diff options
| -rw-r--r-- | .gitattributes | 4 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | LICENSE.txt | 11 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | README.md | 2 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/51780-0.txt | 1676 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/51780-0.zip | bin | 32761 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/51780-h.zip | bin | 1916430 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/51780-h/51780-h.htm | 1774 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/51780-h/images/back.jpg | bin | 73101 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/51780-h/images/cover.jpg | bin | 66273 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/51780-h/images/i_013_lg.jpg | bin | 255619 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/51780-h/images/i_013_sml.jpg | bin | 95823 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/51780-h/images/i_038_lg.jpg | bin | 254952 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/51780-h/images/i_038_sml.jpg | bin | 101064 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/51780-h/images/i_039_lg.jpg | bin | 254783 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/51780-h/images/i_039_sml.jpg | bin | 97003 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/51780-h/images/i_042_lg.jpg | bin | 251057 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/51780-h/images/i_042_sml.jpg | bin | 97408 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/51780-h/images/i_046_lg.jpg | bin | 253649 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/51780-h/images/i_046_sml.jpg | bin | 99382 -> 0 bytes |
19 files changed, 17 insertions, 3450 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c6a7402 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #51780 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/51780) diff --git a/old/51780-0.txt b/old/51780-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 03374d6..0000000 --- a/old/51780-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1676 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Olive, by K. G. Bitting - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: The Olive - -Author: K. G. Bitting - -Release Date: April 17, 2016 [EBook #51780] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE OLIVE *** - - - - -Produced by Larry B. Harrison, Chuck Greif and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - - THE OLIVE - - BY - - K. G. BITTING, M.S., - - BACTERIOLOGIST, - - GLASS CONTAINER ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA - - THE RESEARCH LABORATORY, - - GLASS CONTAINER ASSOCIATION - OF AMERICA, - - 3344 S. MICHIGAN AVENUE, - CHICAGO, ILL. - - COPYRIGHT, 1920 - - GLASS CONTAINER ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA - - - - - OLIVES - - _Olea europaea_ L. - - -There is no tree nor fruit which offers more in interest than the olive -tree and its fruit. To obtain anything approaching an idea of its -many-sidedness, it is necessary to become acquainted with the life and -legends of ancient peoples, in which it entered as sustenance and as -symbol; to know something of art, as the olive has furnished the motif -for much decoration, both symbolic and purely esthetic; to know -something of botany and horticulture, to appreciate its parts and to -understand their structure and development; something of chemistry and -physics, to understand its various constituents and their intelligent -treatment; something of the culinary art, to understand its value and -its varied uses as a food and condiment; of medicine, to appreciate the -many virtues ascribed to it as a healing agent; and of cosmetics, to -believe all that is claimed for it as a cleanser and beautifier. Each -phase offers many fascinating possibilities, revealed through the most -ancient as well as the most recent literature, for with time the olive -has gained both in interest and value. - - -Origin - -The olive according to De Candolle has been cultivated for more than -4,000 years, probably the longest period for any tree. Its early history -is known only through ancient literature, and ancient remains in which -it served either as decoration or as a constituent. Through these its -original home has been traced to Asia Minor, a region originally -extending from Syria to Greece. That it grew on Mt. Ararat and was the -harbinger to Noah of the recession of the flood is told in Genesis--“and -the dove came in to him in the evening, and, lo, in her mouth was an -olive leaf pluckt off.” - -The ancient Egyptians as a part of the fruit of their conquests obtained -the olive during the 19th dynasty. Mummies, dating from the 20th to the -26th dynasty, have been found surrounded by garlands of olive leaves. -From Egypt it spread into northern Africa. It is said to have been taken -to Greece by Cecrops, the founder of Athens. The legend states that in -the reign of Cecrops both Poseidon and Athena contended for the -possession of Athens. The gods resolved that whichever of them produced -a gift most useful to mortals should have possession. Poseidon struck -the ground with his trident and straightway a horse appeared. Athena -then planted the olive. The gods gave the city to the goddess from whom -it was called Athenae. - -Pindar says that all the slopes of Olympus were soon covered with it, -and that the Athenians used to crown the victors in the Olympian games -with its branches. Later it was used to crown their warriors and wise -citizens. The method of oil extraction was also obtained from outside. -The Greeks are supposed to have had the wild olive, Oleaster, -previously, but the fruit of this is valueless. They are the first -European people to have cultivated the olive. Its cultivation spread to -the surrounding countries, where the Greeks founded colonies, Sicily, -the coast of Italy, and Gaul, these forming nuclei for its spread into -the adjacent lands. Pliny states, however, that the olive was not -introduced into Italy until 627 B.C., and that it reappeared in Gaul in -600 B.C., being carried to the latter country by the Phenician colony -that founded Marseilles. - -The olive was carried later by the Romans into the countries in which -they settled, Spain being the most notable, but it was also carried into -the Iberian peninsula by the Arabs. - -The Greeks and the Romans cultivated it on the northern side of the -Mediterranean, the Tyrians on the southern side, the Arabs finding it -there and carrying it with them into Spain when they settled in that -country. The double origin of the olive, Greco-Roman and Semitic, in -this latter country is borne out by the names bestowed on the olive. In -southern Spain the tree is called _aceituno_, the olive fruit -_aceituna_, and the oil _aceite_, the name evidently derived from the -Arabic name _zeitoun_, this in turn being derived from the Hebrew -_zeit_. In northern Spain both Arabic and Latin names are used, the tree -is called _olivo_ or _oliveira_, whereas the fruit and oil have the -Arabic derivative names _aceituna_ and _aceite_ respectively, but the -oil used in the church and in painting is called _oleo_. In Portugal -similar conditions prevail, the cultivated olive is called by the -Greco-Latin name _oliveira_, whereas the wild olive is called by the -Arabic name _zambugeiro_, the fruit _azeitona_, and the oil _azeite_. - -Though some botanists claim that the olive is native to the Canary -Islands, no word for it is found in the remains of the language of the -Guanches, an ancient, but extinct, race of people who inhabited the -islands. The available records show the tree to have been introduced -there since 1403, and probably by the Phenicians. - -The olive was introduced by the Spaniards into Chili, Peru, Mexico, and -the United States. From Mexico it was brought by Jesuit missionaries -into Lower California, the first settlement being at Loreto, in 1697. -The Jesuits founded fifteen missions, but were superseded by Franciscans -in 1768. These latter proceeded northward to extend their work, the -first of their missions being founded in 1769, at San Diego. The secular -head of the mission, representing the King of Spain, had the foresight -to carry the seeds of flowers, fruits, grains, and vegetables, so that -flourishing gardens were soon brought into existence. When the missions -went into secular hands in 1843, the gardens in many cases were -neglected and many of the fruit trees died. The olive was one of the -trees that withstood the neglect and was afterwards used for cuttings by -the emigrants from the eastern states who came in 1849. From this time -on the olive has received considerable attention, many experiments being -made in its culture, and in recent years the plantings have increased to -an enormous extent, due to the favor accorded to both the oil and the -fruit. It has spread around San Diego and Los Angeles east into the San -Joaquin Valley and north into the Sacramento Valley in California, and -also into Arizona. In the latter state its cultivation is comparatively -recent, so that only about 5 per cent of American olives are produced -there. - -At the present time the olive is cultivated more or less extensively in -the countries surrounding the Mediterranean--Asia Minor, Turkey, Greece, -Italy, Austria, France, Spain, Portugal, Tunis, and Algeria. In the -Western Hemisphere the main source is California, though the olive is -cultivated in some of the countries of S. America. - - -Duration - -The olive tree is of slow growth, but if allowed to grow naturally, it -persists for centuries and attains a great size. De Candolle describes -one tree 23 feet in circumference, its age supposed to be over 700 -years. Tournefort found fruitful old olive trees between Ephesus and -Smyrna which must have been planted before the Mussulman invasion, as -Turks had not planted olives, not esteeming them. The Mount of Olives on -the east side of Jerusalem was among the places best cultivated. Near -its foot was the grove called Gethsemane (Gath-Semen, oil press) because -of the olives with which it was covered and those of the slopes above -where an abundance of oil was pressed out. In the Garden of Gethsemane -there remain only eight of these olive trees that are supposed to have -existed at the beginning of the Christian era. Chateaubriand, writing -in the early part of the nineteenth century of these olive trees, said, -“one sees there eight olive trees in extreme decrepitude.” An article -written recently by J. D. Whiting, American Vice-Consul at Jerusalem, -had an interesting statement relative to one of these trees. “El Butini, -the most famous of the Garden of Gethsemane’s eight olive trees, under -which the Savior is supposed to have walked during the night of agony, -has recently collapsed. The great tree was weakened by the locust plague -during the spring and summer of 1915. When El Butini falls, then falls -the Turk, runs the legend.” - -Throughout Europe and Asia are many old olive trees, some of them -producing abundantly, their origin, however, lost in remote centuries. -The olive is very tenacious of life, but the methods of cultivation, -which tend to increase production, reduce resistance and diminish its -duration of life. - - -Etymology - -The generic name _Olea_ is from the Greek _elaia_, derived from the -Celtic or Gothic _olew_, oil, on account of the abundance of oil in the -fruit. The specific name _europaea_ is given to the species cultivated -throughout Europe. - -The olive has been given fanciful names by the early peoples. It was -known as the “tree of wisdom,” “Minerva’s tree,” the “Gift of Heaven,” -etc. The Greeks consecrated the tree to Minerva, and made it the symbol -of wisdom, abundance, and peace. - - -Description - -The olive is an evergreen tree about 20 to 30 feet high, much branched -and spreading. It forms a symmetrical head, having angular branches and -opposite leaves. The leaves are dry and leathery in texture, lanceolate, -entire, deep green above, and light hoary beneath. The flowers are -small, star-shaped, creamy white with yellow centers, have a faint -pleasing odor, and are axillary in compact racemes. The fruit, a fleshy -pendulous drupe, is very abundant. It is oval, obovate, or globular in -shape, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, dull greenish yellow even when -full size but unripe, then gradually becomes yellow, red, and finally -turns a glossy purplish black or black when ripe. In ripening, the side -exposed to the sun reddens, then gradually the whole fruit changes from -red to purple, then black. As fruit of all degrees of ripeness are -developed at the same time, the tree furnishes an extremely beautiful -combination of colors, the various greens of the leaf and fruits forming -a background for the splotches of red, purple, and black formed by the -ripening fruit. The fruit is peculiar in two respects, first, in that it -contains in addition to the ordinary constituents of fruits an abundance -of edible oil, consequently making it a valuable food; second in that it -contains a bitter substance which does not disappear on maturity, so -that the fruit cannot be eaten at any stage in its development without -preliminary treatment for the elimination of this substance. The stone -is two-celled, many times only one seed developing. - - -Climatic Requirements - -The olive requires rather warm temperature, light humidity, and absence -of heavy frosts. It can withstand temperatures of -7 to -8 degrees C. or -even lower if not too prolonged, and if the change to higher temperature -be gradual. Moist cold is more unfavorable than dry. The altitude at -which it will grow depends on the local climate. The climate of the -countries bordering on the Mediterranean and that of California are -particularly favorable. - - -Varieties - -The wild olive Oleaster is said to have been the original form, called -by Linnaeus _Olea europaea sylvestris_, later by De Candolle _Olea -europaea oleaster_ and the cultivated form _Olea europaea sativa_. The -reason for this belief is said to be the _oleaster_ seeds reproduce -trees true to type, whereas the seeds of _sativa_ produce trees having -the characteristics of _oleaster_ but, though _oleaster_ under -cultivation becomes modified in various ways, it does not produce fruit -like _sativa_. Whichever form was the original, the subjection to -cultivation for over 4,000 years, under the varying conditions of soil, -climate, and methods of cultivation, has produced many varieties. Many -of these doubtless are the result of accidental modifications, more or -less fixed by successive cultivations. At the present time there are -certain well-defined varieties which are cultivated, and of which the -characteristics are well known, so that varieties may be selected -according to the purpose desired, whether for the preservation of the -fruit green, half ripe, or ripe, or for extraction of oil. - -Of the large number of varieties introduced into California, Wickson -reports analyses made by the State university on 57 varieties. Of these -only a comparatively few were retained as worthy of cultivation, chief -among these being the Mission olive, the one planted originally in -California in the old mission gardens. Wickson states there are several -sub-varieties of this form. - - -Propagation - -The olive is propagated by means of seeds, cuttings, grafting, and -budding. Propagation by seeds is seldom done in this country, as it is -so much slower and more troublesome than by cuttings, aside from the -fact that the desired variety may not result. The pulp has to be -removed, which is done usually by allowing the fruit to rot or by -softening with an alkali. Unless removed from the stone, the seed may -not develop for two years, otherwise the seed usually sprouts the first -year. - -Propagation by cuttings is the commonest and easiest method, as the -cuttings root readily, and either old or new wood may be used so that -the cuttings may be large or small. Cuttings sent from Europe are -usually in the form of truncheons, and these may be cut into pieces like -firewood and will root. - -The story is told of a grove in Morocco in which the trees exhibited a -peculiar arrangement. The reason given for this was that a king and his -army on the way to the Sudan had encamped for the night, and stakes or -pickets to tie the horses had been cut from a grove near by. The pickets -were left and had developed into trees. This seems probable enough when -it is considered that pieces of branches are taken, one end whittled to -a sharp point and driven into the ground, and that these pieces will -take root and develop. An olive company in California has recently -transferred 3000 trees, 26 years old, from San Joaquin County to -Oroville and Marysville. The trunks were sawed off about 18 inches above -the ground, and the roots 12 inches from the stump. In a planting made 6 -years previously the same method was used and resulted successfully. - -Where trees are found undesirable for some reason, resort is had to -budding or grafting. By these means the undesirable trees are not a -complete loss, and results are obtained sooner. Many times varieties are -obtained from Europe which on developing are not found suited to the -conditions in this country; these plants may be used as stock for -desirable varieties or some desirable variety is obtained which may be -propagated rapidly by these means. - -The pruning must be done by persons of understanding, as the fruit is -borne only on the two-year portion of the branches, and provision must -be made - -[Illustration: Gathering Olives] - -to cut excessive growth in the season of too heavy development and -stimulate in the season of poor development. The pruning thus regulates -the growth of the branches which two years later will control the -production of the fruit. - -Pruning of very large branches is sometimes done to admit more light and -heat to the darker, cooler parts of the tree. The small branches thus -provided in turn furnish nursery stock. Pruning is done in late winter -and early spring. From March to October no pruning is done, but the -trees are carefully tended through cultivation, irrigation, and -fertilization. - -In California the young stock is set out in the groves in April, and -about 35 feet apart. During the non-bearing period, the land between, -which like all California groves, is kept in good cultivation and free -from weeds, is utilized frequently for other crops. - -Though numerous stories are written of the remarkable ability of the -olive tree to grow and bear in exposed situations, and with only small -amounts of soil and water, the olive, like all other fruit trees, -requires both cultivation and an adequate amount of water if a constant -and abundant harvest be desired. As the groves are irrigated, the proper -amount of water may be supplied at all times. The water is conducted -through a system of underground pipes, which are provided with outlets -at the end of each row of trees. From these outlets the water is -directed into furrows to water the trees. As the irrigation is -conducted by underground pipes, the groves are easily cultivated. - - -Products - -It would seem that the olive is rightly and appropriately called the -“Tree of Abundance,” for all parts of it have been used, and to the -ancients, even with their limited cuisine as compared with that of -today, it was a symbol of plenty, witness the apostrophe of King -Sennacherib, made centuries before the Christian era, who called Assyria -“A land of corn and wine; a land of bread and vineyards; a land of oil, -olives, and honey.” - - -FLOWERS - -In ancient medicine the blossoms of the olive were highly esteemed, but -are not mentioned in the medicine of today. They were used as poultices -to alleviate pain, sometimes alone, sometimes mixed with other -substances. - - -LEAVES - -The leaves were also used in medicine, a decoction made from them being -said to stop bleeding, and on account of their astringency to reduce -inflammation. The leaves and bark have an acrid and bitter taste, and -have been prescribed as substitutes for cinchona. In France an extract -of the leaves is used as a febrifuge, and has also been found valuable -in preventing hectic paroxysms. - -From time immemorial the leaf and branch have been employed as a symbol -of peace, and have appeared in sculpture and painting. No more -beautiful emblem than the olive branch can be selected or devised to -symbolize both peace and victory, and as such has been known through all -the ages. Egyptian mummies, dating from the 20th to the 26th dynasty, -have been found surrounded by garlands of olive leaves, and the tomb of -the hero of today will oftentimes have its sculptured olive branch, -telling its story and making its appeal stronger than could be made by -words. - -Besides serving for esthetic purposes, the leaves, in spite of their -astringency, are eaten by animals as forage, so that the trees have to -be protected from them. It is curious that with all the ravages made by -animals on the olive trees in the neglected mission gardens in -California, after the missionaries had gone, some of these same trees -furnished scions for many of the olive groves of today. - - -WOOD - -The wood of the olive tree is much prized for certain purposes. It is -very close, fine-grained, yellow to yellowish brown with irregular wavy -brown to black lines and mottlings, especially near the root. It has no -distinguishable annual rings or pith rays, and has evenly distributed -vessels. It takes a beautiful polish. At present it is employed chiefly -in lathe-work and carving for small fancy articles, and for cabinet -work. - -In ancient times it seems to have had a much wider application, due no -doubt to the size of the trees, which were larger as a result of not -being subjected to the rigorous cultivation and pruning which they -receive today. The Bible states that olive wood was used in the Temple. -In the time of Pliny it furnished material for construction of ships, -for wagon spokes, wedges, columns, pedestals, statues, and furniture. -The Romans used both the wild and cultivated trees. The wood industry -was developed in the vicinity of Nice in both France and Italy, and -still flourishes. A considerable amount has been exported to England in -recent years for the manufacture of walking sticks. The poorer quality -is used for firewood, is inflammable, and produces great heat. - - -BARK - -The bark contains a large amount of tannin. For medicinal purposes it is -reduced to powder and acts as an astringent, a tonic, and a febrifuge. -In warm climates a resin is exuded from it which solidifies in the air. -It is called Lecca gum, as it was first found near Lecca. It contains -some benzoic acid among other constituents and in ancient times was -prescribed in medicine, but is not at present, and the gum is considered -valueless. - - -FRUIT - -The fruit has been considered a choice food at all times. It has -appeared at the feasts of epicures, both ancient and modern, as a -relish, and to be eaten at the end of the repast as part of the dessert, -and at all times it has also furnished a staple food for the poor in the -Orient and in Greek and Latin countries. Those who were well provided -were admonished to have care for those less fortunate: “When thou -beatest thine olive tree, thou shalt not go over the boughs again; it -shall be for the stranger, for the fatherless, and for the widow.” -(Deuteronomy XXIV., 20.) The people obliged to live frugally have found -it a great resource, particularly in Lent and for those at a distance -from the sea unable to obtain fresh fish. It is said that Plato -preferred olives to all other foods, and often made a meal on them -alone. - -Though olives are known and consumed throughout the civilized world, -comparatively few persons, aside from those living in the regions of -their cultivation, know that olives have to undergo certain treatment -before they can be eaten. It is a common practise in olive regions to -encourage the visitor to taste the fruit directly from the tree. The -fruit, both green and black, looks so fine and tempting, that the -disgust on tasting is correspondingly great. It is claimed that some of -the older varieties could be eaten without preparation, that they dried -naturally, and were sweet like raisins. - -The olive contains a bitter and acrid substance or substances which must -be removed before the olives are edible. It is referred to in most of -the literature as a “bitter principle”, and has been called an acid, a -tannin, and more recently a glucoside. Cruess has repeated the work of -the various investigators, who claimed these different substances, and -as a result has come to the conclusion that it is a glucoside, that is, -a combination of glucose with another compound. - -In immature fleshy fruits there is usually an accumulation of acids, -tannins, and sometimes starch. As ripening proceeds, carbohydrates and -aromatic substances are formed, and the bitter, acrid, or astringent -taste disappears. In the olive there is no starch found at any stage of -maturity. Glucose has been found in all stages, and is supposed to be -the substance from which the oil is formed. The oil is in very minute -quantities in the fruit up to the time when the pit is formed, from then -on it increases gradually up to its maximum when the fruit is not quite -mature. In the plant economy the fat or oil is one of the most important -food reserves of plants. All parts of the fruit--rind, flesh, stone, and -seed--contain oil, the fleshy part, forming about 80% of the fruit, -containing the largest amount. - -Contrary to the condition existing in most fruits, the bitterness -remains through all stages of development in the olive. A substance of -glucosidic nature, given the name “oleuropeine”, has been isolated, and -found to be of extreme bitterness. This may be the substance or one of -the substances which cause the inedibility of the untreated olive. - -The oil is the most important constituent of the fruit on account of its -high food value and its use in the industries. It is used to a large -extent in cold countries and also in dry countries where there are few -cattle, the oil taking in the various culinary operations, the place of -butter and other fats. - -Among the ancient Jews the oil was considered indispensable and as -necessary as bread. An abundance of oil was looked upon as a blessing -from God. Vast public storehouses were constructed to hold it for the -scarce years. To the Greeks the three indispensable foods were oil, -grains, and wine, the oil entering into most of their dishes. The Romans -had a large trade in the oil, and it was also used, to a large extent, -in their domestic cooking. In Italy and Spain street vendors fry -fritters in the oil and sell them while hot. It has considerable use in -conserving fish, particularly sardines. The higher grades of French, -Spanish, Norwegian, and American sardines are packed in olive oil. This -use has been extended in recent years to the packing of tuna fish. - -Olive oil occupies a high position as a vegetable fat. Many others have -been prepared and offered as substitutes, and if judged by chemical -composition alone, give practically equal food value, but are lacking in -the delicious flavor which makes olive oil distinctive and gives it a -superiority over all other oils. - -The oil is a large factor in the industries; it serves as an extractive -of perfumes, as a constituent of fine, smooth soaps, and as a lubricant -in watch factories. Formerly the lower grades were used commonly for -lubricating purposes, but with improved methods of clarifying and the -greater expense attendant on its use, it has been superseded by cheaper -lubricants. - -An enormous quantity has been and is still used in religious ceremonies, -in the ordinations of the clergy and rulers, and anointing in the -sacraments, besides by old world peoples generally in the lamps in the -churches and temples, many of which are kept burning continually. An -idea of the vast amount consumed for this purpose can be obtained from -the fact that in one mosque alone there are 1,200 lamps burning -constantly, and requiring about 25,000 kilos of oil annually. - -In medicine it has been and is still used extensively. The ancients -rubbed it on their bodies to make the muscles supple and to cleanse and -protect the skin, particularly after bathing, and it still functions for -these purposes. It was used to heal wounds, in liniments, and as a mild -laxative. At present it is a constituent of liniments, ointments, -cerates, and plasters. The people who are habitual patrons of the olive -and its oil are noted for their smooth, beautiful complexions. It is -said “the warm rosy complexion of the Italian and Sicilian women is due -to the free use of olive oil as much as to the air and climate of their -country.” - -The residue or marc which remains after the oil is extracted is used as -a food for sheep and hogs, for fertilizer, and for fuel, and there is -obtained from it a clear, illuminating gas. - - - - -PREPARATION OF FRUIT - - -Foreign - -In the early preparation of olives in order to remove the bitterness, -they were soaked in water, which was renewed from time to time, -sometimes hot water being used. The olives, after draining, were then -held in brine. The green olives as well as the mature and black were -used. - -The Romans exercised the greatest care in their preparation, and -introduced refinements, by not only removing the bitterness, but by -causing them to acquire various flavors through infusion in solutions -containing aromatic substances. - -One of their methods for the preparation of green olives consisted in -adding roasted salt to the olives after a preliminary soaking in hot -water, then covering them with grape must, boiled wine, or honey water, -and to this solution were added fennel, mint, and lentiscus seed. Fennel -was used as a tampon to keep the olives immersed. A simpler method was -to use vinegar with the brine. Sometimes the olives were beaten to -facilitate the action, but this caused discoloration, which was avoided -by making cuts in them. The brine was replaced by oil as a preserving -liquid. Another method was to put the olives with the aromatics in the -brine at the start, then they were removed, crushed lightly, and put in -a mixture of oil, vinegar, and honey, to which were added leek, celery, -mint, and sometimes rue. The rue was supposed to be most efficacious in -bringing out the natural flavor, and was most prized. The mature olives -were first put in brine for 30 to 40 days, then put in the preserving -liquid with the aromatics. Olives prepared in the ways indicated were -known as “Colymbades”. - -A form of conserve made by the ancients, and to which the name -“Epityrum” was given, consisted in taking green, mature, or black fruit, -though, as in the former, the green were preferred, and drying them in -the shade, after which they were put in baskets, and crushed in a press. -The crushed fruit was then put in vessels, sprinkled with salt, and had -mixed with it lentiscus seed and minced leaves of fennel and rue, and -was finally covered with oil. - -Many recipes have been left by the ancients, the preparations varying as -to time, strength of solutions, mixtures of spices, etc. To the recipes -of Palladius (1518-1580) is owed the knowledge that the Romans were -cognizant of and used lye solutions, though this is supposed to be a -modern practise. In this particular recipe sifted ashes are indicated as -one of the ingredients, and it is supposed that this recipe, changed in -detail, furnished the basis for present day methods. The use of wood -ashes was introduced into France by an Italian refugee named Picholini, -who settled in Provence, devoting himself to the preparation and sale of -preserved olives. The olives preserved according to his process are -called “olives a la Picholine”. Previous to his time the preparation in -southern France consisted of crushing the olives lightly, immersing in -clear water, which was renewed each day for about nine days, then -preserving in brine. This latter process is still employed for the -olives in which appearance is not an asset. For the more carefully -prepared ones, the method was to pick by hand when the olives had -attained full development, then they were carefully sorted, and immersed -in lye, the duration in the lye depending on the size of the fruit, and -the concentration of the lye. They were removed from the lye when the -flesh was penetrated to, and readily detached from, the stone. - -There are many variations of the lye treatment. In the olive countries -the preparation is done in the homes as well as in factories, and it is -in the homes, naturally, that the greatest variations occur. Lime is -often used with the ashes, one formula consisting of the olives mixed -with a paste of wood ashes and freshly slaked lime. In the ordinary -methods, however, a solution is made of the sifted ashes and lime, -sometimes sodium carbonate taking the place of the ashes. In the -ordinary factory preparations both ashes and lime are omitted, and -either caustic soda or potash used. When removed from the lye, the -olives are put in clear water, changed night and morning for three or -four days, then put in brine. - -The early accounts of olive preparation show quite conclusively that -great variation in strength of the caustic solution was inevitable, but -fortunately the tendency to err was on the weaker side. It was not until -the modern introduction of caustic preparations of soda and potash that -standardization of the process was possible. Even with this possibility -the practise remains largely empirical and is based upon the experience -of the operator. Some still adhere to the use of weak solutions, taking -considerable time to act upon the olive, whereas others use relatively -strong solutions so as to hasten the process. - -The brine used has been subject to quite as marked variation as the lye. -A weak brine has been used in order to encourage the natural -fermentation of the fruit, which corresponds to the fermentation in our -cucumber pickles. The other extreme is represented by the use of a very -strong brine which practically inhibited all fermentative change and -this same brine was filtered and used a succeeding season. Every -gradation between these extremes has been in common use. As might be -expected, more or less of the fruit softened and underwent changes which -at present would be regarded as decomposition or rotting rather than as -clean, normal fermentation. The esthetic side of olive preparation has -not always been of the highest order, though, as in the case of many -other foods, very great improvement has been wrought in recent years. - -Even with the later methods the use of aromatic substances has not been -abandoned, and many of these are used, such as bay leaves, cloves, -coriander, cumin, mint, orange skin, fennel, etc., the amounts and -combinations varying greatly. Sometimes the aromatics are first -extracted, the solution concentrated, and a quantity of this solution -added to the brine, or they are boiled in the brine at the start, then -removed, and when the brine is cooled, it is ready for use. - -In Spain the ripe olives are not treated ordinarily with lye, but by the -slower process of soaking in water. The black olives, gathered late in -the year, are cured in a salt brine to which black pepper is added. -After the bitterness is removed, they are preserved in oil. - -A process used at present for ripe olives which is very simple but -effective, is to mix fine salt with them after they have been cleaned -and sorted. They are stirred twice a day, and through the osmotic action -of the salt, a dark-colored juice is exuded which contains, among other -constituents, the substance causing the bitterness. To hasten the action -the olives are pierced with a needle. The Spaniards vary this method by -adding aromatics, as wild marjoram, thyme, fennel seed, anise seed, -garlic, laurel leaves, etc., at the same time as the salt. The special -spice mixtures are held as trade secrets by the manufacturers. - -When the bitterness has been removed, the olives are washed, dried -lightly, and placed in casks or jars until required. Before being served -the olives are soaked in oil. - -One style of Greek packing of ripe olives is of special excellence. Sour -wine is added to the pickle to accentuate the flavor and the product is -packed in oil. The olives are plump, tender, and brilliant, and possess -a very rich flavor. - -In parts of Southern Europe certain kinds of olives are left on the -trees to become very ripe, and are then dried in the sun without any -preparation. These are only used locally as they are lacking in the fine -flavor of the prepared olive. - -In the preparation of the olive, both green and ripe, during all these -centuries, there had been no attempt at sterilization. The olive was -preserved by partial drying, by the action of salt, and by its -spontaneous fermentation in pickle in which certain desirable forms of -organisms had the ascendency. With the good fruit thus prepared, there -must have been considerable which was spoiled, and yet no illness is -known to have resulted. - -Though olives have figured so largely in the alimentation of southern -Europe, the oil particularly being so important and general a food, the -people of northern Europe have not esteemed either to an important -extent. With the crude methods in vogue for transporting the oil, and -the lack of understanding as to its nature, it is supposed that their -apathetic attitude was due to its being received in poor condition. - -In England also, though so close to the olive growing districts, the -olive has not been used to any considerable extent, judging from its -absence from menus and from their cookery. In examining old cookery -books it was surprising to find no mention of olives. In Russel’s “Boke -of Nurture” and Mrs. Napier’s “Noble Boke off Cookry” the manuscripts -dating from the 15th century, there is no mention of olives, though -there are condiments and spices from foreign countries used in sauces -and other preparations. Neither is there any mention of olives in “The -Closet of Sir Kenelm Digby Opened” written in the 17th century, though -Digby had traveled much and lived on the continent. The earliest mention -in 17 cookery books, published in the 17th and 18th centuries is the -following, published in 1745, and which is really a translation of a -French work by L. Lemery, physician to the King, and member of the Royal -Academy. It is interesting in showing the many virtues attributed to -olives. - - - =“OF OLIVES”= - - “You ought to chuse such as are large, pulpy, well preserv’d and - tasted, and those that have been cultivated in hot Countries. - - They create an Appetite, fortify the Stomach, dissolve and expell - the viscous and gross Humours fix’d there, repress Reachings, and - are a little nourishing. - - They produce no ill Effects, unless they are us’d to excess. - - They contain much Oil, Phlegm, and essential Salt. - - They agree in cold Weather with any Sort of Age and Constitution, - provided they are good, and well preserv’d.” - - -=Remarks= - -“_Olives_ are oblong or oval and juicy Fruits, larger or smaller, -according to the Country they grow in: Care must be taken to gather -them before they are ripe, and then they have a harsh bitter Taste not -to be endured, because their salts are clogg’d and swallow’d up by the -earthy and gross Parts. - -_Olives_ are preserv’d with Water and Salt, and then they become -pleasing to the Taste; the Reason is, because the Liquor of Brine causes -a little Fermentation in the _Olives_, by the Help thereof the Salts -free themselves by degrees of the earthy Parts that do retain them; and -afterwards with more Lightness and Delicacy prick the nervous Fibres of -the Tongue. - -“The Brine produces another good Effect in the _Olives_; for by its -saline Parts it stops up the Pores of this Fruit, and prevents the Air -from ent’ring too much into it, and thereby cause a considerable -Fermentation therein, which destroys the Fruit, and soon rots them. - -_Olives_ well preserv’d create an Appetite, by gently pricking the Sides -of the Stomach, not only by their acid Salts, but also by those -communicated to them by the Pickle. They also bind up and fortify the -Stomach by their earthy Parts, which swallow up the over-abounding -Moistures that relax the Fibres of that Part. - -The _Picholines_ are _Olives_ cut in several Places, and then steep’d in -Pickle; they are sooner in a Condition to be eaten than others, because -that by the Help of the Incision made in them, the Brine or Pickle is -sooner and more effectually communicated to their whole Substance. - -Oil of _Olives_ is much us’d in Ailments; it’s of a qualifying, -mollifying, anodine, dissolving and detersive Nature, good for the -Cholic and Bloody-flux, and is prepar’d in this Manner. - -They get together in _November_ or _December_, a great Quantity of full -ripe _Olives_, and lay them by for a Time in some Corner of the House, -where they are heated, and thereby become purified of their watry -Moisture; then they grind them in a Mill, and put them into Rush or Palm -Frails, plac’d on the Top of one another Pressways, and the first Oil -that comes from them, is called _Virgin’s Oil_. - -They sprinkle the _Olives_ with warm water, and by pressing them a-new, -and still the more, there comes a good Oil from them. - -This done, they stir the _Olives_ again, and sprinkle them with hot -Water, from which, thus order’d, there proceeds another Oil full of -Dregs, and not so good as the rest. - -These Oils are easily separated from the Water, because they swim a top, -but they find a Kind of Lees to the Bottom, which the Ancients called -_Amurca_. - -Those _Olives_ of which you design to make Oil, must ripen ’till they -are even rotten; and the Reason is, because the sulphurous Parts in them -have had Time to disengage themselves from those gross Principles, which -before fix’d them, which we know by the sweetish and oily Taste that -then they had. They also let them ferment for some time before they -press them, that so those sulphurous Parts may free themselves, and be -more fully separated from the watry and saline Parts, with which they -were united in the Fruits. Here it is to be observ’d that you cannot -extract a Drop of Oil from green olives, but only a viscous Juice, -because their oily Principles are very strictly united with their other -Principles. - -The Leaves of the _Olive-Tree_ are astringent, and fit for to stop the -Bleeding of the Nose, and Looseness. - -There are certain wild _Olive-Trees_ that grow near the Red-Sea, from -which there sweats out a Gum that stops Blood, and cures Wounds. - -The _Olive-Tree_ in Latin called _Olea_, comes from the _Greek_ Word -_elaia_ which also signifies the same Thing.” - - * * * * * - -A later work, “The Lady’s Assistant” published in 1778, gives a much -better idea of how little they were used at that time in England. - - OLIVES - - “OLIVES are the fruits of trees, which grow wild in the warmer - parts of Europe; we have them in some of our gardens; but with us - they will not ripen to any perfection. - - There are three kinds, the Italian, Spanish, and French; we have - them therefore of various sizes and flavors; some prefer one, and - some the other. - - The fine sallad oil, as has been before mentioned, is made from - this fruit, for which purpose they are gathered ripe; but for - pickling they are gathered when half-ripe, at the latter end of - June: they are put into fresh water to soak for two days; after - this they throw them into lime-water in which some pearl-ashes have - been dissolved: they lie in this liquor six-and-thirty hours; then - they are thrown into water which has had bay-salt dissolved in it: - this is the last preparation, and they are sent over to us in this - liquor: they are naturally as they grow on the tree very bitter, - and therefore require all these preparations to bring them to their - fine flavor. To some olives they add a small quantity of essence of - spices, which is an oil drawn from cloves, nutmeg, cinnamon, - coriander and sweet-fennel seed distilled together for that - purpose: twelve drops are enough for a bushel of olives: some - prefer them flavored with this essence, but others like them best - plain.” - -At present the use of aromatic substances commercially is not large. It -is contended that consumers cannot use flavored olives in sauces or -other preparations so freely, as extraneous flavors are introduced which -in some cases are undesirable, the unflavored olive permitting greater -freedom in use. - -For the preparation of the green olives “a la Sevillane,” the fruit is -first treated with alkali, then washed in clear water, after which it is -put into 2 or 3 per cent boiled brine, where after a time fermentation -starts, which imparts a slight lactic acid taste to the fruit. It is -then washed in water, graded for size, and put in barrels with a 5 or 6% -salt, when they are ready for consumption. - -The half ripe olives are put in a boiled brine of 12 to 15% for six -days, after which they are washed in running water and then put in jars -in a 6 to 8% brine with a bay leaf and a sprig of thyme and fennel. -Olives prepared in this way are called “a la Provencale.” A variation on -this method, called “a la Madrilene” is to put the olives in barrels, -after the preliminary salting and washing, in 10% brine with red -pimiento, pepper corns, laurel, thyme, and tomato purée. - -The black olives are gathered at the time of the change in color, and -put in water, renewed every 12 hours, until the bitterness has -disappeared, which requires 40 to 50 days, sometimes even longer. They -are then put into brine. - -The large olive “La Tanche” after sorting and cleaning is put directly -into a 10 to 15% brine in wooden casks or cement tanks which hold from -4,000 to 6,000 kilos. When the bitterness has been abstracted, they are -ready for sale. The brine is decanted and held until the following year. - -To prepare them so that they may be ready for sale sooner, the fruit is -run over a roller provided with fine points which perforate the skin, -after which the olives are put in layers and sprinkled generously with -salt. They are stirred frequently, and when they “sweat,” they are put -in barrels with pepper corns and bay leaves, or in jars with olive oil -and condiments, or they may be put in jars without any addition as they -are preserved by their own oil and the absorbed salt. - -The methods of preparation cited are those used for olives consumed in -foreign countries, very few thus prepared being imported, as they are -known only to olive connoisseurs. - - -Imported Green Olives - -Nearly all the green olives used in this country come from Spain and are -generally known as “Queen olives.” In years of shortage a few come from -Italy, Greece, and France. They are hand picked, cleaned, treated in the -usual way with lye, and washed, but during this process care is -exercised to prevent them being exposed to the air as it is desired to -retain the green color. They are then graded for size and quality and -placed in huge casks or “pipes” with sufficient brine to cover them. -The “pipes” are exposed to the sun to favor the fermentation which -requires six weeks or more, depending upon the temperature. During the -fermentation, the olives change slowly from deep green to golden. The -pipes hold from 160 to 180 gallons and are used for shipping the olives -to this country. Ten per cent brine is used for filling the casks, but -the brine weakens during the curing and is usually 7 or 7-1/2% at the -finish. - -The Queen olives are hand graded for size on the basis of the number per -kilo. The following grades are made: - - - QUEEN OLIVES - - 60-70 - 70-80 - 80-90 - 90-100 - 100-110 - 110-120 - 120-130 - 130-140 - 140-150 - 150-160 - 160-180 - 180-200 - 200-220 - -They are also graded for quality, as: “prime” or “first quality,” -“seconds,” and “Queen culls.” Only the first and second grade are sent -to this country though all sizes are, but there is no designation by -which the consumer may obtain a desired size. The term Queen olive may -mean those having only 60 to the kilo or those with 220 to the kilo. - -Some green olives are packed in tins and shipped to this country and a -comparatively few are brought in bottles. The importers prefer to -purchase the olives in bulk and pack according to their trade -requirements, under the sanitary conditions imposed in this country -rather than those found abroad. The olives are transferred from the -pipes to bottles and either supplied with fresh brine or the brine from -the pipe is carefully filtered and only such addition made as needed to -make up the difference. The use of the original liquor gives a decidedly -better flavor, though it is often sacrificed in order to get one which -is perfectly clear. - -The green olive is retailed almost wholly in glass, either in fancy hand -packed packages or in pint and quart jars. Many attempts have been made -to create a sale in tin containers, but without success as there are -decided advantages in being able to see the size and quality. Seeing the -fruit no doubt frequently suggests its use and purchase. A few olives -are still retailed in bulk but they soon become covered with yeast and -other organisms, and have an unattractive appearance. - -The origin of the stuffed olive is of very recent date, but by whom -originated is not quite clear. According to an authority[1] on Spanish -olives, stuffed olives were unknown before 1893-4. It was in 1895 that -Señor Picasa, the general manager of the Sevilla Packing Company, had -seen olives stuffed with pimientos in Spain, and in the following year -introduced them into the United States, the company packing them under -the copyrighted name of “Pimola.” In 1897, a Spanish house packed -pepper-stuffed olives, and later on other firms also, among the latter -many American firms. As the pimiento is grown and prepared in Spain, and -labor cheaper there than here, the industry has been practically -transferred to that country. - - [1.] H. C. Newcomb, former vice-consul to Spain. - -The operation of stuffing consists in removing the pit and filling the -cavity with some other substance, particularly pimiento, these forming -the bulk of the stuffed olive trade. The bright red of the latter gives -a pleasing contrast with the green, and the mild pungency is very -agreeable to many persons. Pickled celery, capers, etc., have been used, -but were not so favorably received, and at present, the substances used -to any extent, aside from the pimiento, are Manzanillos stuffed with -pieces of Queens, and some stuffed with anchovies for the South American -trade. Pitting machines have been devised, and also machines for -stuffing the olives, but the work done by the stuffing machines is crude -as compared with hand work. The olives used for stuffing are the -Manzanillo which are smaller than the Queen. The sizes are as follows: - - MANZANILLO (Stuffed) - - 180-200 - 200-220 - 220-240 - 240-260 - 260-280 - 280-300 - 300-320 - 320-340 - 340-360 - -They are packed in barrels of about 45 gallons capacity, and like the -Queen, are repacked into individual containers in this country. - -A few olives are packed with a mince of capers, anchovies, truffles, -etc., and the olives preserved in oil. A few are also packed for -garnishing, in which cubes are cut out and the spaces filled with bright -peppers. - - -Domestic - -In California the commercially prepared olives are practically all ripe, -only a very limited quantity of green ones being prepared. Since the -olives, even on the same tree, ripen at various periods, three pickings -are made during the season, when olives well colored and of an equal -degree of ripeness are taken. In excessively ripe olives, the skin -toughens, and the fruit is difficult to pickle. The trees are pruned so -as to keep them low enough to be reached by the harvesters on step -ladders, in order that all picking may be done by hand. The picked fruit -is taken to a central point to be filled into boxes or barrels, for -transportation to the factory. For the best grades of olives, particular -care is taken during this part of the work to avoid bruising the fruit, -which is picked into canvas bags, pails, etc., then poured into barrels -partly filled with water, so that the water will furnish a cushion for -the fruit. The olives are transported to the factory in these barrels. -These precautions are taken as bruised spots soften and become black, -and the resulting processed fruit will not be of first quality. Many - -[Illustration: Sorting Olives for Size by Machine] - -growers deliver fruit dry in lug boxes, but bruising and crushing are -liable to occur during transportation. The fruit is delivered into a -hopper filled with water, then from the hopper into boxes where the -fruit is drained. The fruit is delivered in the factory to be first -sorted which is done on a moving belt, and here all stems and defective -fruit are removed as the fruit is carried slowly past the workers who -sit or stand on either side. In some factories the sorting is done after -the fruit is pickled, but is much more difficult due to the change in -color - -[Illustration: Sorting Olives for Quality by Hand] - -through the action of the lye and of oxidation. The fruit is next passed -to the grader, which separates the various sizes. From the grader the -three largest sizes are each delivered to a moving belt to be sorted for -color, degree of ripeness, and culls, as the curing must be modified to -suit the particular degree of ripeness, a crisp firm olive requiring a -heavier treatment than does a riper, softer-textured one. The olives as -sorted, are passed to small side belts, which thus deliver fruit uniform -in size and color to the receiving boxes. Great care is taken in the -sorting of olives, different varieties are not mixed, nor even fruit of -the same variety but from different localities. In grading for size by -machine, 1/16 of an inch is the variation between each size and the -next; those less than 10/16 are removed to be used for other purposes. -When the minimum is due to the variety and not to stunting, the fruit -may be pickled, because aside from the larger proportion of pit, the -flavor is equal to that of the large fruit. Usually the smaller olives -were used for oil, but more recently are used for relishes and sauces. -The sizes upon which the different grades are made are based upon the -short diameter of the fruit, and have been adopted by the California -Olive Association: - - Number Diam. in - Grade per lb. inches - Standard 120-135 10/16-11/16 - Medium 105-120 11/16 - Large 90-105 12/16 - Extra Large 75-90 13/16 - Mammoth 65-75 13.5/16 - Giant 55-65 14/16 - Jumbo 45-55 15/16 - Colossal 35-45 16/16 - -The olives are placed in an alkaline solution, usually sodium hydrate as -it is stronger in action than potassium hydrate. The strength varies -with the different packers but is generally in the neighborhood of -1-1/2%. After 6 to 8 hours, the lye is drawn off and the olives exposed -to the air in order that they may oxidize and darken, since the lye -removes some of the natural color. The operation is repeated with the -same strength or less of lye solution and the fruit exposed to the air -until examination of the pulp shows that the lye has penetrated to the -pit. The lye solution is then replaced with clear water which is changed -twice a day, until the lye and bitterness are removed, which requires -from 4 to 8 days. The olives are then treated with brine solutions, -starting with 1%, and increasing the strength at intervals of about 2 -days until about 4% is used, when they are ready to be put in glass jars -or cans and sealed. - -The brine is used very weak at the start and gradually increased so that -the osmotic action may be so controlled as not to cause the fruit to -shrivel as it would if placed in a strong solution at the start. Some -packers permit the olives to stay in the weak brine long enough for -fermentation to take place as done with the imported green olives so as -to develop an acid flavor. The more recent tendency, however, is toward -packing them with the least possible change, and to depend upon the -distinctive natural flavor of the fruit itself. A similar tendency -toward retaining the natural color, rather than that induced by -oxidation, might be advantageous. - -If it be the intent to hold the olives in bulk, they are treated with -increasingly strong brines until 10 - -[Illustration: Curing Vats] - -to 12-1/2% is used, the latter amount being required to carry them -safely through the summer. - -The process is modified in practise to suit the conditions, as -variations in varieties of fruit, in temperature, and in the lye have to -be considered. There are also variations in practise due to individual -experience. During the time the olives are in the various solutions they -are stirred frequently, so as to change their position in the vats, and -also to change the solution in contact with them. The stirring was, and -is done yet in some cases, by hand, with wooden paddles, which is -laborious besides causing more or less damage to the fruit. Recently -compressed air has been piped to the vats and directed into the -solutions with sufficient force to keep the olives agitated. This method -is said to hasten the action of the lye solutions with consequent -improvement in the fruit. It also obviates the drawing off the solutions -and the exposure of the fruit to the air, as a certain amount of -oxidation takes place in the solution. - -As the operators place the olives in the bottles or cans, the soft and -defective ones are discarded. The containers are then filled with a 3% -brine at a temperature of 175 or 180 degrees F. The air is exhausted, -during which the temperature is raised to 185 degrees, and the -containers sealed, after which they are processed. The large olives in a -26 ounce glass jar are cooked for 50 minutes; extra large, 55 minutes; -mammoth, 58 minutes; and colossal 60 minutes; at 240 degree F. in some -factories, or for a longer period if processed at a lower temperature. - -The time required for heat to penetrate to the center of an olive is -longer than has been generally supposed. This was determined by -carefully drilling into the pit, first with a fine drill and then with -increasingly larger ones, until an eighth inch hole was made. The bulb -of a small thermometer was inserted, and to prevent heat being carried -to the bulb by means of the glass stem, sections of olives were placed -around the stem immediately above the olive being tested, and tied -securely. Jumbo olives at room temperature placed directly in a boiling -bath required on an average fourteen and one-half minutes for the -temperature to reach 209 degrees F., which is practically the maximum -which can be attained under the conditions. When the olive was placed in -cold water and the bath heated rapidly under conditions similar to home -canning, the average time required to reach 209 degrees F. was 29 -minutes. The former experiment represents a more favorable condition for -heat penetration than prevails in factory operations, and the latter -probably the least favorable, but both show that in the ordinary process -all parts of the olive do not reach the high temperature supposed to be -produced by that of the bath for more than a few minutes. - -At the University of California ripe olives have been canned without -brine. After pickling, the olives have been placed in 3% brine for -several days, then heated in the brine to about 180 degrees F. after -which they are taken from the brine, put in the bottles or cans, sealed, -and processed. No shrinking, wrinkling, softening, nor change in color -is said to take place. By the elimination of the brine in the container, -there results a saving in freight of 31.5% with cans and 16.6% with -bottles. - -The history of the olive and its method of preparation show that no -organisms pathogenic to man are normally present and that if such -organisms be associated with it in any way, it must be from the outside -and through local infection. - -More care is required in processing at high temperatures, than at -boiling. A high internal pressure is developed inside the cans or jars, -due to the expansion of the contents and of the enclosed gases, which -has a tendency to loosen or blow off the covers. This tendency may be -overcome by applying air or water pressure on the outside of the cans or -jars to counteract that generated within. This is done while they are -inside the retort and by means of automatic pressure controllers. There -is no essential difference in the sterilizing and cooling of tin cans -and glass jars, both forms of containers are responsive to treatment -with high temperatures and both require proper care and handling. As -with pickled olives, however, glass jars permit the purchaser to see the -size and the condition of the fruit. - -The canning of ripe olives in California was originated by F. T. -Bioletti, zymologist in the University of California, and came about -through an - -[Illustration: Packing Olives in Jars] - -investigation in 1889 on the spoiling of olives. When pickled olives -were held, the quality deteriorated in some of them, they softened -during the summer, and seldom remained in an edible condition for a -year. As a result of his experiments on methods of keeping, he found -that the olives could be sterilized in sealed containers and be kept in -edible condition indefinitely. The commercial application of the method -and the popularizing of the ripe olive is due to Mrs. Freda Ehmann, a -pioneer olive grower, who applied scientific methods, with marked -success, to both the development and canning of the olive. - -The sustained scientific work along developmental and preserving lines -in this country, has been done mainly by Wickson, Bioletti, and Cruess -of the state university staff to whom great credit is due for the -advancement made. Many improvements have naturally been made by -manufacturers in the preparation of the ripe olive but are held by the -factories for their own use solely. - -Recently Cruess has developed methods for treating the ripe olive with -aerated hot solutions which have permitted the preliminary treatments to -be done in 3 to 6 days, instead of as formerly in 3 to 6 weeks. The -methods promise to be of great economic value, and have been patented -for the benefit of the public. - -The olives which are too small or misshapen to be used in the regular -pack are sometimes used for other purposes besides oil extraction in -which size and appearance are not factors. The flesh is ground and -seasoned and thus furnishes a mixture for relishes and sandwich filling, -or the flesh is mixed with pickled cucumbers, capers, pimiento, tomato, -etc., in various combinations for the same purposes or to flavor sauces. -The appetizing ways in which olives may be used alone or in combination, -and the attractive dishes which can be prepared from them are endless. - -A preparation which has considerable vogue with lovers of ripe olives is -to take the olives from the brine some hours before using and cover -them with olive oil. This preparation may be further enhanced by rubbing -the dish before using, with a cut clove of garlic. The use of aromatics -in the preliminary preparation, then packing in oil, as done by the -Greeks, Italians, and Spaniards, with some of their best olives, produce -very fine products that are far ahead, in both flavor and food value, of -the ordinary preparations. - -The olive, though used almost exclusively as a relish or appetizer in -this country, is a valuable food. This is true for both the green and -the ripe, the difference in the two not being so great as is frequently -claimed. The pickled green olive has supplanted the cucumber pickle to a -very considerable extent in the trade. The canned ripe olive is -distinctive and depends upon an entirely different quality for its -favor. As long as the present prices prevail, they can not be considered -on the basis of staples or in competition with many other foods in -furnishing nutritive elements. - -The flesh of the American olive consists of about 80 per cent of the -fruit, and of this the solids average 38 per cent, oil 25 per cent, and -protein 1.2 per cent. - -In spite of the fact that olives have been used as a food from time -immemorial, very little systematic analytic work seems to have been done -on the whole fruit in the various stages of maturity and in determining -the effect of the various treatments for the removal of the bitterness. -Much of the analytic work has been devoted to analyses of the oil and -to methods for determining adulteration. The methods followed in this -country and abroad are not the same and the results are therefore not -comparable. It seems strange that so old and so commercially important a -fruit has not been investigated to the minutest detail. - -It is stated that the olive on reaching full size increases in weight -and oil content as it matures, the various stages being approximately -determined by the change in color from green to yellow, red, and finally -black. When, however, one finds analyses of typical fruit of one variety -and from the same place which show the flesh of the green olive to -contain 23.55 per cent; yellowish green, 20.37 per cent; red, 27.35 per -cent; and purple to black, 24.89 per cent oil, it discounts the color -value. Other available analyses show similar discrepancies between the -chemical composition and the color test as indicative of maturity. -Variation in composition occurs in the same variety of fruit grown in -different places as well as in the different varieties and, as with -other fruits, one is dependent upon the skill of the packer in selecting -raw stock and in handling it in the process of manufacture, for the -quality of the article received. It is only natural to expect that a -product containing so much oil and subjected to the action of lye, might -be greatly changed during its preparation. The data available, however, -does not sustain this premise, but shows that very little change -actually takes place. - - - - -LITERATURE - - -Andran, H. M.==>Les conserves des petits menages. - -Armstrong, E. F.==>The simple carbohydrates and the glucosides, 1912. - -D’Aygalliers, P. D.==>L’olivier et l’huile d’olive, 1900. - -Bourquelot, Em. and Vintilesco, J.==>Compt. Rend. _147_, 533, 535, -1908. - -Buckland, A. W.==>Our viands, 1893. - -Chalmers, T. W.==>The reduction and treatment of vegetable oils, 1918. - -Coupin, Henri==>La conservation des fruits, des lugumes, des graines. - -Cruess, Wm. V.==>Home and farm food preservation, 1918. - -Gracey, Wilbur T.==>Olive growing in Spain. Special consular report, -No. 79, Dept. of Com., 1918. - -Green, Mary E.==>Food products of the world, 1895. - -Haas, Paul and Hill, T. G.==>Chemistry of plant products, 1913. - -Hilts, R. W.==>Chemical study of the ripening and pickling of -California olives. Bul. 803, Bu. of Chem., Dept. of Agr., 1920. - -Lemery, L., Translation by Hay, D.==>Treatise of all sorts of food, -1745. - -Loudon, J. C.==>Loudon’s encyclopedia of plants, 1866. - -Martyn, Charles==>Foods and culinary utensils of the ancients. - -Mason, Charlotte==>The lady’s assistant, 1778. - -Pellerin, G.==>Guide pratique de l’expert chimiste, 1910. - -de Savigny, G. B.==>Conserves, salaisons, et confitures de menage, -1909. - -Thudichum, J. L. W.==>Cookery, its art and practice, 1895. - -Wickson, E. J.==>California fruits, 1910. - -Willis, Oliver R.==>Practical flora, 1894. - -==>Fig and Olive Journal, vo. 4, No. 11, Apr. 1920. - -==>Seal of safety, 1915. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Olive, by K. G. Bitting - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE OLIVE *** - -***** This file should be named 51780-0.txt or 51780-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/1/7/8/51780/ - -Produced by Larry B. Harrison, Chuck Greif and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, -set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to -copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to -protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project -Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you -charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you -do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the -rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose -such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and -research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do -practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is -subject to the trademark license, especially commercial -redistribution. - - - -*** START: FULL LICENSE *** - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project -Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at -http://gutenberg.org/license). - - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy -all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. -If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the -terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or -entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement -and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" -or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the -collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an -individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are -located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from -copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative -works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg -are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project -Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by -freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of -this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with -the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by -keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project -Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in -a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check -the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement -before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or -creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project -Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning -the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United -States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate -access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently -whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, -copied or distributed: - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived -from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is -posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied -and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees -or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work -with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the -work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 -through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the -Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or -1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional -terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked -to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the -permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any -word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or -distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than -"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version -posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), -you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a -copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon -request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other -form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided -that - -- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is - owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he - has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the - Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments - must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you - prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax - returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and - sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the - address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to - the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." - -- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or - destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium - and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of - Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any - money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days - of receipt of the work. - -- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set -forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from -both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael -Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the -Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm -collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain -"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or -corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual -property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a -computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by -your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with -your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with -the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a -refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity -providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to -receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy -is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further -opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER -WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO -WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. -If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the -law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be -interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by -the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any -provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance -with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, -promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, -harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, -that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do -or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm -work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any -Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. - - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers -including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists -because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from -people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. -To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 -and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive -Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at -http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent -permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. -Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered -throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at -809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email -business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact -information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official -page at http://pglaf.org - -For additional contact information: - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To -SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any -particular state visit http://pglaf.org - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. -To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate - - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm -concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared -with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project -Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. - - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. -unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily -keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. - - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: - - http://www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/old/51780-0.zip b/old/51780-0.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c8bf1ca..0000000 --- a/old/51780-0.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51780-h.zip b/old/51780-h.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 882e204..0000000 --- a/old/51780-h.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51780-h/51780-h.htm b/old/51780-h/51780-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index 0afb53a..0000000 --- a/old/51780-h/51780-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1774 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" -"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> - -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> - <head> <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> -<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> -<title> - The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Olive, by K. G. Bitting. -</title> -<style type="text/css"> - p {margin-top:.2em;text-align:justify;margin-bottom:.2em;text-indent:4%;} - -.c {text-align:center;text-indent:0%;} - -.rt {text-align:right;} - -.nind {text-indent:0%;} - -small {font-size: 70%;} - -big {font-size: 130%;} - - h1 {margin-top:5%;text-align:center;clear:both;} - - h2 {margin-top:2%;margin-bottom:2%;text-align:center;clear:both; -text-indent:0%;font-weight:bold; - font-size:110%;} - - h3 {margin:.25% auto .25% auto;text-align:center; -text-align:left;clear:both;font-size:110%; -text-indent:0%;font-weight:bold;} - - h4 {margin-top:1%;margin-bottom:1%;text-align:center;clear:both; -text-indent:0%;font-weight:normal; - font-size:100%;} - - hr {width:90%;margin:2em auto 2em auto;clear:both;color:black;} - - hr.full {width: 50%;margin:5% auto 5% auto;border:4px double gray;} - - table {margin-top:2%;margin-bottom:2%;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;border:none;} - - body{margin-left:4%;margin-right:6%;background:#ffffff;color:black;font-family:"Times New Roman", serif;font-size:medium;} - -a:link {background-color:#ffffff;color:blue;text-decoration:none;} - - link {background-color:#ffffff;color:blue;text-decoration:none;} - -a:visited {background-color:#ffffff;color:purple;text-decoration:none;} - -a:hover {background-color:#ffffff;color:#FF0000;text-decoration:underline;} - -.smcap {font-variant:small-caps;font-size:100%;} - - img {border:none;} - -.blockquot {margin-top:2%;margin-bottom:2%;} - -.caption {font-weight:bold;font-size:80%;} - -sup {font-size:55%;} -sub {font-size:55%;} - -.figcenter {margin-top:3%;margin-bottom:3%;clear:both; -margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;text-align:center;text-indent:0%;} - @media print, handheld - {.figcenter - {page-break-before: avoid;} - } - -.footnote {width:95%;margin:auto 3% 1% auto;font-size:0.9em;position:relative;} - -.label {position:relative;left:-.5em;top:0;text-align:left;font-size:.8em;} - -.fnanchor {vertical-align:30%;font-size:.8em;} - -.pagenum {font-style:normal;position:absolute; -left:95%;font-size:55%;text-align:right;color:gray; -background-color:#ffffff;font-variant:normal;font-style:normal;font-weight:normal;text-decoration:none;text-indent:0em;} -@media print, handheld -{.pagenum - {display: none;} - } - -</style> - </head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Olive, by K. G. Bitting - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: The Olive - -Author: K. G. Bitting - -Release Date: April 17, 2016 [EBook #51780] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE OLIVE *** - - - - -Produced by Larry B. Harrison, Chuck Greif and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="332" height="498" -alt="[Image of the book's cover unavailable]" title="" /> -</div> - -<h1>THE OLIVE</h1> -<p class="c"><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_001" id="page_001"></a>{1}</span> -<br />BY<br /> -<big>K. G. BITTING, M.S.</big>,<br /><br /> -BACTERIOLOGIST,<br /><br /> -GLASS CONTAINER ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA<br /><br /> -———<br /><br /> -THE RESEARCH LABORATORY,<br /> -GLASS CONTAINER ASSOCIATION<br /> -OF AMERICA,<br /> -3344 S. MICHIGAN AVENUE,<br /> -CHICAGO, ILL.<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_002" id="page_002"></a>{2}</span> -<span class="smcap">Copyright, 1920</span><br /> -<span class="smcap">Glass Container Association of America</span> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_003" id="page_003"></a>{3}</span> </p> - -<h1>OLIVES</h1> - -<p class="c"><i>Olea europaea</i> L.</p> - -<p>There is no tree nor fruit which offers more in interest than the olive -tree and its fruit. To obtain anything approaching an idea of its -many-sidedness, it is necessary to become acquainted with the life and -legends of ancient peoples, in which it entered as sustenance and as -symbol; to know something of art, as the olive has furnished the motif -for much decoration, both symbolic and purely esthetic; to know -something of botany and horticulture, to appreciate its parts and to -understand their structure and development; something of chemistry and -physics, to understand its various constituents and their intelligent -treatment; something of the culinary art, to understand its value and -its varied uses as a food and condiment; of medicine, to appreciate the -many virtues ascribed to it as a healing agent; and of cosmetics, to -believe all that is claimed for it as a cleanser and beautifier. Each -phase offers many fascinating possibilities, revealed through the most -ancient as well as the most recent literature, for with time the olive -has gained both in interest and value.</p> - -<h3>Origin</h3> - -<p>The olive according to De Candolle has been cultivated for more than -4,000 years, probably the longest period for any tree. Its early history -is known only through ancient literature, and ancient remains<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_004" id="page_004"></a>{4}</span> in which -it served either as decoration or as a constituent. Through these its -original home has been traced to Asia Minor, a region originally -extending from Syria to Greece. That it grew on Mt. Ararat and was the -harbinger to Noah of the recession of the flood is told in Genesis—“and -the dove came in to him in the evening, and, lo, in her mouth was an -olive leaf pluckt off.”</p> - -<p>The ancient Egyptians as a part of the fruit of their conquests obtained -the olive during the 19th dynasty. Mummies, dating from the 20th to the -26th dynasty, have been found surrounded by garlands of olive leaves. -From Egypt it spread into northern Africa. It is said to have been taken -to Greece by Cecrops, the founder of Athens. The legend states that in -the reign of Cecrops both Poseidon and Athena contended for the -possession of Athens. The gods resolved that whichever of them produced -a gift most useful to mortals should have possession. Poseidon struck -the ground with his trident and straightway a horse appeared. Athena -then planted the olive. The gods gave the city to the goddess from whom -it was called Athenae.</p> - -<p>Pindar says that all the slopes of Olympus were soon covered with it, -and that the Athenians used to crown the victors in the Olympian games -with its branches. Later it was used to crown their warriors and wise -citizens. The method of oil extraction was also obtained from outside. -The Greeks are supposed to have had the wild olive, Oleaster, -previously, but the fruit of this is valueless. They are the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_005" id="page_005"></a>{5}</span> first -European people to have cultivated the olive. Its cultivation spread to -the surrounding countries, where the Greeks founded colonies, Sicily, -the coast of Italy, and Gaul, these forming nuclei for its spread into -the adjacent lands. Pliny states, however, that the olive was not -introduced into Italy until 627 B.C., and that it reappeared in Gaul in -600 B.C., being carried to the latter country by the Phenician colony -that founded Marseilles.</p> - -<p>The olive was carried later by the Romans into the countries in which -they settled, Spain being the most notable, but it was also carried into -the Iberian peninsula by the Arabs.</p> - -<p>The Greeks and the Romans cultivated it on the northern side of the -Mediterranean, the Tyrians on the southern side, the Arabs finding it -there and carrying it with them into Spain when they settled in that -country. The double origin of the olive, Greco-Roman and Semitic, in -this latter country is borne out by the names bestowed on the olive. In -southern Spain the tree is called <i>aceituno</i>, the olive fruit -<i>aceituna</i>, and the oil <i>aceite</i>, the name evidently derived from the -Arabic name <i>zeitoun</i>, this in turn being derived from the Hebrew -<i>zeit</i>. In northern Spain both Arabic and Latin names are used, the tree -is called <i>olivo</i> or <i>oliveira</i>, whereas the fruit and oil have the -Arabic derivative names <i>aceituna</i> and <i>aceite</i> respectively, but the -oil used in the church and in painting is called <i>oleo</i>. In Portugal -similar conditions prevail, the cultivated olive is called by the -Greco-Latin name <i>oliveira</i>, whereas the wild olive is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_006" id="page_006"></a>{6}</span> called by the -Arabic name <i>zambugeiro</i>, the fruit <i>azeitona</i>, and the oil <i>azeite</i>.</p> - -<p>Though some botanists claim that the olive is native to the Canary -Islands, no word for it is found in the remains of the language of the -Guanches, an ancient, but extinct, race of people who inhabited the -islands. The available records show the tree to have been introduced -there since 1403, and probably by the Phenicians.</p> - -<p>The olive was introduced by the Spaniards into Chili, Peru, Mexico, and -the United States. From Mexico it was brought by Jesuit missionaries -into Lower California, the first settlement being at Loreto, in 1697. -The Jesuits founded fifteen missions, but were superseded by Franciscans -in 1768. These latter proceeded northward to extend their work, the -first of their missions being founded in 1769, at San Diego. The secular -head of the mission, representing the King of Spain, had the foresight -to carry the seeds of flowers, fruits, grains, and vegetables, so that -flourishing gardens were soon brought into existence. When the missions -went into secular hands in 1843, the gardens in many cases were -neglected and many of the fruit trees died. The olive was one of the -trees that withstood the neglect and was afterwards used for cuttings by -the emigrants from the eastern states who came in 1849. From this time -on the olive has received considerable attention, many experiments being -made in its culture, and in recent years the plantings have increased to -an enormous extent, due to the favor accorded to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_007" id="page_007"></a>{7}</span> both the oil and the -fruit. It has spread around San Diego and Los Angeles east into the San -Joaquin Valley and north into the Sacramento Valley in California, and -also into Arizona. In the latter state its cultivation is comparatively -recent, so that only about 5 per cent of American olives are produced -there.</p> - -<p>At the present time the olive is cultivated more or less extensively in -the countries surrounding the Mediterranean—Asia Minor, Turkey, Greece, -Italy, Austria, France, Spain, Portugal, Tunis, and Algeria. In the -Western Hemisphere the main source is California, though the olive is -cultivated in some of the countries of S. America.</p> - -<h3>Duration</h3> - -<p>The olive tree is of slow growth, but if allowed to grow naturally, it -persists for centuries and attains a great size. De Candolle describes -one tree 23 feet in circumference, its age supposed to be over 700 -years. Tournefort found fruitful old olive trees between Ephesus and -Smyrna which must have been planted before the Mussulman invasion, as -Turks had not planted olives, not esteeming them. The Mount of Olives on -the east side of Jerusalem was among the places best cultivated. Near -its foot was the grove called Gethsemane (Gath-Semen, oil press) because -of the olives with which it was covered and those of the slopes above -where an abundance of oil was pressed out. In the Garden of Gethsemane -there remain only eight of these olive trees that are supposed to have -existed at the beginning of the Christian<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_008" id="page_008"></a>{8}</span> era. Chateaubriand, writing -in the early part of the nineteenth century of these olive trees, said, -“one sees there eight olive trees in extreme decrepitude.” An article -written recently by J. D. Whiting, American Vice-Consul at Jerusalem, -had an interesting statement relative to one of these trees. “El Butini, -the most famous of the Garden of Gethsemane’s eight olive trees, under -which the Savior is supposed to have walked during the night of agony, -has recently collapsed. The great tree was weakened by the locust plague -during the spring and summer of 1915. When El Butini falls, then falls -the Turk, runs the legend.”</p> - -<p>Throughout Europe and Asia are many old olive trees, some of them -producing abundantly, their origin, however, lost in remote centuries. -The olive is very tenacious of life, but the methods of cultivation, -which tend to increase production, reduce resistance and diminish its -duration of life.</p> - -<h3>Etymology</h3> - -<p>The generic name <i>Olea</i> is from the Greek <i>elaia</i>, derived from the -Celtic or Gothic <i>olew</i>, oil, on account of the abundance of oil in the -fruit. The specific name <i>europaea</i> is given to the species cultivated -throughout Europe.</p> - -<p>The olive has been given fanciful names by the early peoples. It was -known as the “tree of wisdom,” “Minerva’s tree,” the “Gift of Heaven,” -etc. The Greeks consecrated the tree to Minerva, and made it the symbol -of wisdom, abundance, and peace.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_009" id="page_009"></a>{9}</span></p> - -<h3>Description</h3> - -<p>The olive is an evergreen tree about 20 to 30 feet high, much branched -and spreading. It forms a symmetrical head, having angular branches and -opposite leaves. The leaves are dry and leathery in texture, lanceolate, -entire, deep green above, and light hoary beneath. The flowers are -small, star-shaped, creamy white with yellow centers, have a faint -pleasing odor, and are axillary in compact racemes. The fruit, a fleshy -pendulous drupe, is very abundant. It is oval, obovate, or globular in -shape, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, dull greenish yellow even when -full size but unripe, then gradually becomes yellow, red, and finally -turns a glossy purplish black or black when ripe. In ripening, the side -exposed to the sun reddens, then gradually the whole fruit changes from -red to purple, then black. As fruit of all degrees of ripeness are -developed at the same time, the tree furnishes an extremely beautiful -combination of colors, the various greens of the leaf and fruits forming -a background for the splotches of red, purple, and black formed by the -ripening fruit. The fruit is peculiar in two respects, first, in that it -contains in addition to the ordinary constituents of fruits an abundance -of edible oil, consequently making it a valuable food; second in that it -contains a bitter substance which does not disappear on maturity, so -that the fruit cannot be eaten at any stage in its development without -preliminary treatment for the elimination of this substance. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_010" id="page_010"></a>{10}</span> stone -is two-celled, many times only one seed developing.</p> - -<h3>Climatic Requirements</h3> - -<p>The olive requires rather warm temperature, light humidity, and absence -of heavy frosts. It can withstand temperatures of -7 to -8 degrees C. or -even lower if not too prolonged, and if the change to higher temperature -be gradual. Moist cold is more unfavorable than dry. The altitude at -which it will grow depends on the local climate. The climate of the -countries bordering on the Mediterranean and that of California are -particularly favorable.</p> - -<h3>Varieties</h3> - -<p>The wild olive Oleaster is said to have been the original form, called -by Linnaeus <i>Olea europaea sylvestris</i>, later by De Candolle <i>Olea -europaea oleaster</i> and the cultivated form <i>Olea europaea sativa</i>. The -reason for this belief is said to be the <i>oleaster</i> seeds reproduce -trees true to type, whereas the seeds of <i>sativa</i> produce trees having -the characteristics of <i>oleaster</i> but, though <i>oleaster</i> under -cultivation becomes modified in various ways, it does not produce fruit -like <i>sativa</i>. Whichever form was the original, the subjection to -cultivation for over 4,000 years, under the varying conditions of soil, -climate, and methods of cultivation, has produced many varieties. Many -of these doubtless are the result of accidental modifications, more or -less fixed by successive cultivations. At the present time there are -certain well-defined varieties which are cultivated,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_011" id="page_011"></a>{11}</span> and of which the -characteristics are well known, so that varieties may be selected -according to the purpose desired, whether for the preservation of the -fruit green, half ripe, or ripe, or for extraction of oil.</p> - -<p>Of the large number of varieties introduced into California, Wickson -reports analyses made by the State university on 57 varieties. Of these -only a comparatively few were retained as worthy of cultivation, chief -among these being the Mission olive, the one planted originally in -California in the old mission gardens. Wickson states there are several -sub-varieties of this form.</p> - -<h3>Propagation</h3> - -<p>The olive is propagated by means of seeds, cuttings, grafting, and -budding. Propagation by seeds is seldom done in this country, as it is -so much slower and more troublesome than by cuttings, aside from the -fact that the desired variety may not result. The pulp has to be -removed, which is done usually by allowing the fruit to rot or by -softening with an alkali. Unless removed from the stone, the seed may -not develop for two years, otherwise the seed usually sprouts the first -year.</p> - -<p>Propagation by cuttings is the commonest and easiest method, as the -cuttings root readily, and either old or new wood may be used so that -the cuttings may be large or small. Cuttings sent from Europe are -usually in the form of truncheons, and these may be cut into pieces like -firewood and will root.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_012" id="page_012"></a>{12}</span></p> - -<p>The story is told of a grove in Morocco in which the trees exhibited a -peculiar arrangement. The reason given for this was that a king and his -army on the way to the Sudan had encamped for the night, and stakes or -pickets to tie the horses had been cut from a grove near by. The pickets -were left and had developed into trees. This seems probable enough when -it is considered that pieces of branches are taken, one end whittled to -a sharp point and driven into the ground, and that these pieces will -take root and develop. An olive company in California has recently -transferred 3000 trees, 26 years old, from San Joaquin County to -Oroville and Marysville. The trunks were sawed off about 18 inches above -the ground, and the roots 12 inches from the stump. In a planting made 6 -years previously the same method was used and resulted successfully.</p> - -<p>Where trees are found undesirable for some reason, resort is had to -budding or grafting. By these means the undesirable trees are not a -complete loss, and results are obtained sooner. Many times varieties are -obtained from Europe which on developing are not found suited to the -conditions in this country; these plants may be used as stock for -desirable varieties or some desirable variety is obtained which may be -propagated rapidly by these means.</p> - -<p>The pruning must be done by persons of understanding, as the fruit is -borne only on the two-year portion of the branches, and provision must -be made<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_013" id="page_013"></a>{13}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_013_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_013_sml.jpg" width="338" height="450" alt="[Image unavailable: Gathering Olives]" title="Gathering Olives" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">Gathering Olives</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_014" id="page_014"></a>{14}</span></p> - -<p class="nind">to cut excessive growth in the season of too heavy development and -stimulate in the season of poor development. The pruning thus regulates -the growth of the branches which two years later will control the -production of the fruit.</p> - -<p>Pruning of very large branches is sometimes done to admit more light and -heat to the darker, cooler parts of the tree. The small branches thus -provided in turn furnish nursery stock. Pruning is done in late winter -and early spring. From March to October no pruning is done, but the -trees are carefully tended through cultivation, irrigation, and -fertilization.</p> - -<p>In California the young stock is set out in the groves in April, and -about 35 feet apart. During the non-bearing period, the land between, -which like all California groves, is kept in good cultivation and free -from weeds, is utilized frequently for other crops.</p> - -<p>Though numerous stories are written of the remarkable ability of the -olive tree to grow and bear in exposed situations, and with only small -amounts of soil and water, the olive, like all other fruit trees, -requires both cultivation and an adequate amount of water if a constant -and abundant harvest be desired. As the groves are irrigated, the proper -amount of water may be supplied at all times. The water is conducted -through a system of underground pipes, which are provided with outlets -at the end of each row of trees. From these outlets the water is -directed into furrows to water the trees.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_015" id="page_015"></a>{15}</span> As the irrigation is -conducted by underground pipes, the groves are easily cultivated.</p> - -<h3>Products</h3> - -<p>It would seem that the olive is rightly and appropriately called the -“Tree of Abundance,” for all parts of it have been used, and to the -ancients, even with their limited cuisine as compared with that of -today, it was a symbol of plenty, witness the apostrophe of King -Sennacherib, made centuries before the Christian era, who called Assyria -“A land of corn and wine; a land of bread and vineyards; a land of oil, -olives, and honey.”</p> - -<h4>FLOWERS</h4> - -<p>In ancient medicine the blossoms of the olive were highly esteemed, but -are not mentioned in the medicine of today. They were used as poultices -to alleviate pain, sometimes alone, sometimes mixed with other -substances.</p> - -<h4>LEAVES</h4> - -<p>The leaves were also used in medicine, a decoction made from them being -said to stop bleeding, and on account of their astringency to reduce -inflammation. The leaves and bark have an acrid and bitter taste, and -have been prescribed as substitutes for cinchona. In France an extract -of the leaves is used as a febrifuge, and has also been found valuable -in preventing hectic paroxysms.</p> - -<p>From time immemorial the leaf and branch have been employed as a symbol -of peace, and have appeared in sculpture and painting. No more -beautiful<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_016" id="page_016"></a>{16}</span> emblem than the olive branch can be selected or devised to -symbolize both peace and victory, and as such has been known through all -the ages. Egyptian mummies, dating from the 20th to the 26th dynasty, -have been found surrounded by garlands of olive leaves, and the tomb of -the hero of today will oftentimes have its sculptured olive branch, -telling its story and making its appeal stronger than could be made by -words.</p> - -<p>Besides serving for esthetic purposes, the leaves, in spite of their -astringency, are eaten by animals as forage, so that the trees have to -be protected from them. It is curious that with all the ravages made by -animals on the olive trees in the neglected mission gardens in -California, after the missionaries had gone, some of these same trees -furnished scions for many of the olive groves of today.</p> - -<h4>WOOD</h4> - -<p>The wood of the olive tree is much prized for certain purposes. It is -very close, fine-grained, yellow to yellowish brown with irregular wavy -brown to black lines and mottlings, especially near the root. It has no -distinguishable annual rings or pith rays, and has evenly distributed -vessels. It takes a beautiful polish. At present it is employed chiefly -in lathe-work and carving for small fancy articles, and for cabinet -work.</p> - -<p>In ancient times it seems to have had a much wider application, due no -doubt to the size of the trees, which were larger as a result of not -being<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_017" id="page_017"></a>{17}</span> subjected to the rigorous cultivation and pruning which they -receive today. The Bible states that olive wood was used in the Temple. -In the time of Pliny it furnished material for construction of ships, -for wagon spokes, wedges, columns, pedestals, statues, and furniture. -The Romans used both the wild and cultivated trees. The wood industry -was developed in the vicinity of Nice in both France and Italy, and -still flourishes. A considerable amount has been exported to England in -recent years for the manufacture of walking sticks. The poorer quality -is used for firewood, is inflammable, and produces great heat.</p> - -<h4>BARK</h4> - -<p>The bark contains a large amount of tannin. For medicinal purposes it is -reduced to powder and acts as an astringent, a tonic, and a febrifuge. -In warm climates a resin is exuded from it which solidifies in the air. -It is called Lecca gum, as it was first found near Lecca. It contains -some benzoic acid among other constituents and in ancient times was -prescribed in medicine, but is not at present, and the gum is considered -valueless.</p> - -<h4>FRUIT</h4> - -<p>The fruit has been considered a choice food at all times. It has -appeared at the feasts of epicures, both ancient and modern, as a -relish, and to be eaten at the end of the repast as part of the dessert, -and at all times it has also furnished a staple food for the poor in the -Orient and in Greek and Latin<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_018" id="page_018"></a>{18}</span> countries. Those who were well provided -were admonished to have care for those less fortunate: “When thou -beatest thine olive tree, thou shalt not go over the boughs again; it -shall be for the stranger, for the fatherless, and for the widow.” -(Deuteronomy XXIV., 20.) The people obliged to live frugally have found -it a great resource, particularly in Lent and for those at a distance -from the sea unable to obtain fresh fish. It is said that Plato -preferred olives to all other foods, and often made a meal on them -alone.</p> - -<p>Though olives are known and consumed throughout the civilized world, -comparatively few persons, aside from those living in the regions of -their cultivation, know that olives have to undergo certain treatment -before they can be eaten. It is a common practise in olive regions to -encourage the visitor to taste the fruit directly from the tree. The -fruit, both green and black, looks so fine and tempting, that the -disgust on tasting is correspondingly great. It is claimed that some of -the older varieties could be eaten without preparation, that they dried -naturally, and were sweet like raisins.</p> - -<p>The olive contains a bitter and acrid substance or substances which must -be removed before the olives are edible. It is referred to in most of -the literature as a “bitter principle”, and has been called an acid, a -tannin, and more recently a glucoside. Cruess has repeated the work of -the various investigators, who claimed these different substances, and -as a result has come to the conclusion that it is a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_019" id="page_019"></a>{19}</span> glucoside, that is, -a combination of glucose with another compound.</p> - -<p>In immature fleshy fruits there is usually an accumulation of acids, -tannins, and sometimes starch. As ripening proceeds, carbohydrates and -aromatic substances are formed, and the bitter, acrid, or astringent -taste disappears. In the olive there is no starch found at any stage of -maturity. Glucose has been found in all stages, and is supposed to be -the substance from which the oil is formed. The oil is in very minute -quantities in the fruit up to the time when the pit is formed, from then -on it increases gradually up to its maximum when the fruit is not quite -mature. In the plant economy the fat or oil is one of the most important -food reserves of plants. All parts of the fruit—rind, flesh, stone, and -seed—contain oil, the fleshy part, forming about 80% of the fruit, -containing the largest amount.</p> - -<p>Contrary to the condition existing in most fruits, the bitterness -remains through all stages of development in the olive. A substance of -glucosidic nature, given the name “oleuropeine”, has been isolated, and -found to be of extreme bitterness. This may be the substance or one of -the substances which cause the inedibility of the untreated olive.</p> - -<p>The oil is the most important constituent of the fruit on account of its -high food value and its use in the industries. It is used to a large -extent in cold countries and also in dry countries where there are few -cattle, the oil taking in the various culinary operations, the place of -butter and other fats.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_020" id="page_020"></a>{20}</span></p> - -<p>Among the ancient Jews the oil was considered indispensable and as -necessary as bread. An abundance of oil was looked upon as a blessing -from God. Vast public storehouses were constructed to hold it for the -scarce years. To the Greeks the three indispensable foods were oil, -grains, and wine, the oil entering into most of their dishes. The Romans -had a large trade in the oil, and it was also used, to a large extent, -in their domestic cooking. In Italy and Spain street vendors fry -fritters in the oil and sell them while hot. It has considerable use in -conserving fish, particularly sardines. The higher grades of French, -Spanish, Norwegian, and American sardines are packed in olive oil. This -use has been extended in recent years to the packing of tuna fish.</p> - -<p>Olive oil occupies a high position as a vegetable fat. Many others have -been prepared and offered as substitutes, and if judged by chemical -composition alone, give practically equal food value, but are lacking in -the delicious flavor which makes olive oil distinctive and gives it a -superiority over all other oils.</p> - -<p>The oil is a large factor in the industries; it serves as an extractive -of perfumes, as a constituent of fine, smooth soaps, and as a lubricant -in watch factories. Formerly the lower grades were used commonly for -lubricating purposes, but with improved methods of clarifying and the -greater expense attendant on its use, it has been superseded by cheaper -lubricants.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_021" id="page_021"></a>{21}</span></p> - -<p>An enormous quantity has been and is still used in religious ceremonies, -in the ordinations of the clergy and rulers, and anointing in the -sacraments, besides by old world peoples generally in the lamps in the -churches and temples, many of which are kept burning continually. An -idea of the vast amount consumed for this purpose can be obtained from -the fact that in one mosque alone there are 1,200 lamps burning -constantly, and requiring about 25,000 kilos of oil annually.</p> - -<p>In medicine it has been and is still used extensively. The ancients -rubbed it on their bodies to make the muscles supple and to cleanse and -protect the skin, particularly after bathing, and it still functions for -these purposes. It was used to heal wounds, in liniments, and as a mild -laxative. At present it is a constituent of liniments, ointments, -cerates, and plasters. The people who are habitual patrons of the olive -and its oil are noted for their smooth, beautiful complexions. It is -said “the warm rosy complexion of the Italian and Sicilian women is due -to the free use of olive oil as much as to the air and climate of their -country.”</p> - -<p>The residue or marc which remains after the oil is extracted is used as -a food for sheep and hogs, for fertilizer, and for fuel, and there is -obtained from it a clear, illuminating gas.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_022" id="page_022"></a>{22}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="PREPARATION_OF_FRUIT" id="PREPARATION_OF_FRUIT"></a>PREPARATION OF FRUIT</h2> - -<h3>Foreign</h3> - -<p>In the early preparation of olives in order to remove the bitterness, -they were soaked in water, which was renewed from time to time, -sometimes hot water being used. The olives, after draining, were then -held in brine. The green olives as well as the mature and black were -used.</p> - -<p>The Romans exercised the greatest care in their preparation, and -introduced refinements, by not only removing the bitterness, but by -causing them to acquire various flavors through infusion in solutions -containing aromatic substances.</p> - -<p>One of their methods for the preparation of green olives consisted in -adding roasted salt to the olives after a preliminary soaking in hot -water, then covering them with grape must, boiled wine, or honey water, -and to this solution were added fennel, mint, and lentiscus seed. Fennel -was used as a tampon to keep the olives immersed. A simpler method was -to use vinegar with the brine. Sometimes the olives were beaten to -facilitate the action, but this caused discoloration, which was avoided -by making cuts in them. The brine was replaced by oil as a preserving -liquid. Another method was to put the olives with the aromatics in the -brine at the start, then they were removed, crushed lightly, and put in -a mixture of oil, vinegar, and honey, to which were added leek, celery, -mint, and sometimes rue. The rue was supposed to be most efficacious in -bringing out the natural flavor, and was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_023" id="page_023"></a>{23}</span> most prized. The mature olives -were first put in brine for 30 to 40 days, then put in the preserving -liquid with the aromatics. Olives prepared in the ways indicated were -known as “Colymbades”.</p> - -<p>A form of conserve made by the ancients, and to which the name -“Epityrum” was given, consisted in taking green, mature, or black fruit, -though, as in the former, the green were preferred, and drying them in -the shade, after which they were put in baskets, and crushed in a press. -The crushed fruit was then put in vessels, sprinkled with salt, and had -mixed with it lentiscus seed and minced leaves of fennel and rue, and -was finally covered with oil.</p> - -<p>Many recipes have been left by the ancients, the preparations varying as -to time, strength of solutions, mixtures of spices, etc. To the recipes -of Palladius (1518-1580) is owed the knowledge that the Romans were -cognizant of and used lye solutions, though this is supposed to be a -modern practise. In this particular recipe sifted ashes are indicated as -one of the ingredients, and it is supposed that this recipe, changed in -detail, furnished the basis for present day methods. The use of wood -ashes was introduced into France by an Italian refugee named Picholini, -who settled in Provence, devoting himself to the preparation and sale of -preserved olives. The olives preserved according to his process are -called “olives a la Picholine”. Previous to his time the preparation in -southern France consisted of crushing the olives lightly, immersing in -clear water, which was renewed each<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_024" id="page_024"></a>{24}</span> day for about nine days, then -preserving in brine. This latter process is still employed for the -olives in which appearance is not an asset. For the more carefully -prepared ones, the method was to pick by hand when the olives had -attained full development, then they were carefully sorted, and immersed -in lye, the duration in the lye depending on the size of the fruit, and -the concentration of the lye. They were removed from the lye when the -flesh was penetrated to, and readily detached from, the stone.</p> - -<p>There are many variations of the lye treatment. In the olive countries -the preparation is done in the homes as well as in factories, and it is -in the homes, naturally, that the greatest variations occur. Lime is -often used with the ashes, one formula consisting of the olives mixed -with a paste of wood ashes and freshly slaked lime. In the ordinary -methods, however, a solution is made of the sifted ashes and lime, -sometimes sodium carbonate taking the place of the ashes. In the -ordinary factory preparations both ashes and lime are omitted, and -either caustic soda or potash used. When removed from the lye, the -olives are put in clear water, changed night and morning for three or -four days, then put in brine.</p> - -<p>The early accounts of olive preparation show quite conclusively that -great variation in strength of the caustic solution was inevitable, but -fortunately the tendency to err was on the weaker side. It was not until -the modern introduction of caustic<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_025" id="page_025"></a>{25}</span> preparations of soda and potash that -standardization of the process was possible. Even with this possibility -the practise remains largely empirical and is based upon the experience -of the operator. Some still adhere to the use of weak solutions, taking -considerable time to act upon the olive, whereas others use relatively -strong solutions so as to hasten the process.</p> - -<p>The brine used has been subject to quite as marked variation as the lye. -A weak brine has been used in order to encourage the natural -fermentation of the fruit, which corresponds to the fermentation in our -cucumber pickles. The other extreme is represented by the use of a very -strong brine which practically inhibited all fermentative change and -this same brine was filtered and used a succeeding season. Every -gradation between these extremes has been in common use. As might be -expected, more or less of the fruit softened and underwent changes which -at present would be regarded as decomposition or rotting rather than as -clean, normal fermentation. The esthetic side of olive preparation has -not always been of the highest order, though, as in the case of many -other foods, very great improvement has been wrought in recent years.</p> - -<p>Even with the later methods the use of aromatic substances has not been -abandoned, and many of these are used, such as bay leaves, cloves, -coriander, cumin, mint, orange skin, fennel, etc., the amounts and -combinations varying greatly. Sometimes the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_026" id="page_026"></a>{26}</span> aromatics are first -extracted, the solution concentrated, and a quantity of this solution -added to the brine, or they are boiled in the brine at the start, then -removed, and when the brine is cooled, it is ready for use.</p> - -<p>In Spain the ripe olives are not treated ordinarily with lye, but by the -slower process of soaking in water. The black olives, gathered late in -the year, are cured in a salt brine to which black pepper is added. -After the bitterness is removed, they are preserved in oil.</p> - -<p>A process used at present for ripe olives which is very simple but -effective, is to mix fine salt with them after they have been cleaned -and sorted. They are stirred twice a day, and through the osmotic action -of the salt, a dark-colored juice is exuded which contains, among other -constituents, the substance causing the bitterness. To hasten the action -the olives are pierced with a needle. The Spaniards vary this method by -adding aromatics, as wild marjoram, thyme, fennel seed, anise seed, -garlic, laurel leaves, etc., at the same time as the salt. The special -spice mixtures are held as trade secrets by the manufacturers.</p> - -<p>When the bitterness has been removed, the olives are washed, dried -lightly, and placed in casks or jars until required. Before being served -the olives are soaked in oil.</p> - -<p>One style of Greek packing of ripe olives is of special excellence. Sour -wine is added to the pickle to accentuate the flavor and the product is -packed in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_027" id="page_027"></a>{27}</span> oil. The olives are plump, tender, and brilliant, and possess -a very rich flavor.</p> - -<p>In parts of Southern Europe certain kinds of olives are left on the -trees to become very ripe, and are then dried in the sun without any -preparation. These are only used locally as they are lacking in the fine -flavor of the prepared olive.</p> - -<p>In the preparation of the olive, both green and ripe, during all these -centuries, there had been no attempt at sterilization. The olive was -preserved by partial drying, by the action of salt, and by its -spontaneous fermentation in pickle in which certain desirable forms of -organisms had the ascendency. With the good fruit thus prepared, there -must have been considerable which was spoiled, and yet no illness is -known to have resulted.</p> - -<p>Though olives have figured so largely in the alimentation of southern -Europe, the oil particularly being so important and general a food, the -people of northern Europe have not esteemed either to an important -extent. With the crude methods in vogue for transporting the oil, and -the lack of understanding as to its nature, it is supposed that their -apathetic attitude was due to its being received in poor condition.</p> - -<p>In England also, though so close to the olive growing districts, the -olive has not been used to any considerable extent, judging from its -absence from menus and from their cookery. In examining old cookery -books it was surprising to find no mention of olives. In Russel’s “Boke -of Nurture” and Mrs.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_028" id="page_028"></a>{28}</span> Napier’s “Noble Boke off Cookry” the manuscripts -dating from the 15th century, there is no mention of olives, though -there are condiments and spices from foreign countries used in sauces -and other preparations. Neither is there any mention of olives in “The -Closet of Sir Kenelm Digby Opened” written in the 17th century, though -Digby had traveled much and lived on the continent. The earliest mention -in 17 cookery books, published in the 17th and 18th centuries is the -following, published in 1745, and which is really a translation of a -French work by L. Lemery, physician to the King, and member of the Royal -Academy. It is interesting in showing the many virtues attributed to -olives.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p class="c"><b>“OF OLIVES”</b></p> - -<p>“You ought to chuse such as are large, pulpy, well preserv’d and -tasted, and those that have been cultivated in hot Countries.</p> - -<p>They create an Appetite, fortify the Stomach, dissolve and expell -the viscous and gross Humours fix’d there, repress Reachings, and -are a little nourishing.</p> - -<p>They produce no ill Effects, unless they are us’d to excess.</p> - -<p>They contain much Oil, Phlegm, and essential Salt.</p> - -<p>They agree in cold Weather with any Sort of Age and Constitution, -provided they are good, and well preserv’d.”</p></div> - -<p class="c"><b>Remarks</b></p> - -<p>“<i>Olives</i> are oblong or oval and juicy Fruits, larger or smaller, -according to the Country they grow in:<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_029" id="page_029"></a>{29}</span> Care must be taken to gather -them before they are ripe, and then they have a harsh bitter Taste not -to be endured, because their salts are clogg’d and swallow’d up by the -earthy and gross Parts.</p> - -<p><i>Olives</i> are preserv’d with Water and Salt, and then they become -pleasing to the Taste; the Reason is, because the Liquor of Brine causes -a little Fermentation in the <i>Olives</i>, by the Help thereof the Salts -free themselves by degrees of the earthy Parts that do retain them; and -afterwards with more Lightness and Delicacy prick the nervous Fibres of -the Tongue.</p> - -<p>“The Brine produces another good Effect in the <i>Olives</i>; for by its -saline Parts it stops up the Pores of this Fruit, and prevents the Air -from ent’ring too much into it, and thereby cause a considerable -Fermentation therein, which destroys the Fruit, and soon rots them.</p> - -<p><i>Olives</i> well preserv’d create an Appetite, by gently pricking the Sides -of the Stomach, not only by their acid Salts, but also by those -communicated to them by the Pickle. They also bind up and fortify the -Stomach by their earthy Parts, which swallow up the over-abounding -Moistures that relax the Fibres of that Part.</p> - -<p>The <i>Picholines</i> are <i>Olives</i> cut in several Places, and then steep’d in -Pickle; they are sooner in a Condition to be eaten than others, because -that by the Help of the Incision made in them, the Brine or Pickle is -sooner and more effectually communicated to their whole Substance.</p> - -<p>Oil of <i>Olives</i> is much us’d in Ailments; it’s of a qualifying, -mollifying, anodine, dissolving and detersive Nature, good for the -Cholic and Bloody-flux, and is prepar’d in this Manner.</p> - -<p>They get together in <i>November</i> or <i>December</i>, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_030" id="page_030"></a>{30}</span> great Quantity of full -ripe <i>Olives</i>, and lay them by for a Time in some Corner of the House, -where they are heated, and thereby become purified of their watry -Moisture; then they grind them in a Mill, and put them into Rush or Palm -Frails, plac’d on the Top of one another Pressways, and the first Oil -that comes from them, is called <i>Virgin’s Oil</i>.</p> - -<p>They sprinkle the <i>Olives</i> with warm water, and by pressing them a-new, -and still the more, there comes a good Oil from them.</p> - -<p>This done, they stir the <i>Olives</i> again, and sprinkle them with hot -Water, from which, thus order’d, there proceeds another Oil full of -Dregs, and not so good as the rest.</p> - -<p>These Oils are easily separated from the Water, because they swim a top, -but they find a Kind of Lees to the Bottom, which the Ancients called -<i>Amurca</i>.</p> - -<p>Those <i>Olives</i> of which you design to make Oil, must ripen ’till they -are even rotten; and the Reason is, because the sulphurous Parts in them -have had Time to disengage themselves from those gross Principles, which -before fix’d them, which we know by the sweetish and oily Taste that -then they had. They also let them ferment for some time before they -press them, that so those sulphurous Parts may free themselves, and be -more fully separated from the watry and saline Parts, with which they -were united in the Fruits. Here it is to be observ’d that you cannot -extract a Drop of Oil from green olives, but only a viscous Juice, -because their oily Principles are very strictly united with their other -Principles.</p> - -<p>The Leaves of the <i>Olive-Tree</i> are astringent, and fit for to stop the -Bleeding of the Nose, and Looseness.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_031" id="page_031"></a>{31}</span></p> - -<p>There are certain wild <i>Olive-Trees</i> that grow near the Red-Sea, from -which there sweats out a Gum that stops Blood, and cures Wounds.</p> - -<p>The <i>Olive-Tree</i> in Latin called <i>Olea</i>, comes from the <i>Greek</i> Word -<i>elaia</i> which also signifies the same Thing.”</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p>A later work, “The Lady’s Assistant” published in 1778, gives a much -better idea of how little they were used at that time in England.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p class="c">OLIVES</p> - -<p>“OLIVES are the fruits of trees, which grow wild in the warmer -parts of Europe; we have them in some of our gardens; but with us -they will not ripen to any perfection.</p> - -<p>There are three kinds, the Italian, Spanish, and French; we have -them therefore of various sizes and flavors; some prefer one, and -some the other.</p> - -<p>The fine sallad oil, as has been before mentioned, is made from -this fruit, for which purpose they are gathered ripe; but for -pickling they are gathered when half-ripe, at the latter end of -June: they are put into fresh water to soak for two days; after -this they throw them into lime-water in which some pearl-ashes have -been dissolved: they lie in this liquor six-and-thirty hours; then -they are thrown into water which has had bay-salt dissolved in it: -this is the last preparation, and they are sent over to us in this -liquor: they are naturally as they grow on the tree very bitter, -and therefore require all these preparations to bring them to their -fine flavor. To some olives they add a small quantity of essence of -spices, which is an oil drawn from cloves, nutmeg, cinnamon, -coriander and sweet-fennel seed distilled together for that -purpose: twelve drops are enough for a bushel of olives: some -prefer<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_032" id="page_032"></a>{32}</span> them flavored with this essence, but others like them best -plain.”</p></div> - -<p>At present the use of aromatic substances commercially is not large. It -is contended that consumers cannot use flavored olives in sauces or -other preparations so freely, as extraneous flavors are introduced which -in some cases are undesirable, the unflavored olive permitting greater -freedom in use.</p> - -<p>For the preparation of the green olives “a la Sevillane,” the fruit is -first treated with alkali, then washed in clear water, after which it is -put into 2 or 3 per cent boiled brine, where after a time fermentation -starts, which imparts a slight lactic acid taste to the fruit. It is -then washed in water, graded for size, and put in barrels with a 5 or 6% -salt, when they are ready for consumption.</p> - -<p>The half ripe olives are put in a boiled brine of 12 to 15% for six -days, after which they are washed in running water and then put in jars -in a 6 to 8% brine with a bay leaf and a sprig of thyme and fennel. -Olives prepared in this way are called “a la Provencale.” A variation on -this method, called “a la Madrilene” is to put the olives in barrels, -after the preliminary salting and washing, in 10% brine with red -pimiento, pepper corns, laurel, thyme, and tomato purée.</p> - -<p>The black olives are gathered at the time of the change in color, and -put in water, renewed every 12 hours, until the bitterness has -disappeared, which requires 40 to 50 days, sometimes even longer. They -are then put into brine.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_033" id="page_033"></a>{33}</span></p> - -<p>The large olive “La Tanche” after sorting and cleaning is put directly -into a 10 to 15% brine in wooden casks or cement tanks which hold from -4,000 to 6,000 kilos. When the bitterness has been abstracted, they are -ready for sale. The brine is decanted and held until the following year.</p> - -<p>To prepare them so that they may be ready for sale sooner, the fruit is -run over a roller provided with fine points which perforate the skin, -after which the olives are put in layers and sprinkled generously with -salt. They are stirred frequently, and when they “sweat,” they are put -in barrels with pepper corns and bay leaves, or in jars with olive oil -and condiments, or they may be put in jars without any addition as they -are preserved by their own oil and the absorbed salt.</p> - -<p>The methods of preparation cited are those used for olives consumed in -foreign countries, very few thus prepared being imported, as they are -known only to olive connoisseurs.</p> - -<h3>Imported Green Olives</h3> - -<p>Nearly all the green olives used in this country come from Spain and are -generally known as “Queen olives.” In years of shortage a few come from -Italy, Greece, and France. They are hand picked, cleaned, treated in the -usual way with lye, and washed, but during this process care is -exercised to prevent them being exposed to the air as it is desired to -retain the green color. They are then graded for size and quality and -placed in huge casks or “pipes” with sufficient brine to cover them. -The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_034" id="page_034"></a>{34}</span> “pipes” are exposed to the sun to favor the fermentation which -requires six weeks or more, depending upon the temperature. During the -fermentation, the olives change slowly from deep green to golden. The -pipes hold from 160 to 180 gallons and are used for shipping the olives -to this country. Ten per cent brine is used for filling the casks, but -the brine weakens during the curing and is usually 7 or 7½% at the -finish.</p> - -<p>The Queen olives are hand graded for size on the basis of the number per -kilo. The following grades are made:</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="c" colspan="2">QUEEN OLIVES</td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td class="rt"> -60-70<br /> -70-80<br /> -80-90<br /> -90-100<br /> -100-110<br /> -110-120<br /> -120-130</td><td class="rt"> - -130-140<br /> -140-150<br /> -150-160<br /> -160-180<br /> -180-200<br /> -200-220</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>They are also graded for quality, as: “prime” or “first quality,” -“seconds,” and “Queen culls.” Only the first and second grade are sent -to this country though all sizes are, but there is no designation by -which the consumer may obtain a desired size. The term Queen olive may -mean those having only 60 to the kilo or those with 220 to the kilo.</p> - -<p>Some green olives are packed in tins and shipped to this country and a -comparatively few are<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_035" id="page_035"></a>{35}</span> brought in bottles. The importers prefer to -purchase the olives in bulk and pack according to their trade -requirements, under the sanitary conditions imposed in this country -rather than those found abroad. The olives are transferred from the -pipes to bottles and either supplied with fresh brine or the brine from -the pipe is carefully filtered and only such addition made as needed to -make up the difference. The use of the original liquor gives a decidedly -better flavor, though it is often sacrificed in order to get one which -is perfectly clear.</p> - -<p>The green olive is retailed almost wholly in glass, either in fancy hand -packed packages or in pint and quart jars. Many attempts have been made -to create a sale in tin containers, but without success as there are -decided advantages in being able to see the size and quality. Seeing the -fruit no doubt frequently suggests its use and purchase. A few olives -are still retailed in bulk but they soon become covered with yeast and -other organisms, and have an unattractive appearance.</p> - -<p>The origin of the stuffed olive is of very recent date, but by whom -originated is not quite clear. According to an authority<span class="fnanchor"><a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1">[1]</a></span> on Spanish -olives, stuffed olives were unknown before 1893-4. It was in 1895 that -Señor Picasa, the general manager of the Sevilla Packing Company, had -seen olives stuffed with pimientos in Spain, and in the following year -introduced them into the United States, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page_036" id="page_036"></a>{36}</span>the company packing them under -the copyrighted name of “Pimola.” In 1897, a Spanish house packed -pepper-stuffed olives, and later on other firms also, among the latter -many American firms. As the pimiento is grown and prepared in Spain, and -labor cheaper there than here, the industry has been practically -transferred to that country.</p> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1.]</span></a> H. C. Newcomb, former vice-consul to Spain.</p></div> - -<p>The operation of stuffing consists in removing the pit and filling the -cavity with some other substance, particularly pimiento, these forming -the bulk of the stuffed olive trade. The bright red of the latter gives -a pleasing contrast with the green, and the mild pungency is very -agreeable to many persons. Pickled celery, capers, etc., have been used, -but were not so favorably received, and at present, the substances used -to any extent, aside from the pimiento, are Manzanillos stuffed with -pieces of Queens, and some stuffed with anchovies for the South American -trade. Pitting machines have been devised, and also machines for -stuffing the olives, but the work done by the stuffing machines is crude -as compared with hand work. The olives used for stuffing are the -Manzanillo which are smaller than the Queen. The sizes are as follows:</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="c" colspan="2">MANZANILLO (Stuffed)</td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td class="rt"> -180-200<br /> -200-220<br /> -220-240<br /> -240-260<br /> -260-280</td><td class="rt"> -280-300<br /> -300-320<br /> -320-340<br /> -340-360</td></tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_037" id="page_037"></a>{37}</span></p> - -<p>They are packed in barrels of about 45 gallons capacity, and like the -Queen, are repacked into individual containers in this country.</p> - -<p>A few olives are packed with a mince of capers, anchovies, truffles, -etc., and the olives preserved in oil. A few are also packed for -garnishing, in which cubes are cut out and the spaces filled with bright -peppers.</p> - -<h3>Domestic</h3> - -<p>In California the commercially prepared olives are practically all ripe, -only a very limited quantity of green ones being prepared. Since the -olives, even on the same tree, ripen at various periods, three pickings -are made during the season, when olives well colored and of an equal -degree of ripeness are taken. In excessively ripe olives, the skin -toughens, and the fruit is difficult to pickle. The trees are pruned so -as to keep them low enough to be reached by the harvesters on step -ladders, in order that all picking may be done by hand. The picked fruit -is taken to a central point to be filled into boxes or barrels, for -transportation to the factory. For the best grades of olives, particular -care is taken during this part of the work to avoid bruising the fruit, -which is picked into canvas bags, pails, etc., then poured into barrels -partly filled with water, so that the water will furnish a cushion for -the fruit. The olives are transported to the factory in these barrels. -These precautions are taken as bruised spots soften and become black, -and the resulting processed fruit will not be of first quality. Many<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_038" id="page_038"></a>{38}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_038_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_038_sml.jpg" width="450" height="407" alt="[Image unavailable: Sorting Olives for Size by Machine]" title="Sorting Olives for Size by Machine" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">Sorting Olives for Size by Machine</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">growers deliver fruit dry in lug boxes, but bruising and crushing are -liable to occur during transportation. The fruit is delivered into a -hopper filled with water, then from the hopper into boxes where the -fruit is drained. The fruit is delivered in the factory to be first -sorted which is done on a moving belt, and here all stems and defective -fruit are removed as the fruit is carried slowly past the workers who -sit or stand on either side. In some factories the sorting is done after -the fruit is pickled, but is much more difficult due to the change in -color<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_039" id="page_039"></a>{39}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_039_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_039_sml.jpg" width="450" height="418" alt="[Image unavailable: Sorting Olives for Quality by Hand]" title="Sorting Olives for Quality by Hand" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">Sorting Olives for Quality by Hand</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">through the action of the lye and of oxidation. The fruit is next passed -to the grader, which separates the various sizes. From the grader the -three largest sizes are each delivered to a moving belt to be sorted for -color, degree of ripeness, and culls, as the curing must be modified to -suit the particular degree of ripeness, a crisp firm olive requiring a -heavier treatment than does a riper, softer-textured one. The olives as -sorted, are passed to small side belts, which thus deliver fruit uniform -in size and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_040" id="page_040"></a>{40}</span> color to the receiving boxes. Great care is taken in the -sorting of olives, different varieties are not mixed, nor even fruit of -the same variety but from different localities. In grading for size by -machine, <sup>1</sup>/<sub>16</sub> of an inch is the variation between each size and the -next; those less than <sup>10</sup>/<sub>16</sub> are removed to be used for other purposes. -When the minimum is due to the variety and not to stunting, the fruit -may be pickled, because aside from the larger proportion of pit, the -flavor is equal to that of the large fruit. Usually the smaller olives -were used for oil, but more recently are used for relishes and sauces. -The sizes upon which the different grades are made are based upon the -short diameter of the fruit, and have been adopted by the California -Olive Association:</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr valign="bottom"><td align="left"> Grade</td><td align="center">Number<br /> -per lb.</td><td align="left">Diam. in<br /> -inches</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Standard</td><td class="rt">120-135</td><td align="left"><sup>10</sup>/<sub>16</sub>-<sup>11</sup>/<sub>16</sub></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Medium</td><td class="rt">105-120</td><td align="left"><sup>11</sup>/<sub>16</sub></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Large</td><td class="rt">90-105</td><td align="left"><sup>12</sup>/<sub>16</sub></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Extra Large</td><td class="rt">75-90</td><td align="left"><sup>13</sup>/<sub>16</sub></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Mammoth</td><td class="rt">65-75</td><td align="left"><sup>13.5</sup>/<sub>16</sub></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Giant</td><td class="rt">55-65</td><td align="left"><sup>14</sup>/<sub>16</sub></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Jumbo</td><td class="rt">45-55</td><td align="left"><sup>15</sup>/<sub>16</sub></td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Colossal</td><td class="rt">35-45</td><td align="left"><sup>16</sup>/<sub>16</sub></td></tr> -</table> - -<p>The olives are placed in an alkaline solution, usually sodium hydrate as -it is stronger in action than potassium hydrate. The strength varies -with the different packers but is generally in the neighborhood<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_041" id="page_041"></a>{41}</span> of -1½%. After 6 to 8 hours, the lye is drawn off and the olives exposed -to the air in order that they may oxidize and darken, since the lye -removes some of the natural color. The operation is repeated with the -same strength or less of lye solution and the fruit exposed to the air -until examination of the pulp shows that the lye has penetrated to the -pit. The lye solution is then replaced with clear water which is changed -twice a day, until the lye and bitterness are removed, which requires -from 4 to 8 days. The olives are then treated with brine solutions, -starting with 1%, and increasing the strength at intervals of about 2 -days until about 4% is used, when they are ready to be put in glass jars -or cans and sealed.</p> - -<p>The brine is used very weak at the start and gradually increased so that -the osmotic action may be so controlled as not to cause the fruit to -shrivel as it would if placed in a strong solution at the start. Some -packers permit the olives to stay in the weak brine long enough for -fermentation to take place as done with the imported green olives so as -to develop an acid flavor. The more recent tendency, however, is toward -packing them with the least possible change, and to depend upon the -distinctive natural flavor of the fruit itself. A similar tendency -toward retaining the natural color, rather than that induced by -oxidation, might be advantageous.</p> - -<p>If it be the intent to hold the olives in bulk, they are treated with -increasingly strong brines until 10<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_042" id="page_042"></a>{42}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_042_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_042_sml.jpg" width="450" height="287" alt="[Image unavailable: Curing Vats]" title="Curing Vats" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">Curing Vats</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_043" id="page_043"></a>{43}</span></p> - -<p class="nind">to 12½% is used, the latter amount being required to carry them -safely through the summer.</p> - -<p>The process is modified in practise to suit the conditions, as -variations in varieties of fruit, in temperature, and in the lye have to -be considered. There are also variations in practise due to individual -experience. During the time the olives are in the various solutions they -are stirred frequently, so as to change their position in the vats, and -also to change the solution in contact with them. The stirring was, and -is done yet in some cases, by hand, with wooden paddles, which is -laborious besides causing more or less damage to the fruit. Recently -compressed air has been piped to the vats and directed into the -solutions with sufficient force to keep the olives agitated. This method -is said to hasten the action of the lye solutions with consequent -improvement in the fruit. It also obviates the drawing off the solutions -and the exposure of the fruit to the air, as a certain amount of -oxidation takes place in the solution.</p> - -<p>As the operators place the olives in the bottles or cans, the soft and -defective ones are discarded. The containers are then filled with a 3% -brine at a temperature of 175 or 180 degrees F. The air is exhausted, -during which the temperature is raised to 185 degrees, and the -containers sealed, after which they are processed. The large olives in a -26 ounce glass jar are cooked for 50 minutes; extra large, 55 minutes; -mammoth, 58 minutes; and colossal 60 minutes; at 240 degree F. in some -factories,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_044" id="page_044"></a>{44}</span> or for a longer period if processed at a lower temperature.</p> - -<p>The time required for heat to penetrate to the center of an olive is -longer than has been generally supposed. This was determined by -carefully drilling into the pit, first with a fine drill and then with -increasingly larger ones, until an eighth inch hole was made. The bulb -of a small thermometer was inserted, and to prevent heat being carried -to the bulb by means of the glass stem, sections of olives were placed -around the stem immediately above the olive being tested, and tied -securely. Jumbo olives at room temperature placed directly in a boiling -bath required on an average fourteen and one-half minutes for the -temperature to reach 209 degrees F., which is practically the maximum -which can be attained under the conditions. When the olive was placed in -cold water and the bath heated rapidly under conditions similar to home -canning, the average time required to reach 209 degrees F. was 29 -minutes. The former experiment represents a more favorable condition for -heat penetration than prevails in factory operations, and the latter -probably the least favorable, but both show that in the ordinary process -all parts of the olive do not reach the high temperature supposed to be -produced by that of the bath for more than a few minutes.</p> - -<p>At the University of California ripe olives have been canned without -brine. After pickling, the olives have been placed in 3% brine for -several days, then heated in the brine to about 180 degrees F.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_045" id="page_045"></a>{45}</span> after -which they are taken from the brine, put in the bottles or cans, sealed, -and processed. No shrinking, wrinkling, softening, nor change in color -is said to take place. By the elimination of the brine in the container, -there results a saving in freight of 31.5% with cans and 16.6% with -bottles.</p> - -<p>The history of the olive and its method of preparation show that no -organisms pathogenic to man are normally present and that if such -organisms be associated with it in any way, it must be from the outside -and through local infection.</p> - -<p>More care is required in processing at high temperatures, than at -boiling. A high internal pressure is developed inside the cans or jars, -due to the expansion of the contents and of the enclosed gases, which -has a tendency to loosen or blow off the covers. This tendency may be -overcome by applying air or water pressure on the outside of the cans or -jars to counteract that generated within. This is done while they are -inside the retort and by means of automatic pressure controllers. There -is no essential difference in the sterilizing and cooling of tin cans -and glass jars, both forms of containers are responsive to treatment -with high temperatures and both require proper care and handling. As -with pickled olives, however, glass jars permit the purchaser to see the -size and the condition of the fruit.</p> - -<p>The canning of ripe olives in California was originated by F. T. -Bioletti, zymologist in the University of California, and came about -through an<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_046" id="page_046"></a>{46}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_046_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_046_sml.jpg" width="450" height="411" alt="[Image unavailable: Packing Olives in Jars]" title="Packing Olives in Jars" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">Packing Olives in Jars</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">investigation in 1889 on the spoiling of olives. When pickled olives -were held, the quality deteriorated in some of them, they softened -during the summer, and seldom remained in an edible condition for a -year. As a result of his experiments on methods of keeping, he found -that the olives could be sterilized in sealed containers and be kept in -edible condition indefinitely. The commercial application of the method -and the popularizing of the ripe olive is due to Mrs. Freda Ehmann, a -pioneer olive grower, who<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_047" id="page_047"></a>{47}</span> applied scientific methods, with marked -success, to both the development and canning of the olive.</p> - -<p>The sustained scientific work along developmental and preserving lines -in this country, has been done mainly by Wickson, Bioletti, and Cruess -of the state university staff to whom great credit is due for the -advancement made. Many improvements have naturally been made by -manufacturers in the preparation of the ripe olive but are held by the -factories for their own use solely.</p> - -<p>Recently Cruess has developed methods for treating the ripe olive with -aerated hot solutions which have permitted the preliminary treatments to -be done in 3 to 6 days, instead of as formerly in 3 to 6 weeks. The -methods promise to be of great economic value, and have been patented -for the benefit of the public.</p> - -<p>The olives which are too small or misshapen to be used in the regular -pack are sometimes used for other purposes besides oil extraction in -which size and appearance are not factors. The flesh is ground and -seasoned and thus furnishes a mixture for relishes and sandwich filling, -or the flesh is mixed with pickled cucumbers, capers, pimiento, tomato, -etc., in various combinations for the same purposes or to flavor sauces. -The appetizing ways in which olives may be used alone or in combination, -and the attractive dishes which can be prepared from them are endless.</p> - -<p>A preparation which has considerable vogue with lovers of ripe olives is -to take the olives from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_048" id="page_048"></a>{48}</span> brine some hours before using and cover -them with olive oil. This preparation may be further enhanced by rubbing -the dish before using, with a cut clove of garlic. The use of aromatics -in the preliminary preparation, then packing in oil, as done by the -Greeks, Italians, and Spaniards, with some of their best olives, produce -very fine products that are far ahead, in both flavor and food value, of -the ordinary preparations.</p> - -<p>The olive, though used almost exclusively as a relish or appetizer in -this country, is a valuable food. This is true for both the green and -the ripe, the difference in the two not being so great as is frequently -claimed. The pickled green olive has supplanted the cucumber pickle to a -very considerable extent in the trade. The canned ripe olive is -distinctive and depends upon an entirely different quality for its -favor. As long as the present prices prevail, they can not be considered -on the basis of staples or in competition with many other foods in -furnishing nutritive elements.</p> - -<p>The flesh of the American olive consists of about 80 per cent of the -fruit, and of this the solids average 38 per cent, oil 25 per cent, and -protein 1.2 per cent.</p> - -<p>In spite of the fact that olives have been used as a food from time -immemorial, very little systematic analytic work seems to have been done -on the whole fruit in the various stages of maturity and in determining -the effect of the various treatments for the removal of the bitterness. -Much of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_049" id="page_049"></a>{49}</span> analytic work has been devoted to analyses of the oil and -to methods for determining adulteration. The methods followed in this -country and abroad are not the same and the results are therefore not -comparable. It seems strange that so old and so commercially important a -fruit has not been investigated to the minutest detail.</p> - -<p>It is stated that the olive on reaching full size increases in weight -and oil content as it matures, the various stages being approximately -determined by the change in color from green to yellow, red, and finally -black. When, however, one finds analyses of typical fruit of one variety -and from the same place which show the flesh of the green olive to -contain 23.55 per cent; yellowish green, 20.37 per cent; red, 27.35 per -cent; and purple to black, 24.89 per cent oil, it discounts the color -value. Other available analyses show similar discrepancies between the -chemical composition and the color test as indicative of maturity. -Variation in composition occurs in the same variety of fruit grown in -different places as well as in the different varieties and, as with -other fruits, one is dependent upon the skill of the packer in selecting -raw stock and in handling it in the process of manufacture, for the -quality of the article received. It is only natural to expect that a -product containing so much oil and subjected to the action of lye, might -be greatly changed during its preparation. The data available, however, -does not sustain this premise, but shows that very little change -actually takes place.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_050" id="page_050"></a>{50}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="LITERATURE" id="LITERATURE"></a>LITERATURE</h2> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr valign="top"><td align="left">Andran, H. M.</td><td align="left">Les conserves des petits menages.</td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td align="left">Armstrong, E. F.</td><td align="left">The simple carbohydrates and the glucosides, 1912.</td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td align="left">D’Aygalliers, P. D.</td><td align="left">L’olivier et l’huile d’olive, 1900.</td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td align="left">Bourquelot, Em. and Vintilesco, J.</td><td align="left">Compt. Rend. <i>147</i>, 533, 535, 1908.</td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td align="left">Buckland, A. W.</td><td align="left">Our viands, 1893.</td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td align="left">Chalmers, T. W.</td><td align="left">The reduction and treatment of vegetable oils, 1918.</td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td align="left">Coupin, Henri</td><td align="left">La conservation des fruits, des lugumes, des graines.</td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td align="left">Cruess, Wm. V.</td><td align="left">Home and farm food preservation, 1918.</td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td align="left">Gracey, Wilbur T.</td><td align="left">Olive growing in Spain. Special consular report, No. 79, Dept. of Com., 1918.</td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td align="left">Green, Mary E.</td><td align="left">Food products of the world, 1895.</td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td align="left">Haas, Paul and Hill, T. G.</td><td align="left">Chemistry of plant products, 1913.</td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td align="left">Hilts, R. W.</td><td align="left">Chemical study of the ripening and pickling of California olives. Bul. 803, Bu. of Chem., Dept. of Agr., 1920.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_051" id="page_051"></a>{51}</span></td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td align="left">Lemery, L., Translation by Hay, D. </td><td align="left">Treatise of all sorts of food, 1745.</td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td align="left">Loudon, J. C.</td><td align="left">Loudon’s encyclopedia of plants, 1866.</td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td align="left">Martyn, Charles</td><td align="left">Foods and culinary utensils of the ancients.</td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td align="left">Mason, Charlotte</td><td align="left">The lady’s assistant, 1778.</td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td align="left">Pellerin, G.</td><td align="left">Guide pratique de l’expert chimiste, 1910.</td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td align="left">de Savigny, G. B.</td><td align="left">Conserves, salaisons, et confitures de menage, 1909.</td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td align="left">Thudichum, J. L. W.</td><td align="left">Cookery, its art and practice, 1895.</td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td align="left">Wickson, E. J.</td><td align="left">California fruits, 1910.</td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td align="left">Willis, Oliver R.</td><td align="left">Practical flora, 1894.</td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td align="left"> </td><td align="left">Fig and Olive Journal, vo. 4, No. 11, Apr. 1920.</td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td align="left"> </td><td align="left">Seal of safety, 1915.</td></tr> -</table> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/back.jpg" width="330" height="500" -alt="[Image of the back cover unavailable]" title="" /> -</div> - -<hr class="full" /> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Olive, by K. G. Bitting - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE OLIVE *** - -***** This file should be named 51780-h.htm or 51780-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/1/7/8/51780/ - -Produced by Larry B. Harrison, Chuck Greif and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, -set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to -copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to -protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project -Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you -charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you -do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the -rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose -such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and -research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do -practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is -subject to the trademark license, especially commercial -redistribution. - - - -*** START: FULL LICENSE *** - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project -Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at -http://gutenberg.org/license). - - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy -all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. -If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the -terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or -entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement -and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" -or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the -collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an -individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are -located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from -copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative -works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg -are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project -Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by -freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of -this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with -the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by -keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project -Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in -a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check -the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement -before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or -creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project -Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning -the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United -States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate -access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently -whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, -copied or distributed: - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived -from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is -posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied -and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees -or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work -with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the -work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 -through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the -Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or -1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional -terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked -to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the -permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any -word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or -distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than -"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version -posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), -you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a -copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon -request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other -form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided -that - -- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is - owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he - has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the - Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments - must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you - prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax - returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and - sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the - address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to - the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." - -- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or - destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium - and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of - Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any - money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days - of receipt of the work. - -- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set -forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from -both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael -Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the -Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm -collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain -"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or -corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual -property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a -computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by -your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with -your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with -the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a -refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity -providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to -receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy -is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further -opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER -WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO -WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. -If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the -law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be -interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by -the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any -provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance -with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, -promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, -harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, -that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do -or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm -work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any -Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. - - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers -including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists -because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from -people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. -To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 -and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive -Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at -http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent -permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. -Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered -throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at -809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email -business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact -information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official -page at http://pglaf.org - -For additional contact information: - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To -SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any -particular state visit http://pglaf.org - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. -To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate - - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm -concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared -with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project -Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. - - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. -unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily -keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. - - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: - - http://www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - - -</pre> - -</body> -</html> diff --git a/old/51780-h/images/back.jpg b/old/51780-h/images/back.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 98cc238..0000000 --- a/old/51780-h/images/back.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51780-h/images/cover.jpg b/old/51780-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 932629d..0000000 --- a/old/51780-h/images/cover.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51780-h/images/i_013_lg.jpg b/old/51780-h/images/i_013_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 0691c0d..0000000 --- a/old/51780-h/images/i_013_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51780-h/images/i_013_sml.jpg b/old/51780-h/images/i_013_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d89b795..0000000 --- a/old/51780-h/images/i_013_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51780-h/images/i_038_lg.jpg b/old/51780-h/images/i_038_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 913b479..0000000 --- a/old/51780-h/images/i_038_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51780-h/images/i_038_sml.jpg b/old/51780-h/images/i_038_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3d8e901..0000000 --- a/old/51780-h/images/i_038_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51780-h/images/i_039_lg.jpg b/old/51780-h/images/i_039_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 92c8e53..0000000 --- a/old/51780-h/images/i_039_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51780-h/images/i_039_sml.jpg b/old/51780-h/images/i_039_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c5aca16..0000000 --- a/old/51780-h/images/i_039_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51780-h/images/i_042_lg.jpg b/old/51780-h/images/i_042_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3fae1bc..0000000 --- a/old/51780-h/images/i_042_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51780-h/images/i_042_sml.jpg b/old/51780-h/images/i_042_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index af36a72..0000000 --- a/old/51780-h/images/i_042_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51780-h/images/i_046_lg.jpg b/old/51780-h/images/i_046_lg.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6a26ef2..0000000 --- a/old/51780-h/images/i_046_lg.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/51780-h/images/i_046_sml.jpg b/old/51780-h/images/i_046_sml.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6d0157f..0000000 --- a/old/51780-h/images/i_046_sml.jpg +++ /dev/null |
