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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4ed29e8 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #50821 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/50821) diff --git a/old/50821-0.txt b/old/50821-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index c7d7147..0000000 --- a/old/50821-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1033 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Causes of the Successes of the Ottoman -Turks, by James Surtees Phillpotts - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Causes of the Successes of the Ottoman Turks - -Author: James Surtees Phillpotts - -Release Date: January 1, 2016 [EBook #50821] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CAUSES OF SUCCESSES OF OTTOMAN TURKS *** - - - - -Produced by Turgut Dincer (This file was produced from -images generously made available by Hathi Trust) - - - - - - - - STANHOPE PRIZE ESSAY--1859. - - - - - THE - - CAUSES OF THE SUCCESSES - - OF THE - - OTTOMAN TURKS. - - - BY - - JAMES SURTEES PHILLPOTTS, - - SCHOLAR OF NEW COLLEGE. - -[Illustration] - - OXFORD: - - T. and G. SHRIMPTON. - - M DCCC LIX. - - - - -THE CAUSES OF THE SUCCESSES OF THE OTTOMAN TURKS. - - -By the fall of the Seljukian dynasty in Asia Minor, a vast number of -Turks, scattered over the fertile tracts of Western Asia, were left -without any organized government. The Emirs of the Seljouks in their -different districts tried to set up separate kingdoms for themselves, -but their power was successfully exercised only in making depredations -upon each other. For some time they were under the sway of the Khans of -Persia, but the decline of the Mogul Empire after the death of Cazan, -freed them from this control[1]. During this time of general anarchy, -a clan of Oghouz Turks, under Ertogruhl, settled in the dominions of -Alaeddin, the chief of Iconium. These Turks were of the same family as -the Huns and Avars, and the other Barbarian hordes, whose invasions -had continually devastated Europe for nearly ten centuries[2]; nor had -the energy and restless activity of their race yet begun to fail. They -were all united by the affinity of race, as well as by their language, -and by the common bond of the Sunnite creed. In return for Ertogruhl’s -services in war Alaeddin gave him a grant of territory in the highlands -of Phrygia. The warlike spirit of Ertogruhl’s son Othman, raised him to -the rank of an independent chieftain, and he soon made himself master -of strong positions on the borders of the Greek Empire. With ill-judged -parsimony, the Emperor Michael had disbanded the militia, who guarded -the passes of Mount Olympus, and had thus left Bithynia open to -attack. Orchan, the son of Othman, took advantage of these favourable -occurrences, enlarged his territory at the expense of the Greeks, and -by uniting several of the scattered Turkish tribes under one head, laid -the foundation of the Ottoman Empire. - -Thus the circumstances of the times were throughout eminently -favourable to the Ottomans. The fall of the Seljouk monarchy, and -the consequent diffusion of the Turkish population, had given free -scope to their enterprising spirit. Through the civil wars of the -Byzantine Emperors and the disputes of the Venetians and Genoese, they -were enabled to gain their first footing in Europe. Had Amurath’s -attempt to extend his kingdom over the Christian nations of Thrace and -Roumelia been made in the 11th century, he would have roused all Europe -in common resistance to his rising power. But in 1388, the Servian -confederacy could obtain no aid from Western Christendom. As long as -Richard II. was king of England, and Charles VI. of France--while -Germany was ruled by the dissolute Winceslaus--Amurath had little to -fear from the powers of the West[3]. Spain was too much occupied by -her wars with the Moslems at home to think of the sufferings of her -Christian brethren in the East. Nor was there any danger that the rival -popes of Avignon and Rome would forget their private animosities to -assist in arresting the fall of a distant and schismatical church. - -At the crowning point of their success, the siege of Constantinople -by Mahomet II., the advantages of time were again on the side of the -Ottomans. The Roman pontiff, furious at their obstinacy in refusing -to join the communion of the Latin church, had conceived an aversion -for the Greeks which could hardly be exceeded by any abhorrence of -the Mnssulman’s creed. It might have been expected that he would -rouse himself to prevent the destruction of the Eastern defences -of Christendom, but he chose rather a selfish and inglorious part, -content to foresee and even to foretell the coming overthrow of the -Greek Empire[4]. Thus did the Patriarch of the West, the natural head -of any confederacy for the succour of Constantinople, look on at its -fall with seeming unconcern. Meanwhile the English and the French were -engaged in a quarrel too deadly to be reconciled. The Germans would -not join with the Hungarians, nor would the Spanish have any concert -with the Genoese. In short no coalition of the powers of Europe was -possible. Even the Greeks themselves were too much divided by religious -dissensions to offer united resistance to their Moslem foe, and their -want of union could only be equalled by their cowardice. The valour -of the last Constantine did indeed shed glory over his own particular -fate, but the issue of the struggle could not be doubtful when the -disciplined troops and the famed artillery of the Turk were opposed to -the feeble and disunited force of the enervated Byzantines. - -These external circumstances are important, as having been auxiliary to -the rise of the Ottomans. But the main causes of their success must be -sought in the wisdom of their rulers and in the institutions which they -established. - -Their government was most singularly constituted, and of a character -totally dissimilar to any of the governments of Christendom. The -institutions too from which they derived their solid and lasting power -were for the most part peculiar to themselves. On these institutions -the stability of the Ottoman greatness mainly rested. With their first -appearance it arose; with their gradual development it had grown; as -they were neglected and fell into disuse, the ancient glory of the -Crescent was dimmed, obscured, and finally extinguished. - -Even in the legendary history of the founder of their nation is -shadowed forth the faint outline of their peculiar, policy. By patient -waiting till he attained his purpose, Othman won his wife from an alien -tribe. His expeditions were sanctioned by the blessing of the Holy -Scheik Edebali. From the fruit of these expeditions, from the Christian -captives who were condemned to slavery, was selected the wife of his -son Orchan. A Christian apostate, ‘Michael of the Pointed Beard’ was -the chief of Othman’s captains. - -It was from the example of their founder, they would have us -believe, that they adopted customs of receiving renegades, of foreign -intermarriage, a warlike zeal sanctioned by religion, a system of -slavery-institutions which in later times were the distinguishing -characteristics of their race[5]. It matters not if these accounts -of Othman’s early history be the invention of later times; this -rather shows (since fiction is more philosophical than truth), that -the Ottomans themselves were convinced that it was mainly on the -preservation of these usages that their greatness rested. It was, -however, reserved for the sons of Othman to set the system on a -permanent basis, and to the legislative genius of Alaeddin in the -succeeding reign, was chiefly due the stability of the Ottoman race. - -In general the Asiatic dynasties culminate to their height of power -with a marvellous rapidity, and then, dependent solely on the merits -of their rulers, with no institutions calculated to ensure any lasting -greatness, fall by a decline no less rapid and less marvellous than -their rise. The career of Ottoman conquest lacked the dazzling grandeur -which invests the exploits of Genghis Khan, or Timour, but it was not -destined to be as ephemeral as they. In its slow and cautious advance, -in the gradual organization of conquered provinces, in the unswerving -patience which waited always for the fittest opportunity, it bore no -faint resemblance to the stately march of Roman sovereignty. - -The close of Othman’s life of seventy years saw him but just made -possessor of a single city of importance. It was not till the reign of -Orchan that the Ottomans ceased to acknowledge the sovereignty of the -Iconian Sultans, and first adopted a coinage of their own. The wise -policy of Orchan’s coadjutor, Alaeddin, gave them a respite from war -for twenty years, in which time he consolidated the small kingdom they -had already won, and perfected a system which was to be the instrument -of future conquest. - -It was during this period of tranquillity that the organization of -the army was effected--an organization which, possessing in itself -the various merits of the most invincible forces that have ever been -collected--the asceticism and brotherhood of the Spartan companies, the -mixture of races in the army of Hannibal, the religious zeal of the -English Puritans, and the devotion of Caesar’s 10th legion--added to -all these, two peculiarities of their creed, the absolute subjection of -every individual to the sacred authority of the Sultan, and the warlike -inspirations of a religion that taught them that ‘in the conflict of -the crossing scymetars Paradise was to be won.’ - -It is a remarkable and significant fact, that this abstinence from war -for the long period of twenty years was never repeated by the Ottomans -during the time of their success. That soldiers long unemployed must -become either citizens or rebels is an axiom which must have special -force in a government like that of the Ottomans. War was the normal -condition of their race. It was to this object that not only their -iconoclastic creed, but the whole tenor of their institutions pointed, -and in this aspect they must chiefly be contemplated. - -The feudal system of the Ottomans was essentially military. It was the -device of an aggressive power and was made to answer a double purpose; -to secure the permanency of its conquests, and to supply soldiers for -war. Ottoman feudalism was wholly different from that which prevailed -in Western Europe. The great distinction lay in the fact, that among -the Ottomans all the feudal vassals held their fiefs directly of -the Sultan, or his officers; whereas in Western Europe, between the -sovereigns and the lower tenants was interposed a powerful class, -which always more or less counterbalanced the supreme power. The one -was the division of a kingdom into petty fiefs, the other the fusion -of conquered territories under the sway of one victorious monarch. It -was through the feudal system of the Ottomans, in combination with -their institution of slavery, that war was made to feed war; that every -conquest supplied the means for future conquest. - -The use of the Ottoman system for the supply of soldiers in time of -war may be estimated from the fact, that an armed horseman was required -for every fief of the value of twelve pounds a year, and another for -every additional twenty pounds. In the time of Solyman these fiefs were -able to furnish 150,000 cavalry[6]. The feudal troops were always kept -in readiness, nor was anything required to summon them to the field -but an order of the Sultan to the two Beglerbegs of the Empire from -whom it was communicated to a regular gradation of officers entrusted -with the task of mustering these Spahi, or Cavaliers, in their separate -divisions[7]. This force served without pay. If they fell in battle, -they were honoured as martyrs: if they distinguished themselves, or if -the expedition was successful, they were rewarded with larger gifts of -property. All their hopes of advancement depended upon the Sultan, and -his success in war. They were ready to do his bidding in any part of -the world, for the greater part of every country which they subdued was -divided among the members of their own body. - -It is to this institution of feudalism that we must look for an -explanation of the fact, that the Turkish conquests, unlike those of -other great conquerors, seldom returned to their original possessors. -Immediately an additional piece of territory was gained, it became an -integral part of the Empire. Thus it was that the Sultans were able to -consolidate and unite their dominions, step by step, with every fresh -acquisition of land. In most cases, the conquest of distant territories -has been any thing rather than lucrative to the victorious nation. But -the Turkish conquests reimbursed the Sultan, and enriched the nation; -some portions of land were regularly assigned to the sovereign, and -others became public property. - -Thus the community of the Timarli, or fief-holders, carried out, on -a large scale, the intention of the Roman system of colonise, both -as guarding the dangerous frontiers and ensuring the preservation of -conquered lands. - -But there is one aspect of the Ottoman feudalism which we have not -yet regarded, and which redounds more than any other to their honor. -Toleration of creed, with one remarkable exception, was given to the -conquered Christians, and even in the days of Othman, equal protection -was dealt out alike to Greek and Turk, Christian and Mahometan. This -tolerant and enlightened system induced numbers of the Christians who -dwelt on the borders of the Ottoman Empire to exchange their hard -position, as Hungarian serfs, for that of Rayas under the Turks. - -We have said that there was one most signal exception to the general -toleration of their rule, and this was the institution of the corps -of Janissaries, the Yengi Cheri, or “New Soldiers” of Alaeddin. The -importance of a well-disciplined standing army struck the far-seeing -mind of Orchan’s coadjutor, and to the organization of the army he -gave his chief attention during the twenty years of peace of which -we have spoken. He first formed, of the native Osmanli, a corps of -paid infantry. But it soon appeared that these Turks were too proud -and turbulent to endure the necessary discipline. In this perplexity -we are told that Alaeddin sought the advice of his relative Black -Khalil Tschendereli. Black Khalil’s counsel dictated a device of the -most subtle and effective kind--that the Ottoman army must be formed -out of the children of the conquered Christians, who should be forced -to become Mahometans. By this means, he argued, you will gain troops -which can be schooled to any discipline. To the Mussulman religion -you will gain many converts, while you will prevent any rebellion of -your Christian subjects by the incorporation of the whole strength of -their race with your own forces. The plan was adopted by Alaeddin and -carried out in the next reign by the First Amurath. Amurath’s warlike -spirit, and the lust of conquest that was predominant in his race, led -him to make repeated expeditions against the Sclavonic tribes of Servia -and Bosnia. Among this hardy race he found no treasures of gold and -silver--no spoil for his conquering army--but he found an inexhaustible -supply of brave soldiers[8]. The children who were taken captive in his -wars were immediately disciplined in the schools of the Janissaries, -and in due time drafted into their ranks. Those who were not available -for this purpose, or for the service of the Sultan, were sold as -slaves, and thus brought in a considerable revenue to the Turkish -Emperor. - -As long as the flower of the Christian youth were converted not merely -into Mahometans, but into devoted supporters of the Ottoman power, -any revolt of the Rayas was impossible. In their strict discipline -and continued occupation the proselytes lost all remembrance of their -kindred and their country. With the highest positions in the Empire -open to their ambition, they might well glory in a station that raised -them over the heads of the native Osmanli. The rigorous pride with -which they kept their own body aloof from any foreign admixture may -offer a parallel to that remarkable system by which the proudest -chivalry of Egypt was formed out of Circassian slaves. - -Thus at the court of the Sultan were gathered an abundance of men, -from various nations, devoted only to the common weal of the race into -which they were adopted. Not only were there the prisoners taken in -war, as well as the tithe, so to speak, of Christian children taken -every five years, but from every pacha of the Empire came presents -of slaves to the Sultan[9]. These slaves were divided into different -classes, according to their abilities. Those who were destined for -Janissaries were trained to every exercise that could increase their -physical strength, and inure them to toil and hardship. Others were -educated for the more immediate service of the Sultan, either as his -state-officers or his body-guard. Thus the Turkish armies, though -they were those of an Asiatic nation, were composed of the hardiest -of Europeans. Nor were these Europeans ever suffered to fall into the -enervating habits of Asiatics. They had no homes in which they could be -pampered with Oriental luxury. Their barracks were like monasteries; -their dress the dark robes of monks; their meals the frugal fare of -mountaineers. They were not allowed to take wives; they might ply no -trades; engage in no commerce; nor were any admitted into their body -who had not gone through the regular course of this discipline. At home -they lived as if they were in the camp; in the camp they preserved the -same order, the same discipline as at home. War was the occupation -of their life. They had given no “hostages to fortune;” they had no -domestic ties that could bind them to a peaceful life. Their hopes of -advancement rested on their valour in battle. They were justly proud of -the achievements of their corps, and were stimulated by every motive of -ambition, self-interest, and the love of glory, above all, emulation -to surpass the successes of their predecessors. They knew that the -watchful eyes of the Sultan were on them in the fight, and that every -deed of heroism would meet with its appropriate reward. If he fell, -what recked a Janissary of death, save as the glorious consummation -of his prowess, as the opening of Paradise to the martyr who had won -it[10]? - -The testimony of contemporary writers to the wonderful efficacy of -this remarkable institution is unanimous. Schwendi, a general of their -opponents, owns that the Janissaries had never turned their backs in -battle. Busbequius, the German ambassador, struck with admiration at -their discipline and endurance, warns his countrymen of the nature of -the foe whom they must be prepared to encounter, if they enter a war -with the Turks. Barbaro, an ambassador of the Venetian government, -comments with wonder on the fact that the power of the Ottomans -mainly rested on a corps of compulsory converts from Christianity. -The Venetian Relationi, quoted by Von Ranke, are full of the remarks -of ambassadors expressing their admiration of the whole system of the -Ottoman arms[11]. - -One of the most conspicuous features of their discipline was the -order, temperance, and cleanliness of an Ottoman camp, as constrasted -with the drunken, dissolute, and filthy habits of the armies of -Christendom[12]. Frequently encamped as they were in the pestilential -districts which proved disastrous to the French and English armies at -the commencement of the late Russian war, we can easily understand how -great an advantage over their opponents these wise regulations secured -them in their campaigns. - -The fiery valour of the Christian knights might surpass the more -patient courage of the Ottoman troops, but their pride of birth, and -spirit of independence would not brook the discipline, nor render -the obedience, for which the Janissaries were remarkable; and to -this may be attributed the fatal results of the battle of Nicopolis. -At Kossova the Asiatic wing of the Turkish army had recoiled from -the repeated onsets of the Bosnian king and his warriors, but the -Janissaries ‘fighting with the zeal of proselytes’ against their -Sclavonic brethren recovered the fortunes of the day for Amurath[13]. -At Varna the panic which had spread through the Turkish troops from -the furious attacks of Ladislaus and Hunyades was only checked by the -firm resistance, the unflinching endurance of the Janissaries[14]. When -the desperate and heroic resistance of the last Greek Emperor, and his -few brave adherents, had driven back the Anatolian soldiery, and the -fate of Constantinople was still hanging in the balance, it was their -surpassing valour that turned the scales of victory, bore down all -resistance, and won Eastern Rome for the capital of the Ottoman Empire. - -At the great crises of their history we have seen how it was the -power of the Janissaries that saved the Ottomans; but in every -battle, in every campaign, the possession of a formidable corps of -well-disciplined infantry at a time when their opponents had no regular -infantry at all, gave them a continual advantage. It has been remarked -that the Ottomans never encountered the forces of the only two European -nations who had at this time any organized foot-soldiers[15]. We all -know how the chivalry of France fell before the English bowmen at -Cressy and Poictiers, and how the troops of Austria fled before the -halberdiers of Switzerland, and we may doubt whether the Janissaries -would have been equally invincible had they met the English or the -Swiss on the battle-fields of Servia. - -The institution of the Janissary force must not be considered as a -system of mere cruelty and intolerance. The records of the age tell us -that it was an usual occurrence for Christian parents voluntarily to -bring their sons to the press-gang of the Janissaries, in order that in -due time they might be enrolled in their ranks, while the high offices -which were thrown open to these proselytes of Mahometanism brought -renegades in numbers to the Sultan’s court, where no distinction of -birth or country interfered to mar their fortunes. This system of -the reception of refugees from all countries gained for the Ottomans -many of the greatest names which adorn their history. Of the ten -grand-viziers of Solyman, eight were renegades from Christianity. It -was indeed noted as an unusual circumstance that one of his viziers was -a native Turk[16]. Piale, who defeated the united Christian fleets in -1560 off the isle of Djerbe, was himself the son of Christian parents. -Cicala Pasha, the great commander under the successors of Solyman, -was an Italian by birth, but as aga of the Janissaries became one of -the fiercest enemies of the Christians. And in the earliest times we -find that Evrenos, who under Bajazet and Amurath I. added the greater -part of Greece to the Ottoman dominions, was originally a Christian -chieftain and a guardian of the passes of Mount Olympus. During the -flourishing period of the Empire nearly all the high civil and military -offices were filled by Christian slaves, who had risen either from the -ranks of the Janissaries, or who had been brought up by the Mufti in -the profession of the law[17]. Thus, to use the words of Gibbon, “a -servile class, an artificial people, were raised by the discipline of -education to obey, to conquer, and to command[18].” - -If it be true according to the account we have given of the -constitution of the Empire, that the highest offices of the state were -conferred by the ruling prince on men raised by his own hand from -slavery--that the feudal tenants were subject to a single superior, and -the army directed by a single will,--it is evident that nothing but -the largest capacity for legislation and military command could have -successfully wielded such enormous authority. - -Of the extraordinary genius of the early Sultans there is abundant -proof[19]. The character of Othman was precisely suited for one -who was to be the founder of a dynasty. He was conspicuous among a -warlike tribe for his boldness and independence, and he possessed that -marvellous influence over the minds of those around him, which is one -of the peculiar characteristics of the greatest men. In Orchan we see -the enduring watchfulness, the indomitable resolution which never fails -to attain its object, while in the person of Alaeddin his coadjutor we -may admire the far-sighted legislator, the brightness of whose original -genius shone forth undimmed by the prejudices of an unenlightened -age. By the organization of a standing army he marked out future -conquests for his race, while by the tolerant spirit of his legislation -he ordained that a due protection should be given to the conquered. -Amurath by a series of successful campaigns gained the city of -Adrianople for his capital. Then with admirable prudence he paused for -a while to consolidate his conquests and mature his resources, and thus -paved the way for his final victory at Kossova. The name of Yilderim -or the Thunderbolt testifies to the energy of the First Bajazet, but -it was a just punishment for his overbearing pride in later years that -the Tartar Conqueror Timour was provoked to crush his power on the -field of Angora, and to doom him to an ignominious captivity. The work -of the destroyer was for the time complete, and it seemed as if the -Ottoman power was irrecoverably ruined. But the mould into which their -national life had been cast was not so easily destroyed. The force of -their institutions still remained, and the people were still attached -to the tolerance of their ancient government, and so, after many years -of civil war, the unity of the Ottoman power was easily restored by -the vigorous hand of Mahomet the First. The bold measures of Amurath -II. caused the signal overthrow of his Hungarian opponents at Varna, -and the annexation of Servia and Bosnia in the succeeding reign are -due in great measure to his toleration and prudence. The abdication -of his father gave Mahomet the Second experience in the command of an -Empire at the early age of eighteen, and a double failure as viceroy -secured him wisdom for his sole reign. Setting aside any consideration -of his character, it is impossible to deny his legislative ability -and military genius, in building up the greatness of his nation. -The domestic dissensions of the Empire, under the feebler hand of -Bajazet II., showed how requisite a warlike and energetic Sultan was -to its preservation under its peculiar constitution. Tabriz, and the -subjection of the Mamelukes, were monuments of the ferocious spirit of -the warrior Selim. By ceaseless carnage he made himself master of the -whole of Egypt, took great part of Syria, and added the Caliphate to -the titles of the Ottoman sovereign. At the moment when his cruelty had -nearly driven his people to rebellion, the rise of Solyman furnished a -pillar of strength to the house of Othman. At the time of his reign the -thrones of Europe, as well as those of Persia and India, were occupied -by some of the most powerful sovereigns of modern times. But in “a -century rich with mighty spirits” there are few names which can compare -with that of Solyman the Magnificent, the great lawgiver and commander -of his nation. Under his sway, the dynasty of the Ottoman Turks reached -its zenith. Though the institutions of his predecessors, and the -military organization they had bequeathed, supplied a foundation, yet -it was in great measure to his own genius, vigour, and capacity, that -the mighty fabric of the Ottoman power owed its stupendous greatness, -and that an Empire founded but three centuries before by a few families -of wandering Turkomans, then numbered among its subjects twenty -different races, and nearly fifty millions of inhabitants, and still -survives with wonderful tenacity, after three centuries of decline, -unbroken by a single vicissitude of success. - -Thus for ten successive reigns, with perhaps a single exception, the -throne of the Ottoman Turks was held by men of extraordinary talents. -Nor was this vigour of the early Sultans merely accidental. The strict -discipline to which they were subjected in early years, the attention -that was paid to their education, and their subsequent training in the -council and the field, must all have tended to this result. - -The real weakness of the Ottoman government, its absolute dependence -on a single man, was marvellously compensated and overcome by a -continued succession of vigorous sovereigns. The superiority of a -well regulated constitution over a despotism generally lies in a -comparative equality of ability through all its different members. As -long as absolute power is held by the strong hand of a great man all is -prosperous. But a continued succession of great men rarely occurs, and -when it falls to an irresolute hand to wield the sceptre of despotism -the real weakness of the system appears. In France, the Revolution was -the ultimate result of the exercise of unlimited power, by Louis the -fourteenth; in England, the great Rebellion was the final issue of the -attempt to subject the English people to a despotism. The reason that -the same result did not occur in the case of the Ottomans is to be -found in the historic facts: first, that the later Sultans were, in -the eyes of Mahometans, the successors of the Prophet, as well as the -descendants of Othman; and, secondly, that the Janissaries, like the -Praetorian guards at Rome, jealously prevented their rulers from being -made subject to any power but their own. - -Besides the wonderful efficacy of their military organization and the -talents of their Sultans, there is one point of their history which is -worthy of remark as having tended indirectly towards their success. -The whole tenor of their legislation was much in advance of that of -the European powers in general. English history has often been said -to be a century before that of France, but the history of the early -Turkish Emperors was much more strikingly advanced beyond that of the -other sovereigns of Europe. At the end of the fifteenth century, when, -although the times were not yet ready for the development of popular -right, the oppressions of European feudalism had become intolerable, -the strong hand of despotic sovereigns supplied the only safe guard -against lawless outrage. The aggrandizement of their power at that time -saved the states which they governed. In this respect, however, the -Ottomans were before their age--for whilst the states of Europe were -for the most part impotent through the overbearing spirit of the feudal -nobility, the Ottoman government was vigorously swayed by an Absolute -Monarch[20]. Thus, when England was distracted by the wars of the -Roses, Mahomet the Conqueror was leading his nation on to victory. In -fact, the aggrandizement of the Ottoman Sultans was anterior to that of -the European sovereigns. - -In other points we may notice the same advancement in their history. -Their whole military system was beyond their age. They possessed -disciplined infantry, when a standing army was unknown, and cavalry -had not yet been supplanted by foot-soldiers in the rest of Europe. -They had a regular commissariat department to supply their armies with -the necessaries of war, and a special corps to do the work of Sappers -and Miners, long before such a division of labour was adopted by -Christendom. On the departments of artillery and engineering Mahomet -II. bestowed his special attention. The Ottomans first made regular -approaches in besieging a fortress, and became masters of the Italians -in the art of fortification[21]. - -It is curious also that a nation popularly considered to have -consisted of unenlightened barbarians should have been far in advance -of us in some of the points which we consider as the distinguishing -features of modern European civilization. Every advantage of Free -Trade was allowed to the foreign merchant who traded to the Turkish -sea-ports[22]. A system of municipal government was established -throughout their dominions. A religious toleration beyond the spirit -of the age was carried out towards the Christian population of their -kingdom. In this particular the difference in the spirit of the -Christian and Turkish governments is well illustrated by a traditionary -account of the answers of Amurath and Hunyades, when questioned by the -Servians on the subject of the maintenance of their religion. While -Hunyades is said to have declared that, if victorious, he would compel -them to join the Latin Communion, Amurath’s famous answer was: “I will -build a church near every mosque, and the people shall worship in -whichever they may prefer[23].” - -But it was not to a purer moral principle that the system owed its -origin. The clear sight of their rulers perceived that some toleration -was necessary for the well-being of their composite empire. But the -ruling genius of their creed was not tolerant then, any more than it -is now. The institution of the Janissaries was in accordance with -the tenets of their religion. But the protection of their Christian -subjects was the conciliatory measure of a wise legislator, not of a -devout Mahometan. Oh the one hand the compulsory conversion of a large -portion of their hardier slave-population furnished them with a rich -harvest of soldiers, while their toleration in other respects procured -for them the contentment of their less warlike subjects. - -The truth of the remark of Machiavelli that a man cannot found a -state without opportunities, was not impugned by the rise of Othman -and his dynasty. The divisions of the Seljukians seemed to invite the -exaltation of some new power. A widely diffused Turkish population was -left without a ruler. The imbecility of the Persian and Eastern Empires -afforded ample scope for purposes of aggression. The distracted state -of Christendom prevented any combination against the intrusion of -Mussulmans in Europe. - -Such were the external circumstances that favoured the rise of the -Ottomans. But the great internal Causes of their successes we have -traced to the genius of their early Sultans, and to their military -organization, under which latter head must be included their peculiar -feudal system and the institution of their Janissary corps. There were -other incidental causes of their greatness, such as the warlike spirit -common to the Tartar race and the Mahometan religion, the absolute -position of the supreme head which gave unity to the empire, and its -early progress in prudent legislation. - -The failure of the two great elements of their power mainly caused -their decline. The empire needed vigorous rulers; the Sultans after -Solyman have been characterized by a native statesman as “either fools -or tyrants.” It required a well-disciplined army; but after Solyman, -the discipline of the Janissaries decayed; their very system was -corrupted; they admitted native Turks into their body; they began to -take wives and to ply trades, becoming turbulent citizens rather than -soldiers; and with their decay fell the military organization of the -state. - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [Footnote 1: Gibbon, vol. viii. p. 20.] - - [Footnote 2: Ibid. vol. viii. p. 2. n.] - - [Footnote 3: Creasy, History of Ottomans, vol. i, p. 43.] - - [Footnote 4: Gibbon, vol. viii. p. 153.] - - [Footnote 5: See an Article in the Christian Remembrancer - for April, 1855, p. 232.] - - [Footnote 6: Creasy, vol. i. p. 327.] - - [Footnote 7: Ranke’s Spanish and Ottoman Empires, p. 1.] - - [Footnote 8: Gibbon, vol. viii. 28.] - - [Footnote 9: Ranke, p. 6.] - - [Footnote 10: Ranke, passim.] - - [Footnote 11: Ranke, p. 7.] - - [Footnote 12: Creasy, vol. i. p. 324.] - - [Footnote 13: Gibbon, vol. viii. p. 30.] - - [Footnote 14: Creasy, vol. i. p. 112.] - - [Footnote 15: Creasy, vol. i. p. 161.] - - [Footnote 16: Hulme’s Chapters on Turkish History (in - Blackwood, July, 1840,) p. 18.] - - [Footnote 17: Von Hammer’s History of the Ottoman Turks, - vol. i. p. 193.] - - [Footnote 18: Gibbon, vol. viii, p. 93.] - - [Footnote 19: Sec Freeman’s History and Conquests of the - Saracens, p. 145.] - - [Footnote 20: For proofs that the Ottoman government was - really absolute, see Robertson’s Charles V. note 43.] - - [Footnote 21: Robertson’s Charles V. note 45.] - - [Footnote 22: Creasy, i. p. 334.] - - [Footnote 23: Creasy, i. p. 114.] - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Causes of the Successes of the -Ottoman Turks, by James Surtees Phillpotts - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CAUSES OF SUCCESSES OF OTTOMAN TURKS *** - -***** This file should be named 50821-0.txt or 50821-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/0/8/2/50821/ - -Produced by Turgut Dincer (This file was produced from -images generously made available by Hathi Trust) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Causes of the Successes of the Ottoman Turks - -Author: James Surtees Phillpotts - -Release Date: January 1, 2016 [EBook #50821] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CAUSES OF SUCCESSES OF OTTOMAN TURKS *** - - - - -Produced by Turgut Dincer (This file was produced from -images generously made available by Hathi Trust) - - - - - - -</pre> - - - - -<p class="center"><br />STANHOPE PRIZE ESSAY—1859.</p> - -<hr /> - - -<h1><small>THE</small><br /> - -CAUSES OF THE SUCCESSES<br /> - -<small>OF THE</small><br /> - -OTTOMAN TURKS.</h1> - - -<p class="center"><small><small>BY</small></small><br /> - -<small>JAMES SURTEES PHILLPOTTS,</small><br /> - -<small><small>SCHOLAR OF NEW COLLEGE.</small></small></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"> -<img src="images/pm.png" width="150" height="130" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center"><small>OXFORD:<br /> - -T. and G. SHRIMPTON.<br /> - -<small>M DCCC LIX.</small></small></p> - - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">1</a></span></p> - -<p class="center f12">THE CAUSES OF THE SUCCESSES OF THE -OTTOMAN TURKS.<br /> -————</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">By</span> the fall of the Seljukian dynasty in Asia Minor, -a vast number of Turks, scattered over the fertile -tracts of Western Asia, were left without any organized -government. The Emirs of the Seljouks in their different -districts tried to set up separate kingdoms for -themselves, but their power was successfully exercised -only in making depredations upon each other. For -some time they were under the sway of the Khans of -Persia, but the decline of the Mogul Empire after the -death of Cazan, freed them from this control<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">1</a>. During -this time of general anarchy, a clan of Oghouz -Turks, under Ertogruhl, settled in the dominions of -Alaeddin, the chief of Iconium. These Turks were -of the same family as the Huns and Avars, and the -other Barbarian hordes, whose invasions had continually -devastated Europe for nearly ten centuries<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">2</a>; nor -had the energy and restless activity of their race yet -begun to fail. They were all united by the affinity -of race, as well as by their language, and by the common -bond of the Sunnite creed. In return for Ertogruhl’s -services in war Alaeddin gave him a grant of -territory in the highlands of Phrygia. The warlike -spirit of Ertogruhl’s son Othman, raised him to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">2</a></span> -rank of an independent chieftain, and he soon made -himself master of strong positions on the borders of -the Greek Empire. With ill-judged parsimony, the -Emperor Michael had disbanded the militia, who -guarded the passes of Mount Olympus, and had thus -left Bithynia open to attack. Orchan, the son of Othman, -took advantage of these favourable occurrences, -enlarged his territory at the expense of the Greeks, -and by uniting several of the scattered Turkish tribes -under one head, laid the foundation of the Ottoman -Empire.</p> - -<p>Thus the circumstances of the times were throughout -eminently favourable to the Ottomans. The fall -of the Seljouk monarchy, and the consequent diffusion -of the Turkish population, had given free scope to -their enterprising spirit. Through the civil wars of -the Byzantine Emperors and the disputes of the Venetians -and Genoese, they were enabled to gain their -first footing in Europe. Had Amurath’s attempt to -extend his kingdom over the Christian nations of -Thrace and Roumelia been made in the 11th century, -he would have roused all Europe in common resistance -to his rising power. But in 1388, the Servian confederacy -could obtain no aid from Western Christendom. -As long as Richard II. was king of England, -and Charles VI. of France—while Germany was ruled -by the dissolute Winceslaus—Amurath had little to -fear from the powers of the West<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">3</a>. Spain was too -much occupied by her wars with the Moslems at home -to think of the sufferings of her Christian brethren in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">3</a></span> -the East. Nor was there any danger that the rival -popes of Avignon and Rome would forget their private -animosities to assist in arresting the fall of a distant -and schismatical church.</p> - -<p>At the crowning point of their success, the siege of -Constantinople by Mahomet II., the advantages of -time were again on the side of the Ottomans. The -Roman pontiff, furious at their obstinacy in refusing -to join the communion of the Latin church, had conceived -an aversion for the Greeks which could hardly -be exceeded by any abhorrence of the Mnssulman’s -creed. It might have been expected that he would -rouse himself to prevent the destruction of the Eastern -defences of Christendom, but he chose rather a selfish -and inglorious part, content to foresee and even to -foretell the coming overthrow of the Greek Empire<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">4</a>. -Thus did the Patriarch of the West, the natural head -of any confederacy for the succour of Constantinople, -look on at its fall with seeming unconcern. Meanwhile -the English and the French were engaged in a -quarrel too deadly to be reconciled. The Germans -would not join with the Hungarians, nor would the -Spanish have any concert with the Genoese. In short -no coalition of the powers of Europe was possible. -Even the Greeks themselves were too much divided -by religious dissensions to offer united resistance to -their Moslem foe, and their want of union could only -be equalled by their cowardice. The valour of the -last Constantine did indeed shed glory over his own -particular fate, but the issue of the struggle could not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">4</a></span> -be doubtful when the disciplined troops and the famed -artillery of the Turk were opposed to the feeble and -disunited force of the enervated Byzantines.</p> - -<p>These external circumstances are important, as having -been auxiliary to the rise of the Ottomans. But -the main causes of their success must be sought in the -wisdom of their rulers and in the institutions which -they established.</p> - -<p>Their government was most singularly constituted, -and of a character totally dissimilar to any of the -governments of Christendom. The institutions too -from which they derived their solid and lasting power -were for the most part peculiar to themselves. On -these institutions the stability of the Ottoman greatness -mainly rested. With their first appearance it -arose; with their gradual development it had grown; -as they were neglected and fell into disuse, the ancient -glory of the Crescent was dimmed, obscured, and -finally extinguished.</p> - -<p>Even in the legendary history of the founder of -their nation is shadowed forth the faint outline of their -peculiar, policy. By patient waiting till he attained -his purpose, Othman won his wife from an alien -tribe. His expeditions were sanctioned by the blessing -of the Holy Scheik Edebali. From the fruit of these -expeditions, from the Christian captives who were -condemned to slavery, was selected the wife of his son -Orchan. A Christian apostate, ‘Michael of the Pointed -Beard’ was the chief of Othman’s captains.</p> - -<p>It was from the example of their founder, they would -have us believe, that they adopted customs of receiving -renegades, of foreign intermarriage, a warlike zeal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">5</a></span> -sanctioned by religion, a system of slavery-institutions -which in later times were the distinguishing -characteristics of their race<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">5</a>. It matters not if these -accounts of Othman’s early history be the invention of -later times; this rather shows (since fiction is more -philosophical than truth), that the Ottomans themselves -were convinced that it was mainly on the preservation -of these usages that their greatness rested. -It was, however, reserved for the sons of Othman to -set the system on a permanent basis, and to the legislative -genius of Alaeddin in the succeeding reign, was -chiefly due the stability of the Ottoman race.</p> - -<p>In general the Asiatic dynasties culminate to their -height of power with a marvellous rapidity, and then, -dependent solely on the merits of their rulers, with no -institutions calculated to ensure any lasting greatness, -fall by a decline no less rapid and less marvellous than -their rise. The career of Ottoman conquest lacked -the dazzling grandeur which invests the exploits of -Genghis Khan, or Timour, but it was not destined to -be as ephemeral as they. In its slow and cautious -advance, in the gradual organization of conquered -provinces, in the unswerving patience which waited -always for the fittest opportunity, it bore no faint resemblance -to the stately march of Roman sovereignty.</p> - -<p>The close of Othman’s life of seventy years saw him -but just made possessor of a single city of importance. -It was not till the reign of Orchan that the Ottomans -ceased to acknowledge the sovereignty of the Iconian -Sultans, and first adopted a coinage of their own. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">6</a></span> -wise policy of Orchan’s coadjutor, Alaeddin, gave them -a respite from war for twenty years, in which time he -consolidated the small kingdom they had already won, -and perfected a system which was to be the instrument -of future conquest.</p> - -<p>It was during this period of tranquillity that the -organization of the army was effected—an organization -which, possessing in itself the various merits of the -most invincible forces that have ever been collected—the -asceticism and brotherhood of the Spartan companies, -the mixture of races in the army of Hannibal, the -religious zeal of the English Puritans, and the devotion -of Caesar’s 10th legion—added to all these, two peculiarities -of their creed, the absolute subjection of every -individual to the sacred authority of the Sultan, and -the warlike inspirations of a religion that taught them -that ‘in the conflict of the crossing scymetars Paradise -was to be won.’</p> - -<p>It is a remarkable and significant fact, that this -abstinence from war for the long period of twenty -years was never repeated by the Ottomans during the -time of their success. That soldiers long unemployed -must become either citizens or rebels is an axiom which -must have special force in a government like that of -the Ottomans. War was the normal condition of their -race. It was to this object that not only their iconoclastic -creed, but the whole tenor of their institutions -pointed, and in this aspect they must chiefly be contemplated.</p> - -<p>The feudal system of the Ottomans was essentially -military. It was the device of an aggressive power -and was made to answer a double purpose; to secure<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">7</a></span> -the permanency of its conquests, and to supply soldiers -for war. Ottoman feudalism was wholly different -from that which prevailed in Western Europe. The -great distinction lay in the fact, that among the Ottomans -all the feudal vassals held their fiefs directly of -the Sultan, or his officers; whereas in Western Europe, -between the sovereigns and the lower tenants was interposed -a powerful class, which always more or less -counterbalanced the supreme power. The one was -the division of a kingdom into petty fiefs, the other -the fusion of conquered territories under the sway of -one victorious monarch. It was through the feudal -system of the Ottomans, in combination with their -institution of slavery, that war was made to feed war; -that every conquest supplied the means for future -conquest.</p> - -<p>The use of the Ottoman system for the supply of -soldiers in time of war may be estimated from the fact, -that an armed horseman was required for every fief of -the value of twelve pounds a year, and another for -every additional twenty pounds. In the time of Solyman -these fiefs were able to furnish 150,000 cavalry<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">6</a>. -The feudal troops were always kept in readiness, nor -was anything required to summon them to the field -but an order of the Sultan to the two Beglerbegs of -the Empire from whom it was communicated to a -regular gradation of officers entrusted with the task of -mustering these Spahi, or Cavaliers, in their separate -divisions<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">7</a>. This force served without pay. If they -fell in battle, they were honoured as martyrs: if they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">8</a></span> -distinguished themselves, or if the expedition was successful, -they were rewarded with larger gifts of property. -All their hopes of advancement depended upon -the Sultan, and his success in war. They were ready -to do his bidding in any part of the world, for the -greater part of every country which they subdued was -divided among the members of their own body.</p> - -<p>It is to this institution of feudalism that we must -look for an explanation of the fact, that the Turkish -conquests, unlike those of other great conquerors, -seldom returned to their original possessors. Immediately -an additional piece of territory was gained, it -became an integral part of the Empire. Thus it was -that the Sultans were able to consolidate and unite -their dominions, step by step, with every fresh acquisition -of land. In most cases, the conquest of distant -territories has been any thing rather than lucrative to -the victorious nation. But the Turkish conquests reimbursed -the Sultan, and enriched the nation; some -portions of land were regularly assigned to the sovereign, -and others became public property.</p> - -<p>Thus the community of the Timarli, or fief-holders, -carried out, on a large scale, the intention of the Roman -system of colonise, both as guarding the dangerous -frontiers and ensuring the preservation of conquered -lands.</p> - -<p>But there is one aspect of the Ottoman feudalism -which we have not yet regarded, and which redounds -more than any other to their honor. Toleration of -creed, with one remarkable exception, was given to -the conquered Christians, and even in the days of -Othman, equal protection was dealt out alike to Greek<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">9</a></span> -and Turk, Christian and Mahometan. This tolerant -and enlightened system induced numbers of the Christians -who dwelt on the borders of the Ottoman Empire -to exchange their hard position, as Hungarian -serfs, for that of Rayas under the Turks.</p> - -<p>We have said that there was one most signal exception -to the general toleration of their rule, and this was -the institution of the corps of Janissaries, the Yengi -Cheri, or “New Soldiers” of Alaeddin. The importance -of a well-disciplined standing army struck the -far-seeing mind of Orchan’s coadjutor, and to the -organization of the army he gave his chief attention -during the twenty years of peace of which we have -spoken. He first formed, of the native Osmanli, a -corps of paid infantry. But it soon appeared that -these Turks were too proud and turbulent to endure -the necessary discipline. In this perplexity we are -told that Alaeddin sought the advice of his relative -Black Khalil Tschendereli. Black Khalil’s counsel -dictated a device of the most subtle and effective kind—that -the Ottoman army must be formed out of the -children of the conquered Christians, who should be -forced to become Mahometans. By this means, he -argued, you will gain troops which can be schooled to -any discipline. To the Mussulman religion you will -gain many converts, while you will prevent any rebellion -of your Christian subjects by the incorporation -of the whole strength of their race with your own -forces. The plan was adopted by Alaeddin and carried -out in the next reign by the First Amurath. -Amurath’s warlike spirit, and the lust of conquest -that was predominant in his race, led him to make<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">10</a></span> -repeated expeditions against the Sclavonic tribes of -Servia and Bosnia. Among this hardy race he found -no treasures of gold and silver—no spoil for his conquering -army—but he found an inexhaustible supply -of brave soldiers<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">8</a>. The children who were taken -captive in his wars were immediately disciplined in -the schools of the Janissaries, and in due time drafted -into their ranks. Those who were not available for -this purpose, or for the service of the Sultan, were -sold as slaves, and thus brought in a considerable -revenue to the Turkish Emperor.</p> - -<p>As long as the flower of the Christian youth were -converted not merely into Mahometans, but into devoted -supporters of the Ottoman power, any revolt of -the Rayas was impossible. In their strict discipline -and continued occupation the proselytes lost all remembrance -of their kindred and their country. With -the highest positions in the Empire open to their ambition, -they might well glory in a station that raised -them over the heads of the native Osmanli. The -rigorous pride with which they kept their own body -aloof from any foreign admixture may offer a parallel -to that remarkable system by which the proudest -chivalry of Egypt was formed out of Circassian -slaves.</p> - -<p>Thus at the court of the Sultan were gathered an -abundance of men, from various nations, devoted only -to the common weal of the race into which they were -adopted. Not only were there the prisoners taken in -war, as well as the tithe, so to speak, of Christian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">11</a></span> -children taken every five years, but from every pacha -of the Empire came presents of slaves to the Sultan<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">9</a>. -These slaves were divided into different classes, according -to their abilities. Those who were destined for -Janissaries were trained to every exercise that could -increase their physical strength, and inure them to toil -and hardship. Others were educated for the more -immediate service of the Sultan, either as his state-officers -or his body-guard. Thus the Turkish armies, -though they were those of an Asiatic nation, were -composed of the hardiest of Europeans. Nor were -these Europeans ever suffered to fall into the enervating -habits of Asiatics. They had no homes in which -they could be pampered with Oriental luxury. Their -barracks were like monasteries; their dress the dark -robes of monks; their meals the frugal fare of mountaineers. -They were not allowed to take wives; they -might ply no trades; engage in no commerce; nor -were any admitted into their body who had not gone -through the regular course of this discipline. At home -they lived as if they were in the camp; in the camp -they preserved the same order, the same discipline as -at home. War was the occupation of their life. They -had given no “hostages to fortune;” they had no -domestic ties that could bind them to a peaceful life. -Their hopes of advancement rested on their valour in -battle. They were justly proud of the achievements -of their corps, and were stimulated by every motive -of ambition, self-interest, and the love of glory, above -all, emulation to surpass the successes of their predecessors.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">12</a></span> -They knew that the watchful eyes of the -Sultan were on them in the fight, and that every deed -of heroism would meet with its appropriate reward. -If he fell, what recked a Janissary of death, save as the -glorious consummation of his prowess, as the opening -of Paradise to the martyr who had won it<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">10</a>?</p> - -<p>The testimony of contemporary writers to the wonderful -efficacy of this remarkable institution is unanimous. -Schwendi, a general of their opponents, owns -that the Janissaries had never turned their backs in -battle. Busbequius, the German ambassador, struck -with admiration at their discipline and endurance, -warns his countrymen of the nature of the foe whom -they must be prepared to encounter, if they enter a -war with the Turks. Barbaro, an ambassador of the -Venetian government, comments with wonder on the -fact that the power of the Ottomans mainly rested on -a corps of compulsory converts from Christianity. -The Venetian Relationi, quoted by Von Ranke, are -full of the remarks of ambassadors expressing their -admiration of the whole system of the Ottoman arms<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">11</a>.</p> - -<p>One of the most conspicuous features of their discipline -was the order, temperance, and cleanliness of an -Ottoman camp, as constrasted with the drunken, dissolute, -and filthy habits of the armies of Christendom<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">12</a>. -Frequently encamped as they were in the pestilential -districts which proved disastrous to the French and -English armies at the commencement of the late Russian -war, we can easily understand how great an advan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">13</a></span>tage -over their opponents these wise regulations secured -them in their campaigns.</p> - -<p>The fiery valour of the Christian knights might -surpass the more patient courage of the Ottoman -troops, but their pride of birth, and spirit of independence -would not brook the discipline, nor render the -obedience, for which the Janissaries were remarkable; -and to this may be attributed the fatal results of the -battle of Nicopolis. At Kossova the Asiatic wing of -the Turkish army had recoiled from the repeated onsets -of the Bosnian king and his warriors, but the Janissaries -‘fighting with the zeal of proselytes’ against their -Sclavonic brethren recovered the fortunes of the day -for Amurath<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">13</a>. At Varna the panic which had spread -through the Turkish troops from the furious attacks of -Ladislaus and Hunyades was only checked by the firm -resistance, the unflinching endurance of the Janissaries<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">14</a>. -When the desperate and heroic resistance of the last -Greek Emperor, and his few brave adherents, had -driven back the Anatolian soldiery, and the fate of -Constantinople was still hanging in the balance, it was -their surpassing valour that turned the scales of victory, -bore down all resistance, and won Eastern Rome for -the capital of the Ottoman Empire.</p> - -<p>At the great crises of their history we have seen how -it was the power of the Janissaries that saved the Ottomans; -but in every battle, in every campaign, the -possession of a formidable corps of well-disciplined -infantry at a time when their opponents had no regular -infantry at all, gave them a continual advantage. It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">14</a></span> -has been remarked that the Ottomans never encountered -the forces of the only two European nations who -had at this time any organized foot-soldiers<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">15</a>. We all -know how the chivalry of France fell before the English -bowmen at Cressy and Poictiers, and how the -troops of Austria fled before the halberdiers of Switzerland, -and we may doubt whether the Janissaries would -have been equally invincible had they met the English -or the Swiss on the battle-fields of Servia.</p> - -<p>The institution of the Janissary force must not be -considered as a system of mere cruelty and intolerance. -The records of the age tell us that it was an usual -occurrence for Christian parents voluntarily to bring -their sons to the press-gang of the Janissaries, in order -that in due time they might be enrolled in their ranks, -while the high offices which were thrown open to these -proselytes of Mahometanism brought renegades in -numbers to the Sultan’s court, where no distinction of -birth or country interfered to mar their fortunes. This -system of the reception of refugees from all countries -gained for the Ottomans many of the greatest names -which adorn their history. Of the ten grand-viziers of -Solyman, eight were renegades from Christianity. It -was indeed noted as an unusual circumstance that one -of his viziers was a native Turk<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">16</a>. Piale, who defeated -the united Christian fleets in 1560 off the isle of Djerbe, -was himself the son of Christian parents. Cicala -Pasha, the great commander under the successors of -Solyman, was an Italian by birth, but as aga of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">15</a></span> -Janissaries became one of the fiercest enemies of the -Christians. And in the earliest times we find that -Evrenos, who under Bajazet and Amurath I. added -the greater part of Greece to the Ottoman dominions, -was originally a Christian chieftain and a guardian of -the passes of Mount Olympus. During the flourishing -period of the Empire nearly all the high civil and -military offices were filled by Christian slaves, who had -risen either from the ranks of the Janissaries, or who -had been brought up by the Mufti in the profession of -the law<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">17</a>. Thus, to use the words of Gibbon, “a servile -class, an artificial people, were raised by the discipline -of education to obey, to conquer, and to command<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">18</a>.”</p> - -<p>If it be true according to the account we have given -of the constitution of the Empire, that the highest -offices of the state were conferred by the ruling prince -on men raised by his own hand from slavery—that the -feudal tenants were subject to a single superior, and -the army directed by a single will,—it is evident that -nothing but the largest capacity for legislation and -military command could have successfully wielded -such enormous authority.</p> - -<p>Of the extraordinary genius of the early Sultans -there is abundant proof<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">19</a>. The character of Othman -was precisely suited for one who was to be the -founder of a dynasty. He was conspicuous among a -warlike tribe for his boldness and independence, and -he possessed that marvellous influence over the minds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">16</a></span> -of those around him, which is one of the peculiar -characteristics of the greatest men. In Orchan we see -the enduring watchfulness, the indomitable resolution -which never fails to attain its object, while in the person -of Alaeddin his coadjutor we may admire the far-sighted -legislator, the brightness of whose original -genius shone forth undimmed by the prejudices of an -unenlightened age. By the organization of a standing -army he marked out future conquests for his race, -while by the tolerant spirit of his legislation he ordained -that a due protection should be given to the conquered. -Amurath by a series of successful campaigns -gained the city of Adrianople for his capital. Then -with admirable prudence he paused for a while to consolidate -his conquests and mature his resources, and -thus paved the way for his final victory at Kossova. -The name of Yilderim or the Thunderbolt testifies to -the energy of the First Bajazet, but it was a just punishment -for his overbearing pride in later years that -the Tartar Conqueror Timour was provoked to crush -his power on the field of Angora, and to doom him to -an ignominious captivity. The work of the destroyer -was for the time complete, and it seemed as if the -Ottoman power was irrecoverably ruined. But the -mould into which their national life had been cast was -not so easily destroyed. The force of their institutions -still remained, and the people were still attached to the -tolerance of their ancient government, and so, after -many years of civil war, the unity of the Ottoman -power was easily restored by the vigorous hand of -Mahomet the First. The bold measures of Amurath -II. caused the signal overthrow of his Hungarian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">17</a></span> -opponents at Varna, and the annexation of Servia and -Bosnia in the succeeding reign are due in great -measure to his toleration and prudence. The abdication -of his father gave Mahomet the Second experience -in the command of an Empire at the early -age of eighteen, and a double failure as viceroy secured -him wisdom for his sole reign. Setting aside -any consideration of his character, it is impossible to -deny his legislative ability and military genius, in -building up the greatness of his nation. The domestic -dissensions of the Empire, under the feebler hand of -Bajazet II., showed how requisite a warlike and energetic -Sultan was to its preservation under its peculiar -constitution. Tabriz, and the subjection of the Mamelukes, -were monuments of the ferocious spirit of the -warrior Selim. By ceaseless carnage he made himself -master of the whole of Egypt, took great part of -Syria, and added the Caliphate to the titles of the -Ottoman sovereign. At the moment when his cruelty -had nearly driven his people to rebellion, the rise of -Solyman furnished a pillar of strength to the house of -Othman. At the time of his reign the thrones of -Europe, as well as those of Persia and India, were -occupied by some of the most powerful sovereigns of -modern times. But in “a century rich with mighty -spirits” there are few names which can compare with -that of Solyman the Magnificent, the great lawgiver -and commander of his nation. Under his sway, the -dynasty of the Ottoman Turks reached its zenith. -Though the institutions of his predecessors, and the -military organization they had bequeathed, supplied -a foundation, yet it was in great measure to his own<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">18</a></span> -genius, vigour, and capacity, that the mighty fabric of -the Ottoman power owed its stupendous greatness, -and that an Empire founded but three centuries before -by a few families of wandering Turkomans, then -numbered among its subjects twenty different races, -and nearly fifty millions of inhabitants, and still survives -with wonderful tenacity, after three centuries of -decline, unbroken by a single vicissitude of success.</p> - -<p>Thus for ten successive reigns, with perhaps a single -exception, the throne of the Ottoman Turks was held -by men of extraordinary talents. Nor was this vigour -of the early Sultans merely accidental. The strict -discipline to which they were subjected in early years, -the attention that was paid to their education, and -their subsequent training in the council and the field, -must all have tended to this result.</p> - -<p>The real weakness of the Ottoman government, its -absolute dependence on a single man, was marvellously -compensated and overcome by a continued succession -of vigorous sovereigns. The superiority of a well -regulated constitution over a despotism generally lies -in a comparative equality of ability through all its -different members. As long as absolute power is held -by the strong hand of a great man all is prosperous. -But a continued succession of great men rarely occurs, -and when it falls to an irresolute hand to wield the -sceptre of despotism the real weakness of the system -appears. In France, the Revolution was the ultimate -result of the exercise of unlimited power, by Louis the -fourteenth; in England, the great Rebellion was the -final issue of the attempt to subject the English people -to a despotism. The reason that the same result did<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">19</a></span> -not occur in the case of the Ottomans is to be found -in the historic facts: first, that the later Sultans were, -in the eyes of Mahometans, the successors of the Prophet, -as well as the descendants of Othman; and, -secondly, that the Janissaries, like the Praetorian -guards at Rome, jealously prevented their rulers from -being made subject to any power but their own.</p> - -<p>Besides the wonderful efficacy of their military organization -and the talents of their Sultans, there is one -point of their history which is worthy of remark as -having tended indirectly towards their success. The -whole tenor of their legislation was much in advance -of that of the European powers in general. English -history has often been said to be a century before that -of France, but the history of the early Turkish Emperors -was much more strikingly advanced beyond -that of the other sovereigns of Europe. At the end of -the fifteenth century, when, although the times were -not yet ready for the development of popular right, the -oppressions of European feudalism had become intolerable, -the strong hand of despotic sovereigns supplied -the only safe guard against lawless outrage. The -aggrandizement of their power at that time saved the -states which they governed. In this respect, however, -the Ottomans were before their age—for whilst the states -of Europe were for the most part impotent through -the overbearing spirit of the feudal nobility, the Ottoman -government was vigorously swayed by an Absolute -Monarch<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">20</a>. Thus, when England was distracted -by the wars of the Roses, Mahomet the Conqueror<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">20</a></span> -was leading his nation on to victory. In fact, the -aggrandizement of the Ottoman Sultans was anterior -to that of the European sovereigns.</p> - -<p>In other points we may notice the same advancement -in their history. Their whole military system -was beyond their age. They possessed disciplined -infantry, when a standing army was unknown, and -cavalry had not yet been supplanted by foot-soldiers -in the rest of Europe. They had a regular commissariat -department to supply their armies with the necessaries -of war, and a special corps to do the work of -Sappers and Miners, long before such a division of -labour was adopted by Christendom. On the departments -of artillery and engineering Mahomet II. -bestowed his special attention. The Ottomans first -made regular approaches in besieging a fortress, and -became masters of the Italians in the art of fortification<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">21</a>.</p> - -<p>It is curious also that a nation popularly considered -to have consisted of unenlightened barbarians should -have been far in advance of us in some of the points -which we consider as the distinguishing features of -modern European civilization. Every advantage of -Free Trade was allowed to the foreign merchant who -traded to the Turkish sea-ports<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">22</a>. A system of municipal -government was established throughout their -dominions. A religious toleration beyond the spirit of -the age was carried out towards the Christian population -of their kingdom. In this particular the difference -in the spirit of the Christian and Turkish governments<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">21</a></span> -is well illustrated by a traditionary account of the -answers of Amurath and Hunyades, when questioned -by the Servians on the subject of the maintenance of -their religion. While Hunyades is said to have -declared that, if victorious, he would compel them to -join the Latin Communion, Amurath’s famous answer -was: “I will build a church near every mosque, and -the people shall worship in whichever they may -prefer<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">23</a>.”</p> - -<p>But it was not to a purer moral principle that the -system owed its origin. The clear sight of their rulers -perceived that some toleration was necessary for the -well-being of their composite empire. But the ruling -genius of their creed was not tolerant then, any more -than it is now. The institution of the Janissaries was -in accordance with the tenets of their religion. But -the protection of their Christian subjects was the conciliatory -measure of a wise legislator, not of a devout -Mahometan. Oh the one hand the compulsory conversion -of a large portion of their hardier slave-population -furnished them with a rich harvest of soldiers, -while their toleration in other respects procured for -them the contentment of their less warlike subjects.</p> - -<p>The truth of the remark of Machiavelli that a man -cannot found a state without opportunities, was not -impugned by the rise of Othman and his dynasty. -The divisions of the Seljukians seemed to invite the -exaltation of some new power. A widely diffused -Turkish population was left without a ruler. The -imbecility of the Persian and Eastern Empires afforded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">22</a></span> -ample scope for purposes of aggression. The distracted -state of Christendom prevented any combination -against the intrusion of Mussulmans in Europe.</p> - -<p>Such were the external circumstances that favoured -the rise of the Ottomans. But the great internal -Causes of their successes we have traced to the genius of -their early Sultans, and to their military organization, -under which latter head must be included their peculiar -feudal system and the institution of their Janissary -corps. There were other incidental causes of their -greatness, such as the warlike spirit common to the -Tartar race and the Mahometan religion, the absolute -position of the supreme head which gave unity to -the empire, and its early progress in prudent legislation.</p> - -<p>The failure of the two great elements of their power -mainly caused their decline. The empire needed -vigorous rulers; the Sultans after Solyman have been -characterized by a native statesman as “either fools or -tyrants.” It required a well-disciplined army; but -after Solyman, the discipline of the Janissaries decayed; -their very system was corrupted; they admitted native -Turks into their body; they began to take wives and -to ply trades, becoming turbulent citizens rather than -soldiers; and with their decay fell the military organization -of the state.</p> - -<h2>FOOTNOTES:</h2> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">1</span></a> Gibbon, vol. viii. p. 20.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">2</span></a> Ibid. vol. viii. p. 2. n.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">3</span></a> Creasy, History of Ottomans, vol. i, p. 43.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">4</span></a> Gibbon, vol. viii. p. 153.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">5</span></a> See an Article in the Christian Remembrancer for April, 1855, p. 232.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">6</span></a> Creasy, vol. i. p. 327.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">7</span></a> Ranke’s Spanish and Ottoman Empires, p. 1.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">8</span></a> Gibbon, vol. viii. 28.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">9</span></a> Ranke, p. 6.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">10</span></a> Ranke, passim.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">11</span></a> Ranke, p. 7.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">12</span></a> Creasy, vol. i. p. 324.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">13</span></a> Gibbon, vol. viii. p. 30.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">14</span></a> Creasy, vol. i. p. 112.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">15</span></a> Creasy, vol. i. p. 161.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">16</span></a> Hulme’s Chapters on Turkish History (in Blackwood, July, 1840,) p. 18.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">17</span></a> Von Hammer’s History of the Ottoman Turks, vol. i. p. 193.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">18</span></a> Gibbon, vol. viii, p. 93.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">19</span></a> See Freeman’s History and Conquests of the Saracens, p. 145.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">20</span></a> For proofs that the Ottoman government was really absolute, see Robertson’s -Charles V. note 43.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">21</span></a> Robertson’s Charles V. note 45.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">22</span></a> Creasy, i. p. 334.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">23</span></a> Creasy, i. p. 114.</p></div> - - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Causes of the Successes of the -Ottoman Turks, by James Surtees Phillpotts - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CAUSES OF SUCCESSES OF OTTOMAN TURKS *** - -***** This file should be named 50821-h.htm or 50821-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/0/8/2/50821/ - -Produced by Turgut Dincer (This file was produced from -images generously made available by Hathi Trust) - 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