed 192 -pounds and the shortest woman was also the lightest, weighing only 100 -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span>pounds. The hands and feet are small and well shaped, though the former -soon become distorted and roughened by work. We did not observe the peculiar -breadth of hands noticed by Doctor Simpson, nor is the shortness of the -thumb which he mentions sufficient to attract attention. Their feet are so -small that only one of our party, who is much below the ordinary size, was -able to wear the boots made by the natives for themselves. Small and delicate -hands and feet appear to be a universal characteristic of the Eskimo race and -have been mentioned by most observers from Greenland to Alaska.</p> - -<p>The face is broad, flat, and round, with high cheek bones and rather low -forehead, broad across the brow and narrowing above, while the head is somewhat -pointed toward the crown. The peculiar shape of the head is somewhat -masked by the way of wearing the hair and is best seen in the skull. The -nose is short, with little or no bridge—few Eskimo were able to wear our -spring eyeglasses—and broad, especially across the alæ nasæ, with a peculiar, -rounded, somewhat bulbous tip, and large nostrils. The eyes are horizontal, -with rather full lids and are but slightly sunken below the level of the face.</p> - -<p>The mouth is large and the lips full, especially the under one. The teeth are -naturally large, and in youth are white and generally regular, but by middle -age they are generally worn down to flat-crowned stumps, as is usual among -the Eskimo. The color of the skin is a light yellowish brown, with often considerable -ruddy color on the cheeks and lips. There appears to be much natural -variation in the complexion, some women being nearly as fair as Europeans, -while other individuals seem to have naturally a coppery color. In most cases -the complexion appears darker than it really is from the effects of exposure -to the weather. All sunburn very easily, especially in the spring, when there -is a strong reflection from the snow.</p> - -<p>The old are much wrinkled, and they frequently suffer from watery eyes, -with large sacks under them, which begin to form at a comparatively early -age. There is considerable variation in features, as well as complexion, among -them, even in cases where there seems to be no suspicion of mixed blood. -There were several men among them with decided aquiline noses and something -of a Hebrew cast of countenance. The eyes are of various shades of -dark brown—two pairs of light hazel eyes were observed—and are often -handsome. The hair is black, perfectly straight, and very thick. With the men -it is generally coarser than with the women, who sometimes have very long -and silky hair, though it generally does not reach much below the shoulders. -The eyebrows are thin and the beard scanty, growing mostly upon the upper -lip and chin and seldom appearing under the age of 20. In this they resemble -most Eskimo. Back, however, speaks of the "luxuriant beards and -flowing mustaches" of the Eskimo of the Great Fish River. Some of the -older men have rather heavy black mustaches, but there is much variation -in this respect. The upper part of the body, as much as is commonly exposed -in the house, is remarkably free from hair. The general expression is good -humored and attractive.</p> - -<p>The males, even when very young, are remarkable for their graceful and -dignified carriage. The body is held erect, with the shoulders square and -chest well thrown out, the knees straight, and the feet firmly planted on the -ground. In walking they move with long swinging elastic strides, the toes -well turned out and the arms swinging. * * *</p> - -<p>I should say that they walked like well-built athletic white men. The women, -on the other hand, although possessing good physiques, are singularly ungraceful -in their movements. They walk at a sort of shuffling half trot, with -the toes turned in, the body leaning forward, and the arms hanging awkwardly.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span></p> - -<p>A noticeable thing about the women is the remarkable flexibility of the -body and limbs and the great length of time they can stand in a stooping -posture. * * * Both men and women have a very fair share of muscular -strength. Some of the women especially showed a power of carrying heavy -loads superior to most white men. We were able to make no other comparisons -of their strength with ours. Their power of endurance is very great, and -both sexes are capable of making long distances on foot. Two men sometimes -spend 24 hours tramping through the rough ice in search of seals, and -we knew of instances where small parties made journeys of 50 or 75 miles on -foot without stopping to sleep.</p> - -<p>The women are not prolific. Although all the adults are or have been -married, many of them are childless, and few have more than two children. -One woman was known to have at least four, but investigations of this sort -were rendered extremely difficult by the universal custom of adoption. Doctor -Simpson heard of a "rare case" where one woman had borne seven children. -We heard of no twins at either village, though we obtained the Eskimo word -for twins.</p></div> - -<p>1890, Murdoch:<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The people who live on the extreme northwest corner of our continent are -far from being an ugly or an ill-made race. Though they are not tall—a man -of 5 feet 10 inches is a tall man among them—they are well proportioned, -broad shouldered, and deep chested. The men, as a rule, are particularly well -"set up," like well-drilled soldiers and walk and stand with a great deal of -grace and dignity.</p> - -<p>The women do not have such good figures, but are inclined to slouchiness. -They are seldom inclined to be fleshy, though their plump, round faces, along -with their thick fur clothing, often give them the appearance of being fat. -They generally have round, full faces, with rather high cheek bones, small, -rounded noses, full lips, and small chins. Still, you now and then see a person -with an oval face and aquiline nose. Many of the men are very good looking, -and some of the young women are exceedingly pretty. Their complexion is a -dark brunet, often with a good deal of bright color on the cheeks and especially -on the lips. They sunburn very much, especially in the spring, when the glare -of the sun is reflected from the snow. They have black or dark-brown eyes and -abundant black hair. The women's hair is often long and silky. When they -are young they have white and regular teeth, but these are worn down to -stumps before middle life is reached. Cheerful and merry faces are the rule.</p></div> - -<p>1890, Kelly:<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><em>Personal appearance.</em>—There are three types observable among the Arctic -Eskimos of Alaska. The tall, cadaverous natives of Kangoot, Seelawik, Koovuk, -and Kikiktowruk, on Kotzebue Sound, who live on fish, ptarmigans, and marmots. -They always have a hungry look and habitually wear a grin of fiendish -glee at having circumvented an adverse fate. There is a tendency among these -people to migrate north.</p> - -<p>Then there is the tall, strongly knit type of the Nooatoks, a gigantic race, of -a splendid physique that would be remarkable in any part of the world.</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> -<p>Rugged as the mountains among which they live, vigorous and courageous, -they stop at nothing but the impossible to accomplish a desired end. Their -food supply is the reindeer, mountain sheep, ptarmigans, and fish. There are -many of the coast natives of this type, but they lack the healthy glow and the -indomitable will of the Nooatoks.</p> - -<p>The third type is the short, stumpy one, probably that of the old Eskimo before -the admixture with southern tribes, now found on the Arctic coast. * * *</p> - -<p>The Eskimos have coarse, black hair, some with a tinge of brown. Many of -the coast people of both sexes are bald from scrofulous eruptions. Males have -the crown of the head closely cropped, so that reindeer may not see the waving -locks when the hunter creeps behind bunch grass. They have black eyes and -high cheek bones. The bones of the face are better protected from the severity -of the climate by a thicker covering of flesh than southern races.</p> - -<p>Among the coast people the nose is broad and flat, with very little or no ridge -between the eyes. The adult males have short mustaches, and some of the -elder ones—more noticeable in the interior—have rough, scraggy beards. Generally -their beard is very scant, and most of them devote otherwise idle -hours to pulling out the hairs.</p></div> - -<p>1900, Nelson:<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The Eskimo from Bering Strait to the lower Yukon are fairly well-built -people, averaging among the men about 5 feet 2 or 3 inches in height. The -Yukon Eskimo and those living southward from that river to the Kuskokwim -are, as a rule, shorter and more squarely built. The Kuskokwim people are -darker of complexion than those to the northward, and have rounder features. -The men commonly have a considerable growth of hair on their faces, becoming -at times a thin beard 2 or 3 inches in length, with a well-developed -mustache. No such development of beard was seen elsewhere in the territory -visited.</p> - -<p>The people in the coast region between the mouths of the Kuskokwim and the -Yukon have peculiarly high cheek bones and sharp chins, which unite to give -their faces a curiously pointed, triangular appearance. At the village of -Kaialigamut I was impressed by the strong development of the superciliary -ridge. From a point almost directly over the pupil of the eye and extending -thence inward to the median line of the forehead is a strong bony ridge causing -the brow to stand out sharply. From the outer edge of this the skull -appears as though beveled away to the ears, giving the temporal area a considerable -enlargement beyond that usually shown. This curious development -of the skull is rendered still more striking by the fact that the bridge of the -nose is low, as usual among these people, so that the shelf-like projection of -the brow stands out in strong relief. It is most strongly marked among the -men and appears to be characteristic at this place. Elsewhere in this district -it was noted only rarely here and there.</p> - -<p>All of the people in the district about Capes Vancouver and Romanzof, and -thence to the Yukon mouth, are of unusually light complexion. Some of the -women have a pale, slightly yellowish color, with pink cheeks, differing but -little in complexion from that of a sallow woman of Caucasian blood. This -light complexion is so exceptionally striking that wherever they travel these -people are readily distinguished from other Eskimo, and before I visited their -territory I had learned to know them by their complexion whenever they came -to St. Michael.</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> -<p>The people of the district just mentioned are all very short and squarely -built. Inland from Cape Vancouver lies the flat marshy country about Big -Lake, which is situated between the Kuskokwim and the Yukon. It is a -well-populated district and its inhabitants differ from those near the coast -at the capes referred to, in being taller, more slender, and having more -squarely cut features. They also differ strikingly from any other Eskimo -with whom I came in contact, except those on Kowak River, in having the -bridge of the nose well developed and at times sufficiently prominent to suggest -the aquiline nose of our southern Indian tribes.</p> - -<p>The Eskimo of the Diomede Islands in Bering Strait, as well as those of -East Cape and Mechigme and Plover Bays on the Siberian coast, and of St. -Lawrence Island are tall, strongly built people and are generally similar in -their physical features. These are characterized by the unusual heaviness of -the lower part of the face due to the very square and massive lower jaw, which, -combined with broad, high cheek bones and flattened nose, produces a wide, -flat face. These features are frequently accompanied with a low retreating -forehead, producing a decidedly repulsive physiognomy. The bridge of the nose -is so low and the cheek bones so heavy that a profile view will frequently show -only the tip of the person's nose, the eyes and upper portion of the nose being -completely hidden by the prominent outline of the cheek. Their eyes are less -oblique than is common among the people living southward from the Yukon -mouth. Among the people at the northwestern end of St. Lawrence Island -there is a greater range of physiognomy than was noted at any other of the -Asiatic localities.</p> - -<p>The Point Hope people on the American coast have heavy jaws and well-developed -superciliary ridges. At Point Barrow the men are remarkable for -the irregularity of their features, amounting to a positive degree of ugliness, -which is increased and rendered specially prominent by the expression produced -by the short, tightly drawn upper lip, the projecting lower lip, and the small -beady eyes. The women and children of this place are in curious contrast, -having rather pleasant features of the usual type.</p> - -<p>The Eskimo from Upper Kowak and Noatak Rivers who were met at the -summer camp on Hotham Inlet are notable for the fact that a considerable -number of them have hook noses and nearly all have a cast of countenance -very similar to that of the Yukon Tienné. They are a larger and more robustly -built people than these Indians, however, and speak the Eskimo language. -They wear labrets, practice the tonsure, and claim to be Eskimo. * * * -Among them was seen one man having a mop of coarse curly hair, almost -negroid in character. The same feature was observed in a number of men and -women on the Siberian coast between East Cape and Plover Bay. This latter -is undoubtedly the result of the Chukchi-Eskimo mixture, and in the case of -the man seen at Hotham Inlet the same result had been brought about by the -Eskimo-Indian combination. Among the Eskimo south of Bering Strait on the -American coast not a single instance of this kind was observed. The age of -the individuals having this curly hair renders it quite improbable that it came -from an admixture of blood with foreign voyagers, since some of them must -have been born at a time when vessels were extremely rare along these shores. -As a further argument against this curly hair having come from white men, -I may add that I saw no trace of it among a number of people having partly -Caucasian blood. As a general thing, the Eskimo of the region described, have -small hands and feet and the features are oval in outline, rather flat and with -slightly oblique eyes.</p> - -<p>Children and young girls have round faces and often are very pleasant and -attractive in feature, the angular race characteristics becoming prominent after<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> -the individuals approach manhood. The women age rapidly, and only a very -small proportion of the people live to an advanced age.</p> - -<p>The Malemut and the people of Kaviak Peninsula, including those of the -islands in Bering Strait are tall, active, and remarkably well built. Among -them it is common to see men from 5 feet 10 inches to 6 feet tall and of proportionate -build. I should judge the average among them to be nearly or quite -equal in height to the whites.</p> - -<p>Among the coast Eskimos, as a rule, the legs are short and poorly developed, -while the body is long with disproportionately developed dorsal and lumbar -muscles, due to so much of their life being passed in the kaiak.</p> - -<p>The Eskimo of the Big Lake district, south of the Yukon, and from the Kaviak -Peninsula, as well as the Malemut about the head of Kotzebue Sound, are on -the contrary very finely proportioned and athletic men who can not be equaled -among the Indians of the Yukon region. * * * There were a number of -half-blood children among the Eskimo, resulting from the intercourse with -people from vessels and others, who generally show their Caucasian blood by -large, finely shaped, and often remarkably beautiful brown eyes. The number -of these mixed bloods was not very great.</p></div> - -<p>1905, Jackson:<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The Eskimos of Alaska are a much finer race physically than their kindred -of Greenland and Labrador. In the extreme north, at Point Barrow, and -along the coast of Bering Sea they are of medium size. At Point Barrow the -average height of the males is 5 feet 3 inches and average weight 153 pounds; -of the women, 4 feet 11 inches and weight 135 pounds. On the Nushagak -River the average weight of the men is from 150 to 167 pounds. From Cape -Prince of Wales to Icy Cape along the Arctic Coast and on the great inland -rivers emptying into the Arctic Ocean they are a large race, many of them -being 6 feet and over in height.<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> They are lighter in color and fairer than -the North American Indian, have black and brown eyes, black hair, some -with a tinge of brown, high cheek bones, fleshy faces, small hands and feet, -and good teeth. The men have thin beards.</p></div> - -<p>1916, Hawkes:<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The Alaskan Eskimo are a taller and more symmetrical people than their -brethren of the central and eastern districts. They lack that appearance of -stoutness and squatness inherent in the eastern stock, and for proportion and -development of the various parts of the body they do not compare unfavorably -with Indians and whites. It is not unusual to find in an Alaskan Eskimo -village several men who are 6 feet tall, with magnificent shoulders and arms -and bodily strength in proportion. The usual height, however, is about 168 -centimeters for men, which is some 10 centimeters above the height of the -eastern Eskimo. * * * The average for women among the western Eskimo -is 158 centimeters, which approximates the height of the men in the Hudson -Bay region, 158 centimeters (Boas). The female type in Alaska is taller and -slimmer than in the east, and the width of the face is considerably less. -Eskimo women of large stature are often seen in the northern section of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span>Alaska. The individual variation here is more conspicuous than in Labrador -or Hudson Bay.</p></div> - -<p>1923, Jenness:<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>In his report on the Copper Eskimos, D. Jenness gives excellent descriptive -notes on this group with references to others. These notes, too voluminous to -be transcribed, may well be consulted in these connections.</p></div> - -<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Cook, Capt. James, and Capt. James King. A Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. London, -1784, <span class="smcap">II</span>, vol. 2, p. 300.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Kotzebue, Otto von, A voyage of discovery into the South Sea and Bering Strait, -1815-1818, vol. 1, p. 209. London, 1821.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> Beechey, F. W., Narrative of a voyage to the Pacific and Bering Strait. Philadelphia, -1832, pp. 474-476.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> Latham, Robert G., The varieties of man. London, 1850, pp. 290-292.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> Hooper, W. H., Ten months among the tents of the Tuski. London, 1853, pp. 223-224.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> Seemann, Berthold, Narrative of the voyage of H. M. S. <em>Herald</em>. London, 1853, vols. -<span class="smcap">I-II</span>. On the Anthropology of Western Eskimo Land and on the Desirability of Further -Arctic Research. J. Anthrop. Soc., London, 1865, vol. <span class="smcap">III</span>, p. 301.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> Richardson, Sir John, The Polar Regions. Edinburgh, 1861, p. 301.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> Dall, W. H., Alaska and Its Resources. Boston, 1870.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> Orarian, a term used by the author to distinguish the tribes of Innuit, Aleutians, and -Asiatic Eskimo from the natives known under the name of Indian, in allusion to the -universal coastwise distribution of the former.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> Bancroft, Hubert H., The Native Races of the Pacific States. Vol. <span class="smcap">I</span>, New York, 1874. -Wild Tribes, p. 45.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> <em>Color.</em>—"Their complexion, if divested of its usual covering of dirt, can hardly be -called dark."—Seemann's Voy. <em>Herald</em>, vol. <span class="smcap">II</span>, p. 51. "In comparison with other Americans -of a white complexion."—McCulloh's Aboriginal Hist. of America, p. 20. "White complexion, -not copper coloured."—Dobb's Hudson's Bay, p. 50. "Almost as white as Europeans."—Kalm's -Travels, vol. <span class="smcap">II</span>, p. 263. "Not darker than that of a Portuguese."—Lyon's -Journal, p. 224. "Scarcely a shade darker than a deep brunet."—Parry's Third -Voyage, p. 493. "Their complexion is light."—Dall's Alaska, p. 381. "Eyewitnesses -agree in their superior lightness of complexion over the Chinooks."—Pickering's Races of -Man, U. S. Ex. Ex., <span class="smcap">IX</span>, 28. At Coppermine River they are "of a dirty copper color; some -of the women, however, are more fair and ruddy."—Hearne's Travels, p. 166. "Considerably -fairer than the Indian tribes."—Simpson's Nar., p. 110. At Cape Bathurst "the -complexion is swarthy, chiefly, I think, from exposure and the accumulation of dirt."—Armstrong's -Nar., p. 192. "Show little of the copper color of the Red Indians."—Richardson's -Pol. Reg., p. 303. "From exposure to weather they become dark after manhood."—Richardson's -Nar., <span class="smcap">I</span>, 343.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> <em>Proportions.</em>—"Both sexes are well proportioned, stout, muscular, and active."—Seemann's -Voy. <em>Herald</em>, <span class="smcap">II</span>, 50. "A stout, well-looking people."—Simpson's Nar., pp. 110, -114. "Below the mean of the Caucasian race."—Doctor Hayes in Historic Magazine, -vol. <span class="smcap">I</span>, p. 6. "They are thick set, have a decided tendency to obesity, and are seldom -more than 5 feet in height."—Figuier's Human Race, p. 211. At Kotzebue Sound "tallest -man was 5 feet 9 inches; tallest woman 5 feet 4 inches."—Beechey's Voy., <span class="smcap">I</span>, 360. -"Average height was 5 feet 4½ inches"; at the mouth of the Mackenzie they are of -"middle stature, strong, and muscular."—Armstrong's Nar., 149, 192. "Low, broad set, -not well made nor strong."—Hearne's Trav., p. 166. "The men were in general stout."—Franklin's -Nar., <span class="smcap">I</span>, 29. "Of a middle size, robust make, and healthy appearance."—Kotzebue's -Voy., <span class="smcap">I</span>, 209. "Men vary in height from about 5 feet to 5 feet 10 inches."—Richardson's -Pol. Reg., p. 304. "Women were generally short." "Their figure inclines -to squat."—Hooper's Tuski, p. 224.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> <em>Hands and feet.</em>—"Tous les individus qui appartiennent à la famille des Esquimaux -se distinguent par la petitesse de leurs pieds et de leurs mains, et la grosseur énorme de -leurs têtes."—De Pauw, Recherches Phil. <span class="smcap">I</span>, 262. "The hands, and feet are delicately -small and well formed."—Richardson's Pol. Reg., p. 304. "Small and beautifully made."—Seemann's -Voy. Herald, <span class="smcap">II</span>, 50. At Point Barrow "Their hands, notwithstanding the great -amount of manual labor to which they are subject, were beautifully small and well formed, -a description equally applicable to their feet."—Armstrong's Nar., p. 101.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> <em>Head.</em>—"The head is of good size, rather flat superiorly, but very fully developed -posteriorly, evidencing a preponderance of the animal passions; the forehead was for the -most part low and receding; in a few it was somewhat vertical but narrow."—Armstrong's -Nar., p. 193. Their cranial characteristics "are the strongly developed coronary -ridge, the obliquity of the zygoma, and its greater capacity compared with the Indian -cranium. The former is essentially pyramidal, while the latter more nearly approaches a -cubic shape."—Dall's Alaska, p. 376. "Greatest breadth of the face is just below the eyes, -the forehead tapers upwards, ending narrowly but not acutely, and in like manner the -chin is a blunt cone."—Richardson's Pol. Reg., p. 302. Doctor Gall, whose observations on -the same skulls presented him for phrenological observation are published by M. Louis -Choris, thus comments upon the head of a female Eskimo from Kotzebue Sound: -"L'organe de l'instinct de la propagation se trouve extrêmement dévelopé pour une tête de -femme." He finds the musical and intellectual organs poorly developed, while vanity and -love of children are well displayed. "En général," sagely concluded the doctor, "cette -tête femme présentait une organization aussi heureuse que celle de la plupart des femmes -d'Europe."—Voy. Pitt., pt. <span class="smcap">II</span>, p. 16.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> <em>Face.</em>—"Large, fat, round faces, high cheek bones, small hazel eyes, eyebrows slanting -like the Chinese, and wide mouths."—Beechey's Voy., <span class="smcap">I</span>, 345. "Broad, flat faces, -high cheek bones."—Doctor Hayes in Hist. Mag., <span class="smcap">I</span>, p. 6. Their "teeth are regular, but -from the nature of their food and from their practice of preparing hides by chewing, are -worn down almost to the gums at an early age."—Seemann's Voy. <em>Herald</em>, <span class="smcap">II</span>, 51. At -Hudson Strait, "broad, flat, pleasing face; small and generally sore eyes; given to bleeding -at the nose."—Franklin's Nar., <span class="smcap">I</span>, 29. "Small eyes and very high cheek bones."—Kotzebue's -Voy., <span class="smcap">I</span>, 209. "La face plate, la bouche ronde, le nez petit sans être écrase, -le blanc de l'oeil jaunâtre, l'iris noir et peu brillant."—De Pauw, Recherches Phil., <span class="smcap">I</span>, 262. -They have "small, wild-looking eyes, large and very foul teeth, the hair generally black, -but sometimes fair, and always in extreme disorder."—Brownell's Indian Races, p. 467. -"As contrasted with the other native American races, their eyes are remarkable, being -narrow and more or less oblique."—Richardson's Nar., <span class="smcap">I</span>, 343. "Expression of face -intelligent and good natured. Both sexes have mostly round, flat faces, with Mongolian -cast."—Hooper's Tuski, p. 223.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> <em>Hair.</em>—"Allowed to hang down in a club to the shoulder."—Richardson's Pol. Reg., -p. 305. "Their hair is straight, black, and coarse."—Seemann's Voy. <em>Herald</em>, <span class="smcap">II</span>, 51. -A fierce expression characterized them on the McKenzie River, which "was increased by -the long, disheveled hair flowing about their shoulders."—Armstrong's Nar., p. 149.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> <em>Beard.</em>—"The old men had a few gray hairs on their chins, but the young ones, -though grown up, were beardless."—Beechey's Voy., <span class="smcap">I</span>, 322. "The possession of a beard -is very rare, but a slight mustache is not infrequent."—Seemann's Voy. <em>Herald</em>, <span class="smcap">II</span>, 51. -"As the men grow old they have more hair on the face than red Indians."—Richardson's -Nar., <span class="smcap">I</span>, 343. "Generally an absence of beard and whiskers."—Armstrong's Nar., p. 193. -"Beard is universally wanting."—Kotzebue's Voy., <span class="smcap">I</span>, 252. "The young men have little -beard, but some of the old ones have a tolerable show of long, gray hairs on the upper lip -and chin."—Richardson's Pol. Reg., p. 303. "All have beards."—Bell's Geography, <span class="smcap">V</span>, 294. -Kirby affirms that in Alaska "many of them have a profusion of whiskers and beard."—Smiths. -Report, 1864, p. 416.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> Simpson, John, Observations on the Western Eskimo and the Country They Inhabit. -<em>In</em> A Selection of Papers on Arctic Geography and Ethnology, Pres. by the Roy. Geogr. -Soc., London, 1875, pp. 238-246.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> Dall, W. H., Tribes of the Extreme Northwest. Contribution to North American -Ethnology, <span class="smcap">I</span>, Washington, 1877.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> Hooper, C. L., Report of cruise of the revenue steamer <em>Corwin</em>, 1881. Washington, -1884, p. 101.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> Ray, P. H., Ethnographic sketch of the natives. Report of the International Polar -Expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska. Washington, 1885.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> Murdoch, J., Ethnological results of the Point Barrow expedition. Ninth Ann. Rept. -Bur. Ethn., 1887-88, pp. 33-39, Washington, 1892.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> Murdoch, J., Dress and physique of the Point Barrow Eskimos. Popul. Sci. Month., -Dec., 1890, 222-223.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> Kelly, J. W., Arctic Eskimos in Alaska and Siberia. Revised and edited by Sheldon -Jackson. Bull. No. 3, Soc. Alaskan Nat. Hist. and Ethnol., Sitka, 1890, p. 15.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> Nelson, Edward W., The Eskimo about Bering Strait. Eighteenth Ann. Rept. Bur. -Amer. Ethn., Washington, 1900, pp. 26-29.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> Jackson, Sheldon, Our barbarous Eskimos in northern Alaska. The Metropol. Mag., -Vol. <span class="smcap">XXII</span>, New York, June, 1905, pp. 257-271.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> Either a bad misprint or bad error.—A. H.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> Hawkes, Ernest William, Skeletal measurements and observations of the Point Barrow -Eskimo, with comparisons with other Eskimo groups. Am. Anthrop., n. s. <span class="smcap">XVIII</span>, No. 2, -pp. 206-207, Lancaster, 1916.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> Jenness, D., Physical characteristics of the Copper Eskimos. Rept. Canad. Arct. Exp. -1913-1918. Ottawa, 1923, p. 38.</p></div></div> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Older Anthropometric Data on the Western Eskimo</span></h3> - - -<h4>STATURE AND OTHER MEASUREMENTS ON THE LIVING</h4> - -<p>The earliest actual measurements of the living among the western -Eskimo are those given in Captain Beechey's Narrative (1832, p. -226), where we read that of the Eskimo of Cape Thompson (north of -Kotzebue Sound) "the tallest man was 5 feet 9 inches (175.3 centimeters), -the tallest woman 5 feet 4 inches (162.6 centimeters) in -height." As seen before, Beechey also stated that the stature of the -Eskimo increases from the east to the west.</p> - -<p>In 1881-82, Lieutenant Ray collects and in 1885 reports evidently -careful measurements of 51 men and 30 women from the villages of -Uglaamie, at Cape Smythe, now Barrow, and Nuwuk, on Point -Barrow.<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> An abstract of the data shows as follows:</p> - - -<ul><li>Average height: Male, 5 feet 3½ inches (161.3 centimeters); female, 4 feet 11¾ inches (151.8 centimeters).</li> -<li>Average weight: Male, 153⅗ pounds; female, 135⅔ pounds.</li> -<li>Tallest male: 5 feet 8¾ inches (174.6 centimeters).</li> -<li>Tallest female: 5 feet 3 inches (160 centimeters).</li> -<li>Shortest male: 4 feet 11 inches (149.9 centimeters).</li> -<li>Shortest female: 4 feet ½ inch (123.2 centimeters).</li> -<li>Weight: Male, 126 to 204 pounds; female, 106 to 172 pounds.</li> -</ul> - -<p>In 1892, in connection with the preparation of the anthropological -exhibits for the World Exposition at Chicago, an extensive effort was -made under the direction of Frederick W. Putnam and Franz Boas -to secure, by the help of a group of specially instructed students, -physical data on many tribes of the American aborigines, and this -included a contingent of the western Eskimo. An abstract of the -results was reported by Boas in 1895.<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> The locality where the -Eskimo were measured is not given, but it was most likely Nome -or St. Michael Island. Thirty-four men gave the high (for the -Eskimo) average of 165.8 centimeters, an unstated number of -women an equally elevated average of 155.1 centimeters. No details -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span>are given. There is also given the mean and distribution of the -cephalic index on 114 living western Eskimo of both sexes. (On -chart, p. 395, the number is 141.) The mean index was 79.2. There -are again, as under Stature, no details as to locality, and none -could be obtained from the author.</p> - -<p>In 1901 Deniker, in his Races of Man (p. 580), reports the stature -of 85 Eskimo of Alaska, doubtless males, as 163 centimeters. -There are no details, no references, and I have not been able to trace -the source of the measurement.</p> - -<p>During the years 1897-1899 A. J. Stone made an extended journey -along a portion of the upper Yukon and through parts of -northwestern Alaska and the Mackenzie River basin, for the American -Museum of Natural History. On this journey he made some -measurements of Indian and Eskimo, and these were published in -1901 by Franz Boas.<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> The Eskimo measured were the "Nunatagmiut" -(11 males, 5 females), of the Noatak River, Alaska, and the -"Koukpagmiut," (12 males, 6 females), east of the mouth of the -Mackenzie. The Noataks, who alone interest us more closely here, -gave the relatively high (for Eskimo) stature of 167.9 centimeters in -the men and 155.6 centimeters in the women. The number of subjects -is small and there may possibly have been some unconscious selection; -yet it is clear that in this group there are numerous fairly tall -individuals.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Stone's Data on the Noatak River Eskimo"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Stone's Data on the Noatak River Eskimo</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="2" width="25%"></col> - <tr> - <th></th> - <th>Males (11)</th> - <th>Females (5)</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Stature</td> - <td class="tdr">167.9</td> - <td class="tdr">155.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Stretch of arms</td> - <td class="tdr">173.0</td> - <td class="tdr">159.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Height of shoulder</td> - <td class="tdr">139.7</td> - <td class="tdr">128.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Length of arm</td> - <td class="tdr">73.9</td> - <td class="tdr">66.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Height sitting</td> - <td class="tdr">86.8</td> - <td class="tdr">81.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Width of shoulders</td> - <td class="tdr">38.0</td> - <td class="tdr">34.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Length of head</td> - <td class="tdr">18.9</td> - <td class="tdr">18.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Width of head</td> - <td class="tdr">15.45</td> - <td class="tdr">14.26</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Width of face</td> - <td class="tdr">15.57</td> - <td class="tdr">14.46</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Height of face</td> - <td class="tdr">12.84</td> - <td class="tdr">11.98</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Height of nose</td> - <td class="tdr">5.63</td> - <td class="tdr">5.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Width of nose</td> - <td class="tdr">3.76</td> - <td class="tdr">3.34</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Index of stretch of arms</td> - <td class="tdr">103.1</td> - <td class="tdr">102.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Index of arm</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">42.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Index of height sitting</td> - <td class="tdr">52.6</td> - <td class="tdr">52.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Index of width of shoulders</td> - <td class="tdr">22.6</td> - <td class="tdr">22</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cephalic index</td> - <td class="tdr">81.6</td> - <td class="tdr">78.8</td> - </tr> -</table></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span></p> -<p>In addition, Doctor Jenness, in 1913, measured 13 adult male Point -Hope Eskimo for stature, head length, and head breadth.<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> He -obtained the following records:</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<col span="4" width="25%"></col> - <tr> - <th>Stature</th> - <th>Head length</th> - <th>Head breadth</th> - <th>Cephalic index</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">160.5</td> - <td class="tdr">19.7</td> - <td class="tdr">15.1</td> - <td class="tdr">76.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">168.5</td> - <td class="tdr">19.6</td> - <td class="tdr">14.7</td> - <td class="tdr">75.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">167.3</td> - <td class="tdr">19.4</td> - <td class="tdr">14.5</td> - <td class="tdr">74.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">162.9</td> - <td class="tdr">21.0</td> - <td class="tdr">14.6</td> - <td class="tdr">69.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">162.4</td> - <td class="tdr">19.2</td> - <td class="tdr">14.5</td> - <td class="tdr">75.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">167.8</td> - <td class="tdr">19.5</td> - <td class="tdr">14.9</td> - <td class="tdr">76.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">170.2</td> - <td class="tdr">18.8</td> - <td class="tdr">14.7</td> - <td class="tdr">78.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">170.4</td> - <td class="tdr">18.8</td> - <td class="tdr">14.8</td> - <td class="tdr">78.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">168.3</td> - <td class="tdr">19.4</td> - <td class="tdr">15.3</td> - <td class="tdr">78.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">174.3</td> - <td class="tdr">18.6</td> - <td class="tdr">15.1</td> - <td class="tdr">81.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">158.3</td> - <td class="tdr">18.7</td> - <td class="tdr">15.4</td> - <td class="tdr">82.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">168.2</td> - <td class="tdr">19.2</td> - <td class="tdr">16.3</td> - <td class="tdr">84.9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">167.3</td> - <td class="tdr">18.7</td> - <td class="tdr">15.9</td> - <td class="tdr">85.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><em>Means</em><a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">168.2</td> - <td class="tdr">19.28</td> - <td class="tdr">15.06</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>78.1</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>Doctor Jenness<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> also gives useful data on the stature and cephalic -index of living Eskimo from other localities which, with the addition -of the sources and a slightly different arrangement, are here reproduced:</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Stature"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Stature</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="4" width="16.7%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2">Place</th> - <th colspan="2">Men</th> - <th colspan="2">Women</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Cases</th> - <th>Stature</th> - <th>Cases</th> - <th>Stature</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Smith Sound (Steensby)</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - <td class="tdr">157.4</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - <td class="tdr">145.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>S. W. Greenland (Hansen)</td> - <td class="tdr">21</td> - <td class="tdr">157.6</td> - <td class="tdr">24</td> - <td class="tdr">151.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Labrador (Duckworth and Pain)</td> - <td class="tdr">11</td> - <td class="tdr">157.7</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - <td class="tdr">149.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Smith Sound (Hrdlička)<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a></td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">157.7</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>S. E. Greenland (Hansen)</td> - <td class="tdr">22</td> - <td class="tdr">160.4</td> - <td class="tdr">23</td> - <td class="tdr">152.9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Point Barrow (Ray)</td> - <td class="tdr">51</td> - <td class="tdr">161.5</td> - <td class="tdr">28</td> - <td class="tdr">153.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hudson Bay (South Island and Aivilik)</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>(S. I. 35, Tocher; A. 9, Boas)</td> - <td class="tdr">44</td> - <td class="tdr">162.0</td> - <td class="tdr">12</td> - <td class="tdr">151.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mackenzie Delta (Jenness)</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">162.2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>N. E. Greenland (Hansen)</td> - <td class="tdr">31</td> - <td class="tdr">164.7</td> - <td class="tdr">15</td> - <td class="tdr">155.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Coronation Gulf (Jenness)</td> - <td class="tdr">82</td> - <td class="tdr">164.8</td> - <td class="tdr">42</td> - <td class="tdr">156.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Iglulik, Hudson Bay (Parry)</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - <td class="tdr">166.0</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - <td class="tdr">153.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Point Hope (Jenness)</td> - <td class="tdr">13</td> - <td class="tdr">166.5</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mackenzie Delta (Stone)</td> - <td class="tdr">12</td> - <td class="tdr">167.5</td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - <td class="tdr">151.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Noatak River (Stone)</td> - <td class="tdr">11</td> - <td class="tdr">167.9</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="tdr">155.5</td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Cephalic Index"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Cephalic Index</span><a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="4" width="16.7%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2">Place</th> - <th colspan="2">Men</th> - <th colspan="2">Women</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Cases</th> - <th>Stature</th> - <th>Cases</th> - <th>Stature</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mackenzie Delta (Stone)</td> - <td class="tdr">12</td> - <td class="tdr">73.9</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mackenzie Delta (Jenness)</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">76.1</td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - <td class="tdr">75.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southeast Greenland (Hansen)</td> - <td class="tdr">22</td> - <td class="tdr">75.7</td> - <td class="tdr">23</td> - <td class="tdr">75.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Labrador (Duckworth and Pain)</td> - <td class="tdr">11</td> - <td class="tdr">77.0</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - <td class="tdr">74.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hudson Bay (Tocher and Boas)</td> - <td class="tdr">35</td> - <td class="tdr">77.2</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Coronation Gulf (Jenness)</td> - <td class="tdr">82</td> - <td class="tdr">77.6</td> - <td class="tdr">42</td> - <td class="tdr">76.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northeast Greenland (Hansen)</td> - <td class="tdr">31</td> - <td class="tdr">77.8</td> - <td class="tdr">15</td> - <td class="tdr">76.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Smith Sound (Steensby)</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - <td class="tdr">78.0</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - <td class="tdr">77.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southwest Greenland (Hansen)</td> - <td class="tdr">21</td> - <td class="tdr">78.1</td> - <td class="tdr">24</td> - <td class="tdr">76.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Point Hope (Jenness)</td> - <td class="tdr">13</td> - <td class="tdr"><a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a>78.3</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Noatak River (Stone)</td> - <td class="tdr">11</td> - <td class="tdr">81.6</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="tdr">78.8</td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<div class="footnotes"><h5>FOOTNOTES:</h5> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> Ray, Lieut. P. H., Report of the International Polar Expedition to Point Barrow, -Alaska. Washington, 1885, p. 50.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> Zur Anthropologie der Nordamerikanischen Indianer. Verh. Berl. Ges. Anthrop., -Sitz. Mai 18, 1895 (with Z. Ethnol. for same year).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> A. J. Stone's Measurements of Natives of the Northwestern Territories. Bull. Am. -Mus. Nat. Hist., 1901, <span class="smcap">XIV</span>, pp. 53-68.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> Physical Characteristics of the Copper Eskimo. Rep. Canad. Arch. Exped. 1913-1918, Ottawa, 1923, -Introd., also p. B37.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> By present writer.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> Rep. Canad. Arct. Exped., 1913-1918, B50.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> Added from author's Anthropology of Central and Smith Sound Eskimo, 1910, 228; the stature of one -woman was 146.7.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> Physical Characteristics of the Copper Eskimo. Rep. Canad. Arct. Exped., 1913-1918, Ottawa, 1923, -p. B55.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> The totals of the measurements give <em>78.1</em>—A. H.</p></div></div> - - -<h4>THE SKULL</h4> - -<p>The first western Eskimo skull collected for scientific purposes -was apparently that of a female St. Lawrence Islander. It was -taken from the rocks of the island by the Kotzebue party in 1817. -It was reported upon phrenologically in 1822 by Gall.<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></p> - -<p>In 1839 Morton, in his "Crania Americana" (p. 248), gives -measurements and the illustration of a western Eskimo skull from -Icy Cape, collected by Dr. A. Collie, surgeon of H. M. S. <em>Blossom</em>. -The principal measurements of this evidently female skull were: -Length, 17.02 centimeters; breadth, 12.70; height, 12.70. Cephalic -index, <em>74.6</em>.</p> - -<p>In 1862<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> and 1863<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> Daniel Wilson reports briefly on six -Tchuktchi skulls, which were probably those of Asiatic Eskimo. He -says:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>My opportunities for examining Esquimaux crania have been sufficient to -furnish me with very satisfactory data for forming an opinion on the true -Arctic skull form. In addition to the measurements of 38 skulls, * * * -I have recently compared and carefully measured six Tchuktchi [probably -Asiatic coast Eskimo] skulls, in the collection of the Smithsonian Institution, -exhumed from the burial place of a village called Tergnyune, on the island of -Arikamcheche, at Glassnappe Harbor, west of Bering Strait, and during a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span>recent visit to Philadelphia I enjoyed the advantage of examining, in company -with Dr. J. Aitken Meigs, a series of 125 [eastern] Esquimaux crania, obtained -by Doctor Hayes during his Arctic journey of 1860. The comparison -between the Tchuktchi and the true Esquimaux skull is interesting. Without -being identical, the correspondence in form is such as their languages and -other affinities would suggest. Of the former, moreover, the number is too -few, and the derivation of all of them from one cemetery adds to the chances -of exceptional family features; but on carefully examining the Hayes collection -with a view to this comparison, I found it was quite possible to select -an equal number of Esquimaux crania closely corresponding to the Tchuktchi -type, which indeed presents the most prominent characteristics of the former, -only less strongly marked.</p></div> - -<p>In Prehistoric Man, Volume II, Plate XV, this author gives also -the measurements of the Icy Cape skull recorded by Morton.</p> - -<p>The principal mean measurements of the six Tchuktchi skulls (both -sexes) were: Height, 17.60 centimeters; breadth, 13.59; height, 13.77; -cranial index, <em>77.2</em>.</p> - -<p>The next measurements on western Eskimo crania are those given -in 1867 by J. Barnard Davis (<em>Thes. cran.</em>). This author measured 6 -skulls, 3 of which were from Port Clarence (Seward Peninsula), -2 from Kotzebue Sound, and 1 from Cape Lisburne. The measurements, -regrettably, are in inches. They include the greatest glabello-occipital -length, greatest breadth, height (plane of for. magn. to -vertex), height of face (chin-nasion), and breadth of face (d. bizygom. -max.). The cranial index of the 4 specimens identified as -male averaged <em>75.5</em> (75-76), that of the 2 females <em>77.5</em> (77-78). On -page <a href="#Page_226">226</a> the author mentions also an artificially deformed skull -of a Koniag; this was in all probability a wrong identification for -no such deformations are known from the island (Kodiak).</p> - -<p>In 1868 Jeffries Wyman<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> published measurements of 5 skulls of -"Tsuktshi," the same as those of Daniel Wilson, and of 5 from the -Yukon River, "three of which are Mahlemuts."</p> - -<p>The identification of the specimens was partly erroneous. The -data with corrected identification are republished by Dall (q. v.) in -1877. And the same skulls figure in all future measurements.</p> - -<p>In 1875 Topinard<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> gives the Barnard Davis measurements in -metric form without, so far as the western Eskimo are concerned, -any additions.</p> - -<p>The main measurements of Barnard Davis's western Eskimo skulls, -converted to metric values, follow. The sex identification in some -of the specimens is doubtful.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<col></col> -<col span="4" width="16.7%"></col> - <tr> - <th></th> - <th>Skull length</th> - <th>Breadth</th> - <th>Height (to vertex)</th> - <th>Cranial index</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Port Clarence, male</td> - <td class="tdr">17.8</td> - <td class="tdr">13.45</td> - <td class="tdr">-14</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Do</td> - <td class="tdr">17.8</td> - <td class="tdr">13.45</td> - <td class="tdr">14.2</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Port Clarence, female</td> - <td class="tdr">-18</td> - <td class="tdr">-14</td> - <td class="tdr">13.45</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.5</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Means of the three</td> - <td class="tdr bt bd">17.86</td> - <td class="tdr bt bd">13.64</td> - <td class="tdr bt bd">13.59</td> - <td class="tdr bt bd"><em>76.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kotzebue Sound, male</td> - <td class="tdr">17.55</td> - <td class="tdr">13.2</td> - <td class="tdr">13.45</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kotzebue Sound, female</td> - <td class="tdr">17.3</td> - <td class="tdr">13.45</td> - <td class="tdr">13.7</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.9</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Means of the two (probably both females)</td> - <td class="tdr bt bd">17.4</td> - <td class="tdr bt bd">13.35</td> - <td class="tdr bt bd">13.6</td> - <td class="tdr bt bd"><em>76.6</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cape Lisburne, male</td> - <td class="tdr">18.3</td> - <td class="tdr">14.2</td> - <td class="tdr">-14</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.8</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The next records are those by George A. Otis, published in 1876 -in the Check List of the Specimens in the Section of Anatomy of the -United States Army Medical Museum, Washington (pp. 13-15). -Aside from those on Greenland crania the author gives here the measurements -of 3 presumably Eskimo skulls collected by Dall; of 2 -western Eskimo skulls, no locality; and of 3 Mahlemut skulls, probably -from Norton Sound (St. Michael Island). In his later (1880) -catalogue,<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> page 13, Otis adds to the above three skulls from Prince -William Sound, which, however, were more probably Indian; the -three Mahlemuts, on the other hand, are given with the Alaskan -Indians (p. <a href="#Page_35">35</a>). These data are of but little value. The Eskimo -skulls are the same Smithsonian specimens that were reported upon -in 1868 by Jeffries Wyman.</p> - -<p>In 1878, Rae<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a> mentions some measurements or observations on -the skulls of Western Eskimo by Flower, but no records of these -could be located. Rae says:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>I had the privilege of attending the series of admirable lectures so ably -given by Professor Flower at the Royal College of Surgeons a few weeks ago -on the "Comparative Anatomy of Man," from which I derived much useful -information and on one point very considerable food for thought.</p> - -<p>I allude to the wonderful difference in form exhibited between the skulls of -the Eskimos from the neighborhood of Bering Strait, and of those inhabiting -Greenland, the latter being extremely dolichocephalic, whilst the former are -the very opposite—brachycephalic, the natives of the intermediate coast, from -the Coppermine River eastward, having mesocephalic heads.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span></p> - -<p>In 1879 Lucien Carr, in his "Observations on the Crania from the -Santa Barbara Islands, California"<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> (p. 281), gives erroneously -Otis's measurements of Aleut skulls as those of "Alaskan Eskimo."</p> - -<p>Meanwhile W. H. Dall has published (1877) his monograph on -the "Tribes of the Extreme Northwest,"<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a> in which he includes -Wyman's and also some of Otis's data on the Eskimo (and Aleut) -skulls from Alaska and Asia. The Tshuktshi are now classed as -Asiatic Eskimo, the Mahlemuts as Eskimo from St. Michael Island. -The total number of skulls described in the former series is 11, in -the latter series 6 (of Aleuts the number of skulls measured is 27 -adults and 7 children). The means of the principal measurements -of the Eskimo series, both sexes together, are as follows:</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Jeffries Wyman's and Otis's Measurements of Western Eskimo Crania"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Jeffries Wyman's and Otis's Measurements of Western Eskimo Crania</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="4" width="16.7%"></col> - <tr> - <th>Crania (both sexes)</th> - <th>Length</th> - <th>Breadth</th> - <th>Height</th> - <th>Cranial index</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Asiatic Eskimo</td> - <td class="tdr">17.8</td> - <td class="tdr">14.1</td> - <td class="tdr">13.2</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>79.3</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northwest American Eskimo</td> - <td class="tdr">17.5</td> - <td class="tdr">13.2</td> - <td class="tdr">13.1</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.1</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>There were also taken the weight, capacity, circumference, longitudinal -arch, length of the frontal, parietal, and occipital, "zygomatic -diameter," and in two specimens of each series the facial -angle. To-day these data have but a historical value.</p> - -<p>In 1882, Quatrefages and Hamy,<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> in their "Crania ethnica" -(p. 440) give the measurements of two male Kaniagmiouts (Kodiak -Indian, A. Pinart, collector) and one female Mahlemiout. The principal -measurements of these skulls are as follows:</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Crania ethnica"> -<col></col> -<col span="2" width="33.3%"></col> - <tr> - <th></th> - <th>Males (2)</th> - <th>Female (1)</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Skull:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length</td> - <td class="tdr">18.6</td> - <td class="tdr">17.9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">14.2</td> - <td class="tdr">13.9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height (bas.-bg.)</td> - <td class="tdr">14.3</td> - <td class="tdr">13.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cranial index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.34</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.65</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nose:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length</td> - <td class="tdr">5.9</td> - <td class="tdr">5.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">2.3</td> - <td class="tdr">2.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nasal index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>38.98</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>45.09</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Facial index, total</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.69</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>70.37</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Orbital index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.68</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.24</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>In 1883 Dr. Irving C. Rosse, in his "Medical and Anthropological -Notes on Alaska,"<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> refers to his examination of a number of Eskimo -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span>skulls from the St. Lawrence Island brought to the Army Medical -Museum.<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a> There are no measurements outside of a reference to the -capacity, but there are two excellent chromolithographs showing two -female crania, besides a number of outline drawings.</p> - -<p>The next data on the western Eskimo skull are in rather unsatisfactory -condition. They are those of Boas. In his report on the "Anthropologie -der nordamerikanischen Indianer,"<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> Doctor Boas mentions -the cranial index of the Alaska Eskimo to average <em>77</em>; and on -page 397 he reports the same index as secured on 37 "Alaska Eskimo" -skulls, apparently of both sexes. The only note relating to these -figures is found on page 393, where it is stated that these results -proceed from measurements that had been made for the author at -the Peabody Museum, Cambridge, the American Museum, New York, -the Academy of Sciences, Philadelphia, and the United States Army -Medical Museum, Washington; and that he utilized also the measurements -of Barnard Davis and Otis. On 22 of the above western -Eskimo skulls there is also given the length-height index of <em>76.6</em>. -There is no information as to either sex or locality. There are no -other measurements.</p> - -<p>Deniker (1901) and later Martin (1914) repeat the data given by -Boas.</p> - -<p>In 1890 Tarenetzky<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> publishes measurements and observations on -four Koniag (Kodiak) skulls and one Oglemute (Aglegmute, Alaska -Peninsula). The main measurements (pp. 70-71) are:</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="1890 Tarenetzky"> -<col></col> -<col span="6" width="12.5%"></col> - <tr> - <th></th> - <th>Koneage<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a></th> - <th>Koneage</th> - <th>Koneage</th> - <th>Koneage</th> - <th>Means<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> of the four from Kodiak Island</th> - <th>Aglegm-jute (Alaska Peninsula)</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Skull:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length</td> - <td class="tdr">17.1</td> - <td class="tdr">16.4</td> - <td class="tdr">17.2</td> - <td class="tdr">16.8</td> - <td class="tdr">16.88</td> - <td class="tdr">19.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">13.8</td> - <td class="tdr">15.7</td> - <td class="tdr">15.8</td> - <td class="tdr">14.4</td> - <td class="tdr">14.93</td> - <td class="tdr">13.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height</td> - <td class="tdr">13.1</td> - <td class="tdr">14.4</td> - <td class="tdr">14.0</td> - <td class="tdr">13.2</td> - <td class="tdr">13.68</td> - <td class="tdr">14.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Cranial index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>80.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>95.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>72.1</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nose:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length</td> - <td class="tdr">4.7</td> - <td class="tdr">5.3</td> - <td class="tdr">5.7</td> - <td class="tdr">5.9</td> - <td class="tdr">5.40</td> - <td class="tdr">5.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">2.4</td> - <td class="tdr">2.5</td> - <td class="tdr">2.6</td> - <td class="tdr">2.3</td> - <td class="tdr">2.45</td> - <td class="tdr">2.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Nasal index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>51.0</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>47.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>46.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>39.0</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>45.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>39.6</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Orbital index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>97.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>80.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.1</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span></p> - -<p>In 1900 Sergi<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> reports on four Kodiak skulls that he examined in -Paris. Two of these are probably Aleut (or Indian). The cranial -indices were, respectively, <em>75.8</em>, <em>78.3</em>, <em>88</em>, and <em>88.2</em>.</p> - -<p>In 1916 E. W. Hawkes presented a thesis on the "Skeletal Measurements -and Observations on the Point Barrow Eskimo, with Comparisons -from other Eskimo Groups."<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a> The number of skulls measured -was 27, of which 14 were identified as adult males, 5 adult females, 6 -adolescents, and 2 infants. In addition there are measurements by -Ralph Linton of other skeletal parts than the skull of three skeletons.</p> - -<p>The measurements, though the first taken by this author, have evidently -been taken in a painstaking manner and according to modern -methods, and are therefore of some value. An abstract of those on -the adults follows:</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Principal Measurements of Point Barrow Crania, by Hawkes"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Principal Measurements of Point Barrow Crania, by Hawkes</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="2" width="25%"></col> - <tr> - <th></th> - <th>Males (14)</th> - <th>Females (5)</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Vault:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length</td> - <td class="tdr">18.91</td> - <td class="tdr">17.86</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">13.73</td> - <td class="tdr">13.58</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Basion-bregma height</td> - <td class="tdr">13.86</td> - <td class="tdr">13.30</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Cranial index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>72.65</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.06</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height-length index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>73.24</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74.45</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height-breadth index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>100.68</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>98.01</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Face:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Diam. bizygom. max</td> - <td class="tdr">14.10</td> - <td class="tdr">13.40</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">BF:BH proportion</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>102.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>98.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Chin-nasion height</td> - <td class="tdr">13.15</td> - <td class="tdr">11.60</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Alveolar point-nasion</td> - <td class="tdr">7.42</td> - <td class="tdr">6.80</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Facial index, total</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.13</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>52.48</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Facial index, upper</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.20</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.05</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nose:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height</td> - <td class="tdr">5.66</td> - <td class="tdr">5.24</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">2.30</td> - <td class="tdr">2.18</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>40.69</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>41.62</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Orbits:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height</td> - <td class="tdr">3.76</td> - <td class="tdr">3.59</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">4.13</td> - <td class="tdr">4.05</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.5</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Dental arch:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length</td> - <td class="tdr">5.31</td> - <td class="tdr">6.27</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">4.96</td> - <td class="tdr">6.06</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>93.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>96.7</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>In 1923 Cameron<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> published the following data on six western -Eskimo skulls from Port Clarence, collected by the Canadian Arctic -Expedition:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Post Clarence (Seward Peninsula) Eskimo Crania"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Post Clarence (Seward Peninsula) Eskimo Crania</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="7" width="11.1%"></col> - <tr> - <th colspan="4">Vault</th> - <th colspan="4">Nose</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th>Length</th> - <th>Breadth</th> - <th>Height</th> - <th>Cranial index</th> - <th>Length</th> - <th>Breadth</th> - <th>Nasal index</th> - <th>Orbital index</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Males:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">18.9</td> - <td class="tdr">13.9</td> - <td class="tdr">14.1</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>73.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5.9</td> - <td class="tdr">2.5</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>42.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">18.7</td> - <td class="tdr">14.3</td> - <td class="tdr">13.7</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5.3</td> - <td class="tdr">2.5</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>47.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">18.8</td> - <td class="tdr">13.25</td> - <td class="tdr">14.2</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>70.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr">6.0</td> - <td class="tdr">2.2</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>36.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">17.8</td> - <td class="tdr">13.0</td> - <td class="tdr">13.3</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>73.4</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.9</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">19.2</td> - <td class="tdr">13.7</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>71.4</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mean: 18.68</td> - <td class="tdr">13.63</td> - <td class="tdr">13.82</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>72.97</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5.73</td> - <td class="tdr">2.40</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>41.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.9</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Female: 17.85</td> - <td class="tdr">13.1</td> - <td class="tdr">12.8</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>73.1</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The last contribution to the craniology of the western Eskimo -before the present report are the data embodied in my "Catalogue -of Human Crania in the United States National Museum Collections," -published in 1924.<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> These data are embodied in those of the -present report.</p> - -<p>For ready survey the old records on western Eskimo crania are -given in the following table. A sex distinction in the earlier reports -was mostly impracticable or remained doubtful.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Previous Measurements of Western Eskimo Skulls"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Previous Measurements of Western Eskimo Skulls</span></caption> -<col span="2"></col> -<col span="8" width="9.1%"></col> - <tr> - <th colspan="2" rowspan="2"></th> - <th colspan="4">Vault</th> - <th colspan="4">Nose</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Length</th> - <th>Breadth</th> - <th>Height</th> - <th>Cranial index</th> - <th>Length</th> - <th>Breadth</th> - <th>Nasal index</th> - <th>Orbital index</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td>Icy Cape, ♀ (Morton, 1839)</td> - <td class="tdr">17.02</td> - <td class="tdr">12.70</td> - <td class="tdr">12.70</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74.6</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - <td>Asiatic Eskimo ("Tschuktchi"): mean (Daniel Wilson, 1862)</td> - <td class="tdr">17.60</td> - <td class="tdr">13.59</td> - <td class="tdr">13.77</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.2</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td>Port Clarence (Barnard Davis, 1867)</td> - <td class="tdr">17.86</td> - <td class="tdr">13.64</td> - <td class="tdr">13.59</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.4</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td>Kotzebue Sound, ♀ (Barnard Davis, 1867)</td> - <td class="tdr">17.40</td> - <td class="tdr">13.35</td> - <td class="tdr">13.60</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.6</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">11</td> - <td>Asiatic Eskimo (Wyman and Otis, 1868-1876)</td> - <td class="tdr">17.80</td> - <td class="tdr">14.10</td> - <td class="tdr">13.20</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>79.3</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - <td>N. W. Amer. Eskimo (St. Michael Island) (Wyman and Otis, 1868-1876)</td> - <td class="tdr">17.50</td> - <td class="tdr">13.20</td> - <td class="tdr">13.10</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.1</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td>Kodiak Island, ♂ (Quatrefages and Hamy, 1882)</td> - <td class="tdr">18.60</td> - <td class="tdr">14.20</td> - <td class="tdr">14.30</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.35</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5.9</td> - <td class="tdr">2.3</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>39</em></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td>Kodiak, ♀ (Quatrefages and Hamy, 1882) </td> - <td class="tdr">17.90</td> - <td class="tdr">13.90</td> - <td class="tdr">13.20</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.65</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5.1</td> - <td class="tdr">2.3</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>45.1</em></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td>(37 western Eskimo)<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> (Boas, 1895)</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>77</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td>Kodiak Island, ♀<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> (Tarenetzky, 1900)</td> - <td class="tdr">16.88</td> - <td class="tdr">14.93</td> - <td class="tdr">13.68</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5.4</td> - <td class="tdr">2.45</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>45.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td>Kodiak Island,<a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> (Sergi, 1900)</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr bbox">2:<em>77.1</em><br />2:<em>88.1</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">14</td> - <td>Point Barrow, ♂ (Hawkes, 1916)</td> - <td class="tdr">18.91</td> - <td class="tdr">13.73</td> - <td class="tdr">13.86</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>72.65</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5.66</td> - <td class="tdr">2.30</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>40.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.3</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td>Point Barrow, ♀ (Hawkes, 1916)</td> - <td class="tdr">17.86</td> - <td class="tdr">13.58</td> - <td class="tdr">13.30</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5.24</td> - <td class="tdr">2.18</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>41.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.5</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td>Port Clarence, ♂ (Cameron, 1923)</td> - <td class="tdr">18.68</td> - <td class="tdr">13.63</td> - <td class="tdr">13.82</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>73</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5.73</td> - <td class="tdr">2.40</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>41.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.9</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td>Port Clarence, ♀ (Cameron, 1923)</td> - <td class="tdr">17.85</td> - <td class="tdr">13.10</td> - <td class="tdr">12.80</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>73.1</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<div class="footnotes"><h5>FOOTNOTES:</h5> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> Voyage pittoresque autour du Monde, by Louis Choris, Paris, 1822, pp. 15, 16.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> Wilson, Daniel, Prehistoric man. Two vols. Lond., 1862; <span class="smcap">II</span>, pl. 15; 3d ed., 1876, -<span class="smcap">II</span>, 192, 15.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> Wilson, Daniel, Physical ethnology. Smithsonian Report for 1862, Washington, 1863, -pp. 261-262. The measurements of the Tchuktchi are given in the Prehistoric Man, -vol. <span class="smcap">II</span>, Table 16.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> Observations on Crania. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., <span class="smcap">XI</span>, 440-462. Boston, 1868.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> Topinard, P., Mesures craniometriques des Esquimaux. Rev. d'Anthrop., 1873, <span class="smcap">II</span>, -499-522.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> List of the specimens in the Anatomical Section of the Army Medical Museum. -Washington, 1880.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> Rae, John, Eskimo skulls. J. Anthrop. Inst. Gr. Brit, London, 1878, <span class="smcap">VII</span>, 142.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> Rep. U. S. Geogr. Surv. W. of 100 Merid., vol. <span class="smcap">VII</span>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> U. S. Geog. and Geol. Surv. Rocky Mt. Reg. Contributions to North American Ethnology, -<span class="smcap">I</span>. Washington, 1877, p. 63 et seq.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> Quatrefages, A. de, and Hamy, E. T., Crania ethnica. Paris, 1882, 438, 440.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> Cruise of the <em>Corwin</em> in 1881. Washington, 1883, p. 38.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> Now in the Division of Physical Anthropology of the U. S. National Museum.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> 1895, Verh. Berliner, Ges. Anthrop. p. 367 et seq.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> Tarenetzky, Al., Beitrüge zur Craniologie der Ainos auf Sachalin. Mem. Acad. imp. -Sc. St. Pétersb., 1890, XXXVII, No. 13, 1-55.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> Most if not all the Kodiak skulls are doubtless females, the Oglemute a male. Quite probably also -the Kodiak skulls are those of Aleuts and not of Eskimo.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> By present author.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> Sergi, G., Crani Esquimesi. Atti della società Romana di antropologia, Roma, 1900, -<span class="smcap">VII</span>, 2, 93-102.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> Am. Anthrop., 1916, <span class="smcap">XVIII</span>, 203-244.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> Cameron, John, Osteology of the western and central Eskimo. Rep. Canad. Arctic -Exp., 1913-1918. Ottawa, 1923. With a report on the teeth by S. G. Ritchie and J. S. -Bagnall. Table and means by the present writer.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> No. 1: The Eskimo, Alaska and Related Indians, Northeastern Asiatics. Proc. U. S. -Nat. Mus., 1924, <span class="smcap">LXIII</span>; sep., 51 pp.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> No details; series comprises specimens measured by Wyman, Otis, and Barnard Davis.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> Probably Aleuts, not Eskimo.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> Not the same with those of Tarenetzky; two probably Aleut.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span></p></div></div> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Present Data on the Western Eskimo</span></h3> - - -<h4>THE LIVING</h4> - -<p>Barring the Aleutian and Pribilof Islands in the south and the -Chukchee territory in the west, the Bering Sea is wholly the sea of -the Eskimo, the Indians occupying the inland but reaching nowhere -to the coast. There is doubtless much of significance in this remarkable -distribution. It is now quite certain that the Eskimo has not -been pressed out by the Indian; there are as a rule no traces of him -farther inland than where he has been within historic times. On -the other hand no Indian remnants or remains are known from -any part of the coasts or islands within the Eskimo region; though -the study of the older sites in these regions has barely as yet begun, -besides which (see Narrative) it is a serious question whether really -old sites could now be located in these regions at all even if they had -once existed. At all events the Eskimo appears from all indications -to be the latest comer, and judging from his remains his occupancy -here is not geologically ancient; it is one to be counted, apparently, in -many hundreds of years rather than in thousands. The Aleuts in the -south are, as I have pointed out in the Catalogue (No. 1, 1924, p. 39), -not Eskimo but Indians, related to the general Alaska Indian type; -and the Pribilof Islands appear never to have been occupied until -fairly recently, when a good number of Aleuts, mostly mixed bloods, -have been transported and established there in the interest of the -seal fisheries.</p> - - -<h4>MEASUREMENTS OF LIVING WESTERN ESKIMO</h4> - -<p>Thanks to Moore, Collins, and Stewart, all of the National -Museum, instructed by me and working with the same instruments, -we now have several small to fair series of measurements on -the living western Eskimo of both sexes. They are tabulated below. -They are the first made on these groups and will be of much interest -both in general and in connection with the measurements made on the -skulls and bones of most of the same people. The main points shown -are as follows:</p> - -<p><em>Stature.</em>—The stature of the males ranges from markedly to moderately -submedium. There is a considerable similarity. Only the -Yukon group and that of Togiak reach near or slightly above medium, -the general human medium for males approaching 165 centimeters. -The female stature on the St. Lawrence Island averages 12 -centimeters less than that of the males, which is about the difference -found in most other peoples. At Hooper Bay, and especially at the -Nunivak Island, the difference is less, indicating either that the males -are slightly stunted or that the growth of the females is somewhat -favored.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span></p> - -<p><em>Height sitting.</em>—The height-sitting-stature index ranges from -slightly to quite notably higher than it is in other races, indicating -a tendency toward a relatively long trunk and somewhat short limbs. -A study of the long bones shows that this is due especially, if not -wholly, to the relative shortness of the tibia; and the subdevelopment -of this bone may, it seems, be ascribed to a great deal of squatting -both at home during the long winters and in the canoes. The male -Eskimo show more difference from other males in this respect than -the Eskimo females show from other females.<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a></p> - -<p><em>Arm span.</em>—Relatively to the stature the length of the arms in the -Eskimo males is shorter than it is in other racial groups, though there -appears to be some inequality in this respect. This shortness would -be especially marked if we compared the arm span with the height -sitting. It is due essentially to a shortness of the distal half of the -upper limbs. The males once more show this disproportion more -as compared to other males than the females compared with others -of their sex. (See comp. data in Old Americans.) This may be -connected in some way with the male Eskimo work and habits; or it -may be an expression of a correlative subdevelopment with that of the -lower limbs. It is a good point for further study.</p> - -<p><em>The head.</em>—The head, especially when taken in relation to the -stature, is of good size, particularly on the Nunivak Island and on the -Yukon. This agrees with what is known of the Eskimo head, skull, -and brain elsewhere.</p> - -<p>The size of the Eskimo head—which is not caused by a thick skull—will -best be appreciated by contrasting it with that of civilized whites. -In whites in general the mean head diameter or cephalic module -ranges in males from approximately 15.70 to 16.40; in the male western -Eskimo groups the range is 15.87 to 16.08, and 16.11 in the group -at Marshall on the Yukon. The percentage relation of the module to -stature in 12 groups of male whites, including the old Americans, -averages <em>9.31</em> to <em>10.11</em>; in the male Eskimo groups it is from <em>9.57</em> to -<em>9.94</em>. In females, the cephalic module is 15.57 in the old Americans, -15.36 to 15.68 in the Eskimo; the relation of the module to stature in -the former being <em>9.59</em>, in the latter <em>10.15</em> to <em>10.25</em>.</p> - -<p>In the western Eskimo woman the head dimensions are particularly -favorable. In the old American whites the mean head diameter -in the female is to that of the male on the average as <em>95</em> to 100; in -the two main groups of the western Eskimo it is as <em>96.1</em> and <em>96.7</em> to -100. Nothing is known as to the cause of this apparently favorable -status of the Eskimo woman; it is another interesting point for -further inquiry.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span></p> -<p>In shape, the head of the western Eskimo is highly mesocephalic -to moderately brachycephalic and of only fair height, and it seldom -approaches the scaphoid or dome-shaped. It is not the narrow, high, -keeled skull of the northeastern and often the northern Eskimo. -The physiognomy, the characteristics of the body, and the mentality -and behavior, are in general typical Eskimo; but the form of the -vault is substantially different. It is a form which approaches on -one side that of the northwesternmost Indian, and on the other that of -the northeastern and Mongoloid Asiatics. More must be said about -this when we come to consider the skull.</p> - -<p><em>The forehead.</em>—Anthropometric studies have shown repeatedly<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> -that the height of the forehead is not a safe gauge of intelligence, -as commonly believed, but is controlled by the variable height of -the hair line. Thus the common full-blood American Negro -laborer and servant show a slightly higher forehead than the educated -old American whites.</p> - -<p>Something of a similar nature is found in the Eskimo. As seen -in the following table, in the males the western Eskimo forehead is -absolutely, and especially relatively to stature, higher than it is in -the whites. In the females the absolute height in the two races is -identical, but relatively to stature the Eskimo again shows a clear -though somewhat lesser advantage. The condition is apparently not -due to the size of the head, for this is not greater than in the whites, -in the males; while in the females, where the Eskimo shows a -slightly larger head than the white in relation to stature, the forehead -fails to correspond.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Dimensions of Forehead"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Dimensions of Forehead</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="4" width="16.7%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2"></th> - <th colspan="2">Western Eskimo</th> - <th colspan="2">Old Americans</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Male</th> - <th>Female</th> - <th>Male</th> - <th>Female</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>cm.</em></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>cm.</em></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>cm.</em></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>cm.</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Height, nasion to hair line</td> - <td class="tdr">6.86</td> - <td class="tdr">6.45</td> - <td class="tdr">6.59</td> - <td class="tdr">6.45</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Percentage relation to stature</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>4.23</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>4.23</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>3.78</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>3.80</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Breadth: Diameter frontal minimum</td> - <td class="tdr">10.58</td> - <td class="tdr">10.54</td> - <td class="tdr">10.59</td> - <td class="tdr">10.12</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Percentage relation of diameter frontal minimum to breadth of face</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>71.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>73.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.8</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Forehead index <span class="overunder"><span class="bb">(H×100)</span><br />(B)</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>64.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>61.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>63.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>62.1</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>With the lower breadth of the forehead, conditions are also interesting. -The absolute figures for the two races show a reversal. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span> -The height of the forehead is larger in the Eskimo than in the white -males, equal in the females; the lower frontal breadth is equal in the -males but larger in the Eskimo than in the white female. Proportionately -to stature, which is so much lower in the Eskimo, both sexes -of the latter show an advantage in the dimension over the white.</p> - -<p>The percental relation of the breadth of the forehead to that of -the face reflects the excess of the latter in the Eskimo, particularly -the male. There is evidently not a full direct correlation between -the two dimensions. Yet relatively to its height the face is broader -in the females than in the males (see below), which is doubtless -not without influence on the lower breadth of the forehead in the -former.</p> - -<p>To summarize, the western Eskimo forehead exceeds in area that -of the American whites, in both sexes, and that particularly in relation -to stature. As to the individual measurements, the male Eskimo -forehead as contrasted with that of the white is especially high, the -female especially broad.</p> - -<p>To which should be added that in the Eskimo the spheno-temporal -region is often remarkably full, almost bulging, so that, contrary -to what may be observed in the Negro, the frontal maximum -diameter is also probably larger than in the whites, all of which -doubtless has significance, even though this is not yet fully understood.</p> - -<p><em>The face.</em>—The principal measurements and relations are given -below. They show a face large and especially broad. Moreover, -relatively to its height the face is especially broad in the Eskimo -female, in connection doubtless with the well-known excess of the -work (in softening leather, etc.) of her jaws, with consequent development -of the muscles of mastication, which in turn broaden the -zygoma.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Dimensions of the Face"> - <caption class="bb"><span class="smcap">Dimensions of the Face</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="4" width="16.7%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2" class="bb"></th> - <th colspan="2" class="bl bb">Western Eskimo</th> - <th colspan="2" class="bl bb">Old Americans</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl bb">Male</th> - <th class="bb">Female</th> - <th class="bl bb">Male</th> - <th class="bb">Female</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Height, menton-nasion</td> - <td class="tdc bl">12.67 </td> - <td class="tdc">11.64</td> - <td class="tdc bl">12.15 </td> - <td class="tdc">11.09</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Females to males (M=100)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl"><em>91.9</em></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl"><em>91.3</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Diameter bizygomatic maximum</td> - <td class="tdc bl">14.88 </td> - <td class="tdc">14.30</td> - <td class="tdc bl">13.87 </td> - <td class="tdc">12.99</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Females to males (M=100)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl"><em>96.1</em></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl"><em>93.6</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Facial index, anatomic</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>85.2</em> </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>81.4</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>87.6</em> </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>85.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Facial module (or mean diameter), anatomic</td> - <td class="tdc bl">13.77 </td> - <td class="tdc">12.97</td> - <td class="tdc bl">13.01 </td> - <td class="tdc">12.04</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Female to male (M=100)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl"><em>94.2</em></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl"><em>92.5</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Percentage relation of female and male to stature</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>8.49</em> </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>8.50</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>7.46</em> </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>7.44</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span></p> - -<p>The great size of the Eskimo face is especially apparent in the -relations of the mean diameter of the face to stature; it is in this -respect no less than 12 per cent in excess of that of the whites in the -males and 12.5 per cent in the females.<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a></p> - -<p><em>Lower facial breadth.</em>—Due to the great development of the masseter -muscles and the consequent frequent lesser or greater eversion -of the angles of the lower jaw, the bigonial diameter in the Eskimo -is very large, particularly when taken in relation to stature, and in -such relation it looms especially large in the females. Compared -with the old American whites, the bigonial breadth in its relation to -stature is higher in the Eskimo males by 15.5 per cent, in the Eskimo -females by 17.7 per cent. And measurements of Eskimo lower jaws -in general show that this breadth in the western contingents is not -exceptional.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Lower Facial Breadth"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Lower Facial Breadth</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="4" width="16.7%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2" class="bb"></th> - <th colspan="2" class="bl bb">Western Eskimo<br />(St. Lawrence Island)</th> - <th colspan="2" class="bl bb">Old Americans</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl bb">Males</th> - <th class="bb">Females</th> - <th class="bl bb">Males</th> - <th class="bb">Females</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Diameter bigonial</td> - <td class="tdc bl">11.78 </td> - <td class="tdc">11.18</td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.63 </td> - <td class="tdc">9.84</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Female vs. male</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl"><em>94.9</em></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl"><em>92.6</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Percentage relation to stature</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>7.21</em> </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>7.39</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>6.09</em> </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>6.08</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Percentage relation to breadth of face</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>80</em> </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>79.5</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>76.7</em> </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>75.8</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p><em>The nose.</em>—The nose of the western Eskimo promises to be of -much importance in the study of Eskimo origins in general. Nowhere -in this region is it like the nose of the northern or northeastern -groups. It is decidedly broader. Its breadth is intermediary -between that of the Alaska and other Indians and that of the northern -and northeastern Eskimo, connecting with both, and these characteristics -are so generalized throughout western Alaska and the Bering -Sea islands that they can not possibly be attributed to Indian or -other admixture. Nor can this relatively broad nose of the western -Eskimo be well attributed to environmental effects, i. e., to a broadening -of a formerly narrow nose through climatic conditions. There -do not appear to be any such conditions. The only rational explanation -seems to be that this is the more original condition of the -Eskimo nose, and that the northern and northeastern narrowness -is a later derivation. More may be said on this point when we -come to consider the skeletal remains.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 39</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_39a.jpg" width="700" height="415" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">The Wales People</span></p> - -<p>(Photo by Lomen Bros.)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 528px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 40</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_40a.jpg" width="528" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">The Long and Broad-faced Types, Wales</span></p> - -<p>(Photo by Lomen Bros.)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 563px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 41</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_41a.jpg" width="563" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>a</em>, Broad-faced and low-vaulted Eskimo, St. Lawrence Island. (Photo by R. -D. Moore, 1912. U.S.N.M.)</p></div> - -<img src="images/plate_41b.jpg" width="569" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>b</em>, Broad-faced type, St. Lawrence Island. (Photo by R. D. Moore, 1912. -U.S.N.M.)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 482px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 42</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_42a.jpg" width="482" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>a</em>, A young man from Seward Peninsula.</p></div> -<img src="images/plate_42b.jpg" width="585" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>b</em>, A boy from St. Lawrence Island.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Long-faced Type</span></p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 492px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 43</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_43a.jpg" width="492" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">A "Hypereskimo," King Island. Excessively Developed -Face</span></p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 480px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 44</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_44a.jpg" width="480" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Eskimo "Madonna" and Child, Northern Bering Sea Region</span></p> - -<p>(Photo by Lomen Bros.)</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span></p> - -<p>The Eskimo nose is also high, which goes with the height of the -whole face; that in turn evidently is attributable to more work and -demand—in brief, more mastication. The nose, face, lower jaw, and -other parts of the Eskimo anatomy offer rare opportunities for -studies in the heredity of acquired characters.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Nose Measurements"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Nose Measurements</span></caption> -<col span="5" width="20%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="3"></th> - <th colspan="2">American whites</th> - <th colspan="2" rowspan="2">Western Eskimo</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Old Americans and immigrants</th> - <th>Old Americans</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Males</th> - <th>Females</th> - <th>Males</th> - <th>Females</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(13 groups)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(6 groups)</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Height</td> - <td class="tdr">4.95-5.4</td> - <td class="tdr">4.94</td> - <td class="tdr">5.47-6.03</td> - <td class="tdr">5.03</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">3.45-3.6</td> - <td class="tdr">3.25</td> - <td class="tdr">3.82-3.93</td> - <td class="tdr">3.61</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>62.5-73</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>66</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>63.7-71.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>71.9</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p><em>The mouth.</em>—The western Eskimo mouth is large. It is considerably -larger (wider) than in the old American whites, though -these are of much higher stature. In relation to stature the width -of the western Eskimo mouth exceeds that in the white old Americans -by 13 per cent in the males and by nearly 14 per cent in the -females, but there is a close relation with that of a large group -of Indians. The details follow:</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="bb" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Mouth Width"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Mouth Width</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="6" width="12.5%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2" class="bb bt"></th> - <th colspan="2" class="bb bt bl">Western Eskimo<br />(Nunivak and<br />St. Lawrence Islands)</th> - <th colspan="2" class="bb bt bl">16 tribes of Indians<br />of the Southwest<br />and northern Mexico.</th> - <th colspan="2" class="bb bt bl">Old American whites.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl bb">Males</th> - <th class="bl bb">Females</th> - <th class="bl bb">Males</th> - <th class="bl bb">Females</th> - <th class="bl bb">Males</th> - <th class="bl bb">Females</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Width</td> - <td class="tdc bl">5.73 </td> - <td class="tdc">5.44</td> - <td class="tdc bl">5.85 </td> - <td class="tdc">5.49</td> - <td class="tdc bl">5.37 </td> - <td class="tdc">4.95</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Females versus males</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl"><em>94.9</em></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl"><em>93.8</em></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl"><em>92.3</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Percentage relation to stature</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>3.53</em> </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>3.57</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>3.50</em> </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>3.55</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>3.07</em> </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>3.08</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p><em>The ears.</em>—The ears of the western Eskimo are large. They are -especially long. They exceed in both size and relative length those -of whites, but are in both respects much more like those of the -American Indian. The excess in length, both in the Eskimo and -the Indian, is especially marked when this measurement is taken in -relation to stature.</p> - -<p>Relatively to its length, the ear of the female Eskimo in all our -groups is somewhat narrow, giving a lower index. This is not -observed in the available whites and Indians.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span></p> - -<p>None of the series below are affected seriously by the age factor; -though with an organ so much influenced by age as the ear the ideal -way would be to compare only groups of the same age.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Ears"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Ears</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="6" width="12.5%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2"></th> - <th colspan="2">Western Eskimo</th> - <th colspan="2">Miscellaneous North<br />American Indian</th> - <th colspan="2">Old American whites<br />(Labor Ser.)</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Males</th> - <th>Females</th> - <th>Males</th> - <th>Females</th> - <th>Males</th> - <th>Females</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Height of left ear</td> - <td class="tdr">7.05</td> - <td class="tdr">6.61</td> - <td class="tdr">7.25</td> - <td class="tdr">6.95</td> - <td class="tdr">6.69</td> - <td class="tdr">6.10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Breadth of left ear</td> - <td class="tdr">3.82</td> - <td class="tdr">3.49</td> - <td class="tdr">3.90</td> - <td class="tdr">3.70</td> - <td class="tdr">3.79</td> - <td class="tdr">3.47</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Ear index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>52.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>56.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>56.9</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Percentage relation of ear length to stature</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>4.34</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>4.33</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>4.25</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>4.35</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>3.84</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>3.68</em></td> - </tr> -</table> -<br /> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Ears"> - <tr> - <th></th> - <th>Western Eskimo groups</th> - <th>Whites in general</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Height of left ear</td> - <td class="tdc">6.71- 7.40 6.49-6.73</td> - <td class="tdc">6.20- 6.69</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Breadth of left ear</td> - <td class="tdc">3.72- 4.04 3.45-3.57</td> - <td class="tdc">3.58- 3.79</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Ear index</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>53.3 -58.9</em> <em>52.3 -53.1</em></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>56 -58.6</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p><em>The chest.</em>—The best measurements of the chest, experience has -shown, are the antero-posterior and lateral diameters at the nipple -height in the males and at the corresponding level of the upper border -of the fourth costal cartilages in the females. They give not merely -the individual dimensions but also their relation, which is of much -ontogenic as well as other interest, and their mean gives the chest -module which in relation to the stature is anthropologically as well as -individually (medically) important.</p> - -<p>The table following gives the chest measurements in the western -Eskimo, in a large group of Indians (my older data), and in the old -American whites as well as others.</p> - -<p>The Eskimo chest is large. In the males, in addition, it is very -deep. Compared to that of the white old Americans it is markedly -deeper in the males and broader in the females, notwithstanding the -fact that the Americans are much taller. It is even larger, besides -being relatively deeper in the males and somewhat broader in the -females, than it is in many tribes of the Indian. Only tall and -bulky Indians such as the Sioux show a chest that is absolutely -somewhat larger, but in relation to stature, with which the dimensions -of the chest stand in close correlation,<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a> the Eskimo prevails -even in this instance. This excess in chest development in the Eskimo -must be ascribed in the main to his occupations and exertions, particularly -again, it would seem, in connection with the canoe.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Chest Measurements"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Chest Measurements</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="6" width="12.5%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2"></th> - <th colspan="2">Western Eskimo,<br />Nunivak Island</th> - <th colspan="2">16 tribes of southwestern<br />and New Mexico Indians</th> - <th colspan="2">Old Americans</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Males</th> - <th>Females</th> - <th>Males</th> - <th>Females</th> - <th>Males</th> - <th>Females</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Stature</td> - <td class="tdr">161.8</td> - <td class="tdr">153.1</td> - <td class="tdr">167.3</td> - <td class="tdr">-155.</td> - <td class="tdr">174.3</td> - <td class="tdr">161.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">29.97</td> - <td class="tdr">28.63</td> - <td class="tdr">29.89</td> - <td class="tdr">28.21</td> - <td class="tdr">29.76</td> - <td class="tdr">26.62</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Depth</td> - <td class="tdr">24.63</td> - <td class="tdr">-22.</td> - <td class="tdr">22.77</td> - <td class="tdr">21.91</td> - <td class="tdr">21.70</td> - <td class="tdr">20.03</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.15</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.66</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>72.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.3</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Module</td> - <td class="tdr">27.30</td> - <td class="tdr">25.32</td> - <td class="tdr">26.33</td> - <td class="tdr">25.06</td> - <td class="tdr">25.73</td> - <td class="tdr">23.32</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Module vs. stature</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>16.87</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>16.53</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>15.74</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>16.17</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>14.75</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>14.41</em></td> - </tr> -</table> -<br /> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Chest Measurements"> -<col span="4" width="25%"></col> - <tr> - <th></th> - <th>4 other groups of<br />western Eskimo, males</th> - <th>72 Sioux<br />Indians, males</th> - <th>12 other groups<br />of white males</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Stature</td> - <td class="tdc">-160.6-166.</td> - <td class="tdc">-174.</td> - <td class="tdc">163.4-171.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Breadth</td> - <td class="tdc">-29.6-30.</td> - <td class="tdc">31.92</td> - <td class="tdc">-25.9-28.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Depth</td> - <td class="tdc">-23.-24.75</td> - <td class="tdc">-26.</td> - <td class="tdc">20.9-22.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Index</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>76.7-83.3</em></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>81.4</em></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>72.9-81.5</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Module</td> - <td class="tdc">26.97</td> - <td class="tdc">28.96</td> - <td class="tdc">23.4-25.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Module vs. stature</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>16.56</em></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>16.64</em></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>14.22-14.84</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p><em>The hand.</em>—The hand of the Eskimo is small, both absolutely and -relatively to stature. But it is rather broad relative to its length, -giving a high index. The index is higher than that of any of the -groups available for comparison, white or Indian, excepting a few -groups of immigrant whites, laborers.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Hand"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Hand</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="7" width="11.1%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2"></th> - <th colspan="2">Western Eskimo,<br />(group means)</th> - <th colspan="2">16 tribes of<br />southwestern and<br />Mexican Indians</th> - <th colspan="2">Old Americans</th> - <th>12 groups of<br />immigrant<br />whites</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Males</th> - <th>Females</th> - <th>Males</th> - <th>Females</th> - <th>Males</th> - <th>Females</th> - <th>Males</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Left hand:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length</td> - <td class="tdc">17.35-18.42</td> - <td class="tdc">16.60-16.85</td> - <td class="tdc">18.53</td> - <td class="tdc">17.20</td> - <td class="tdc">19.28</td> - <td class="tdc">17.34</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdc">8.60-8.90</td> - <td class="tdc">7.78-8.20</td> - <td class="tdc">8.51</td> - <td class="tdc">7.71</td> - <td class="tdc">9.18</td> - <td class="tdc">7.87</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Percentage relation of hand length to stature</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>10.96</em></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>10.94</em></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>11.07</em></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>11.13</em></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>11.05</em></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>10.70</em></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>-11.-11.3</em></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Hand"> -<col></col> -<col span="10" width="8.3%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2"></th> - <th colspan="2">Western<br />Eskimo</th> - <th colspan="2">Southwestern and<br />Mexican Indians</th> - <th colspan="2">Sioux</th> - <th colspan="2">Old American<br />whites</th> - <th colspan="2">12 other groups<br />of whites</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Males</th> - <th>Females</th> - <th>Males</th> - <th>Females</th> - <th>Males</th> - <th>Females</th> - <th>Males</th> - <th>Females</th> - <th>Males</th> - <th>Females</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bb">Hand index</td> - <td class="tdr bb">49.5</td> - <td class="tdr bb">47.5</td> - <td class="tdr bb">45.9</td> - <td class="tdr bb">44.8</td> - <td class="tdr bb">47.6</td> - <td class="bb"></td> - <td class="tdr bb">47.6</td> - <td class="tdr bb">45.4</td> - <td class="tdr bb">47.6-50.3</td> - <td class="bb"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="0">72 Sioux males: <em>11.40.</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span></p> - -<p><em>The foot.</em>—The foot of the western Eskimo, like his hand, is both -absolutely and relatively to stature rather short, but it is broad, -giving a high breadth-length index. Its actual breadth perceptibly -exceeds that of the much taller old American whites, though not -reaching that of any of the immigrant laborers.</p> - -<p>Contrary to what was seen in the case of the hand, the relative -proportions of the Eskimo foot, as expressed by the index, are almost -identical with those of the southwestern and Mexican Indians. The -Sioux foot is relatively longer, and so is that of whites except -southern Italians, who, though their foot as a whole is larger, give -the same index as the Eskimo.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Foot"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Foot</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="7" width="11.1%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2"></th> - <th colspan="2">Western<br />Eskimo</th> - <th colspan="2">16 tribes of<br />southwestern and<br />Mexican Indians</th> - <th colspan="2">Old Americans</th> - <th>12 groups of<br />immigrant<br />whites</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Males</th> - <th>Females</th> - <th>Males</th> - <th>Females</th> - <th>Males</th> - <th>Females</th> - <th>Males</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Left foot:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length</td> - <td class="tdr">24.23</td> - <td class="tdr">22.13</td> - <td class="tdr">25.42</td> - <td class="tdr">23.30</td> - <td class="tdr">26.12</td> - <td class="tdr">23.33</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">9.72</td> - <td class="tdr">8.70</td> - <td class="tdr">10.15</td> - <td class="tdr">9.07</td> - <td class="tdr">9.49</td> - <td class="tdr">8.36</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Percentage relation foot length-stature</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>14.94</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>14.51</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>15.19</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>15.08</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>14.97</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>14.42</em></td> - <td><em>15.36-15.73</em></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Hand"> -<col></col> -<col span="10" width="8.3%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2"></th> - <th colspan="2">Western<br />Eskimo</th> - <th colspan="2">Southwestern and<br />Mexican Indians</th> - <th colspan="2">Sioux</th> - <th colspan="2">Old American<br />whites</th> - <th colspan="2">12 other groups<br />of whites</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Males</th> - <th>Females</th> - <th>Males</th> - <th>Females</th> - <th>Males</th> - <th>Females</th> - <th>Males</th> - <th>Females</th> - <th>Males</th> - <th>Females</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bb">Foot index</td> - <td class="tdr bb">40.1</td> - <td class="tdr bb">39.3</td> - <td class="tdr bb">39.9</td> - <td class="tdr bb">38.9</td> - <td class="tdr bb">37.1</td> - <td class="bb"></td> - <td class="tdr bb">36.3</td> - <td class="tdr bb">35.8</td> - <td class="tdr bb">37.9-40.1</td> - <td class="bb"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="0">72 Sioux males: <em>15.40.</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p><em>Girth of the calf.</em>—The western Eskimo, like the American Indians, -are characterized by a rather slender calf. The size of the -calf correlates in a large measure with stature. Reducing our measurements -to calf girth-stature ratios, these are seen to be much alike -in the three racial groups used for comparison, namely the Eskimo, -the Indian, and the old American white. But this is deceptive. -The correlation of size of calf with stature is not uniform (see "Old -Americans," p. 348) for all stature groups; as the scale in stature -descends the calf is relatively stouter. If we take white Americans -of approximately the same stature with the Eskimo here considered, -there appears a higher ratio, showing that stature for stature the -girth of the calf of the Eskimo is smaller, notwithstanding his generally -more ample supply of adipose tissue. Once more his relation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> -is closer with the Indian. The Eskimo and the Indian women -are especially much alike, while the white women make a marked -exception—their calfs (as well as thighs) have more fat than is -found in those of their Eskimo and Indian sisters.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="bt bb" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Measurements of the Leg"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Measurements of the Leg</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="6" width="12.5%"></col> - <tr> - <th class="bt bb"></th> - <th colspan="2" class="bt bb bl">Western<br />Eskimo</th> - <th colspan="2" class="bt bb bl">Southwestern and<br />Mexican Indians<br />(16 tribes)</th> - <th colspan="2" class="bt bb bl">Old white<br />Americans</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>Male</em> </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>Female</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>Male</em> </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>Female</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>Male</em> </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>Female</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Maximum girth of left calf</td> - <td class="tdc bl">33.6 </td> - <td class="tdc">31.4</td> - <td class="tdc bl">34.1 </td> - <td class="tdc">32</td> - <td class="tdc bl">36.1 </td> - <td class="tdc">35.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Percentage relation to stature</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>20.7</em> </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>20.6</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>20.52</em> </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>20.54</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>20.3</em> </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>21.95</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Percentage relation to stature in those approaching the Eskimo stature</td> - <td class="tdc bl"></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc bl"></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>21.6</em> </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>22.3</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Females v. males (M=100)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl"><em>93.5</em></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl"><em>93.9</em></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl"><em>98.3</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<div class="footnotes"><h5>FOOTNOTES:</h5> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> For comparative data on these and other proportions see writer's Old Americans, -Baltimore, 1925; also Topinard's and Martin's textbooks.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> See Old Americans; also the writer's The natives of Kharga Oasis, Egypt, Smiths. -Misc. Coll., Washington, 1912; Anthropology of the Chippewa, Holmes Anniv. Vol., -Washington, 1916; and Measurements of the Negro, Am. J. Phys. Anthrop., 1928, <span class="smcap">XII</span>, -No. 1.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> A word of slight caution is due here. In all these cases the proper way would be to -compare the Eskimo with whites of same mean stature. But we have no such whites -available. As it is the comparisons must be taken merely as approximations, but they -are so close approximations that the substance of the conclusions is probably correct.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> The chest dimensions correlate with stature, respectively the trunk height, and the -breadth correlates with the depth; but both are influenced by function.</p></div></div> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Physiological Observations</span></h3> - -<p>Due to various difficulties which do not exist to that extent elsewhere, -the physiological observations on the Eskimo are neither as numerous -or extended as would be desirable; yet there are some data of value. -They extend to the pulse, respiration, temperature, and dynamometric -tests of hand pressure. They were made mainly on St. Lawrence -and Nunivak Islands, by Moore, Collins, and Stewart. They -quite agree, especially after elimination of some records that are -clearly erroneous or abnormal. The tests should be extended with -even more rigid precautions in future work among the Eskimo.</p> - -<p>The results are given below. They were all made in the summer -season and on healthy subjects, yet there were numerous indications -of temporary disorders, pathological or functional. Even after a -careful elimination of the obvious cases of such disorders not a few -minor irregularities have doubtless remained, so that the data can -not be taken for more than fairly close approximations to the normal.</p> - -<p>The data show remarkably low pulse, respiration rate and temperature -close to those of whites, with a submedium hand pressure. -(For comparative data see "Old Americans.") The low pulse is -also characteristic in the Indian, as I have repeatedly pointed out -before (see especially my "Physiological and Medical Observations -among the Indians," etc., Bull. 34, Bur. Amer. Ethn., Washington, -1908).</p> - -<p>The dynamometric tests agree also better with those on the Indians -than with those on whites; they are valid only as to the hands, and -they embody not only the strength of the muscles but also that of the -conscious impulse behind them. The age factor, of importance, does -not here enter materially into the case.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border tdc bbox" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Pulse, Respiration, Temperature, and Strength"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Pulse, Respiration, Temperature, and Strength</span><br /> - ST. LAWRENCE ISLAND ESKIMO<br /> - MALES—ALL</caption> -<col span="5" width="20%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2">Pulse<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a></th> - <th rowspan="2">Respiration<a name="FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a></th> - <th rowspan="2">Temperature<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id="FNanchor_134_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a></th> - <th colspan="2">Strength (Collins dynamometer)</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Pressure right hand</th> - <th>Pressure left hand</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>(63)</td> - <td>(54)</td> - <td>(61)</td> - <td>(60)</td> - <td>(60)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>62.1</td> - <td>20.1</td> - <td>98.64</td> - <td>34.36</td> - <td>28.75</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>(40-78)</td> - <td>(15-25)</td> - <td>(97.6-99.4)</td> - <td>(19.5-45.5)</td> - <td>(19.5-44)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>(47)</td> - <td>(47)</td> - <td>(47)</td> - <td>(57)</td> - <td>(57)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a name="FNanchor_135_135" id="FNanchor_135_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a>61.3</td> - <td><a href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a>20.4</td> - <td><a href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a>98.84</td> - <td><a href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a>34.34</td> - <td><a href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a>29.78</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0">FEMALES—SUSPICIOUS CASES ELIMINATED</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>(25)</td> - <td>(25)</td> - <td>(25)</td> - <td>(47)</td> - <td>(47)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>72.4</td> - <td>20</td> - <td>99.13</td> - <td>20.13</td> - <td>16.81</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>(54-84)</td> - <td>(15-23)</td> - <td>(98.4-99.9)</td> - <td>(14.5-29)</td> - <td>(12-22.5)</td> - </tr> -</table> -<br /> -<table class="border tdc bbox" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Pulse, Respiration, Temperature, and Strength"> - <caption>NUNIVAK ISLAND ESKIMO</caption> -<col span="3" width="33%"></col> - <tr> - <th>Pulse <a href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a></th> - <th>Respiration<a href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a></th> - <th>Temperature<a href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><em>Males</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>(6)</td> - <td>(6)</td> - <td>(6)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>63.2</td> - <td>18.2</td> - <td>98.05</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>(52-68)</td> - <td>(16-21)</td> - <td>(97.8-98.4)</td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The details of these six records were:</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border bbox" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Pulse, Respiration, Temperature, and Strength"> -<col span="5" width="20%"></col> - <tr> - <th>Age<br />(year)</th> - <th>Time of day</th> - <th>Pulse<br />(p. m.)</th> - <th>Respiration</th> - <th>Temperature</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">40</td> - <td class="tdr">4.40</td> - <td class="tdr">60</td> - <td class="tdr">21</td> - <td class="tdr">98.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">33</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">66</td> - <td class="tdr">18</td> - <td class="tdr">97.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">19</td> - <td class="tdr">2.30</td> - <td class="tdr">68</td> - <td class="tdr">18</td> - <td class="tdr">98.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">45</td> - <td class="tdr">1.25</td> - <td class="tdr">68</td> - <td class="tdr">18</td> - <td class="tdr">98.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">40</td> - <td class="tdr">1.30</td> - <td class="tdr">64</td> - <td class="tdr">(14)</td> - <td class="tdr">97.8</td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>In connection with the pressure tests in the two hands, some interesting -comparisons are possible between the Eskimo here dealt with -and the old white Americans. As all the tests were made with the -same instrument and method the results inspire confidence. It is in -details of this nature that the anthropologist finds again and again -the most striking proofs of the basal unity of the living races and -their necessarily common origin somewhere in the past.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="bb bt" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Pressure Force in the Hands in the Western Eskimo and Old White"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Pressure Force in the Hands in the Western Eskimo and Old White Americans</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="4" width="16.7%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2" class="bb bt"></th> - <th colspan="2" class="bb bl bt">Western Eskimo</th> - <th colspan="2" class="bb bl bt">Old Americans</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bb bl">Male</th> - <th class="bb bl">Female</th> - <th class="bb bl">Male</th> - <th class="bb bl">Female</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pressure:</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>Kg.</em></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>Kg.</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>Kg.</em></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>Kg.</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Right hand</td> - <td class="tdc bl">34.36 </td> - <td class="tdc">20.13</td> - <td class="tdc bl">41.8 </td> - <td class="tdc">23.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Left hand</td> - <td class="tdc bl">28.75 </td> - <td class="tdc">16.81</td> - <td class="tdc bl">36.1 </td> - <td class="tdc">19.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Percentage relation of left to right</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>83.7</em> </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>83.5</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>86.4</em> </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>83.6</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Percentage relation of female to male (M=100)</td> - <td class="bl"></td> - <td></td> - <td class="bl"></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Right hand</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl"><em>55.8</em></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl"><em>55.5</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Left hand</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl"><em>53.7</em></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl"><em>53.7</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> Sitting, at rest, no signs of any health disorder.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> Sitting, at rest.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> Sitting, at rest, sub lingua.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> Subjects where all three determinations were not possible -and the most suspicious ones (abnormally above or below the -mean) eliminated.</p></div></div> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Summary of Observations on the Living Western Eskimo</span><a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a></h3> - -<p>These Eskimo are generally of submedium stature, occasionally -reaching medium. The distal parts of their extremities are relatively -short. Walk in adult males somewhat awkward.</p> - -<p>In head form they are highly mesocephalic to moderately brachycephalic; -the height of the head averages about medium. The -head is of good size, especially when taken in relation to stature. -The forehead is above medium in both height and breadth.</p> - -<p>The face is large in all dimensions, generally full and rather -flat. In men it not seldom approaches a square form. The lower -jaw region is largely developed, the angles of the lower jaw are -broad to protruding.</p> - -<p>The nose is of fair breadth, with bridge somewhat narrow above -and on the whole only moderately high. The mouth is large, lips -medium to somewhat above. The ears are long. Beard spare on -sides of face, mostly sparse on chin; mustache sparse and often limited -to tufts above the corners of the mouth. Expression generally good-natured, -smiling.</p> - -<p>The chest is large, in females broad, in males especially deep. -There is but a mild lumbar curve and no steatopygy. The lower -limbs in females are less stout and shapely than they are in whites. -The hands and feet are small, but, particularly the foot, relatively -broad.</p> - -<p>Temperature and respiration approach those in normal whites, -though they appear frequently to be slightly higher; pulse normally is -slow.</p> - -<p>Dynamometric tests of strength (pressure, both hands) give somewhat -lower records than in whites.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> Incorporated in this are writer's own observations.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span></p></div></div> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Remarks</span></h3> - -<p>The most noteworthy and important result of these studies on -the living western Eskimo is the evidence, coming to light again -and again, of their fundamental somatic relations to the Indian. -These relations are too numerous and weighty to be accidental. Nor -can they be ascribed to mixture with the Indian in such far-away -groups as the St. Lawrence Islanders, who so long as known have -never had any direct or even indirect contact with Indians. These -relations in dimensions and relative proportions of the body, and -in physiological characteristics such as the slow normal pulse, are -supplemented by many phases of behavior, and often by a more or -less Indianlike physiognomy. They inevitably lead to the conclusion -that the Eskimo and the Indian are in the root members of -the same family. They are two digits of the same hand, separate -and diverging, yet at base joined to and derived from the same -source. And this source, according to many indications, is the -paleo-asiatic, "mongoloid," stem of northern Asia. The western -Eskimo shows to be nearer this source than his more northern and -northeastern relatives, indicating either that he is a later comer, or, -which is more probable, that he has changed less in the south than -in the north. It may be possible to say something more on this -subject after the skeletal remains have been considered.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 421px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 45</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_45a.jpg" width="421" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Young Woman, Northern Bering Sea Region</span></p> - -<p>(Photo by Lomen Bros.)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 492px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 46</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_46a.jpg" width="492" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Young Women, Full-blood Eskimos, Seward Peninsula</span></p> - -<p>(Photo by Lomen Bros.)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 47</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_47a.jpg" width="700" height="406" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">A Point Hope Group</span></p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 560px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 48</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_48a.jpg" width="562" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>a</em>, Eskimo woman, Kevalina. (Photo on the <em>Bear</em> by A. H., 1926. U.S.N.M.)</p></div> - -<img src="images/plate_48b.jpg" width="560" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>b</em>, The body build of an adult Eskimo woman. Upper Bering Sea</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 549px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 49</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_49a.jpg" width="555" height="700" alt="" /> -<img src="images/plate_49b.jpg" width="549" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Elderly Woman, St. Lawrence Island</span></p> - -<p>(Photos by R. D. Moore, 1912. U.S.N.M.)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 584px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 50</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_50a.jpg" width="584" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>a</em>, Yukon Eskimo, below Paimute. (A. H., 1926)</p></div> - -<img src="images/plate_50b.jpg" width="632" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>b</em>, Norton Sound Eskimo woman and child. (A. H., 1926)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 555px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 51</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_51a.jpg" width="581" height="700" alt="" /> -<img src="images/plate_51b.jpg" width="555" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Eskimo, Indianlike; Northern Bering Sea Region</span></p> - -<p>(Photos by Lomen Bros.)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 542px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 52</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_52a.jpg" width="529" height="700" alt="" /> -<img src="images/plate_52b.jpg" width="542" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Eskimo, Indianlike; Northern Bering Sea Region</span></p> - -<p>(Photos by Lomen Bros.)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 588px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 53</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_53a.jpg" width="584" height="700" alt="" /> -<img src="images/plate_53b.jpg" width="588" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Eskimo, Indianlike; Northern Bering Sea Region</span></p> - -<p>(Photos by Lomen Bros.)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 415px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 54</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_54a.jpg" width="415" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Eskimo, Indianlike; Northern Bering Sea Region</span></p> - -<p>(Photo by Lomen Bros.)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 424px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 55</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_55a.jpg" width="424" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Eskimo, Indianlike; Northern Bering Sea Region</span></p> - -<p>(Photo by Lomen Bros.)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 441px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 56</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_56a.jpg" width="441" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Eskimo, Indianlike; Arctic Region</span></p> - -<p>(Photo by Lomen Bros.)</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 440px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 57</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_57a.jpg" width="440" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Siberian Eskimo and Child, Indian Type</span></p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 494px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 58</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_58a.jpg" width="494" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>a</em>, Mrs. Sage, Kevalina. Fine Indian type. Born on Notak. Both -parents Notak "Eskimo." (A. H., 1926.)</p></div> - -<img src="images/plate_58b.jpg" width="700" height="377" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><em>b</em>, Eskimo family, Indianlike; near Barrow. (A. H., 1926.)</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Western Eskimo: Measurements on the Living"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Western Eskimo: Measurements on the Living</span><br /> - [Measurements by Collins and Stewart, except as noted]</caption> -<col></col> -<col span="11" width="7.7%"></col> -<thead> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2"></th> - <th colspan="7">Males—Locality</th> - <th colspan="4">Females—Locality</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Kulukak</th> - <th>Togiak</th> - <th>Tanunuk (Nelson Island)</th> - <th>Nunivak Island</th> - <th>Hooper Bay</th> - <th>Marshall, Lower Yukon</th> - <th>St. Lawrence Island</th> - <th>Kanakanak, Bristol Bay</th> - <th>Nunivak Island</th> - <th>Hooper Bay</th> - <th>St. Lawrence Island</th> - </tr> -</thead> -<tbody> - <tr> - <td>Date of record</td> - <td class="tdc">(1927)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1927)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1927)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1927)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1927)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1927)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1912)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1927)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1927)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1927)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1912)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Subjects measured</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(19)</td> - <td class="tdc">(20)</td> - <td class="tdc"><a name="FNanchor_137_137" id="FNanchor_137_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a>(6)</td> - <td class="tdc"><a name="FNanchor_138_138" id="FNanchor_138_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a>(63)</td> - <td class="tdc"><a name="FNanchor_139_139" id="FNanchor_139_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a>(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(24)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc"><a href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a>(48)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Age</td> - <td>Adult.</td> - <td>Adult.</td> - <td>Adult.</td> - <td>Adult.</td> - <td>Adult.</td> - <td>Adult.</td> - <td>Adult.</td> - <td>Near adult.</td> - <td>Adult.</td> - <td>Adult.</td> - <td>Adult.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Stature</td> - <td class="tdr">160.6</td> - <td class="tdr">166</td> - <td class="tdr">162.7</td> - <td class="tdr">161.8</td> - <td class="tdr">162.5</td> - <td class="tdr">163.8</td> - <td class="tdr">163.3</td> - <td class="tdr">147.8</td> - <td class="tdr">153.1</td> - <td class="tdr">153</td> - <td class="tdr">151.35</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Height sitting</td> - <td class="tdr">86</td> - <td class="tdr">89.75</td> - <td class="tdr">90.62</td> - <td class="tdr">88.86</td> - <td class="tdr">89.48</td> - <td class="tdr">90.22</td> - <td class="tdr">88.4</td> - <td class="tdr">(83.08)</td> - <td class="tdr">84.36</td> - <td class="tdr">83.80</td> - <td class="tdr">84.07</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Height-sitting-stature index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53.55</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53.95</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.69</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.70</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.06</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.08</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.13</em></td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>56.21</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.10</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.77</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.55</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Arm span vs. stature</td> - <td class="tdr">+2.8</td> - <td class="tdr">+6.7</td> - <td class="tdr">+5.5</td> - <td class="tdr">+2.7</td> - <td class="tdr">+.7</td> - <td class="tdr">+5.1</td> - <td class="tdr">+.6</td> - <td class="tdr">+1.5</td> - <td class="tdr">-.7</td> - <td class="tdc">(?)</td> - <td class="tdr">-.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Head:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length</td> - <td class="tdr">19.06</td> - <td class="tdr">18.95</td> - <td class="tdr">19.37</td> - <td class="tdr">19.70</td> - <td class="tdr">19.13</td> - <td class="tdr">19.05</td> - <td class="tdr">19.33</td> - <td class="tdr">18.10</td> - <td class="tdr">18.85</td> - <td class="tdr">18.85</td> - <td class="tdr">18.56</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">15.56</td> - <td class="tdr">15.70</td> - <td class="tdr">15.37</td> - <td class="tdr">15.48</td> - <td class="tdr">15.57</td> - <td class="tdr">15.85</td> - <td class="tdr">15.40</td> - <td class="tdr">15.26</td> - <td class="tdr">15</td> - <td class="tdr">15.30</td> - <td class="tdr">14.77</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id="FNanchor_140_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a></td> - <td class="tdr">12.98</td> - <td class="tdr">13.02</td> - <td class="tdr">12.90</td> - <td class="tdr">13.07</td> - <td class="tdr">13.11</td> - <td class="tdr">13.43</td> - <td class="tdr">13.23</td> - <td class="tdr">13.01</td> - <td class="tdr">12.81</td> - <td class="tdr">12.90</td> - <td class="tdr">12.76</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Cephalic module</td> - <td class="tdr">15.87</td> - <td class="tdr">15.89</td> - <td class="tdr">15.88</td> - <td class="tdr">16.08</td> - <td class="tdr">15.94</td> - <td class="tdr">16.11</td> - <td class="tdr">15.99</td> - <td class="tdr">15.46</td> - <td class="tdr">15.55</td> - <td class="tdr">15.68</td> - <td class="tdr">15.36</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Cephalic index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>79.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>78.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>79.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>79.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>79.6</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean height index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>79</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>79</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.6</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Face:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Menton-crinion</td> - <td class="tdr">19.70</td> - <td class="tdr">20.05</td> - <td class="tdr">19.70</td> - <td class="tdr">19.23</td> - <td class="tdr">19.41</td> - <td class="tdr">19.85</td> - <td class="tdr">20.01</td> - <td class="tdr">18.73</td> - <td class="tdr">18.45</td> - <td class="tdr">18</td> - <td class="tdr">18.03</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Menton-nasion</td> - <td class="tdr">12.89</td> - <td class="tdr">12.87</td> - <td class="tdr">12.58</td> - <td class="tdr">12.74</td> - <td class="tdr">12.47</td> - <td class="tdr">12.78</td> - <td class="tdr">12.68</td> - <td class="tdr">(11.79)</td> - <td class="tdr">12.11</td> - <td class="tdr">11.50</td> - <td class="tdr">11.31</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Diameter bizygomatic maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">14.74</td> - <td class="tdr">15.27</td> - <td class="tdr">14.95</td> - <td class="tdr">14.99</td> - <td class="tdr">14.97</td> - <td class="tdr">14.85</td> - <td class="tdr">14.73</td> - <td class="tdr">(13.95)</td> - <td class="tdr">14.31</td> - <td class="tdr">14.55</td> - <td class="tdr">14.03</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Physiognomic facial index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>72.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>78.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>73.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>62.9</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>80.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.8</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Anatomical facial index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>79</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>80.6</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Height of forehead (nasion-hair line)</td> - <td class="tdr">6.81</td> - <td class="tdr">7.18</td> - <td class="tdr">7.12</td> - <td class="tdr">6.49</td> - <td class="tdr">6.94</td> - <td class="tdr">7.07</td> - <td class="tdr">7.33</td> - <td class="tdr">6.94</td> - <td class="tdr">6.34</td> - <td class="tdr">6.50</td> - <td class="tdr">6.72</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Breadth of forehead (diameter front—minimum)</td> - <td class="tdr">10.26</td> - <td class="tdr">10.75</td> - <td class="tdr">10.65</td> - <td class="tdr">10.54</td> - <td class="tdr">10.35</td> - <td class="tdr">10.38</td> - <td class="tdr">10.94</td> - <td class="tdr">10.62</td> - <td class="tdr">10.38</td> - <td class="tdr">10.65</td> - <td class="tdr">10.58</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Diameter bigonial</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">11.78</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">11.18</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nose:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height</td> - <td class="tdr">5.65</td> - <td class="tdr">6.03</td> - <td class="tdr">5.57</td> - <td class="tdr">5.58</td> - <td class="tdr">5.48</td> - <td class="tdr">5.42</td> - <td class="tdr">5.47</td> - <td class="tdr">(5.02)</td> - <td class="tdr">5.17</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">4.89</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">3.88</td> - <td class="tdr">3.82</td> - <td class="tdr">3.85</td> - <td class="tdr">3.89</td> - <td class="tdr">3.89</td> - <td class="tdr">3.60</td> - <td class="tdr">3.93</td> - <td class="tdr">(3.35)</td> - <td class="tdr">3.59</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3.63</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Nasal index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>68.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>63.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>69.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>69.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>71</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>66.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>71.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>66.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>69.4</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mouth: Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">5.64</td> - <td class="tdr">5.82</td> - <td class="tdr">5.70</td> - <td class="tdr">5.87</td> - <td class="tdr">5.74</td> - <td class="tdr">5.70</td> - <td class="tdr">5.60</td> - <td class="tdr">(4.81)</td> - <td class="tdr">5.56</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">5.32</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Ear (left):</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height</td> - <td class="tdr">6.71</td> - <td class="tdr">7.17</td> - <td class="tdr">7.18</td> - <td class="tdr">7.05</td> - <td class="tdr">6.79</td> - <td class="tdr">6.52</td> - <td class="tdr">7.40</td> - <td class="tdr">(5.99)</td> - <td class="tdr">6.49</td> - <td class="tdr">6.60</td> - <td class="tdr">6.73</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">3.76</td> - <td class="tdr">3.82</td> - <td class="tdr">3.72</td> - <td class="tdr">3.91</td> - <td class="tdr">3.69</td> - <td class="tdr">3.38</td> - <td class="tdr">4.04</td> - <td class="tdr">(3.49)</td> - <td class="tdr">3.45</td> - <td class="tdr">3.45</td> - <td class="tdr">3.57</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Ear index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>56.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>58.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>51.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>58.3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>52.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53</em><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chest:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">29.58</td> - <td class="tdr">29.65</td> - <td class="tdr">29.70</td> - <td class="tdr">29.97</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">29.96</td> - <td class="tdr">(27.43)</td> - <td class="tdr">28.63</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Depth</td> - <td class="tdr">24.10</td> - <td class="tdr">24.35</td> - <td class="tdr">24.75</td> - <td class="tdr">24.63</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">23</td> - <td class="tdr">(19.39)</td> - <td class="tdr">22</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Chest index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.2</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a>(<em>70.7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.8</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hand (left):</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length</td> - <td class="tdr">17.35</td> - <td class="tdr">17.87</td> - <td class="tdr">17.55</td> - <td class="tdr">18.42</td> - <td class="tdr">17.61</td> - <td class="tdr">18.12</td> - <td class="tdr">17.94</td> - <td class="tdr">(15.90)</td> - <td class="tdr">16.62</td> - <td class="tdr">16.85</td> - <td class="tdr">16.60</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">8.68</td> - <td class="tdr">8.60</td> - <td class="tdr">8.90</td> - <td class="tdr">8.81</td> - <td class="tdr">8.76</td> - <td class="tdr">8.70</td> - <td class="tdr">8.63</td> - <td class="tdr">(7.53)</td> - <td class="tdr">7.82</td> - <td class="tdr">8.20</td> - <td class="tdr">7.78</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Hand index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>52.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>48.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>50.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>47.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>49.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>48</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>48</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>47.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>47.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>48.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>46.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Foot (left):</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">24.82</td> - <td class="tdr">24.05</td> - <td class="tdr">24.31</td> - <td class="tdr">23.88</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">24.07</td> - <td class="tdr">(22.08)</td> - <td class="tdr">22.27</td> - <td class="tdr">22.15</td> - <td class="tdr">21.98</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">9.88</td> - <td class="tdr">9.90</td> - <td class="tdr">9.81</td> - <td class="tdr">9.40</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">9.61</td> - <td class="tdr">(8.55)</td> - <td class="tdr">8.85</td> - <td class="tdr">8.65</td> - <td class="tdr">8.59</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Foot index</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>37.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>41.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>40.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>39.4</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>39.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>38.7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>40.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>39.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>39.1</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Leg: Circumference, maximum</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">32.62</td> - <td class="tdr">34.42</td> - <td class="tdr">33.56</td> - <td class="tdr">33.64</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">(32.39)</td> - <td class="tdr">32.12</td> - <td class="tdr">29.70</td> - <td class="tdr">32.33</td> - </tr> -</tbody> -</table></div> - -<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> Measurements by Collins.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> Measurements by R. D. Moore.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> Oldest girls of an orphanage.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> From the base line of the 2 meatus; this and all other measurements, including those of 1912, were taken by Hrdlička's methods and with his instruments. (See his "Anthropometry," -Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, 1920.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> Subadult in chest.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span></p></div></div> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Present Data on the Skull and other Skeletal Remains of the -Western Eskimo</span></h3> - - -<h4>THE SKULL</h4> - -<p>Until recently collections of skeletal remains of the western Eskimo -were confined largely to skulls. The material in our own institutions -comprised a small collection of Mahlemut (St. Michael Island) and -"Chukchee" (Asiatic Eskimo) crania made in the early sixties by -W. H. Dall; a larger series of crania gathered in 1881 on St. Michael -and St. Lawrence Islands by E. W. Nelson; 28 skulls with 3 skeletons -brought in 1898 by E. A. McIlheny from Point Barrow; a valuable -lot of skulls from Indian Point, Siberia, with a few from St. -Lawrence Island, collected by W. Bogoras; and some scattered specimens -by other explorers. To this were added in 1912 an important -collection of skulls, with a few skeletons, made by Riley D. Moore, at -that time my aide, on St. Lawrence Island; an important lot of crania -gathered a few years later by V. Stefánsson at Point Barrow; and a -third large and highly interesting lot, this time of both skulls and -skeletons, collected near Barrow for the University Museum at Philadelphia -in 1917-1919 by W. B. Van Valin. But none of the later material -was described excepting the McIlheny collection which, in 1916, -was reported upon by E. W. Hawkes.<a name="FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a></p> - -<p>During the survey which is the subject of this report a special -effort was made to collect all the older skeletal material along the -Bering Sea and Arctic coasts that could be reached, and the result -was the bringing back of some 450 crania, nearly 50 with skeletons, -and many separate parts of the skeleton; nearly all of the specimens -proceeding from localities thus far not represented in the collections. -To which were added in 1927 nearly 200 skulls with a good number -of skeletons gathered by H. B. Collins, jr., assistant curator in the Department -of Anthropology, United States National Museum, and my -aide, T. D. Stewart, on Nunivak Island and along the west coast of -Alaska from Bristol Bay to near the Yukon delta.<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a></p> - -<p>We thus have now a relatively vast amount of skeletal material on -the western Eskimo; it is essentially a virginal material; it is well -identified as to locality; and the specimens are mostly in very good -condition.</p> - -<p>Aside from Hawkes's thesis, nothing of note had been published -on these collections until 1924, when the first number of my Catalogue -of Human Crania in the United States National Museum Collections -appeared, which includes the principal measurements on -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span>290 skulls of the western Eskimo. Since then, in view of the growing -importance of the subject, I have remeasured every specimen -reported before; have measured personally all the new collections; -and thanks to the kindness of those in charge have been enabled to -extend the measurements to all the collections of Eskimo crania, -both from Alaska and elsewhere, that were preserved up to the -spring of 1928 at the National Museum at Ottawa, the American -Museum of Natural History of New York, and the Wistar Institute -of Philadelphia, which now contains the University Museum collections. -The total records reach now to 1,283 adult skulls from practically -all important parts of the total Eskimo area, besides a considerable -quantity of other bones of the skeleton. The main results -of the work will be given here, the detailed measurements being reserved -for another number of the Catalogue.</p> - -<p>To save repetitions and possible confusion and to show more clearly -the status of the southwestern and midwestern Eskimo, the entire -cranial material will be dealt with in this section, and previous -records on the northeastern and a few other groups of the Eskimo -will not be drawn upon to preserve the advantage of dealing with -data obtained by the same methods, instruments, and observer.</p> - -<p>In presenting the records it is found expedient, both on geographical -and anthropological grounds, to make but three groupings. -The first of these comprises the Eskimo from their southernmost -limit to Norton Sound and the Bering Sea islands; the second group -takes in Seward Peninsula (or the larger part of it) and the Arctic -coast to Point Barrow; while the third embraces all the Eskimo -east of Point Barrow. The first of these three groups is remarkably -homogeneous, the second and third show each some exceptional units. -It may be said at once that the dialectic subdivisions of Dall, -Nelson, and others, in a large majority of cases are not found to be -accompanied by corresponding physical differences, so that in a -somatological classification they become submerged.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h5>FOOTNOTES:</h5> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> Skeletal Measurements and Observations of the Point Barrow Eskimo, Amer. Anthrop., -n. s. <span class="smcap">XVIII</span>, pp. 203-244, Lancaster, 1916.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> In 1928 Mr. Collins brought another important accession to these collections.</p></div></div> - - -<h4>SKULL SIZE</h4> - -<p>The external size of the skull is best expressed by the cranial -module or mean of the three principal diameters; the internal size, -respectively the volume of the brain, by the "cranial capacity."</p> - -<p>The module among the southwestern and midwestern Eskimo averages -15.44 centimeters in the males and 14.77 centimeters in the females. -For people of submedium stature these are good dimensions. -Fifty-two male and 40 female skulls of the much taller Sioux (writer's -unpublished data) give the modules of only 15.25 and 14.27 centimeters; -while 6 male and 9 female Munsee Indians, also tall,<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id="FNanchor_144_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> give -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span>practically the same values as these Eskimos, namely 15.48 centimeters -for the males and 14.75 centimeters for the females.</p> - -<p>Not all the western groups, however, give equally favorable proportions. -In general, the coast people below Norton Sound, and -especially below the Yukon, give, so far as the males are concerned, -the lowest values. It is interesting to note that it is precisely these -people who among the western Eskimo are reputed to be about -the lowest also in culture. The Togiak and near-by Kulukak males -showed, as seen before, also about the smallest head in the living. -The St. Lawrence Island males stand just about the middle, but -the females of this island, as, interestingly, also in the living, show -markedly less favorably. The Nunivak skulls, as with the living, are -somewhat above the average, while in the small Pilot Station -(Yukon) group, just as in the near-by contingent of Marshall among -the living, the males have the largest heads in this western territory. -The lower Yukon Eskimo were also shown, it may be recalled, to be -of a higher stature than the majority of the coast people. It is a -group that deserves further attention.</p> - -<p>The module of the female skull does not evidently stand always -in harmony with that of the male. The most striking example of -this is shown, as already mentioned, by the St. Lawrence Island -females, both skulls and the living. The females of this isolated -island are also unduly short, but their small head is not entirely -due to the defective stature. There must exist on this island, it would -seem, some conditions that are disadvantageous to the female. In -the small groups, such as that from the Little Diomede, the disharmonies -are doubtless partly due to small numbers of specimens, but -there may also be other factors, such as the bringing in of women -from other places.<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id="FNanchor_145_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a></p> - -<p>Taking the mean of all the groups equalizes conditions, and it is -seen that the module in both sexes is almost identical with that of -the more northern groups, to Point Barrow. But the north Arctic -and northeastern groups give a cranial module that in both sexes is -somewhat higher, though their stature, according to the available -data (Deniker, Boas, Duckworth, Steensby, Thalbitzer), is not -superior.</p> - -<p>A very remarkable showing is that of the percentage relation of the -female to male skull size in the three large groupings. In the first two -it is identical, in the third it differs less than could confidently be expected -among the closest relatives. Another remarkable fact is that -this important relation is found to be much like that in the Eskimo -in various groups of Indians; thus it was <em>96</em> in the Indians o<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span>f -Arkansas and Louisiana,[3] <em>95.5</em> in the Munsee of New Jersey,<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id="FNanchor_146_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> and <em>96.4</em> -in the Indian skulls of California.<a name="FNanchor_147_147" id="FNanchor_147_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a> But it is only <em>93.6</em> in the Sioux -(52 male, 40 female skulls) and differs more or less also in other -tribes and peoples. A comprehensive study of this relation, with -due respect to age, will some day well repay the effort.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Eskimo: Cranial Module"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Eskimo: Cranial Module</span> <span class="overunder"><span class="bb">(L+B+H)</span><br />3</span><br /> - MALES IN ASCENDING ORDER</caption> -<col></col> -<col span="2" width="25%"></col> - <tr> - <th colspan="0"><em>Southwestern and midwestern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th></th> - <th>Males</th> - <th>Females</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Togiak</td> - <td class="tdc">15.21</td> - <td class="tdc">14.73</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mumtrak</td> - <td class="tdc">15.22</td> - <td class="tdc">14.68</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southwestern Alaska</td> - <td class="tdc">15.25</td> - <td class="tdc">14.90</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hooper Bay</td> - <td class="tdc">15.30</td> - <td class="tdc">14.68</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Michael Island</td> - <td class="tdc">15.30</td> - <td class="tdc">14.72</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Little Diomede Island</td> - <td class="tdc">15.33</td> - <td class="tdc">15.09</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - <td class="tdc">(20)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pastolik and Yukon Delta</td> - <td class="tdc">15.34</td> - <td class="tdc">14.83</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(145)</td> - <td class="tdc">(128)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Lawrence Island</td> - <td class="tdc">15.42</td> - <td class="tdc">14.27</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Golovnin Bay to Cape Nome</td> - <td class="tdc">15.52</td> - <td class="tdc">14.65</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(46)</td> - <td class="tdc">(70)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nunivak Island</td> - <td class="tdc">15.53</td> - <td class="tdc">14.90</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Indian Point (Siberia)</td> - <td class="tdc">15.54</td> - <td class="tdc">14.88</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chukchee</td> - <td class="tdc">15.56</td> - <td class="tdc">15.05</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Port Clarence</td> - <td class="tdc">15.57</td> - <td class="tdc">(14.57)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nelson Island</td> - <td class="tdc">15.59</td> - <td class="tdc">14.64</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pilot Station, Yukon</td> - <td class="tdc">15.91</td> - <td class="tdc">15</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(275)</td> - <td class="tdc">(290)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>General averages, approximately</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>15.44</em></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>14.77</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Females vs. males (M=100)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc"><em>95.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0"><em>Northwestern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kotzebue Sound</td> - <td class="tdc">15.05</td> - <td class="tdc">(14.67)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(12)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Shishmaref</td> - <td class="tdc">15.19</td> - <td class="tdc">14.71</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(132)</td> - <td class="tdc">(84)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Point Hope</td> - <td class="tdc">15.37</td> - <td class="tdc">14.72</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(47)</td> - <td class="tdc">(52)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Point Barrow</td> - <td class="tdc">15.45</td> - <td class="tdc">14.75</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(35)</td> - <td class="tdc">(34)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Barrow and vicinity</td> - <td class="tdc">15.46</td> - <td class="tdc">14.66</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(27)</td> - <td class="tdc">(24)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Old Igloos near Barrow</td> - <td class="tdc">15.52</td> - <td class="tdc">14.72</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(19)</td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Wales</td> - <td class="tdc">15.66</td> - <td class="tdc">14.86</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(274)</td> - <td class="tdc">(217)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>General averages, approximately</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>15.39</em></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>14.73</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Females vs. males (M=100)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc"><em>95.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0"><em>Northern and northeastern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(49)</td> - <td class="tdc">(52)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Greenland</td> - <td class="tdc">15.51</td> - <td class="tdc">14.72</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hudson Bay and vicinity</td> - <td class="tdc">15.55</td> - <td class="tdc">14.57</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(17)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Baffin Land and vicinity</td> - <td class="tdc">15.55</td> - <td class="tdc">15.04</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northern Arctic</td> - <td class="tdc">15.63</td> - <td class="tdc">14.85</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southampton Island</td> - <td class="tdc">15.65</td> - <td class="tdc">15.18</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Smith Sound</td> - <td class="tdc">15.81</td> - <td class="tdc">15.15</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(92)</td> - <td class="tdc">(89)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>General averages, approximately</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>15.62</em></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>14.92</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Females vs. males (M=100)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc"><em>95.5</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<div class="footnotes"><h5>FOOTNOTES:</h5> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> Bull. 62, Bur. Amer. Ethn., p. 22, Nos. 326-313.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> More or less danger in such cases as these lies in erroneous sexing of the skulls. Due -to experience, care, and especially to the relatively numerous accompanying bones or -skeletons, this danger in the present series has been reduced to the minimum.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> Bull. 62, Bur. Amer. Ethn., p. 23.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> Cat. Crania, U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 2.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span></p></div></div> - - -<h4>MODULE AND CAPACITY</h4> - -<p>A comparison of considerable interest is also that of the cranial -module or mean diameter, to the capacity of the same skulls. This -comparison reveals an important sex factor.<a name="FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_148_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> Relatively to the -module, the capacity is very appreciably smaller in the female than it -is in the male. This is a universal condition to which, so far as known, -there are occasional individual but no group exceptions. It appears -very clearly in the Eskimo. In 283 western male Eskimo skulls in -which we have so far measured the capacity,<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id="FNanchor_149_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a> the module averages -15.38 centimeters, the capacity 1,490 cubic centimeters; while -in 382 female skulls thus far gauged the former averages 14.82 -centimeters, the latter 1,337 cubic centimeters. The percentage -relation of the capacity to the module, the numbers taken -as a whole, is <em>96.8</em> in the males but only <em>90.2</em> in the females. This -means that relatively to the external size of the skull the female -Eskimo brain is 6.66 per cent smaller. Similar sex disproportion -exists in other American groups as well as elsewhere. Some day -when suitable data accumulate it will be of much interest to study -this condition on a wider scale.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h5>FOOTNOTES:</h5> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> See writer's "Relation of the Size of the Head and Skull to Capacity in the Two -Sexes," Am. J. Phys. Anthrop., 1925, <span class="smcap">VIII</span>, No. 3.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> All measured de novo by my aide, T. D. Stewart; for procedure see my "Anthropometry."</p></div></div> - - -<h4>ADDITIONAL REMARKS ON CRANIAL MODULE</h4> - -<p>Before we leave this subject, it may be well to point out two noteworthy -facts apparent from the data on the northwestern and northeastern -groups. The first is that the figures on both sexes from -Barrow and Point Barrow are very nearly the same, suggesting -strongly the identity of the people of the two settlements; and the -Point Hope group is in close relation. The second fact is the curious -identity of the old Igloo group, 8 miles southwest of Barrow, with -the Greenlanders. The import of this will be seen later.</p> - - -<h4>SKULL SHAPE</h4> - -<p>Utilizing the materials of the Otis and Barnard Davis Catalogues -and with measurements taken for him on additional specimens in -several of our museums, Boas, in 1895 (Verh. Berl. anthrop. Ges., -398), as already mentioned, reported the cranial index of 37 "western -Eskimo" skulls of both sexes (without giving localities or details) -as <em>77</em>. He also reports in the same place (p. 391) the cephalic -index of 61 probably male living "Alaska Eskimo," again without -locality, as <em>79.2</em>. These rather high indices and the relatively elevated -stature (61 subjects, 165.8 centimeters) lead him to believe (p. 376) -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span>that both are probably due to an admixture with the Alaskan Indian, -though the report contains no measurements of the latter.</p> - -<p>The data that it is now possible to present may perhaps throw a -new light on the matter. As was already seen in part from the data -on the living, the head resp. the skull tends to relative shortness -and broadness throughout the southwestern, midwestern, and Bering -Sea region (excepting parts of the Seward Peninsula). Important -groups in this region, particularly those on some of the islands, had -little or no contact with the Indian. The cranial index in most of -the groups of the southwestern and midwestern Eskimo equals or -even exceeds that of the Indian. And Eskimo groups with a relatively -elevated cranial index are met with even in the far north, as -at Point Hope, Hudson Bay, and Smith Sound.<a name="FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_150_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a> Finally, the -shorter and broader head connects with that of the Asiatic Eskimo -and that of the Chukchee, as well as other northeastern Asiatics.<a name="FNanchor_151_151" id="FNanchor_151_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_151_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a></p> - -<p>The records now available show the highest cranial indices to -occur on the coast between Bristol Bay and the Yukon and on lower -Yukon itself, while the lowest indices of the midwest area, though -still mesocranic, occur in the aggregate of Nunivak Island and the -mouths of the Yukon. Another geographical as well as somatological -aggregate is that of the people of the St. Lawrence and Diomede -Islands and of Indian Point, Siberia, the cranial index in these three -localities being identical.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Eskimo: Cranial Index"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Eskimo: Cranial Index</span><br /> - Mean of both sexes <span class="overunder"><span class="bb">(Male+Female index)</span><br />2</span> on 1,281 adult skulls.<br /> - IN DESCENDING ORDER</caption> -<tbody> - <tr> - <th colspan="0"><em>Southwestern and midwestern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Togiak</td> - <td class="tdr">80.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hooper Bay</td> - <td class="tdr">79.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mumtrak</td> - <td class="tdr">79.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pilot Station, Lower Yukon</td> - <td class="tdr">79.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chukchee (Siberia)</td> - <td class="tdr">78.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(26)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nelson Island</td> - <td class="tdr">78</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southwestern Alaska</td> - <td class="tdr">77.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(32)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Indian Point (Siberia)</td> - <td class="tdr">77.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(12)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Little Diomede Island</td> - <td class="tdr">77.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(299)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Lawrence Island</td> - <td class="tdr">77.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Port Clarence</td> - <td class="tdr">76.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(34)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pastolik and Yukon Delta</td> - <td class="tdr">76.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Michael Island</td> - <td class="tdr">75.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(116)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nunivak Island</td> - <td class="tdr">75.6 <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0"><em>Northwestern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(222)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Point Hope</td> - <td class="tdr">76.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kotzebue Sound and Kobuk River</td> - <td class="tdr">75.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(22)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Shishmaref</td> - <td class="tdr">74.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(101)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Point Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr">74.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(73)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr">73.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(33)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Wales</td> - <td class="tdr">73.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Golovnin Bay</td> - <td class="tdr"><a name="FNanchor_152_152" id="FNanchor_152_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a>72.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(52)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Igloos, southwest of Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr">69.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0"><em>Northern and northeastern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hudson Bay and vicinity</td> - <td class="tdr">76.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Smith Sound</td> - <td class="tdr">76.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southampton Island</td> - <td class="tdr">74.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northern Arctic</td> - <td class="tdr">73.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(33)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Baffin Land and vicinity</td> - <td class="tdr">73.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(101)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Greenland</td> - <td class="tdr">71.9</td> - </tr> -</tbody> -</table></div> - -<p>The Seward Peninsula shows sudden differences. There are a -few localities along its southern coast where the cranial type belongs -apparently to the Bering Sea and southern area. One site at Port -Clarence was one of these. But already at Golovnin Bay, which -is not far from Norton Sound and St. Michael Island, and according -to the evidence of the most recent collections (Collins 1928), also -at Sledge Island, there is a sudden appearance of marked dolichocrany, -which is repeated at Wales, on the western extremity of the -peninsula, approached at Shishmaref, the main Eskimo settlement -on its northern shore, and, judging from some fragmentary material -seen at the eastern end of the Salt Lake, also in the interior. The -cause of this distinctive feature in the Seward Peninsula is for the -present elusive. The little known territory urgently needs a thorough -exploration.</p> - -<p>The distribution of the cranial index farther north along the -western coast shows several points of interest. The first is the -exceptional position of Point Hope, one of the oldest and most populous -settlements in these regions, which by its cranial index seems -to connect with the Bering Sea groups. The second is the closeness, -once more, of Barrow and Point Barrow. The third and greatest -is the presence, in a small cluster of old igloos 8 miles down the coast -from Barrow, of a group of people that finds no counterpart in its -cranial index and, as will be seen later, also in some other characteristics, -in the entire western region; in fact, in the whole Eskimo -territory outside of Greenland. As noted before, the size of the head -in this group is also closest to that of Greenland. These peculiar -facts indicate a problem that will call for separate consideration.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span></p> -<p>The northern and northeastern groups, with the exception of the -mesocranic Hudson Bay and Smith Sound contingents, and the very -dolichocranic Greenlanders, show dolichocrany much the same as -that of Barrow and Point Barrow.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h5>FOOTNOTES:</h5> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> Compare writer's "An Eskimo Brain," Amer. Anthrop. n. s., vol. <span class="smcap">III</span>, pp. 454-500, -New York, 1901; and his "Contribution to the Anthropology of Central and Smith Sound -Eskimo," Anthrop. Papers, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., <span class="smcap">V</span>, pt. 2, New York, 1910.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> Compare, besides present data, measurements by Bogoras in his report on "The -Chukchee," Mem. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1904-9, <span class="smcap">XI</span>, 33; 148 male and 49 female adults -gave him the mean stature of 162.2 and -152, the mean cephalic index of <em>82</em> and <em>81.8</em>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> Including 4 female skulls collected by Collins in 1928 and received too late for general -inclusion into these series.</p></div></div> - - -<h4>HEIGHT OF THE SKULL</h4> - -<p>This is a measurement of much value, both alone and as a supplement -to the cranial index, for skulls with the same index may be -high or low and thus really of a radically distinct type.</p> - -<p>The height of the vault is best studied in its relation to the other -cranial dimensions, particularly to the mean of the length and -breadth, with both of which it correlates. But in the Eskimo it is -also of interest to compare the height with the breadth of the skull -alone. The former relation is known as the mean height index -and the latter as the height-breadth index. Both mean the percentage -value of the basion-bregma height as compared to the other -dimensions.</p> - -<p>The mean height index <span class="overunder">H<br /><span class="bt">(Mean of L+B)</span></span> advocated independently - -by the writer since 1916 (Bull. 62, Bur. Amer. Ethn., p. 116), -is proving of much value in differentiation of types and has already -become a permanent feature in all writers' work on the skull. -There is a corresponding index also on the living.</p> - -<p>In the American Indian the averages of the index range from -approximately 76 to 90. (See Catalogue of Crania, U. S. Nat. Mus., -Nos. I and II.) Where the series of specimens are sufficiently large -the index does not differ materially in the two sexes. Indices below -80 may be regarded as low, those between 80 and 84 as medium, -and those above 84 as high.<a name="FNanchor_153_153" id="FNanchor_153_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_153_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a></p> - -<p>The southwestern and midwestern Eskimo skulls show mean -height indices that may be characterized as moderate to slightly above -medium. In general the broader and shorter skulls show lower -indices, approaching thus in all the characters of the vault the -Mongolian skulls of Asia. (Compare Catalogue Crania, U. S. Nat. -Mus., No. I.) The Indian Point, St. Lawrence Island, and Little -Diomede Island skulls are again, as with the cranial index, very close -together, strengthening the evidence that the three constitute the -same group of people. (Pls. 59, 60.)</p> - -<p>The northwestern Eskimo and most of those of the northeast -have relatively high vault. Barrow and Point Barrow are once -more almost the same. The Point Hope group shows a high vault, -though also rather broad. The somewhat broad Hudson Bay crania<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span> -are but moderately high, like those of the southwestern Eskimo. The -northern Arctic skulls give smaller height than would be expected -with their type; the Southampton Island specimens give higher. -The old Igloo group from near Barrow stands again close to Greenland; -its skull is even a trace narrower and higher, standing in both -respects at the limits of the Eskimo. The whole, as with the cranial -index, shows evidently a rich field of evolutionary conditions.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Eskimo: Cranial Mean Height Index"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Eskimo: Cranial Mean Height Index</span><br /> - <span class="overunder"><span class="bb">(<span class="smcap">H-Floor-Line of Aud. Meatus to Bg×100</span>)</span><br /> - <span class="smcap">Mean of L+B</span></span><br /> - MEAN OF BOTH SEXES IN ASCENDING ORDER</caption> - <tr> - <th colspan="0"><em>Southwestern and midwestern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Togiak</td> - <td class="tdr">81.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(25)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nelson Island</td> - <td class="tdr">82.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southwest Alaska</td> - <td class="tdr">82.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pilot Station, Yukon</td> - <td class="tdr">82.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mumtrak</td> - <td class="tdr">82.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hooper Bay</td> - <td class="tdr">82.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(116)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nunivak Island</td> - <td class="tdr">83.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chukchee</td> - <td class="tdr">83.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(34)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pastolik and Yukon Delta</td> - <td class="tdr">83.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Port Clarence</td> - <td class="tdr">83.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(29)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Indian Point (Siberia)</td> - <td class="tdr">83.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(279)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Lawrence Island</td> - <td class="tdr">84.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(12)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Little Diomede Island</td> - <td class="tdr">84.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Michael Island</td> - <td class="tdr">85.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0"><em>Northwestern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(69)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr">83.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(99)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Point Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr">84.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kotzebue Sound and Kobuk River</td> - <td class="tdr">84.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(20)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Shishmaref</td> - <td class="tdr">84.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(33)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Wales</td> - <td class="tdr">85.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(216)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Point Hope</td> - <td class="tdr">85.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Golovnin Bay—Cape Nome</td> - <td class="tdr">85.9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(51)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Igloos, southwest of Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr">86.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0"><em>Northern and northeastern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hudson Bay and vicinity</td> - <td class="tdr">82.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northern Arctic</td> - <td class="tdr">82.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(33)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Baffin Land and vicinity</td> - <td class="tdr">84.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Smith Sound</td> - <td class="tdr">85.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(101)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Greenland</td> - <td class="tdr">85.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southampton Island</td> - <td class="tdr">85.5</td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The height-breadth index <span class="overunder"><span class="bb">(H×100)</span><br />(B)</span> of the Eskimo skull shows in -substance the same conditions as did the mean height index, but -while less informative or dependable on one side, on the other it -accentuates the relative narrowness of the skull in some of the -groups.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 59</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_59a.jpg" width="700" height="417" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Skulls From Old Burials, Point Hope; Right Skull Shows Low Vault. (U.S.N.M.)</span></p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 60</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_60a.jpg" width="700" height="410" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Skulls From Old Burials, Point Hope; Right Skull Shows Low Vault. (U.S.N.M.)</span></p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Eskimo: Height-Breadth Index of the Skull"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Eskimo: Height-Breadth Index of the Skull</span><br /> - MEAN OF BOTH SEXES IN ASCENDING ORDER</caption> - <tr> - <th colspan="0"><em>Southwestern and midwestern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(12)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Togiak</td> - <td class="tdr">91.9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pilot Station, Lower Yukon</td> - <td class="tdr">92.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mumtrak</td> - <td class="tdr">93.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chukchee</td> - <td class="tdr">93.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hooper Bay</td> - <td class="tdr">93.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(25)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nelson Island</td> - <td class="tdr">93.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Yukon Delta</td> - <td class="tdr">94.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southwest Alaska</td> - <td class="tdr">95.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(12)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Little Diomede Island</td> - <td class="tdr">96.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(279)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Lawrence Island</td> - <td class="tdr">96.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(116)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nunivak Island</td> - <td class="tdr">96.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(31)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Indian Point (Siberia)</td> - <td class="tdr">96.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(29)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pastolik</td> - <td class="tdr">96.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cape Nome and Port Clarence</td> - <td class="tdr">97.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Michael Island</td> - <td class="tdr">98.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0"><em>Northwestern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(99)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Point Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr">98.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(69)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr">98.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(20)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Shishmaref</td> - <td class="tdr">98.9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(216)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Point Hope</td> - <td class="tdr">99.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kotzebue Sound and Kobuk River</td> - <td class="tdr">99.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(33)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Wales</td> - <td class="tdr">100.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(51)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Igloos, southwest of Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr">105.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0"><em>Northern and eastern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hudson Bay and vicinity</td> - <td class="tdr">95.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>North Arctic</td> - <td class="tdr">97.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Smith Sound</td> - <td class="tdr">98.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southampton Island</td> - <td class="tdr">99.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(33)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Baffin Land and vicinity</td> - <td class="tdr">99.9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(101)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Greenland</td> - <td class="tdr">101.8</td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<div class="footnotes"><h5>FOOTNOTES:</h5> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> These subdivisions are somewhat arbitrary and may, as data accumulate and are -better understood, be found to need some modification.</p></div></div> - - -<h4>THE FACE</h4> - -<p>The facial dimensions of the Eskimo skull offer a number of points -of unusual interest. The face is absolutely and especially relatively -to stature very large in all measurements. It is particularly high -between the upper alveolar point and nasion.</p> - -<p>The large size of the Eskimo face will best be appreciated from -a few figures.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" -summary="Facial Dimensions of the Western and Other Eskimo Crania -Compared With Those of the Siouan and Algonquian Tribes"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Facial Dimensions of the Western - and Other Eskimo Crania Compared With Those of the Siouan and - Algonquian Tribes</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="6" width="12.5%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2"></th> - <th colspan="2">Southwestern and midwestern Eskimo</th> - <th colspan="2">Eskimo in general</th> - <th>Siouan tribes</th> - <th>Algonquian tribes</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Mean of 14 groups (male)</th> - <th>10 groups (female)</th> - <th>27 groups (male)</th> - <th>22 groups (female)</th> - <th>12 groups (male)</th> - <th>15 groups (female)</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Total height (ment.-nas.)</td> - <td class="tdr">12.60</td> - <td class="tdr">(11.63)</td> - <td class="tdr">12.52</td> - <td class="tdr">(11.59)</td> - <td class="tdr">12.26</td> - <td class="tdr">12.11</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Upper height (alv. pt.-nas.)</td> - <td class="tdr">7.87</td> - <td class="tdr">(7.29)</td> - <td class="tdr">7.79</td> - <td class="tdr">(7.21)</td> - <td class="tdr">7.52</td> - <td class="tdr">7.35</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Diameter bizyg. max.</td> - <td class="tdr">14.25</td> - <td class="tdr">(13.27)</td> - <td class="tdr">14.26</td> - <td class="tdr">(13.22)</td> - <td class="tdr">14.16</td> - <td class="tdr">13.89</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Module of upper face <span class="overunder"><span class="bb">(U. H.+B)</span><br />2</span></td> - <td class="tdr">11.06</td> - <td class="tdr">(10.28)</td> - <td class="tdr">11.03</td> - <td class="tdr">(10.22)</td> - <td class="tdr">10.84</td> - <td class="tdr">10.62</td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>So far as known there are no larger faces among the Indians than -those of the Sioux, yet they remain very perceptibly, in all three -measurements, behind the Eskimo. No face as large as that of the -Eskimo is known, in fact, from anywhere else in the world. In -whites the mean diameter of the largest faces (see data in Martin's -Lehrbuch Anthrop., 789-791) does not exceed 10.36 centimeters. -The above showing assumes especial weight when it is recalled that -both the Siouan and the Algonquian tribes are among the tallest there -are on the American Continent. The cause of the large size of the -Eskimo face can only be the excessive use of the jaws; no other -reason even suggests itself. But the character may already be more -or less hereditary. It furnishes another attractive subject for further -investigation.</p> - -<p>With its large dimensions the face of the Eskimo skull presents -generally also large orbits, large molars, submedium prominence and -breadth of the nasal bridge, shallow suborbital (canine) fossae, large -dental arch above medium teeth, and a large and stout lower jaw -with broad not seldom more or less everted angles, giving the whole -a characteristic appearance. With partial exception of the orbits -and the nose, which are subject also to other factors, all these features -of the Eskimo face are explainable as strengthenings resulting from -the increased function of mastication.</p> - -<p>The main dimensions of the cranial face in the three large groupings -of the Eskimo are given in the next table.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Western and Other Eskimo: Facial Dimensions in the Skull"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Western and Other Eskimo: Facial Dimensions in the Skull</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="10" width="8.3%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="3"></th> - <th colspan="5">Males</th> - <th colspan="5">Females</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2" class="bl">Mentonnasion</th> - <th rowspan="2">Alveolar point-nasion</th> - <th rowspan="2">Diameter bizygomatic maximum</th> - <th colspan="2">Cranial facial index</th> - <th rowspan="2">Mentonnasion</th> - <th rowspan="2">Alveolar point-nasion</th> - <th rowspan="2">Diameter bizygomatic maximum</th> - <th colspan="2">Cranial facial index</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Total</th> - <th>Upper</th> - <th>Total</th> - <th>Upper</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Groups</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southwestern and midwestern</td> - <td class="tdr">12.60</td> - <td class="tdr">7.87</td> - <td class="tdr">14.25</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr">11.63</td> - <td class="tdr">7.29</td> - <td class="tdr">13.27</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.9</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Groups</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northwestern</td> - <td class="tdr">12.58</td> - <td class="tdr">7.73</td> - <td class="tdr">14.23</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr">11.55</td> - <td class="tdr">7.19</td> - <td class="tdr">13.18</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.6</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Groups</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>North Arctic and northeastern</td> - <td class="tdr">12.22</td> - <td class="tdr">7.69</td> - <td class="tdr">14.32</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr">11.61</td> - <td class="tdr">7.13</td> - <td class="tdr">13.15</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.2</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>These data show a number of interesting conditions. The height -of the upper face (alveolar point-nasion) is greatest in the southwestern -and midwestern groups, is slightly lower in the northwesterners, -and still further slightly lower in the north Arctic and the -northeast. On the other hand the facial breadth is slightly higher -in the north and east, and that although the vault has become -mostly decidedly narrower.</p> - -<p>These facts are shown best by the upper facial index, which in the -males descends quite perceptibly in the west from the south to the -north and in the Arctic from the west to the east. In the females -there is a parallel gradual diminution in the upper facial height -from the south to the north and then east, but the facial breadth -diminishes very slightly also instead of increasing, as a result of -which the upper facial index shows only minor differences; yet these -differences are in the same direction as those in the males.</p> - -<p>These matters are involved with a number of factors—the stature, -the breadth of the vault, and the development and direct influence -of the temporal muscles, besides hereditary conditions. Their proper -study will necessitate even more—in fact, much more—material than -is now at our disposal.</p> - -<p>The following table gives the distribution of the upper cranial -facial index in the various groups. Of the two indices that of the -whole face, including the lower jaw, is the less valuable; first, because -the jaw is often absent; second, because it is influenced by the height -of the lower jaw, which does not correlate perfectly with the upper; -and third, on account of the wear of the teeth, which in such people -as the Eskimo is very common and diminishes more or less the total -height of the face. Its averages in the three main groupings have -already been given. Its figures are not very exceptional.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Eskimo Skulls: Facial Index, Upper"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Eskimo Skulls: Facial Index, Upper</span><br /> - MEAN OF BOTH SEXES IN ASCENDING ORDER</caption> - <tr> - <th colspan="0"><em>Southwestern and Midwestern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pilot Station, Lower Yukon</td> - <td class="tdr">53.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cape Nome and Port Clarence</td> - <td class="tdr">54.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hooper Bay</td> - <td class="tdr">54.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mumtrak</td> - <td class="tdr">54.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(93)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nunivak Island</td> - <td class="tdr">54.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(262)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Lawrence Island</td> - <td class="tdr">54.9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Togiak and vicinity</td> - <td class="tdr">55.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(24)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Indian Point (Siberia)</td> - <td class="tdr">55.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(23)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nelson Island</td> - <td class="tdr">55.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southwestern Alaska</td> - <td class="tdr">55.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Michael Island</td> - <td class="tdr">55.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(25)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pastolik</td> - <td class="tdr">55.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chukchee</td> - <td class="tdr">55.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Little Diomede Island</td> - <td class="tdr">56.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0"><em>Northwestern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(190)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Point Hope</td> - <td class="tdr">52.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kotzebue</td> - <td class="tdr">53.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(17)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Shishmaref</td> - <td class="tdr">54.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(42)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Igloos north of Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr">54.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(41)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr">54.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(75)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Point Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr">55.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(31)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Wales</td> - <td class="tdr">55.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0"><em>Northern and northeastern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Smith South</td> - <td class="tdr">51.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southampton Island</td> - <td class="tdr">52.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(23)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Baffin Land and vicinity</td> - <td class="tdr">53.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(90)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Greenland</td> - <td class="tdr">54.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hudson Bay and vicinity</td> - <td class="tdr">54.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northern Arctic</td> - <td class="tdr">56.6</td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The upper facial index of the Eskimo skull is high, though there is -considerable group variation. The reason is the height of the upper -face, for which the accompanying considerable expansion of the zygomatic -arches does not fully compensate. In the white groups this -index ranges from approximately <em>50</em> to <em>54</em>; it averages <em>52.9</em> in 15 -Algonquian and <em>53.1</em> in 12 Siouan tribes. The means in the large -Eskimo groupings are from a little below <em>54</em> to a little over <em>55</em>. Its -regional differences have already been mentioned. Sex differences -in the index are very small. There are a number of points of significant -agreement, the foremost of which is once more that in the -case of Barrow and Point Barrow, and especially that of the Old -Igloos near Barrow and Greenland.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span></p> - - -<h4>THE NOSE</h4> - -<p>Equally as engaging as the whole face of the Eskimo skull is the -cranial nose. Our data throw much light on this feature also.</p> - -<p>Where the dimensions of the whole face are altered by some cause -the nose can not remain unaffected. This is especially true of its -height, which correlates directly and closely with that of the face -proper; the correlation of the breadth of the nose with that of the -face is weaker and more irregular, but not absent where not counteracted -by other factors. Accordingly with the high Eskimo upper -face there is found also a high nose, both being the highest known -to anthropometry. But the nasal breadth, instead of responding to -the considerable facial breadth, has become smaller, until in some of -the Eskimo groups it is the smallest of all known human groups. -There is plainly another potent factor in action here. This factor -could conceivably be connected simply with the above-average growth -of the facial bones; but if this were so then individuals with smaller -development of these bones ought to have broader noses, and vice -versa. This point can readily be tested. Taking the largest and best -cranial series, that of St. Lawrence Island, and selecting the skulls -with the smallest and the largest faces, the facts come out as follows:</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="The Nose"> -<col></col> -<col span="6" width="12.5%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2"></th> - <th colspan="3">Smallest development of face</th> - <th colspan="3">Largest development of face</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Face height (upper)</th> - <th>Face breadth</th> - <th>Breadth of nasal aperture</th> - <th>Face height</th> - <th>Face breadth</th> - <th>Breadth of nasal aperture</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>10 males</td> - <td class="tdr">7.52</td> - <td class="tdr">13.64</td> - <td class="tdr">2.37</td> - <td class="tdr">8.46</td> - <td class="tdr">14.79</td> - <td class="tdr">2.49</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>10 females</td> - <td class="tdr">6.81</td> - <td class="tdr">12.56</td> - <td class="tdr">2.37</td> - <td class="tdr">7.54</td> - <td class="tdr">14.02</td> - <td class="tdr">2.40</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Percentage relation of breadth of nose to mean diameter of face:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Male</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>22.4</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>21.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Female</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>24.5</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>22.2</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The above data show that while the narrow nose in the Eskimo is -to some extent affected by the large development in these people of -the facial bones, yet there must be also other factors.</p> - -<p>But if not wholly connected with the development of the facial -bones, then some of the causes of the narrow nose in the Eskimo must -either be inherited from far back or must be due to influences outside -the face itself.</p> - -<p>Pushing the character far back would be no explanation of its -original cause, but it may be shown that such a procedure would not -be justified. In the following important table are given the now -available data on the breadth of the nasal aperture of the Eskimo,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span> -group by group and area by area, and these data show that narrow -nose is by no means universal in this family. The nasal aperture -is broader in the southwest and midwest than in the northwest, and -broader in the latter region than in the Arctic north, and the northeast. -In general it is seen that the farther northward and northeastward -the narrower the nose, until it reaches beyond that of all -other human groups; while in the west and southwest it gradually -approaches until it reaches the nasal breadth of the Indian. And -that this latter condition is not due to Indian admixture is shown -by the fact that among the broadest noses are those of the Eskimo -in Siberia and those on the St. Lawrence Island, where there was -no known contact with the Indian, while the narrower noses are -along the midwestern coast, where Indian admixture might have -been possible.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Eskimo: Breadth of the Nasal Aperture"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Eskimo: Breadth of the Nasal Aperture</span><br /> - BOTH SEXES TAKEN TOGETHER IN DESCENDING ORDER</caption> - <tr> - <th colspan="0"><em>Southwestern and midwestern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southwestern Alaska</td> - <td class="tdr">2.50</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(31)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Indian Point (Siberia)</td> - <td class="tdr">2.48</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chukchee</td> - <td class="tdr">2.47</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pilot Station, Lower Yukon</td> - <td class="tdr">2.45</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(280)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Lawrence Island</td> - <td class="tdr">2.42</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(29)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pastolik</td> - <td class="tdr">2.41</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hooper Bay</td> - <td class="tdr">2.39</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mumtrak</td> - <td class="tdr">2.38</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cape Nome and Port Clarence</td> - <td class="tdr">2.38</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(23)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nelson Island</td> - <td class="tdr">2.37</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Togiak and vicinity</td> - <td class="tdr">2.36</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Yukon Delta</td> - <td class="tdr">2.34</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(107)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nunivak Island</td> - <td class="tdr">2.33</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Little Diomede Island</td> - <td class="tdr">2.32</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Michael Island</td> - <td class="tdr">2.21</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0"><em>Northwestern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kotzebue</td> - <td class="tdr">2.41</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(34)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Wales</td> - <td class="tdr">2.37</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(20)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Shishmaref</td> - <td class="tdr">2.36</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(56)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr">2.35</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(211)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Point Hope</td> - <td class="tdr">2.33</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(92)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Point Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr">2.30</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(48)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Igloos, north of Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr">2.30</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0"><em>Northern and northeastern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Smith Sound</td> - <td class="tdr">2.29</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northern Arctic</td> - <td class="tdr">2.26</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southampton Island</td> - <td class="tdr">2.25</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(29)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Baffin Land and vicinity</td> - <td class="tdr">2.25</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(98)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Greenland</td> - <td class="tdr">2.23</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hudson Bay and vicinity</td> - <td class="tdr">2.19</td> - </tr> -</table></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span></p> - -<p>It is hardly possible, therefore, to assume that a narrow nose is an -<em>ancient</em> inheritance of the Eskimo. From the facts now at hand it -seems much more probable that the Eskimo nose or respiratory nasal -aperture was not originally very narrow, but that it gradually -acquired this character as the people extended farther north and -northeastward; and there appears to be but one potent factor that -could influence this development and that increases from south to -north, namely, cold. A narrowing of the aperture can readily be -understood as a protective development for the throat and the organs -of respiration.</p> - -<p>It is not easy to see how the bony structures respond to the effects of -cold or heat, but that they do, particularly where these are aggravated -by moisture, has long been appreciated, and shown fairly conclusively -through studies on the nasal index by Thomson and later -by Thomson and Buxton.<a name="FNanchor_154_154" id="FNanchor_154_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_154_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a> An even more satisfactory study would -have been that of the nasal breadth alone. Perhaps the normal -variation with the elimination of the less fit are the main agencies.</p> - -<p>The next two tables show other interesting conditions. The first -of these, seen best from the more general data, are the relations of -the nasal dimensions and index in the two sexes. The females in -all the three large groupings have a higher nasal index than the -males. This is a general condition among the Indians as well as in -other races. It is usually due to a relative shortness of the female -nose. This condition is very plain in the Eskimo. The female nose -is actually narrower than the male, due to correlation with shorter -stature and lesser facial breadth, yet the index is higher. The reason -can most simply be shown by comparing the general mean nasal -breadth and height in the two sexes. The breadth in the female is -approximately 96.2 per cent of that in the male; the height is only -92.7 per cent.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Nasal Dimensions in Western and Other Eskimo Crania"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Nasal Dimensions in Western and Other Eskimo Crania</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="6" width="12.5%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2">Area</th> - <th colspan="3">Males</th> - <th colspan="3">Females</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Height</th> - <th>Breadth</th> - <th>Index</th> - <th>Height</th> - <th>Breadth</th> - <th>Index</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Groups</td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southwestern and Midwestern</td> - <td class="tdr">5.46</td> - <td class="tdr">2.42</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>44.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5.06</td> - <td class="tdr">2.32</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>45.8</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Groups</td> - <td class="tdc bt">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc bt">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc bt">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc bt">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc bt">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc bt">(6)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northwestern</td> - <td class="tdr">5.42</td> - <td class="tdr">2.37</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>43.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5.06</td> - <td class="tdr">2.30</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>45.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Groups</td> - <td class="tdc bt">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc bt">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc bt">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc bt">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc bt">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc bt">(5)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northern Arctic and northeastern</td> - <td class="tdr">5.38</td> - <td class="tdr">2.28</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>42.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr">4.95</td> - <td class="tdr">2.18</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>44.0</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span></p> -<p>Detailed group data on the nasal index show that this ranges from -<em>47.7</em> on the Yukon to <em>41.8</em> in the northernmost contingent of the -Eskimo at Smith Sound. The Kotzebue group that shows even a -higher index than on the Yukon is too small to have much weight. -Barrow and Point Barrow are once more nearly the same, as are the -Old Igloos and Greenland; and there are some other interesting -relations.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Eskimo Skulls: Nasal Index"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Eskimo Skulls: Nasal Index</span><br /> - BOTH SEXES TAKEN TOGETHER IN DESCENDING ORDER</caption> - <tr> - <th colspan="0"><em>Southwestern and midwestern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pilot Station, Lower Yukon</td> - <td class="tdr">47.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southwestern Alaska</td> - <td class="tdr">47.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(31)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Indian Point (Siberia)</td> - <td class="tdr">46.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hooper Bay</td> - <td class="tdr">46.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cape Nome and Port Clarence</td> - <td class="tdr">46.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(280)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Lawrence Island</td> - <td class="tdr">45.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chukchee</td> - <td class="tdr">45.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mumtrak</td> - <td class="tdr">45.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(107)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nunivak Island</td> - <td class="tdr">45.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Togiak and vicinity</td> - <td class="tdr">45.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(29)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pastolik</td> - <td class="tdr">44.9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(23)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nelson Island</td> - <td class="tdr">44.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Little Diomede Island</td> - <td class="tdr">44.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Michael Island</td> - <td class="tdr">42.9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Yukon Delta</td> - <td class="tdr">42.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0"><em>Northwestern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kotzebue</td> - <td class="tdr">49.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(20)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Shishmaref</td> - <td class="tdr">46.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(34)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Wales</td> - <td class="tdr">45.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(211)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Point Hope</td> - <td class="tdr">44.9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(56)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Barrow and vicinity</td> - <td class="tdr">44.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(48)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Igloos north of Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr">44.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(92)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Point Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr">43.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0"><em>Northern and northeastern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hudson Bay and vicinity</td> - <td class="tdr">44.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>North Arctic</td> - <td class="tdr">44.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(29)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Baffin Land and vicinity</td> - <td class="tdr">43.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(98)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Greenland</td> - <td class="tdr">43.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southampton Island</td> - <td class="tdr">43.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Smith Sound</td> - <td class="tdr">41.8</td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<div class="footnotes"><h5>FOOTNOTES:</h5> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_154_154" id="Footnote_154_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> Thomson, Arthur, The correlation of isotherms with variations in the nasal index. -Proc. Seventeenth Intern. Cong. Med., London, 1913, Sec. I, Anatomy and Embryology, -pt. <span class="smcap">II</span>, 89; Thomson, Arthur, and Buxton, L. H. D., Man's nasal index in relation to certain -climatic conditions, Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst., <span class="smcap">LIII</span>, 92-122, London, 1923. Additional -references in these publications; also in the latter an extensive list of data on -nasal index in many parts of the world.</p></div></div> - - -<h4>THE ORBITS</h4> - -<p>In many American groups the orbits are notoriously variable, yet -their mean dimensions and index are of value.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span></p> - -<p>The Eskimo orbits have long been known for their ample proportions. -Their mean height and breadth are larger than those of any -other known people and the excess is especially apparent when proportioned -to stature. Taking the family as a whole, the mean height -of the two orbits in males averages approximately 3.64 centimeters, -the mean breadth 4.03 centimeters; while the males of 23 Algonquian -tribes give for the same items 3.42 and 3.93, and those of 12 Siouan -tribes 3.58 and 3.96 centimeters.</p> - -<p>The general averages for the female Eskimo approach for orbital -height 3.52 centimeters, for breadth 3.89 centimeters, dimensions -which also surpass those in the females of any other known human -group.</p> - -<p>These large dimensions of the Eskimo orbit are, however, on closer -examination into the matter, found not to be racial characters except -in a secondary way. They are the direct consequence of the high and -broad face. The correlation of the orbital height and breadth with -the height and breadth of the face are shown by the following -figures. These figures indicate also some additional details of -interest.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="bt bb" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Eskimo Orbits: Right and Left"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Eskimo Orbits: Right and Left</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="6" width="12.5%"></col> - <tr> - <th colspan="0" class="bb">MALES</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2" class="bb"></th> - <th colspan="2" class="bb bl">Height</th> - <th colspan="2" class="bb bl">Breadth</th> - <th colspan="2" class="bb bl">Index</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bb bl">Right</th> - <th class="bb bl">Left</th> - <th class="bb bl">Right</th> - <th class="bb bl">Left</th> - <th class="bb bl">Right</th> - <th class="bb bl">Left</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(145)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(145)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(145)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Lawrence Island</td> - <td class="tdc bl">3.67 </td> - <td class="tdc">3.68</td> - <td class="tdc bl">4.05 </td> - <td class="tdc">4.01</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>90.7</em> </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>91.8</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(41)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(41)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(41)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nunivak Island</td> - <td class="tdc bl">3.59 </td> - <td class="tdc">3.59</td> - <td class="tdc bl">4.05 </td> - <td class="tdc">4.—</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>88.7</em> </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>89.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(120)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(120)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(120)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Point Hope</td> - <td class="tdc bl">3.63 </td> - <td class="tdc">3.63</td> - <td class="tdc bl">4.05 </td> - <td class="tdc">4.01</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>89.6</em> </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>90.5</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(46)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(46)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(46)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Greenland</td> - <td class="tdc bl">3.64 </td> - <td class="tdc">3.65</td> - <td class="tdc bl">4.02 </td> - <td class="tdc">3.96</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>90.6</em> </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>92.1</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0">FEMALES</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(128)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(128)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(128)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Lawrence Island</td> - <td class="tdc bl">3.62 </td> - <td class="tdc">3.60</td> - <td class="tdc bl">3.92 </td> - <td class="tdc">3.89</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>91.7</em> </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>92.6</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(58)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(58)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(58)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nunivak Island</td> - <td class="tdc bl">3.50 </td> - <td class="tdc">3.52</td> - <td class="tdc bl">3.88 </td> - <td class="tdc">3.84</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>90.2</em> </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>91.6</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(70)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(70)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(70)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Point Hope</td> - <td class="tdc bl">3.54 </td> - <td class="tdc">3.54</td> - <td class="tdc bl">3.91 </td> - <td class="tdc">3.88</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>90.5</em> </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>91.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(45)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(45)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(45)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Greenland</td> - <td class="tdc bl">3.55 </td> - <td class="tdc">3.56</td> - <td class="tdc bl">3.86 </td> - <td class="tdc">3.83</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>91.9</em> </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>92.9</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span></p> - -<p>The general orbital index of the Eskimo is close to <em>90</em> in the -males, <em>90.5</em> in the females. Such orbits are classed as also <em>relatively</em> -high or <em>megaseme</em>, a character in which they resemble many of the -American Indians. Thus the male crania of the Siouan tribes give -the practically identical general index of <em>90.5</em>.</p> - -<p>The slightly higher index in the females is the rule to which there -are but few exceptions, and those in individual groups where the -numbers of specimens may not be sufficient. The same tendency is -observable in the Indians, and appears in fact to be panhuman. It -is due to slightly lesser relative height as compared to the breadth -of the orbit in the males, which condition is due in all probability -to the greater development in the males of the frontal sinuses and -supraorbital arches.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border tdc" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Eskimo Crania: Dimensions of the Orbits in Relation to Those of the Face"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Eskimo Crania: Dimensions of the Orbits in Relation to Those of the Face</span><br /> - ORBITAL HEIGHT VERSUS UPPER FACIAL HEIGHT</caption> - -<col span="6" width="16.6%"></col> - <tr> - <th colspan="0">Males</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="2">(10)<br />Lowest faces (7.2-7.4)</th> - <th colspan="2">(10)<br />Average faces (7.8)</th> - <th colspan="2">(10)<br />Highest faces (8.4-9)</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th>Face</th> - <th>Orbits</th> - <th>Face</th> - <th>Orbits</th> - <th>Face</th> - <th>Orbits</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>7.37</td> - <td>3.62</td> - <td>7.80</td> - <td>3.65</td> - <td>8.55</td> - <td>3.78</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0" class="bu">Females</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="2">(10)<br />Lowest faces (6.4-6.8)</th> - <th colspan="2">(10)<br />Average faces (7.3)</th> - <th colspan="2">(14)<br />Highest faces (7.8-8.4)</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th>Face</th> - <th>Orbits</th> - <th>Face</th> - <th>Orbits</th> - <th>Face</th> - <th>Orbits</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>6.69</td> - <td>3.54</td> - <td>7.30</td> - <td>3.56</td> - <td>7.89</td> - <td>3.67</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0">PERCENTAGE RELATIONS OF ORBITS TO FACE</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"><em>49.1</em></td> - <td colspan="2"><em>46.8</em></td> - <td colspan="2"><em>44.2</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="bu"><em>53</em></td> - <td colspan="2" class="bu"><em>48.7</em></td> - <td colspan="2" class="bu"><em>46.6</em> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0">ORBITAL BREADTH VERSUS FACIAL BREADTH</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0">Males</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="2">(10)<br />Narrowest faces (13.4 and below)</th> - <th colspan="2">(17)<br />Average faces (14.2)</th> - <th colspan="2">(10)<br />Broadest faces (14.9 and above)</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th>Face</th> - <th>Orbits</th> - <th>Face</th> - <th>Orbits</th> - <th>Face</th> - <th>Orbits</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>13.30</td> - <td>3.96</td> - <td>14.20</td> - <td>4.01</td> - <td>15.11</td> - <td>4.17</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0" class="bu">Females</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="2">(10)<br />Narrowest faces (12.7 and below)</th> - <th colspan="2">(14)<br />Average faces (13.3)</th> - <th colspan="2">(10)<br />Broadest faces (13.9 and above)</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th>Face</th> - <th>Orbits</th> - <th>Face</th> - <th>Orbits</th> - <th>Face</th> - <th>Orbits</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>12.57</td> - <td>3.74</td> - <td>13.30</td> - <td>3.88</td> - <td>14.09</td> - <td>3.98</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0">PERCENTAGE RELATIONS OF ORBITS TO FACE</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"><em>29.8</em></td> - <td colspan="2"><em>28.4</em></td> - <td colspan="2"><em>28.2</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="bu"><em>29.8</em></td> - <td colspan="2" class="bu"><em>29.2</em></td> - <td colspan="2" class="bu"><em>27.6</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>Individual variation in the orbital index of the Eskimo is extensive, -reaching from slightly below <em>80</em> to well over <em>100</em>. It extends -more or less over the whole Eskimo area, without conveying -definite indication anywhere of either a mixture or of a special evolutionary -tendency. Yet it occasions group differences that eventually -might prove evolutionary, though they may merely represent the -next or higher order of variability, namely, that of groups within -a family.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Orbital Dimensions and Index in Eskimo Skulls"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Orbital Dimensions and Index in Eskimo Skulls</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="6" width="12.5%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2">Area</th> - <th colspan="3">Males</th> - <th colspan="3">Females</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Mean<br />height</th> - <th>Mean<br />breadth</th> - <th>Mean<br />index</th> - <th>Mean<br />height</th> - <th>Mean<br />breadth</th> - <th>Mean<br />index</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>South and Midwestern</td> - <td class="tdr">3.63</td> - <td class="tdr">4.01</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr">3.56</td> - <td class="tdr">3.87</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.1</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northwestern</td> - <td class="tdr">3.62</td> - <td class="tdr">4.02</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr">3.51</td> - <td class="tdr">3.92</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northern Arctic and northeastern</td> - <td class="tdr">3.65</td> - <td class="tdr">4.07</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr">3.54</td> - <td class="tdr">3.91</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.6</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span></p> - -<p>The group differences in the orbital index of the Eskimo skull are -shown in the next table. They elude a satisfactory explanation, unless -recourse is had to the above suggested theory of normal group -variability within a family. They have about the same range in -the three large areas, which would seem to support this theory.</p> - -<p>Group relations are indicated in the cases of Pastolik-Yukon Delta-St. -Michael Island; Point Barrow-Barrow; and Old Igloos-Greenland.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Eskimo Skulls: Mean Index of the Orbits"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Eskimo Skulls: Mean Index of the Orbits</span><br /> - BOTH SEXES TAKEN TOGETHER IN ASCENDING ORDER</caption> - <tr> - <th colspan="0"><em>Southwestern and midwestern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mumtrak</td> - <td class="tdr">88.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Little Diomede Island</td> - <td class="tdr">89.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cape Nome and Port Clarence</td> - <td class="tdr">89.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(101)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nunivak Island</td> - <td class="tdr">90.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(31)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Indian Point (Siberia)</td> - <td class="tdr">90.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chukchee</td> - <td class="tdr">90.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pilot Station, Lower Yukon</td> - <td class="tdr">91.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southwest Alaska</td> - <td class="tdr">91.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(271)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Lawrence Island</td> - <td class="tdr">91.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(24)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nelson Island</td> - <td class="tdr">91.9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hooper Bay</td> - <td class="tdr">92.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(29)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pastolik</td> - <td class="tdr">93.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Togiak</td> - <td class="tdr">93.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Yukon Delta</td> - <td class="tdr">93.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Michael Island</td> - <td class="tdr">94.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0"><em>Northwestern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kotzebue</td> - <td class="tdr">86.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(20)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Shishmaref</td> - <td class="tdr">88.9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(34)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Wales</td> - <td class="tdr">89.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(85)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Point Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr">90.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(200)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Point Hope</td> - <td class="tdr">90.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(53)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr">91.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(43)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Igloos north of Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr">91.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0"><em>Northern and northeastern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Smith Sound</td> - <td class="tdr">87.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southampton Island</td> - <td class="tdr">88.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(28)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Baffin Land and vicinity</td> - <td class="tdr">90.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northern Arctic</td> - <td class="tdr">91.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(94)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Greenland</td> - <td class="tdr">91.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hudson Bay and vicinity</td> - <td class="tdr">92.3</td> - </tr> -</table></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span></p> - - -<h4>THE UPPER ALVEOLAR ARCH</h4> - -<p>The dental arches correlate with function (use), with stature, with -the dimensions of the face, and with those of the teeth. The western -as well as other Eskimo show arches that are about equal in absolute -dimensions to those of our taller Indians, such as the Munsee, Arkansas, -and Louisiana;<a name="FNanchor_155_155" id="FNanchor_155_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_155_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a> but relatively to stature the Eskimo arch is -decidedly larger.</p> - -<p>The upper dental arch index <span class="overunder"><span class="bb">L×100</span><br />B</span>, now being used in preference -to the unwieldy "uranic index" <span class="overunder"><span class="bb">B×100</span><br />L</span> of Turner, is -rather high, showing that the arch is relatively, as well as absolutely, -broad. The same index in the Munsee averaged in the males -<em>82.8</em>, in the females <em>82.7</em>; in the Arkansas and Louisiana mound skulls -<em>84.4</em> in the males and <em>85.1</em> in the females. Data are needed here for -more extensive comparisons.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Eskimo Crania: Alveolar Arch"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Eskimo Crania: Alveolar Arch</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="8" width="10%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2"></th> - <th colspan="4">Males</th> - <th colspan="4">Females</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">External length</th> - <th>External breadth</th> - <th>Module<br />(mean diameter)</th> - <th>Index<br /><span class="overunder"><span class="bb">L×100</span><br />B</span></th> - <th>External length</th> - <th>External breadth</th> - <th>Module<br />(mean diameter)</th> - <th>Index<br /><span class="overunder"><span class="bb">L×100</span><br />B</span></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>11 groups:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Southwestern and Midwestern</td> - <td class="tdr">5.56</td> - <td class="tdr">6.66</td> - <td class="tdr">6.11</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5.34</td> - <td class="tdr">6.38</td> - <td class="tdr">5.86</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.8</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>6 groups:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Northwestern</td> - <td class="tdr">5.63</td> - <td class="tdr">6.61</td> - <td class="tdr">6.12</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5.38</td> - <td class="tdr">6.31</td> - <td class="tdr">5.85</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.2</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>5 groups:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Northern Arctic and northeastern</td> - <td class="tdr">5.68</td> - <td class="tdr">6.75</td> - <td class="tdr">6.21</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr">5.37</td> - <td class="tdr">6.28</td> - <td class="tdr">5.83</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.6</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span></p> -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Eskimo Skulls: Length-Breadth Index of the Upper Alveolar Arch"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Eskimo Skulls: Length-Breadth Index of the Upper Alveolar Arch</span><br /> - BOTH SEXES TAKEN TOGETHER IN ASCENDING ORDER</caption> - <tr> - <th colspan="0"><em>Southwestern and Midwestern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pilot Station, Lower Yukon</td> - <td class="tdr">79.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Togiak and vicinity</td> - <td class="tdr">80.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chukchee</td> - <td class="tdr">81.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(12)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hooper Bay</td> - <td class="tdr">81.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mumtrak</td> - <td class="tdr">81.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Little Diomede Island</td> - <td class="tdr">82.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(234)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Lawrence Island</td> - <td class="tdr">83.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Michael Island</td> - <td class="tdr">84.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(22)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pastolik</td> - <td class="tdr">84.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(90)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nunivak Island</td> - <td class="tdr">84.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southwest Alaska</td> - <td class="tdr">84.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cape Nome and Port Clarence</td> - <td class="tdr">84.9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(22)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Indian Point (Siberia)</td> - <td class="tdr">85.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(22)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nelson Island</td> - <td class="tdr">85.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0"><em>Northwestern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(39)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Igloos north of Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr">84.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Shishmaref</td> - <td class="tdr">84.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(171)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Point Hope</td> - <td class="tdr">84.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(31)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Wales</td> - <td class="tdr">84.9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(38)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr">85.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(66)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Point Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr">87.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0"><em>Northern and northeastern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Smith Sound</td> - <td class="tdr">82.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southampton Island</td> - <td class="tdr">83.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hudson Bay and vicinity</td> - <td class="tdr">84.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(23)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Baffin Land and vicinity</td> - <td class="tdr">85.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(89)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Greenland</td> - <td class="tdr">85.9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northern Arctic</td> - <td class="tdr">86.5</td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>Sex differences in the index are small, nevertheless the females -tend to show a slightly higher index, due to relatively slightly -smaller breadth of the arch.</p> - -<p>The size of the arch and its index differ but little over the three -main areas of the Eskimo territory, yet there are slight differences. -They appear plainly in the following table. Notwithstanding the -fact that on the whole the southwestern and midwestern groups are -somewhat taller than those of the far north and northeast, the largest -palate, in the males at least, is found in the latter area.</p> - -<p>In the southwest and midwest the upper alveolar arch is relatively -(as well as absolutely, barring one group) somewhat broad and -short. This may be in correlation with the broader head in this -area, just as the absolutely slightly longer palates over the rest of the -Eskimo territory and particularly (in males) in the northeast may -correlate with the longer heads in those regions. This point may be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span> -tested on our splendid material from St. Lawrence Island. Taking -the broadest and the narrowest skulls from this locality, the following -data are obtained for the proportions of the upper dental arch:</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Eskimo Crania: Dental Arch and Form of Skull"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Eskimo Crania: Dental Arch and Form of Skull</span><br /> - ST. LAWRENCE ISLAND MATERIAL</caption> -<col></col> -<col span="4" width="16.7%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2"></th> - <th colspan="2">Males</th> - <th colspan="2">Females</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Narrowest skulls<br />(C. I. 70.7-73.5)</th> - <th>Broadest skulls<br />(80.6-83.1)</th> - <th>Narrowest skulls<br />(70.3-74.2)</th> - <th>Broadest skulls<br />(80.9-83.8)</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Length</td> - <td class="tdr">5.68</td> - <td class="tdr">5.58</td> - <td class="tdr">5.52</td> - <td class="tdr">5.20</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">6.83</td> - <td class="tdr">6.77</td> - <td class="tdr">6.66</td> - <td class="tdr">6.36</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mean diameter</td> - <td class="tdr">6.26</td> - <td class="tdr">6.18</td> - <td class="tdr">6.09</td> - <td class="tdr">5.78</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mean cranial diameter (cranial module) of same skulls</td> - <td class="tdr">15.61</td> - <td class="tdr">15.49</td> - <td class="tdr">14.97</td> - <td class="tdr">14.73</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Percentage relation of mean dental arch diameter to the mean diameter of the skull</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>40.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>39.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>40.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>39.2</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Length of same skulls</td> - <td class="tdr">19.21</td> - <td class="tdr">18.10</td> - <td class="tdr">18.35</td> - <td class="tdr">17.25</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Percentage relation of length of dental arch to that of skull</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>29.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>30.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>30.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>30.1</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The above figures show several conditions. The first is that the -arch is quite distinctly larger in the narrow than in the broad skulls -in both sexes. The second fact is that the skull (vault) itself is -slightly larger in the narrow-headed. The third is that the length of -the arch is somewhat greater in the narrow and long skulls than it is -in the broad and shorter, relatively to the skull size. The fourth is -that there appears a close correlation, more particularly in the -females, between the length of the arch and that of the skull.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h5>FOOTNOTES:</h5> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_155_155" id="Footnote_155_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_155_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> See Bull. 62, Bur. Am. Ethn., and writer's Report on an Additional Collection of -Skeletal Remains from Arkansas and Louisiana, published with Clarence B. Moore's report -on the Antiquities of the Ouachita Valley, Philadelphia, 1909.</p></div></div> - - -<h4>THE BASION-NASION DIAMETER</h4> - -<p>The anterior basal length (basion-nasion) is a measurement of -importance, though its full meaning in anthropology is not yet -entirely clear. From data quoted by Martin (Lehrb., 715-716) it -appears to average in whites up to 10.3 centimeters in males and up -to 10.1 centimeters in females, and is known to correlate closely with -the length of the vault. Secondarily it also correlates with stature.</p> - -<p>Data on American Indians are not yet generally available, though -in preparation. The Munsee skulls gave the writer for the diameter -the means of 10.27 for the males and 10.02 for the females; the -mound skulls from Arkansas and Louisiana gave 10.45 for the males -and 9.77 for the females.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span></p> - -<p>An abstract of the data on the Eskimo skulls is given in the next -table. The values for the measurement are rather high, especially -for such short people. The percentage relation of the measurement -to the length of the skull appears also to be high. Manouvrier (1882, -quoted in Martin, Lehrb., 716) found this relation in French skulls -to be <em>53.6</em> in the males and <em>54.7</em> in the females.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Eskimo Crania: Basion-Nasion Length"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Eskimo Crania: Basion-Nasion Length</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="4" width="16.7%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2"></th> - <th colspan="2">Groups of males</th> - <th colspan="2">Corresponding groups of females</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Basion-nasion<br />diameter</th> - <th>Its percentage relation to length of skull</th> - <th>Basion-nasion<br />diameter</th> - <th>Its percentage relation to length of skull</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southwestern and Midwestern</td> - <td class="tdr">10.38</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>56.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr">9.85</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northwestern</td> - <td class="tdr">10.58</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>56.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr">10.06</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>56.3</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northern Arctic and northeastern</td> - <td class="tdr">10.65</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>56.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr">10.06</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.4</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The female measurement to that of the male, in the Eskimo, is -as <em>94.9</em> to 100. As a similar relation of the cranial modules in the -two sexes is close to <em>95.7</em>, the anterior basal length would seem to be at -a little disadvantage in the female Eskimo skull.</p> - -<p>The same condition is seen also when the basion-nasion diameter -is compared with the length of the skull. In the males, notwithstanding -the fact that the length of the vault is increased through the -development of the frontal sinuses and not infrequently also through -that of the occipital ridges, the percentage relation of the basion-nasion -to the maximum total length of the vault is approximately -<em>56.3</em>, in the females but <em>55.8</em>. It seems therefore safe to say that in -the Eskimo, in general, that part of the brain anterior to the foramen -magnum is relatively somewhat better developed in the males -than in the females.</p> - -<p>But to this there are some exceptions. Thus it may be seen in the -general table which follows that in the northwestern groups conditions -in this respect are equalized; and in the succeeding detailed -table it will be noted that while the males exceed the females in this -particular in 14 of the groups, in 5 groups conditions are equal (or -within one decimal), and in 5 the female percentage exceeds slightly -that in the males. In the numerically best represented groups conditions -are nearly equal, with the males nevertheless slightly favored.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="bt bb" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Eskimo Skulls: Basion-Nasion Length and Its Relation to Length of Skull"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Eskimo Skulls: Basion-Nasion Length and Its Relation to Length of Skull</span><br /> - SEXES SEPARATELY IN ASCENDING ORDER</caption> -<col></col> -<col span="4" width="16.7%"></col> -<thead> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2" class="bb"></th> - <th colspan="2" class="bl bb">Males</th> - <th colspan="2" class="bl bb">Females</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="2" class="bl bb">B-N. <span class="overunder">BN×100<br /><span class="bt">Skull l</span></span></th> - <th colspan="2" class="bl bb">B-N. <span class="overunder">BN×100<br /><span class="bt">Skull l</span></span></th> - </tr> -</thead> -<tbody> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><em>Southwestern and Midwestern</em></td> - <td class="bl"></td> - <td></td> - <td class="bl"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(4)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(7)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Little Diomede Island</td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.18</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>56.2</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl">9.91</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>54.9</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(3)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(2)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chukchee</td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.20 </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>54.8</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.00</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>54.8</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(3)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(3)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pilot Station (Yukon)</td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.27</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>54.3</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl">9.97</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>56</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(9)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(4)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hooper Bay</td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.29</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>57.6</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl">9.70</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>55.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(4)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(6)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mumtrak</td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.32</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>57</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl">9.52</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>55.1</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(146)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(133)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Lawrence Island</td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.36</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>56.3</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl">9.93</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>56.1</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(3)</td> - <td class="bl"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Yukon Delta</td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.37</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>55.8</em></td> - <td class="bl"></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(11)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(18)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pastolik</td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.41</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>56.5</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl">9.98</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>56.3</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(8)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(6)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Michael Island</td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.44</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>57.3</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl">9.98</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>56.3</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(9)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(15)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nelson Island</td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.46</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>55.8</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl">9.73</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>55.9</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(3)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(7)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Togiak</td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.47</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>57.2</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl">9.56</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>55.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(3)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(2)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southwestern Alaska</td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.47</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>57.6</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl">9.80</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>54.8</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(15)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(16)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Indian Point and Puotin</td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.54</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>56.5</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl">9.97</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>56.5</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(46)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(69)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nunivak Island</td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.55</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>56.1</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.02</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>56</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><em>Northwestern</em></td> - <td class="bl"></td> - <td></td> - <td class="bl"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(2)</td> - <td class="bl"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kotzebue</td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.45</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>57.3</em></td> - <td class="bl"></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(133)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(82)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Point Hope</td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.48</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>57</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.00</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>56.9</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(12)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(8)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Shishmaref</td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.50</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>56.8</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.20</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>57.5</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(47)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(52)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Point Barrow</td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.54</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>56.2</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl">9.94</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>55.5</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(35)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(34)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Barrow</td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.61</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>55.9</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.01</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>56.3</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(19)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(15)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Wales</td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.64</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>56.7</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.01</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>55.5</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(27)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(24)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Igloos north of Barrow</td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.70</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>55.6</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.18</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>56.2</em> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><em>Northern and northeastern</em></td> - <td class="bl"></td> - <td></td> - <td class="bl"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(16)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(17)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Baffin Land and vicinity</td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.51</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>55.6</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.11</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>55.2</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(5)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(2)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hudson Bay and vicinity</td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.60</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>56.4</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl">9.75</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>55.6</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(48)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(52)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Greenland</td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.60</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>55.9</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.13</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>56.2</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(5)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(10)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northern Arctic</td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.68</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>56.1</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.07</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>55.3</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(7)</td> - <td class="bl"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Smith Sound</td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.70</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>56.4</em></td> - <td class="bl"></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(9)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(5)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southampton Island</td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.83</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>57.3</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.34</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>56.9</em></td> - </tr> -</tbody> -</table></div> - -<p>An interesting point is that in the north and northeast, where the -skulls are longest, there is evidently a slightly greater relative development -of the occipital portion of the vault, or slightly lesser -development of the frontal portion.</p> - -<p>Some additional points of interest appear when the basion-nasion: -skull-length index, taken collectively for the two sexes, is compared -in the different groups. All these comparisons suffer, naturally, -from unevenness and often insufficiency of the numbers of specimens, -yet some of the results are very harmonious with those brought out -repeatedly by other data. Thus the St. Lawrence material stands -once more close to the medium of the southwestern and midwestern -groups; Barrow and Point Barrow are almost identical; and so are -the Old Igloos from near Barrow and Greenland. The St. Michael -islanders show very favorably in the midwest, the Shishmarefs in -the northwest and the Southampton islanders in the northeast.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Eskimo Skulls: Basion-Nasion Line in Relation to Skull Length"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Eskimo Skulls: Basion-Nasion Line in Relation to Skull Length</span><br /> - <span class="overunder"><span class="bb">BN×100</span><br />SL</span><br /> - BOTH SEXES TOGETHER IN ASCENDING ORDER</caption> - <tr> - <th colspan="2"><em>Southwestern and midwestern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chukchee</td> - <td class="tdr">54.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pilot Station, Lower Yukon</td> - <td class="tdr">55.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Little Diomede Island</td> - <td class="tdr">55.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(24)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nelson Island</td> - <td class="tdr">55.9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(115)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nunivak Island</td> - <td class="tdr">56.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mumtrak</td> - <td class="tdr">56.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(279)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Lawrence Island</td> - <td class="tdr">56.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southwestern Alaska</td> - <td class="tdr">56.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(29)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pastolik</td> - <td class="tdr">56.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Togiak</td> - <td class="tdr">56.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(31)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Indian Point and vicinity (Siberia)</td> - <td class="tdr">56.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hooper Bay</td> - <td class="tdr">56.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Michael Island</td> - <td class="tdr">56.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="2"><em>Northwestern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(51)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Igloos southwest of Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr">55.9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(99)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Point Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr">55.9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(69)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr">56.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(34)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Wales</td> - <td class="tdr">56.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(215)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Point Hope</td> - <td class="tdr">57.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(20)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Shishmaref</td> - <td class="tdr">57.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="2"><em>Northern and northeastern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(33)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Baffin Land and vicinity</td> - <td class="tdr">55.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Northern Arctic</td> - <td class="tdr">55.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hudson Bay and vicinity</td> - <td class="tdr">56.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(100)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Greenland</td> - <td class="tdr">56.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Smith Sound (male)</td> - <td class="tdr">56.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southampton Island</td> - <td class="tdr">57.1</td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The next table gives the percentage relations of the basion-nasion -diameter to the mean diameter of the skull. The correlation of the -two is even closer than in the case of the skull length, and the -grouping, while in the main alike, seems in general even more in -harmony with that in previous comparisons. The St. Lawrence -Island females are very exceptional, as was also apparent in other -connections. The unusual smallness of their skull (compare section -on Cranial module) is evidently due to a poor development of its -posterior half.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Eskimo -Crania: Percentage Relation of the Basion-Nasion Diameter to Mean -Cranial Diameter"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Eskimo Crania: Percentage Relation - of the Basion-Nasion Diameter to Mean Cranial Diameter - (Cranial Module)</span><br /> <span class="overunder"><span - class="bb">BN×100</span><br />CM</span><br /> BOTH SEXES TOGETHER - IN ASCENDING ORDER</caption> - <tr> - <th colspan="2"><em>Southwestern and Midwestern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pilot Station, Yukon</td> - <td class="tdr">65.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chukchee</td> - <td class="tdr">66.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Little Diomede Island</td> - <td class="tdr">66.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hooper Bay</td> - <td class="tdr">66.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nelson Island</td> - <td class="tdr">66.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Togiak</td> - <td class="tdr">66.9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southwest Alaska</td> - <td class="tdr">67.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Indian Point, Siberia</td> - <td class="tdr">67.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mumtrak</td> - <td class="tdr">67.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nunivak Island</td> - <td class="tdr">67.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pastolik</td> - <td class="tdr">67.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Michael Island</td> - <td class="tdr">68.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Lawrence Island:</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Male</td> - <td class="tdr">67.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Female</td> - <td class="tdr">(69.6)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="2"><em>Northwestern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Wales</td> - <td class="tdr">67.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Point Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr">67.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Point Hope</td> - <td class="tdr">68.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Barrow</td> - <td class="tdr">68.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Old Igloos</td> - <td class="tdr">69.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Shishmaref</td> - <td class="tdr">69.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="2"><em>Northern Arctic and northeastern</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Baffin Land</td> - <td class="tdr">67.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hudson Bay</td> - <td class="tdr">67.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Smith Sound (male)</td> - <td class="tdr">67.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>North Arctic</td> - <td class="tdr">68.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Greenland</td> - <td class="tdr">68.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southampton Island</td> - <td class="tdr">68.7</td> - </tr> -</table></div> - - -<h4>PROGNATHISM</h4> - -<p>Since better understood, the subject of facial prognathism has lost -much of its allure in anthropology; yet the matter is not wholly without -interest.</p> - -<p>Facial protrusion is as a rule secondary to and largely caused by -alveolar protrusion, which in turn is caused by the size and shape of -the dental arch; and the dental arch is generally proportional to the -size of the teeth. The form of the arch is, however, quite influential. -With the teeth identical in size a narrow arch will be more, a broad -arch less protruding, and a narrow arch with small teeth may protrude -more than a broad one with larger teeth. Another influence -is that of the height of the upper face, the same arch protruding more -in a low face than in a high one. And still another factor is the incline -of the front teeth, though this affects merely the appearance of -prognathism and not its measurements.</p> - -<p>There are different ways of measuring facial prognathism, and -with sufficient care all may be effective; I prefer, for practical -reasons, linear measurements from the basion, which, together with -the facial and subnasal heights, give triangles that can readily be -reconstructed on paper and allow a direct measurement of both the -facial and the alveolar angle. The three needed diameters from -basion are taken, the first to the "prealveolar point," or the <em>most -anterior</em> point on the upper dental arch above the incisors; the second -to the "subnasal point," or the point on the left (for convenience) -of the nasal aperture, where the outer part of its border -passes into that which belongs to the subnasal portion of the maxilla<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> -(the point where the subnasal slant begins); and the third to nasion. -The facial height is that from the alveolar point (<em>lowest</em> point of -the upper alveolar border in the median line) to nasion; while for -the subnasal height, which can not be measured directly, I utilize -the difference between the facial and nasal heights, which is very -close to the needed dimension.</p> - -<p>The important basion-nasion diameter has already been considered. -That to the subnasal point needs no comment. That to the prealveolar -point shows in the western and other Eskimo as follows:</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Eskimo Crania: Basion-Prealveolar Point Diameter"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Eskimo Crania: Basion-Prealveolar Point Diameter</span><br /> - <span class="smcap">All Eskimo</span></caption> - <tr> - <td>Males:</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean diameter</td> - <td class="tdr">centimeters</td> - <td class="tdr">10.54</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean relation to length of skull</td> - <td class="tdr">per cent</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>56.3</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Females:</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Diameter</td> - <td class="tdr">centimeters</td> - <td class="tdr">9.99</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Relation</td> - <td class="tdr">per cent</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.8</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="bb" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Eskimo Crania: Basion-Prealveolar Point Diameter"> -<col span="6" width="16.7%"></col> - <tr> - <th colspan="0">MALES</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="0">A = Basion prealveolar point diameter<br /> - B = Its relation to length of skull</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="2" class="bt bb">Southwestern and midwestern</th> - <th colspan="2" class="bl bt bb">Northwestern</th> - <th colspan="2" class="bl bt bb">Northern Arctics and northeastern</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><em>A</em></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>B</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>A</em></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>B</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>A</em></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>B</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">10.38 </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>56.4</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.58 </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>56.4</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.65 </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>56.2</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="0" class="tdc">Mean skull lengths</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">18.41</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">18.75</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">18.96</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0" class="bb bt">FEMALES</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">9.85 </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>55.7</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.06 </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>56.3</em></td> - <td class="tdc bl">10.06 </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>55.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="0" class="tdc">Mean skull lengths</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">17.69</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">17.86</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">18.15</td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>As in other details, so here there is a remarkable similarity between -the skulls from the three large areas, pointing both to the unity of -the people and to absence of heterogeneous admixtures. As the -skull length increases so does the basi-alveolar line, but the relative -proportions of the two remain very nearly the same.</p> - -<p>The relative value of the basi-alveolar length in the males, compared -to the length of the skull, is in general about 0.5 per cent -higher than it is in the females. This is just about the excess of the -relative proportion of the length of the male dental arch when compared -to the same skull dimension. The general mean skull length -in the Eskimo male approximates 18.705, in female 17.899 centimeters; -the mean length of the arch is, in the male, close to 5.625, -in the female 5.365 centimeters; and the percentage relation of the -latter to the former is <em>30.6</em> in the males, <em>30</em> in the females. The -relatively slightly greater basi-alveolar length in the males is evidently, -therefore, at least partly due to the relatively longer male<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> -dental arch, which in turn is doubtless due to the somewhat larger -teeth in the males.<a name="FNanchor_156_156" id="FNanchor_156_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_156_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a></p> - -<p>Notwithstanding the just discussed slight sex difference in the -Eskimo, the facial angle, i. e., the angle between the basi-alveolar line -and the line nasion-alveolar point, is equal in the two sexes. This -equalization is due largely, if not wholly, to the effect in the males -of the relatively longer basio-nasion diameter (v. a.), while the -alveolar angle, or that between the basi-alveolar and the subnasal -lines, is in general by about 1 per cent lower in the females (males, -56°; females, 55°), indicating a slightly greater slant of the subnasal -region in the female, which can only be due to a relatively slightly -shorter in this sex of the basion-subnasal point diameter. As a matter -of fact, the percentage relation of this diameter to the length of the -skull amounts in the males to <em>56.3</em>, in the females to but <em>55.6</em>.</p> - -<p>Compared to that in the Indians, the facial angle in the Eskimo -skulls shows close affinities. Its value (69°) is very nearly the same -as in the mound skulls from Arkansas and Louisiana (males 70.7°, -females 69°). In other Indians it ranges from close to 68° to 71.5°. -In the Munsee it reached 73.5°. In whites, according to Rivet's -data,<a name="FNanchor_157_157" id="FNanchor_157_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_157_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a> it ranges from about 72° to 75°; in a group of negroes it was -68.5°. In American and other negro crania measured by me<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id="FNanchor_158_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a> it -ranged from 67° to 70.5°, in Melanesians from 66° to 68°, in Australians -from 67° to 69°.</p> - -<p>The <em>alveolar angle</em> is more variable. It shows considerable individual, -sex, and group differences. It averages slightly to moderately -higher, which means a more open angle or less slant in the males -than in the females. In the Eskimo as a whole it was seen to be -approximately 56° in the males, 55° in the females; in the Munsee -Indians (Bull. 62, Bur. Amer. Ethn.) it was males 59°, females -57°; in the Arkansas and Louisiana skulls (J. Ac. Sci., Phila., 1909, -XIV) it averaged males 55°, females 52°. In my catalogue material -it shows a group variation of 46.5° to 55.5° in the negro, 47.5° -to 52.5° in the Australians, 46.5° to 50.5° in the Melanesians. In the -whites it generally exceeds 60°.</p> - -<p>Differences in facial and alveolar protrusion among the Eskimo -according to area are small, yet they are not wholly absent. The -figures below show that in the southwesterners and midwesterners, -where the skull is more rounded, the prognathism is smallest; and -that toward the north and northeast, where the skull is narrower -and the palate (dental arch) tends to become longer, prognathism -increases. The "Old Igloo" group shows once more such affinity with -the Greenlanders that it is placed with the third subdivision.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Eskimo Skulls: Facial and Alveolar Angle with Principal Areas"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Eskimo Skulls: Facial and Alveolar Angle with Principal Areas</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="6" width="12.5%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2"></th> - <th colspan="3">Males</th> - <th colspan="3">Females</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">South- and midwest</th> - <th>Northwest</th> - <th>North and northeast</th> - <th>South- and midwest</th> - <th>Northwest</th> - <th>North and northeast</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Groups</td> - <td class="tdr">(13)</td> - <td class="tdr">(5)</td> - <td class="tdr">(6)</td> - <td class="tdr">(13)</td> - <td class="tdr">(5)</td> - <td class="tdr">(6)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Facial angle</td> - <td class="tdr">68</td> - <td class="tdr">69</td> - <td class="tdr">70</td> - <td class="tdr">67.5</td> - <td class="tdr">69</td> - <td class="tdr">70</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Alveolar angle</td> - <td class="tdr">55</td> - <td class="tdr">56</td> - <td class="tdr">55</td> - <td class="tdr">54</td> - <td class="tdr">55</td> - <td class="tdr">54.5</td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>Individual group differences in the facial and alveolar angle are -moderate, yet evidently not negligible. (See next table.) The most -prognathic, especially in the subnasal region, are the skulls from -Nelson Island. A marked alveolar slant is also present in the Pilot -Station Yukon group, and in Greenland. The least prognathic are -the St. Michael Islanders, the Point Hope people, and those from -Southampton Island. St. Lawrence stands once more near the -middle of the southwesterners and midwesterners, and there are to be -seen the principal old relations.</p> - -<p>The main points shown by the above conditions are the group -variability, particularly in the southwest and midwest; the tendency, -on the whole, toward a slightly greater prognathy, both facial and -alveolar, in this same area; and the evidence that the alveolar slant -has some individuality.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Eskimo Skulls: Group Conditions in Facial and Alveolar Angle"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Eskimo Skulls: Group Conditions in Facial and Alveolar Angle</span><a name="FNanchor_159_159" id="FNanchor_159_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_159_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="3" width="20%"></col> - <tr> - <th><em>South and Midwest</em></th> - <th>Facial angle</th> - <th>Alveolar angle</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">(20)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nelson Island</td> - <td class="tdc">66.3</td> - <td class="tdc">51.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">(4)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southwest Alaska</td> - <td class="tdc">66.8</td> - <td class="tdc">54.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">(4)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chukchee</td> - <td class="tdc">66.8</td> - <td class="tdc">57.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">(21)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Indian Point</td> - <td class="tdc">67.0</td> - <td class="tdc">56.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">(8)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Togiak</td> - <td class="tdc">67.0</td> - <td class="tdc">54.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">(242)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Lawrence Island</td> - <td class="tdc">67.8</td> - <td class="tdc">55.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">(86)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nunivak Island</td> - <td class="tdc">67.8</td> - <td class="tdc">56.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">(23)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pastolik</td> - <td class="tdc">68.3</td> - <td class="tdc">54.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">(10)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hooper Bay</td> - <td class="tdc">68.3</td> - <td class="tdc">55.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">(10)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Little Diomede Island</td> - <td class="tdc">68.5</td> - <td class="tdc">57.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">(9)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mumtrak</td> - <td class="tdc">68.8</td> - <td class="tdc">55.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">(5)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pilot Station, Yukon</td> - <td class="tdc">68.8</td> - <td class="tdc">52.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">(10)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Michael Island</td> - <td class="tdc">70.0</td> - <td class="tdc">56.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th><em>Northwest</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">(11)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sledge Island</td> - <td class="tdc">69.5</td> - <td class="tdc">54.9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">(31)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Wales</td> - <td class="tdc">67.8</td> - <td class="tdc">56.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">(17)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Shishmaref</td> - <td class="tdc">68.3</td> - <td class="tdc">55.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">(73)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Point Barrow</td> - <td class="tdc">69.5</td> - <td class="tdc">56.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">(43)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Barrow</td> - <td class="tdc">69.8</td> - <td class="tdc">56.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">(181)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Point Hope</td> - <td class="tdc">70.5</td> - <td class="tdc">56.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th><em>North and northeast</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">(11)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>North Arctic</td> - <td class="tdc">68.5</td> - <td class="tdc">54.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">(24)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Baffin Land</td> - <td class="tdc">70.0</td> - <td class="tdc">55.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">(87)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Greenland</td> - <td class="tdc">69.8</td> - <td class="tdc">53.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">(35)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Old Igloos near Barrow</td> - <td class="tdc">70.3</td> - <td class="tdc">55.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">(7)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hudson Bay</td> - <td class="tdc">70.3</td> - <td class="tdc">56.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">(12)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Southampton Island</td> - <td class="tdc">71</td> - <td class="tdc">55</td> - </tr> -</table></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span></p> -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="ESKIMO CRANIA"> - <caption>ESKIMO CRANIA<br /> - <span class="smcap">Southwestern and Western Alaska, Bering Sea Islands, and Asiatic Coast</span><br /> - MALES</caption> -<col></col> -<col span="18" width="5%"></col> -<thead> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2"></th> - <th rowspan="2">Prince William Sound</th> - <th rowspan="2">Kodiak Island</th> - <th rowspan="2">Unalaska Peninsula</th> - <th rowspan="2">Nushagak Bay and Kanakanak</th> - <th rowspan="2">Togiak</th> - <th rowspan="2">Mumtrak</th> - <th rowspan="2">Nunivak Island</th> - <th rowspan="2">Nelson Island Tanunok Village</th> - <th rowspan="2">Hooper Bay</th> - <th rowspan="2">Lower Yukon and delta</th> - <th rowspan="2">Pilot Station, lower Yukon</th> - <th rowspan="2">Kotlik and Pastolik</th> - <th rowspan="2">St. Michael Island</th> - <th rowspan="2">St. Lawrence Island</th> - <th rowspan="2">Little Diomede Island</th> - <th colspan="3">Northeastern Asia</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Indian Point (E. Cape)</th> - <th>Puotin (NW. of E. Cape)</th> - <th>Chukchi (in or near Bering Strait)</th> - </tr> -</thead> -<tbody> - <tr> - <td>Vault:</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(46)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(153)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length</td> - <td class="tdr">18.1</td> - <td class="tdr">18.6</td> - <td class="tdr">17.8</td> - <td class="tdr">17.4</td> - <td class="tdr">18.30</td> - <td class="tdr">18.10</td> - <td class="tdr">18.81</td> - <td class="tdr">18.73</td> - <td class="tdr">17.86</td> - <td class="tdr">18.57</td> - <td class="tdr">18.90</td> - <td class="tdr">18.44</td> - <td class="tdr">18.23</td> - <td class="tdr">18.40</td> - <td class="tdr">18.12</td> - <td class="tdr">18.59</td> - <td class="tdr">18.95</td> - <td class="tdr">18.63</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(46)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(153)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">13.8</td> - <td class="tdr">14.4</td> - <td class="tdr">14.1</td> - <td class="tdr">14.4</td> - <td class="tdr">14.20</td> - <td class="tdr">14.20</td> - <td class="tdr">14.09</td> - <td class="tdr">14.44</td> - <td class="tdr">14.43</td> - <td class="tdr">14.13</td> - <td class="tdr">15.07</td> - <td class="tdr">13.90</td> - <td class="tdr">13.84</td> - <td class="tdr">14.19</td> - <td class="tdr">14.28</td> - <td class="tdr">14.32</td> - <td class="tdr">14.45</td> - <td class="tdr">14.67</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(46)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(145)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height</td> - <td class="tdr">12.8</td> - <td class="tdr">14</td> - <td class="tdr">13.6</td> - <td class="tdr">13.4</td> - <td class="tdr">13.25</td> - <td class="tdr">13.35</td> - <td class="tdr">13.69</td> - <td class="tdr">13.60</td> - <td class="tdr">13.60</td> - <td class="tdr">13.67</td> - <td class="tdr">13.77</td> - <td class="tdr">13.60</td> - <td class="tdr">13.83</td> - <td class="tdr">13.68</td> - <td class="tdr">13.60</td> - <td class="tdr">13.68</td> - <td class="tdr">14.30</td> - <td class="tdr">13.37</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(46)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(145)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cranial Module</td> - <td class="tdr">14.90</td> - <td class="tdr">15.67</td> - <td class="tdr">15.17</td> - <td class="tdr">15.07</td> - <td class="tdr">15.25</td> - <td class="tdr">15.22</td> - <td class="tdr">15.53</td> - <td class="tdr">15.59</td> - <td class="tdr">15.30</td> - <td class="tdr">15.46</td> - <td class="tdr">15.91</td> - <td class="tdr">15.31</td> - <td class="tdr">15.30</td> - <td class="tdr">15.42</td> - <td class="tdr">15.33</td> - <td class="tdr">15.54</td> - <td class="tdr">15.90</td> - <td class="tdr">15.56</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(46)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(142)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Capacity</td> - <td class="tdr">1,380</td> - <td class="tdr">1,485</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1,440</td> - <td class="tdr">1,447</td> - <td class="tdr">1,465</td> - <td class="tdr">1,504</td> - <td class="tdr">1,556</td> - <td class="tdr">1,519</td> - <td class="tdr">1,490</td> - <td class="tdr">1,660</td> - <td class="tdr">1,486</td> - <td class="tdr">1,461</td> - <td class="tdr">1,462</td> - <td class="tdr">1,470</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1,490</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>46</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>9</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>9</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>11</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>8</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>153</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>14</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cranial Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>79.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>78.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>80.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>79.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>78.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>78.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>46</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>9</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>9</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>11</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>8</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>145</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>13</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mean height Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>80.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>80.3</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>46</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>9</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>9</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>11</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>8</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>145</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>13</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Height-breadth index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>97.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>96.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>93</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>93.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>94</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>97.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>94.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>94.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>96.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>97.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>99.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>96.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>95.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>95.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>98.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.1</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Face:</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(24)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(24)</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Menton-nasion</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">11.8</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">12.6</td> - <td class="tdr">12.90</td> - <td class="tdr">12.17</td> - <td class="tdr">12.95</td> - <td class="tdr">13</td> - <td class="tdr">12.44</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">12.40</td> - <td class="tdr">12.67</td> - <td class="tdr">12.20</td> - <td class="tdr">12.70</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp"></td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(43)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(139)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Nasion-upper alveolar point</td> - <td class="tdr">7.5</td> - <td class="tdr">7.8</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">7.6</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - <td class="tdr">7.60</td> - <td class="tdr">7.83</td> - <td class="tdr">8.19</td> - <td class="tdr">7.69</td> - <td class="tdr">7.87</td> - <td class="tdr">7.85</td> - <td class="tdr">7.78</td> - <td class="tdr">7.86</td> - <td class="tdr">7.82</td> - <td class="tdr">7.58</td> - <td class="tdr">7.91</td> - <td class="tdr">8.05</td> - <td class="tdr">8.10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp"></td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(45)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(148)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Diameter-bizygomatic maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">13.4</td> - <td class="tdr">14.8</td> - <td class="tdr">14.1</td> - <td class="tdr">14.6</td> - <td class="tdr">14.07</td> - <td class="tdr">13.90</td> - <td class="tdr">14.32</td> - <td class="tdr">14.44</td> - <td class="tdr">14.17</td> - <td class="tdr">14.30</td> - <td class="tdr">14.97</td> - <td class="tdr">14.13</td> - <td class="tdr">13.99</td> - <td class="tdr">14.20</td> - <td class="tdr">13.52</td> - <td class="tdr">14.37</td> - <td class="tdr">14.65</td> - <td class="tdr">14.53</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>24</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>24</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Facial Index, total</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>79.7</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>95.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.4</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.8</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>43</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>9</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>8</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>9</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>13</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>10</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Facial Index, upper</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>56</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>49.3</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>52.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>56.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>56.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>52.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55</em> </td> - <td class="tdr"><em>56.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>56.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Basio-facial:</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(42)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(131)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Basion alveolar point</td> - <td class="tdr">11</td> - <td class="tdr">10.5</td> - <td class="tdr">10.43</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - <td class="tdr">10.43</td> - <td class="tdr">10.65</td> - <td class="tdr">10.61</td> - <td class="tdr">10.25</td> - <td class="tdr">10.20</td> - <td class="tdr">10.35</td> - <td class="tdr">10.40</td> - <td class="tdr">10.21</td> - <td class="tdr">10.43</td> - <td class="tdr">10.25</td> - <td class="tdr">10.40</td> - <td class="tdr">10.95</td> - <td class="tdr">10.50</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(44)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(143)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Basion-subnasal point</td> - <td class="tdr">9.4</td> - <td class="tdr">9.4</td> - <td class="tdr">9</td> - <td class="tdr">8.6</td> - <td class="tdr">9.37</td> - <td class="tdr">9.12</td> - <td class="tdr">9.51</td> - <td class="tdr">9.28</td> - <td class="tdr">9.12</td> - <td class="tdr">9.20</td> - <td class="tdr">9.07</td> - <td class="tdr">9.17</td> - <td class="tdr">9.04</td> - <td class="tdr">9.26</td> - <td class="tdr">9.12</td> - <td class="tdr">9.35</td> - <td class="tdr">9.80</td> - <td class="tdr">9.10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(46)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(145)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Basion-nasion</td> - <td class="tdr">10.4</td> - <td class="tdr">10.8</td> - <td class="tdr">10.2</td> - <td class="tdr">9.9</td> - <td class="tdr">10.47</td> - <td class="tdr">10.32</td> - <td class="tdr">10.55</td> - <td class="tdr">10.46</td> - <td class="tdr">10.29</td> - <td class="tdr">10.37</td> - <td class="tdr">10.27</td> - <td class="tdr">10.41</td> - <td class="tdr">10.44</td> - <td class="tdr">10.36</td> - <td class="tdr">10.18</td> - <td class="tdr">10.48</td> - <td class="tdr">10.90</td> - <td class="tdr">10.20</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>41</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>8</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>131</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>8</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Facial angle</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>65.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>72</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>67.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>68</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>69</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>68</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>66</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>68</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>69</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>70.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>69</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>69</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>67.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>68</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>67</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>68</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>66</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>41</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>8</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>131</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>8</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Alveolar angle</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>48.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>56.5</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>49</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>56.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>58</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>59.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>56</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>56.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>56.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>57</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>58</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>57.5</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Orbits:</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(42)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(145)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean height</td> - <td class="tdr">3.47</td> - <td class="tdr">3.55</td> - <td class="tdr">3.62</td> - <td class="tdr">3.67</td> - <td class="tdr">3.64</td> - <td class="tdr">3.45</td> - <td class="tdr">3.59</td> - <td class="tdr">3.75</td> - <td class="tdr">3.66</td> - <td class="tdr">3.76</td> - <td class="tdr">3.57</td> - <td class="tdr">3.67</td> - <td class="tdr">3.74</td> - <td class="tdr">3.68</td> - <td class="tdr">3.45</td> - <td class="tdr">3.80</td> - <td class="tdr">3.60</td> - <td class="tdr">3.66</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(42)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(145)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">3.85</td> - <td class="tdr">4.07</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">3.9</td> - <td class="tdr">3.95</td> - <td class="tdr">4.09</td> - <td class="tdr">4.02</td> - <td class="tdr">4.08</td> - <td class="tdr">3.92</td> - <td class="tdr">3.94</td> - <td class="tdr">4.07</td> - <td class="tdr">3.98</td> - <td class="tdr">4.04</td> - <td class="tdr">4.03</td> - <td class="tdr">3.88</td> - <td class="tdr">4.10</td> - <td class="tdr">4.25</td> - <td class="tdr">4.01</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>42</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>9</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>9</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>11</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>8</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>145</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>14</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>94.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>93.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>95.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>93.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.1</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nose:</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(44)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(148)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height</td> - <td class="tdr">4.9</td> - <td class="tdr">5.1</td> - <td class="tdr">5.4</td> - <td class="tdr">5.3</td> - <td class="tdr">5.57</td> - <td class="tdr">5.49</td> - <td class="tdr">5.35</td> - <td class="tdr">5.59</td> - <td class="tdr">5.41</td> - <td class="tdr">5.45</td> - <td class="tdr">5.37</td> - <td class="tdr">5.44</td> - <td class="tdr">5.36</td> - <td class="tdr">5.42</td> - <td class="tdr">5.30</td> - <td class="tdr">5.57</td> - <td class="tdr">5.47</td> - <td class="tdr">5.63</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(44)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(148)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">2.4</td> - <td class="tdr">2.45</td> - <td class="tdr">2.45</td> - <td class="tdr">2.45</td> - <td class="tdr">2.35</td> - <td class="tdr">2.54</td> - <td class="tdr">2.35</td> - <td class="tdr">2.41</td> - <td class="tdr">2.43</td> - <td class="tdr">2.23</td> - <td class="tdr">2.57</td> - <td class="tdr">2.51</td> - <td class="tdr">2.26</td> - <td class="tdr">2.45</td> - <td class="tdr">2.36</td> - <td class="tdr">2.55</td> - <td class="tdr">2.50</td> - <td class="tdr">2.30</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>44</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>9</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>9</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>11</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>8</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>148</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>14</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>49</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>48</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>45.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>46.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>42.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>46.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>43.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>43</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>44.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>41</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>47.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>46.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>42.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>45.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>44.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>45.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>45.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>40.8</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Upper alveolar arch:</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(44)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(121)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length</td> - <td class="tdr">5.9</td> - <td class="tdr">5.6</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">5.5</td> - <td class="tdr">5.60</td> - <td class="tdr">5.40</td> - <td class="tdr">5.66</td> - <td class="tdr">5.73</td> - <td class="tdr">5.46</td> - <td class="tdr">5.40</td> - <td class="tdr">5.70</td> - <td class="tdr">5.57</td> - <td class="tdr">5.44</td> - <td class="tdr">5.63</td> - <td class="tdr">5.38</td> - <td class="tdr">5.57</td> - <td class="tdr">5.70</td> - <td class="tdr">5.95</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(44)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(121)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">6.9</td> - <td class="tdr">6.8</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">6.6</td> - <td class="tdr">6.43</td> - <td class="tdr">6.63</td> - <td class="tdr">6.79</td> - <td class="tdr">6.68</td> - <td class="tdr">6.65</td> - <td class="tdr">6.63</td> - <td class="tdr">7.40</td> - <td class="tdr">6.70</td> - <td class="tdr">6.63</td> - <td class="tdr">6.79</td> - <td class="tdr">6.46</td> - <td class="tdr">6.66</td> - <td class="tdr">6.60</td> - <td class="tdr">7.15</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>44</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>8</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>8</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>121</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>8</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.4</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.2</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(28)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(26)</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Lower jaw: Height at symphysis</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3.3</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">3.8</td> - <td class="tdr">3.55</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">3.91</td> - <td class="tdr">3.63</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3.63</td> - <td class="tdr">3.75</td> - <td class="tdr">3.65</td> - <td class="tdr">3.62</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3.90</td> - <td></td> - </tr> -</tbody> -</table></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="ESKIMO CRANIA"> - <caption>ESKIMO CRANIA—Continued<br /><span class="smcap">Seward Peninsula to Point Barrow and Eastward to Greenland</span><br /> - MALES</caption> -<col></col> -<col span="18" width="5%"></col> -<thead> - <tr> - <th></th> - <th>Golovnin Bay</th> - <th>Cape Nome</th> - <th>Sledge Island</th> - <th>Port Clarence</th> - <th>Wales</th> - <th>Shishmaref</th> - <th>Kotzebue</th> - <th>Point Hope</th> - <th>Barrow and vicinity</th> - <th>Old Igloos, southwest of Barrow</th> - <th>Point Barrow</th> - <th>Northern Arctic</th> - <th>Melville Peninsula</th> - <th>Southampton Island</th> - <th>Hudson Bay and Ungava Bay</th> - <th>Baffin Land, northern Devon, and vicinity</th> - <th>Smith Sound</th> - <th>Greenland</th> - </tr> -</thead> -<tbody> - <tr> - <td>Vault:</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(19)</td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(131)</td> - <td class="tdc">(37)</td> - <td class="tdc">(27)</td> - <td class="tdc">(49)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(49)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length</td> - <td class="tdr">19.23</td> - <td class="tdr">18</td> - <td class="tdr">19.16</td> - <td class="tdr">18.88</td> - <td class="tdr">18.75</td> - <td class="tdr">18.49</td> - <td class="tdr">18.25</td> - <td class="tdr">18.40</td> - <td class="tdr">18.90</td> - <td class="tdr">19.25</td> - <td class="tdr">18.74</td> - <td class="tdr">19.04</td> - <td class="tdr">19.6</td> - <td class="tdr">18.91</td> - <td class="tdr">18.78</td> - <td class="tdr">18.91</td> - <td class="tdr">18.96</td> - <td class="tdr">8.97</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(19)</td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(131)</td> - <td class="tdc">(37)</td> - <td class="tdc">(27)</td> - <td class="tdc">(49)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(49)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">13.67</td> - <td class="tdr">13.5</td> - <td class="tdr">13.72</td> - <td class="tdr">13.78</td> - <td class="tdr">13.64</td> - <td class="tdr">13.65</td> - <td class="tdr">13.50</td> - <td class="tdr">13.86</td> - <td class="tdr">13.73</td> - <td class="tdr">13.30</td> - <td class="tdr">13.84</td> - <td class="tdr">14.08</td> - <td class="tdr">13.7</td> - <td class="tdr">14.03</td> - <td class="tdr">14.10</td> - <td class="tdr">13.83</td> - <td class="tdr">14.37</td> - <td class="tdr">13.61</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(19)</td> - <td class="tdc">(12)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(128)</td> - <td class="tdc">(35)</td> - <td class="tdc">(27)</td> - <td class="tdc">(47)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(49)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height</td> - <td class="tdr">14.13</td> - <td class="tdr">13.6</td> - <td class="tdr">14.02</td> - <td class="tdr">13.90</td> - <td class="tdr">13.92</td> - <td class="tdr">13.48</td> - <td class="tdr">13.40</td> - <td class="tdr">13.90</td> - <td class="tdr">13.78</td> - <td class="tdr">14.02</td> - <td class="tdr">13.78</td> - <td class="tdr">13.76</td> - <td class="tdr">13.6</td> - <td class="tdr">14.01</td> - <td class="tdr">13.76</td> - <td class="tdr">13.87</td> - <td class="tdr">14.06</td> - <td class="tdr">13.95</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(19)</td> - <td class="tdc">(12)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(128)</td> - <td class="tdc">(35)</td> - <td class="tdc">(27)</td> - <td class="tdc">(47)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(49)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cranial Module</td> - <td class="tdr">15.68</td> - <td class="tdr">15.03</td> - <td class="tdr">15.63</td> - <td class="tdr">15.57</td> - <td class="tdr">15.66</td> - <td class="tdr">15.19</td> - <td class="tdr">15.05</td> - <td class="tdr">15.39</td> - <td class="tdr">15.46</td> - <td class="tdr">15.52</td> - <td class="tdr">15.44</td> - <td class="tdr">15.63</td> - <td class="tdr">15.63</td> - <td class="tdr">15.65</td> - <td class="tdr">15.55</td> - <td class="tdr">15.55</td> - <td class="tdr">15.81</td> - <td class="tdr">15.51</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(18)</td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(126)</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(42)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Capacity</td> - <td class="tdr">1,483</td> - <td class="tdr">1,325</td> - <td class="tdr">1,498</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1,474</td> - <td class="tdr">1,395</td> - <td class="tdr">1,398</td> - <td class="tdr">1,474</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1,324</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1,563</td> - <td class="tdr">1,450</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1,566</td> - <td class="tdr">1,518</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>19</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>13</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>131</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>37</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>27</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>49</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>9</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>16</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>49</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cranial Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>71.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>71.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>73</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>72.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>73.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>72.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>69.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>73.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>70</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>73.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>71.8</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>19</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>12</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>128</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>35</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>27</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>47</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>9</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>16</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>49</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mean height Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.7</em></td> - <td><em>83.</em>1</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>19</em>) </td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>12</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>128</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>35</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>27</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>47</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>9</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>16</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>49</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Height-breadth index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>103.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>100.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>102.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>99</em></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>102</em> </td> - <td class="tdc"><em>98.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>99.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>100.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>99.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>105.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>99.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>97.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>99.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>99.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>97.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>100.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>97.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>102.5</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Face:</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(12)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(12)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Menton-nasion</td> - <td class="tdr">12.67</td> - <td class="tdr">12.6</td> - <td class="tdr">12.73</td> - <td class="tdr">13</td> - <td class="tdr">12.74 </td> - <td class="tdr">12.30</td> - <td class="tdr">(11.8)</td> - <td class="tdr">12.40</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">12.39</td> - <td class="tdr">13.10</td> - <td class="tdr">14</td> - <td class="tdr">12.8</td> - <td class="tdr">12.63</td> - <td class="tdr">12.18</td> - <td class="tdr">12.27</td> - <td class="tdr">12.13</td> - <td class="tdr">12.38</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16) </td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(118)</td> - <td class="tdc">(21)</td> - <td class="tdc">(261)</td> - <td class="tdc">(37)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(12)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(46)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Nasion-upper alveolar point</td> - <td class="tdr">7.97</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - <td class="tdr">7.83</td> - <td class="tdr">7.73</td> - <td class="tdr">7.81 </td> - <td class="tdr">7.60</td> - <td class="tdr">(7.3)</td> - <td class="tdr">7.52</td> - <td class="tdr">7.89</td> - <td class="tdr">7.71</td> - <td class="tdr">7.86</td> - <td class="tdr">8.02</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - <td class="tdr">7.67</td> - <td class="tdr">7.56</td> - <td class="tdr">7.61</td> - <td class="tdr">7.64</td> - <td class="tdr">7.61</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(18) </td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(124)</td> - <td class="tdc">(26)</td> - <td class="tdc">(26)</td> - <td class="tdc">(44)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(47)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Diameter-bizygomatic maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">14.37</td> - <td class="tdr">14.3</td> - <td class="tdr">14.20</td> - <td class="tdr">14.17</td> - <td class="tdr">14.16</td> - <td class="tdr">14.20</td> - <td class="tdr">(13.85)</td> - <td class="tdr">14.31</td> - <td class="tdr">14.34</td> - <td class="tdr">14.16</td> - <td class="tdr">14.26</td> - <td class="tdr">14.44</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">14.48</td> - <td class="tdr">14.06</td> - <td class="tdr">14.22</td> - <td class="tdr">14.69</td> - <td class="tdr">14.05</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>12</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>16</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>12</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Facial Index, total</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>6.7</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>94.6</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.1</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>16</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>10</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>114</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>20</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>24</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>36</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>9</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>12</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>45</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Facial Index, upper</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>52.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.5</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>52</em></td> - <td><em>54.1</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Basio-facial:</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(17)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(105)</td> - <td class="tdc">(21)</td> - <td class="tdc">(20)</td> - <td class="tdc">(36)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(12)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(42)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Basion-alveolar point</td> - <td class="tdr">10.4</td> - <td class="tdr">10.9</td> - <td class="tdr">10.62</td> - <td class="tdr">10.87</td> - <td class="tdr">10.55</td> - <td class="tdr">10.60</td> - <td class="tdr">10.7</td> - <td class="tdr">10.31</td> - <td class="tdr">10.39</td> - <td class="tdr">10.45</td> - <td class="tdr">10.39</td> - <td class="tdr">10.46</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">10.76</td> - <td class="tdr">10.58</td> - <td class="tdr">10.41</td> - <td class="tdr">10.26</td> - <td class="tdr">10.54</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(18)</td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(123)</td> - <td class="tdc">(28)</td> - <td class="tdc">(27)</td> - <td class="tdc">(45)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(47)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Basion-subnasal point</td> - <td class="tdr">9.57</td> - <td class="tdr">9.9</td> - <td class="tdr">9.58</td> - <td class="tdr">9.63</td> - <td class="tdr">9.43</td> - <td class="tdr">9.44</td> - <td class="tdr">(9.20)</td> - <td class="tdr">9.28</td> - <td class="tdr">9.31</td> - <td class="tdr">9.33</td> - <td class="tdr">9.23</td> - <td class="tdr">9.20</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">9.52</td> - <td class="tdr">9.52</td> - <td class="tdr">9.24</td> - <td class="tdr">9.39</td> - <td class="tdr">9.32</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(19)</td> - <td class="tdc">(12)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(128)</td> - <td class="tdc">(35)</td> - <td class="tdc">(27)</td> - <td class="tdc">(47)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(48)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Basion-nasion</td> - <td class="tdr">10.87</td> - <td class="tdr">10.8</td> - <td class="tdr">10.88</td> - <td class="tdr">10.77</td> - <td class="tdr">10.64</td> - <td class="tdr">10.50</td> - <td class="tdr">(10.45)</td> - <td class="tdr">10.49</td> - <td class="tdr">10.61</td> - <td class="tdr">10.70</td> - <td class="tdr">10.54</td> - <td class="tdr">10.68</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">10.83</td> - <td class="tdr">10.60</td> - <td class="tdr">10.51</td> - <td class="tdr">10.70</td> - <td class="tdr">10.60</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>8</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>16</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>10</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>105</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>36</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>9</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>42</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Facial angle</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>69.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>67.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>70</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>68</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>68.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>68.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>68.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>70</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>69</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>69</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>69</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>69.5</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>71.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>70</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>8</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>16</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>10</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>105</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>36</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>9</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>42</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Alveolar angle</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>60.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>59</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>57</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>57</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>56</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>57</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>56</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>59</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>57.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>56</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Orbits:</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(19)</td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(118)</td> - <td class="tdc">(28)</td> - <td class="tdc">(25)</td> - <td class="tdc">(43)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(47)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean height</td> - <td class="tdr">3.66</td> - <td class="tdr">3.42</td> - <td class="tdr">3.64</td> - <td class="tdr">3.62</td> - <td class="tdr">3.67</td> - <td class="tdr">3.60</td> - <td class="tdr">3.48</td> - <td class="tdr">3.63</td> - <td class="tdr">3.60</td> - <td class="tdr">3.62</td> - <td class="tdr">3.61</td> - <td class="tdr">3.82</td> - <td class="tdr">3.9</td> - <td class="tdr">3.67</td> - <td class="tdr">3.58</td> - <td class="tdr">3.56</td> - <td class="tdr">3.54</td> - <td class="tdr">3.64</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(19)</td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(118)</td> - <td class="tdc">(28)</td> - <td class="tdc">(25)</td> - <td class="tdc">(43)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(47)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">4.20</td> - <td class="tdr">4.05</td> - <td class="tdr">4.03</td> - <td class="tdr">4.03</td> - <td class="tdr">4.09</td> - <td class="tdr">3.98</td> - <td class="tdr">4.05</td> - <td class="tdr">4.03</td> - <td class="tdr">4.04</td> - <td class="tdr">3.97</td> - <td class="tdr">4.02</td> - <td class="tdr">4.22</td> - <td class="tdr">4.3</td> - <td class="tdr">4.06</td> - <td class="tdr">3.97</td> - <td class="tdr">3.98</td> - <td class="tdr">4.11</td> - <td class="tdr">3.99</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>19</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>11</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>118</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>28</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>25</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>43</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>9</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>15</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>47</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nose:</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(19)</td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(126)</td> - <td class="tdc">(29)</td> - <td class="tdc">(27)</td> - <td class="tdc">(46)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(48)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height</td> - <td class="tdr">5.57</td> - <td class="tdr">5.7</td> - <td class="tdr">5.59</td> - <td class="tdr">5.37</td> - <td class="tdr">5.39</td> - <td class="tdr">5.35 (4.95)</td> - <td class="tdr">5.36</td> - <td class="tdr">5.52</td> - <td class="tdr">5.45</td> - <td class="tdr">5.48</td> - <td class="tdr">5.44</td> - <td class="tdr">5.4</td> - <td class="tdr">5.43</td> - <td class="tdr">5.14</td> - <td class="tdr">5.32</td> - <td class="tdr">5.73</td> - <td class="tdr">5.24</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(19)</td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(126)</td> - <td class="tdc">(29)</td> - <td class="tdc">(27)</td> - <td class="tdc">(46)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(48)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">2.35</td> - <td class="tdr">2.55</td> - <td class="tdr">2.35</td> - <td class="tdr">2.35</td> - <td class="tdr">2.41</td> - <td class="tdr">2.39</td> - <td class="tdr">2.22</td> - <td class="tdr">2.39</td> - <td class="tdr">2.39</td> - <td class="tdr">2.37</td> - <td class="tdr">2.31</td> - <td class="tdr">2.32</td> - <td class="tdr">2.45</td> - <td class="tdr">2.30</td> - <td class="tdr">2.23</td> - <td class="tdr">2.31</td> - <td class="tdr">2.27</td> - <td class="tdr">2.27</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>19</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>11</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>126</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>29</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>27</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>46</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>9</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>16</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>48</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>42.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>44.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>42</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>43.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>44.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>44.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>44.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>44.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>43.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>43.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>42.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>42.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>45</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>42.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>45.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>43.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>39.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>43.3</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Upper alveolar arch:</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(17)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(99)</td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - <td class="tdc">(23)</td> - <td class="tdc">(33)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(44)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length</td> - <td class="tdr">6.13</td> - <td class="tdr">6.1</td> - <td class="tdr">5.70</td> - <td class="tdr">5.90</td> - <td class="tdr">5.69</td> - <td class="tdr">5.74</td> - <td class="tdr">5.5</td> - <td class="tdr">5.55</td> - <td class="tdr">5.59</td> - <td class="tdr">5.57</td> - <td class="tdr">5.63</td> - <td class="tdr">5.80</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">5.84</td> - <td class="tdr">5.78</td> - <td class="tdr">5.63</td> - <td class="tdr">5.50</td> - <td class="tdr">5.63</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(17)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(99)</td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - <td class="tdc">(23)</td> - <td class="tdc">(33)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(44)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - <td class="tdr">6.9</td> - <td class="tdr">6.83</td> - <td class="tdr">6.80</td> - <td class="tdr">6.76</td> - <td class="tdr">6.79</td> - <td class="tdr">5.8</td> - <td class="tdr">6.54</td> - <td class="tdr">6.45</td> - <td class="tdr">6.68</td> - <td class="tdr">6.47</td> - <td class="tdr">6.70</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">6.94</td> - <td class="tdr">6.72</td> - <td class="tdr">6.72</td> - <td class="tdr">6.74</td> - <td class="tdr">6.63</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>17</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>9</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>99</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>15</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>23</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>33</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>9</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>11</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>44</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>94.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.6</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(22)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Lower jaw: Height at symphysis</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">3.85</td> - <td class="tdr">3.61</td> - <td class="tdr">4.2</td> - <td class="tdr">3.91</td> - <td class="tdr">3.78</td> - <td class="tdr">3.8</td> - <td class="tdr">3.82</td> - <td class="tdr">3.95</td> - <td class="tdr">3.72</td> - <td class="tdr">3.9</td> - <td class="tdr">4.2</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3.67</td> - <td class="tdr">3.56</td> - <td class="tdr">3.83</td> - <td class="tdr">3.52</td> - <td class="tdr">3.76</td> - </tr> -</tbody> -</table></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="ESKIMO CRANIA"> - <caption>ESKIMO CRANIA—Continued<br /><span class="smcap">Western, Northern, and Eastern Eskimo</span><br /> - FEMALES</caption> -<col></col> -<col span="14" width="6.2%"></col> -<thead> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2"></th> - <th rowspan="2">Unalaska Peninsula</th> - <th rowspan="2">Togiak</th> - <th rowspan="2">Mumtrak</th> - <th rowspan="2">Nunivak Island</th> - <th rowspan="2">Nelson Island</th> - <th rowspan="2">Hooper Bay</th> - <th rowspan="2">Yukon Delta<br />(Kashunok)<br />and lower Yukon</th> - <th rowspan="2">Pilot Station, lower Yukon</th> - <th rowspan="2">Kotlik and Pastolik</th> - <th rowspan="2">St. Michael Island</th> - <th rowspan="2">St. Lawrence Island</th> - <th rowspan="2">Little Diomede Island</th> - <th colspan="2">Northeastern Asia</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Indian Point</th> - <th>Chukchee</th> - </tr> -</thead> -<tbody> - <tr> - <td>Vault:</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(70)</td> - <td class="tdc">(17)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(18)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(140)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length</td> - <td class="tdr">17.90</td> - <td class="tdr">17.17</td> - <td class="tdr">17.27</td> - <td class="tdr">17.89</td> - <td class="tdr">17.42</td> - <td class="tdr">17.42</td> - <td class="tdr">18.7</td> - <td class="tdr">17.8</td> - <td class="tdr">17.72</td> - <td class="tdr">17.72</td> - <td class="tdr">17.69</td> - <td class="tdr">18.04</td> - <td class="tdr">17.64</td> - <td class="tdr">18.25</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(70)</td> - <td class="tdc">(17)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(18)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(140)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">13.70</td> - <td class="tdr">14.17</td> - <td class="tdr">13.92</td> - <td class="tdr">13.65</td> - <td class="tdr">13.71</td> - <td class="tdr">13.70</td> - <td class="tdr">13.95</td> - <td class="tdr">14</td> - <td class="tdr">13.62</td> - <td class="tdr">13.38</td> - <td class="tdr">13.60</td> - <td class="tdr">13.71</td> - <td class="tdr">13.74</td> - <td class="tdr">14.30</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(70)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(18)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(128)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height</td> - <td class="tdr">13.10</td> - <td class="tdr">12.86</td> - <td class="tdr">12.85</td> - <td class="tdr">13.15</td> - <td class="tdr">12.78</td> - <td class="tdr">12.62</td> - <td class="tdr">13</td> - <td class="tdr">13.20</td> - <td class="tdr">13.04</td> - <td class="tdr">13.07</td> - <td class="tdr">13.21</td> - <td class="tdr">13.50</td> - <td class="tdr">13.25</td> - <td class="tdr">13.60</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(70)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(18)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(128)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cranial Module</td> - <td class="tdr">14.90</td> - <td class="tdr">14.73</td> - <td class="tdr">14.68</td> - <td class="tdr">14.90</td> - <td class="tdr">14.64</td> - <td class="tdr">14.68</td> - <td class="tdr">(15.22)</td> - <td class="tdr">15</td> - <td class="tdr">14.81</td> - <td class="tdr">14.72</td> - <td class="tdr">14.87</td> - <td class="tdr">15.09</td> - <td class="tdr">14.88</td> - <td class="tdr">15.38</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(66)</td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(18)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(120)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Capacity</td> - <td class="tdr">1,352</td> - <td class="tdr">1,375</td> - <td class="tdr">1,376</td> - <td class="tdr">1,353</td> - <td class="tdr">1,334</td> - <td class="tdr">1,246</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1,442</td> - <td class="tdr">1,359</td> - <td class="tdr">1,293</td> - <td class="tdr">1,335</td> - <td class="tdr">1,359</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1,512</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>70</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>17</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>18</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>140</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>16</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cranial Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>80.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>78.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>78.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>78.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>78.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>70</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>16</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>18</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>128</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>16</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mean height Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>79.2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.6</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>70</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>16</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>18</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>128</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>16</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Height-breadth index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>95.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>96.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>93.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>92.8</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>94.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>95.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>97.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>96.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>98.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>96.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>95.1</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Face:</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(27)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(23)</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Menton-nasion</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">12.1</td> - <td class="tdr">11.3</td> - <td class="tdr">11.62</td> - <td class="tdr">11.62</td> - <td class="tdr">11.80</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">11.90</td> - <td class="tdr">11.82</td> - <td class="tdr">11.5</td> - <td class="tdr">11.49</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">11.40</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(52)</td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(120)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Nasion-upper alveolar point</td> - <td class="tdr">7.80</td> - <td class="tdr">7.30</td> - <td class="tdr">7.05</td> - <td class="tdr">7.27</td> - <td class="tdr">7.18</td> - <td class="tdr">7.30</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">7.40</td> - <td class="tdr">7.49</td> - <td class="tdr">7.13</td> - <td class="tdr">7.29</td> - <td class="tdr">7.38</td> - <td class="tdr">7.41</td> - <td class="tdr">7.40</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(63)</td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(128)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Diameter-bizygomatic maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">13.40</td> - <td class="tdr">13.12</td> - <td class="tdr">13.1</td> - <td class="tdr">13.27</td> - <td class="tdr">13.37</td> - <td class="tdr">13.37</td> - <td class="tdr">13.9</td> - <td class="tdr">13.47</td> - <td class="tdr">13.26</td> - <td class="tdr">13.12</td> - <td class="tdr">13.31</td> - <td class="tdr">13.09</td> - <td class="tdr">13.34</td> - <td class="tdr">13.25</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>26</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>10</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>15</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>23</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Facial Index, total</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>93.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.4</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.9</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>51</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>14</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>16</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>120</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>12</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Facial Index, upper</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>58.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.7</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>56.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>56</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.9</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Basio-facial:</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(45)</td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(111)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Basion-alveolar point</td> - <td class="tdr">10.05</td> - <td class="tdr">9.78</td> - <td class="tdr">9.53</td> - <td class="tdr">10.17</td> - <td class="tdr">10.06</td> - <td class="tdr">9.60</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">10.17</td> - <td class="tdr">10.09</td> - <td class="tdr">9.77</td> - <td class="tdr">10.04</td> - <td class="tdr">9.73</td> - <td class="tdr">10.14</td> - <td class="tdr">10.10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(60)</td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(18)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(119)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Basion-subnasal point</td> - <td class="tdr">8.80</td> - <td class="tdr">8.55</td> - <td class="tdr">8.50</td> - <td class="tdr">8.97</td> - <td class="tdr">8.76</td> - <td class="tdr">8.55</td> - <td class="tdr">8.9</td> - <td class="tdr">8.80</td> - <td class="tdr">8.86</td> - <td class="tdr">8.80</td> - <td class="tdr">8.88</td> - <td class="tdr">8.78</td> - <td class="tdr">8.95</td> - <td class="tdr">9.05</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(69)</td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(18)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(128)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Basion-nasion</td> - <td class="tdr">9.80</td> - <td class="tdr">9.56</td> - <td class="tdr">9.52</td> - <td class="tdr">10.02</td> - <td class="tdr">9.73</td> - <td class="tdr">9.70</td> - <td class="tdr">10.2</td> - <td class="tdr">9.97</td> - <td class="tdr">9.98</td> - <td class="tdr">9.98</td> - <td class="tdr">9.93</td> - <td class="tdr">9.91</td> - <td class="tdr">9.97</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>45</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>13</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>16</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>111</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>13</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Facial angle</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>65.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>66</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>68.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>67.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>66.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>68.5</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>67</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>67.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>71</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>68</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>69</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>67</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>67.5</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>45</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>13</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>16</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>111</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>13</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Alveolar angle</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>51.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>50</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>51</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>57</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>59.5</em> </td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>56.5</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Orbits:</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(59)</td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(18)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(121)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean height</td> - <td class="tdr">3.65</td> - <td class="tdr">3.59</td> - <td class="tdr">3.53</td> - <td class="tdr">3.51</td> - <td class="tdr">3.50</td> - <td class="tdr">3.56</td> - <td class="tdr">3.5</td> - <td class="tdr">3.54</td> - <td class="tdr">3.62</td> - <td class="tdr">3.61</td> - <td class="tdr">3.60</td> - <td class="tdr">3.60</td> - <td class="tdr">3.59</td> - <td class="tdr">3.41</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(59)</td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(18)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(121)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">3.92</td> - <td class="tdr">3.85</td> - <td class="tdr">3.81</td> - <td class="tdr">3.86</td> - <td class="tdr">3.81</td> - <td class="tdr">3.89</td> - <td class="tdr">3.8</td> - <td class="tdr">3.89</td> - <td class="tdr">3.86</td> - <td class="tdr">3.78</td> - <td class="tdr">3.91</td> - <td class="tdr">4.01</td> - <td class="tdr">3.90</td> - <td class="tdr">3.79</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>59</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>15</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>18</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>121</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>15</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>93</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>93.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>94.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>95.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.1</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nose:</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(63)</td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(18)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(127)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height</td> - <td class="tdr">5.32</td> - <td class="tdr">5.06</td> - <td class="tdr">5.03</td> - <td class="tdr">4.99</td> - <td class="tdr">5.06</td> - <td class="tdr">4.95</td> - <td class="tdr">5.5</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="tdr">5.19</td> - <td class="tdr">4.95</td> - <td class="tdr">5.13</td> - <td class="tdr">5.15</td> - <td class="tdr">5.16</td> - <td class="tdr">5.20</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(63)</td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(18)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(127)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">2.58</td> - <td class="tdr">2.32</td> - <td class="tdr">2.23</td> - <td class="tdr">2.32</td> - <td class="tdr">2.34</td> - <td class="tdr">2.35</td> - <td class="tdr">2.45</td> - <td class="tdr">2.33</td> - <td class="tdr">2.31</td> - <td class="tdr">2.17</td> - <td class="tdr">2.39</td> - <td class="tdr">2.28</td> - <td class="tdr">2.45</td> - <td class="tdr">2.65</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>63</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>14</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>18</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>127</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>15</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>47.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>45.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>44.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>46.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>46.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>47.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>44.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>46.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>44.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>43.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>46.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>44.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>47.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>50.5</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Upper alveolar arch:</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(46)</td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(109)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(12)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length</td> - <td class="tdr">5.55</td> - <td class="tdr">5.18</td> - <td class="tdr">5.03</td> - <td class="tdr">5.39</td> - <td class="tdr">5.39</td> - <td class="tdr">5.25</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">5.40</td> - <td class="tdr">5.45</td> - <td class="tdr">5.40</td> - <td class="tdr">5.37</td> - <td class="tdr">5.30</td> - <td class="tdr">5.44</td> - <td class="tdr">5.45</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(46)</td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(109)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(12)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">6.55</td> - <td class="tdr">6.40</td> - <td class="tdr">6.13</td> - <td class="tdr">6.31</td> - <td class="tdr">6.32</td> - <td class="tdr">6.45</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">6.60</td> - <td class="tdr">6.38</td> - <td class="tdr">6.23</td> - <td class="tdr">6.46</td> - <td class="tdr">6.52</td> - <td class="tdr">6.40</td> - <td class="tdr">6.90</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>46</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>14</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>15</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>109</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>12</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>80.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.4</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.0</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>79</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(32)</td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(17)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(25)</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Lower jaw: Height at symphysis</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3.50</td> - <td class="tdr">3.30</td> - <td class="tdr">3.48</td> - <td class="tdr">3.40</td> - <td class="tdr">3.40</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3.67</td> - <td class="tdr">3.56</td> - <td class="tdr">3.39</td> - <td class="tdr">3.18</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3.2</td> - </tr> -</tbody> -</table></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="ESKIMO CRANIA"> - <caption>ESKIMO CRANIA—Continued<br /><span class="smcap">Western, Northern, and Eastern Eskimo</span>—Continued<br /> - FEMALES</caption> -<col></col> -<col span="17" width="5.3%"></col> -<thead> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2"></th> - <th colspan="3">Seward Peninsula</th> - <th rowspan="2">Port Clarence</th> - <th rowspan="2">Wales</th> - <th rowspan="2">Shishmaref</th> - <th rowspan="2">Kotzebue Sound and Kobuk River</th> - <th rowspan="2">Point Hope</th> - <th rowspan="2">Barrow and vicinity</th> - <th rowspan="2">Old Igloos north of Barrow</th> - <th rowspan="2">Point Barrow</th> - <th rowspan="2">Northern Arctic</th> - <th rowspan="2">Southampton Island</th> - <th rowspan="2">Hudson Bay and vicinity</th> - <th rowspan="2">Baffin Land, North Devon and vicinity</th> - <th rowspan="2">Smith Sound</th> - <th rowspan="2">Greenland</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Golovnin Bay</th> - <th>Cape Nome</th> - <th>Sledge Island</th> - </tr> -</thead> -<tbody> - <tr> - <td>Vault:</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(92)</td> - <td class="tdc">(36)</td> - <td class="tdc">(25)</td> - <td class="tdc">(52)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(17)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(52)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length</td> - <td class="tdr">17.92</td> - <td class="tdr">17.70</td> - <td class="tdr">18.13</td> - <td class="tdr">17.63</td> - <td class="tdr">18.05</td> - <td class="tdr">17.73</td> - <td class="tdr">17.2</td> - <td class="tdr">17.5 7</td> - <td class="tdr">17.77</td> - <td class="tdr">18.11</td> - <td class="tdr">17.91</td> - <td class="tdr">18.21</td> - <td class="tdr">18.17</td> - <td class="tdr">17.55</td> - <td class="tdr">18.33</td> - <td class="tdr">18</td> - <td class="tdr">18.04</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(92)</td> - <td class="tdc">(36)</td> - <td class="tdc">(25)</td> - <td class="tdc">(52)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(17)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(52)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">13.22</td> - <td class="tdr">13.25</td> - <td class="tdr">13.50</td> - <td class="tdr">13.50</td> - <td class="tdr">13.35</td> - <td class="tdr">13.29</td> - <td class="tdr">13.4</td> - <td class="tdr">13.43</td> - <td class="tdr">13.23</td> - <td class="tdr">12.72</td> - <td class="tdr">13.32</td> - <td class="tdr">13.36</td> - <td class="tdr">13.70</td> - <td class="tdr">13.60</td> - <td class="tdr">13.44</td> - <td class="tdr">13.80</td> - <td class="tdr">12.98</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(89)</td> - <td class="tdc">(34)</td> - <td class="tdc">(24)</td> - <td class="tdc">(52)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(17)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(52)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height</td> - <td class="tdr">13.20</td> - <td class="tdr">13</td> - <td class="tdr">13.22</td> - <td class="tdr">12.90</td> - <td class="tdr">13.21</td> - <td class="tdr">13.16</td> - <td class="tdr">13.4</td> - <td class="tdr">13.20</td> - <td class="tdr">12.97</td> - <td class="tdr">13.21</td> - <td class="tdr">13.03</td> - <td class="tdr">12.99</td> - <td class="tdr">13.69</td> - <td class="tdr">12.55</td> - <td class="tdr">13.34</td> - <td class="tdr">13.65</td> - <td class="tdr">13.12</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(89)</td> - <td class="tdc">(34)</td> - <td class="tdc">(24)</td> - <td class="tdc">(52)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(17)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(52)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cranial Module</td> - <td class="tdr">14.78</td> - <td class="tdr">14.65</td> - <td class="tdr">14.95</td> - <td class="tdr">14.68</td> - <td class="tdr">14.87</td> - <td class="tdr">14.72</td> - <td class="tdr">14.67</td> - <td class="tdr">14.72</td> - <td class="tdr">14.66</td> - <td class="tdr">14.72</td> - <td class="tdr">14.75</td> - <td class="tdr">14.85</td> - <td class="tdr">15.18</td> - <td class="tdr">14.57</td> - <td class="tdr">15.04</td> - <td class="tdr">15.15</td> - <td class="tdr">14.72</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(89)</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(43)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Capacity</td> - <td class="tdr">1,345</td> - <td class="tdr">1,290</td> - <td class="tdr">1,374</td> - <td class="tdr">1,285</td> - <td class="tdr">1,359</td> - <td class="tdr">1,239</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1,316</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1,235</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1,443</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">1,510</td> - <td class="tdr">1,324</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(92)</td> - <td class="tdc">(36)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>25</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>52</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>10</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>17</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>52</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cranial Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>73.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>73.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>70.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>73.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>73.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>72</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>9</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>15</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>9</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>89</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>34</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>24</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>52</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>10</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>17</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>52</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mean height Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>80.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.6</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>9</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>15</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>9</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>89</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>34</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>24</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>52</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>10</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>17</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>52</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Height-breadth index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>99.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>98.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>97.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>95.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>99</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>98.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>100</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>98.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>98.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>104.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>97.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>97.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>99.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>99.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>98.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>101</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Face:</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(11)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Menton-nasion</td> - <td class="tdr">12.03</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">11.93</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">11.85</td> - <td class="tdr">12</td> - <td class="tdr">11.9</td> - <td class="tdr">12.05</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">11.21</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">12.7</td> - <td class="tdr">11.7</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">11.60</td> - <td class="tdr">11.20</td> - <td class="tdr">11.52</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(78)</td> - <td class="tdc">(22)</td> - <td class="tdc">(18)</td> - <td class="tdc">(40)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(12)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(45)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Nasion-upper alveolar point</td> - <td class="tdr">7.40</td> - <td class="tdr">7.3</td> - <td class="tdr">7.30</td> - <td class="tdr">6.7</td> - <td class="tdr">7.39</td> - <td class="tdr">7.20</td> - <td class="tdr">7.1</td> - <td class="tdr">7.06</td> - <td class="tdr">7.18</td> - <td class="tdr">7.01</td> - <td class="tdr">7.22</td> - <td class="tdr">7.43</td> - <td class="tdr">7.14</td> - <td class="tdr">6.95</td> - <td class="tdr">7.10</td> - <td class="tdr">6.80</td> - <td class="tdr">7.05</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(84)</td> - <td class="tdc">(23)</td> - <td class="tdc">(24)</td> - <td class="tdc">(46)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(50)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Diameter-bizygomatic maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">13.2 5</td> - <td class="tdr">13.15</td> - <td class="tdr">13.26</td> - <td class="tdr">13.1</td> - <td class="tdr">13.29</td> - <td class="tdr">13.21</td> - <td class="tdr">13.4</td> - <td class="tdr">13.32</td> - <td class="tdr">13.16</td> - <td class="tdr">13.08</td> - <td class="tdr">13.06</td> - <td class="tdr">12.96</td> - <td class="tdr">13.82</td> - <td class="tdr">12.65</td> - <td class="tdr">13.27</td> - <td class="tdr">13.20</td> - <td class="tdr">13.03</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>15</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Facial Index, total</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.9</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.9</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.3</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.8</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.8</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>8</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>77</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>21</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>18</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>39</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>11</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>45</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Facial Index, upper</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>51.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>57.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>51.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>51.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.1</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Basio-facial:</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(76)</td> - <td class="tdc">(22)</td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - <td class="tdc">(37)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(12)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(45)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Basion-alveolar point</td> - <td class="tdr">10.27</td> - <td class="tdr">10.3</td> - <td class="tdr">10.25</td> - <td class="tdr">9.8</td> - <td class="tdr">10.24</td> - <td class="tdr">10.38</td> - <td class="tdr">9.2</td> - <td class="tdr">9.72</td> - <td class="tdr">9.85</td> - <td class="tdr">10.13</td> - <td class="tdr">9.77</td> - <td class="tdr">10.03</td> - <td class="tdr">10.02</td> - <td class="tdr">9.4</td> - <td class="tdr">10.13</td> - <td class="tdr">9.35</td> - <td class="tdr">10.09</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(83)</td> - <td class="tdc">(27)</td> - <td class="tdc">(21)</td> - <td class="tdc">(46)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(50)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Basion-subnasal point</td> - <td class="tdr">9</td> - <td class="tdr">8.85</td> - <td class="tdr">9.16</td> - <td class="tdr">8.8</td> - <td class="tdr">9.04</td> - <td class="tdr">9.25</td> - <td class="tdr">7.9</td> - <td class="tdr">8.72</td> - <td class="tdr">8.86</td> - <td class="tdr">9.12</td> - <td class="tdr">8.73</td> - <td class="tdr">8.85</td> - <td class="tdr">9.02</td> - <td class="tdr">8.35</td> - <td class="tdr">9.05</td> - <td class="tdr">8.35</td> - <td class="tdr">8.94</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(89)</td> - <td class="tdc">(34)</td> - <td class="tdc">(24)</td> - <td class="tdc">(52)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(17)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(52)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Basion-nasion</td> - <td class="tdr">10.10</td> - <td class="tdr">10.05</td> - <td class="tdr">10.29</td> - <td class="tdr">9.93</td> - <td class="tdr">10.01</td> - <td class="tdr">10.16</td> - <td class="tdr">9.5</td> - <td class="tdr">9.89</td> - <td class="tdr">10.01</td> - <td class="tdr">10.18</td> - <td class="tdr">9.94</td> - <td class="tdr">10.07</td> - <td class="tdr">10.34</td> - <td class="tdr">9.75</td> - <td class="tdr">10.11</td> - <td class="tdr">9.65</td> - <td class="tdr">10.13</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>15</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>8</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>75</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>37</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>45</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Facial angle</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>67</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>69</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>66</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>67</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>68</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>70</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>69</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>68</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>71.5</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>70</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>15</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>8</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>75</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>37</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>45</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Alveolar angle</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>41.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.5</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>56.5</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.5</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Orbits:</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(83)</td> - <td class="tdc">(25)</td> - <td class="tdc">(18)</td> - <td class="tdc">(42)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(47)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean height</td> - <td class="tdr">3.57</td> - <td class="tdr">3.52</td> - <td class="tdr">3.58</td> - <td class="tdr">3.55</td> - <td class="tdr">3.52</td> - <td class="tdr">3.43</td> - <td class="tdr">3.30</td> - <td class="tdr">3.54</td> - <td class="tdr">3.61</td> - <td class="tdr">3.47</td> - <td class="tdr">3.55</td> - <td class="tdr">3.50</td> - <td class="tdr">3.64</td> - <td class="tdr">(3.60)</td> - <td class="tdr">3.53</td> - <td class="tdr">3.51</td> - <td class="tdr">3.55</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(83)</td> - <td class="tdc">(25)</td> - <td class="tdc">(18)</td> - <td class="tdc">(42)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(47)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">3.86</td> - <td class="tdr">3.92</td> - <td class="tdr">3.98</td> - <td class="tdr">3.95</td> - <td class="tdr">3.94</td> - <td class="tdr">3.90</td> - <td class="tdr">3.82</td> - <td class="tdr">3.90</td> - <td class="tdr">3.88</td> - <td class="tdr">4.01</td> - <td class="tdr">3.90</td> - <td class="tdr">3.83</td> - <td class="tdr">4.05</td> - <td class="tdr">(3.80)</td> - <td class="tdr">3.88</td> - <td class="tdr">3.96</td> - <td class="tdr">3.85</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(83)</td> - <td class="tdc">(25)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>18</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>42</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>10</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>13</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>47</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>93</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>94.7</em>) </td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nose:</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(86)</td> - <td class="tdc">(27)</td> - <td class="tdc">(21)</td> - <td class="tdc">(46)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(50)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height</td> - <td class="tdr">5.20</td> - <td class="tdr">5.02</td> - <td class="tdr">5.10</td> - <td class="tdr">4.9</td> - <td class="tdr">5.08</td> - <td class="tdr">4.93</td> - <td class="tdr">4.9</td> - <td class="tdr">5.04</td> - <td class="tdr">5.19</td> - <td class="tdr">5.02</td> - <td class="tdr">5.11</td> - <td class="tdr">4.83</td> - <td class="tdr">5.06</td> - <td class="tdr">4.90</td> - <td class="tdr">4.98</td> - <td class="tdr">5.30</td> - <td class="tdr">4.99</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(86)</td> - <td class="tdc">(27)</td> - <td class="tdc">(21)</td> - <td class="tdc">(46)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(50)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">2.32</td> - <td class="tdr">2.50</td> - <td class="tdr">2.26</td> - <td class="tdr">2.3</td> - <td class="tdr">2.32</td> - <td class="tdr">2.33</td> - <td class="tdr">2.6</td> - <td class="tdr">2.28</td> - <td class="tdr">2.32</td> - <td class="tdr">2.23</td> - <td class="tdr">2.29</td> - <td class="tdr">2.14</td> - <td class="tdr">2.21</td> - <td class="tdr">2.15</td> - <td class="tdr">2.20</td> - <td class="tdr">2.32</td> - <td class="tdr">2.20</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>7</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>16</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>10</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>86</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>27</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>21</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>46</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>9</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>13</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>50</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>44.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>49.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>44.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>46.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>45.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>47.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>45.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>44.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>44.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>44.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>44.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>43.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>43.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>44.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>43.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>44</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Upper alveolar arch:</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(73)</td> - <td class="tdc">(23)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(33)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(12)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(45)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length</td> - <td class="tdr">5.77</td> - <td class="tdr">5.5</td> - <td class="tdr">5.61</td> - <td class="tdr">5.3</td> - <td class="tdr">5.61</td> - <td class="tdr">5.67</td> - <td class="tdr">5.5</td> - <td class="tdr">5.21</td> - <td class="tdr">5.22</td> - <td class="tdr">5.34</td> - <td class="tdr">5.25</td> - <td class="tdr">5.38</td> - <td class="tdr">5.50</td> - <td class="tdr">4.85</td> - <td class="tdr">5.44</td> - <td class="tdr">5.20</td> - <td class="tdr">5.35</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(73)</td> - <td class="tdc">(23)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(33)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(12)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(45)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">6.73</td> - <td class="tdr">6.4</td> - <td class="tdr">6.46</td> - <td class="tdr">6.6</td> - <td class="tdr">6.57</td> - <td class="tdr">6.67</td> - <td class="tdr">6.4</td> - <td class="tdr">6.19</td> - <td class="tdr">6.13</td> - <td class="tdr">6.29</td> - <td class="tdr">6.01</td> - <td class="tdr">6.22</td> - <td class="tdr">6.60</td> - <td class="tdr">5.85</td> - <td class="tdr">6.22</td> - <td class="tdr">6.20</td> - <td class="tdr">6.16</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>3</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>11</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>15</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>1</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>73</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>23</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>16</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>33</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>12</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>2</em>)</td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>45</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>80.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.8</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(4)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(3)</td> - <td class="tdc">(17)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(1)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(2)</td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Lower jaw: Height at symphysis</td> - <td class="tdr">3.73</td> - <td class="tdr">3.7</td> - <td class="tdr">3.60</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3.56</td> - <td class="tdr">3.8</td> - <td class="tdr">3.9</td> - <td class="tdr">3.38</td> - <td class="tdr">3.27</td> - <td class="tdr">3.38</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3.7</td> - <td class="tdr">3.20</td> - <td class="tdr">3.15</td> - <td class="tdr">3.46</td> - <td class="tdr">3.42</td> - <td class="tdr">3.40</td> - </tr> -</tbody> -</table></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span></p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h5>FOOTNOTES:</h5> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_156_156" id="Footnote_156_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> Compare writer's Variation in the dimensions of lower molars in man and anthropoid -apes, Am. J. Phys. Anthrop., <span class="smcap">VI</span>, 423-438, Washington, 1923.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_157_157" id="Footnote_157_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> Rivet, P., Recherches sur le prognathisme. L'Anthropologie, <span class="smcap">XX</span>, pp. 35, 175; Paris, -1909. <span class="smcap">XXI</span>, pp. 505, 637, 1910.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_158_158" id="Footnote_158_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> Cat. Crania, U. S. Nat. Mus., etc., No. 3. Washington, 1928, 88, 105, 139.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_159_159" id="Footnote_159_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_159_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> Lower angles mean higher, higher angles lower facial or alveolar protrusion.</p></div></div> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - - - - -<h2>SKULLS OF ESKIMO CHILDREN</h2> - - -<p>A special effort in our work has been made to secure well-preserved -skulls of children. As elsewhere, so among the Eskimo, more -children die than adults, but conditions are not favorable for the -preservation of their skeletal remains. Most of the bones are done -away with or damaged by animals (foxes, dogs, mice, etc.), while -others decay, so that generally nothing remains of the youngest -subjects and but a few bones and a rare skull of the older children. -The total number of such skulls in our collection now reaches 25. -They are all of children of more than 2 but mostly less than 6 years -old, and are all normal specimens. The principal measurements of -their vault—a study of the face is a subject apart and needing more -material—are given in the following tables.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span></p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Crania of Eskimo Children</span></h3> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Crania of Eskimo Children"> -<col span="12" width="8.3%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2">Catalogue No.</th> - <th rowspan="2">Collector</th> - <th rowspan="2">Locality</th> - <th rowspan="2">De­for­ma­tion</th> - <th colspan="3">Vault</th> - <th rowspan="2">Cranial<br />index</th> - <th rowspan="2">Mean<br />height<br />Index</th> - <th rowspan="2">Height-breadth index</th> - <th rowspan="2">Basion-nasion</th> - <th rowspan="2">Basion-nasion<br />diameter<br />vs.<br />length<br />of skull</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Length</th> - <th>Breadth</th> - <th>Height</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">U.S.N.M.</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332563</td> - <td>A. Hrdlička</td> - <td>Pastolik</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">16.4</td> - <td class="tdr">13.1</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>79.9</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332566</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">15.6</td> - <td class="tdr">13</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.8</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>332564</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">16.6</td> - <td class="tdr">13.8</td> - <td class="tdr">12</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>79</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87</em></td> - <td class="tdr">8.4</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>50.6</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>339037</td> - <td>Collins and Stewart</td> - <td>Togiak</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">16.5</td> - <td class="tdr">13.4</td> - <td class="tdr">12.2</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91</em></td> - <td class="tdr">9.2</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.8</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>339087</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td>Nelson Island</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">16.1</td> - <td class="tdr">13.5</td> - <td class="tdr">12.8</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>94.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr">9.2</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>57.1</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>339088</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">16.2</td> - <td class="tdr">13.6</td> - <td class="tdr">11.6</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr">7.8</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>48.1</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>339056</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td>Mumtrak</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">16.3</td> - <td class="tdr">13.8</td> - <td class="tdr">12.8</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr">8.9</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.6</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>339063</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">15.7</td> - <td class="tdr">14</td> - <td class="tdr">12.2</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr">8.6</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.8</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>339113</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td>Hooper Bay</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">16.2</td> - <td class="tdr">13.8</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.2</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc bu">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(6)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Total</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">144.6</td> - <td class="tdr">122</td> - <td class="tdr">73.6</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">52.1</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Average</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>16.07</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>13.56</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>12.27</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>8.68</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0">SOUTHWESTERN AND MIDWESTERN ESKIMO</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>339172</td> - <td>H. B. Collins, jr., and T. D. Stewart</td> - <td>Nunivak Island</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">16.9</td> - <td class="tdr">12.6</td> - <td class="tdr">12</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>95.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr">9.1</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53.8</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>339153</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">17.4</td> - <td class="tdr">13.4</td> - <td class="tdr">12.4</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>80.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr">9.2</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>52.9</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>339198</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">16.6</td> - <td class="tdr">12.8</td> - <td class="tdr">12.7</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>99.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr">8.6</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>51.8</em></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td>339222</td> - <td>H. B. Collins, jr., and T. D. Stewart.</td> - <td>Nunivak Island</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">16.8</td> - <td class="tdr">13.4</td> - <td class="tdr">12.2</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>79.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>80.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91</em></td> - <td class="tdr">9</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53.6</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>339197</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">17</td> - <td class="tdr">13.6</td> - <td class="tdr">12.4</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>80</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr">9.1</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53.5</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>339199</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">16.1</td> - <td class="tdr">13.3</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.6</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>339152</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">17</td> - <td class="tdr">14.5</td> - <td class="tdr">12.6</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>80</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr">8.7</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>51.2</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc bu">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(6)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(6)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Total</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">117.8</td> - <td class="tdr">93.6</td> - <td class="tdr">74.3</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">53.7</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Average</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>16.83</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>13.37</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>12.38</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>79.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>8.95</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>52.8</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>279569</td> - <td>R. D. Moore</td> - <td>St. Lawrence Island</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr bu">17.6</td> - <td class="tdr bu">13.4</td> - <td class="tdr bu">12.2</td> - <td class="tdr bu"><em>76.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr bu"><em>78.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr bu"><em>91</em></td> - <td class="tdr bu">9.3</td> - <td class="tdr bu"><em>52.8</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>279568</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">17.1</td> - <td class="tdr">13.2</td> - <td class="tdr">12.8</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>97</em></td> - <td class="tdr">9.3</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>279495</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">16.8</td> - <td class="tdr">13.1</td> - <td class="tdr">12.6</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>78</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>96.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr">9.1</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.2</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>279479</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">16.8</td> - <td class="tdr">13.2</td> - <td class="tdr">12.8</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>78.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>97</em></td> - <td class="tdr">9</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53.6</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>279462</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">16.2</td> - <td class="tdr">13</td> - <td class="tdr">12.8</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>80.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>98.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr">9.2</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>56.8</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>279421</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">16.4</td> - <td class="tdr">13.4</td> - <td class="tdr">12.1</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr">8.4</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>51.2</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>279448</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">16.4</td> - <td class="tdr">13.5</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">82.3</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>279591</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">14.7</td> - <td class="tdr">12.4</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">84.3</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>279443</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">16.4</td> - <td class="tdr">13.9</td> - <td class="tdr">12.4</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr">8.6</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>52.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc bu">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(7)</td> - <td class="tdc bu">(7)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Total</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">146.4</td> - <td class="tdr">119.1</td> - <td class="tdr">87.7</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">62.9</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Average</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr bd"><em>16.27</em></td> - <td class="tdr bd"><em>13.23</em></td> - <td class="tdr bd"><em>12.53</em></td> - <td class="tdr bd"><em>81.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr bd"><em>84.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr bd"><em>94.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr bd"><em>8.99</em></td> - <td class="tdr bd"><em>54.5</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">A. M. N. H.</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">99-4106</td> - <td>G. Comer</td> - <td>Southampton Island</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">17.4</td> - <td class="tdr">13.3</td> - <td class="tdr">12.8</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>96.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr">8.8</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>50.6</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">4657</td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td>Hudson Bay</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">16.9</td> - <td class="tdr">13.2</td> - <td class="tdr">12.2</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>78.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr">9.1</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53.8</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">7690</td> - <td>Capt. Bartlett</td> - <td>Etah, Smith Sound</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">16.6</td> - <td class="tdr">13.4</td> - <td class="tdr">12.7</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>80.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>94.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr">9.2</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.4</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span></p> - - -<h4><span class="smcap">Principal Cranial Indices in Children Compared With Those in Adults</span></h4> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Principal Cranial Indices in Children Compared With Those in Adults"> -<col span="2"></col> -<col span="8" width="7.1%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2"></th> - <th rowspan="2"></th> - <th rowspan="2">Cranial index</th> - <th rowspan="2">Mean height index</th> - <th rowspan="2">Height-breadth index</th> - <th rowspan="2">BN-skull length index</th> - <th colspan="4">Percentage relation of dimensions of the vault in adults and children (adults = 100)</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Length</th> - <th>Breadth</th> - <th>Height</th> - <th>Basion-nasion diameter</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td rowspan="2">South western and Midwestern Eskimo<a name="FNanchor_160_160" id="FNanchor_160_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a></td> - <td>Children</td> - <td class="tdr">84.4</td> - <td class="tdr">82.5</td> - <td class="tdr">89.6</td> - <td class="tdr">54</td> - <td rowspan="2" class="tdr">90.1</td> - <td rowspan="2" class="tdr">96.7</td> - <td rowspan="2" class="tdr">93.2</td> - <td rowspan="2" class="tdr">86.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Adults (both sexes)</td> - <td class="tdr">79.3</td> - <td class="tdr">82.3</td> - <td class="tdr">93</td> - <td class="tdr">56</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td rowspan="2">Nunivak Island</td> - <td>Children</td> - <td class="tdr">79.5</td> - <td class="tdr">81.6</td> - <td class="tdr">92.5</td> - <td class="tdr">52.8</td> - <td rowspan="2" class="tdr">91.7</td> - <td rowspan="2" class="tdr">96.4</td> - <td rowspan="2" class="tdr">92.3</td> - <td rowspan="2" class="tdr">87.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Adults (both sexes)</td> - <td class="tdr">75.6</td> - <td class="tdr">83.3</td> - <td class="tdr">96.7</td> - <td class="tdr">56</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td rowspan="2">St. Lawrence Island</td> - <td>Children</td> - <td class="tdr">81.4</td> - <td class="tdr">84.1</td> - <td class="tdr">94.1</td> - <td class="tdr">54.5</td> - <td rowspan="2" class="tdr">90.2</td> - <td rowspan="2" class="tdr">95.2</td> - <td rowspan="2" class="tdr">93.2</td> - <td rowspan="2" class="tdr">88.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Adults (both sexes)</td> - <td class="tdr">77.3</td> - <td class="tdr">84.1</td> - <td class="tdr">96.5</td> - <td class="tdr">56.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td rowspan="2">All</td> - <td>Children</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53.8</em></td> - <td rowspan="2" class="tdr"><em>90.8</em></td> - <td rowspan="2" class="tdr"><em>96.1</em></td> - <td rowspan="2" class="tdr"><em>92.9</em></td> - <td rowspan="2" class="tdr"><em>87.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Adults</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>95.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>56.1</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span></p> - -<p>The main interest centers in the comparison of the relative proportions -of these skulls with those of the adults from the same localities. -These comparisons, given in the smaller table, are of considerable -interest.</p> - -<p>The cranial index is considerably higher in the children. On -analysis this is found to be due almost wholly to a greater relative -breadth of the child's skull. During later growth the Eskimo -cranium advances materially more in length than in breadth. A -further expansion in breadth is evidently hindered by some factor -outside of the bones themselves, for nothing appears in these that -could constitute such a hindrance. And the only evident outside factor -capable of producing such an effect are the strong pads of the -temporal muscles.</p> - -<p>The mean height index <span class="overunder">H×100<br /><span class="bt">mean of L+B</span></span> remains much the same -in the children and adults, indicating that the relative increase during -growth in skull length compensates for the lagging increase in -breadth, while the proportion of the height to the mean of the length -and breadth remains fairly stable.</p> - -<p>The much greater growth in length than in breadth of the Eskimo -skull from childhood onward is shown even better in the second part -of the table by a direct comparison of the mean dimensions. The -length of the adult skull is by over 9 per cent, the breadth by less -than 4 per cent, greater than that in childhood in the same groups.</p> - -<p>The adult Eskimo skull has also grown very perceptibly more in -height than in breadth, though somewhat less so than in length. The -result is a notably higher height-breadth index in the adult. Compared -to that in childhood the adult Eskimo skull is therefore relatively -markedly longer, higher, and narrower.</p> - -<p>These facts are probably of more significance than might seem at -first glance; for it is precisely by the same characters, carried still -further, that some of the Eskimo differ from others. Let us compare -two of our largest and best groups, those of St. Lawrence Island -and Greenland:</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Number of skulls (both sexes)"> -<col></col> -<col span="4" width="16.7%"></col> - <tr> - <th></th> - <th>Number of skulls (both sexes)</th> - <th>Skull length</th> - <th>Breadth</th> - <th>Height</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Lawrence Island</td> - <td class="tdc">(293)</td> - <td class="tdr">18.05</td> - <td class="tdr">13.90</td> - <td class="tdr">13.45</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Greenland</td> - <td class="tdc">(101)</td> - <td class="tdr">18.51</td> - <td class="tdr">13.30</td> - <td class="tdr">13.54</td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The Greenland skull is longer, narrower, and somewhat higher. -The differences are less than those between a child and an adult<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span> -western Eskimo, but of the same nature. This apparently speaks -strongly for the development of the Greenland type of Eskimo -cranium from the western. On the other hand, the type of skull -shown by the Eskimo child approaches much more closely than that -of the Eskimo adult to the type of the skull of the Mongol.</p> - -<p>The above are mere observations, not theories, and they carry -a strong indication that mostly we are still floundering only on the -borders of true anthropology, embracing all phases of life and development, -which, if mastered, would give us with beautiful definition -many now vainly sought or barely glimpsed solutions.</p> - -<p>A highly interesting feature is the relatively great development -in the Eskimo, between childhood and the adult stage, of the anterior -half of the skull or basion-nasion dimension. This augments, it is -seen, by even 3.4 per cent more than the length. This growth must -involve some additional factor to those inherent in the bones themselves -and in the attached musculature, and this can only be, it seems, -the development of the anterior half of the brain. Evidently this -portion of the brain between childhood and adult life grows in the -Eskimo more rapidly than that behind the vertical plane corresponding -to the basion. It is a very suggestive condition calling for further -study, and thus far almost entirely wanting in comparative data -on other human as well as subhuman groups.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h5>FOOTNOTES:</h5> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> Same group for adults as for children.</p></div></div> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - - - - -<h2>THE LOWER JAW</h2> - - -<p>The lower jaw of the Eskimo deserves a thorough separate study. -For this purpose, however, more jaws in good condition are needed -from various localities, and particularly more jaws accompanying -their skulls. As it is, a large majority of the crania are without the -lower jaw, or the alveolar processes of the latter have become so -affected in life through age and loss of teeth that their value is diminished -or lost. Still another serious difficulty is that the measuring of -the lower jaw is difficult and has not as yet been regulated by general -agreement, so that there is much individualism of procedures with -limited possibilities of comparison.</p> - -<p>One of the principal measurements taken on the available Eskimo -mandibles was the symphyseal height. This is taken by the sliding -calipers and is the height from the lower alveolar point (highest -point of the normal alveolar septum between the middle lower incisors) -to the lowest point on the inferior border of the chin in the -median line.<a name="FNanchor_161_161" id="FNanchor_161_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_161_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> The results are given in the following tables.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Esk̅imo Lower Jaw: Height at Symphysis"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Esk̅imo Lower Jaw: Height at Symphysis</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="6" width="12.5%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2"></th> - <th colspan="3">Male</th> - <th colspan="3">Female</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Southwestern and midwestern</th> - <th>Northwestern</th> - <th>Northern and eastern</th> - <th>Southwestern and midwestern</th> - <th>Northwestern</th> - <th>Northern and eastern</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Groups (main)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - <td class="tdc">(5)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Specimens</td> - <td class="tdc">(116)</td> - <td class="tdc">(143)</td> - <td class="tdc">(40)</td> - <td class="tdc">(121)</td> - <td class="tdc">(134)</td> - <td class="tdc">(25)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Average</td> - <td class="tdc">3.75</td> - <td class="tdc">3.76</td> - <td class="tdc">3.67</td> - <td class="tdc">3.38</td> - <td class="tdc">3.34</td> - <td class="tdc">3.39</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>General mean in western Eskimo</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">3.76</td> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">3.36</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Percental relation of female to male (M=100)</td> - <td colspan="0" class="tdc"><em>89.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="5" class="bu"></th> - <th class="bu">Males, 19 groups (399 jaws)</th> - <th class="bu">Females, 19 groups (280 jaws)</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="5">General mean for all Eskimo (approximate)</td> - <td class="tdc">3.73</td> - <td class="tdc">3.37</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="5">Percental relation of female to the male</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>90.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="5">General mean of total facial height</td> - <td class="tdc">12.47</td> - <td class="tdc">11.60</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="5">Percental relation of height of jaw to total facial height</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>30</em></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>29</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="5">General mean of upper facial height</td> - <td class="tdc">7.76</td> - <td class="tdc">7.20</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="5">Percental relation of height of jaw to upper facial height</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>48</em></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>47</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>Just what these figures mean will best be shown by a table of comparisons.<a name="FNanchor_162_162" id="FNanchor_162_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_162_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a> -All these are my own measurements.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Lower Jaw of Various Races: Height at Symphysis"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Lower Jaw of Various Races: Height at Symphysis</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="3" width="20%"></col> -<thead> - <tr> - <th></th> - <th>Male</th> - <th>Female</th> - <th>Female<br />versus<br />male<br />(M=100)</th> - </tr> -</thead> -<tbody> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(399)</td> - <td class="tdc">(280)</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eskimo (all)</td> - <td class="tdr">3.73</td> - <td class="tdr">3.37</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>North American Indians:</td> - <td class="tdc">(36)</td> - <td class="tdc">(26)</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Sioux</td> - <td class="tdr">3.60</td> - <td class="tdr">3.22</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(52)</td> - <td class="tdc">(50)</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Arkansas</td> - <td class="tdr">3.66</td> - <td class="tdr">3.24</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.5</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(29)</td> - <td class="tdc">(21)</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Florida</td> - <td class="tdr">3.69</td> - <td class="tdr">3.38</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(9)</td> - <td class="tdc">(6)</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Munsee</td> - <td class="tdr">3.70</td> - <td class="tdr">3.40</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.9</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - <td class="tdc">(14)</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Louisiana</td> - <td class="tdr">3.72</td> - <td class="tdr">3.29</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(44)</td> - <td class="tdc">(30)</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Kentucky</td> - <td class="tdr">3.49</td> - <td class="tdr">3.18</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.1</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(50)</td> - <td class="tdc">(30)</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>U. S. whites (miscellaneous)</td> - <td class="tdr">3.29</td> - <td class="tdr">2.87</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.2</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(41)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Negro, full-blood, African and American</td> - <td class="tdr">3.54</td> - <td class="tdr">3.14</td> - <td class="tdr"><a name="FNanchor_163_163" id="FNanchor_163_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_163_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a><em>88.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(261)</td> - <td class="tdc">(191)</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Australians</td> - <td class="tdr">3.44</td> - <td class="tdr">3.07</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.2</em></td> - </tr> -</tbody> -</table></div> - -<p>The table shows the Eskimo jaw to be absolutely the highest at -the symphysis of all those available for comparison, with the female -nearly the highest.<a name="FNanchor_164_164" id="FNanchor_164_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_164_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a> Relatively to stature it exceeds decidedly all -the groups, the Indians that come nearest matching it in the absolute -measurement being all much taller than the Eskimo. And the -female Eskimo jaw is relatively high compared with that of the -male, being exceeded in this respect only in three of the Indian -groups, in two of which, however, the showing is due wholly and -in one partly to a lesser height of the male jaw. The relative excess -of the female jaw in this respect seems particularly marked in the -northern and northeastern groups, though it must remain subject -to corroboration by further material.</p> - -<p>The white, Negro, and Australian data have an interest of their -own.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_161_161" id="Footnote_161_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> Should there be a decided notch in the middle, as happens in rare specimens, it is -rational to take the measurement to the side of the notch.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_162_162" id="Footnote_162_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_162_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a> From my Phys. Anthr. of the Lenape, etc., the Anthropology of Florida, and the Catalogue of Crania.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_163_163" id="Footnote_163_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a> Approximately.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_164_164" id="Footnote_164_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_164_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a> Rudolf Virchow, as far back as 1870, in studying some mandibles of the Greenland -Eskimo, found that the height of the body in the middle (3.5 centimeters) was greater -than that of the lower jaws of any other racial group available to him for comparison. -Archiv. für Anthrop., <span class="smcap">IV</span>, p. 77, Braunschweig, 1870.</p></div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span></p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Strength of the Jaw</span></h3> - -<p>The Eskimo jaw is generally stout. Barring rare exceptions there -is nothing slender about it. The body, moreover, is frequently -strengthened by more or less marked overgrowths of bone lingually -below the alveoli and above the mylohyoid ridge. These neoformations -will be discussed later.</p> - -<p>The strength of the mandible may be measured directly in various -locations on the body. Due to the peculiar build of the body, however, -and especially to its variations, these measurements are by no -means simple and wholly satisfactory. It is hardly necessary in this -connection to review the various attempted methods, none of which -has become standardized. As a result of experience I prefer since -many years to measure the thickness of the body of the jaw at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span> -second molars, and that in such a way that either the molars, if the -measurement is taken from above, or the lower border of the jaw if -it is taken from below, lies midway between the two branches of -the sliding calipers with which the measurement is taken. The two -methods (from above or below) give results that are nearly alike. -In some cases the one and in others the other is the easier, but -wherever the teeth are lost the measurement from below is perhaps -preferable. The records obtained on the lower jaws of the western -Eskimo and other racial groups are given in the next table.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="bb bt" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Thickness of the Body of the Lower Jaw at the Second Molars in the Western Eskimo and Other Groups"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Thickness of the Body of the Lower Jaw at the Second Molars in the Western Eskimo and Other Groups</span></caption> -<col span="2"></col> -<col span="5" width="11.1%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2" colspan="2" class="bb bt"></th> - <th colspan="2" class="bb bl bt">Male</th> - <th colspan="2" class="bb bl bt">Female</th> - <th rowspan="2" class="bb bl bt">Female versus male (M=100)</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bb bl">Right side</th> - <th class="bb bl">Left side</th> - <th class="bb bl">Right side</th> - <th class="bb bl">Left side</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(240)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(243)</td> - <td class="bl"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Western Eskimo </td> - <td class="tdc">millimeters</td> - <td class="tdc bl">16.2 </td> - <td class="tdc">16.3</td> - <td class="tdc bl">15.1 </td> - <td class="tdc">15.1</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>92.9</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(29)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(28)</td> - <td class="bl"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Florida Indians </td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">16.6</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">15.5</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>93.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(21)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(16)</td> - <td class="bl"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Louisiana Indians </td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">16.3</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">15.3</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>93.9</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(58)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(47)</td> - <td class="bl"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Arkansas Indians </td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">15.2</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">14.7</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>96.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(40)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(22)</td> - <td class="bl"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kentucky Indians </td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">14.7</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">14.2</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>96.6</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(50)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">(20)</td> - <td class="bl"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>American whites (misc.) </td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">14.5</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc bl">12.8</td> - <td class="tdc bl"><em>88.3</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The figures show that the Eskimo jaw is very stout. It is exceeded -in thickness only by the jaws of Florida, which in general -are the thickest in America, and in males is about equaled, in females -very slightly exceeded by those of the prehistoric Indians of Louisiana, -who belong to the same Gulf type with the Indians of Florida. -The old Arkansas Indians, though closely related to those of -Louisiana, show a very perceptibly more slender jaw, particularly -in the males; while in an old Kentucky tribe (Green River, C. B. -Moore, collector) the jaws are still less strong. The lower jaws of -the American whites (dissecting-room material) are slightly less -stout than even those of the Indians of Kentucky in the males, and -much less so in the females. The interesting sex differences are -shown well in the last column of the above table.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span></p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Breadth of the Rami</span></h3> - -<p>Still another character that reflects the strength of the lower jaw -is the breadth of the rami. The most practicable measurement of -this is the breadth minimum at the constriction of the ascending -branches. A great breadth of the rami is very striking, as is well -known, in the Heidelberg jaw, and the Eskimo have long been known -for a marked tendency in the same direction. The measurements of -the lower jaws of the western Eskimo show as follows:</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="bb bt" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Lower Jaws of the Western Eskimo and Other Racial Groups: Breadth Minimum of the Ascending Branches"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Lower Jaws of the Western Eskimo and Other Racial Groups: Breadth Minimum of the Ascending Branches</span></caption> -<col span="2"></col> -<col span="5" width="11.1%"></col> - <tr> - <th colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="bb bt"></th> - <th colspan="2" class="bb bt bl">Male</th> - <th colspan="2" class="bb bt bl">Female</th> - <th rowspan="2" class="bb bt bl">Female<br />versus<br />male<br />(M=100)</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bb bt bl">Right</th> - <th class="bb bt bl">Left</th> - <th class="bb bt bl">Right</th> - <th class="bb bt bl">Left</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"></td> - <td class="tdc bl">(243)</td> - <td class="tdc bl">(240)</td> - <td class="tdc bl">(237)</td> - <td class="tdc bl">(228)</td> - <td class="bl"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Western Eskimo </td> - <td class="tdc">centimeters</td> - <td class="tdr bl">3.99</td> - <td class="tdr bl">4.03</td> - <td class="tdr bl">3.68</td> - <td class="tdr bl">3.70</td> - <td class="tdr bl"><em>92</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"></td> - <td class="tdc bl">(20)</td> - <td class="tdc bl">(20)</td> - <td class="tdc bl">(13)</td> - <td class="tdc bl">(13)</td> - <td class="bl"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Florida Indians </td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdr bl">3.82</td> - <td class="tdr bl">3.85</td> - <td class="tdr bl">3.39</td> - <td class="tdr bl">3.34</td> - <td class="tdr bl"><em>87.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"></td> - <td class="tdc bl">(21)</td> - <td class="tdc bl">(19)</td> - <td class="tdc bl">(19)</td> - <td class="tdc bl">(16)</td> - <td class="bl"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Louisiana Indians </td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdr bl">3.72</td> - <td class="tdr bl">3.72</td> - <td class="tdr bl">3.29</td> - <td class="tdr bl">3.27</td> - <td class="tdr bl"><em>88.2</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"></td> - <td class="tdc bl">(62)</td> - <td class="tdc bl">(60)</td> - <td class="tdc bl">(58)</td> - <td class="tdc bl">(61)</td> - <td class="bl"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Arkansas Indians </td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdr bl">3.47</td> - <td class="tdr bl">3.47</td> - <td class="tdr bl">3.24</td> - <td class="tdr bl">3.23</td> - <td class="tdr bl"><em>93.2</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"></td> - <td class="tdc bl">(42)</td> - <td class="tdc bl">(40)</td> - <td class="tdc bl">(30)</td> - <td class="tdc bl">(29)</td> - <td class="bl"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kentucky Indians </td> - <td class="tdc">do</td> - <td class="tdr bl">3.44</td> - <td class="tdr bl">3.44</td> - <td class="tdr bl">3.18</td> - <td class="tdr bl">3.21</td> - <td class="tdr bl"><em>92.9</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"></td> - <td class="tdc bl">(50)</td> - <td class="tdc bl">(50)</td> - <td class="tdc bl">(20)</td> - <td class="tdc bl">(20)</td> - <td class="bl"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>United States whites (miscellaneous) </td> - <td class="tdc">centimeters</td> - <td class="tdr bl">3.17</td> - <td class="tdr bl">3.14</td> - <td class="tdr bl">2.89</td> - <td class="tdr bl">2.82</td> - <td class="tdr bl"><em>90.5</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The Eskimo jaws, and particularly that of the female (relatively -to other females), have the broadest rami. Otherwise the series -range themselves in the same order as under the measurement of the -stoutness of the body.</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Other Dimensions</span></h3> - -<p>Four other measurements were taken on the jaws, namely the -length of the body (on each side); the height of the two rami; the -bigonial diameter; and the body-ramus angle. The results of the -first three may conveniently be grouped into one table.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="tdc bb bt" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Additional Measurements on the Lower Jaw"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Additional Measurements on the Lower Jaw</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="6" width="12.5%"></col> - <tr> - <th colspan="0" class="bb">MALE</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2" class="bb"></th> - <th colspan="2" class="bb bl">Length of body, each side<a name="FNanchor_165_165" id="FNanchor_165_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_165_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a></th> - <th rowspan="2" class="bb bl">Length of body as a whole<a name="FNanchor_166_166" id="FNanchor_166_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_166_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a></th> - <th colspan="2" class="bb bl">Height of ramus<a name="FNanchor_167_167" id="FNanchor_167_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_167_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a></th> - <th rowspan="2" class="bb bl">Diameter bigonial<a name="FNanchor_168_168" id="FNanchor_168_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_168_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bb bl">Right</th> - <th class="bb bl">Left</th> - <th class="bb bl">Right</th> - <th class="bb bl">Left</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="bl">(236) </td> - <td>(236)</td> - <td class="bl">(100)</td> - <td class="bl">(132) </td> - <td>(131)</td> - <td class="bl">(201)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Western Eskimo</td> - <td class="bl">10.28 </td> - <td>10.28</td> - <td class="bl">8.03</td> - <td class="bl">6.45 </td> - <td>6.38</td> - <td class="bl">11.42</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl"></td> - <td class="bl">(24)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl">(18)</td> - <td class="bl">(22)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Florida Indian</td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl"></td> - <td class="bl">8.45</td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl">6.72</td> - <td class="bl">10.75</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl"></td> - <td class="bl">(19)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl">(15)</td> - <td class="bl">(17)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Louisiana Indian</td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl"></td> - <td class="bl">8.44</td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl">7</td> - <td class="bl">10.67</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl"></td> - <td class="bl">(62)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl">(52)</td> - <td class="bl">(57)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Arkansas Indian</td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl"></td> - <td class="bl">7.88</td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl">6.52</td> - <td class="bl">10.49</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl"></td> - <td class="bl">(42)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl">(37)</td> - <td class="bl">(38)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kentucky Indian</td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl"></td> - <td class="bl">7.45</td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl">6.48</td> - <td class="bl">10.48</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl"></td> - <td class="bl">(50)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl">(50)</td> - <td class="bl">(50)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>U. S. whites (miscellaneous)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl"></td> - <td class="bl">7.57</td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl">6.53</td> - <td class="bl">10.11</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0">FEMALE</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="bl">(230) </td> - <td>(228)</td> - <td class="bl">(100)</td> - <td class="bl">(134) </td> - <td>(128)</td> - <td class="bl">(199)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Western Eskimo</td> - <td class="bl">9.61 </td> - <td>9.60</td> - <td class="bl">7.47</td> - <td class="bl">5.61 </td> - <td>5.57</td> - <td class="bl">10.57</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl"></td> - <td class="bl">(19)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl">(18)</td> - <td class="bl">(17)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Florida Indian</td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl"></td> - <td class="bl">7.72</td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl">6.02</td> - <td class="bl">9.70</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl"></td> - <td class="bl">(16)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl">(15)</td> - <td class="bl">(15)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Louisiana Indian</td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl"></td> - <td class="bl">7.38</td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl">5.77</td> - <td class="bl">9.90</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl"></td> - <td class="bl">(57)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl">(52)</td> - <td class="bl">(56)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Arkansas Indian</td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl"></td> - <td class="bl">7.46</td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl">5.85</td> - <td class="bl">9.58</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl"></td> - <td class="bl">(30)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl">(25)</td> - <td class="bl">(30)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kentucky Indian</td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl"></td> - <td class="bl">7.12</td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl">5.64</td> - <td class="bl">9.45</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl"></td> - <td class="bl">(20)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl">(20)</td> - <td class="bl">(20)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>U. S. whites (miscellaneous)</td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl"></td> - <td class="bl">7.02</td> - <td colspan="2" class="bl">5.87</td> - <td class="bl">9.12</td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Females to Males (M=100)"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Females to Males (M=100)</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="4" width="16.7%"></col> - <tr> - <th></th> - <th>Length each side</th> - <th>Length as a whole</th> - <th>Height of rami</th> - <th>Diameter bigonial</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Western Eskimo</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>93.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>93.0</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.6</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Florida Indian</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.2</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Louisiana Indian</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.8</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Arkansas Indian</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>94.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.3</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Kentucky Indian</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>95.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.0</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.2</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>U. S. whites (miscellaneous)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.2</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The Eskimo lower jaw, which, as seen before, is characterized by -a high and stout body and the broadest rami, shows further that -these rami are remarkably low, and that the bigonial spread is -extraordinarily broad. The length of the body, on the other hand, -is not very exceptional, being perceptibly exceeded in some of the -Indians.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_165_165" id="Footnote_165_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_165_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> Sliding calipers: Separate measurement of each half of the body, from the lowest point -on the posterior border of each ramus not affected by the angle to a point of corresponding -height on the line of the symphysis. The anterior point may, in consequence of a lower -or higher location of the posterior point, range from the chin to above the middle of the -symphysis, but the results are much alike. The measurement leaves much to be desired, -but is the best possible if the two halves of the body are to be measured separately.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_166_166" id="Footnote_166_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_166_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a> The length of the whole jaw is measured on Broca's mandibular goniometer, by laying -the jaw firmly on the board, applying the movable plane to both rami, and recording the -distance of the most anterior point of the chin from the base of the oblique plane. This -measurement is easier than the previous, though on account of the variation in the angles -and the lower part of the posterior border of the rami it is also not fully satisfactory, and -it does not show the differences in the two halves of the body.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_167_167" id="Footnote_167_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a> Sliding calipers: One branch applied so that it touches the highest points on both the -condyle and the coronoid, while the other is applied to the lowest point of the ramus -anterior to the angle, if the bone here is prominent; if receding, the branch of the compass -is applied to the midpoint on the lower border of the ramus.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_168_168" id="Footnote_168_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> Sliding calipers: Maximum external diameter at the angles; the maximum points may, -exceptionally, be either anterior to or a little above the angle proper.</p></div></div> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Angle</span></h3> - -<p>The angle between the body and the ramus of the lower jaw is -known to differ with the age and sex as well as individually. Not -seldom it differs also, and that sometimes quite appreciably, on the -two sides. Racial differences are as yet uncertain.</p> - -<p>The angle, especially in some specimens, is not easy to measure, -and the position of the jaw may make a difference of several degrees. -Numerous trials have shown that the proper way is to measure the -angle on the two sides separately, and to so place the jaw in each -case that there is no interference with the measurement by either -the posterior or the anterior enlarged end of the condyle.</p> - -<p>Leaving out jaws in which extensive loss of teeth has in all -probability resulted in changes in the angle, the western Eskimo -material gives the following data:</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Western Eskimo: Angle of the Lower Jaw"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Western Eskimo: Angle of the Lower Jaw</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="2" width="25%"></col> - <tr> - <th></th> - <th>Male</th> - <th>Female</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(224)</td> - <td class="tdc">(217)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Right side</td> - <td class="tdr">119.6°</td> - <td class="tdr">124.5°</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(218)</td> - <td class="tdc">(207)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Left side</td> - <td class="tdr">119.5°</td> - <td class="tdr">124.3°</td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>In the male Munsee Indians the angle was 118°; in those of -Arkansas and Louisiana, 118.5°; in those of Peru (Martin, Lehrb., -884), 119°. In the whites, males, the average angle approximates -122°; in the Negro, 121° (Topinard, Martin).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span></p> - -<p>The angle in the female in the Eskimo is to that of the male as -104 to 100; in the Arkansas and Louisiana series it was 103. In -the whites the proportion seems to be a little higher.</p> - -<p>There are evidently, if we exclude the whites in whom the shortness -of the jaw conduces probably to a wider angle, no marked racial -differences, but the subject needs a more thorough study on large -series of sexually well-identified specimens, carefully selected as -to age.</p> - -<p>The average angle on the right differs in the Eskimo but very -slightly from that on the left, though individually there are frequent -unequalities.</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Résumé</span></h3> - -<p>The Eskimo lower jaw differs substantially in many respects from -that in other races, particularly from that of the whites. It is characterized -by a high and stout body; by broad but low rami; and by -excessive breadth at the angles. The body-ramus angle is moderate. -To which may be added that the chin is generally of but moderate -prominence, and that the bone at the angles in males is occasionally -markedly everted.</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Mandibular Hyperostoses</span></h3> - -<p>These hypertrophies or hyperostoses are rarely met with also in the -jaws of the Indian and other people. They are symmetric and -characteristic, though often more or less irregular. They generally -extend from the vicinity of the lateral incisors or the canines backward, -forming when more developed a marked bulge on each side -opposite the bicuspids, which gives the inner contour of the jaw -when looked at from above a peculiar elephantine appearance. -They may occur in the form of smooth, oblong, somewhat fusiform -swellings, or as a continuous more or less uneven ridge, or may be represented -by from one to four or five more or less rounded or flattened -hard "buttons" or tumorlike elevations. In development -they range from slight to very marked.</p> - -<p>These hyperostoses have been reported by various observers (Danielli, -Søren Hansen, Rudolf Virchow, Welcker, Duckworth & Pain, -Oetteking, Hrdlička, Hawkes). They received due attention by -Fürst and Hansen in their "Crania Groenlandica" (p. 178). They -have been given the convenient, though both etiologically and morphologically -inaccurate, name of "mandibular torus"; I think mandibular -hyperostoses or simply welts would be better. Fürst and -Hansen found them, taking all grades of development, in 182, or 85 -per cent, of 215 lower jaws of Greenland Eskimo; in 28 jaws, or 13 -per cent, they were pronounced, the remainder being slight to medium. -A special examination of 62 lower jaws of children and 710<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span> -lower jaws of adult western Eskimo (with a small number from -Greenland) gives the following record:</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Lingual Mandibular Hyperostoses in the Western Eskimo"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Lingual Mandibular Hyperostoses in the Western Eskimo</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="8" width="10%"></col> - <tr> - <th colspan="0">CHILDREN<br /> - [62 mandibles, completion of milk dentition to eruption of second permanent molar]</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th></th> - <th colspan="2">None or indistinguishable</th> - <th colspan="2">Slight to moderate</th> - <th colspan="2">Medium</th> - <th colspan="2">Pronounced</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Specimens</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">47</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc"><a name="FNanchor_169_169" id="FNanchor_169_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_169_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a>10</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc"><a name="FNanchor_170_170" id="FNanchor_170_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_170_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a>5</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Per cent</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc"><em>75.8</em></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc"><em>16.1</em></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc"><em>8.1</em></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0">ADULTS<br /> - [Both sexes. 710 mandibles]</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Specimens</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">215</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">356</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">114</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">25</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Per cent</td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc"><em>30.3</em></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc"><em>50.1</em></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc"><em>16.1</em></td> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc"><em>3.5</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0">ADULTS<br /> - [Sexes separately. M. 350; F. 360 mandibles]</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th></th> - <th>Males</th> - <th>Females</th> - <th>Males</th> - <th>Females</th> - <th>Males</th> - <th>Females</th> - <th>Males</th> - <th>Females</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Specimens</td> - <td class="tdc">71</td> - <td class="tdc">144</td> - <td class="tdc">193</td> - <td class="tdc">163</td> - <td class="tdc">67</td> - <td class="tdc">47</td> - <td class="tdc">19</td> - <td class="tdc">6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Per cent</td> - <td class="tdc">20.3</td> - <td class="tdc">40.0</td> - <td class="tdc">55.1</td> - <td class="tdc">45.3</td> - <td class="tdc">19.1</td> - <td class="tdc">13.1</td> - <td class="tdc">5.4</td> - <td class="tdc">1.7</td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The significance of these hyperostoses is not yet quite clear. -Danielli, who in 1884 reported them<a name="FNanchor_171_171" id="FNanchor_171_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_171_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a> in the Ostiaks, Lapps, a -Kirghiz, a Peruvian Indian, and four white skulls, offered no explanation. -For Søren Hansen,<a name="FNanchor_172_172" id="FNanchor_172_172"></a><a href="#Footnote_172_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a> who first suggested the resemblance -of these formations to the torus palatinus, "the significance of this -feature, which also occurs in other Arctic races not directly related -to the Eskimos, is not clear." R. Virchow,<a name="FNanchor_173_173" id="FNanchor_173_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_173_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a> who reports "wulstigen -und knolligen Hyperostosen" on both the upper and lower jaws of -a Vancouver Island Indian, restricts himself to a brief mention of the -condition with a suggestion as to its causation (see later). Welcker<a name="FNanchor_174_174" id="FNanchor_174_174"></a><a href="#Footnote_174_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a> -found them in the skulls of a German (Schiller?), Lett, and a -Chinese, but has nothing to say as to their meaning. Duckworth -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span>and Pain<a name="FNanchor_175_175" id="FNanchor_175_175"></a><a href="#Footnote_175_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a> report the "thickening" in 10 out of 32 Eskimo jaws, -but do not discuss the causation; and the same applies to Oetteking,<a name="FNanchor_176_176" id="FNanchor_176_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_176_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a> -who reported on a series of Eskimo from Labrador. In 1909 -Gorjanovič-Kramberger<a name="FNanchor_177_177" id="FNanchor_177_177"></a><a href="#Footnote_177_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a> somewhat indirectly notes the condition, -without a true appreciation of its meaning.</p> - -<p>In 1910 I had the opportunity to report on the mandibular hyperostoses -in a rare collection of crania and lower jaws of the central -and Smith Sound Eskimo.<a name="FNanchor_178_178" id="FNanchor_178_178"></a><a href="#Footnote_178_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a> Of 25 lower jaws of adults and 5 of -children, 18, or 72 per cent, of the former and 2 of the latter showed -distinct to marked lingual hyperostoses, while in the remaining cases -the feature was either doubtful (absorption of the alveolar process) -or absent. Two of the five children showed the peculiarity in a -well-marked degree. A critical consideration of the condition leads -me to the conclusion that it is not pathological, and my remarks -were worded (p. <a href="#Page_211">211</a>) as follows: "A marked and general feature -is a pronounced bony reinforcement of the alveolar arch extending -above the mylohyoid line from the canines or first bicuspids to or -near the last molars. This physiological hyperostosis presents more -or less irregular surface and is undoubtedly of functional origin, the -result of extraordinary pressure along the line of teeth most concerned -in chewing; yet its occurrence in infant skulls indicates that -at least to some extent the feature is already hereditary in these -Eskimo."</p> - -<p>In 1912, Kajava<a name="FNanchor_179_179" id="FNanchor_179_179"></a><a href="#Footnote_179_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a> reported lingual hyperostotic thickenings on the -lower jaws of 68 adult Lapps, and found the condition in frequent -association with pronounced wear of the teeth. In 1915, finally, -Fürst and C.C. Hansen, in their great volume on "Crania Groenlandica," -approach this question much more thoroughly. They, as -also Kajava, did not know of the writer's report of 1910. They found -the "torus" (p. <a href="#Page_181">181</a>), "also in the mandibles of some various Siberian -races in a not insignificant percentage * * * and also not infrequently -among European races, especially in the Laplanders -(30 to 35 per cent)." They also report the presence of the condition -"in a Chinaman," and saw indications of a good development -of it in 17 per cent of 164 middle ages to prehistoric, and in 12 per -cent of later Scandinavian lower jaws. Their interesting comments -on its possible causation, though at one point seemingly not harmonizing, -are as follows (p. <a href="#Page_180">180</a>): "The possibility is not precluded -that we have here a formation which, even though it has at first -arisen and been acquired through mechanical causes, has in the end -become a racial character, albeit a variable one." And page <a href="#Page_181">181</a>: -"There seems to be no doubt whatever that it is a formation connected -with Arctic races or Arctic conditions of life; and, accordingly, it can -not safely be assumed to be a racial character, however difficult it is -to regard it as a formation only acquired individually."</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 428px;"> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="bureau">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span> <span class="plate">FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 61</span><br /></p> -</div> -<img src="images/plate_61a.jpg" width="428" height="700" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Western Eskimo and Aleut (middle) Lower Jaws, Showing Lingual -Hyperostoses</span>. (U.S.N.M.)</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span></p> - -<p>With both the previously published and the present data, I believe -the subject of these bony formations may now be approached with -some hope of definite conclusions.</p> - -<p>These hyperostoses give no indication of being pathological. They -are formed largely, if not entirely, by compact bone tissues of evidently -normal construction. They never show a trace of attending -inflammation or of ulceration or of breaking down. They resemble -occasionally the osteomae of the vault of the skull, and more distantly -the osteomae of the auditory meatus, but in those cases -where the bony swelling is uniform and in many others they show to -be of quite a different category. (Pl. 61.)</p> - -<p>As a rule these bony protuberances in the Eskimo are not connected -with evidence of pyorrhoea, root abscesses, or any other -pathological condition of the teeth, for those conditions are practically -absent in the older Eskimo skulls; therefore they can not be -ascribed to any irritation due to such conditions, and the Eskimo -have no habits that could possibly be imagined as favoring, through -mechanical irritation, the development of these bony swellings. -Wear of the teeth, which has been thought to stand possibly in a -causative relation to these developments, is common in many races -and even in animals (primates, etc.), without being accompanied -by any such formations.</p> - -<p>The development of such overgrowths is not wholly limited, as -already indicated from the cases reported by Danielli (1884) and -Virchow (1889), to the lower jaw, but somewhat similar growths -may also be observed, though much more rarely, both lingually and -on the outer border of the alveolar process of the upper jaw in the -molar region. When present in the latter position they interfere -with the measurement of the external breadth of the dental arch.</p> - -<p>But, if neither pathological themselves nor due to any pathological -or mechanical irritation, then these hyperostoses can only be, it would -seem, of a physiological, ontogenic nature; and if so, then they must -be brought about through a definite need and for a definite purpose -or function.</p> - -<p>These views are supported by their marked symmetry, which is -very apparent even where they are irregular; by the fact that in -general they are not found in the weakest jaws (weak individuals), -or again in the largest and stoutest mandibles (jaws that are strong -enough, as it is); and by the history of their development.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span></p> - -<p>Our rather extensive present data on children show that these -formations are absent in infancy. They begin to develop in older -childhood, in adolescence, or even during the earlier adult life; they -stop developing at different stages in different individuals, and they -never lead to any deformity of the body of the mandible.</p> - -<p>These overgrowths are further seen to be more common and to more -frequently reach a pronounced development in the males than in the -females.</p> - -<p>What is the effect of these hyperostoses? They strengthen the -dental arch. With them the arch is stronger; without them it would -be weaker. The view is therefore justified that they augment the -effectiveness of the dental arch; which is just what is needed or -would be useful in such people as the Eskimo where the demands on -the jaws exceed in general those in any other people.</p> - -<p>All these appear to be facts of incontrovertible nature; but if so -then we are led to practically the same conclusion that I have reached -in the study of the central and Smith Sound Eskimo, which is that -the lingual mandibular hyperostoses are physiological formations, -developed in answer to the needs of the alveolar portions of the -lower jaw. They could be termed synergetic hyperostoses.</p> - -<p>The process of the development of these strengthening deposits of -bone is probably still largely individual; yet the tendency toward -such developments appears to be already hereditary in the Eskimo, -as indicated by their beginning here and there in childhood. But -their absence in nearly one-third of the Eskimo mandibles, their -marked differences of occurrence and development in the two sexes, -and their occasional presence in the jaws of various other peoples, -including even the whites, speak against the notion of these hyperostoses -being as yet true racial features.</p> - -<p>Taking everything into consideration, the writer is more than ever -convinced that the lingual hyperostoses of the normal lower (as well -as the upper) jaw, in the Eskimo as elsewhere, are physiological, -ontogenic developments, whose object and function is the strengthening -of the lower alveolar process in its lateral portions. Only -when excessively developed, which is very rare, they may, mechanically, -perhaps cause discomfort and thereby approach a pathological -condition.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_169_169" id="Footnote_169_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> None in the younger children.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_170_170" id="Footnote_170_170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_170_170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a> All in older children or adolescents.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_171_171" id="Footnote_171_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_171_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a> Danielli, J., Arch. p. l'antrop. e l'etnol., 1884, <span class="smcap">XIV</span>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_172_172" id="Footnote_172_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_172_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a> Meddel. om. Grønl., 1887, No. 17.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_173_173" id="Footnote_173_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a> Beitr. Kraniol. d. Insul. w. Küste Amer., 1889, 398.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_174_174" id="Footnote_174_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_174_174"><span class="label">[174]</span></a> Arch. Anthrop., 1902, <span class="smcap">XXVII</span>, 70.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_175_175" id="Footnote_175_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175_175"><span class="label">[175]</span></a> J. Anthr. Inst., 1900, <span class="smcap">XXX</span>, 134.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_176_176" id="Footnote_176_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_176_176"><span class="label">[176]</span></a> Abh. und Ber. Zool. und Anthr. Mus., Dresden, 1908, <span class="smcap">XII</span>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_177_177" id="Footnote_177_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177_177"><span class="label">[177]</span></a> Sitzber. preuss. Ak. Wiss., <span class="smcap">LI-LIII</span>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_178_178" id="Footnote_178_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178_178"><span class="label">[178]</span></a> Anthrop. Pap's. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., <span class="smcap">V</span>, pt. <span class="smcap">II</span>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_179_179" id="Footnote_179_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_179_179"><span class="label">[179]</span></a> Verh. Ges. Finn. Zahnärzte, 1912, <span class="smcap">IX</span>.</p></div></div> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Main References</span></h3> - -<p>Danielli,<a name="FNanchor_180_180" id="FNanchor_180_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_180_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a> 1884: "Saw the condition in lower jaws of 1 Swede, -1 Italian, 1 Terra di Lavoro jaw, 1 Slovene, 1 Hungarian, 1 Kirghis, -1 ancient Peruvian."</p> - -<p>Found hyperostoses in 9 out of 14 Ostiak lower jaws.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span></p> -<p>Material: Young 2, adult 6, old 6.</p> - -<p>Hyperostoses in young 1, adult 3, old 5.</p> - -<p>Mantegazza, at his request, examined some Ostiak and Eskimo -skulls in Berlin and found the hyperostoses in 2 Ostiak lower jaws -(slight) and in 1 Eskimo skull from Greenland (marked).</p> - -<p>Found also smaller hyperostoses in the upper jaw ventrally to the -molars ("situate quasi sempre dalla parte interna in corrispondenza -dei molari"):</p> - -<p>Skulls: 2 Italians, 1 Hungarian, 7 Norwegians, 2 Lapps, 5 Ostiaks.</p> - -<p>Plate shows 8 lower jaws, 1 with slight, 7 with marked hyperostoses -(1 symphyseal swellings, 3 tumorlike).</p> - -<p>Refrains from interpretation (could not reach conclusion).</p> - -<p>Virchow,<a name="FNanchor_181_181" id="FNanchor_181_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_181_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a> 1889, page 392: In upper jaws of three Santa Barbara -skulls: "An den Alveolarrändern der weiblichen Schädel Nr. 3-6 -von S. Barbara besteht eine höchst eigenthümliche und seltene, knollige -Hyperostosis s. Osteosclerosis alveolaris, wie ich sie in gleicher -Stärke früher nur bei Eskimos gesehen hatte. Ein leichter Ansatz -dazu zeigt sich auch bei dem männlichen Schädel Nr. 4 von S. Cruz. -Es dürfte dieser Zustand, der mit tiefer Abnutzung der Zähne -zusammenfält, durch besonders reizende Nahrung bedingt sein."</p> - -<p>Vancouver Island skulls: "dagegen sehen wir dieselbe alveolare -Hyperostose, die wir bei den Leuten von S. Barbara und weiterhin -bei Eskimos kennen gelernt haben."</p> - -<p>Virchow,<a name="FNanchor_182_182" id="FNanchor_182_182"></a><a href="#Footnote_182_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a> 1892: "Der Alveolarrand gleichfalls mit hyperostotischen -Wülsten besetzt, jedoch mehr an der inneren Seite, besonders -stark in der Gegend per Prümolares und Canini, weniger stark in der -Gegend der Incisici."</p> - -<p>Welcker,<a name="FNanchor_183_183" id="FNanchor_183_183"></a><a href="#Footnote_183_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a> 1902: "Exostosen der Alveolarränder. Von erheblicher -Beweiskraft können Eigenthümlichkeiten und Abnormitäten des -Knochengewebes under der Knochenoberfläche werden, wenn dieselben, -bei an sich grosser Seltenheit ihres Vorkommens, an einem Oberschädel -und Unterkiefer zugleich vorkommen.</p> - -<p>"So fand ich am Unterkiefer der Gypsabgüsse des sogenannten -Schillerschädels sehr merkwürdige, bis dahin nirgends erwähnte, -erbsenförmige Exostosen an den Alveolen der Eck- und Schneidezähne. -Ganz ähnliche, wenn auch etwas flächere Exostosen zeigen -die Alveolen eben derselben Zähne des Oberschädels, und es beweist -dieses seltene Vorkommen bei dem Zutreffen aller übrigen Zeichen -das Zusammengehören beider Stücke mit hoher Sicherheit.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span></p> - -<p>"In einer etwas anderen Form, in der dieselben einen geschlossenen, -exostotischen Saum bilden, fand ich Alveolarexostosen bei -einem Lettenschädel (G. Gandras, 47 J., Halle Nr. 52). Hier sind -die Alveolarränder der Schneide-und Eckzähne mit flachen, am -Oberkiefer streifenförmigen (senkrecht gestellten), am Unterkiefer -mehr rundlichen Exostosen besetzt, so dass der sonst papierdünne -Zahnflächenrand beider Kiefer in einen, die Zahnhälse begrenzenden -wulst-förmigen Saum umgewandelt ist. Der gleiche Charakter -dieser nicht häufigen Abnormität an beiden Kiefern giebt die vollste -Ueberzeungung der Zusammengehörigkeit.</p> - -<p>"In schwächerem Grade zeigt diesen Zustand ein Chinesenschädel -der Halle'schen Sammlung (Lie Assie)."</p> - -<p>Fürst,<a name="FNanchor_184_184" id="FNanchor_184_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_184_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a> 1908: "Wir haben hier auf diese interessante anatomische -Bildung aufmerksam machen wollen, die, wenn nicht konstant, doch -in sehr hohem Prozentsatze und in bestimmter charakteristischer -Form bei den Eskimos auftritt und in verschiedenen Variationen auf -dem Unterkiefer anderer Rassen, speziell nordischer oder arktischer, -vorkommt.—Wir wollen später eine ausführlichere Beschreibung -über den Torus mandibularis mitteilen."</p> - -<p>Gorjanovič-Kramberger,<a name="FNanchor_185_185" id="FNanchor_185_185"></a><a href="#Footnote_185_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a> 1909: "Durch die Ausbiegung der seitlichen -Kieferflächen würde ferner die Druckrichtung der M und P -eine gegen die innere Kieferwandung gerichtete. Als direkte Folge -dieses Druckes hat man die starke Ausladung der entsprechenden -lingualen Kieferseiten im Bereiche der P und M anzusehen, die da -eine auffallende Einengung des inneren Unterkieferraumes bewerkstelligte."</p> - -<p>Hrdlička (A.), 1910. See text.</p> - -<p>Hansen,<a name="FNanchor_186_186" id="FNanchor_186_186"></a><a href="#Footnote_186_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a> 1914: "The lower jaws attached to the skulls are powerfully -formed, high, and, above all, very thick, their inner surface -being markedly protruding, rounded, and without any special prominence -of linea mylohyoidea. This peculiarity, which is common -enough, among the Eskimo and certain Siberian tribes, but is otherwise -exceedingly rare, must be regarded as a hyperostosis of the -same nature as the so-called torus palatinus. It is a partly pathological -formation due to a peculiar mode of life rather than a true -morphological mark of race."</p> - -<p>Fürst, C. M., and Hansen, C. C., 1915. See text.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span></p> - -<p>Cameron,<a name="FNanchor_187_187" id="FNanchor_187_187"></a><a href="#Footnote_187_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a> 1923: "In some instances the bony thickening was -excessive. For example, in mandible XIV H-8 the inward bulging -of the bone was so marked that the transverse distance between the -inner surfaces of the body opposite the first molars was reduced to -21.5 millimeters. This jaw had therefore an extraordinary appearance -when viewed from below. (See fig. 5.) The writer would -regard these bulgings as bone buttresses built up by nature to resist -the excessive strain thrown upon the alveoli of the molar teeth. He -exhibited the mandibles to Prof. H. E. Friesell, dean of the dental -faculty, University of Pittsburgh, and this authority concurred in -the opinion expressed above." A disagreement with this view is -expressed by S. G. Ritchie, pages 64c-65c, same publication.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_180_180" id="Footnote_180_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_180_180"><span class="label">[180]</span></a> Danielli, Jacopo, Iperostosi in mandibole umano specialmente di Ostiacchi, ed anche -in mascellari superiore. Archivio per l'antropologia e l'etnologia, 1884, <span class="smcap">XIV</span>, 333-346.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_181_181" id="Footnote_181_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181_181"><span class="label">[181]</span></a> Virchow, E., in Beiträge zur Craniologie der Insulaner von der Westküste Nordamerikas. -Zeitschr. f. Ethnol. Verhandl., 1889, <span class="smcap">XXI</span>, 395, 401.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_182_182" id="Footnote_182_182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_182_182"><span class="label">[182]</span></a> Virchow, R., Crania Ethnica Americana. Berlin, 1892, Tafel <span class="smcap">XXIII</span>. A "long-head" -male adult of Koskimo, Vancouver Island.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_183_183" id="Footnote_183_183"></a><a href="#FNanchor_183_183"><span class="label">[183]</span></a> Welcker, H., Die Zugehörigkeit eines Unterkiefers zu einem bestimmten Schädel, -nebst Untersuchungen über sehr auffällige, durch Auftrocknung und Wiederanfeuchtung -bedingte Gröben und Formveränderungen des Knochens. Arch. f. Anthropol., 1902, -<span class="smcap">XXVII</span>, 70.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_184_184" id="Footnote_184_184"></a><a href="#FNanchor_184_184"><span class="label">[184]</span></a> Fürst, Carl M., Demonstration des Torus mandibularis bei den Askimos und anderen -Rassen. Verhandlungen der Anatomischen Gesellschaft in Berlin, 1908, Ergänzhft z. -Anatom. Anz., 1908, <span class="smcap">XXXII</span>, 295-296.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_185_185" id="Footnote_185_185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_185_185"><span class="label">[185]</span></a> Gorjanovič-Kramberger, K., Der Unterkiefer der Eskimos (Grönländer) als Träger -primitiver Merkmale. Sitzungsberichte der königlich preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, -1909, <span class="smcap">LI</span>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_186_186" id="Footnote_186_186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_186_186"><span class="label">[186]</span></a> Hansen, Søren, Contributions to the anthropology of the East Greenlanders. Meddelelser -om Grønland, Copenhagen, 1914, <span class="smcap">XXXIX</span>, 169.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_187_187" id="Footnote_187_187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_187_187"><span class="label">[187]</span></a> Cameron, John, The Copper Eskimos. Report of the Canadian Arctic Expedition, -1913-1918. Ottawa, 1923, <span class="smcap">XII</span>, c. 55.</p></div></div> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - - - - -<h2>SKELETAL PARTS OTHER THAN THE SKULL</h2> - - -<p>The skeletal parts of the western Eskimo, outside of the skull, are -but little known. The only records are those on two skeletons (one -male, one female) from Point Barrow by Hawkes,<a name="FNanchor_188_188" id="FNanchor_188_188"></a><a href="#Footnote_188_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a> and those on a -few bones from Port Clarence by Cameron.<a name="FNanchor_189_189" id="FNanchor_189_189"></a><a href="#Footnote_189_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a> The data on the skeletal -parts of the northern and eastern Eskimo are only slightly -richer, being for the most part fragmentary and scattered.<a name="FNanchor_190_190" id="FNanchor_190_190"></a><a href="#Footnote_190_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a> Nor -has the time arrived yet for a comprehensive study of such material, -for notwithstanding the relative abundance in crania and the more -resistant individual skeletal parts, the securing of anywhere near -complete skeletons is very difficult. Nevertheless there is now a good -number of the long bones of the western Eskimo in the possession -of the National Museum and the main data on these, all secured -personally by the writer, will be given. They must for the present -remain essentially as so many figures without adequate discussion and -comparisons. Nevertheless a few facts appear so plainly that they -may well be pointed out before concluding this section.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_188_188" id="Footnote_188_188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_188_188"><span class="label">[188]</span></a> Amer. Anthrop., 1916, <span class="smcap">LVIII</span>, 240-243.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_189_189" id="Footnote_189_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_189_189"><span class="label">[189]</span></a> Rep. Canad. Arct. Exp., 1913-1918, Pt. C, 1923, 56-57.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_190_190" id="Footnote_190_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_190_190"><span class="label">[190]</span></a> Mainly by Turner (London, 1886); Duckworth (Cambridge, 1904); Hrdlička (New -York, 1910); Cameron (Ottawa, 1913-1918); also a series of incidental references and -comparisons.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span></p></div></div> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Western Eskimo: the Long Bones</span></h3> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Western Eskimo: the Long Bones"> -<col></col> -<col span="8" width="10%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2">Bones of both sides taken together</th> - <th colspan="4">Males</th> - <th colspan="4">Females</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Southwestern and midwestern groups<a name="FNanchor_191_191" id="FNanchor_191_191"></a><a href="#Footnote_191_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a></th> - <th>Seward Peninsula<a name="FNanchor_192_192" id="FNanchor_192_192"></a><a href="#Footnote_192_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a></th> - <th>Point Hope</th> - <th>Seward Peninsula and northwestern Eskimo in general<a name="FNanchor_193_193" id="FNanchor_193_193"></a><a href="#Footnote_193_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a></th> - <th>Southwestern and midwestern groups</th> - <th>Seward Peninsula</th> - <th>Point Hope</th> - <th>Seward Peninsula and northwestern Eskimo in general</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Humeri:</td> - <td class="tdc">(143)</td> - <td class="tdc">(261)</td> - <td class="tdc">(67)</td> - <td class="tdc">(100)</td> - <td class="tdc">(136)</td> - <td class="tdc">(26)</td> - <td class="tdc">(55)</td> - <td class="tdc">(83)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">30.69</td> - <td class="tdr">31.42</td> - <td class="tdr">31.07</td> - <td class="tdr">31.17</td> - <td class="tdr">28.40</td> - <td class="tdr">28.75</td> - <td class="tdr">28.83</td> - <td class="tdr">28.83</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">At middle—</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Diameter maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">2.40</td> - <td class="tdr">2.46</td> - <td class="tdr">2.46</td> - <td class="tdr">2.46</td> - <td class="tdr">2.10</td> - <td class="tdr">2.14</td> - <td class="tdr">2.16</td> - <td class="tdr">2.15</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Diameter minimum</td> - <td class="tdr">1.80</td> - <td class="tdr">1.81</td> - <td class="tdr">1.86</td> - <td class="tdr">1.85</td> - <td class="tdr">1.54</td> - <td class="tdr">1.59</td> - <td class="tdr">1.63</td> - <td class="tdr">1.62</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Index at middle</td> - <td class="tdr">75.1</td> - <td class="tdr">73.8</td> - <td class="tdr">75.8</td> - <td class="tdr">75.1</td> - <td class="tdr">73.2</td> - <td class="tdr">74.4</td> - <td class="tdr">75.4</td> - <td class="tdr">75.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Radii:</td> - <td class="tdc">(98)</td> - <td class="tdc">(20)</td> - <td class="tdc">(15)</td> - <td class="tdc">(37)</td> - <td class="tdc">(109)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(24)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">22.90</td> - <td class="tdr">23.63</td> - <td class="tdr">23.44</td> - <td class="tdr">23.50</td> - <td class="tdr">20.50</td> - <td class="tdr">21.26</td> - <td class="tdr"><a name="FNanchor_194_194" id="FNanchor_194_194"></a><a href="#Footnote_194_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a>(21.58)</td> - <td class="tdr">21.25</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Radio-humeral index (approximate)</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>72.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74</em></td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>74.8</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Femora:</td> - <td class="tdc">(195)</td> - <td class="tdc">(44)</td> - <td class="tdc">(10)</td> - <td class="tdc">(60)</td> - <td class="tdc">(132)</td> - <td class="tdc">(26)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(31)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length, bicond.</td> - <td class="tdr">42.50</td> - <td class="tdr">43.20</td> - <td class="tdr">(44.06)</td> - <td class="tdr">43.46</td> - <td class="tdr">39.36</td> - <td class="tdr">40.12</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">40.44</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Humero-femoral index (approximate)</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>72.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>72.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><a name="FNanchor_195_195" id="FNanchor_195_195"></a><a href="#Footnote_195_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a>(<em>70.5</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>71.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>72.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>71.7</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>71.3</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">At middle—</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Diameter antero-posterior</td> - <td class="tdr">3.08</td> - <td class="tdr">3.17</td> - <td class="tdr">(3.33)</td> - <td class="tdr">3.21</td> - <td class="tdr">2.69</td> - <td class="tdr">2.85</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2.88</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Diameter lateral</td> - <td class="tdr">2.70</td> - <td class="tdr">2.72</td> - <td class="tdr">(2.68)</td> - <td class="tdr">2.72</td> - <td class="tdr">2.46</td> - <td class="tdr">2.55</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2.56</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Index at middle</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr">(<em>80.4</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.6</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.9</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">At upper flattening—</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Diameter maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">3.35</td> - <td class="tdr">3.34</td> - <td class="tdr">(3.27)</td> - <td class="tdr">3.32</td> - <td class="tdr">3.02</td> - <td class="tdr">3.04</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">3.06</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Diameter minimum</td> - <td class="tdr">2.51</td> - <td class="tdr">2.57</td> - <td class="tdr">(2.58)</td> - <td class="tdr">2.59</td> - <td class="tdr">2.26</td> - <td class="tdr">2.37</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">2.40</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Index at upper flattening</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77</em></td> - <td class="tdc">(<em>79</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>78.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>78</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>78.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tibiae:</td> - <td class="tdc">(141)</td> - <td class="tdc">(35)</td> - <td class="tdc">(41)</td> - <td class="tdc">(79)</td> - <td class="tdc">(147)</td> - <td class="tdc">(18)</td> - <td class="tdc">(17)</td> - <td class="tdc">(36)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length (in position)</td> - <td class="tdr">33.86</td> - <td class="tdr">34.52</td> - <td class="tdr">36.40</td> - <td class="tdr">35.52</td> - <td class="tdr">31.32</td> - <td class="tdr">31.90</td> - <td class="tdr">32.90</td> - <td class="tdr">32.50</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Tibio-femoral index (approximate)</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>79.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>79.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Footnote_194_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a>(<em>82.6</em>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>79.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>79.5</em></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>80.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">At middle—</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Diameter antero-posterior</td> - <td class="tdr">3.12</td> - <td class="tdr">3.13</td> - <td class="tdr">3.26</td> - <td class="tdr">3.19</td> - <td class="tdr">2.71</td> - <td class="tdr">2.71</td> - <td class="tdr">2.80</td> - <td class="tdr">2.75</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Diameter lateral</td> - <td class="tdr">2.12</td> - <td class="tdr">2.12</td> - <td class="tdr">2.20</td> - <td class="tdr">2.16</td> - <td class="tdr">1.89</td> - <td class="tdr">1.93</td> - <td class="tdr">1.92</td> - <td class="tdr">1.92</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp2">Index at middle</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>67.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>67.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>67.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>67.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>69.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>71.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>68.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>70</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span></p> - -<p>The first fact shown by the preceding figures is the slightly greater -length of all the long bones in the midwestern and northwestern -groups as compared with those of the Bering Sea (midwestern and -southwestern). This means naturally that the people of the Seward -Peninsula and northward average somewhat taller in stature.</p> - -<p>The second evident fact is that the people of the Seward Peninsula -and the more northern groups (so far as represented in these collections) -show a slightly greater stature of all the bones than the -groups farther south, showing that they were both a somewhat taller -and somewhat sturdier people.</p> - -<p>The next fact of importance is the remarkable agreement in some -respects in the relative proportions of the main skeletal parts between -the people of the more southern and the more northern groups. -The males are more regular in this respect than the females. The -relative proportions of the humerus and again the tibia at their -middle are identical in the males of the southwestern and midwestern -groups and those farther northward; and the radio-humeral, humero-femoral, -and tibio-femoral indices are all very closely related. Why -there should be less agreement in these respects among the females -it is difficult to say; in all probability the series of specimens are not -sufficiently large.</p> - -<p>The next table presents data and some racial comparisons. Here -the western Eskimo are taken as a unit. They are seen to considerably -resemble the Yukon Indians, but somewhat less so other Indians -in the radio-humeral and tibio-femoral indices, and they resemble all -the Indians in the relative proportions of the femur at its middle. In -other respects there are somewhat more marked differences, especially -between the western Eskimo and the Indians in general. Some irregularities -in the Yukon series may be due to insufficiency of numbers.</p> - -<p>When compared with the bones of the whites and the negroes the -Eskimo and Indians separate themselves in many respects as a -distinct group, while the white and the negro bones are particularly -distinct through the greater relative thickness of the humerus and -tibia at their middle, and of the femur at its upper flattening; in -other words the Eskimo as well as the Indians are more platybrachic, -platymeric and platycnemic than the whites or the negroes.</p> - -<p>The basic relation of the Eskimo to the Indian bones is quite evident; -though the Eskimo, when compared to Indians outside of -Alaska, show a relatively shorter radius and tibia, indicating the -already discussed relative shortness of the forearm and leg.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_191_191" id="Footnote_191_191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_191_191"><span class="label">[191]</span></a> Principally Hooper Bay, Nunivak Island, Pastolik, and St. Lawrence Island.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_192_192" id="Footnote_192_192"></a><a href="#FNanchor_192_192"><span class="label">[192]</span></a> Mainly Shishmaref, Wales and Golovnin Bay.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_193_193" id="Footnote_193_193"></a><a href="#FNanchor_193_193"><span class="label">[193]</span></a> Including Point Hope.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_194_194" id="Footnote_194_194"></a><a href="#FNanchor_194_194"><span class="label">[194]</span></a> Number of radii insufficient.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_195_195" id="Footnote_195_195"></a><a href="#FNanchor_195_195"><span class="label">[195]</span></a> Number of femora insufficient.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span></p></div></div> - - -<h4><span class="smcap">Western Eskimo, Long Bones: Comparative Data</span></h4> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Western Eskimo, Long Bones: Comparative Data"> -<col></col> -<col span="7" width="11.1%"></col> - <tr> - <th colspan="0">MALES</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2"></th> - <th rowspan="2">Humerus: Index of shaft at the middle (all groups)</th> - <th rowspan="2">Radio-humeral index</th> - <th colspan="2">Femur</th> - <th rowspan="2">Humero-femoral index</th> - <th rowspan="2">Tibia: Index of shaft at middle</th> - <th rowspan="2">Tibio-femoral index</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Index of shaft at middle</th> - <th>Index of shaft at upper flattening</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><a name="FNanchor_196_196" id="FNanchor_196_196"></a><a href="#Footnote_196_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a>(243)</td> - <td class="tdr">(135)</td> - <td class="tdr">(255)</td> - <td class="tdr">(255)</td> - <td class="tdr">(243)</td> - <td class="tdr">(220)</td> - <td class="tdr">(220)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Western Eskimo</td> - <td class="tdr">75.1</td> - <td class="tdr">75</td> - <td class="tdr">86.2</td> - <td class="tdr">76.5</td> - <td class="tdr">72</td> - <td class="tdr">67.9</td> - <td class="tdr">80.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">(10)</td> - <td class="tdr">(10)</td> - <td class="tdr">(14)</td> - <td class="tdr">(14)</td> - <td class="tdr">(10)</td> - <td class="tdr">(14)</td> - <td class="tdr">(14)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Yukon Indians</td> - <td class="tdr">70</td> - <td class="tdr">75.7</td> - <td class="tdr">87.1</td> - <td class="tdr">70.7</td> - <td class="tdr">74.5</td> - <td class="tdr">66</td> - <td class="tdr">81.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">(448)</td> - <td class="tdr">(370)</td> - <td class="tdr">(902)</td> - <td class="tdr">(902)</td> - <td class="tdr">(378)</td> - <td class="tdr">(1259)</td> - <td class="tdr">(324)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Other Indians</td> - <td class="tdr">73.3</td> - <td class="tdr">77.7</td> - <td class="tdr">87.3</td> - <td class="tdr">74</td> - <td class="tdr">72.5</td> - <td class="tdr">66.1</td> - <td class="tdr">84.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">(1930)</td> - <td class="tdr">(1052)</td> - <td class="tdr">(207)</td> - <td class="tdr">(836)</td> - <td class="tdr">(800)</td> - <td class="tdr">(1400)</td> - <td class="tdr">(1216)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>United States whites (miscellaneous)</td> - <td class="tdr">83</td> - <td class="tdr">73.6</td> - <td class="tdr">97</td> - <td class="tdr">83</td> - <td class="tdr">72.5</td> - <td class="tdr">71.1</td> - <td class="tdr">82.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">(112)</td> - <td class="tdr">(74)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a name="FNanchor_197_197" id="FNanchor_197_197"></a><a href="#Footnote_197_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a>(14)</td> - <td class="tdr">(48)</td> - <td class="tdr">(50)</td> - <td class="tdr">(63)</td> - <td class="tdr">(68)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>United States negroes</td> - <td class="tdr">84.1</td> - <td class="tdr">77.3</td> - <td class="tdr">(91.2)</td> - <td class="tdr">86.8</td> - <td class="tdr">71.6</td> - <td class="tdr">73.9</td> - <td class="tdr">84.9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0">FEMALES</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">(213)</td> - <td class="tdr">(133)</td> - <td class="tdr">(153)</td> - <td class="tdr">(153)</td> - <td class="tdr">(153)</td> - <td class="tdr">(183)</td> - <td class="tdr">(183)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Western Eskimo</td> - <td class="tdr">74.1</td> - <td class="tdr">73.1</td> - <td class="tdr">90.2</td> - <td class="tdr">76.5</td> - <td class="tdr">71.8</td> - <td class="tdr">70</td> - <td class="tdr">80</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">(348)</td> - <td class="tdr">(200)</td> - <td class="tdr">(327)</td> - <td class="tdr">(248)</td> - <td class="tdr">(200)</td> - <td class="tdr">(910)</td> - <td class="tdr">(384)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Other Indians</td> - <td class="tdr">70.1</td> - <td class="tdr">76.6</td> - <td class="tdr">91.8</td> - <td class="tdr">70</td> - <td class="tdr">72.5</td> - <td class="tdr">70</td> - <td class="tdr">84.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">(770)</td> - <td class="tdr">(424)</td> - <td class="tdr">(100)</td> - <td class="tdr">(192)</td> - <td class="tdr">(290)</td> - <td class="tdr">(600)</td> - <td class="tdr">(520)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>United States whites (miscellaneous)</td> - <td class="tdr">79.3</td> - <td class="tdr">72.7</td> - <td class="tdr">97</td> - <td class="tdr">77.7</td> - <td class="tdr">71.6</td> - <td class="tdr">71.9</td> - <td class="tdr">81.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">(52)</td> - <td class="tdr">(34)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Footnote_197_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a>(17)</td> - <td class="tdr">(48)</td> - <td class="tdr">(52)</td> - <td class="tdr">(44)</td> - <td class="tdr">(48)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>United States negroes</td> - <td class="tdr">79.2</td> - <td class="tdr">77.2</td> - <td class="tdr">(100)</td> - <td class="tdr">81.1</td> - <td class="tdr">70.2</td> - <td class="tdr">75.9</td> - <td class="tdr">83.7</td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<div class="footnotes"><h5>FOOTNOTES:</h5> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_196_196" id="Footnote_196_196"></a><a href="#FNanchor_196_196"><span class="label">[196]</span></a> Bones of both sides.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_197_197" id="Footnote_197_197"></a><a href="#FNanchor_197_197"><span class="label">[197]</span></a> Numbers insufficient.</p></div></div> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Long Bones in Eskimo and Stature</span></h3> - -<p>One of the most desirable of possibilities in the anthropometry of -any people, but particularly in groups now extinct, is a correct estimation -of their stature. For this purpose the most useful aid has been -found in the long bones, and various essays have been made by Manouvrier, -Rollet, Topinard, Pearson, and others<a name="FNanchor_198_198" id="FNanchor_198_198"></a><a href="#Footnote_198_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a> at preparing tables -or arriving at methods that would enable the student to promptly -and satisfactorily obtain the stature as it was in life from the length -of the long bones. But all these essays were based on observations -on white people, and it has always been recognized that they could -not with equal confidence be applied to other racial groups. They -would in all probability be especially inapplicable to the Eskimo -with his relatively short forearms and legs; yet the possibility of -estimating the stature in many localities of the Eskimo territory, -where no living remain, would be of real value. Fortunately for this -purpose there are now some data on hand which make this possible.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span></p> - -<p>In 1910, in my Contributions to the Anthropology of the Central -and Smith Sound Eskimo, I was able to report both the stature and -the length of the long bones in two normally developed adult males -and one adult female from Smith Sound. To this it is now possible to -add larger though less direct data from the group of St. Lawrence -Island. We have the stature of many of the living from this place -and also the measurements of numerous long bones from the dead -of the same group. The relations of the two are given below, together -with corresponding data from Smith Sound. There is in general -such a striking agreement in the relative proportions that the latter -may, it would seem, be used henceforth for stature estimates also in -other parts of the Eskimo region.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_198_198" id="Footnote_198_198"></a><a href="#FNanchor_198_198"><span class="label">[198]</span></a> See section on Estimation of Stature from Parts of the Skeleton, in author's Anthropometry, -Wistar Inst., Philadelphia, 1920.</p></div></div> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Length of Principal Long Bones, and Stature in the Living, on the -St. Lawrence Island</span></h3> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Length of Principal Long Bones, and Stature in the Living, on the St. Lawrence Island"> -<col></col> -<col span="4" width="16.7%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="3"></th> - <th colspan="2">Male</th> - <th colspan="2">Female</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="2" class="bl">(63)<br />Mean stature: 163.3</th> - <th colspan="2">(48)<br /> Mean stature: 151.3</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Mean dimensions</th> - <th>Percental relation to stature<br />(S = 100)</th> - <th>Mean dimensions</th> - <th>Percental relation to stature<br />(S = 100)</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(58)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(49)</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Humerus</td> - <td class="tdc">30.41</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>18.6</em></td> - <td class="tdc">27.77</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>18.3</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(23)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(35)</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Radius</td> - <td class="tdc">23.03</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>14.1</em></td> - <td class="tdc">20.77</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>13.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(100)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(38)</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Femur</td> - <td class="tdc">32.54</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>27.8</em></td> - <td class="tdc">38.12</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>25.1</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(58)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">(50)</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tibia</td> - <td class="tdc">34.16</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>20.9</em></td> - <td class="tdc">31.13</td> - <td class="tdc"><em>20.5</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Long Bones vs. Stature in Eskimo of Smith Sound</span><a name="FNanchor_199_199" id="FNanchor_199_199"></a><a href="#Footnote_199_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a></h3> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Long Bones vs. Stature in Eskimo of Smith Sound"> -<col></col> -<col span="3" width="20%"></col> - <tr> - <th></th> - <th colspan="2" class="bl">Male</th> - <th>Female</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>a</em></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>b</em></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Stature</td> - <td class="tdr">155.0</td> - <td class="tdr">164.0</td> - <td class="tdr">146.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Humerus:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean length (of the two)</td> - <td class="tdr">28.95</td> - <td class="tdr">29.0</td> - <td class="tdr">26.55</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Percental relation to stature</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>18.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>17.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>18.1</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Radius:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean length</td> - <td class="tdr">21.3</td> - <td class="tdr">23.2</td> - <td class="tdr">19.85</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Percental relation to stature</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>13.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>14.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>13.5</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Femur:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean length</td> - <td class="tdr">39.1</td> - <td class="tdr">42.1</td> - <td class="tdr">38.55</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Percental relation to stature</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>25.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>25.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>26.3</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tibia:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean length</td> - <td class="tdr">30.25</td> - <td class="tdr">34.45</td> - <td class="tdr">30.9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Percental relation to stature</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>19.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>21.0</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>21.1</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_199_199" id="Footnote_199_199"></a><a href="#FNanchor_199_199"><span class="label">[199]</span></a> Hrdlička, A., Contribution to the anthropology of central and Smith Sound Eskimo. Anthrop. -Pap. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., <span class="smcap">V</span>, pt. 2, 280. New York, 1910.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span></p></div></div> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - - - - -<h2>A STRANGE GROUP OF ESKIMO NEAR POINT BARROW</h2> - - -<p>In 1917-1919, in the course of the John Wanamaker Expedition for -the University Museum, Philadelphia, W. B. Van Valin, with the -help of Charles Brower, the well-known local trader and collector, -excavated near Barrow a group of six tumuli, which proved in the -opinion of Van Valin to be so many old igloos, containing plentiful -cultural as well as skeletal material. The collections eventually -reached the museum, but due to lack of facilities they were in the -main never unpacked.</p> - -<p>I heard of this material first from Mr. Brower, with whom I sailed -in 1926 from Barrow southward, and later with Dr. J. Alden Mason -I saw the collection still in the original boxes, at the University -Museum. In April of this year the skeletal remains were transferred -to the Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, and after their transfer I -obtained the permission of Dr. Milton J. Greenman, director of the -Wistar Institute, to examine the material, which was of importance -to him in connection with his own collections from Barrow and southward. -A due acknowledgment for the privilege is hereby rendered -to both Doctor Greenman and Doctor Mason.</p> - -<p>The study proved one of unexpected and uncommon interest. The -material was found to consist of two separate lots. The first of these -consisted of a considerable number of brown colored, more or less -complete skeletons with skulls, proceeding from the "igloos"; while -the second lot comprised a series of whitened isolated skulls, without -other skeletal parts and mostly even without the component lower -jaws, gathered on the tundra near Barrow. At first sight, also, -the skulls of the two groups were seen to present important -differences.</p> - -<p>The "igloo" crania, while plainly pure Eskimo, proved to be of a -decidedly exceptional nature for this location. The skulls, in brief, -were not of the general western Eskimo type, but reminded at once -strongly of the skulls from Greenland and Labrador. And they were -exceptionally uniform, showing that they belonged to a definite and -distinct Eskimo group.</p> - -<p>After writing of this to Doctor Mason, he kindly sent me a copy of -the notes and observations on the discovery of the material by W. B. -Van Valin, who was in charge of the excavation. The detailed notes -will soon be published by Doctor Mason. The main information they -convey is as follows:</p> - -<p>The excavations by Van Valin date from 1918-19. They were made -in six large "heaps," approximately 8 miles southwest of Barrow and -about 1,000 yards back from the beach on the tundra. Two of the -heaps were on the northern and four on the southern side of a ravine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span> -or draw formed by a drain flowing from inland to the sea. The -Eskimo at Barrow knew nothing about these remains or their people.</p> - -<p>Each of the heaps inclosed what in the excavator's opinion was an -"igloo" made of driftwood and earth; and all contained evidently -undisturbed human skeletons. The total number of bodies of all -ages was counted as 83, and they ranged from infants to old people. -There were many bird and other skins (for covers and clothing), -and numerous utensils. The hair on the bodies was in general -"black as a raven." Most of the bodies lay on "beds" of moss or -"ground willows," or rough-hewn boards. There was no indication -of any violence or sudden death. The bodies at places were in three -levels, one above the other; but there was but moderate uniformity in -the orientation of the bodies. There were found with the burials no -traces of dogs (though there were some sled runners), and no -metal, glass, pipes, labrets, nets, soapstone lamps or dog harness; but -there were bows and arrows, bolas, and ordinary pottery. The cultural -objects, Doctor Mason wrote me, resemble in a smaller measure -those of the older Bering Sea, to a larger extent those of the old -northern or "Thule" culture. There were some jadeite axes, indicating -a direct or indirect contact with Kotzebue Sound and the -Kobuk River.</p> - -<p>Some of the bearskin coverings were "as bright and silvery" as -the day the bear was killed (Van Valin); and the frozen bodies were -evidently in a state of preservation approaching that of natural -mummies.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding indications to the contrary, Van Valin reached -the opinion that these remains were not those of regular burials, -though offering no other definite hypothesis.</p> - -<p>Desiring additional information about this highly interesting find, -I wrote to Mr. Brower, who assisted at the excavations, and received -the following answer:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>These mounds are from 5 to 8 miles south of the Barrow village (Utkiavik). -The largest that were opened were the farthest south, and seemed more like -raised lumps on the land than ruins. No doubt that is the reason no one had -bothered them.</p> - -<p>The Eskimo have no traditions of these people. In fact they did not even -suspect the mounds contained human remains until Mr. Van Valin started to -investigate them.</p> - -<p>While Van Valin thought they might be houses, I have always thought they -were burial mounds, as there seemed no family to have been together at the -time of death as often has happened. When whole families have died from some -epidemic, then the man and wife are together under their sleeping skins. In -these mounds each party was wrapped separate, either in polar bear or musk -ox skins; none were wrapped in deer skins. If male, all his hunting implements -were at his side, and if a female her working tools were with her, as -scrapers, dishes of wood, and stone knives. The men had their bows, arrows,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span> -spears, and often a heavy club, for what purpose unless used in fighting I -could not make out. At the head of each person was a small receptacle, made -of whalebone, and in it or alongside was a long wing bone that had been used -as a drinking tube. In some cases there seemed to be the remains of food in -the platters, but that was impossible to identify. Most of the bodies were laid -on the ground, a few had the remains of scrub willow under them, while only -in two or three cases had there been driftwood planks under the bodies; these -were crudely hewn with their old stone adzes.</p> - -<p>There seems to have been some sort of driftwood houses over these bodies -at some time, but they decayed and have fallen on the remains, which were in -some cases embedded in the ice. Often before the frame had broken down -earth must have accumulated and covered the bodies. In these cases the flesh -has the consistency of a fine meal. While with those in the ice in some cases -part of the flesh still remained. In both cases when exposed to the air they -rapidly disintegrated, leaving nothing except the bones. By measurements they -must have been a larger race than the present people.</p> - -<p>When your letter reached here I at once started making inquiries as to what -mounds were still intact; and I find that as far as known only two of the -larger ones have not been opened. The Eskimo have been opening the mounds -ever since they were found, taking from them all the hunting implements -and other material and selling them aboard the ships for curios. It seems a -shame that all this should be lost to science, and if no one takes an interest in -these places in a year or two they will all be gone.</p> - -<p>I have again made inquiries as to what the present Eskimo think of these -people, but they tell me they have no tradition regarding them and that they -do not know if they were their ancestors or not. In fact, they are ignorant -of where they came from or when they died.</p> - -<p>To date I do not know of any whaling implement being found with these -old people, neither is any of the framework of these mounds made from the -bones of whales. In some of the implements ivory has been used. The mounds -farthest from the shore were about 400 yards, those that remain are closer to -the beach. Some of the smaller ones are on the banks of small streams but -never very far from shore. Undoubtedly, however, they were at one time -considerably farther from the sea, but the sea is every year claiming some -of this land, especially where the banks are high along the beach. There the -beach is narrow and during a gale the waves wash out the land at its base. -This is about all that I can tell you of these people. All credit for finding -these mounds belongs to Van Valin.</p> - -<p> -Yours truly,</p> -<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Chas. D. Brower</span>.<br /> -</p> -</div> - -<p><em>The material.</em>—The collection as received at the Wistar Institute -was notable for its general dark color, enhanced in many of the -specimens by dark to black remains of the tissues. There was no -mineralization and but little bone decay, though the bones were -somewhat brittle.</p> - -<p>There is a scarcity of children and adolescents; there are in fact -only two skulls of subjects less than 20 years of age in the collection.</p> - -<p>The skulls and bones that remain show no violence.</p> - -<p>The remains show a complete freedom from syphilis or other constitutional -disease; the only pathological condition present in some -of the bones being arthritis. This speaks strongly for their preced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span>ing -the contact with whites. The surface series, though smaller, -shows three syphilitic skulls. An additional fact of interest is the -absence in both the igloo and the surface series of all marks of -scurvy. Such marks are fairly common farther southward. Finally, -none of the skulls are deformed, either in life or posthumously.</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Anthropological Observations and Measurements on the -Collections</span></h3> - -<p><em>Age.</em>—The first observations made on the igloo material were those -as to the individual ages of the bodies. Such observations are necessarily -rough, yet within sufficiently broad limits fairly reliable. The -criteria are principally the condition of the teeth and that of the -sutures. The possible error in such estimates is, experience has -shown, as a rule well within 10 years in the older and within 5 years -in the young adults or subadults.</p> - -<p>One of the objects of these observations on the "igloo" material -was to get some further light on whether the remains were those -of a group that perished of an epidemic, famine, or some other sudden -agency, or whether they represented just burials. The age distribution -of the dead would differ considerably in the two cases.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Estimated Ages at Death"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Estimated Ages at Death</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="4" width="16.7%"></col> - <tr> - <th colspan="0">IGLOO MATERIAL</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th></th> - <th>20 to 25</th> - <th>30 to 40</th> - <th>45 to 55</th> - <th>Above 55</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>Per cent</em></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>Per cent</em></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>Per cent</em></td> - <td class="tdc"><em>Per cent</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Males (27)</td> - <td class="tdr">11</td> - <td class="tdr">15</td> - <td class="tdr">41</td> - <td class="tdr">33</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Females (25)</td> - <td class="tdr">16</td> - <td class="tdr">24</td> - <td class="tdr">44</td> - <td class="tdr">16</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mean, both sexes</td> - <td class="tdr">13.5</td> - <td class="tdr">19</td> - <td class="tdr">42.5</td> - <td class="tdr">25</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="0">SURFACE SERIES</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Males (21)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="tdr">48</td> - <td class="tdr">48</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Females (14)</td> - <td class="tdr">29</td> - <td class="tdr">36</td> - <td class="tdr">36</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mean, both sexes</td> - <td class="tdr">11.5</td> - <td class="tdr">17</td> - <td class="tdr">43</td> - <td class="tdr">29.5</td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The above table shows the data obtained, with those on the surface -material from the same collection and known to be that of ordinary -burials.</p> - -<p>The results do not agree with the composition of the living population -but are apparently near to what might be expected in burials. -Taking the sexes apart, the series from the surface shows a somewhat -more favorable condition for the men, but worse for the women. -Taking the materials, however, regardless of sex, the proportions of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span> -ages in the earlier igloos and in the late surface burials are practically -identical. This points strongly against the idea of the igloo remains -being those of people who either died there of starvation, of an epidemic, -of being smothered, or of some other sudden affliction, and to -their having been just ordinary burials.</p> - -<p>To arrive at something still more definite, if possible, I appealed -on the one hand to the United States Census and on the other to -Doctor Dublin of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Co., New York, -for data as to the distribution of ages among the dead, using the same -age-categories as in the case of the "igloo" material. The data furnished -by Miss E. Foudray through Dr. Wm. H. Davis, Chief Statistician -of the Bureau of the Census, are particularly to the point. -They are as follows:</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" -summary="Per Cent Age Distribution of Indian Population in Alaska Aged -20 Years and Over, According to the Census of 1900"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Per Cent Age Distribution of Indian - Population in Alaska Aged 20 Years and Over, According to the - Census of 1900</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="4" width="16.7%"></col> - <tr> - <th></th> - <th>20 to 24</th> - <th>25 to 44</th> - <th>45 to 54</th> - <th>55 and over</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Males</td> - <td class="tdr">17.8</td> - <td class="tdr">54.2</td> - <td class="tdr">15.9</td> - <td class="tdr">12.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Females</td> - <td class="tdr">19.4</td> - <td class="tdr">53.3</td> - <td class="tdr">15.9</td> - <td class="tdr">11.4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Both sexes</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>18.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>15.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>11.8</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" -summary="Per Cent Age Distribution at Death (Estimated) of Indian -Population of Alaska in 1900, Who, Had They Lived, Would Have Appeared -in the Census of 1910 at Ages 20 Years and Over"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Per Cent Age Distribution at Death - (Estimated) of Indian Population of Alaska in 1900, Who, Had They - Lived, Would Have Appeared in the Census of 1910 at Ages 20 Years - and Over</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="4" width="16.7%"></col> - <tr> - <th></th> - <th>20 to 24</th> - <th>25 to 44</th> - <th>45 to 54</th> - <th>55 and over</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Males</td> - <td class="tdr">13.2</td> - <td class="tdr">43.9</td> - <td class="tdr">21.3</td> - <td class="tdr">21.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Females</td> - <td class="tdr">11.9</td> - <td class="tdr">47.0</td> - <td class="tdr">19.5</td> - <td class="tdr">21.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Both sexes</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>12.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>45.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>20.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>21.6</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>There is a remarkable agreement of these figures with those -obtained on both the Igloo and the Barrow surface burial material, -except that for the two middle age series the figures are reversed. -This may mean an error in the two respective estimates on the Indians, -or it may mean that for these two ages the conditions among -the Eskimo concerned were better than they were in 1900 among the -Alaska Indians.</p> - -<p>All the above, together with the details on the orderly treatment -of the bodies, and the absence of such conditions as were encountered -in the dead villages on St. Lawrence Island (Hooper, Nelson), inclines -one to the conclusion that the Igloo remains, however exceptional -the method for the Eskimo, were just burials.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span></p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Physical Characteristics</span></h3> - -<p><em>The skull.</em>—The most noteworthy feature about the Igloo remains -is the marked distinctiveness of the skull. This strikes the observer -at the first sight of the specimens, and the impression is only strengthened -by detail examination. The skulls are very narrow, long, and -high. They differ plainly from anything except occasional individual -specimens, either about Barrow or along the rest of the west -coast of Alaska, with the possible exception of a few groups of -Seward Peninsula. They recall strongly the crania of Labrador and -south Greenland. It is the Labrador-Greenland type throughout, -men, women, and even the two children. It is a group outside of the -range of local variation. It is a strange Eskimo group, either developed -here in former times as it developed in Greenland and -Labrador, and possibly the Seward Peninsula, or one that had come -here from places where such type had already been realized.</p> - -<p>The following data (the individual measurements will appear in a -later number of the Catalogue of Crania) show the differences between -the Igloo and the surface material, the latter both of the Van -Valin and of the author's collections, and the valuable Stefánsson -material, now at the American Museum, from Point Barrow. They -need but little comment. They show clearly on one hand the wholly -Eskimo nature of the Igloo skulls, and on the other their distinctness -from those of the later burials, both of Barrow and Point Barrow. -The vault especially is characteristic—narrow, long, high, more -or less keel-shaped. The face in general is much more alike in the -three groups; nevertheless its absolute height and breadth in the -Igloo series are slightly smaller than in the other two, and there -are minor differences in the orbits and the palate.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Eskimo Crania, Barrow and Vicinity"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Eskimo Crania, Barrow and Vicinity</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="6" width="12.5%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2"></th> - <th colspan="2">Old Igloos</th> - <th colspan="2">Surface burials, Barrow</th> - <th colspan="2">Surface burials, Point Barrow</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Males<br />(27)</th> - <th>Females<br />(25)</th> - <th>Males<br />(37)</th> - <th>Females<br />(36)</th> - <th>Males<br />(49)</th> - <th>Females<br />(52)</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Vault:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">19.25</td> - <td class="tdr">18.11</td> - <td class="tdr">18.90</td> - <td class="tdr">17.77</td> - <td class="tdr">18.74</td> - <td class="tdr">17.91</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">13.30</td> - <td class="tdr">12.72</td> - <td class="tdr">13.73</td> - <td class="tdr">13.23</td> - <td class="tdr">13.84</td> - <td class="tdr">13.32</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Basion-bregma height</td> - <td class="tdr">14.02</td> - <td class="tdr">13.21</td> - <td class="tdr">13.78</td> - <td class="tdr">12.97</td> - <td class="tdr">13.78</td> - <td class="tdr">13.08</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Cranial index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>69.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>70.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>72.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>73.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height-breadth index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>105.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>104.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>99.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>98.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>99.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>97.8</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean height index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>82.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Cranial module</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>15.52</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>14.72</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>15.46</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>14.66</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>15.44</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>14.75</em><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Face:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height: menton- nasion</td> - <td class="tdr">12.4</td> - <td class="tdr">11.21</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height: upper alveolar point-nasion</td> - <td class="tdr">7.7</td> - <td class="tdr">7.01</td> - <td class="tdr">7.89</td> - <td class="tdr">7.18</td> - <td class="tdr">7.86</td> - <td class="tdr">7.22</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth: Diameter bizygomatic maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">14.2</td> - <td class="tdr">13.08</td> - <td class="tdr">14.34</td> - <td class="tdr">13.16</td> - <td class="tdr">14.26</td> - <td class="tdr">13.06</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Facial index, total</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.8</em></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Facial index, upper</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.3</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Basion-nasion</td> - <td class="tdr">10.70</td> - <td class="tdr">10.18</td> - <td class="tdr">10.61</td> - <td class="tdr">10.01</td> - <td class="tdr">10.54</td> - <td class="tdr">9.94</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Basion-subnasal point</td> - <td class="tdr">9.33</td> - <td class="tdr">9.12</td> - <td class="tdr">9.31</td> - <td class="tdr">8.86</td> - <td class="tdr">9.23</td> - <td class="tdr">8.73</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Basion-upper alveolar point</td> - <td class="tdr">10.45</td> - <td class="tdr">10.13</td> - <td class="tdr">10.39</td> - <td class="tdr">9.85</td> - <td class="tdr">10.39</td> - <td class="tdr">9.77</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Lower jaw: Height at symphysis</td> - <td class="tdr">3.72</td> - <td class="tdr">3.38</td> - <td class="tdr">3.95</td> - <td class="tdr">3.27</td> - <td class="tdr">3.9</td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Orbits:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean height</td> - <td class="tdr">3.62</td> - <td class="tdr">3.47</td> - <td class="tdr">3.60</td> - <td class="tdr">3.61</td> - <td class="tdr">3.61</td> - <td class="tdr">3.55</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">3.97</td> - <td class="tdr">4.01</td> - <td class="tdr">4.04</td> - <td class="tdr">3.88</td> - <td class="tdr">4.02</td> - <td class="tdr">3.90</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>93</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>89.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nose:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height</td> - <td class="tdr">5.45</td> - <td class="tdr">5.02</td> - <td class="tdr">5.52</td> - <td class="tdr">5.19</td> - <td class="tdr">5.48</td> - <td class="tdr">5.11</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">2.37</td> - <td class="tdr">2.23</td> - <td class="tdr">2.39</td> - <td class="tdr">2.32</td> - <td class="tdr">2.31</td> - <td class="tdr">2.29</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>43.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>44.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>43.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>44.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>42.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>44.9</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Alveolar arch:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length</td> - <td class="tdr">5.57</td> - <td class="tdr">5.34</td> - <td class="tdr">5.59</td> - <td class="tdr">5.22</td> - <td class="tdr">5.63</td> - <td class="tdr">5.25</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">6.68</td> - <td class="tdr">6.29</td> - <td class="tdr">6.45</td> - <td class="tdr">6.13</td> - <td class="tdr">6.47</td> - <td class="tdr">6.01</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>83.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.4</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>Let us now contrast the Igloo skulls with those of southern Greenland -from the collection of the United States National Museum.<a name="FNanchor_200_200" id="FNanchor_200_200"></a><a href="#Footnote_200_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a> -The size of the series is such that they are nicely comparable. And -to the two is added a small recent series (A. H., 1926, and Collins, -1928), from Golovnin Bay and Sledge Island (Seward Peninsula).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Main Measurements of the Barrow Igloo and of Greenland Eskimo Crania"> - <caption><span class="smcap">Main Measurements of the Barrow "Igloo" and of Greenland Eskimo Crania</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="6" width="12.5%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2"></th> - <th colspan="3">Males</th> - <th colspan="3">Females</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Golovnin Bay and Sledge Island</th> - <th>Igloos</th> - <th>Greenland</th> - <th>Golovnin Bay and Sledge Island</th> - <th>Igloos</th> - <th>Greenland</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Number of specimens</td> - <td class="tdc">(8)</td> - <td class="tdc">(27)</td> - <td class="tdc">(49)</td> - <td class="tdc">(13)</td> - <td class="tdc">(25)</td> - <td class="tdc">(52)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Vault:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length</td> - <td class="tdr">19.20</td> - <td class="tdr">19.25</td> - <td class="tdr">18.97</td> - <td class="tdr">18.03</td> - <td class="tdr">18.11</td> - <td class="tdr">18.04</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">13.70</td> - <td class="tdr">13.30</td> - <td class="tdr">13.61</td> - <td class="tdr">13.36</td> - <td class="tdr">12.72</td> - <td class="tdr">12.98</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height</td> - <td class="tdr">14.08</td> - <td class="tdr">14.02</td> - <td class="tdr">13.95</td> - <td class="tdr">13.21</td> - <td class="tdr">13.21</td> - <td class="tdr">13.12</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Cranial index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>71.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>69.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>71.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>70.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>72</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height-breadth index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>102.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>105.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>102.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>97.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>104.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>101</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean height index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.6</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Module</td> - <td class="tdr">15.66</td> - <td class="tdr">15.52</td> - <td class="tdr">15.51</td> - <td class="tdr">14.87</td> - <td class="tdr">14.72</td> - <td class="tdr">14.72</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Face:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Menton-nasion height</td> - <td class="tdr">12.70</td> - <td class="tdr">12.39</td> - <td class="tdr">12.38</td> - <td class="tdr">11.98</td> - <td class="tdr">11.21</td> - <td class="tdr">11.52</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Alveolar point-nasion height</td> - <td class="tdr">7.90</td> - <td class="tdr">7.71</td> - <td class="tdr">7.61</td> - <td class="tdr">7.35</td> - <td class="tdr">7.01</td> - <td class="tdr">7.05</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">14.29</td> - <td class="tdr">14.16</td> - <td class="tdr">14.05</td> - <td class="tdr">13.25</td> - <td class="tdr">13.08</td> - <td class="tdr">13.03</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Facial index, total</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>90.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>85.7</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Facial index, upper</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>55.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>53.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>54.1</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Orbits:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean height</td> - <td class="tdr">3.65</td> - <td class="tdr">3.62</td> - <td class="tdr">3.64</td> - <td class="tdr">3.58</td> - <td class="tdr">3.47</td> - <td class="tdr">3.55</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">4.11</td> - <td class="tdr">3.97</td> - <td class="tdr">3.99</td> - <td class="tdr">3.92</td> - <td class="tdr">4.01</td> - <td class="tdr">3.85</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mean index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>91</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>92.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nose:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Height</td> - <td class="tdr">5.58</td> - <td class="tdr">5.45</td> - <td class="tdr">5.24</td> - <td class="tdr">5.15</td> - <td class="tdr">5.02</td> - <td class="tdr">4.99</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Breadth</td> - <td class="tdr">2.35</td> - <td class="tdr">2.37</td> - <td class="tdr">2.27</td> - <td class="tdr">2.29</td> - <td class="tdr">2.23</td> - <td class="tdr">2.20</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>42.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>43.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>43.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>44.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>44.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>44</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>A comparison of the Igloo and Greenland series shows striking -similarities; hardly any two geographically separate groups originating -from a single source could reasonably be expected to come nearer. -The Igloo skulls are even narrower in the vault than the Greenlanders, -which means so much farther away from the southwestern, -midwestern, and Asiatic Eskimo; and offer a few other differences, -but all these are of small moment, not affecting the essential relations -of the two groups.</p> - -<p>A comparison of the Igloo and Greenland series with the material -from Golovnin Bay and Sledge Island shows also numerous similarities -but with them some rather material differences. The differences -are especially marked in the females, whose characteristics approach<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span> -more those of the midwestern Eskimo, which suggests that an important -proportion of them may have been derived from the latter. -However, even the males tend to differ. Both sexes show absolutely -a somewhat broader skull than that of the northerners; in both sexes -the skull, as seen from the cranial module, is slightly larger in the -Seward Peninsula series than in either of the other groups; but the -principal differences are seen in the face, which in the Seward -Peninsula group is perceptibly larger and especially higher than it -is in either the Igloo or the Greenland series. The orbits also in the -southerners are larger and the nose is slightly higher.</p> - -<p>On the whole it may be said that the resemblance of the Igloo -crania to those of Greenland is closer than that to either or both of -the series of Golovnin Bay and Sledge Island. This suggests the -possibility that a similar though not quite the same differentiation in -the skull may have taken place both in the Seward Peninsula and in -the far north; though the possibility of a derivation of any one of -the three groups from any of the others can not be discarded. So -far as the skull is concerned a definite solution of the identity of the -Igloo material would have to be, it would seem, postponed to the -future.</p> - -<p>The used data on the Greenland Eskimo skulls agree closely with -those of Fürst and Hansen (Crania Groenlandica, fol., 1915), and -also with the much fewer and scattered records of Virchow, Davis, -Duckworth, Oetteking, Pittard, etc.,<a name="FNanchor_201_201" id="FNanchor_201_201"></a><a href="#Footnote_201_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a> on Eskimo skulls from -Labrador.</p> - -<p><em>Stature and strength.</em>—The bones of the skeleton of the Igloo series -show the people to have been of good height and of above medium -Eskimo robustness. The principal measurements are given below, -together with the corresponding ones on the western and the Yukon -Eskimo. The material is not all that could be wished for, either in -numbers or representation, but it will suffice for rough comparisons. -Regrettably nothing for comparison is available as yet from Greenland -or other parts of the far northeast where we meet with long, -narrow, and high skulls.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="border" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" -summary="The Long Bones of the Igloo People and Other Eskimo Bones of -the Two Sides Together"> - <caption><span class="smcap">The Long Bones of the Igloo People and - Other Eskimo Bones of the Two Sides Together</span></caption> -<col></col> -<col span="6" width="12.5%"></col> - <tr> - <th rowspan="2"></th> - <th colspan="3">Males</th> - <th colspan="3">Females</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class="bl">Igloo</th> - <th>Seward Peninsula and northwestern Eskimo</th> - <th>Yukon Eskimo</th> - <th>Igloo</th> - <th>Seward Peninsula and northwestern Eskimo</th> - <th>Yukon Eskimo</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Humerus:</td> - <td class="tdc">(35)</td> - <td class="tdc">(100)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(27)</td> - <td class="tdc">(83)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length-maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">31.17</td> - <td class="tdr">31.17</td> - <td class="tdr">32.10</td> - <td class="tdr">28.41</td> - <td class="tdr">28.82</td> - <td class="tdr">28.31</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>At middle:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Diameter, major</td> - <td class="tdr">2.47</td> - <td class="tdr">2.46</td> - <td class="tdr">2.33</td> - <td class="tdr">2.11</td> - <td class="tdr">2.15</td> - <td class="tdr">2.07</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Diameter, minor</td> - <td class="tdr">1.86</td> - <td class="tdr">1.85</td> - <td class="tdr">1.80</td> - <td class="tdr">1.60</td> - <td class="tdr">1.62</td> - <td class="tdr">1.51</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>78.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>76.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>73.2</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Radius:</td> - <td class="tdc">(31)</td> - <td class="tdc">(37)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - <td class="tdc">(17)</td> - <td class="tdc">(24)</td> - <td class="tdc">(16)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length, maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">23.53</td> - <td class="tdr">23.50</td> - <td class="tdr">23.44</td> - <td class="tdr">20.98</td> - <td class="tdr">21.35</td> - <td class="tdr">20.18</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Radio-humeral index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>73</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>73.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>71.3</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Femur:</td> - <td class="tdc">(33)</td> - <td class="tdc">(60)</td> - <td class="tdc">(22)</td> - <td class="tdc">(25)</td> - <td class="tdc">(31)</td> - <td class="tdc">(27)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length, bicondylar</td> - <td class="tdr">43.86</td> - <td class="tdr">43.46</td> - <td class="tdr">43.78</td> - <td class="tdr">40.31</td> - <td class="tdr">40.44</td> - <td class="tdr">41.11</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Humero-femoral index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>71.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>71.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>73</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>70.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>71.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>69</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>At middle:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Diameter, antero-posterior</td> - <td class="tdr">3.37</td> - <td class="tdr">3.21</td> - <td class="tdr">3.05</td> - <td class="tdr">2.88</td> - <td class="tdr">2.88</td> - <td class="tdr">2.74</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Diameter, lateral</td> - <td class="tdr">2.90</td> - <td class="tdr">2.72</td> - <td class="tdr">2.67</td> - <td class="tdr">2.51</td> - <td class="tdr">2.56</td> - <td class="tdr">2.44</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>86.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>84.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.6</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>87.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.9</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>88.8</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>At upper flattening:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Diameter, maximum</td> - <td class="tdr">3.51</td> - <td class="tdr">3.32</td> - <td class="tdr">3.31</td> - <td class="tdr">3.09</td> - <td class="tdr">3.06</td> - <td class="tdr">3.02</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Diameter, minimum</td> - <td class="tdr">2.71</td> - <td class="tdr">2.59</td> - <td class="tdr">2.57</td> - <td class="tdr">2.30</td> - <td class="tdr">2.40</td> - <td class="tdr">2.27</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>78.1</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>77.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>74.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>78.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>75.4</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tibia:</td> - <td class="tdc">(29)</td> - <td class="tdc">(79)</td> - <td class="tdc">(22)</td> - <td class="tdc">(24)</td> - <td class="tdc">(36)</td> - <td class="tdc">(27)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Length in position</td> - <td class="tdr">35.60</td> - <td class="tdr">35.52</td> - <td class="tdr">35.14</td> - <td class="tdr">31.94</td> - <td class="tdr">32.50</td> - <td class="tdr">32.01</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tibio-femoral index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>81.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>80.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>79.2</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>80.4</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>79.8</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>At middle:</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Diameter, antero-posterior</td> - <td class="tdr">3.26</td> - <td class="tdr">3.19</td> - <td class="tdr">3.16</td> - <td class="tdr">2.80</td> - <td class="tdr">2.75</td> - <td class="tdr">2.61</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Diameter, lateral</td> - <td class="tdr">2.20</td> - <td class="tdr">2.16</td> - <td class="tdr">2.15</td> - <td class="tdr">1.87</td> - <td class="tdr">1.92</td> - <td class="tdr">1.90</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Index</td> - <td class="tdr"><em>67.5</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>67.8</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>68.3</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>66.7</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>70</em></td> - <td class="tdr"><em>72.8</em></td> - </tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The above table shows some remarkable and interesting conditions.</p> - -<p>The first of the most apparent facts is that the type of the Yukon -Eskimo stands well apart from both of the other series in a number -of essentials, showing that it is not very nearly related and that it -may be left out of consideration.</p> - -<p>On the other hand the long bones from the Seward Peninsula and -the northwest coast, especially those of the males, show very closely to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span> -those of the Igloo group. The male bones of the two series are almost -identical, except that the Igloo bones are somewhat stronger.</p> - -<p>Such close resemblances can hardly be fortuitous. They speak -strongly for the basic identity of the old Igloo people with those of at -least parts of the Seward Peninsula and parts of the northwest -coast. If we take the bones from the Seward Peninsula alone (see -p. <a href="#Page_314">314</a>) it is found that these resemblances still hold.</p> - -<p>The evidence thus shown constitutes a strong indication that the -old Igloo group may be inherently related to that part of the Eskimo -population of Seward Peninsula which shows the long and narrow -skull; but the data offer no light on the questions as to whether the -Igloo group may have been derived from that of the Seward Peninsula -or vice versa, and on the true relation of either or both of these to -the Eskimo of Baffin Land, Greenland, and Labrador.</p> - -<p>To definitely decide the problem of the Igloo group there are needed -data on the long bones of the northeasterners; in the second place it -is highly desirable to know how large and how ancient was the group -of the narrow-headed people on the Seward Peninsula and Sledge -Island; and in the third place it is important that the cultural history -of the two groups be known as thoroughly as possible. All of which -are tasks for the future.</p> - -<p>The possibility of a development of the Igloo cranial type on the -northwest coast itself can not be denied, in view of the facts that -all its characteristics are within the ranges of normal individual -variations on that coast, and that similar developments have evidently -been realized elsewhere. But in such a case it would be -logical to expect, locally or not far away, some ancestry of the group, -and the group would not probably be limited to a little spot and a -few scores of persons. Had the group developed incidentally from -a physically exceptional family, it could not be expected to have -been anywhere nearly as uniform as the group under consideration. -The high degree of uniformity of the Igloo contingent speaks for -a well accomplished differentiation; and as there is no other trace of -this in the conditions near Barrow, and there are no ruins denoting -a long occupation, the evidence is against a local development and -for an immigration of the group. A coming of a small-sized contingent -from the Seward Peninsula would be easy; its coming from -Greenland or Labrador or Baffin Land would surely be difficult, but -not impossible to the Eskimo, who is known to have been a traveler.</p> - -<p>Whatever may be the eventual solution of the Igloo problem, it is -plain that the presence of that group near Barrow, together with the -presence of evidently closely related groups in a part of the Seward -Peninsula and again in the far east of the Eskimo region, offers much -food for thought and investigation. The most plausible possibility<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span> -would seem to be a relatively late (within the present millennium) -coming of a physically already well differentiated small group, from -either the south or the east, with a relatively short settlement at the -Barrow site, some local multiplication in numbers, and then extinction -partly through disease, partly perhaps through absorption into -a stronger and newer contingent derived from the western people.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_200_200" id="Footnote_200_200"></a><a href="#FNanchor_200_200"><span class="label">[200]</span></a> The measurements of this series have been published by the writer in the first part -of the Catalogue of Human Crania in the U. S. National Museum (Proc. U.S.N.M., -1924, <span class="smcap">LXIII</span>, art. 12, p. 26), but as a few errors crept in, the whole series was remeasured -by the writer.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_201_201" id="Footnote_201_201"></a><a href="#FNanchor_201_201"><span class="label">[201]</span></a> For more exact references see writer's Contribution to the Anthropology of Central -and Smith Sound Eskimo, Anthrop. Papers Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., N. Y., 1910, <span class="smcap">V</span>, pt. 2; -and the bibliography at the end of this volume.</p></div></div> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - - - - -<h2>ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO</h2> - - -<p>All anthropological research on the Eskimo has naturally one ultimate -object, which is the clearing up of the problems of the origin -and antiquity of this highly interesting human strain; and it may -well be asked what further light on these problems has been shed -by the studies here dealt with. To show this with a proper perspective -it will be requisite to briefly review the previous ideas on these -problems.</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Origin of the Name "Eskimo"</span></h3> - -<p>According to Charlevoix (Nouv. France, III, 178), the term -"Eskimo" is a corruption of the Abenaki Indian Esquimantsic or -the Ojibway Ashkimeg, both terms meaning "those who eat raw -flesh." In the words of Captain Hooper,<a name="FNanchor_202_202" id="FNanchor_202_202"></a><a href="#Footnote_202_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a> "Neither the origin nor -meaning of the name 'Esquimaux,' or Eskimo, as it is now spelled, -is known. According to Doctor Rink, the name 'Esquimaux' was -first given to the inhabitants of Southern Labrador as a term of derision -by the inhabitants of Northern Labrador, and means raw-fish -eater. Dall says the appellation 'Eskimo' is derived from a word -indicating a sorcerer or shaman in the language of the northern -tribes."</p> - -<p>For Brinton,<a name="FNanchor_203_203" id="FNanchor_203_203"></a><a href="#Footnote_203_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a> as for Charlevoix, the term "Eskimo" is derived -from the Algonkin "Eskimantick," "eaters of raw flesh." According -to Chamberlain,<a name="FNanchor_204_204" id="FNanchor_204_204"></a><a href="#Footnote_204_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a> Sir John Richardson (Arctic Searching Exp., -p. 203) attempts to derive it from the French words ceux qui miaux -(miaulent), referring to their clamorous outcries on the approach -of a ship. Petitot (Chambers Encyc., Ed. 1880, IV, p. 165, article -Esquimaux) says that at the present day the Crees, of Lake Athabasca, -call them Wis-Kimowok (from Wiyas flesh, aski raw, and -mowew to eat), and also Ayiskimiwok (i. e., those who act in secret). -In Labrador the English sometimes call the Eskimo "Huskies" (loc. -cit., p. ix. 7. Chambers Encyc., article Esquimaux. See Hind. Trav. -in Int. of Labr., loc. cit., and Petitot loc. cit., p. ix.) and Suckemos -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span>(Richardson, Arctic Searching Expedition, p. 202) and Dall (Proc. -Am. Ass. Adv. Sci., 1869, p. 266) says that in Alaska the Tinneh -Indians call them "Uskeeme" (sorcerers).</p> - -<p>The Eskimo call themselves "Innuit," said to be the plural of -in-nu, the man, hence "the people"; the same being as a rule the -meaning of the name by which the various tribes of the Indian call -themselves.</p> - -<p>On the Asiatic coast the Eskimo is known as the "Yuit," "Onkilon," -"Chouklouks," or "Namollo"; while in the east appears the -name "Karalit."</p> - -<p>None of this has thrown any light on the origin of the Eskimo.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_202_202" id="Footnote_202_202"></a><a href="#FNanchor_202_202"><span class="label">[202]</span></a> Hooper, C. L., Cruise of the U. S. revenue steamer <em>Corwin</em>, 1881. Washington, -1884, p. 99.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_203_203" id="Footnote_203_203"></a><a href="#FNanchor_203_203"><span class="label">[203]</span></a> Brinton, D. C., Myths of the New World, 1868, p. 23. New York.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_204_204" id="Footnote_204_204"></a><a href="#FNanchor_204_204"><span class="label">[204]</span></a> Chamberlain, A. F., The Eskimo race and language. Proc. Canadian Inst., 3d ser., -vol. <span class="smcap">VI</span>, pp. 267-268. Toronto, 1889.</p></div></div> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Opinions By Former and Living Students</span></h3> - -<p><em>Origin in Asia.</em>—Many opinions on the origin of the Eskimo have -been expressed by different authors. Among the earliest of these -were those of missionaries, such as Crantz (1779), and of the early -explorers, such as Steller, v. Wrangell, Lütke and others. They were -based on the general aspect of the Eskimo, particularly that of his -physiognomy; and seeing that in many features he resembled most -the mongoloid peoples of Asia they attached him to these, which -meant the conclusion that he was of Asiatic derivation. Quite soon, -however, there began to appear also the opinions of students of man. -The first of these was that of Blumenbach, as expressed in his Inaugural -Thesis of 1781. In this thesis, more particularly its second -edition, he classifies the Eskimo expressly as a part of the Caucasian -or white race. But after obtaining an Eskimo skull and an Eskimo -body he changes his opinion and in 1795-1806 he comes out with a -definite classification of the Eskimo as a member of the Mongolians; -and a similar conclusion, with its implied or expressed consequence -of a migration from Asia to America, has been reached since, mainly -on somatological but also in part on linguistic and cultural bases, -by a large number of authors, including Lawrence, Morton, Pickering, -Latham, Flower, Peschel, Topinard, Brinton, Virchow (1877), -Quatrefages and Hamy (1882), Thalbitzer, Bogoras and numerous -others. With all of this, the conception of the Asiatic origin of the -Eskimo has not passed the status of a strong probability, lacking a -final conclusive demonstration.</p> - -<p>A chronological list of the more noteworthy individual statements -is given at the end of this section.</p> - -<p><em>Origin in America.</em>—Since the earlier parts of the nineteenth -century the opinion began to be expressed that the Eskimo is not of -Asiatic but of American origin. Already in 1847 Prichard tells us -that there are those who "consider them as belonging to the American -family," and he plainly favors this conception.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span></p> - -<p>Between 1873 and 1890 the American origin of the Eskimo is repeatedly -asserted by Rink, who for 16 winters and 22 summers lived -with the eastern Eskimo, first as a scientific explorer and later as -royal inspector or governor of the southern Danish settlements in -Greenland (preface by R. Brown to Rink's Tales and Traditions, -1875). In this opinion, briefly, the Eskimo were derived from the -inland Indian tribes of Alaska; without referring to the origin of the -Indian.</p> - -<p>Rink's authoritative opinion was followed or paralleled by Daniel -Wilson (1876), Grote, Krause, Ray, Keane, Brown, and others. In -1887 Chamberlain expresses the somewhat startling additional theory -that it was not the Eskimo who was derived from the Mongolians -but the Mongolians from the Eskimo or their American ancestors. -And in 1901-1910 Boas comes to the conclusion that the Eskimo -probably originated from the inland tribes (Indian?) in the Hudson -Bay region.</p> - -<p>An interesting case in these connections is that of Rudolf Virchow. -In 1877 (see details at the end of this section) he expresses the belief -in the Eskimo coming from Asia; in 1878 he seems to be uncertain; -and in 1885 he comes out in support of the opinion that the original -home of the Eskimo may have been in the western part of the Hudson -Bay region. Among later students of the problem, Steensby<a name="FNanchor_205_205" id="FNanchor_205_205"></a><a href="#Footnote_205_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a> and -Birket-Smith<a name="FNanchor_206_206" id="FNanchor_206_206"></a><a href="#Footnote_206_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a> incline on cultural grounds to this hypothesis.</p> - -<p>Wissler, not explicit as to the Eskimo in 1917 (The American Indian), -in 1918 (Archæology of the Polar Eskimo) finds, after -Steensby, the most acceptable theory of the Eskimo origin to be that -"they expanded from a parent group in the Arctic Archipelago"; -but in 1922, in the second edition of his The American Indian, he -repeats word for word his opinion of 1917, which appears to favor -an Asiatic derivation.</p> - -<p><em>Origin in Europe—Identity with Upper Palaeolithic man.</em>—About -the sixties of last century growing discoveries in France of implements, -etc., of later palaeolithic man brought about a realization that -not a few of these implements and other objects, particularly those -of the Magdalenian period, resembled like implements and objects -of the Eskimo; from which, together with the considerations of the -similarities of fauna (reindeer, musk-ox, etc.), and of climate, there -was but a step to a more or less definite identification of the Magdalenians -and Solutreans with the Eskimo. In 1870 Pruner-Bey<a name="FNanchor_207_207" id="FNanchor_207_207"></a><a href="#Footnote_207_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a> -claims a similarity between Solutrean and Eskimo skulls. In 1883 -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span>these views received the influential support of De Mortillet (see -details). In 1889 the theory receives strong support from the characteristics -of the Chancelade (Magdalenian) skeleton which Testut -declares are in many respects almost identical with those of the -Eskimo. And within the next few years the notion is upheld by -Hamy and Hervé. It remains sympathetic as late as 1913 to Marcellin -Boule, and finds most recent champions in Morin and Sollas.</p> - -<p>However, there were also many who opposed the effort at a direct -connection of the upper palaeolithic man of Europe and the Eskimo. -Among these were Geikie, Flower, Rae, Daniel Wilson, Robert -Brown, Déchelette, Laloy. At present the theory is supported -mainly by Morin and Sollas, opposed by Steensby, Burkitt, Keith, -MacCurdy, and others; while most students of the Eskimo ignore -the question.</p> - -<p><em>Other hypotheses.</em>—Besides the preceding ideas which attribute -the origin of the Eskimo to Asia, or America, or old Europe, there -were also others that failed to receive a wider support; and there -were authors and students who remained undecided or were too -cautious to definitely formulate their beliefs. Some of the former -as well as the latter deserve brief mention.</p> - -<p>Gallatin, in 1836, mainly on linguistic grounds, recognizes the -fundamental relation of the Eskimo and the Indian and seems inclined -to the American origin of the former, but makes no clear statement -to that effect. For Meigs (1857), who probably followed an -earlier opinion, the Eskimo came "from the islands of the Polar -Sea." C. C. Abbott (1876) saw Eskimo in the early inhabitants of -the Delaware Valley. To Grote (1875, 1877), the Eskimo were "the -existing representatives of the man of the American glacial epoch"; -they were modified Pliocene men. Nordenskiöld (1885) follows -closely Meigs and Grote; the Eskimo may be "the true autochthones -of the Polar regions," having inhabited them from before the glacial -age, during more genial climate. Keane (1886) believed the Eskimo -developed from the Aleuts. For De Quatrefages (1887), man originated -in the Tertiary in northern Asia, spread from there, and some -of his contingents may have reached America and been the ancestors -of the Eskimo; the western tribes of the latter being a mixture of the -Eskimo with Asiatic brachycephals. Nansen (1893) avoids a discussion -of the origin of the Eskimo; and the same caution is observable -more or less in most modern writers.</p> - -<p>The following chart of the more noteworthy opinions regarding -the origin of the Eskimo will show at a glance the diversity of the -views and their lack of conclusiveness.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_205_205" id="Footnote_205_205"></a><a href="#FNanchor_205_205"><span class="label">[205]</span></a> Contr. Ethn. and Anthropogeog. Polar Eskimos, Med. om Grönl., <span class="smcap">XXXIV</span>, Copenhagen, -1910; also, Origin of the Eskimo culture, <em>ibid.</em>, 1916, 204-218.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_206_206" id="Footnote_206_206"></a><a href="#FNanchor_206_206"><span class="label">[206]</span></a> Internat. Congr. Americanists, New York, 1928.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_207_207" id="Footnote_207_207"></a><a href="#FNanchor_207_207"><span class="label">[207]</span></a> In Ferry, H. de, Le Maconnais préhistorique, etc., 1 vol, Macon, 1870, with a section -by Pruner-Bey.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span></p></div></div> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Theories as to the Origin of the Eskimo</span></h3> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Theories as to the Origin of the Eskimo"> - <tr> - <td>Asiatic:</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Steller</td> - <td class="tdr">1743</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Cranz</td> - <td class="tdr">1779</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Blumenbach</td> - <td class="tdr">1795</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Lawrence</td> - <td class="tdr">1822</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Von Wrangell</td> - <td class="tdr">1839</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Morton</td> - <td class="tdr">1839</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">McDonald</td> - <td class="tdr">1841</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Latham</td> - <td class="tdr">1850</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Pickering</td> - <td class="tdr">1854</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Wilson</td> - <td class="tdr">1863</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Rae</td> - <td class="tdr">1865, 1877-78, 1886</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Markham</td> - <td class="tdr">1865, 1875</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Whymper</td> - <td class="tdr">1869</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Peschel</td> - <td class="tdr">1876</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Kuhl</td> - <td class="tdr">1876</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Petitot</td> - <td class="tdr">1876</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Topinard</td> - <td class="tdr">1877</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Virchow</td> - <td class="tdr">1877</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Dall</td> - <td class="tdr">1877</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Palmer</td> - <td class="tdr">1879</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Henry</td> - <td class="tdr">1879</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Dawson</td> - <td class="tdr">1880</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Quatrefages</td> - <td class="tdr">1882, 1887</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Elliot</td> - <td class="tdr">1886</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Flower</td> - <td class="tdr">1886</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Brown</td> - <td class="tdr">1888</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Ratzel</td> - <td class="tdr">1897</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Hrdlička</td> - <td class="tdr">1910, 1924</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Thalbitzer</td> - <td class="tdr">1914</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Fürst and Hansen</td> - <td class="tdr">1915</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Wissler</td> - <td class="tdr">1917</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Mathiassen</td> - <td class="tdr">1921</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Bogoras</td> - <td class="tdr">1924, 1927</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>American:</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Prichard</td> - <td class="tdr">1847</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Rink</td> - <td class="tdr">1873, 1888</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Holmes</td> - <td class="tdr">1873</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Wilson</td> - <td class="tdr">1876</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Grote</td> - <td class="tdr">1877</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Krause</td> - <td class="tdr">1883</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Ray</td> - <td class="tdr">1885</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Virchow</td> - <td class="tdr">1885</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Keane</td> - <td class="tdr">1886, 1887</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Brown</td> - <td class="tdr">1888</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Murdoch</td> - <td class="tdr">1888</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Chamberlain</td> - <td class="tdr">1889</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Quatrefages</td> - <td class="tdr">1889</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Boas</td> - <td class="tdr">1907, 1910</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Wissler</td> - <td class="tdr">1917</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>European or connected with Europe:</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Lartet and Christy</td> - <td class="tdr">1864</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Dawkins</td> - <td class="tdr">1866</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Hervé</td> - <td class="tdr">1870</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Abbott</td> - <td class="tdr">1876</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">De Mortillet</td> - <td class="tdr">1883</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Testut</td> - <td class="tdr">1889</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Boule</td> - <td class="tdr">1913</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Sollas</td> - <td class="tdr">1924, 1927</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Opposed to Europe:</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Brown.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Burkitt.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Déchelette.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Flower.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Geikie.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Keith.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Laloy.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">MacCurdy.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Rae.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Steensby.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Wilson.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Hrdlička (1910).</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Miscellaneous and indefinite:</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Gallatin</td> - <td class="tdr">1836</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Richardson</td> - <td class="tdr">1852</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Meigs</td> - <td class="tdr">1857</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Grote</td> - <td class="tdr">1875</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Abbott</td> - <td class="tdr">1876</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Nordenskiöld</td> - <td class="tdr">1885</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Keane</td> - <td class="tdr">1886</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Quatrefages</td> - <td class="tdr">1887</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Nansen</td> - <td class="tdr">1893</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Tarenetzky</td> - <td class="tdr">1900</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Nadaillac</td> - <td class="tdr">1902</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdp">Jenness</td> - <td class="tdr">1928</td> - </tr> -</table></div> - - -<h4>ASIATICS</h4> - -<p>Steller, 1743:<a name="FNanchor_208_208" id="FNanchor_208_208"></a><a href="#Footnote_208_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a> Several references which indicate that Steller regarded -the Eskimo as related to the northeastern Asiatics.</p> - -<p>Cranz, 1779:<a name="FNanchor_209_209" id="FNanchor_209_209"></a><a href="#Footnote_209_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a> Points out the resemblances of the Eskimo (and -their product) to the Kalmuks, Yakuts, Tungus, and Kamchadales, -and derives them from northeastern Asia (forced by other peoples -through Tartary to the farthest northeast of Asia and then to -America).</p> - -<p>Blumenbach, 1781:<a name="FNanchor_210_210" id="FNanchor_210_210"></a><a href="#Footnote_210_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a> The first of the five varieties of mankind -"and the largest, which is also the primeval one, embraces the whole -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span>of Europe, including the Lapps, * * * and lastly, in America, -the Greenlanders and the Esquimaux, for I see in these people a -wonderful difference from the other inhabitants of America; and, -unless I am altogether deceived, I think they must be derived from -the Finns."</p> - -<p>But in his "Beiträge zur Naturgeschichte," 2d ed., Göttingen, -1806, Blumenbach classes both the Lapps and the Eskimo with the -Mongolians (Anthr. Treatises of Blumenbach, Lond., 1865, p. 304): -"The remaining Asiatics, except the Malays, with the Lapps in -Europe, and the Esquimaux in the north of America, from Bering -Strait to Labrador and Greenland. They are for the most part of -a wheaten yellow, with scanty, straight, black hair, and have flat -faces with laterally projecting cheek bones, and narrowly slit -eyelids."</p> - -<p>Von Wrangell, 1839:<a name="FNanchor_211_211" id="FNanchor_211_211"></a><a href="#Footnote_211_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a> "* * * ihre sclavische Abhängigkeit -von den Rennthier-Tschuktschen beweist, dass die letztern spätere -Einwanderer und Eroberer des Landes sind, welches sie jetzt inne -haben."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Lawrence, 1822:<a name="FNanchor_212_212" id="FNanchor_212_212"></a><a href="#Footnote_212_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a> "The Mongolian variety * * * includes the -numerous more or less rude, and in great part nomadic tribes, which -occupy central and northern Asia; * * * and the tribes of Eskimaux -extending over the northern parts of America, from Bering -Strait to the extremity of Greenland. * * *</p> - -<p>"The Eskimaux are formed on the Mongolian model, although -they inhabit countries so different from the abodes of the original -tribes of central Asia."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Latham, 1850:<a name="FNanchor_213_213" id="FNanchor_213_213"></a><a href="#Footnote_213_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a> "Our only choice lies between the doctrine that -makes the American nations to have originated from one or more -separate pairs of progenitors, and the doctrine that either Bering -Strait or the line of islands between Kamskatka and the Peninsula -of Alaska, was the highway between the two worlds—from Asia to -America, or vice versa. * * * Against America, and in favor of -Asia being the birthplace of the human race—its unity being assumed—I -know many valid reasons. * * * Physically, the -Eskimo is a Mongol and Asiatic. Philologically, he is American."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>1851:<a name="FNanchor_214_214" id="FNanchor_214_214"></a><a href="#Footnote_214_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a> "Just as the Eskimo graduate in the American Indian, so -do they pass into the populations of northeastern Asia—language -being the instrument which the present writer has more especially -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span>employed in their affiliation. From the Peninsula of Alaska to the -Aleutian chain of islands, and from the Aleutian chain to Kamskatka -is the probable course of the migration from Asia to America—traced -backwards, i. e., from the goal to the starting point, from the circumference -to the center."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Pickering, 1854:<a name="FNanchor_215_215" id="FNanchor_215_215"></a><a href="#Footnote_215_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a> "The Arctic Regions seem exclusively possessed -by the Mongolian race."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Wilson, 1863:<a name="FNanchor_216_216" id="FNanchor_216_216"></a><a href="#Footnote_216_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a> "The same mode of comparison which confirms -the ethnical affinities between the Esquimaux and their insular or -Asiatic congeners, reveals, in some respects, analogies rather than -contrast between the dolichocephalic Indian crania and those of the -hyperborean race."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Markham, 1856:<a name="FNanchor_217_217" id="FNanchor_217_217"></a><a href="#Footnote_217_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a> "The interesting question now arises—whence -came these Greenland Esquimaux, these Innuit, or men, as they call -themselves, and as I think they ought to be called by us? They are -not descendants of the Skroellings of the opposite American coast, -as has already been seen. It is clear that they can not have come -from the eastward, over the ocean which intervenes between Lapland -and Greenland, for no Esquimaux traces have ever been found on -Spitzbergen, Iceland, or Jan Mayen. We look at them and see at -once that they have no kinship with the red race of America; but a -glance suffices to convince us of their relationship with the northern -tribes of Siberia. It is in Asia, then, that we must seek their origin."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Whymper, 1869:<a name="FNanchor_218_218" id="FNanchor_218_218"></a><a href="#Footnote_218_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a> "That the coast natives of northern Alaska are -but Americanized Tchuktchis from Asia, I myself have no doubt."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Peschel, 1876:<a name="FNanchor_219_219" id="FNanchor_219_219"></a><a href="#Footnote_219_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a> "The identity of their language with that of the -Namollo, their skill on the sea, their domestication of the dog, their -use of the sledge, the Mongolian type of their faces, their capability -for higher civilization, are sufficient reasons for answering the question, -whether a migration took place from Asia to America or conversely -from America to Asia, in favor of the former alternative; -yet such a migration from Asia by way of Bering Strait must have -occurred at a much later period than the first colonization of the -New World from the Old one * * *.</p> - -<p>"It is not likely that the Eskimo spread from America to Asia, -because of all Americans they have preserved the greatest resemblance -in racial characters to the Mongolian nations of the Old -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span>World, and in historical times their migrations have always taken -place in an easterly direction."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Kuhl, 1876:<a name="FNanchor_220_220" id="FNanchor_220_220"></a><a href="#Footnote_220_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a> "Bilden so die Eskimo in der Sprache das Bindeglied -zwischen America und Asien, so ist dies noch viel mehr der -Fall in Bezug auf ihren Typus: dieser stimmt bei den Polarvölkern -diesseits und jenseits der Beringsstrasse 'zum Verwechseln' überein, -wie denn auch ein beständiger Verkehr hinüber und herüber -stattfindet. Hierin liegt der unwiderstehliche Beweis, dass diese -Polarvölker wenigstens von einer Herkunft sind und dass eine -Einwanderung von einem Continente in das andere hier stattgefunden -hat. Haben wir nun die Wahl, entweder die Eskimo aus -Asien nach America, oder die Tschuktschen, die dort auf der -Asiatischen Seite wohnen, aus America einwandern zu lassen—wofür -sich auch Stimmen erhoben haben—so werden wir keinen Augenblick -zweifelhaft sein: eine spätere Rückwanderung eines einzelnen -Stammes in das Land der Väter wäre immerhin denkbar; aber wer -über die Tschuktschen hinweg die Sache in's Grosse sieht, kann für -die Urzeit nur eine Einwanderung von Asien nach America, nicht -umgekehrt, annehmen, und hierfür finden wir ausser den allgemeinen -Gründen, welche uns der Verlauf unserer Untersuchungen nahe -gebracht, noch zwei besondere Beweise bei den Eskimo: einmal -können wir die Spur ihrer Wanderungen historisch verfolgen, und -diese wären nach Osten gerichtet, sodass sie Grönland, mit dem -heute ihr Name so eng verbunden ist, zuletzt erreichten (S. 209); -sodann haben die Eskimo allein unter den Americanischen Stämmen -das Mongolische Gepräge ganz unversehrt bewahrt—dies bliebe -unerklärlich, wenn sie Americanische Autochthonen wären * * * -Einen deutlichen Hinweis auf die Urheimath Asien enthalten auch -die Wanderungen der Stämme durch das Americanische Continent, -soweit wir dieselben verfolgen können."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Dall, 1877:<a name="FNanchor_221_221" id="FNanchor_221_221"></a><a href="#Footnote_221_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a> "I see, therefore, no reason for disputing the hypothesis -that America was peopled from Asia originally, and that there -were successive waves of emigration.</p> - -<p>"The northern route was clearly by way of Bering -Strait; * * * Linguistically, no ultimate distinction can be drawn between -the American Innuit and the American Indian. * * * I -shall assume, what is also assumed by Mr. Markham, that the original -progenitors of the Innuit were in a very primitive, low, and -barbarous condition. * * *</p> - -<p>"I assume, then, that the larger part of North America may have -been peopled by way of Bering Strait. * * * I believe that this -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span>emigration was vastly more ancient than Mr. Markham supposes, and -that it took place before the present characteristics of races and -tribes of North American savages were developed. * * *</p> - -<p>"My own impression agrees with that of Doctor Rink that the -Innuit were once inhabitants of the interior of America; that they -were forced to the west and north by the pressure of tribes of Indians -from the south; that they spread into the Aleutian region and -northwest coast generally, and possibly simultaneously to the north; -that their journeying was originally tentative, and that they finally -settled in those regions which afforded them subsistence, perhaps -after passing through the greater portion of Arctic America, leaving -their traces as they went in many places unfit for permanent settlement; -that after the more inviting regions were occupied, the pressure -from Indians and still unsatisfied tribes of their own stock, induced -still further emigration, and finally peopled Greenland and the -shores of northeastern Siberia; but that these latter movements were, -on the whole, much more modern, and more local than the original -exodus, and took place after the race characteristics and language -were tolerably well matured. * * *</p> - -<p>"I conclude that at present the Asiatic Innuit range from Koliuchin -Bay to the eastward and south to Anadyr Gulf. * * *</p> - -<p>"To the reflux of the great wave of emigration, which no doubt -took place at a very early period, we may owe the numerous deserted -huts reported by all explorers on the north coasts of Asia, as far east -as the mouth of the Indigirka. At one time, I thought the migration -to Asia had taken place within a few centuries, but subsequent study -and reflection has convinced me that this could not have been the -case. No doubt successive parties crossed at different times, and some -of these may have been comparatively modern."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Rae, 1878:<a name="FNanchor_222_222" id="FNanchor_222_222"></a><a href="#Footnote_222_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a> "All the Eskimos with whom I have communicated -on the subject, state that they originally came very long ago from the -west, or setting sun, and that in doing so they crossed a sea separating -the two great lands.</p> - -<p>"That these people (the Eskimos) have been driven from their -own country in the northern parts of Asia by some unknown pressure -of circumstances, and obliged to extend themselves along the whole -northern coast line of America and Greenland, appears to be likely, -and that the route followed after crossing Bering Strait was of necessity -along the coast eastward, being hemmed in by hostile Indians on -the south, and driven forward by pressure from the west * * *.</p> - -<p>"Such were my opinions 12 years ago, and their correctness has -been rather confirmed than otherwise, by all that we have since -learned. * * *"</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span></p> -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>1887:<a name="FNanchor_223_223" id="FNanchor_223_223"></a><a href="#Footnote_223_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a> "Professor Flower said that his investigation into the -physical characteristics of the Eskimos led him to agree entirely -with Doctor Rae's conclusions derived from other sources. He looked -upon the Eskimos as a branch of the North Asiatic Mongols (of -which the Japanese may be taken as a familiar example), who in -their wandering across the American continent in the eastward direction, -isolated almost as perfectly as an island population would be, -hemmed in on one side by the eternal polar ice, and on the other by -hostile tribes of American Indians, with whom they rarely, if ever, -mingled, have gradually developed special modifications of the Mongolian -type, which increase in intensity from west to east, and are -seen in their greatest perfection in the inhabitants of Greenland. -* * *</p> - -<p>"Doctor Rae also thinks that the Eskimos came from across Bering -Strait from Asia. Their traditions and many other things point in -that direction, and they are in no way related to the ancient cave -men of Europe."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Dawson, 1880:<a name="FNanchor_224_224" id="FNanchor_224_224"></a><a href="#Footnote_224_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a> Eskimo: "On the eastern side of the continent -these poor people have always been separated by a marked line from -their Indian neighbors on the south, and have been regarded by them -with the most bitter hostility. On the west, however, they pass into -the Eastern Siberians, on the one hand, and into the West-coast Indians, -on the other, both by language and physical characters. They -and the northern tribes at least of West-coast Indians, belong in all -probability to a wave of population spreading from Bering Strait."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Quatrefages et Hamy; 1882:<a name="FNanchor_225_225" id="FNanchor_225_225"></a><a href="#Footnote_225_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a> "Les Esquimaux ou Eskimos, qui se -nomment eux-mêmes Innuits, constituent dans la série mongolique -un groupe exceptionnel, qui diffère à maints égards de ceux qui -viennent de passer sous nos yeux, mais dont l'origine asiatique n'est -plus aujourd'hui contestée et dont les affinités occidentales frappent -de plus en plus les observateurs spéciaux."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Brown, 1888:<a name="FNanchor_226_226" id="FNanchor_226_226"></a><a href="#Footnote_226_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a> "It is only when we come to the region beginning -at Cape Shelagskii and extending to the East Cape of Siberia that -we find any traces of them. This tract is now held by the coast -Tchukchi, but it was not always their home, for they expelled from -this dreary stretch the Onkilon or Eskimo race who took refuge in -or near less attractive quarters between the East Cape and Anadyrskii -Bay."</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span></p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Ratzel, 1897:<a name="FNanchor_227_227" id="FNanchor_227_227"></a><a href="#Footnote_227_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a> "If we ask whence they came, Asia seems most -obvious, since between the American and Asiatic coasts of Bering -Straits, intercourse has always been ventured upon even in the rudest -skin-boats. * * *</p> - -<p>"Ethnographic indications also point predominantly to the -west. * * *</p> - -<p>"But we have an equal right to suppose a migration from America -into Asia."</p> - -<p>Thalbitzer, 1914:<a name="FNanchor_228_228" id="FNanchor_228_228"></a><a href="#Footnote_228_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a> "I still believe (like Rink), that the common -Eskimo mother-group has at one time lived to the west at the Bering -Strait, coming originally from the coasts of Siberia."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Fürst and Hansen, 1915:<a name="FNanchor_229_229" id="FNanchor_229_229"></a><a href="#Footnote_229_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a> "We are to some extent acquainted -with the diffusion of the Eskimos over the earth, and know that they -could not have come directly from Europe and that Greenland was -populated from the west, one may naturally conclude, as has often -been concluded before, that their descent is from the west, in other -words from Asia, though the time at which such an immigration took -place and the racial type which they then possessed must remain -still more hypothetical than immigration itself."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Mathiassen, 1927:<a name="FNanchor_230_230" id="FNanchor_230_230"></a><a href="#Footnote_230_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a> "We must therefore imagine that the Thule -culture, with all its peculiar whaling culture, has originated somewhere -in the western regions, in an Arctic area, where whales were -plentiful and wood abundant, and we are involuntarily led toward the -coasts of Alaska and East Siberia north of Bering Strait, the regions -to which we have time after time had to turn in order to find parallels -to types from the Central Eskimo finds. There all the conditions -have been present for the originating of such a culture, and from -there it has spread eastward right to Greenland, seeking everywhere -to adapt itself to the local geographical conditions. And it can -hardly have been a culture wave alone; it must have been a migration. -The similarities between east and west are in many directions -so detailed that it is difficult to explain them without assuming an -actual migration of people from the one place to the other."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Jochelson, 1928:<a name="FNanchor_231_231" id="FNanchor_231_231"></a><a href="#Footnote_231_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a> "In discussing the question of former Eskimo -occupation of the Siberian Arctic coast a very remote period of time -is not meant, so that in this sense the assumed recent Eskimo migrations -from Asia into America and vice versa do not interfere with the -general theory of the Asiatic origin of the American population."</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h5>FOOTNOTES:</h5> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_208_208" id="Footnote_208_208"></a><a href="#FNanchor_208_208"><span class="label">[208]</span></a> Steller, G. W., Journal, 1743. Transl. and repr. in Bering's Voyages, Am. Geog. -Soc. Research, ser. I, 2 vols., vol. <span class="smcap">II</span>, p. 9 et seq. New York, 1922.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_209_209" id="Footnote_209_209"></a><a href="#FNanchor_209_209"><span class="label">[209]</span></a> Cranz, David, Historie von Grönland, Frankf. and Leipz., 1779, 300-301.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_210_210" id="Footnote_210_210"></a><a href="#FNanchor_210_210"><span class="label">[210]</span></a> Blumenbach, J. F., Be generis humani varietate nativa. 2d ed., Goettingen, 1781; -in The anthropological treatises of J. F. Blumenbach, Anthr. Soc. Lond., 1865, p. 99, -ftn. 4.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_211_211" id="Footnote_211_211"></a><a href="#FNanchor_211_211"><span class="label">[211]</span></a> Von Wrangell, in Baer and Helmersen's "Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Russischen -Reiches," pp. 58-59. St. Petersburg, 1839.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_212_212" id="Footnote_212_212"></a><a href="#FNanchor_212_212"><span class="label">[212]</span></a> Lawrence, W., Lectures on physiology, zoology, and the natural history of man, -pp. 511-513. London, 1822.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_213_213" id="Footnote_213_213"></a><a href="#FNanchor_213_213"><span class="label">[213]</span></a> Latham, Robert Gordon, The Natural history of the varieties of man, pp. 289-291. -London, 1850.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_214_214" id="Footnote_214_214"></a><a href="#FNanchor_214_214"><span class="label">[214]</span></a> Latham, Robert Gordon, Man and his migrations, p. 124. London, 1851.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_215_215" id="Footnote_215_215"></a><a href="#FNanchor_215_215"><span class="label">[215]</span></a> Pickering, Charles, The races of man, p. 7. London, 1854.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_216_216" id="Footnote_216_216"></a><a href="#FNanchor_216_216"><span class="label">[216]</span></a> Wilson, Daniel, Physical ethnology. Smithsonian Report for 1862, p. 262. Washington, -1863.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_217_217" id="Footnote_217_217"></a><a href="#FNanchor_217_217"><span class="label">[217]</span></a> Markham, C. R., On the origin and migrations of the Greenland Esquimaux. J. -Roy. Geog. Soc., <span class="smcap">XXXV</span>, p. 90. London, 1865.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_218_218" id="Footnote_218_218"></a><a href="#FNanchor_218_218"><span class="label">[218]</span></a> Whymper, Frederick, Travels in Alaska and on the Yukon, p. 214. New York, 1869.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_219_219" id="Footnote_219_219"></a><a href="#FNanchor_219_219"><span class="label">[219]</span></a> Peschel, Oscar, The races of man, pp. 396-97. New York, 1876.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_220_220" id="Footnote_220_220"></a><a href="#FNanchor_220_220"><span class="label">[220]</span></a> Kuhl, Dr. Joseph, Die Anfänge des Menschengeschlechts und sein einheitlicher -Ursprung, pp. 315-16. Leipzig, 1876.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_221_221" id="Footnote_221_221"></a><a href="#FNanchor_221_221"><span class="label">[221]</span></a> Dall, W. H., Tribes of the extreme northwest. U. S. Geog. and Geol. Survey, <span class="smcap">I</span>, -pp. 93-105. Washington, 1877.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_222_222" id="Footnote_222_222"></a><a href="#FNanchor_222_222"><span class="label">[222]</span></a> Rae, John, Eskimo Migrations. Jour. Anthrop. Inst. Great Britain and Ireland, <span class="smcap">VII</span>, -pp. 130-131. London, 1878.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_223_223" id="Footnote_223_223"></a><a href="#FNanchor_223_223"><span class="label">[223]</span></a> Rae, John, Remarks on the Natives of British North America. Jour. Anthrop. Inst. -Great Britain and Ireland, <span class="smcap">XVI</span>, p. 200. London, 1887.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_224_224" id="Footnote_224_224"></a><a href="#FNanchor_224_224"><span class="label">[224]</span></a> Dawson, J. W., Fossil men and their modern representatives, pp. 48-49. Montreal, -1880.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_225_225" id="Footnote_225_225"></a><a href="#FNanchor_225_225"><span class="label">[225]</span></a> Quatrefages, A. de, et Hamy, E. T., Crania ethnica. Les crânes des races humaines, -p. 437. Paris, 1882.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_226_226" id="Footnote_226_226"></a><a href="#FNanchor_226_226"><span class="label">[226]</span></a> Brown, Robert, The origin of the Eskimo. The Archaeological Review, <span class="smcap">I</span>, No. 4, pp. -238-289. London, 1888.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_227_227" id="Footnote_227_227"></a><a href="#FNanchor_227_227"><span class="label">[227]</span></a> Ratzel, Friedrich, The history of mankind, II, pp. 107-108. London, 1897.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_228_228" id="Footnote_228_228"></a><a href="#FNanchor_228_228"><span class="label">[228]</span></a> Thalbitzer, W., The Ammassalik Eskimo. Meddelelser om Grønland, vol. <span class="smcap">XXXIX</span>, pt. -1, p. 717. Copenhagen, 1914.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_229_229" id="Footnote_229_229"></a><a href="#FNanchor_229_229"><span class="label">[229]</span></a> Fürst, Carl M., and Fr. C. C. Hansen, Crania Groenlandica, p. 228. Copenhagen, -1915.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_230_230" id="Footnote_230_230"></a><a href="#FNanchor_230_230"><span class="label">[230]</span></a> Mathiassen, Therkel, Archaeology of the central Eskimos. Report of the Fifth -Thule Expedition 1921-1924, p. 184. Copenhagen, 1927.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_231_231" id="Footnote_231_231"></a><a href="#FNanchor_231_231"><span class="label">[231]</span></a> Jochelson, W., Peoples of Asiatic Russia. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 60. New York, -1928.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span></p></div></div> - - -<h4>AMERICAN</h4> - -<p>Prichard, 1847:<a name="FNanchor_232_232" id="FNanchor_232_232"></a><a href="#Footnote_232_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a> "A question has been raised, to what department -of mankind the Esquimaux belong. Some think them a race allied -to the northern Asiatics, and even go so far as to connect them with -the Mongolians. Others, with greater probability, consider them as -belonging to the American family. All the American writers eminent -for their researches in the glottology of the New World, among whom -I shall mention Mr. du Ponceau and Mr. Gallatin, are unanimous in -the opinion that the Esquimaux belong to the same great department -of nations as the Hunting Tribes of North America."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Rink, 1890:<a name="FNanchor_233_233" id="FNanchor_233_233"></a><a href="#Footnote_233_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a> "* * * kann es wohl keinem Zweifel unterworfen -sein, dass die Eskimos den sogenannten Nordwest-Indianern an der -Küste Alaskas und weiter südwärts am nächsten stehen. Es dürfte -deshalb der Untersuchung werth sein, ob sie nicht auch wirklich als -das äusserste nördliche Glied dieser Völkerstämme zu betrachten -wären. Man hat angenommen, dass diese letzteren, dem Laufe der -Flüsse folgend, vom Binnenlande zur Küste gekommen sind. Sie -lernten dann, theilweise und um so mehr wohl, je weiter nach Norden -sich ihren Lebensunterhalt aus dem Meere zu verschaffen. Die -Eskimos endigten damit, sich ausschliesslich der Jagd auf dem Meere -zu widmen, und erlangten dadurch ihre merkwürdige Fähigkeit, allen -Hindernissen des arktischen Klimas Trotz bieten zu können. -Betrachten wir demnach, wie man vermeintlich noch jetzt die Spuren -der Veränderungen beobachten kann, denen sie nach und nach unterworfen -worden sind, indem sie sich, unserer Vermuthung zufolge, -nach Norden und Osten verbreiteten."</p> - -<p>Rink, 1873:<a name="FNanchor_234_234" id="FNanchor_234_234"></a><a href="#Footnote_234_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a> "As far as can now be judged, the Eskimo appear to -have been the last wave of an aboriginal American race, which has -spread over the continent from more genial regions, following principally -the rivers and watercourses, and continually yielding to the -pressure of the tribes behind them, until at last they have peopled -the seacoast. * * *</p> - -<p>"The author explains some of the most common traditions from -Greenland as simply mythical narrations of events occurring in the -far northwest corner of America, thereby pointing to the great -probability of that district having been the original home of the -nation, in which they first assumed the peculiarities of their present -culture."</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span></p> - -<p>Captain Pim also expressed his belief that "the Eskimo were pure -American aborigines, and not of Asiatic descent."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Rink, 1875:<a name="FNanchor_235_235" id="FNanchor_235_235"></a><a href="#Footnote_235_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a> "If we suppose the physical conditions and the -climate of the Eskimo regions not to have altered in any remarkable -way since they were first inhabited, their inhabitants of course must -originally have come from more southern latitudes, * * * it appears -evident on many grounds that such a southern tribe has not been -a coast people migrating along the seashore, and turning into Eskimo -on passing beyond a certain latitude, but that they have more probably -emerged from some interior country, following the river banks -toward the shores of the polar sea, having reached which they became -a coast people, and, moreover, a polar-coast people. The Eskimo -most evidently representing the polar-coast people of North America, -the first question which arises seems to be whether their development -can be conjectured with any probability to have taken place in that -part of the world. Other geographical conditions appear greatly to -favor such a supposition * * *. The rivers taking their course to -the sea between Alaska and the Coppermine River, seem well adapted -to lead such a migrating people onward to the polar sea. * * *</p> - -<p>"The probable identity of the 'inlanders' with the Indians has already -been remarked on. When the new coast people began to spread -along the Arctic shores, some bands of them may very probably have -crossed Bering Strait and settled on the opposite shore, which is -perhaps identical with the fabulous country of Akilinek. On the -other hand, there is very little probability that a people can have -moved from interior Asia to settle on its polar seashore, at the same -time turning Eskimo, and afterwards almost wholly emigrated to -America.</p> - -<p>"On comparing the Eskimo with the neighboring nations, their -physical complexion certainly seems to point at an Asiatic origin; -but, as far as we know, the latest investigations have also shown a -transitional link to exist between the Eskimo and the other American -nations, which would sufficiently indicate the possibility of a common -origin from the same continent."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Rink, 1875:<a name="FNanchor_236_236" id="FNanchor_236_236"></a><a href="#Footnote_236_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a> "The author, who has traveled and resided in Greenland -for 20 years, and has studied the native traditions, of which -he has preserved a collection, considers the Eskimo as deserving -particular attention in regard to the question how America has been -originally peopled. He desires to draw the attention of ethnologists -to the necessity of explaining, by means of the mysterious early -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span>history of the Eskimo, the apparently abrupt step by which these -people have been changed from probably inland or riverside inhabitants -into a decidedly littoral people, depending entirely on the -products of the Arctic Sea; and he arrives at the conclusion that, -although the question must still remain doubtful, and dependent -chiefly on further investigations into the traditions of the natives -occupying adjacent countries, yet, as far as can now be judged, the -Eskimo appear to have been the last wave of an aboriginal American -race, which has spread over the continent from more genial regions, -following principally the rivers and watercourses, and continually -yielding to the pressure of the tribes behind them, until at last they -have peopled the seacoast. * * *</p> - -<p>"When we consider the existing intercourse between the inhabitants -on both sides of Bering Strait, we find many circumstances to -justify the conclusion that those traditions of the Greenland Eskimo -refer to the origin of the Eskimo sledge dog from the training of -the Arctic wolf, to the first journeys upon the frozen sea, and to -intercourse between the aboriginal Eskimo and the Asiatic coast."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Rink, 1886:<a name="FNanchor_237_237" id="FNanchor_237_237"></a><a href="#Footnote_237_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a> "Grönland kann ja nur von Westen her seine eskimoische -Bevölkerung empfangen haben. Dasselbe lässt sich mit -Wahrscheinlichkeit auch von den nächsten Nachbarländern jenseits -der Davisstrasse annehmen, und wenn wir diese Vermutung weiter -erstrecken, gelangen wir zum Alaskaterritorium als der wahrscheinlichen -Heimat der jetzt so weit zertreuten arktischen Volkes. -Zunächst findet diese Annahme eine Bestätigung darin, dass die -Eskimos hier nicht auf die Küste beschränkt, sondern auch längs der -Flüsse ins Binnenland verbreitet sind, nur dass der ungeheure Fischreichtum -dieser Flüsse es möglich gemacht haben kann, dass hier -ursprünglich eine noch viel grössere Bevölkerung, als jetzt, sich -sammelte, welche durch Auswanderung das notwendige Kontingent -zur Entstehung der auf die Meeresküste beschränkten Stämme -geliefert haben kann."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Wilson, 1876:<a name="FNanchor_238_238" id="FNanchor_238_238"></a><a href="#Footnote_238_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a> "Some analogies confirm the probability of a portion -of the North American stock having entered the continent from -Asia by Bering Strait or the Aleutian Islands; and more probably -by the latter than the former. * * *</p> - -<p>"In this direction, then, a North American germ of population -may have entered the continent from Asia, diffused itself over the -Northwest, and ultimately reached the valleys of the Mississippi, and -penetrated to southern latitudes by a route to the east of the Rocky -Mountains. Many centuries may have intervened between the first -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span>immigration and its coming in contact with races of the southern -continent; and philological and other evidence indicates that if such -a northwestern immigration be really demonstrable, it is one of very -ancient date. But so far as I have been able to study the evidence, -much of that hitherto adduced appears to point the other -way. * * *</p> - -<p>"With Asiatic Esquimaux thus distributed along the coast adjacent -to the dividing sea; and the islands of the whole Aleutian group in -the occupation of the same remarkable stock common to both hemispheres: -The only clearly recognizable indications are those of a -current of migration setting toward the continent of Asia, the full -influence of which may prove to have been more comprehensive than -has hitherto been imagined possible. * * *"</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Grote, 1877:<a name="FNanchor_239_239" id="FNanchor_239_239"></a><a href="#Footnote_239_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a> Regards the Eskimo as the original inhabitants of -North America and believes they extended down to 50° in the eastern -and 60° in the western part of the continent.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Krause, 1883:<a name="FNanchor_240_240" id="FNanchor_240_240"></a><a href="#Footnote_240_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a> "Ueberblickt man nun die gegenwärtige Verbreitung -der Eskimos in Asien, so wird man der Ansicht von Dall und -Nordenskiöld beistimmen, dass die asiatischen Eskimo aus Amerika -eingewandert sind und nicht, wie Steller, Wrangell, und andere vermutheten, -zurückgebliebene Reste einer ehemals zahlreicheren, nach -Amerika hinübergezogenen Bevölkerung. Immerhin würde durch -die Annahme eines amerikanischen Ursprunges der jetzigen Eskimobevölkerung -die Möglichkeit früherer Wanderungen in entgegengesetzter -Richtung nicht ausgeschlossen sein, nur giebt die gegenwärtige -Verbreitung keinen Anhalt für eine solche, und historische Beweise -fählen."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Ray, 1885:<a name="FNanchor_241_241" id="FNanchor_241_241"></a><a href="#Footnote_241_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a> "Of their origin and descent we could get no trace, -there being no record of events kept among them. * * *</p> - -<p>"That they have followed the receding line of ice, which at one -time capped the northern part of this continent, along the easiest -lines of travel is shown in the general distribution of a similar people, -speaking a similar tongue, from Greenland to Bering Strait; in -so doing they followed the easiest natural lines of travel along the -watercourses and the seashore, and the distribution of the race to-day -marks the routes traveled. The seashore led them along the -Labrador and Greenland coasts; Hudson Bay and its tributary -waters carried its quota towards Boothia Land; helped by Back's -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span>Great Fish River, the Mackenzie carried them to the northwestern -coast, and down the Yukon they came to people the shores of Norton -Sound and along the coast to Cape Prince of Wales. They occupied -some of the coast to the south of the mouth of the Yukon, and a few -drifted across Bering Strait on the ice, and their natural traits are -still in marked contrast with their neighbors, the Chuckchee. They -use dogs instead of deer, the natives of North America having never -domesticated the reindeer, take their living from the sea, and speak a -different tongue. Had the migration come from Asia it does not -stand to reason that they would have abandoned the deer upon -crossing the straits."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Keane, 1886:<a name="FNanchor_242_242" id="FNanchor_242_242"></a><a href="#Footnote_242_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a> "Dr. H. Rink, in the current number of the -Deutsche Geographische Blätter (Bermen, 1886) * * * makes -it sufficiently evident that their primeval home must be placed in -the extreme northwest, on the Alaskan shores of the Bering Sea -* * * the Aleutian Islanders, who are treated by Doctor Rink as a -branch of the Eskimo family, but whose language diverges profoundly -from, or rather shows no perceptible affinity at all to, the -Eskimo. The old question respecting the ethnical affinities of the -Aleutians is thus again raised, but not further discussed by our -author. To say that they must be regarded as 'ein abnormer -Seitenzweig,' merely avoids the difficulty, while perhaps obscuring -or misstating the true relations altogether. For these islanders -should possibly be regarded, not 'as abnormal offshoot,' but as the -original stock from which the Eskimos themselves have diverged. -* * * Doctor Rink himself advances some solid reasons for bringing -the Eskimo, not from Asia at all, or at least not in the first -instance, but from the interior of the North American continent. He -holds, in fact, with some other ethnologists, that they were originally -inlanders, who, under pressure from the American Indians, gradually -advanced along the course of the Yukon, Mackenzie, and other -great rivers, to their present homes on the Bering Sea, and Frozen -Ocean."</p> - -<p>No individual or decided standpoint on the question is taken in -the author's Man, Past and Present, 1920 edition.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Brown, 1881:<a name="FNanchor_243_243" id="FNanchor_243_243"></a><a href="#Footnote_243_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a> "The Eskimo are therefore an essentially American -people, with a meridional range greater than that of any other -race. * * *</p> - -<p>"It is also clear that this migration has always been from west to -east, as also has been that of the Indian tribes; * * *</p> - -<p>"Did these hyperboreans come from Asia or are they evolutions, -differentiations, as it were, of some of the other American races? -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span>That all of the American peoples came originally from Asia, is, I -think, an hypothesis for which a great deal might be said. Unless -they originated there or were autochthonic, an idea which may at -once be dismissed; they could scarcely have come from anywhere -else, * * * but the central question is whether the Eskimo are of a -later date than the Indians or are really Indians compelled to live -under less favorable conditions than the rest of their kinsfolk. The -latter will, I think, be found to be the most reasonable view to -adopt. * * *</p> - -<p>"Doctor Rink seems not far from the truth when he indicates -the rivers of Central Arctic America as the region from whence the -Eskimo spread northward. * * *</p> - -<p>"It is not at all improbable that the original progenitors of the -race may have been a few isolated families, members of some small -Indian tribe, or the decaying remnants of a larger one. Little by -little they were expelled from their hunting and fishing grounds on -the original river bank until, finding no place amid the stronger -tribes, they settled in a region where they were left to themselves. -* * *</p> - -<p>"It may, however, be taken as proved that the Eskimo are in no -respect and never were a European people; that they are not and -never were an Asiatic one, except to the small extent already described; -that the handful of people settled on the Siberian shore -migrated from America, and that it is very probable the Eskimo -came from the interior of Arctic America, Alaska more likely than -from any other part of the world."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Virchow, 1877:<a name="FNanchor_244_244" id="FNanchor_244_244"></a><a href="#Footnote_244_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a> "Ich möchte namentlich darauf aufmerksam -machen, dass diejenigen, welche den nächsten Anknüpfungspunkt -für die Urbevölkerung Amerika's bei den Eskimo's suchen, welche -ferner die Sprache und die Formen der Eskimo's nach Asien hinein -verfolgen, leicht ein petitio principii machen dürften, insofern als -es wohl sein könnte, dass sie ein späteres Phänomen für ein früheres -halten. Warum sollte nicht die Einwanderung der Eskimo's von -Asien erst erfolgt sein, nachdem längst andere Theile des Continents -ihre Bewohner erhalten hatten?"</p> - -<p>1878:<a name="FNanchor_245_245" id="FNanchor_245_245"></a><a href="#Footnote_245_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a> "Nun ist es sehr bemerkenswerth, dass gegenüber dieser -physiognomischen Aehnlichkeit der Eskimos und der Mongolen eine -absolute Differenze Zwischen ihnen in Bezug auf die Schädelkapsel -existirt" (examined six living Greenland Eskimos).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span></p> - -<p>1885:<a name="FNanchor_246_246" id="FNanchor_246_246"></a><a href="#Footnote_246_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a> "Verbinden wir dieses mit dem Umstande, dass die Sagen -der Ungava-Eskimos stets nach Norden über die Hudson-Strasse -verlegt werden, dass man im Baffin-Lande stets über die Fury- und -Hecla-Strasse fort nach Süden als dem Schauplatz alter Sagen -hinweist, und dass die westlichen Eskimos ebenso den Osten als das -Land ihrer sagenhaften Helden und Stämme betrachten, so gewinnt -die Vermuthung an Wahrscheinlichkeit, dass im Westen des Hudson-Bay-Gebietes -die Heimath der weitverbreiteten Stämme zu suchen -ist."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Chamberlain, 1889:<a name="FNanchor_247_247" id="FNanchor_247_247"></a><a href="#Footnote_247_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a> "In a paper read before the Institute last -year (Proc. Can. Inst., 3d. ser., Vol. V., Fasc. i., October, 1887, p. 70), -I advanced the view that instead of the Eskimo being derived from -the Mongolians of northeastern Asia, the latter are on the contrary -descended from the Eskimo, or their ancestors, who have from time -immemorial inhabited the continent of America."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Boas, 1901:<a name="FNanchor_248_248" id="FNanchor_248_248"></a><a href="#Footnote_248_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a> "All these data seem to me to prove conclusively that -the culture of the Alaskan Eskimo is very greatly influenced by that -of the Indians of the North Pacific coast and by the Athapascan -tribes of the interior. This is in accord with the observation that -their physical type is not so pronounced as the eastern Eskimo type. -I believe, therefore, that H. Rink's opinion of an Alaskan origin of -the Eskimo is not very probable. If pure type and culture may be -considered as significant, I should say that the Eskimo west and -north of Hudson Bay have retained their ancient characteristics more -than any others. If their original home was in Alaska, we must add -the hypothesis that their dispersion began before contact with the -Indians. If their home was east of the Mackenzie, the gradual dispersion -and ensuing contact with other tribes would account for all -the observed phenomena. * * * On the whole, the relations of -North Pacific and North Asiatic cultures are such that it seems -plausible to my mind that the Alaskan Eskimo are, comparatively -speaking, recent intruders, and that they at one time interrupted an -earlier cultural connection between the two continents."</p> - -<p>To which he adds in the second part of this work,<a name="FNanchor_249_249" id="FNanchor_249_249"></a><a href="#Footnote_249_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a> speaking of the -Eskimo taboos: "It may perhaps be venturesome to claim that the -marked development of these customs suggests a time when the Eskimo -tribes were inland people who went down to the sea and gradually -adopted maritime pursuits, which, however, were kept entirely -apart from their inland life, although in a way this seems an attractive -hypothesis."</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span></p> - -<p>Boas, 1910:<a name="FNanchor_250_250" id="FNanchor_250_250"></a><a href="#Footnote_250_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a> "There is little doubt that the Eskimos, whose life -as sea hunters has left a deep impression upon all of their doings, -must probably be classed with the same group of peoples. The -much-discussed theory of the Asiatic origin of the Eskimos must be -entirely abandoned. The investigations of the Jesup North Pacific -Expedition, which it was my privilege to conduct, seem to show that -the Eskimos must be considered as, comparatively speaking, new -arrivals in Alaska, which they reached coming from the east."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Clark Wissler, 1917.<a name="FNanchor_251_251" id="FNanchor_251_251"></a><a href="#Footnote_251_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a> Page 363: "The New World received a -detachment of early Mongoloid peoples at a time when the main -body had barely developed stone polishing."</p> - -<p>Pages 361-362: "Our review of New World somatic characters -revealed the essential unity of the Indian population. It is also -clear that there are affinities with the Mongoloid peoples of Asia. -Hence, we are justified in assuming a common ancestral group for -the whole Mongoloid-Red stream of humanity. We have already -outlined the reasons for assuming the pristine home of this group to -be in Asia."</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_335">335</a>: "For example, the Eskimos, whose first appearance in -the New World must have been in Alaska, spread only along the -Arctic coast belt to its ultimate limits."</p> - -<p>1918<a name="FNanchor_252_252" id="FNanchor_252_252"></a><a href="#Footnote_252_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a>. Page <a href="#Page_161">161</a>: "The most acceptable theory of Eskimo origin -is that they expanded from a parent group in the Arctic Archipelago."</p> - -<p>1922.<a name="FNanchor_253_253" id="FNanchor_253_253"></a><a href="#Footnote_253_253" class="fnanchor">[253]</a> Pages 368, 396, 398: Identical in every word again with -that of 1917.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h5>FOOTNOTES:</h5> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_232_232" id="Footnote_232_232"></a><a href="#FNanchor_232_232"><span class="label">[232]</span></a> Prichard, James Cowles, Researches into the physical history of mankind, vol. <span class="smcap">V</span>, -p. 374. London, 1847.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_233_233" id="Footnote_233_233"></a><a href="#FNanchor_233_233"><span class="label">[233]</span></a> Rink, H., Die Verbreitung der Eskimo-Stämme. Congrès International des Américanistes, -1888, 221-22. Berlin, 1890.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_234_234" id="Footnote_234_234"></a><a href="#FNanchor_234_234"><span class="label">[234]</span></a> Rink, H., On the descent of the Eskimo. Mém. Soc. Roy. d. Antiquaires du Nord; -Journ. anthrop. Inst, <span class="smcap">II</span>, 1873, pp. 104, 106, 108.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_235_235" id="Footnote_235_235"></a><a href="#FNanchor_235_235"><span class="label">[235]</span></a> Rink, H., Tales and traditions of the Eskimo, pp. 70, 71, 72, 73. Edinburgh and -London, 1875.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_236_236" id="Footnote_236_236"></a><a href="#FNanchor_236_236"><span class="label">[236]</span></a> Rink, H., On the descent of the Eskimo. In a Selection of Papers on Arctic Geography -and Ethnology, Roy. Geog. Soc., pp 230, 232. London, 1875.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_237_237" id="Footnote_237_237"></a><a href="#FNanchor_237_237"><span class="label">[237]</span></a> Rink, H., Die Ostgrönländer in ihrem Verhältnisse zu den übrigen Eskimostämmen. -Deutsch Geographische Blätter, IX, p. 229. Bremen, 1886.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_238_238" id="Footnote_238_238"></a><a href="#FNanchor_238_238"><span class="label">[238]</span></a> Wilson, Daniel, Prehistoric man, pp. 343-352. London, 1876.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_239_239" id="Footnote_239_239"></a><a href="#FNanchor_239_239"><span class="label">[239]</span></a> Grote, A. R., Buff. Daily Courier, Jan. 7, 1877 (q. by. R. Virchow, Z. Ethnol., Verh., -<span class="smcap">IX</span>, 1877, p. 69).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_240_240" id="Footnote_240_240"></a><a href="#FNanchor_240_240"><span class="label">[240]</span></a> Krause, Aurel, Die Bevölkerungsverhältnisse der Tschuktschenhalbinsel. Verh. Berl. -Ges. Anthrop., etc., in Z. Ethn., XV, pp. 226-27. 1883.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_241_241" id="Footnote_241_241"></a><a href="#FNanchor_241_241"><span class="label">[241]</span></a> Ray, P. H., Ethnographic Sketch of the Natives. Report of the International Polar -Expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska, pt. 2, p. 37. Washington, 1885.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_242_242" id="Footnote_242_242"></a><a href="#FNanchor_242_242"><span class="label">[242]</span></a> Keane, A. H., The Eskimo. Nature, <span class="smcap">XXXV</span>, pp. 309, 310. London, New York, 1886-87.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_243_243" id="Footnote_243_243"></a><a href="#FNanchor_243_243"><span class="label">[243]</span></a> Brown, Robert, The Origin of the Eskimo. The Archaeological Review, <span class="smcap">I</span>, No. 4, pp. -240-250. London, 1888.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_244_244" id="Footnote_244_244"></a><a href="#FNanchor_244_244"><span class="label">[244]</span></a> Virchow, R., Anthropologie Amerika's. Verh. Berl. Ges. Anthr., etc., Jahrg. 1877 -(with Z. Ethnol., 1877, <span class="smcap">IX</span>), pp. 154-55.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_245_245" id="Footnote_245_245"></a><a href="#FNanchor_245_245"><span class="label">[245]</span></a> —— Eskimos. Verh. Berl. Ges. Anthr., etc., 1878, pp. 185-189 (with Z. Ethnol., -1878, <span class="smcap">X</span>), p. 186.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_246_246" id="Footnote_246_246"></a><a href="#FNanchor_246_246"><span class="label">[246]</span></a> Virchow, R., Eskimos. Verh. Berl. Ges. Anthr., etc., 1885, p. 165 (with Z. Ethnol., -1885, <span class="smcap">XVII</span>).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_247_247" id="Footnote_247_247"></a><a href="#FNanchor_247_247"><span class="label">[247]</span></a> Chamberlain, A. F., The Eskimo Race and Language. Proc. Can. Inst., <span class="smcap">VI</span>, p. 281. -Toronto, 1889.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_248_248" id="Footnote_248_248"></a><a href="#FNanchor_248_248"><span class="label">[248]</span></a> Boas, F., Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., <span class="smcap">XV</span>, pp. -369-370. 1907.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_249_249" id="Footnote_249_249"></a><a href="#FNanchor_249_249"><span class="label">[249]</span></a> Ibid., <span class="smcap">XV</span>, pt. 2, pp. 569-570. 1907.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_250_250" id="Footnote_250_250"></a><a href="#FNanchor_250_250"><span class="label">[250]</span></a> Boas, Franz, Ethnological Problems in Canada. Jour. Roy. Anthrop. Inst. Great -Britain and Ireland, <span class="smcap">XL</span>, p. 534. London, 1910.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_251_251" id="Footnote_251_251"></a><a href="#FNanchor_251_251"><span class="label">[251]</span></a> Wissler, Clark, The American Indian. New York, 1917.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_252_252" id="Footnote_252_252"></a><a href="#FNanchor_252_252"><span class="label">[252]</span></a> —— Archæology of the Polar Eskimo. Anthrop. Papers, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., -<span class="smcap">XXII</span>, pt. 3, p. 161. New York, 1918.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_253_253" id="Footnote_253_253"></a><a href="#FNanchor_253_253"><span class="label">[253]</span></a> —— The American Indian. New York, 1922.</p></div></div> - - -<h4>EUROPEAN</h4> - -<p>Dawkins, 1866:<a name="FNanchor_254_254" id="FNanchor_254_254"></a><a href="#Footnote_254_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a> "The sum of the evidence proves that man, in a -hunter state, lived in the south of Gaul on reindeer, musk sheep, -horses, oxen, and the like, at a time when the climate was similar to -that which those animals now inhabit. To what race did he belong? -In solving this the zoological evidence is of great importance. The -reindeer and musk sheep now inhabit the northern part of the -American Continent and are the principal land animals that supply -the Esquimaux with food. The latter of these has departed from -the Asiatic Continent, leaving remains behind to prove that it shared -the higher northern latitudes of Asia with the reindeer, and this -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span>latter has retreated farther and farther north during the historical -period. May not the race that lived on these two animals in southern -Gaul have shared also in their northern retreat, and may it not be -living in company with them still? The truth of such a hypothesis -as this is found by an appeal to the weapons, implements, and -habits of life of the Esquimaux. The fowling spear, the harpoon, -the scrapers, the marrow spoons are the same in the ice huts of Melville -Sound as in the ancient dwellings of southern Gaul. In both -there is the same absence of pottery; in both bones are crushed in the -same way for the sake of the marrow, and accumulate in vast quantities. -The very fact of human remains being found among the relics -of the feast is explained by an appeal to what Captain Parry observed -in the island of Igloolik. Among the vast quantities of bones -of walruses and seals, and skulls of dogs and bears found in the Esquimaux -camp, were numbers of human skulls lying about among the -rest, which the natives tumbled into the collecting bags of the officers -without the least remorse. A similar carelessness for the dead was -also observed by Sir J. Ross and Captain Lyon. This presence, then, -of human remains in the south of Gaul is another link binding the -ancient people then living there to the Esquimaux. Their small size -also is additional evidence.</p> - -<p>"The only inference that can be drawn from these premises is -that the people in question were decidedly Esquimaux, related to -them precisely in the same way as the reindeer and musk sheep of -those days were to those now living in the high North American -latitudes. The sole point of difference is the possession of the dog -by the latter people, but in the vast lapse of time between the date -of their sojourn in Europe and the present day the dog might very -well have been adopted from some other superior race, or even reduced -under the rule of man from some wild progenitor. By this -discovery a new people is added to those which formerly dwelt in -Europe. The severity of the climate in southern Gaul is proved by -the northern animals above mentioned. As it became warmer musk -sheep, reindeer, and Esquimaux would retreat farther and farther -north until they found a resting place on the American shore of the -great Arctic Sea. Possibly in the case of the Esquimaux the immigration -of other and better-armed tribes might be a means of accelerating -this movement."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Hamy, 1870:<a name="FNanchor_255_255" id="FNanchor_255_255"></a><a href="#Footnote_255_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a> "Il nous parait, comme à MM. de Quatrefages, Carter-Blake, -Le Hon, etc., que les caractères anatomiques des races de -Furfooz et de Cro-Magnon doivent leur faire prendre place dans le -groupe hyperboréen."</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span></p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Dawkins, 1874<a name="FNanchor_256_256" id="FNanchor_256_256"></a><a href="#Footnote_256_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a>: In 1866, Boyd Dawkins, on the basis of the resemblances -between the implements of the Eskimo and those of the -later prehistoric man of Europe, advances the idea that the Eskimo -were close kin to the palaeolithic man of Europe, before the scientific -forum. In his Cave Hunting he says: "Palaeolithic man appeared -in Europe with the arctic mammalia, lived in Europe along with -them, and disappeared with them. And since his implements are of -the same kind as those of the Eskimos, it may reasonably be concluded -that he is represented at the present time by the Eskimos, for -it is most improbable that the convergence of the ethnological and -zoological evidence should be an accident."</p> - -<p>1880:<a name="FNanchor_257_257" id="FNanchor_257_257"></a><a href="#Footnote_257_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a> "The probable identity of the cave men with the Eskimos -is considerably strengthened by a consideration of some of the animals -found in the caves. * * *</p> - -<p>"All these points of connection between the cave men and the -Eskimos can, in my opinion, be explained only on the hypothesis -that they belong to the same race * * *."</p> - -<p>The cave man: "From the evidence brought forward in this chapter, -there is reason to believe that he is represented at the present -time by the Eskimos."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Mortillet, 1889:<a name="FNanchor_258_258" id="FNanchor_258_258"></a><a href="#Footnote_258_258" class="fnanchor">[258]</a> "Les Groënlandais, au point de vue paléoethnologique, -présentent un très grand intérêt. Ils paraissent se relier -très intimement aux hommes qui habitaient l'Europe moyenne pendant -l'époque de la Madeleine. Ils seraient les descendants directs des -Magdalèniens. Ils auraient successivement émigré vers le pôle, avec -l'animal caractéristique de cette époque, le renne. Habitués aux -froids les plus rigoureux de l'époque magdalénienne, ils se sont retirés -dans les régions froides du Nord. * * *</p> - -<p>"Comme on le voit, il y a la plus grande ressemblance, tant sous -le rapport physique et moral que sous le rapport artistique et industriel -entre les hommes de la Madeleine et les Groënlandais. Cette -ressemblance est telle que nous pouvons en conclure que les seconds -sont les descendants des premiers."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Testut, 1889:<a name="FNanchor_259_259" id="FNanchor_259_259"></a><a href="#Footnote_259_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a> "Parmi les races actuelles, celle qui me parait -présenter la plus grande analogie avec l'homme de Chancelade est -celle des Esquimaux qui vivent encore à l'état sauvage dans leg glaces -de l'Amérique septentrionale. Ils ont, en effet, le même crâne que -notre troglodyte quaternaire; leur face est constituée suivant le même -type; ils ont, à peu de chose près, la même taille, le même indice palatin, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span>le même indice nasal, le même indice orbitaire, le même degré de -torsion de l'humérus, etc. * * *</p> - -<p>"La découverte de Chancelade, en mettant en lumière une analogie -frappante entre le squelette de notre troglodyte périgourdin et celui -des Esquimaux actuels, apporte à cette opinion aussi séduisante que -naturelle, l'appui de l'anthropologie anatomique qui, dans l'espèce, -a une importance capitale. Elle lui est de tous points favorable et -élève à la hauteur d'une vérité probable, je n'ose dire d'une vérité -démontrée, ce qui n'était encore qu'une simple hypothèse."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Hervé, 1893:<a name="FNanchor_260_260" id="FNanchor_260_260"></a><a href="#Footnote_260_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a> "* * * * par leurs usages et par leurs moeurs, -aussi bien que par leur matériel industriel et artistique, les Hyperboréens -actuels (Tchouktches et Eskimaux) sont extrêmement -voisins des Troglodytes magdaléniens de l'Europe occidentale; à -ce point que Hamy a pu dire 'qu'ils continuent de nos jours, dan les -régions circumpolaires, l'âge du renne de France, de Belgique, de -Suisse, avec ses caractéristiques zoologiques, ethnographiques, etc.' -(op. cit., 366). 'Nous avons vu, d'autre part, que les plus purs -d'entre eux ne diffèrent pas anatomiquement des Magdaléniens. -C'est donc au rameau hyperboréen que nous sommes amenés à rattacher, -au point de vue ethnique, les dernières populations de l'Europe -quaternaire.'"</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Boule, 1913:<a name="FNanchor_261_261" id="FNanchor_261_261"></a><a href="#Footnote_261_261" class="fnanchor">[261]</a> "On sait d'ailleurs, depuis les travaux de Testut sur -l'Homme de Chancelade, que les relations des Esquimaux sont avec -d'autres Hommes fossiles de nos pays, mais d'un âge géologique plus -récent."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Sollas, 1924:<a name="FNanchor_262_262" id="FNanchor_262_262"></a><a href="#Footnote_262_262" class="fnanchor">[262]</a> The Magdalenians are represented "in part, by the -Eskimo on the frozen margin of the North American Continent and -as well, perhaps, by the Red Indians. * * *" Due to pressure -of stronger peoples, the ancestors of the Eskimo were present to the -north; "but as there was no room for expansion in that direction, it -was diverted toward the only egress possible, and an outflow took -place into America over Bering Strait or the Aleutian Islands. The -primitive Eskimo, already accustomed to a boreal life, extended -along the coast."</p> - -<p>1927:<a name="FNanchor_263_263" id="FNanchor_263_263"></a><a href="#Footnote_263_263" class="fnanchor">[263]</a> "The assemblage of characters presented on the one hand -by the Chancelade skull, and on the other by the Eskimo, are in very -remarkable agreement, and that the onus of discovering a similar -assemblage, but possessed by some other race, rests with those who -refuse to accept what seems to me a very obvious conclusion. * * *</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span></p> - -<p>"Our only reason for any feeling of surprise is, not that Chancelade -man should prove a close relation of the Eskimo, but that -so far he is the only fossil example of his kind of which we have any -certain knowledge."</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h5>FOOTNOTES:</h5> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_254_254" id="Footnote_254_254"></a><a href="#FNanchor_254_254"><span class="label">[254]</span></a> Dawkins, Boyd, In a Review of Lartet and Christy's "Cavernes du Périgord" (1864), -in the Saturday Review, <span class="smcap">XXII</span>, p. 713, 1866. [This review is not signed but is attributed -to B. D.]</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_255_255" id="Footnote_255_255"></a><a href="#FNanchor_255_255"><span class="label">[255]</span></a> Hamy, E. T., Précis de paléontologie humaine, p. 355. Paris, 1870.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_256_256" id="Footnote_256_256"></a><a href="#FNanchor_256_256"><span class="label">[256]</span></a> Dawkins, Boyd, Cave Hunting, p. 359. London, 1874.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_257_257" id="Footnote_257_257"></a><a href="#FNanchor_257_257"><span class="label">[257]</span></a> Dawkins, Boyd, Early Man in Britain, pp. 240, 241, 245. London, 1880.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_258_258" id="Footnote_258_258"></a><a href="#FNanchor_258_258"><span class="label">[258]</span></a> Mortillet, G. de, Les Groënlandais descendants des Magdaléniens. Bulletins de la -Société d'Anthropologie, VI, pp. 868-870. Paris, 1883.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_259_259" id="Footnote_259_259"></a><a href="#FNanchor_259_259"><span class="label">[259]</span></a> Testut, L., Recherches anthropologiques sur le squelette quaternaire de Chancelade -(Dordogne). Bull. Soc. d'anthrop., <span class="smcap">VIII</span>, pp. 243-244. Lyon, Paris, 1889.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_260_260" id="Footnote_260_260"></a><a href="#FNanchor_260_260"><span class="label">[260]</span></a> Hervé, Georges, La Race des Troglodytes Magdaléniens. Rev. mens, de l'École -d'anthrop., <span class="smcap">III</span>, p. 188. Paris, 1893.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_261_261" id="Footnote_261_261"></a><a href="#FNanchor_261_261"><span class="label">[261]</span></a> Boule, Marcellin, L'Homme fossile de la Chapelle-aux-Saints, pp. 228. Paris, 1913.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_262_262" id="Footnote_262_262"></a><a href="#FNanchor_262_262"><span class="label">[262]</span></a> Sollas, W. J., Ancient hunters and their modern representatives, pp. 590, 592. New -York, 1924.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_263_263" id="Footnote_263_263"></a><a href="#FNanchor_263_263"><span class="label">[263]</span></a> Sollas, W. J., The Chancelade skull. J. Roy, Anthrop. Inst., <span class="smcap">LVII</span>, pp. 119, 121. London, -1927.</p></div></div> - - -<h4>OPPOSED TO EUROPEAN</h4> - -<p>Rae, 1887:<a name="FNanchor_264_264" id="FNanchor_264_264"></a><a href="#Footnote_264_264" class="fnanchor">[264]</a> "The typical Eskimo is one of the most specialized -of the human race, as far as cranial and facial characters are concerned, -and such scanty remains as have yet been discovered of the -prehistoric inhabitants of Europe present no structural affinities with -him."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Laloy, 1898:<a name="FNanchor_265_265" id="FNanchor_265_265"></a><a href="#Footnote_265_265" class="fnanchor">[265]</a> "Cette théorie est absolument contredite par les -faits." (That is, the theory of the identity of the Eskimo with the -European upper palaeolithic man.)</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Déchelette, 1908:<a name="FNanchor_266_266" id="FNanchor_266_266"></a><a href="#Footnote_266_266" class="fnanchor">[266]</a> "C'est en vain qu'on a noté certains traits d'analogie -de l'art et de l'industrie * * * telles analogies s'expliquent -aisément par la parité des conditions de la vie matérielle."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Burkitt, 1921:<a name="FNanchor_267_267" id="FNanchor_267_267"></a><a href="#Footnote_267_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a> "Again the Magdalenians have been correlated with -the Eskimos, who inhabit to-day the icebound coastal lands to the -north of the New World, and also the similar lands, on the other side -of the straits, in the northeast corner of Asia. But the vast difference -in place and in time would make any exact correlation very -doubtful."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>MacCurdy, 1924:<a name="FNanchor_268_268" id="FNanchor_268_268"></a><a href="#Footnote_268_268" class="fnanchor">[268]</a> "If a Magdalenian type exists, it is probably -best represented by the skeleton from Raymonden at Chancelade -(Dordogne). One must not lose sight of the fact that the osteologic -record of fossil man is even yet so fragmentary that there is grave -danger of mistaking individual characters for those on which varieties -or species should be based."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Keith, 1925:<a name="FNanchor_269_269" id="FNanchor_269_269"></a><a href="#Footnote_269_269" class="fnanchor">[269]</a> "In the Chancelade man we are dealing with a member -of a racial stock of a true European kind."</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h5>FOOTNOTES:</h5> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_264_264" id="Footnote_264_264"></a><a href="#FNanchor_264_264"><span class="label">[264]</span></a> Rae, Dr. John, Remarks on the natives of British North America. J. Roy. Anthrop. -Inst. Great Britain and Ireland, <span class="smcap">XVI</span>, pp. 200-201. London, 1887.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_265_265" id="Footnote_265_265"></a><a href="#FNanchor_265_265"><span class="label">[265]</span></a> Laloy, L'Anthr., <span class="smcap">IX</span>, p. 586. 1898.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_266_266" id="Footnote_266_266"></a><a href="#FNanchor_266_266"><span class="label">[266]</span></a> Déchelette, J., Manuel d'Archéologie préhistorique, etc., pp. 312. Paris, 1908.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_267_267" id="Footnote_267_267"></a><a href="#FNanchor_267_267"><span class="label">[267]</span></a> Burkitt, M. C., Prehistory, p. 307. London, 1921.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_268_268" id="Footnote_268_268"></a><a href="#FNanchor_268_268"><span class="label">[268]</span></a> MacCurdy, G. G., Human Origins, V. <span class="smcap">I</span>, pp. 406-407. New York and London, 1924.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_269_269" id="Footnote_269_269"></a><a href="#FNanchor_269_269"><span class="label">[269]</span></a> Keith, Arthur, The Antiquity of Man, p. 86. London, 1925.</p></div></div> - - -<h4>MISCELLANEOUS AND INDEFINITE</h4> - -<p>Gallatin, 1836:<a name="FNanchor_270_270" id="FNanchor_270_270"></a><a href="#Footnote_270_270" class="fnanchor">[270]</a> "Whatever may have been the origin of the Eskimo, -it would seem probable that the small tribe of the present -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span>sedentary Tchuktchi on the eastern extremity of Asia is a colony of -western American Eskimo. The language does not extend in Asia -beyond that tribe. That of their immediate neighbors, the "Reindeer," -or "Wandering Tchuktchi," is totally different and belongs -to the Kouriak family.</p> - -<p>"There does not seem to be any solid foundation for the opinion -of those who would ascribe to the Eskimaux an origin different from -that of the other Indians of North America. The color and features -are essentially the same; and the differences which may exist, particularly -that in stature, may be easily accounted for by the rigor -of the climate and partly, perhaps, by the nature of their food. The -entire similarity of the structure and grammatical forms of their -language with those of various Indian tribes, however different in -their vocabularies, which will hereafter be adverted to, affords an -almost conclusive proof of their belonging to the same family of -mankind."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Richardson, 1852:<a name="FNanchor_271_271" id="FNanchor_271_271"></a><a href="#Footnote_271_271" class="fnanchor">[271]</a> "The origin of the Eskimos has been much -discussed as being the pivot on which the inquiry into the original -peopling of America has been made to turn. The question has been -fairly and ably stated by Doctor Latham in his recent work On -the Varieties of Man, to which I must refer the reader; and I shall -merely remark that the Eskimos differ more in physical aspect from -their nearest neighbors than the red races do from one another. The -lineaments have a decided resemblance to the Tartar or Chinese countenance. -On the other hand, their language is admitted by philologists -to be similar to the other North American tongues in its -grammatical structure; so that, as Doctor Latham has forcibly stated, -the dissociation of the Eskimos from their neighboring nations on -account of their physical dissimilarity is met by an argument for -their mutual affinity, deduced from philological coincidences."</p> - -<p>Meigs, 1857:<a name="FNanchor_272_272" id="FNanchor_272_272"></a><a href="#Footnote_272_272" class="fnanchor">[272]</a> "A connected series of facts and arguments which -seem to indicate that the Eskimo are an exceedingly ancient people, -whose dawn was probably ushered in by a temperate climate, but -whose dissolution now approaches, amidst eternal ice and snow; that -the early migrations of these people have been from the north southwards, -from the islands of the Polar Sea to the continent and not -from the mainland to the islands; and that the present geographical -area of the Eskimo may be regarded as a primary center of human -distribution for the entire polar zone."</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span></p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Abbott, 1876:<a name="FNanchor_273_273" id="FNanchor_273_273"></a><a href="#Footnote_273_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a> "It is fair to presume that the first human beings -that dwelt along the shores of the Delaware were really the same -people as the present inhabitants of Arctic America."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Grote, 1875:<a name="FNanchor_274_274" id="FNanchor_274_274"></a><a href="#Footnote_274_274" class="fnanchor">[274]</a> Basing himself on certain biological reasonings, the -author concludes "that the Eskimos are the existing representatives -of the man of the American glacial epoch, just as the White Mountain -butterfly (<em>Oeneis semidea</em>) is the living representative of a colony of -the genus planted on the retiring of the ice from the valley of the -White Mountains."</p> - -<p>In a later communication<a name="FNanchor_275_275" id="FNanchor_275_275"></a><a href="#Footnote_275_275" class="fnanchor">[275]</a> the author expresses the opinion that -the peopling of America "was effected during the Tertiary; that -the ice modified races of Pliocene man, existing in the north of Asia -and America, forced them southward, and then drew them back to -the locality where they had undergone their original modification. -* * *</p> - -<p>"During the process, then, which resulted in the race modification -of the Eskimos, their original numbers must have been decreased -by the slowly but ever increasing cold of the northern regions, until -experience and physical adaptation combined brought them to a -state of comparative stability as a race."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Baron Nordenskiöld<a name="FNanchor_276_276" id="FNanchor_276_276"></a><a href="#Footnote_276_276" class="fnanchor">[276]</a> thought that the Eskimo might probably -be the true "autochthones" of the polar regions, i. e., that they had -inhabited the same previous to the glacial age, at a period when a -climate prevailed here equal to that of northern Italy at present, as -proved by the fossils found at Spitzbergen and Greenland. As it -might be assumed that man had existed even during the Tertiary -period, there was a great deal in favor of the assumption that he had -lived in those parts which were most favorable to his existence. The -question was one of the highest importance, as, if it could be proved -that the Eskimo descended from a race which inhabited the polar -regions in the very earliest times, we should be obliged to assume -that there was a northern (polar) as well as an Asiatic cradle of the -human race, which would open up new fields of research, both to the -philologist and the ethnologist, and probably remnants of the culture -and language of the original race might be traced in the present polar -inhabitants of both Europe and Asia.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span></p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Keane, 1886:<a name="FNanchor_277_277" id="FNanchor_277_277"></a><a href="#Footnote_277_277" class="fnanchor">[277]</a> "The Aleutian Islanders, who are treated by Doctor -Rink as a branch of the Eskimo family, but whose language -diverges profoundly from, or rather shows no perceptible affinity -at all to, the Eskimo. The old question respecting the ethnical -affinities of the Aleutians is thus again raised, but not further discussed -by our author. To say that they must be regarded as 'ein -abnormer Seitenzweig,' merely avoids the difficulty, while perhaps -obscuring or misstating the true relations altogether. For these -islanders should possibly be regarded, not as 'an abnormal offshoot,' -but as the original stock from which the Eskimo themselves have -diverged."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Quatrefages, 1887:<a name="FNanchor_278_278" id="FNanchor_278_278"></a><a href="#Footnote_278_278" class="fnanchor">[278]</a> From migrations of Tertiary man: Men originated -in Tertiary in northern Asia; spread from here to Europe and -over Asia; "D'autres aussi gagnèrent peut-être l'Amérique et ont -pu être les ancêtres directs des Esquimaux,... Sans même -supposer l'existence passée de la continuité des deux continents, les -hommes tertiaires ont bien pu faire ce que font les riverains actuels -du détroit de Behring, qui vont chaque jour d'Asie en Amérique et -reciproquement."...</p> - -<p>"Evidemment la race esquimale est américaine. Au Groënland, -au Labrador, dont personne ne lui a disputé les solitudes glacées, -elle a conservé sa pureté. Elle est encore restée pure quand elle a -rencontré les Peaux-Rouges proprement dits, parce que ceux-ci lui -ont fait une guerre d'extermination qui ne respectait ni les femmes -ni les enfants. Mais, dans le nord-ouest américain, elle s'est trouvée -en rapport avec des populations d'un caractère plus doux et des -croisements ont eu lieu. Or, parmi ces populations, il s'en trouve -de brachycéphales. Tels sont en particulier certaines tribus, confondues -à tort sous un même nom avec les vrais Koluches.... -Ces tribus sont de race jaune et leur crâne ressemble si bien à celui -des Toungouses que M. Hamy les a rattachées directement à cette -famille mongole. Les Esquimaux se sont croisés avec elles; et ainsi -ont pris naissance ces tribus, dont l'origine métisse est attestée par -le mélange ou la fusion des caractères linguistiques aussi bien qu'anatomiques."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Nansen, 1893:<a name="FNanchor_279_279" id="FNanchor_279_279"></a><a href="#Footnote_279_279" class="fnanchor">[279]</a> "So much alone can we declare with any assurance, -that the Eskimos dwelt in comparatively recent times on the -coasts around Bering Strait and Bering Sea—probably on the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span>American side—and have thence, stage by stage, spread eastward -over Arctic America to Greenland. * * *</p> - -<p>"The likeness between all the different tribes of Eskimos, as well -as their secluded position with respect to other peoples, and the -perfection of their implements, might be taken to indicate that they -are of a very old race, in which everything has stiffened into definite -forms, which can now be but slowly altered. Other indications, -however, seem to conflict with such a hypothesis, and render it more -probable that the race was originally a small one, which did not -until a comparatively late period develop to the point at which we -now find it, and spread over the countries which it at present -inhabits."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Tarenetzky, 1900:<a name="FNanchor_280_280" id="FNanchor_280_280"></a><a href="#Footnote_280_280" class="fnanchor">[280]</a> "Die Frage ist bis jetzt noch nicht entschieden -und wird wahrscheinlich auch niemals definitiv entschieden werden -ob die gegenwärtig die Nordostgrenze Asiens und die Nordwestgrenze -Amerikas bewohnenden Polarvölker ursprünglich aus Asien -nach Amerika oder in umgekehrter Richtung zu ihren Wohnsitzen -wanderten."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>De Nadaillac<a name="FNanchor_281_281" id="FNanchor_281_281"></a><a href="#Footnote_281_281" class="fnanchor">[281]</a> believed that the Eskimo (with some other aboriginal -Americans), now savage and demoralized, have issued from races -more civilized and that they could raise themselves to the old social -level were it not for their struggle with inexorable climate, famines, -and lately also alcoholism.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Jenness, 1928:<a name="FNanchor_282_282" id="FNanchor_282_282"></a><a href="#Footnote_282_282" class="fnanchor">[282]</a> "We still believe that the Eskimos are fundamentally -a single people; that they had their origin in a homeland -not yet determined; but we have learned that they reached their present -condition through a series of complex changes and migrations, -the outlines of which we have hardly begun to decipher."</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h5>FOOTNOTES:</h5> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_270_270" id="Footnote_270_270"></a><a href="#FNanchor_270_270"><span class="label">[270]</span></a> Gallatin, Albert, A Synopsis of the Indian Tribes of North America. Archaeologia -Americana, II, pp. 13, 14. Cambridge, 1836.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_271_271" id="Footnote_271_271"></a><a href="#FNanchor_271_271"><span class="label">[271]</span></a> Richardson, Sir John, Origin of the Eskimos. The Edinburgh New Philosophical -Journal, LII, p. 323. Edinburgh, 1852.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_272_272" id="Footnote_272_272"></a><a href="#FNanchor_272_272"><span class="label">[272]</span></a> Meigs, J. Aitken, The cranial characteristics of the races of men. In Indigenous -Races of the Earth, by Nott, J. C., and Gliddon, George R., Philadelphia, p. 266. London, -1857.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_273_273" id="Footnote_273_273"></a><a href="#FNanchor_273_273"><span class="label">[273]</span></a> Abbott, C. C., Traces of American Autochthon. Am. Nat., p. 329. June, 1876.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_274_274" id="Footnote_274_274"></a><a href="#FNanchor_274_274"><span class="label">[274]</span></a> Grote, A. R., Effect of the Glacial Epoch Upon the Distribution of Insects in North -America. Proc. Am. Ass. Adv. Sci., Detroit meeting, 1875, B, Natural History, p. 225.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_275_275" id="Footnote_275_275"></a><a href="#FNanchor_275_275"><span class="label">[275]</span></a> Grote, A. R., On the Peopling of America. Bull. Buffalo Soc. Nat. Sc., <span class="smcap">III</span>, p. 181-185, -1877.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_276_276" id="Footnote_276_276"></a><a href="#FNanchor_276_276"><span class="label">[276]</span></a> Eskimo. Lecture before the Geogr. Soc. of Stockholm, Dec. 19, 1884; abstract in -Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc., <span class="smcap">VII</span>, No. 6, p. 370-371. London, 1885.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_277_277" id="Footnote_277_277"></a><a href="#FNanchor_277_277"><span class="label">[277]</span></a> Keane, A. H., The Eskimo; a commentary. Nature, <span class="smcap">XXXV</span>, p. 309. London, New York, 1886-1887.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_278_278" id="Footnote_278_278"></a><a href="#FNanchor_278_278"><span class="label">[278]</span></a> Quatrefages, A. de, Histoire Générale des Races Humaines, introduction l'Etude des -Races Humaines, pp. 136, 435. Paris, 1887.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_279_279" id="Footnote_279_279"></a><a href="#FNanchor_279_279"><span class="label">[279]</span></a> Nansen, Fridtjof, Eskimo Life, pp. 6, 8. London, 1893. (Translated by William Archer.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_280_280" id="Footnote_280_280"></a><a href="#FNanchor_280_280"><span class="label">[280]</span></a> Tarenetzky, A., Beiträge zur Skelet-und Schädelkunde der Aleuten, Konaegen, Kenai -und Koljuschen. Mem. Acad. imp d. sc., ix, No. 4, p. 7. St. Petersburg, 1900.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_281_281" id="Footnote_281_281"></a><a href="#FNanchor_281_281"><span class="label">[281]</span></a> Nadaillac, M. de, Les Eskimo. L'Anthropologie, <span class="smcap">XIII</span>, p. 104. 1902.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_282_282" id="Footnote_282_282"></a><a href="#FNanchor_282_282"><span class="label">[282]</span></a> Jenness, D., Ethnological Problems of Arctic America. Amer. Geogr. Soc. Special -Publ. No. 7. New York, 1928.</p></div></div> - - -<h4>DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS INDICATED BY PRESENT DATA</h4> - -<p>The maze of thoughts on the origin of the Eskimo shows one fact -conclusively, which is that the necessary evidence on the subject has -hitherto been insufficient. From whatever side the problem has -been approached, whether linguistically, culturally, from the study -of myths, or even somatologically, the materials were, it is plain, -more or less inadequate and there was not enough for satisfactory -comparisons. The best contributions to Eskimo studies, from the -oldest to the most recent, all accentuate the need for further research, -and more ample collections.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span></p> - -<p>Another point is that heterogeneous and wide apart as many of the -opinions may seem, yet when the subject is looked upon with a -larger perspective they may often perhaps be harmonized. Thus a -belief in an American origin of the Eskimo need not exclude that in -the Asiatic derivation of his parental stock. Even in the case of the -supposed European derivation the Eskimo are understood to have -reached America through Asia; there is not one suggestion of any -importance advocating the coming of the Eskimo over northwestern -Europe and Iceland. Only the Meigs-Grote-Nordenskiöld theory of -an ancient polar race and its descent southward appears now as -beyond the bounds of what would be at least partly justifiable.</p> - -<p>What is the contribution to the subject of the studies reported in -this treatise, with its relatively great amount of somatological material? -The answer is not easy.</p> - -<p>Even the truly great and precious material at hand is not sufficient. -There are important parts of the Arctic, such as the Hudson Bay -region, Baffin Land, and the central region; several parts of the west -coast, such as the inland waters of the Seward Peninsula and the -Eskimo portions of the Selawik, Kobuk, Noatak, and Yukon Rivers; -and above all the Eskimo part of northeastern Siberia, from which -there are insufficient or no collections. There is, moreover, especially -in this country, a great want of skeletal material from the -non-Eskimo Siberian tribes, and also from the old European peoples that are -of most importance for comparisons. It must be plain, therefore, -that even at present no final deductions are possible. All that can -be claimed for the evidence here brought forth is that it clears, or -tends to settle, certain secondary problems, and that it presents indications -of value for the rest of the question.</p> - -<p>The secondary problems that may herewith be regarded as settled -are as follows:</p> - -<p>1. <em>Unity or plurality of the race.</em>—The materials at hand give no -substantiation to the possibility of the Eskimo belonging to more than -one basic strain of people. They range in color from tan or light -reddish-yellow to medium brown; in stature from decidedly short -to above the general human medium; in head from brachycephalic -and low to extremely dolichocephalic, high and keel shaped; in eyes -from horizontal to decidedly mongoloid; in orbits from microseme -to hypermegaseme; in nose from fully mesorrhinic to extremely -leptorrhinic; in physiognomy from pure "Indian" to extreme -"Eskimo." Yet all through there runs, both in the living and in -the skeletal remains, so much of a basic identity that no separation -into any distinct original "races" is possible. At most it is permissible -to speak of a few prevalent types.</p> - -<p>2. <em>Relation.</em>—The general basic prototype of the Eskimo, according -to all evidence, is so closely akin to that of the Indian that the two<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span> -can not be fully separated. They appear only as the thumb and the -digits of the same hand, some large old mother stock from which -both gradually differentiated. This appears to be an unavoidable -conclusion from the present anthropological knowledge of the two -peoples.</p> - -<p>The next unavoidable deduction is that the mother stock of both -the Eskimo and the Indian can only be identified with the great -yellow-brown stem of man, the home of which was in Asia, but the -roots of which, as has been discussed elsewhere, were probably in -ancient (later paleolithic) Europe.<a name="FNanchor_283_283" id="FNanchor_283_283"></a><a href="#Footnote_283_283" class="fnanchor">[283]</a> The latter fact may explain the -cultural as well as somatological resemblances between the Eskimo, -as well as the Indian (for the Indian, physically at least, has much -in common with the upper Aurignacians), and the upper glacial -European populations. But such an explanation can not in the -light of present knowledge legitimately be extended to the assumption -that either the Indian complex or the Eskimo originated as -such in Europe; they could be at most but parts of the eventual more -or less further differentiated Asiatic progeny of the upper paleolithic -Europeans.</p> - -<p>3. <em>Mixture.</em>—It has been assumed by Boas and others that the -eastern Eskimo have become admixed with the eastern Indian and -the western with the Alaskan Indian, that the physical and especially -craniological differences between the eastern and western Eskimo were -due to such a mixture, and that both extremes deviated from the type -of the pure Eskimo, who was to be found somewhere in the central -Arctic. The evidence of the present studies does not sustain such an -assumption.</p> - -<p>As shown before<a name="FNanchor_284_284" id="FNanchor_284_284"></a><a href="#Footnote_284_284" class="fnanchor">[284]</a> and is seen more clearly from the present data, -the western Eskimo type is also present or approached in various -localities in the far north (part of Smith Sound, Southampton -Island, part of the Hudson Bay coast, with probable spots in the -central Arctic proper). There is no indication of any central region -where the western Eskimo type would be much "purer" than -elsewhere.</p> - -<p>Individual skulls and skeletons in the west, particularly in certain -spots (especially on Seward Peninsula), show the same characteristics -as the most diverging skulls or skeletons in the farthest -northeast.</p> - -<p>And both in the west and in the east the most pronounced Eskimo -characteristics exceed similar features in the Indian, indicating independent -development. Such characteristics involve the stature -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span>(taller in the west, shorter in the east than that of the Indian); the -size of the head (everywhere averaging higher in the Eskimo); -dolichocephaly, height of the head, its keel shape (all more pronounced -in the eastern and now and then a western Eskimo than in -any Indian group); the face, nose, orbits, and lower jaw; with the -relative proportions and other characteristics of the skeleton. All -these point to functional and other developments within the Eskimo -groups and none suggest a large Indian admixture.</p> - -<p>It is well known that more or less blood mixture takes place among -all neighboring peoples where contact is possible, even if otherwise -there be much enmity. Such enmity, often in an extreme form, existed -everywhere it seems between the Eskimo and the Indian, as a -result of the encroaching of the former on the latter; there are many -statements to that effect. Within historic times also there are no -records of any adoptions or intermarriages between the two peoples. -Nevertheless where contact took place, as on the rivers and in the -southwest as well as the southeast of the Eskimo territory, some blood -mixture, it would seem, must have developed. The Indian neighbors -show it, and it would be strange if it remained one-sided. But of a -mixture extensive enough to have materially modified the type of -the Eskimo in whole large regions, such as the entire Bering Sea and -most of the far northeast, there is no evidence and little not only -probability but even possibility. Nothing approaching such an extensive -mixture is shown by the near-by Indians; and it would be -most exceptional in people of this nature if a much greater proportion -of the mixture was into the Eskimo.</p> - -<p>Finally, a mixture of diverse human types, unless very old, may be -expected to leave numerous physical signs of heterogeneity and -disturbance, none of which is shown by either the western or eastern -Eskimo. Such groups as that of the St. Lawrence Island, or that -of Greenland, are among the most homogeneous human groups -known. The range of variation of their characters is as a rule a -strictly normal range, giving a uniform curve of distribution, which -is not consistent with the notion of any relatively recent material -mixture.</p> - -<p>4. <em>The indications.</em>—The indications of the data and observations -presented in this volume may be outlined as follows:</p> - -<p>The Eskimo throughout their territory are but one and the same -broad strain of people. This strain is fundamentally related to that -(or those) of the American Indian. It is also uncontestably related -to the yellow-brown strains of Asia.</p> - -<p>In many respects, such as pigmentation, build of the body, physiognomy, -large brain, fullness of forehead, fullness of the fronto-sphenotemporal -region, largeness of face and lower jaw, height of the nose,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span> -size and characteristics of the teeth,<a name="FNanchor_285_285" id="FNanchor_285_285"></a><a href="#Footnote_285_285" class="fnanchor">[285]</a> smallness of hands and feet, -etc., the Eskimos are remarkably alike over their whole territory. -They differ in details, such as stature, form of the head, and breadth -of the nose. But the distribution of these differences is of much -interest and probably significance. Higher statures, broader heads, -and broader noses are found especially in the west, the latter two -particularly in the Bering Sea region; low group statures, narrow -heads and narrow noses reach, with few exceptions, their extremes -in the northeast. Between the two extremes, however, there is no -interruption, but a gradation, with here and there an irregularity. -These conditions speak not of mixture but rather of adaptation and -differentiation.</p> - -<p>They strongly suggest a moderate stream of people, rooted in Asia, -of fairly broad and but moderately high head, of a good medium -stature, with a mesorrhinic nose (and hence probably originally not -far northern), and with many other characteristics in common, reaching -America from northeasternmost Asia after the related Indians, -spreading along the seacoasts as far as it could, not of choice, or choice -alone, but mainly because of the blocking by the Indian of the roads -toward the south and through the interior; and gradually modifying -physically in adaptation to the new conditions and necessities; to -climate, newer modes of life, the demands of the kayak, and above -all to the results of the increased demands on the masticatory organs.</p> - -<p>The narrowness, increased length and increased height of the -Eskimo skull, without change in its size or other characteristics, may -readily be understood as compensatory adaptations, the development -of which was initiated and furthered by the development and -mechanical effects of the muscles of mastication.</p> - -<p>A similar conclusion has been reached in my former study on the -central and Smith Sound Eskimo (1910). It has been approached -or reached independently by other students of the Eskimo, notably -Fürst and Hansen (1915) in their great work on the East Greenlanders. -It is a conclusion of much biological importance for it -involves not merely the development but also the eventual inheritance -of new characters.</p> - -<p>Former authors, it was seen, have advanced the theories of an -American origin of the Eskimo. This could only mean that he -developed from the American Indian. And such a development -would imply physical and hereditary changes at least as great as -those indicated in the preceding paragraphs, and in less time. A -differentiation commenced well back in Asia, geographically and -chronologically, and advancing, to its present limits, in America -would seem the more probable.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span></p> -<p>An origin of the Eskimo in Europe, during the last glacial invasion, -would not only push into the hazy far past the same changes as -here dealt with, but it would at the same time fail to explain the -physical differences within the Eskimo group, and deny any substantial -changes in him during the long time of his migration -toward the American northern coasts.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> -<img src="images/figure_29a.jpg" width="700" height="582" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Figure 29.</span>—Probable movements of people from northeastern Asia to Alaska and in -Alaska. (A. Hrdlička)</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Absolute proofs of the origin of the Eskimo, as of that of the -various strains of the Indians, are hardly to be expected. Such origins -are so gradual and insidious that they would escape detection -even if watched for while occurring; they are noticed only after sufficient -differences have developed and become established, which takes -generations. The solving of racial origins must depend on sound -scientific induction.</p> - -<p>Such induction may not yet be fully possible in the case of the -Eskimo. The evidence is not yet complete. But with the present -and other most recent data there is enough on hand for substantial -indications. The evidence shows that barring some irregularities, -due possibly to later intrusions or refluxes, the farther east in the -Eskimo territory the observer proceeds the more highly differentiated -and divergent the Eskimo becomes, and there is a greater gap<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span> -between him and his Indian neighbors, as well as other races. -Proceeding from the east westward, conditions are reversed. In -general the farther west we proceed the less exceptional on the -whole the Eskimo becomes and the more he approximates the Indian, -particularly the Indian of Alaska and the northwest coast. As this -can not, in the light of present evidence, be attributed alone to mixture, -it is plain that if it were possible to proceed a few steps farther -in this direction the differences between the Eskimo and the Indian -would fade out so that a distinction between the two would become -difficult if not impossible.</p> - -<p>The facts point, therefore, to an original identity of the source -from which were derived the Indian, more particularly his latest -branches, and the Eskimo, and to the identification of this source with -the palaeo-Asiatic yellow-brown people of lower northern Asia. The -differentiation of the Eskimo from this source must have proceeded -over a fairly long time, and probably started already it would seem -on the northern coasts of Asia, where conditions were present capable -of beginning to shape him into an Eskimo; to be carried on since in -the Bering Sea area and especially in the Seward Peninsula and -farther northward and eastward. In a larger sense the cradle of -the Eskimo, therefore, while starting probably in northeast Asia, -covered in reality a much vaster region, extending from northern -Asia and the Bering Sea to the far American Arctic.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h5>FOOTNOTES:</h5> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_283_283" id="Footnote_283_283"></a><a href="#FNanchor_283_283"><span class="label">[283]</span></a> Hrdlička, A., The Peopling of Asia. Proc. Am. Philos. Soc., <span class="smcap">LX</span>, 535 et seq. 1921; and -The Peopling of the Earth. Ibid., <span class="smcap">LXV</span>, 150, et seq. 1926.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_284_284" id="Footnote_284_284"></a><a href="#FNanchor_284_284"><span class="label">[284]</span></a> Contrib. Anthrop. Central and Smith Sound Eskimo. Anthrop. Papers Am. Mus. Nat. -Hist., 1910.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_285_285" id="Footnote_285_285"></a><a href="#FNanchor_285_285"><span class="label">[285]</span></a> See Amer. J. Phys. Anthrop., <span class="smcap">VI</span>, Nos. 2 and 4. 1923.</p></div></div> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - - - - -<h2>SUMMARY</h2> - - -<p>What is the substance of the results of all these new observations -and studies on the western Eskimo, who is the main subject of -this report? In large lines this may be outlined as follows:</p> - -<p>1. The western Eskimo occupied, uninterrupted by other people -(save in a few spots by the Aleuts), the great stretch of the Alaskan -coast from Prince William Sound and parts of the Unalaska Peninsula -to Point Barrow, all the islands in the Bering Sea except the -Aleutians and Pribilovs, and the northern and western coasts of -the Chukchi Peninsula in Asia.</p> - -<p>They extended some distance inland along the Kuskokwim and -Yukon Rivers; along the interior lakes and rivers of the Seward -Peninsula; along a part of the Selawik River, most (perhaps) of the -Kobuk River, and apparently along the whole Noatak River, communicating -over the land with the lower Colville Basin. But no -traces of original Eskimo settlements have ever been found in the -true Alaska inland or along those parts of the Alaska rivers that -constitute the Indian territory.</p> - -<p>2. The present population is sparse, with many unpeopled intervals, -and not highly fecund, but, except when epidemics strike, it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span> -no more diminishes; children and young people are now much in -evidence, hygienic and economic conditions have improved, and the -people in general are well advanced in civilization. Their condition -and morale are rather superior, in places very perceptibly so, to -those of the majority of the Alaska Indians.</p> - -<p>3. Except where there has been more contact with whites, a -large percentage of these Eskimo are still full bloods. They are a -sturdy, cheerful, and liberal yet shrewd lot. They intermarry and -mix not inconsiderably among themselves (between villages). Some -of the white traders have married Eskimo women and raised promising -families. Where larger numbers of whites were or are in proximity -clandestine mixture is apparent. The better educated show -often decidedly good mental, mechanical, business, and artistic abilities. -In the isolated localities, such as St. Lawrence Island, the -people have apparently escaped the period of demoralization that so -often attends the passing from the old to new conditions.</p> - -<p>Tuberculosis and venereal diseases are present but not prevalent; -rachitis seems absent. The people show much endurance, but longevity -as yet is not much in evidence. Alcoholism is almost nonexistent -except on occasions when drink is provided by whites.</p> - -<p>4. The region of the western Eskimo shows a former larger population -of the same people. This is attested by many "dead" villages -and old sites. And this population evidently goes back some centuries -at least, for some of the remains are extensive and both their -depth and their contents give the impression of prolonged duration; -though seemingly all thus far seen could be comprised within the -Christian era.</p> - -<p>5. No habitations or remains belonging to a distinct people (Indians) -have thus far come to light anywhere within the territory -of the western Eskimo; and no trace has as yet been found of -anything human that could be attributed to greater antiquity than -that of the Eskimo. But the older beaches and banks where such -remains might have existed have either been covered with storm-driven -sands and are now perpetually frozen, or they have been -"cut" away and lost; and there seems no hope for finding such remains -in the interior away from the sea or streams, for such parts -were never under recent geological conditions favorable for human -habitation.</p> - -<p>6. The now known remains consist of the ruins of dwellings and -of accumulated refuse, the two together forming occasionally marked -elevated heaps or ridges. Some of these ridges are over 18 feet deep. -They contain many archeological specimens of stone, ivory, wood, and -bone. The ivory in the older layers is more or less "fossilized." The -upper layers of such remains usually contain some articles of white<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span> -man's manufacture (copper, iron, beads); lower layers are wholly -aboriginal. Indian artifacts occur in Eskimo sites only in the -proximity of the Indian on the rivers.</p> - -<p>7. The prevalent or later culture shown by the remains is fairly -rich, of good to relatively rather high grade, and of considerable uniformity. -There are numerous indications of extensive trade in -various articles, particularly those of the Kobuk "jade."</p> - -<p>8. On the Asiatic coast, in the northern parts of the Bering Sea, -on the Seward Peninsula, in the Kotzebue region and at Point Hope, -the deeper portions of the remains give examples of the higher -and richer "fossil ivory culture." This is distinguished by many -objects of high-class workmanship, and by curvilinear to scroll designs. -The art appears to have distinct affinities with, on one hand, -deeper Asia, and on the other with the northwest coast of America -and even farther south. It is not clearly separated from either the -contemporaneous or the later Eskimo art, yet it is of a higher grade -and delicacy and much distinctiveness. It is not yet known where -this art begins geographically, what preceded it, whence it was -derived, just how far it reached along the coasts, or even what was -its main center. It seems best for the present to reserve to it the -name of the "fossil ivory art" (rather than Jenness's too limiting -"Bering Sea culture"), and to defer all conclusions concerning it to -the future.</p> - -<p>9. It seems justifiable, however, to point to the significance of what -is already known. This "fossil ivory art" especially, but also the -general culture of the western Eskimo, are highly developed and -differentiated cultures, denoting considerable cultural background, -extended duration, and conditions generally favorable to industrial -and artistic developments. It has, it is already ascertained, certain -affinities in Asia. If this art and the attending culture were -advancing toward America, as seems most probable, then the question -of cultural influences and introductions from Asia to America -will have to be reopened.</p> - -<p>10. Due to the perpetually frozen ground and the consequent -necessity of surface burials, the area of the western Eskimo was, -until recently, relatively rich in skeletal remains lying on the surface. -It is no more so now, due to storms, beasts, missionaries, -teachers, and scientific collectors. But while only a scattering remains -of the surface material, there is much and that of special -importance lying in the ground, mostly self-buried or assimilated by -the tundra. This material, which now and then is accompanied by -interesting archeological specimens, calls for prompt attention; it -will help greatly in clearing local and other problems.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span></p> - -<p>Occasionally burials were made or dead bodies were left in old -houses. These remains, too, may prove of special value.</p> - -<p>11. Observations on both the living and the skeletal remains in -the western Eskimo area, supplemented by those on the northern -and northeastern Eskimo, are now ample enough to justify certain -generalizations. These are:</p> - -<p><em>a.</em> Barring the Aleuts, who are Indian, the Eskimo throughout -belong somatologically to but one family, and this family appears -as a remarkably pure racial unit, somewhat admixed in the south -with the Aleut, on the western rivers with the Indian, and in the -east and a few spots elsewhere with recent white people.</p> - -<p><em>b.</em> Within this family there is observable a considerable cranial -change, with moderate differences in nasal breadth, stature, and -color, but the general characteristics of the physiognomy, and of the -body and the skeleton, remain remarkably similar.</p> - -<p><em>c.</em> The changes in the skull affect mainly the vault, which, in dimensions, -ranges through all the intermediary grades from moderately -broad, short, and moderately high to pronouncedly narrow, -long, and high, and in form from moderately convex over the top to -markedly keel shaped.</p> - -<p>The distribution of skull form is somewhat irregular, but in general -the broader and shorter heads predominate in the Asiatic and -the southwestern and midwestern American portions of the Eskimo -region, while the longest and narrowest heads are those of parts of -the Seward Peninsula, and especially those from an isolated old -settlement near Barrow with those of Greenland (exclusive of the -Smith Sound), Baffin Land, and, judging from other data, also eastern -Labrador. More or less transitional forms are found between -the two extremes, without there being anywhere a clear line of -demarcation.</p> - -<p>The breadth of the nose, too, averages highest in the Asiatic, Bering -Sea, and the more southern Eskimo of the Alaska coast, the least -along the northern Arctic coast and in the northeast. The stature -is highest along the western Alaska rivers and parts of the coast, -least in Greenland and Labrador.</p> - -<p>The skin, while differing within but moderate limits, is apparently -lightest along parts (at least) of the northern Arctic.</p> - -<p>12. The whole distribution of the physical characteristics among -the Eskimo strongly suggests gradual changes—within the family -itself; and as the long, narrow, high skull with keeled dome, occurring -in a few limited localities in the west but principally in southern -Greenland and neighboring territories, appears to be the farthest -limit of the differentiation which finds no parallel in the neighboring -or other peoples, while the form found in northeastern Asia, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span> -Bering Sea, and southwestern Alaska is near to those of various surrounding -peoples, the inevitable resulting deduction is that, in the -light of our present knowledge, the origin of the Eskimo is to be -looked for in the western rather than the northern Arctic or the -northeastern area, and that particularly in the northern Bering Sea -and the adjacent, particularly perhaps the northern, Asiatic region. -The author is, therefore, led to regard the area between 160° west -and 160° east longitude and 60° to 75° north latitude as containing -the primal Eskimo-genic center, and as the source of the oldest -Eskimo or proto-Eskimo extensions, while the larger part of the -Eskimo differentiations is in all probability American.</p> - -<p>13. The earlier notions relating to the western Eskimo, namely, -those that would attribute his physical characteristics to a large -admixture with the Indian, are now untenable for the following -reasons:</p> - -<p><em>a.</em> The distribution of the western Eskimo traits and measurements -does not indicate any important heterogeneous mixture.</p> - -<p><em>b.</em> The groups most distant from the Indians, such as the St. -Lawrence or Diomede islanders and the Asiatic Eskimo, show very -nearly the same somatological characteristics as the rest of the -southwestern and midwestern groups.</p> - -<p><em>c.</em> Among the western Eskimo there are no data, no traditions, and -no linguistic or cultural evidence of any considerable Indian -admixture.</p> - -<p><em>d.</em> The western contingents of the family do not represent a physical -resultant or means of the more narrow and long-headed type -with the neighboring Indians of Alaska (or elsewhere in the north), -but they equal or even exceed the Indians in the principal features of -the skull, face, and in other particulars.</p> - -<p>14. The nearest physical relatives of the Eskimo are evidently some -of the Chukchi, with probably some other north Asiatic groups; their -nearest basic relatives in general are, according to many indications, -the American Indians. The two families, Indian and Eskimo, -appear much, it may be repeated, like the thumb and fingers of one -and the same hand, the hand being the large, original palaeo-Asiatic -source of both. But the Eskimo are evidently a younger, smaller and -still a more uniform member; which speaks strongly for their later -origin, migration and internal differentiation.</p> - -<p>15. With his numbers, purity of blood, approachability, present -facilities of language, many of the young speaking good English, -and other favorable conditions, the Eskimo offers to anthropology -one of its best opportunities for a thorough study of an important -human group, adapted to highly exceptional natural conditions. His -food, mode of life, the climate, and isolation, give promise of inter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span>esting -conditions of the internal organs, perhaps even blood, and of -physiological as well as chemical and pathological peculiarities. This -opportunity, together with the excellent and important opportunities -for archeology in the Bering Sea and neighboring regions, should be -utilized to the possible limit within the present generation, for the -western Eskimo, on one hand, is rapidly becoming civilized, changing -his food, clothing, housing, and habits; is also becoming more mixed -with whites; and is most assiduously exploiting the archeological -sites in his region for the sake of the income that comes to him from -the ever-rising demand for beads, etc., and from "fossil" ivory.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span></p> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - - - - -<h2>BIBLIOGRAPHY</h2> - - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Abbes, H.</span> Die Eskimos des Cumberland-Sundes. Globus, <span class="smcap">XLVI</span>, 198-201, 213-218, -Braunschweig, 1884.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Asmussen, P.</span> Die erste Entdeckung Amerikas. 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Inaug.-Diss, Zürich, 1906.</p></div> - -<div id="transnote"> - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> - - - - -<h2>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES</h2> - -<p>Supplied missing anchor for footnote <a href="#Footnote_33_33">[33]</a> on p. <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</p> - -<p>Silently corrected simple spelling, grammar, and typographical errors.</p> - -<p>Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed.</p> - -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Anthropological Survey in Alaska, by Ales Hrdlicka - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA *** - -***** This file should be named 50752-h.htm or 50752-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/0/7/5/50752/ - -Produced by Richard Tonsing, PM for Bureau of American -Ethnology and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by the Bibliothèque nationale -de France (BnF/Gallica) at http://gallica.bnf.fr) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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