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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..98acdb0 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #52134 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/52134) diff --git a/old/52134-0.txt b/old/52134-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 706979a..0000000 --- a/old/52134-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2845 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Ants and Some Other Insects: An Inquiry -Into the Psychic Powers of These Animal, by Auguste Forel - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Ants and Some Other Insects: An Inquiry Into the Psychic Powers of These Animals - -Author: Auguste Forel - -Translator: William Morton Wheeler - -Release Date: May 23, 2016 [EBook #52134] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANTS, OTHER INSECTS: PSYCHIC POWERS *** - - - - -Produced by Wayne Hammond, MWS, Bryan Ness and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - _Ants and Some Other Insects_ - - - _An Inquiry into_ - - _The Psychic Powers of these Animals_ - - _With an Appendix on_ - - _The Peculiarities of Their Olfactory Sense_ - - - _By_ - - _Dr. August Forel_ - - _Late Professor of Psychiatry at the University of Zurich_ - - - _Translated from the German_ - - _By_ - - _Prof. William Morton Wheeler_ - - _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ - - - _Chicago_ - - _The Open Court Publishing Company_ - - - _London_ - - _Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. Ltd._ - - _1904_ - - COPYRIGHT, 1904 - THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO. - CHICAGO - - - - -ANTS AND SOME OTHER INSECTS. - - -When discussing the ant-mind, we must consider that these small -animals, on the one hand, differ very widely from ourselves in -organisation, but on the other hand, have come, through so-called -convergence, to possess in the form of a social commonwealth a peculiar -relationship to us. My subject, however, requires the discussion of so -many complicated questions that I am compelled to assume acquaintance -with the work of others, especially the elements of psychology, and in -addition the works of P. Huber, Wasmann, von Buttel-Reepen, Darwin, -Romanes, Lubbock, my _Fourmis de la Suisse_, and many others. Since -the functions of the sense-organs constitute the basis of comparative -psychology, I must also refer to a series of articles entitled -“Sensations des Insectes” which I have recently published (1900-1901) -in the _Rivista de Biologia Generale_, edited by Dr. P. Celesia. -In these papers I have defined my position with respect to various -authors, especially Plateau and Bethe. - -Very recently Bethe, Uexkull, and others have denied the existence of -psychic powers in invertebrate animals. They explain the latter as -reflex-machines, and take their stand on the ground of the so-called -psycho-physical parallelism for the purpose of demonstrating our -inability to recognise mental qualities in these animals. They believe, -however, that they can prove the mechanical regularity of behavior, -but assume unknown forces whenever they are left in the lurch in their -explanations. They regard the mind as first making its appearance in -the vertebrates, whereas the old Cartesians regarded all animals, in -contradistinction to man, as mindless (unconscious) machines. - -The Jesuit father E. Wasmann and von Buttel-Reepen are willing, on -the other hand, to accept the inductive inference from analogy as a -valid scientific method. Like Lubbock, the lecturer and others, they -advocate a comparative psychology of the invertebrates and convincingly -demonstrate the existence of psychic faculties in these animals. -Wasmann, however, puts a very low estimate on the mental powers of the -higher vertebrates and, in my opinion, improperly, denies to them any -ability of drawing inferences from experience when in the presence of -new conditions (this alone he designates as intelligence); he believes -that man alone possesses an immortal soul (independent of natural -laws?) in addition to the animal mind. - -It is necessary, first of all, to arrive at some common understanding -concerning the obscure notion “psychic” in order that we may avoid -logomachy, and carrying on theology in the sense of Goethe’s -Mephistopheles. Two concepts are confounded in an obscure manner in -the word “psychic”: first, the abstract concept of introspection, or -subjectivism, i. e., observation from within, which every person knows -only, and can know only, in and by himself. For this let us reserve the -term “consciousness.” Second, the “activity” of the mind or that which -determines the contents of the field of consciousness. This has been -included without further ado with consciousness in the wider sense, -and thence has arisen the confusion of regarding consciousness as an -attribute of the mind. In another place I have designated the molecular -wave of activity of the neural elements as “neurocyme.” - -We cannot speak of the consciousness of human beings other than -ourselves without drawing an inference from analogy; quite as little -ought we to speak of a consciousness of forgotten things. The field -of our consciousness is constantly changing. Things appear in it and -disappear from it. Memory, through association, enables us to recall, -more or less directly and with more or less difficulty, things which -appear to be momentarily absent from consciousness. Moreover, both the -experience of self-observation and the phenomena of hypnotism teach us -experimentally that many things of which we seem to be unconscious, -are nevertheless present in consciousness or have been. Indeed, -certain sense-impressions remain, at the moment of their occurrence, -unconscious so far as our ordinary consciousness or superconsciousness -is concerned, although they can be subsequently recalled into -consciousness by suggestion. Whole chains of brain-activities, -(dreams, somnambulism, or secondary consciousness) seem ordinarily -to be excluded from the superconsciousness, but may subsequently be -associated by suggestion with the remembered contents of consciousness. -In all these cases, therefore, what seems to be unconscious is after -all proved to be conscious. The above-mentioned phenomena have -frequently led to mystical interpretations, but they are explainable on -a very simple assumption. Let us assume--and this is quite in harmony -with observation--that the fields of the introspectively conscious -brain-activities are limited by so-called association or dissociation -processes, i. e., that we are unable actively to bring them all into -connection at the same time, and that therefore all that seems to us -unconscious has also in reality a consciousness, in other words, a -subjective reflex, then the following results: Our ordinary waking -consciousness or superconsciousness is merely an inner subjective -reflex of those activities of attention which are most intimately -connected with one another, i. e., of the more intensively concentrated -maxima of our cerebral activities during waking. There exist, however, -other consciousnesses, partly forgotten, partly only loosely or -indirectly connected with the contents of the superconsciousness, in -contradistinction to which these may be designated as subconsciousness. -They correspond to other less concentrated or otherwise associated -cerebral activities. We are bound to assume the existence of still -more remotely interconnected subconsciousnesses for the infra-cortical -(lower) brain-centers, and so on. - -It is easy to establish the fact that the maximum of our psychic -activity, namely, attention, passes every moment from one perception -or thought to another. These objects of attention, as visual or -auditory images, will-impulses, feelings or abstract thoughts, come -into play--and of this there is no doubt--in different brain-regions or -neuron-complexes. We can therefore compare attention to a functional -_macula lutea_ wandering in the brain, or with a wandering maximal -intensity of neurocymic activity. But it is quite as satisfactorily -established that other psychic phenomena external to attention are -likewise present in consciousness, though in a feebler condition. -Finally, it is well known that all that has been in consciousness--even -that which is now more, now less, forgotten--is included in the -psychic, i. e., in the contents of consciousness. On superficial -consideration this appears to satisfy theoretical requirements. But -in fact and in truth there are innumerable processes of which we -are feebly conscious for only a scarcely appreciable instant and -which anon disappear from consciousness. Here and not in the strong -and repeated “psychomes”--I beg your indulgence for this word, with -which I would for the sake of brevity designate each and every -psychic unit--are we to seek the transition from the conscious to -the apparently unconscious. Even in this case, however, the feeble -condition of consciousness is only apparent, because the inner -reflex of these processes can merely echo faintly in the field of a -strongly diverted attention. This, therefore, in no wise proves that -such half conscious processes are in and for themselves so feebly -represented in consciousness, since a flash of attention is sufficient -subsequently to give them definite shape in consciousness. Only in -consequence of the diversion of the attention do they lose more and -more their connection with the chain of intensity-maxima which, under -ordinary circumstances, constitute the remembered contents of our -superconsciousness. The more feebly, however, they are bound to the -latter, with the more difficulty are such half-conscious processes -later associated anew through memory with the dominant chain. Of such a -nature are all dreams, all the subordinate circumstances of our lives, -all automatised habits, all instincts. But if there exists between the -clearly conscious and the unconscious, a half-conscious brain-life, -whose consciousness appears to us so feeble merely on account of the -deviation of our ordinary train of memories, this is an unequivocal -indication that a step further on the remaining connection would be -completely severed, so that we should no longer have the right to -say that the brain-activities thus fading away nebulously from our -superconsciousness do not have consciousness in and for themselves. For -the sake of brevity and simplicity we will ascribe subconsciousness to -these so-called unconscious brain-processes. - -If this assumption is correct--and all things point in this -direction--we are not further concerned with consciousness. It does -not at all exist as such, but only through the brain-activity of which -it is the inner reflex. With the disappearance of this activity, -consciousness disappears. When the one is complicated, the other, too, -is complicated. When the one is simple, the other is correspondingly -simple. If the brain-activity be dissociated, consciousness also -becomes dissociated. Consciousness is only an abstract concept, -which loses all its substance with the falling away of “conscious” -brain-activity. The brain-activity reflected in the mirror of -consciousness appears therein subjectively as a summary synthesis, -and the synthetical summation grows with the higher complications and -abstractions acquired through habit and practice, so that details -previously conscious (e. g., those involved in the act of reading) -later become subconscious, and the whole takes on the semblance of a -psychical unit. - -Psychology, therefore, cannot restrict itself merely to a study of the -phenomena of our superconsciousness by means of introspection, for -the science would be impossible under such circumstances. Everybody -would have only his own subjective psychology, after the manner of -the old scholastic spiritualists, and would therefore be compelled to -doubt the very existence of the external world and his fellow-men. -Inference from analogy, scientific induction, the comparison of the -experiences of our five senses, prove to us the existence of the outer -world, our fellow-men and the psychology of the latter. They also -prove to us that there is such a thing as comparative psychology, a -psychology of animals. Finally our own psychology, without reference -to our brain-activity, is an incomprehensible patchwork full of -contradictions, a patchwork which above all things seems to contradict -the law of the conservation of energy. - -It follows, furthermore, from these really very simple reflections -that a psychology that would ignore brain-activity, is a monstrous -impossibility. The contents of our superconsciousness are continually -influenced and conditioned by subconscious brain-activities. -Without these latter it can never be understood. On the other -hand, we understand the full value and the ground of the complex -organisation of our brain only when we observe it in the inner light -of consciousness, and when this observation is supplemented by a -comparison of the consciousness of our fellow-men as this is rendered -possible for us through spoken and written language by means of very -detailed inferences from analogy. The mind must therefore be studied -simultaneously from within and from without. Outside ourselves the mind -can, to be sure, be studied only through analogy, but we are compelled -to make use of this the only method which we possess. - -Some one has said that language was given to man not so much for the -expression as for the concealment of his thoughts. It is also well -known that different men in all honesty attribute very different -meanings to the same words. A savant, an artist, a peasant, a woman, -a wild Wedda from Ceylon, interpret the same words very differently. -Even the same individual interprets them differently according to his -moods and their context. Hence it follows that to the psychologist and -especially to the psychiatrist--and as such I am here speaking--the -mimetic expression, glances and acts of a man often betray his true -inner being better than his spoken language. Hence also the attitudes -and behavior of animals have for us the value of a “language,” the -psychological importance of which must not be underestimated. Moreover, -the anatomy, physiology and pathology of the animal and human brain -have yielded irrefutable proof that our mental faculties depend on the -quality, quantity, and integrity of the living brain and are one with -the same. It is just as impossible that there should exist a human -brain without a mind, as a mind without a brain, and to every normal or -pathological change in the mental activity, there corresponds a normal -or pathological change of the neurocymic activity of the brain, i. e., -of its nervous elements. Hence what we perceive introspectively in -consciousness is cerebral activity. - -As regards the relation of pure psychology (introspection) to the -physiology of the brain (observation of brain-activity from without), -we shall take the theory of identity for granted so long as it is in -harmony with the facts. The word identity, or monism, implies that -every psychic phenomenon is the same real thing as the molecular -or neurocymic activity of the brain-cortex coinciding with it, but -that this may be viewed from two standpoints. The phenomenon alone -is dualistic, the thing itself is monistic. If this were otherwise -there would result from the accession of the purely psychical to the -physical, or cerebral, an excess of energy which would necessarily -contradict the law of the conservation of energy. Such a contradiction, -however, has never been demonstrated and would hold up to derision -all scientific experience. In the manifestations of our brain-life, -wonderful as they undoubtedly are, there is absolutely nothing which -contradicts natural laws and justifies us in postulating the existence -of a mythical, supernatural “psyche.” - -On this account I speak of monistic identity and not of psycho-physical -parallelism. A thing cannot be parallel with itself. Of course, -psychologists of the modern school, when they make use of this term, -desire merely to designate a supposed parallelism of phenomena without -prejudice either to monism or dualism. Since, however, many central -nervous processes are accessible neither to physiological nor to -psychological observation, the phenomena accessible to us through -these two methods of investigation are not in the least parallel, but -separated from one another very unequally by intermediate processes. -Moreover, inasmuch as the dualistic hypothesis is scientifically -untenable, it is altogether proper to start out from the hypothesis of -identity. - -It is as clear as day that the same activity in the nervous system -of an animal, or even in my own nervous system, observed by myself, -first by means of physiological methods from without, and second, as -reflecting itself in my consciousness, must appear to me to be totally -different, and it would indeed be labor lost to try to convert the -physiological into psychological qualities or _vice versa_. We cannot -even convert one psychological quality into another, so far as the -reality symbolised by both is concerned; e. g., the tone, the visual -and tactile sensation, which a uniform, low, tuning-fork vibration -produces on our three corresponding senses. Nevertheless, we may infer -inductively that it is the same reality, the same vibration which is -symbolised for us in these three qualitatively and totally different -modes i. e., produces in us these three different psychical impressions -which cannot be transformed into one another. These impressions depend -on activities in different parts of the brain and are, of course, as -such actually different from one another in the brain. We speak of -psycho-physiological identity only when we mean, on the one hand, the -cortical neurocyme which directly conditions the conscious phenomena -known to us, on the other hand, the corresponding phenomena of -consciousness. - -And, in fact, a mind conceived as dualistic could only be devoid of -energy or energy-containing. If it be conceived as devoid of energy -(Wasmann), i. e., independent of the laws of energy, we have arrived -at a belief in the miraculous, a belief which countenances the -interference with and arbitrary suspension of the laws of nature. -If it be conceived as energy-containing, one is merely playing upon -words, for a mind which obeys the law of energy is only a portion of -the cerebral activities arbitrarily severed from its connections and -dubbed “psychic essence,” only that this may be forthwith discredited. -Energy can only be transformed qualitatively, not quantitatively. A -mind conceived as dualistic, if supposed to obey the law of energy, -would have to be transformed completely into some other form of energy. -But then it would no longer be dualistic, i. e., no longer essentially -different from the brain-activities. - -Bethe, Uexkull, and others would require us to hold fast to the -physiological method, because it alone is exact and restricts itself to -what can be weighed and measured. This, too, is an error which has been -refuted from time immemorial. Only pure mathematics is exact, because -in its operations it makes use solely of equations of abstract numbers. -The concrete natural sciences can never be exact and are as unable -to subsist without the inductive method of inference from analogy as -a tree without its roots. Bethe and Uexkull do not seem to know that -knowledge is merely relative. They demand absolute exactitude and -cannot understand that such a thing is impossible. Besides, physiology -has no reason to pride itself upon the peculiar exactitude of its -methods and results. - -Although we know that our whole psychology appears as the activity of -our cerebrum in connection with the activities of more subordinate -nerve-centers, the senses and the muscles, nevertheless for didactic -purposes it may be divided into the psychology of cognition, of -feeling and volition. Relatively speaking, this subdivision has -an anatomico-physiological basis. Cognition depends, in the first -instance, on the elaboration of sense-impressions by the brain; the -will represents the psycho- or cerebrofugal resultants of cognition -and the feelings together with their final transmission to the -muscles. The feelings represent general conditions of excitation of a -central nature united with elements of cognition and with cerebrofugal -impulses, which are relatively differentiated and refined by the -former, but have profound hereditary and phylogenetic origins and are -relatively independent. There is a continual interaction of these three -groups of brain-activities upon one another. Sense-impressions arouse -the attention; this necessitates movements; the latter produce new -sense-impressions and call for an active selection among themselves. -Both occasion feelings of pleasure and pain and these again call -forth movements of defense, flight, or desire, and bring about fresh -sense-impressions, etc. Anatomically, at least, the sensory pathways -to the brain and their cortical centers are sharply separated from the -centers belonging to the volitional pathways to the muscles. Further -on in the cerebrum, however, all three regions merge together in many -neurons of the cortex. - -Within ourselves, moreover, we are able to observe in the three -above-mentioned regions all varieties and degrees of so-called psychic -dignity, from the simplest reflex to the highest mental manifestations. -The feelings and impulses connected with self-preservation (hunger, -thirst, fear) and with reproduction (sexual love and its concomitants) -represent within us the region of long-inherited, profoundly -phyletic, fixed, instinct-life. These instincts are nevertheless -partially modified and partly kept within due bounds through the -interference of the higher cerebral activities. The enormous mass -of brain-substance, which in man stands in no direct relation to -the senses and musculature, admits not only of an enormous storing -up of impressions and of an infinite variety of motor innervations, -but above all, of prodigious combinations of these energies among -themselves through their reciprocal activities and the awakening of -old, so-called memory images through the agency of new impressions. -In contradistinction to the compulsory, regular activities of the -profoundly phyletic automatisms, I have used the term “plastic” to -designate those combinations and individual adaptations which depend -on actual interaction in the activities of the cerebrum. Its loftiest -and finest expression is the plastic imagination, both in the province -of cognition and in the province of feeling, or in both combined. -In the province of the will the finest plastic adaptability, wedded -to perseverance and firmness, and especially when united with the -imagination, yields that loftiest mental condition which gradually -brings to a conclusion during the course of many years decisions that -have been long and carefully planned and deeply contemplated. Hence the -plastic gift of combination peculiar to genius ranks much higher than -any simpler plastic adaptability. - -The distinction between automatism and plasticity in brain-activity is, -however, only a relative one and one of degree. In the most different -instincts which we are able to influence through our cerebrum, i. -e., more or less voluntarily, like deglutition, respiration, eating, -drinking, the sexual impulse, maternal affection, jealousy, we observe -gradations between compulsory heredity and plastic adaptability, yes, -even great individual fluctuations according to the intensity of the -corresponding hereditary predispositions. - -Now it is indisputable that the individual Pithecanthropus or allied -being, whose cerebrum was large enough gradually to construct from -onomatopœas, interjections and the like, the elements of articulate -speech, must thereby have acquired a potent means of exploiting his -brain. Man first fully acquired this power through written language. -Both developed the abstract concept symbolised by words, as a -higher stage in generalisation. All these things give man a colossal -advantage, since he is thereby enabled to stand on the shoulders of -the written encyclopædia of his predecessors. This is lacking in all -animals living at the present time. Hence, if we would compare the -human mind with the animal mind, we must turn, not to the poet or -the savant, but to the Wedda or at any rate to the illiterate. These -people, like children and animals, are very simple and extremely -concrete in their thinking. The fact that it is impossible to teach -a chimpanzee brain the symbols of language proves only that it is -not sufficiently developed for this purpose. But the rudiments are -present nevertheless. Of course the “language” of parrots is no -language, since it symbolises nothing. On the other hand, some animals -possess phyletic, i. e., hereditarily and instinctively fixed cries -and gestures, which are as instinctively understood. Such instinctive -animal languages are also very widely distributed and highly developed -among insects, and have been fixed by heredity for each species. -Finally it is possible to develop by training in higher animals a -certain mimetic and acoustic conventional language-symbolism, by -utilising for this purpose the peculiar dispositions of such species. -Thus it is possible to teach a dog to react in a particular manner to -certain sounds or signs, but it is impossible to teach a fish or an -ant these things. The dog comprehends the sign, not, of course, with -the reflections of human understanding, but with the capacity of a -dog’s brain. And it is, to be sure, even more impossible to teach its -young an accomplishment so lofty for its own brain as one which had -to be acquired by training, than for the Wedda or even the negro to -transmit his acquired culture by his own impulse. Even the impulse to -do this is entirely lacking. Nevertheless, every brain that is trained -by man is capable of learning and profiting much from the experience of -its own individual life. And one discovers on closer examination that -even lower animals may become accustomed to some extent to one thing -or another, and hence trained, although this does not amount to an -understanding of conventional symbols. - -In general we may say, therefore, that the central nervous system -operates in two ways: _automatically_ and _plastically_. - -The so-called reflexes and their temporary, purposefully adaptive, but -hereditarily stereotyped combinations, which respond always more or -less in the same manner to the same stimuli, constitute the paradigm -of automatic activities. These have the deceptive appearance of a -“machine” owing to the regularity of their operations. But a machine -which maintains, constructs, and reproduces itself is not a machine. -In order to build such a machine we should have to possess the key -of life, i. e., the understanding of the supposed, but by no means -demonstrated, mechanics of living protoplasm. Everything points to -the conclusion that the instinctive automatisms have been gradually -acquired and hereditarily fixed by natural selection and other factors -of inheritance. But there are also secondary automatisms or habits -which arise through the frequent repetition of plastic activities -and are therefore especially characteristic of man’s enormous -brain-development. - -In all the psychic provinces of intellect, feeling, and will, habits -follow the constant law of perfection through repetition. Through -practice every repeated plastic brain-activity gradually becomes -automatic, becomes “second nature,” i. e., similar to instinct. -Nevertheless instinct is not inherited habit, but phylogenetically -inherited intelligence which has gradually become adapted and -crystalised by natural selection or by some other means. - -Plastic activity manifests itself, in general, in the ability of -the nervous system to conform or adapt itself to new and unexpected -conditions and also through its faculty of bringing about internally -new combinations of neurocyme. Bethe calls this the power of -modification. But since, notwithstanding his pretended issue with -anthropomorphism, he himself continually proceeds in an anthropomorphic -spirit and demands human ratiocination of animals, if they are to -be credited with plasticity (power of modification),--he naturally -overlooks the fact that the beginnings of plasticity are primordial, -that they are in fact already present in the Amœba, which adapts itself -to its environment. Nor is this fact to be conjured out of the world by -Loeb’s word “tropisms.” - -Automatic and plastic activities, whether simple or complex, are merely -relative antitheses. They grade over into each other, e. g., in the -formation of habits but also in instincts. In their extreme forms -they resemble two terminal branches of a tree, but they may lead to -similar results through so-called convergence of the conditions of life -(slavery and cattle-keeping among ants and men). The automatic may be -more easily derived from the plastic activities than _vice versa_. One -thing is established, however: since a tolerably complicated plastic -activity admits of many possibilities of adaptation in the individual -brain, it requires much more nervous substance, many more neurons, -but has more resistances to overcome in order to attain a complicated -result. The activities of an Amœba belong therefore rather to the -plasticity of living molecules, but not as yet to that of coöperating -nerve-elements; as cell-plasticity it should really be designated as -“undifferentiated.”[1] There are formed in certain animals specially -complex automatisms, or instincts, which require relatively little -plasticity and few neurons. In others, on the contrary, there remains -relatively considerable nerve-substance for individual plasticity, -while the instincts are less complicated. Other animals, again, have -little besides the lower reflex centers and are extremely poor in both -kinds of complex activities. Still others, finally, are rich in both. -Strong so-called “hereditary predispositions” or unfinished instincts -constitute the phylogenetic transitions between both kinds of activity -and are of extraordinarily high development in man. - -[1] If I expressly refrain from accepting the premature and -unjustifiable identification of cell-life with a “machine,” I -nevertheless do not share the so-called vitalistic views. It is quite -possible that science may sometime be able to produce living protoplasm -from inorganic matter. The vital forces have undoubtedly originated -from physico-chemical forces. But the ultimate nature of the latter -and of the assumed material atoms is, of course, metaphysical, i. e., -unknowable. - -Spoken and especially written language, moreover, enable man to exploit -his brain to a wonderful extent. This leads us to underestimate -animals. Both in animals and man the true value of the brain is -falsified by training, i. e., artificially heightened. We overestimate -the powers of the educated negro and the trained dog and underestimate -the powers of the illiterate individual and the wild animal. - -I beg your indulgence for this lengthy introduction to my subject, -but it seemed necessary that we should come to some understanding -concerning the validity of comparative psychology. My further task now -consists in demonstrating to you what manner of psychical faculties may -be detected in insects. Of course, I shall select in the first place -the ants as the insects with which I am most familiar. Let us first -examine the brain of these animals. - -In order to determine the psychical value of a central nervous system -it is necessary, first, to eliminate all the nerve-centers which -subserve the lower functions, above the immediate innervation of -the muscles and sense-organs as first centers. The volume of such -neuron-complexes does not depend on the intricacy of mental work but -on the number of muscle-fibres concerned in it, the sensory surfaces, -and the reflex apparatus, hence above all things on the size of the -animals. Complex instincts already require the intervention of much -more plastic work and for this purpose such nerve-centers alone would -be inadequate. - -A beautiful example of the fact that complex mental combinations -require a large nerve-center dominating the sensory and muscular -centers is furnished by the brain of the ant. The ant-colony commonly -consists of three kinds of individuals: the queen, or female (largest), -the workers which are smaller, and the males which are usually larger -than the workers. The workers excel in complex instincts and in clearly -demonstrable mental powers (memory, plasticity, etc.). These are much -less developed in the queens. The males are incredibly stupid, unable -to distinguish friends from enemies and incapable of finding their -way back to their nest. Nevertheless the latter have very highly -developed eyes and antennae, i. e., the two sense-organs which alone -are connected with the brain, or supra-oesophageal ganglion and enable -them to possess themselves of the females during the nuptial flight. -No muscles are innervated by the supra-oesophageal ganglion. These -conditions greatly facilitate the comparison of the perceptive organs, -i. e., of the brain (_corpora pedunculata_) in the three sexes. This -is very large in the worker, much smaller in the female, and almost -vestigial in the male, whereas the optic and olfactory lobes are very -large in the latter. The cortical portion of the large worker brain -is, moreover, extremely rich in cellular elements. In this connection I -would request you to glance at the figures and their explanation. - -Very recently, to be sure, it has come to be the fashion to -underestimate the importance of brain-morphology in psychology and even -in nerve-physiology. But fashions, especially such absurd ones as this, -should have no influence on true investigation. Of course, we should -not expect anatomy to say what it was never intended to say. - -In ants, injury to the cerebrum leads to the same results as injury to -the brain of the pigeon. - -In this place I would refer you for a fuller account of the details of -sensation and the psychic peculiarities of insects to my more extended -work above mentioned: _Sensations des Insectes_. - -It can be demonstrated that insects possess the senses of sight, smell, -taste, and touch. The auditory sense is doubtful. Perhaps a sense of -touch modified for the perception of delicate vibrations may bear a -deceptive resemblance to hearing. A sixth sense has nowhere been shown -to occur. A photodermatic sense, modified for light-sensation, must be -regarded as a form of the tactile sense. It occurs in many insects. -This sense is in no respect of an optic nature. In aquatic insects -the olfactory and gustatory senses perhaps grade over into each other -somewhat (Nagel), since both perceive chemical substances dissolved in -the water. - -The visual sense of the facetted eyes is especially adapted for seeing -movements, i. e., for perceiving relative changes of position in the -retinal image. In flight it is able to localise large spatial areas -admirably, but must show less definite contours of the objects than -our eyes. The compound eye yields only a single upright image (Exner), -the clearness of which increases with the number of facets and the -convexity of the eye. Exner succeeded in photographing this image in -the fire-fly (Lampyris). As the eyes are immovable the sight of resting -objects soon disappears so far as the resting insect is concerned. -For this reason resting insects are easily captured when very slowly -approached. In flight insects orient themselves in space by means -of their compound eyes. Odor, when perceived, merely draws these -animals in a particular direction. When the compound eyes are covered, -all powers of orientation in the air are lost. Many insects can adapt -their eyes for the day or night by a shifting of the pigment. Ants -see the ultra-violet with their eyes. Honey-bees and humble-bees can -distinguish colors, but obviously in other tones than we do, since -they cannot be deceived by artificial flowers of the most skilful -workmanship. This may be due, to admixtures of the ultra-violet rays -which are invisible to our eyes. - -[Illustration: Fig. _W._] - -[Illustration: Fig. _F._] - -[Illustration: Fig. _M._] - - -EXPLANATION OF THE FIGURES. - -Brain (supra-œsophageal ganglion) of an ant (_Lasius fuliginosus_), -magnified 60 diameters, seen from above. - - Fig. _W._ Brain of the Worker. - Fig. _F._ Brain of the Queen (Female) - Fig. _M._ Brain of the Male. - -_St._ = Brain trunk. _L. op._ = Lobus opticus (optic lobe). _L. olf._ -= Lobus olfactorius sive antennalis (olfactory lobe). _N._ = Facetted -eye. _N. olf._ = Nervus olfactorius sive antennalis (olfactory nerve). -_O._ = Ocelli, or simple eyes with their nerves (present only in the -male and queen). _H._ = Cellular brain cortex (developed only in the -worker and queen). _C. p._ = Corpora pedunculata, or fungiform bodies -(developed only in the worker and queen). _R._ = Rudimental cortex of -male. - -The length of the whole ant is: - - in the worker 4.5 mm; - in the queen 6.0 mm; - in the male 4.5 mm. - -N. B. The striation of the corpora pedunculata and their stems is -represented diagrammatically, for the purpose of indicating rather -coarsely their extremely delicate fibrillar structure. - -The ocelli (simple eyes) play a subordinate rôle, and probably serve as -organs of sight for objects situated in the immediate vicinity and in -dark cavities. - - * * * * * - -The olfactory sense has its seat in the antennæ, usually in the -club-shaped flagellum, or rather in the pore-plates and olfactory -rods of these portions of the antennæ. On account of its external -and moveable position at the tip of the antenna, the olfactory organ -possesses two properties which are lacking in the vertebrates, and -particularly in man. These are: - -1. The power of perceiving the chemical nature of a body by direct -contact (contact-odor); - -2. The power of space-perception and of perceiving the form of objects -and that of the animal’s own trail by means of odor, and the additional -property of leaving associated memories. - -The olfactory sense of insects, therefore, gives these animals definite -and clear-cut perceptions of space-relations, and enables the animal -while moving on the surface of the ground to orient itself with -facility. I have designated this sense, which is thus qualitatively, i. -e., in its specific energy, very different from our olfactory sense, -as the topochemical (olfactory) sense. Probably the pore-plates are -used for perceiving odor at a distance and the olfactory rods for -contact-odor, but this is pure conjecture. Extirpation of the antennæ -destroys the power of distinguishing friends from enemies and deprives -the ant of the faculty of orienting itself on the ground and of finding -its way, whereas it is possible to cut off three legs and an antenna -without seriously impairing these powers. The topochemical sense -always permits the ant to distinguish between the directions of its -trail, a faculty which Bethe attributes to a mysterious polarisation. -The ability to sense different odors varies enormously in different -insects. An object possessing odor for one species is often odorless -for other species (and for ourselves) and _vice versa_. - -The gustatory organs are situated on the mouth-parts. Among insects the -reactions of this sense are very similar to our own. Will accustomed -some wasps to look in a particular place for honey, which he afterwards -mixed with quinine. The wasps detected the substance at once, made -gestures of disgust, and never returned to the honey. Mixing the honey -with alum had the same result. At first they returned, but after the -disagreeable gustatory experience they failed to reappear. Incidentally -this is also a proof of their gustatory memory and of their powers of -association. - -Several organs have been found and described as auditory. But after -their removal the supposed reaction to sounds persists. This would seem -to indicate that a deceptive resemblance to hearing may be produced by -the perception of delicate vibrations through the tactile sense (Dugès). - -The tactile sense is everywhere represented by tactile hairs and -papillæ. It reacts more especially to delicate tremors of the -atmosphere or soil. Certain arthropods, especially the spiders, orient -themselves mainly by means of this sense. - -It may be demonstrated that insects, according to the species and -conditions of life, use their different senses in combination for -purposes of orienting themselves and for perceiving the external world. -Many species lack eyes and hence also the sense of sight. In others, -again, the olfactory sense is obtuse; certain other forms lack the -contact-odor sense (e. g., most Diptera). - -It has been shown that the superb powers of orientation exhibited by -certain aerial animals, like birds (carrier-pigeons), bees, etc., -depend on vision and its memories. Movement in the air gives this sense -enormous and manifold values. The semi-circular canals of the auditory -organ are an apparatus of equilibrium in vertebrates and mediate -sensations of acceleration and rotation (Mach-Breuer), but do not give -external orientation. For the demonstration of these matters I must -refer you to my work above-cited. A specific, magnetic, or other mode -of orientation, independent of the known senses, does not exist. - -The facts above presented constitute the basis of insect psychology. -The social insects are especially favorable objects for study on -account of their manifold reciprocal relationships. If in speaking of -their behavior I use terms borrowed from human life, I request you, -once for all, to bear in mind that these are not to be interpreted in -an anthropomorphic but in an analogous sense. - - -THE PROVINCE OF COGNITION. - -Many insects (perhaps all, in a more rudimental condition) possess -memory, i. e., they are able to store up sense-impressions in their -brains for subsequent use. Insects are not merely attracted directly -by sensory stimuli, as Bethe imagines. Huber, myself, Fabre, Lubbock, -Wasmann, Von Buttel-Reepen, have demonstrated this fact experimentally. -That bees, wasps, etc., can find their way in flight through the air, -notwithstanding wind and rain (and hence under circumstances precluding -the existence of any possible odoriferous trail), and even after the -antennæ have been cut off, to a concealed place where they have found -what they desired, though this place may be quite invisible from their -nest, and this even after the expiration of days and weeks, is a fact -of special importance as proof of the above assertion. It can be -shown that these insects recognise objects by means of their colors, -their forms, and especially by their position in space. Position they -perceive through the mutual relations and succession of the large -objects in space, as these are revealed to them in their rapid change -of place during flight in their compound eyes (shifting of retinal -images). Especially the experiments performed by Von Buttel-Reepen -and myself leave no doubt concerning this fact. Additional proof of a -different nature is furnished by Von Buttel, who found that ether or -chloroform narcosis deprives bees of all memory. By this means enemies -can be converted into friends. Under these circumstances, too, all -memory of locality is lost and must be reacquired by means of a new -flight of orientation. An animal, however, certainly cannot forget -without having remembered. - -The topochemical antennal sense also furnishes splendid proofs of -memory in ants, bees, etc. An ant may perform an arduous journey of -thirty meters from her ruined nest, there find a place suitable for -building another nest, return, orienting herself by means of her -antenna, seize a companion who forthwith rolls herself about her -abductrix, and is carried to the newly selected spot. The latter then -also finds her way to the original nest, and both each carry back -another companion, etc. The memory of the suitable nature of the -locality for establishing a new nest must exist in the brain of the -first ant or she would not return, laden with a companion, to this -very spot. The slave-making ants (_Polyergus_) undertake predatory -expeditions, led by a few workers, who for days and weeks previously -have been searching the neighborhood for nests of _Formica fusca_. The -ants often lose their way, remain standing and hunt about for a long -time till one or the other finds the topochemical trail and indicates -to the others the direction to be followed by rapidly pushing ahead. -Then the pupæ of the _Formica fusca_ nest, which they have found, are -brought up from the depths of the galleries, appropriated and dragged -home, often a distance of forty meters or more. If the plundered nest -still contains pupæ, the robbers return on the same or following days -and carry off the remainder, but if there are no pupæ left they do not -return. How do the Polyergus know whether there are pupæ remaining? -It can be demonstrated that smell could not attract them from such -a distance, and this is even less possible for sight or any other -sense. Memory alone, i. e., the recollection that many pupæ still -remain behind in the plundered nest can induce them to return. I have -carefully followed a great number of these predatory expeditions. - -While Formica species follow their topochemical trail with great -difficulty over new roads, they nevertheless know the immediate -surroundings of their nest so well that even shovelling away the earth -can scarcely disconcert them, and they find their way at once, as -Wasmann emphatically states and as I myself have often observed. That -this cannot be due to smelling at long range can be demonstrated in -another manner, for the olfactory powers of the genus Formica, like -those of honey-bees, are not sufficiently acute for this purpose, as -has been shown in innumerable experiments by all connoisseurs of these -animals. Certain ants can recognise friends even after the expiration -of months. In ants and bees there are very complex combinations and -mixtures of odors, which Von Buttel has very aptly distinguished as -nest-odor, colony- (family-) odor, and individual odor. In ants we have -in addition a species-odor, while the queen-odor does not play the same -rôle as among bees. - -It follows from these and many other considerations that the social -Hymenoptera can store up in their brains visual images and topochemical -odor-images and combine these to form perceptions or something of a -similar nature, and that they can associate such perceptions, even -those of different senses, especially sight, odor, and taste, with one -another and thereby acquire spatial images. - -Huber as well as Von Buttel, Wasmann, and myself have always found that -these animals, through frequent repetition of an activity, journey, -etc., gain in the certainty and rapidity of the execution of their -instincts. Hence they form, very rapidly to be sure, habits. Von Buttel -gives splendid examples of these in the robber-bees, i. e., in some -of the common honey-bees that have acquired the habit of stealing the -honey from the hives of strangers. At first the robbers display some -hesitation, though later they become more and more impudent. But he who -uses the term habit, must imply secondary automatism and a pre-existing -plastic adaptability. Von Buttel adduces an admirable proof of this -whole matter and at the same time one of the clearest and simplest -refutations of Bethe’s innumerable blunders, when he shows that bees -that have never flown from the hive, even though they may be older than -others that have already flown, are unable to find their way back even -from a distance of a few meters, when they are unable to see the hive, -whereas old bees know the whole environment, often to a distance of six -or seven kilometers. - -It results, therefore, from the unanimous observations of all the -connoisseurs that sensation, perception, and association, inference, -memory and habit follow in the social insects on the whole the same -fundamental laws as in the vertebrates and ourselves. Furthermore, -attention is surprisingly developed in insects, often taking on an -obsessional character and being difficult to divert. - -On the other hand, inherited automatism exhibits a colossal -preponderance. The above-mentioned faculties are manifested only in an -extremely feeble form beyond the confines of the instinct-automatism -stereotyped in the species. - -An insect is extraordinarily stupid and inadaptable to all things -not related to its instincts. Nevertheless I succeeded in teaching a -water-beetle (_Dytiscus marginalis_) which in nature feeds only in the -water, to eat on my table. While thus feeding, it always executed a -clumsy flexor-movement with its fore-legs which brought it over on its -back. The insect learned to keep on feeding while on its back, but it -would not dispense with this movement, which is adapted to feeding in -the water. On the other hand, it always attempted to leap out of the -water (no longer fleeing to the bottom of the vessel) when I entered -the room, and nibbled at the tip of my finger in the most familiar -manner. Now these are certainly plastic variations of instinct. In a -similar manner some large Algerian ants which I transplanted to Zurich, -learned during the course of the summer months to close the entrance of -their nest with pellets of earth, because they were being persecuted -and annoyed by our little _Lasius niger_. In Algiers I always saw the -nest-opening wide open. There are many similar examples which go to -show that these tiny animals can utilise some few of their experiences -even when this requires a departure from the usual instincts. - -That ants, bees, and wasps are able to exchange communications that -are understood, and that they do not merely titillate one another -with their antennæ as Bethe maintains, has been demonstrated in so -many hundred instances, that it is unnecessary to waste many words -on this subject. The observations of a single predatory expedition -of Polyergus, with a standing still of the whole army and a seeking -for the lost trail, is proof sufficient of the above statement. But, -of course, this is not language in the human sense! There are no -abstract concepts corresponding to the signs. We are here concerned -only with hereditary, instinctively automatic signs. The same is true -of their comprehension (pushing with the head, rushing at one another -with wide-open mandibles, titillation with the antennæ, stridulatory -movement of the abdomen, etc.). Moreover, imitation plays a great -rôle. Ants, bees, etc., imitate and follow their companions. Hence it -is decidedly erroneous (and in this matter Wasmann, Von Buttel, and -myself are of but one opinion) to inject human thought-conception and -human ratiocination into this instinct-language, as has been done to -some extent, at least, even by Pierre Huber, not to mention others. -It is even very doubtful whether a so-called general sensory idea -(i. e., a general idea of an object, like the idea “ant,” “enemy,” -“nest,” “pupa”) can arise in the emmet brain. This is hardly capable of -demonstration. Undoubtedly perception and association can be carried on -in a very simple way, after the manner of insects, without ever rising -to such complex results. At any rate proofs of such an assumption are -lacking. But what exists is surely in itself sufficiently interesting -and important. It gives us at least an insight into the brain-life of -these animals. - -Better than any generalisations, a good example will show what I mean. - -Plateau had maintained that when Dahlia blossoms are covered with green -leaves, bees nevertheless return to them at once. At first he concealed -his Dahlias incompletely (i. e., only their ray-florets), afterwards -completely, but still in an unsatisfactory manner, and inferred from -the results that bees are attracted by odor and not by sight. - -_a._ In a Dahlia bed visited by many bees and comprising about -forty-three floral heads of different colors, I covered first seventeen -and then eight at 2.15 P. M., September 10th, with grape-leaves bent -around them and fastened with pins. - -_b._ Of four I covered only the yellow disc; - -_c._ Of one, on the other hand, I covered only the outer ray-florets, -leaving the disc visible. - -So many bees were visiting the Dahlias that at times there were two or -three to a flower. - -Result: Immediately all the completely covered flowers ceased to be -visited by the bees. Dahlia (_c_) continued to be visited like those -completely visible. The bees often flew to Dahlias (_b_) but at once -abandoned them; a few, however, succeeded in finding the disc beneath -the leaves. - -Then as soon as I removed the covering from a red Dahlia the bees at -once flew to it; and soon a poorly concealed specimen was detected and -visited. Later an inquisitive bee discovered the entrance to a covered -Dahlia from the side or from below. Thenceforth this bee, but only this -one, returned to this same covered flower. - -Nevertheless several bees seemed to be seeking the Dahlias which had so -suddenly disappeared. Towards 5.30 o’clock some of them had detected -the covered flowers. Thenceforth these insects were rapidly imitated -by the other bees, and in a short time the hidden flowers were again -being visited. As soon as a bee had discovered my imposition and found -the entrance to a hidden flower, she flew in her subsequent journeys, -without hesitation to the concealed opening of the grape-leaf. As -long as a bee had merely made the discovery by herself, she remained -unnoticed by the others. When this was accomplished by several, -however, (usually by four or five,) the others followed their example. - -Plateau, therefore, conducted his experiments in a faulty manner and -obtained erroneous results. The bees still saw the Dahlias which he at -first incompletely concealed. Then, by the time he had covered them up -completely, but only from above, they had already detected the fraud -and saw the Dahlias also from the side. Plateau had failed to take into -consideration the bee’s memory and attention. - -September 13th I made some crude imitations of Dahlias by sticking the -yellow heads of Hieracium (hawkweed) each in a Petunia flower, and -placed them among the Dahlias. Neither the Petunias nor the Hieracium -had been visited by the bees. Nevertheless many of the honey and -humble-bees flew at first to the artefacts in almost as great numbers -as to the Dahlias, but at once abandoned the flowers when they had -detected the error, obviously by means of their sense of smell. The -same results were produced by a Dahlia, the disc of which had been -replaced by the disc of a Hieracium. - -As a control experiment I had placed a beautiful, odorous Dahlia disc -among the white and yellow Chrysanthemums which had been neglected by -the bees. For a whole half hour the bees flew by only a few centimeters -above the disc without noticing it; not till then was it visited by -a bee that happened to be followed by a second. From this moment the -Dahlia disc which lay in the path of flight was visited like the -others, whereas on the other hand the Petunia-Hieracium artefacts, now -known to be fraudulent, were no longer noticed. - -Plateau has demonstrated that artificial flowers, no matter how -carefully copied from the human standpoint, are not noticed by insects. -I placed artefacts of this description among the Dahlias. They remained -in fact entirely neglected. Perhaps, as above suggested, the bees are -able to distinguish the chlorophyll colors from other artificial hues, -owing to admixtures of the ultra-violet rays, or by some other means. -But since Plateau imagines that the artificial flowers repel insects, I -cut out, Sept. 19th, the following rather crude paper-flowers: - -α. A red flower; - -β. A white flower; - -γ. A blue flower; - -δ A blue flower, with a yellow center made from a dead leaf; - -ε. A rose-colored piece of paper with a dry Dahlia disc; - -ζ. A green Dahlia leaf (unchanged). - -It was nine o’clock in the morning. I placed a drop of honey on each of -the six artefacts mounted among the Dahlias. For a quarter of an hour -many bees flew past, very close to my artefacts but without perceiving -and hence without smelling the honey. I went away for an hour. On my -return artefact δ was without honey, and must therefore have been -discovered by the bees. All the others had remained quite untouched and -unnoticed. - -With some difficulty I next undertook to bring artefact α very close -to a bee resting on a Dahlia. But the attention of the bee was so -deeply engrossed by the Dahlia that I had to repeat the experiment four -or five times till I succeeded in bringing the honey within reach of -her proboscis. The insect at once began to suck up the honey from the -paper-flower. I marked the bee’s back with blue paint so that I might -be able to recognise her, and repeated the experiment with β and ε. In -these cases one of the bees was painted yellow, the other white. - -Soon the blue bee, which had in the meantime gone to the hive, -returned, flew at once to α, first hovering about it dubiously, then to -δ, where she fed, then again to α, but not to the Dahlias. Later the -yellow bee returned to β and fed, and flew to α and δ where she again -fed, but gave as little heed to the Dahlias as did the blue bee. - -Thereupon the white bee returned seeking ε, but failing to find it, at -once went to feeding on some of the Dahlias. But she tarried only a -moment on each Dahlia as if tortured by the _idée fixe_ of honey. She -returned to the artefacts, the perception of which, however, she was -not quite able to associate with the memory of the honey flavor. At -last she found a separate piece of ε, which happened to be turned down -somewhat behind, and began lapping up the honey. - -Thenceforth the three painted bees, and these alone, returned regularly -to the artefacts and no longer visited the Dahlias. The fact is of -great importance that the painted bees entirely of their own accord, -undoubtedly through an instinctive inference from analogy, discovered -the other artefacts as soon as their attention had been attracted by -the honey on one of them, notwithstanding the fact that the artefacts -were some distance from one another and of different colors. For were -not the Dahlias, too, which they had previously visited, of different -colors? Thus the blue bee flew to α, β, γ, and δ, the yellow to β, α, -δ, and γ, the white ε, α, β, and δ. Matters continued thus for half -an hour. The hidden green ζ was not found, evidently because it was -indistinguishable from the green foliage. - -Finally one bee, by herself, having had in all probability her -attention attracted by the three others, came to δ and fed. I marked -her with carmine. Thereupon she flew to α and drove the blue bee away. -Another bee was attracted to ε of her own accord and was painted with -cinnobar. Still another bee came by herself to β and was painted green. -It was now 12.30 o’clock. The experiment had therefore lasted more than -three hours, and during this time only six bees had come to know the -artefacts, while the great majority still kept on visiting the Dahlias. -But now the other bees began to have their attention attracted by the -visitors to the artefacts. One, then two, then three, and finally more -new ones followed, and I had not sufficient colors with which to mark -them. Every moment I was obliged to replenish the honey. Then I went to -dinner and returned at 1.25. At this moment seven bees were feeding on -β, two on α, one on γ, three on δ, the white one alone on ε. More than -half of all these were new, unpainted followers. Now a veritable swarm -of bees threw themselves on the artefacts and licked up the last traces -of the honey. Then for the first time, after more than four hours, a -bee from the swarm discovered the honey on the artefact ζ, which on -account of its color had remained concealed up to this time! - -As a pack of hounds throws itself on an empty skeleton, the swarm of -bees, now completely diverted from the Dahlias, cast themselves on the -completely empty artefacts and vainly searched every corner of them for -honey. It was 1.55 P. M. The bees began to scatter and return to the -Dahlias. Then I replaced α and β by a red and white paper respectively, -which had never come in contact with honey and could not therefore -smell of the substance. These pieces of paper, nevertheless, were -visited and examined by various bees, whose brains were still possessed -with the fixed idea of the flavor of honey. The white bee, e. g., -investigated the white paper very carefully for a period of three to -four minutes. There could, of course, be no such thing as an unknown -force or attraction of odor, or brilliancy of floral colors. This fact -can only be explained by an association of space, form, and color -memories with memories of taste. - -Thereupon I took all the artefacts in my left hand for the purpose of -carrying them away. Two or three bees followed me, hovering about my -left hand, and tried to alight on the empty artefacts. The space-image -had changed and only the color and form could any longer be of service -to the bees in their recognition of these objects. - -This experiment is so clear and unequivocal that I mention it here -among many others. It demonstrates: - -1. The space, form, and color perceptions of the honey-bee. That these -are possible only through the agency of the compound eyes is proved by -other experiments (varnishing the eyes, extirpation of the antennæ, -mouth-parts, etc.). - -2. The memory of the honey-bee, in particular her visual and gustatory -memory. - -3. Her power of associating gustatory with visual memories. - -4. Her ability instinctively to draw inferences from analogy: If she -has once been offered honey in an artefact, she will investigate -others, even those of a different color and hitherto unnoticed. These -she compares by means of the visual sense, since they are relatively -similar, and recognises them as similar though such objects are most -unusual in the bee’s experience. - -5. Her poor olfactory sense, which is useful only at very close range. - -6. The onesidedness and narrow circle of her attention. - -7. The rapid formation of habits. - -8. The limits of imitation of bees by one another. - -Of course, I should not allow myself to draw these conclusions from -a single experiment, if they had not been confirmed by innumerable -observations by the ablest investigators in this field. Lubbock showed -clearly that it is necessary to train a bee for some time to go to -a particular color if one wishes to compel her to pay no attention -to other colors. This is the only way in which it is possible to -demonstrate her ability to distinguish colors. My bees, on the -contrary, had been trained on differently colored objects (Dahlias and -artefacts) and therefore paid no attention to differences in color. It -would be a fallacy to conclude from this that they do not distinguish -colors. On the contrary, by means of other experiments I have fully -confirmed Lubbock’s results. - -By 2.20 P. M. all of my bees, even the painted ones, had returned to -the Dahlias. - -On September 27, a week later, I wished to perform a fresh experiment -with the same bees. I intended to make them distinguish between -differently colored discs, placed at different points on a long scale, -representing on a great sheet of paper, varying intensities of light -from white through gray to black. First, I wished to train a bee to -a single color. But I had calculated without the bee’s memory, which -rendered the whole experiment impracticable. Scarcely had I placed -my paper with the discs on the lawn near the Dahlia bed, and placed -one or two bees on the blue discs and marked them with colors, when -they began to investigate all the red, blue, white, black and other -discs with or without honey. After a few moments had elapsed, other -bees came from the Dahlia bed and in a short time a whole swarm threw -itself on the paper discs. Of course, those that had been provided with -honey were most visited, because they detained the bees, but even the -discs without honey were stormed and scrutinised by bees following one -another in their flight. The bees besieged even the paint-box. Among -these there was one that I had previously deprived of her antennæ. She -had previously partaken of the honey on the blue discs and had returned -to the hive. This bee examined the blue piece of paint in the color-box. - -In brief, my experiment was impossible, because all the bees still -remembered from a former occasion the many-colored artefacts provided -with honey, and therefore examined all the paper discs no matter of -what color. The association between the taste of the honey and the -paper discs had been again aroused by the sight-perception of the -latter, and had acquired both consistency and rapid and powerful -imitation, because honey happened to be actually found on some of the -discs. - -Together with the perceptive and associative powers, the power of -drawing simple, instinctive inferences from analogy is also apparent. -Without this, indeed, the operation of perception and memory would be -inconceivable! We have just given an example. I have shown on a former -occasion that humble-bees, whose nest I had transferred to my window, -when they returned home often confounded other windows of the same -façade and examined them for a long time before they discovered the -right one. Lubbock reports similar facts. Von Buttel shows that bees -that are accustomed to rooms and windows, learn to examine the rooms -and windows in other places, i. e., other houses. When Pissot suspended -wire netting with meshes twenty-two mm. in diameter in front of a wasp -nest, the wasps hesitated at first, then went around the netting by -crawling along the ground or avoided it in some other way. But they -soon learned to fly directly through the meshes. The sense of sight, -observed during flight, is particularly well adapted to experiments -of this kind, which cannot therefore be performed with ants. But the -latter undoubtedly draw similar inferences from the data derived from -their topochemical antennal sense. The discovery of prey or other food -on a plant or an object induces these insects to examine similar plants -or objects and to perform other actions of a like nature. - -There are, on the other hand, certain very stupid insects, like -the males of ants, the Diptera and may-flies (Ephemerids) with -rudimental brains, incapable of learning anything or of combining -sense-impressions to any higher degree than as simple automatisms, and -without any demonstrable retention of memory-images. Such insects lead -a life almost exclusively dominated by sensory stimuli; but their lives -are adapted to extremely simple conditions. In these very instances the -difference is most striking, and they demonstrate most clearly through -comparison and contrast the _plus_ possessed by more intelligent -insects. - - -THE REALM OF WILL. - -The notion of volition, in contradistinction to the notion of reflex -action, presupposes the expiration of a certain time interval and -the operation of mediating and complex brain-activities between the -sense-impression and the movement which it conditions. In the operation -of the purposeful automatisms of instinct which arouse one another -into activity in certain sequences, there is also a time interval, -filled out by internal, dynamic brain-processes as in the case of -the will. Hence these are not pure reflexes. They may for a time -suffer interruption and then be again continued. But their operation -is brought about in great measure by a concatenation of complicated -reflexes which follow one another in a compulsory order. On this -account the term automatism or instinct is justifiable. - -If we are to speak of will in the narrower sense, we must be able to -establish the existence of individual decisions, which can be directed -according to circumstances, i. e., are modifiable, and may, for a -certain period, remain dormant in the brain to be still performed -notwithstanding. Such volition may be very different from the complex -volition of man, which consists of the resultants of prodigiously -manifold components that have been long preparing and combining. The -ants exhibit positive and negative volitional phenomena, which cannot -be mistaken. The ants of the genus Formica Linné are particularly -brilliant in this respect, and they also illustrate the individual -psychical activities most clearly. The above-mentioned migrations from -nest to nest show very beautifully the individual plans of single -workers carried out with great tenacity. For hours at a time an ant -may try to overcome a multitude of difficulties for the purpose of -attaining an aim which she has set herself. This aim is not accurately -prescribed by instinct, as the insect may be confronted with several -possibilities, so that it often happens that two ants may be working in -opposition to each other. This looks like stupidity to the superficial -observer. But it is just here that the ant’s plasticity reveals itself. -For a time the two little animals interfere with each other, but -finally they notice the fact, and one of them gives in, goes away, or -assists the other. - -These conditions are best observed during the building of nests or -roads, e. g., in the horse-ant (_Formica rufa_) and still better in _F. -pratensis_. It is necessary, however, to follow the behavior of a few -ants for hours, if one would have a clear conception of this matter, -and for this much patience and much time are necessary. The combats -between ants, too, show certain very consistent aims of behavior, -especially the struggles which I have called chronic combats (_combats -à froid_). After two parties (two colonies brought together) have made -peace with each other, one often sees a few individuals persecuting and -maltreating certain individuals of the opposite party. They often carry -their victims a long distance off, for the purpose of excluding them -from the nest. If the ant that has been borne away returns to the nest -and is found by her persecutrix, she is again seized and carried away -to a still greater distance. In one such case in an artificial nest -of a small species of Leptothorax, the persecuting ant succeeded in -dragging her victim to the edge of my table. She then stretched out her -head and allowed her burden to fall on the floor. This was not chance, -for she repeated the performance twice in succession after I had again -placed the victim on the table. Among the different individuals of the -previously hostile, but now pacified opposition, she had concentrated -her antipathy on this particular ant and had tried to make her return -to the nest impossible. One must have very strong preconceived opinions -if in such and many similar cases one would maintain that ants are -lacking in individual decision and execution. Of course, all these -things happen within the confines of the instinct-precincts of the -species, and the different stages in the execution of a project are -instinctive. Moreover, I expressly defend myself against the imputation -that I am importing human reflection and abstract concepts into this -volition of the ant, though we must honestly admit, nevertheless, -that in the accomplishment of our human decisions both hereditary and -secondary automatisms are permitted to pass unnoticed. While I am -writing these words, my eyes operate with partially hereditary, and my -hand with secondary automatisms. But it goes without saying that only -a human brain is capable of carrying out my complex innervations and -my concomitant abstract reflections. But the ant must, nevertheless, -associate and consider somewhat in a concrete way after the manner of -an ant, when it pursues one of the above-mentioned aims and combines -its instincts with this special object in view. While, however, -the instinct of the ant can be combined for only a few slightly -different purposes, by means of a small number of plastic adaptations -or associations, individually interrupted in their concatenation or -_vice versa_, in the thinking human being both inherited and secondary -automatisms are only fragments or instruments in the service of an -overwhelming, all-controlling, plastic brain-activity. It may be said -incidentally that the relative independence of the spinal chord and of -subordinate brain-centers in the lower animals (and even in the lower -mammals) as compared with the cerebrum, may be explained in a similar -manner if they are compared with the profound dependence of these -organs and their functions on the massive cerebrum in man and even -to some extent in the apes. The cerebrum splits up and controls its -automatisms (_divide et impera_). - -While success visibly heightens both the audacity and tenacity of -the ant-will, it is possible to observe after repeated failure or in -consequence of the sudden and unexpected attacks of powerful enemies -a form of abulic dejection, which may lead to a neglect of the most -important instincts, to cowardly flight, to the devouring or casting -away of offspring, to neglect of work, and similar conditions. There is -a chronically cumulative discouragement in degenerate ant-colonies and -an acute discouragement when a combat is lost. In the latter case one -may see troops of large powerful ants fleeing before a single enemy, -without even attempting to defend themselves, whereas the latter a -few moments previously would have been killed by a few bites from the -fleeing individuals. It is remarkable how soon the victor notices and -utilises this abulic discouragement. The dejected ants usually rally -after the flight and soon take heart and initiative again. But they -offer but feeble resistance, e. g., to a renewed attack from the same -enemy on the following day. Even an ant’s brain does not so soon forget -the defeats which it has suffered. - -In bitter conflicts between two colonies of nearly equal strength the -tenacity of the struggle and with it the will to conquer increases till -one of the parties is definitively overpowered. In the realm of will -imitation plays a great rôle. Even among ants protervity and dejection -are singularly contagious. - - -THE REALM OF FEELING. - -It may perhaps sound ludicrous to speak of feelings in insects. But -when we stop to consider how profoundly instinctive and fixed is our -human life of feeling, how pronounced are the emotions in our domestic -animals, and how closely interwoven with the impulses, we should expect -to encounter emotions and feelings in animal psychology. And these -may indeed be recognised so clearly that even Uexkuell would have to -capitulate if he should come to know them more accurately. We find -them already interwoven with the will as we have described it. Most -of the emotions of insects are profoundly united to the instincts. -Of such a nature is the jealousy of the queen bee when she kills the -rival princesses, and the terror of the latter while they are still -within their cells; such is the rage of fighting ants, wasps, and -bees, the above-mentioned discouragement, the love of the brood, the -self-devotion of the worker honey-bees, when they die of hunger while -feeding their queen, and many other cases of a similar description. But -there are also individual emotions that are not compelled altogether -by instinct, e. g., the above-mentioned mania of certain ants for -maltreating some of their antagonists. On the other hand, as I have -shown, friendly services (feeding), under exceptional circumstances, -may call forth feelings of sympathy and finally of partnership, -even between ants of different species. Further than this, feelings -of sympathy, antipathy, and anger among ants may be intensified by -repetition and by the corresponding activities, just as in other -animals and man. - -The social sense of duty is instinctive in ants, though they exhibit -great individual, temporary, and occasional deviations, which betray a -certain amount of plasticity. - - -PSYCHIC CORRELATIONS. - -I have rapidly reviewed the three main realms of ant-psychology. It -is self-evident that in this matter they no more admit of sharp -demarcation from one another than elsewhere. The will consists of -centrifugal resultants of sense-impressions and feelings and in turn -reacts powerfully on both of these. - -It is of considerable interest to observe the antagonism between -different perceptions, feelings, and volitions in ants and bees, and -the manner in which in these animals the intensely fixed (obsessional) -attention may be finally diverted from one thing to another. Here -experiment is able to teach us much. While bees are busy foraging on -only one species of flower, they overlook everything else, even other -flowers. If their attention is diverted by honey offered them directly, -although previously overlooked, they have eyes only for the honey. An -intense emotion, like the swarming of honey-bees (von Buttel) compels -these insects to forget all animosities and even the old maternal -hive to which they no longer return. But if the latter happens to be -painted blue, and if the swarming is interrupted by taking away the -queen, the bees recollect the blue color of their old hive and fly to -hives that are painted blue. Two feelings often struggle with each -other in bees that are “crying” and without a queen: that of animosity -towards strange bees and the desire for a queen. Now if they be given a -strange queen by artificial means, they kill or maltreat her, because -the former feeling at first predominates. For this reason the apiarist -encloses the strange queen in a wire cage. Then the foreign odor -annoys the bees less because it is further away and they are unable to -persecute the queen. Still they recognise the specific queen-odor and -are able to feed her through the bars of the cage. This suffices to -pacify the hive. Then the second feeling quickly comes to the front; -the workers become rapidly inured to the new odor and after three or -four days have elapsed, the queen may be liberated without peril. - -It is possible in ants to make the love of sweets struggle with the -sense of duty, when enemies are made to attack a colony and honey is -placed before the ants streaming forth to defend their nest. I have -done this with _Formica pratensis_. At first the ants partook of the -honey, but only for an instant. The sense of duty conquered and all of -them without exception, hurried forth to battle and most of them to -death. In this case a higher decision of instinct was victorious over -the lower impulse. - -In _résumé_ I would lay stress on the following general conclusions: - -1. From the standpoint of natural science we are bound to hold -fast to the psychophysiological theory of identity (Monism) in -contradistinction to dualism, because it alone is in harmony with the -facts and with the law of the conservation of energy. - -Our mind must be studied simultaneously both directly from within and -indirectly from without, through biology and the conditions of its -origin. Hence there is such a thing as comparative psychology of other -individuals in addition to that of self, and in like manner we are -led to a psychology of animals. Inference from analogy, applied with -caution, is not only permissible in this science, but obligatory. - -2. The senses of insects are our own. Only the auditory sense still -remains doubtful, so far as its location and interpretation are -concerned. A sixth sense has not yet been shown to exist, and a special -sense of direction and orientation is certainly lacking. The vestibular -apparatus of vertebrates is merely an organ of equilibration and -mediates internal sensations of acceleration, but gives no orientation -in space outside of the body. On the other hand the visual and -olfactory senses of insects present varieties in the range of their -competency and in their specific energies (vision of ultra-violet, -functional peculiarities of the facetted eye, topochemical antennal -sense and contact-odor). - -3. Reflexes, instincts, and plastic, individually adaptive, central -nervous activities pass over into one another by gradations. Higher -complications of these central or psychic functions correspond to -a more complicated apparatus of superordinated neuron-complexes -(cerebrum). - -4. Without becoming antagonistic, the central nervous activity in the -different groups and species of animals complicates itself in two -directions: (_a_) through inheritance (natural selection, etc.) of -the complex, purposeful automatisms, or instincts; (_b_) through the -increasingly manifold possibilities of plastic, individually adaptive -activities, in combination with the faculty of gradually developing -secondary individual automatisms (habits). - -The latter mode requires many more nerve-elements. Through hereditary -predispositions (imperfect instincts) of greater or less stability, it -presents transitions to the former mode. - -5. In social insects the correlation of more developed psychic powers -with the volume of the brain may be directly observed. - -6. In these animals it is possible to demonstrate the existence of -memory, associations of sensory images, perceptions, attention, habits, -simple powers of inference from analogy, the utilisation of individual -experiences and hence distinct, though feeble, plastic, individual -deliberations or adaptations. - -7. It is also possible to detect a corresponding, simpler form of -volition, i. e., the carrying out of individual decisions in a more -or less protracted time-sequence, through different concatenations -of instincts; furthermore different kinds of discomfort and pleasure -emotions, as well as interactions and antagonisms between these diverse -psychic powers. - -8. In insect behavior the activity of the attention is one-sided -and occupies a prominent place. It narrows the scope of behavior -and renders the animal temporarily blind (inattentive) to other -sense-impressions. - -Thus, however different may be the development of the automatic and -plastic, central neurocyme activities in the brains of different -animals, it is surely possible, nevertheless, to recognise certain -generally valid series of phenomena and their fundamental laws. - -Even to-day I am compelled to uphold the seventh thesis which I -established in 1877 in my habilitation as _privat-docent_ in the -University of Munich: - -“All the properties of the human mind may be derived from the -properties of the animal mind.” - -I would merely add to this: - -“And all the mental attributes of higher animals may be derived from -those of lower animals.” In other words: The doctrine of evolution -is quite as valid in the province of psychology as it is in all the -other provinces of organic life. Notwithstanding all the differences -presented by animal organisms and the conditions of their existence, -the psychic functions of the nerve-elements seem nevertheless, -everywhere to be in accord with certain fundamental laws, even in the -cases where this would be least expected on account of the magnitude of -the differences. - - -APPENDIX. - -THE PECULIARITIES OF THE OLFACTORY SENSE IN INSECTS. - -Our sense of smell, like our sense of taste, is a chemical sense. But -while the latter reacts only to substances dissolved in liquids and -with but few (about five) different principal qualities, the olfactory -sense reacts with innumerable qualities to particles of the most -diverse substances dissolved in the atmosphere. Even to our relatively -degenerate human olfactories, the number of these odor-qualities seems -to be almost infinite. - -In insects that live in the air and on the earth the sense of taste -seems to be located, not only like our own, in the mouth-parts, but -also to exhibit the same qualities and the corresponding reactions. At -any rate it is easy to show that these animals are usually very fond -of sweet, and dislike bitter things, and that they perceive these two -properties only after having tasted of the respective substances. F. -Will, in particular, has published good experiments on this subject. - -In aquatic insects the conditions are more complicated. Nagel, who -studied them more closely, shows how difficult it is in these cases -to distinguish smell from taste, since substances dissolved in water -are more or less clearly perceived or discerned from a distance by -both senses and sought or avoided in consequence. Nagel, at any rate, -succeeded in showing that the palpi, which are of less importance in -terrestrial insects, have an important function in aquatic forms. - -In this place we are concerned with an investigation of the sense of -smell in terrestrial insects. Its seat has been proved to be in the -antennæ. A less important adjunct to these organs is located, as Nagel -and Wasmann have shown, in the palpi. In the antennæ it is usually the -club or foliaceous or otherwise formed dilatations which accommodate -the cellular ganglion of the antennary nerve. I shall not discuss the -histological structure of the nerve-terminations but refer instead to -Hicks, Leydig, Hauser, my own investigations and the other pertinent -literature, especially to K. Kraepelin’s excellent work. I would merely -emphasise the following points: - -1. All the olfactory papillæ of the antennæ are transformed, hair-like -pore-canals. - -2. All of these present a cellular dilatation just in front of the -nerve-termination. - -3. Tactile hairs are found on the antennæ together with the olfactory -papillæ. - -4. The character and form of the nerve-terminations are highly -variable, but they may be reduced to three principal types: -pore-plates, olfactory rods, and olfactory hairs. The two latter -are often nearly or quite indistinguishable from each other. The -nerve-termination is always covered with a cuticula which may be never -so delicate. - -Other end-organs of the Hymenopteran antenna described by Hicks and -myself, are still entirely obscure, so far as their function is -concerned, but they can have nothing to do with the sense of smell, -since they are absent in insects with a delicate sense of smell (wasps) -and occur in great numbers in the honey-bees, which have obtuse -olfactories. - -That the antennæ and not the nerve-terminations of the mouth and palate -function, as organs of smell, has been demonstrated by my control -experiments, which leave absolutely no grounds for doubt and have, -moreover, been corroborated on all sides. Terrestrial insects can -discern chemical substances at a distance by means of their antennæ -only. But in touch, too, these organs are most important and the palpi -only to a subordinate extent, namely in mastication. The antennæ enable -the insect to perceive the chemical nature of bodies and in particular, -to recognise and distinguish plants, other animals and food, except -in so far as the visual and gustatory senses are concerned in these -activities. These two senses may be readily eliminated, however, since -the latter functions only during feeding and the former can be removed -by varnishing the eyes or by other means. Many insects, too, are blind -and find their way about exclusively by means of their antennæ. This is -the case, e. g., with many predatory ants of the genus Eciton. - -But I will here assume these questions to be known and answered, nor -will I indulge in polemics with Bethe and his associates concerning -the propriety of designating the chemical antennal sense as “smell.” -I have discussed this matter elsewhere.[2] What I wish to investigate -in this place is the psychological quality of the antennal olfactory -sense, how it results in part from observation and in part from the -too little heeded correlative laws of the psychological exploitation -of each sense in accordance with its structure. I assume as known the -doctrines of specific energies and adequate stimuli, together with the -more recent investigations on the still undifferentiated senses, like -photodermatism and the like, and would refer, moreover, to Helmholtz’s -_Die Thatsachen in der Wahrnehmung_, 1879. Hirschwald, Berlin. - -[2] “Sensations des Insectes,” _Rivista di Biologia Generale_. Como, -1900-1901. For the remainder see also A. Forel, _Mitth. des Münchener -entom. Vereins_, 1878, and _Recueil. Zool. Suisse_, 1886-1887. - -When in our own human subjective psychology, which alone is known -to us directly, we investigate the manner in which we interpret our -sensations, we happen upon a peculiar fact to which especially Herbert -Spencer has called attention. We find that so-called perceptions -consist, as is well known, of sensations which are bound together -sometimes firmly, sometimes more loosely. The more intimately the -sensations are bound together to form a whole, the easier it is for us -to recall in our memory the whole from a part. Thus, e. g., it is easy -for me to form an idea from the thought of the head of an acquaintance -as to the remainder of his body. In the same manner the first note of -a melody or the first verse of a poem brings back the remainder of -either. But the thought of an odor of violets, a sensation of hunger, -or a stomach-ache, are incapable of recalling in me either simultaneous -or subsequent odors or feelings. - -These latter conditions call up in my consciousness much more easily -certain associated visual, tactile, or auditory images (e. g., the -visual image of a violet, a table set for a meal). As ideas they are -commonly to be represented in consciousness only with considerable -difficulty, and sometimes not at all, and they are scarcely capable of -association among themselves. We readily observe, moreover, that visual -images furnish us mainly with space recollections, auditory images with -sequences in time, and tactile images with both, but less perfectly. -These are indubitable and well-known facts. - -But when we seek for the wherefore of these phenomena, we find the -answer in the structure of the particular sense-organ and in its manner -of functioning. - -It is well known that the eye gives us a very accurate image of the -external world on our retina. Colors and forms are there depicted in -the most delicate detail, and both the convergence of our two eyes and -their movement and accommodation gives us besides the dimensions of -depth through stereoscopic vision. Whatever may be still lacking or -disturbing is supplied by instinctive inferences acquired by practice, -both in memory and direct perception (like the lacunæ of the visual -field), or ignored (like the turbidity of the corpus vitreum). But the -basis of the visual image is given in the coördinated _tout ensemble_ -of the retinal stimuli, namely the retinal image.[3] Hence, since the -retina furnishes us with such spatial projections, and these in sharp -details, or relations, definitely coöordinated with one another, the -sense of sight gives us knowledge of space. For this reason, also, and -solely on this account, we find it so easy to supply through memory by -association the missing remnant of a visual spatial image. For this -reason, too, the visual sensations are preëminently associative or -relational in space, to use Spencer’s expression. For the same reason -the insane person so readily exhibits hallucinations of complicated -spatial images in the visual sphere. This would be impossible in the -case of the olfactory sense. - -[3] It is well known that in this matter the movements of the eyes, the -movements of the body and of external objects play an essential part, -so that without these the eye would fail to give us any knowledge of -space. But I need not discuss this further, since the antennæ of ants -are at least quite as moveable and their olfactory sense is even more -easily educated in unison with the tactile sense. - -Similarly, the organ of Corti in the ear gives us tone or sound scales -in accurate time-sequence, and hence also associations of sequence much -more perfectly than the other senses. Its associations are thus in the -main associations of sequence, because the end-apparatus registers -time-sequences in time-intervals and not as space images. - -The corresponding cortical receptive areas are capable, in the first -instance, merely of registering what is brought to them by the -sense-stimuli and these are mainly associated spatial images for sight -and tone or sound-sequences for hearing. - -Let us consider for a moment how odors strike the mucous membranes of -our choanæ. They are wafted towards us as wild mixtures in an airy -maelstrom, which brings them to the olfactory terminations without -order in the inhaled air or in the mucous of the palate. They come in -such a way that there cannot possibly be any spatial association of the -different odors in definite relationships. In time they succeed one -another slowly and without order, according to the law of the stronger -element in the mixture, but without any definite combination. If, after -one has been inhaling the odor of violets, the atmosphere gradually -becomes charged with more roast meat than violet particles, the odor -of roast succeeds that of violet. But nowhere can we perceive anything -like a definitely associated sequence, so that neither our ideas of -time nor those of space comprise odors that revive one another through -association. By much sniffing of the surface of objects we could at -most finally succeed in forming a kind of spatial image, but this would -be very difficult owing to man’s upright posture. Nevertheless it is -probable that dogs, hedge-hogs, and similar animals acquire a certain -olfactory image by means of sniffing. The same conditions obtain in -the sphere of taste and the visceral sensations for the same reasons. -None of these senses furnish us with any sharply defined qualitative -relations either in space or time. On this account they furnish by -themselves no associations, no true perceptions, no memory images, -but merely sensations, and these often as mixed sensations, which are -vague and capable of being associated only with associative senses. -The hallucinations of smell, taste, and of the splanchnic sensations, -are not deceptive perceptions, since they cannot have a deceptive -resemblance to objects. They are simply paræsthesias or hyperæsthesias, -i. e., pathological sensations of an elementary character either -without adequate stimulus or inadequate to the stimulus. - -The tactile sense furnishes us with a gross perception of space and of -definite relations, and may, therefore, give rise to hallucinations, or -false perceptions of objects. By better training its associative powers -in the blind may be intensified. The visual sensations are usually -associated with tactile localisations. - -Thus we see that there is a law according to which the psychology -of a sense depends not only on its specific energy but also on the -manner in which it is able to transmit to the brain the relations -of its qualities in space and time. On this depends the knowledge -we acquire concerning time and space relations through a particular -sense and hence also its ability to form perceptions and associations -in the brain. More or less experience is, of course, to be added or -subtracted, but this is merely capable of enriching the knowledge -of its possessor according to the measure of the relations of the -particular sense-stimuli in space and time. - -I would beg you to hold fast to what I have said and then to picture to -yourselves an olfactory sense, i. e., a chemical sense effective at a -distance and like our sense of smell, capable of receiving impressions -from particles of the most diverse substances diffused through the -atmosphere, located not in your nostrils, but on your hands. For of -such a nature is the position of the olfactory sense on the antennal -club of the ant. - -Now imagine your olfactory hands in continual vibration, touching all -objects to the right and to the left as you walk along, thereby rapidly -locating the position of all odoriferous objects as you approach or -recede from them, and perceiving the surfaces both simultaneously and -successively as parts of objects differing in odor and position. It is -clear from the very outset that such sense-organs would enable you to -construct a veritable odor-chart of the path you had traversed and one -of double significance: - -1. A clear contact-odor chart, restricted, to be sure, to the immediate -environment and giving the accurate odor-form of the objects touched -(round odors, rectangular odors, elongate odors, etc.) and further hard -and soft odors in combination with the tactile sensations. - -2. A less definite chart which, however, has orienting value for a -certain distance, and produces emanations which we may picture to -ourselves like the red gas of bromine which we can actually see. - -If we have demonstrated that ants perceive chemical qualities through -their antennæ both from contact and from a distance, then the antennæ -must give them knowledge of space, if the above formulated law is true, -and concerning this there can be little doubt. This must be true even -from the fact that the two antennæ simultaneously perceive different -and differently odoriferous portions of space.[4] - -[4] It is not without interest to compare these facts with Condillac’s -discussion (_Treatise on the Sensations_) concerning his hypothetical -statue. Condillac shows that our sense of smell is of itself incapable -of giving us space knowledge. But it is different in the case of -the topochemical sense of smell in combination with the antennary -movements. Here Condillac’s conditions of the gustatory sense are -fulfilled. - -They must therefore also transmit perceptions and topographically -associated memories concerning a path thus touched and smelled. Both -the trail of the ants themselves and the surrounding objects must leave -in their brains a chemical (odor-) space-form with different, more -or less definitely circumscribed qualities, i. e., an odor-image of -immediate space, and this must render associated memories possible. -Thus an ant must perceive the forms of its trail by means of smell. -This is impossible, at least for the majority of the species, by means -of the eyes. If this is true, an ant will always be able, no matter -where she may be placed on her trail, to perceive what is to the -right, left, behind or before her, and consequently what direction -she is to take, according to whether she is bound for home, or in the -opposite direction to a tree infested with Aphides, or the like. - -Singularly enough, I had established this latter fact in my “Études -Myrmécologiques en 1886” (_Annales de la Societé Entomologique de -Belgique_) before I had arrived at its theoretical interpretation. -But I was at once led by this discovery in the same work to the -interpretation just given. Without knowing of my work in this -connection, A. Bethe has recently established (discovered, as he -supposes) this same fact, and has designated it as “polarisation of -the ant-trail.” He regards this as the expression of a mysterious, -inexplicable force, or polarisation. As we have seen, the matter is -not only no enigma, but on the contrary, a necessary psychological -postulate. We should rather find the absence of this faculty -incomprehensible. - -But everything I have just said presupposes a receptive brain. The -formation of lasting perceptions and associations cannot take place -without an organ capable of fixing the sense-impressions and of -combining them among themselves. Experience shows that the immediate -sensory centers are inadequate to the performance of this task. Though -undoubtedly receptive, they are, nevertheless, incapable of utilising -what has been received in the development of more complex instincts -and can turn it to account only in the grosser, simpler reflexes and -automatisms. To be sure, a male ant has better eyes than a worker ant, -and probably quite as good antennæ, but he is unable to remember what -he has seen and is especially incapable of associating it in the form -of a trail-image, because he is almost devoid of a brain. For this -reason he is unable to find his way back to the nest. On the other -hand, it is well known that the brain of a man who has lost a limb or -whose hearing is defective, will enable him to paint pictures with his -foot, write with the stump of an arm or construct grand combinations -from the images of defective senses. - -I venture, therefore, to designate as topochemical the olfactory -antennal sense of honey-bees, humble-bees, wasps, etc. - -Can we generalise to such an extent as to apply this term without -further investigation to all arthropods? To a considerable extent this -must be denied. - -In fact, the multiformity in the structure and development of the -arthropod sense-organs is enormous, and we must exercise caution in -making premature generalisations. - -It is certain that in some aerial insects the olfactory sense has -dwindled to a minimum, e. g., in those species in which the male -recognises and follows the female exclusively by means of the eyes, as -in the Odonata (dragon-flies). To insects with such habits an olfactory -sense would be almost superfluous. Here, too, the antennæ have dwindled -to diminutive dimensions. - -But there are insects whose antennæ are immovable and quite unable to -touch objects. This is the case in most Diptera (flies). Still these -antennæ are often highly developed and present striking dilatations -densely beset with olfactory papillæ. By experiment I have demonstrated -the existence of an olfactory sense in such Dipteran antennæ, and I -have been able to show that, e. g., in _Sarcophaga vivipara_ and other -carrion flies, the egg-laying instinct is absolutely dependent on the -sensation of the odor of carrion and the presence of the antennæ. In -these cases the contact-odor sense is undoubtedly absent. More or -less of a topochemical odor-sense at long range must, of course, be -present, since the antennæ are external, but the precision of the -spatial image must be very imperfect, owing to the immobility of the -antennæ. Nevertheless, flies move about so rapidly in the air that they -must be able by means of their antennæ to distinguish very quickly -the direction from which odors are being wafted. These insects do, in -fact, find the concealed source of odors with great assurance. But -this is no great art, for even we ourselves are able to do the same by -sniffing or going to and fro. But the flies find their way through the -air with their eyes and not at all by means of their sense of smell. -Hence their olfactory powers probably constitute a closer psychological -approximation to those of mammals than to the topochemical odor-sense -of ants, for they can hardly furnish any constant and definite -space-relations. - -Even in many insects with movable antennæ and of less ærial habits, e. -g., the chafers and bombycid moths, the antennal olfactory sense is -evidently much better adapted to function at a distance, i. e., to the -perception of odors from distant objects, than to the perception of -space and trails. Such insects find their way by means of their eyes, -but fly in the direction whence their antennæ perceive an odor that is -being sought. - -A genuine topochemical antennal sense is, therefore, probably best -developed in all arthropods, whose antennæ are not only movable in -the atmosphere, but adapted to feeling of objects. In these cases -the still imperfect topochemical odor-sense for distances can be -momentarily controlled by the contact-odor-sense and definitively -fixed topographically, i. e., topochemically, as we see so extensively -practised in the ants. - -It would be possible to meet this view with the objection that a -contact-odor sense could not accomplish much more than the tactile -sense. I have made this objection to myself. But in the first place it -is necessary to reckon with the facts. Now it is a fact that insects in -touching objects with their antennæ mainly perceive and distinguish the -chemical constitution of the objects touched and heed these very much -more than they do the mechanical impacts also perceived at the same -time. Secondly, the tactile sense gives only resistance and through -this, form. On the other hand, the multiplicity of odors is enormous, -and it is possible to demonstrate, as I have done for the ants, and -Von Buttel-Reepen for the bees, that these animals in distinguishing -their different nest-mates and their enemies, betray nothing beyond -the perception of extremely delicate and numerous gradations in the -qualities of odors. - -In combination with topochemical space-perception, these numerous -odor-qualities must constitute a spatial sense which is vastly superior -to the tactile sense. The whole biology of the social Hymenoptera -furnishes the objective proof of this assertion. - -It would certainly be well worth while to investigate this matter in -other groups of arthropods which possess complex instincts. - -In conclusion I will cite an example, which I have myself observed, -for the purpose of illustrating the capacity of the topochemical -olfactory sense. - -The American genus Eciton comprises predatory ants that build temporary -nests from which they undertake expeditions for the purpose of preying -on all kinds of insects. The Ecitons follow one another in files, like -geese, and are very quick to detect new hunting grounds. As “ants of -visitation,” like the Africo-Indian species of Dorylus, they often take -possession of human dwellings, ferret about in all the crevices of the -walls and rooms for spiders, roaches, mice, and even rats, attack and -tear to pieces all such vermin in the course of a few hours and then -carry the booty home. They can convert a mouse into a clean skeleton. -They also attack other ants and plunder their nests. - -Now all the workers of the African species of Dorylus and of many of -the species of Eciton are totally blind, so that they must orient -themselves exclusively by means of their antennal sense. - -In 1899 at Faisons, North Carolina, I was fortunate enough to find a -temporary nest of the totally blind little _Eciton carolinense_ in a -rotten log. I placed the ants in a bag and made them the subject of -some observations. The Eciton workers carry their elongate larvæ in -their jaws and extending back between their legs in such a position -that the antennæ have full play in front. - -Their ability to follow one another and to find their way about rapidly -and unanimously in new territory without a single ant going astray, -is incredible. I threw a handful of Ecitons with their young into a -strange garden in Washington, i. e., after a long railway journey and -far away from their nest. Without losing a moment’s time, the little -animals began to form in files which were fully organised in five -minutes. Tapping the ground continually with their antennæ, they took -up their larvæ and moved away in order, reconnoitering the territory -in all directions. Not a pebble, not a crevice, not a plant was left -unnoticed or overlooked. The place best suited for concealing their -young was very soon found, whereas most of our European ants under such -conditions, i. e., in a completely unknown locality, would probably -have consumed at least an hour in accomplishing the same result. The -order and dispatch with which such a procession is formed in the -midst of a totally strange locality is almost fabulous. I repeated -the experiment in two localities, both times with the same result. -The antennæ of the Ecitons are highly developed, and it is obvious -that their brain is instinctively adapted to such rapid orientation in -strange places. - -In Colombia, to be sure, I had had opportunities of observing, not -the temporary nests, but the predatory expeditions of larger Ecitons -(_E. Burchelli_ and _hamatum_) possessing eyes. But these in no -respect surpassed the completely blind _E. carolinense_ in their -power of orientation and of keeping together in files. As soon as -an ant perceives that she is not being followed, she turns back and -follows the others. But the marvellous fact is the certainty of this -recognition, the quickness and readiness with which the animals -recognise their topochemical trail without hesitation. There is none -of the groping about and wandering to and fro exhibited by most of our -ants. Our species of Tapinoma and Polyergus alone exhibit a similar but -less perfect condition. It is especially interesting, however, to watch -the _perpetuum mobile_ of the antennæ of the Ecitons, the lively manner -in which these are kept titillating the earth, all objects, and their -companions. - -All this could never be accomplished by a tactile sense alone. Nor -could it be brought about by an olfactory sense which furnished -no spatial associations. As soon as an Eciton is deprived of its -two antennæ it is utterly lost, like any other ant under the same -circumstances. It is absolutely unable to orient itself further or to -recognise its companions. - -In combination with the powerful development of the cerebrum (_corpora -pedunculata_) the topochemical olfactory sense of the antennæ -constitutes the key to ant psychology. Feeling obliged to treat of the -latter in the preceding lecture, I found it necessary here to discuss -in detail this particular matter which is so often misunderstood. - - [In his latest _Souvenirs entomologiques_ (Seventh Series) J. - H. Fabre has recorded a number of ingenious experiments showing - the ability of the males of Saturnia and Bombyx to find their - females at great distances and in concealment. He tried in - vain (which was to have been foreseen) to conceal the female - by odors which are strong even to our olfactories. The males - came notwithstanding. He established the following facts: (1) - Even an adverse wind does not prevent the males from finding - their way; (2) if the box containing the female is loosely - closed, the males come nevertheless; (3) if it is hermetically - closed (e. g., with wadding or soldered) they no longer come; - (4) the female must have settled for some time on a particular - spot before the males come; (5) if the female is then suddenly - placed under a wire netting or a bell-jar, though still clearly - visible, _the males nevertheless do not fly to her, but pass - on to the spot where she had previously rested and left her - odor_; (6) the experiment of cutting off the antennæ proves - very little. The males without antennæ do not, of course, come - again; but even the other males usually come only once: their - lives are too short and too soon exhausted. - - At first Fabre did not wish to believe in smell, but he was - compelled finally, as a result of his own experiments, to - eliminate sight and hearing. Now he makes a bold hypothesis: - the olfactory sense of insects has two energies, one (ours), - which reacts to dissolved chemical particles, and another which - receives “physical odor-waves,” similar to the waves of light - and sound. He already foresees how science will provide us with - a “radiography of odors” (after the pattern of the Roentgen - rays). But his own results, enumerated above under (4) and (5) - contradict this view. The great distances from which the Bombyx - males can discern their females is a proof to him that this - cannot be due to dissolved chemical particles. And these same - animals smell the female only after a certain time and smell - the spot where she had rested, instead of the female when she - is taken away! This, however, would be inconceivable on the - theory of a physical wave-sense, while it agrees very well with - that of an extremely delicate, chemical olfactory sense. - - It is a fact that insects very frequently fail to notice odors - which we perceive as intense, and even while these are present, - detect odors which are imperceptible to our olfactories. - We must explain this as due to the fact that the olfactory - papillæ of different species of animals are especially adapted - to perceiving very different substances. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Ants and Some Other Insects: An Inquiry Into the Psychic Powers of These Animals - -Author: Auguste Forel - -Translator: William Morton Wheeler - -Release Date: May 23, 2016 [EBook #52134] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANTS, OTHER INSECTS: PSYCHIC POWERS *** - - - - -Produced by Wayne Hammond, MWS, Bryan Ness and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div id="cover" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="copy">The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_i">i</span></p> - -<h1> -<i>Ants and Some Other Insects</i><br /> - -<span class="table"> -<span class="xsmall"><i>An Inquiry into</i></span><br /> -<span class="medium"><i>The Psychic Powers of these Animals</i></span><br /> -<span class="xsmall"><i>With an Appendix on</i></span><br /> -<span class="medium"><i>The Peculiarities of Their Olfactory Sense</i></span><br /> -</span> - -<span class="table"> -<span class="xsmall"><i>By</i></span><br /> -<span class="medium"><i>Dr. August Forel</i></span><br /> -<span class="xsmall"><i>Late Professor of Psychiatry at the University of Zurich</i></span><br /> -</span> - -<span class="table"> -<span class="xsmall"><i>Translated from the German</i><br /> -<i>By</i></span><br /> -<span class="medium"><i>Prof. William Morton Wheeler</i></span><br /> -<span class="xsmall"><i>American Museum of Natural History, New York</i></span><br /> -</span> - -<span class="table"> -<span class="medium"><i>Chicago</i></span><br /> -<span class="large"><i>The Open Court Publishing Company</i></span><br /> -</span> - -<span class="copy"><i>London</i><br /> -<i>Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. Ltd.</i><br /> -<i>1904</i></span> -</h1> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ii">ii</span></p> - -<p class="copy"> -<span class="smcap">Copyright</span>, 1904<br /> -THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO.<br /> -CHICAGO<br /> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2 id="ANTS_AND_SOME_OTHER_INSECTS">ANTS AND SOME OTHER INSECTS.</h2> - -<p class="drop"><span class="smcap">When</span> discussing the ant-mind, we must consider that these -small animals, on the one hand, differ very widely from ourselves -in organisation, but on the other hand, have come, through -so-called convergence, to possess in the form of a social commonwealth -a peculiar relationship to us. My subject, however, requires -the discussion of so many complicated questions that I am compelled -to assume acquaintance with the work of others, especially -the elements of psychology, and in addition the works of P. Huber, -Wasmann, von Buttel-Reepen, Darwin, Romanes, Lubbock, my -<i>Fourmis de la Suisse</i>, and many others. Since the functions of the -sense-organs constitute the basis of comparative psychology, I -must also refer to a series of articles entitled “Sensations des Insectes” -which I have recently published (1900-1901) in the <i>Rivista -de Biologia Generale</i>, edited by Dr. P. Celesia. In these papers I -have defined my position with respect to various authors, especially -Plateau and Bethe.</p> - -<p>Very recently Bethe, Uexkull, and others have denied the existence -of psychic powers in invertebrate animals. They explain -the latter as reflex-machines, and take their stand on the ground of -the so-called psycho-physical parallelism for the purpose of demonstrating -our inability to recognise mental qualities in these animals. -They believe, however, that they can prove the mechanical regularity -of behavior, but assume unknown forces whenever they are -left in the lurch in their explanations. They regard the mind as -first making its appearance in the vertebrates, whereas the old Cartesians -regarded all animals, in contradistinction to man, as mindless -(unconscious) machines. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">2</span></p> - -<p>The Jesuit father E. Wasmann and von Buttel-Reepen are -willing, on the other hand, to accept the inductive inference from -analogy as a valid scientific method. Like Lubbock, the lecturer -and others, they advocate a comparative psychology of the invertebrates -and convincingly demonstrate the existence of psychic faculties -in these animals. Wasmann, however, puts a very low estimate -on the mental powers of the higher vertebrates and, in my -opinion, improperly, denies to them any ability of drawing inferences -from experience when in the presence of new conditions (this -alone he designates as intelligence); he believes that man alone -possesses an immortal soul (independent of natural laws?) in addition -to the animal mind.</p> - -<p>It is necessary, first of all, to arrive at some common understanding -concerning the obscure notion “psychic” in order that -we may avoid logomachy, and carrying on theology in the sense of -Goethe’s Mephistopheles. Two concepts are confounded in an -obscure manner in the word “psychic”: first, the abstract concept -of introspection, or subjectivism, i. e., observation from within, -which every person knows only, and can know only, in and by himself. -For this let us reserve the term “consciousness.” Second, -the “activity” of the mind or that which determines the contents -of the field of consciousness. This has been included without further -ado with consciousness in the wider sense, and thence has -arisen the confusion of regarding consciousness as an attribute of -the mind. In another place I have designated the molecular wave -of activity of the neural elements as “neurocyme.”</p> - -<p>We cannot speak of the consciousness of human beings other -than ourselves without drawing an inference from analogy; quite -as little ought we to speak of a consciousness of forgotten things. -The field of our consciousness is constantly changing. Things appear -in it and disappear from it. Memory, through association, -enables us to recall, more or less directly and with more or less difficulty, -things which appear to be momentarily absent from consciousness. -Moreover, both the experience of self-observation and -the phenomena of hypnotism teach us experimentally that many -things of which we seem to be unconscious, are nevertheless present -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span> -in consciousness or have been. Indeed, certain sense-impressions -remain, at the moment of their occurrence, unconscious so -far as our ordinary consciousness or superconsciousness is concerned, -although they can be subsequently recalled into consciousness -by suggestion. Whole chains of brain-activities, (dreams, -somnambulism, or secondary consciousness) seem ordinarily to be -excluded from the superconsciousness, but may subsequently be -associated by suggestion with the remembered contents of consciousness. -In all these cases, therefore, what seems to be unconscious -is after all proved to be conscious. The above-mentioned -phenomena have frequently led to mystical interpretations, but -they are explainable on a very simple assumption. Let us assume—and -this is quite in harmony with observation—that the fields of -the introspectively conscious brain-activities are limited by so-called -association or dissociation processes, i. e., that we are unable actively -to bring them all into connection at the same time, and that -therefore all that seems to us unconscious has also in reality a consciousness, -in other words, a subjective reflex, then the following -results: Our ordinary waking consciousness or superconsciousness -is merely an inner subjective reflex of those activities of attention -which are most intimately connected with one another, i. e., of the -more intensively concentrated maxima of our cerebral activities -during waking. There exist, however, other consciousnesses, partly -forgotten, partly only loosely or indirectly connected with the contents -of the superconsciousness, in contradistinction to which these -may be designated as subconsciousness. They correspond to other -less concentrated or otherwise associated cerebral activities. We -are bound to assume the existence of still more remotely interconnected -subconsciousnesses for the infra-cortical (lower) brain-centers, -and so on.</p> - -<p>It is easy to establish the fact that the maximum of our psychic -activity, namely, attention, passes every moment from one perception -or thought to another. These objects of attention, as visual -or auditory images, will-impulses, feelings or abstract thoughts, -come into play—and of this there is no doubt—in different brain-regions -or neuron-complexes. We can therefore compare attention -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span> -to a functional <i>macula lutea</i> wandering in the brain, or with a wandering -maximal intensity of neurocymic activity. But it is quite as -satisfactorily established that other psychic phenomena external to -attention are likewise present in consciousness, though in a feebler -condition. Finally, it is well known that all that has been in consciousness—even -that which is now more, now less, forgotten—is -included in the psychic, i. e., in the contents of consciousness. On -superficial consideration this appears to satisfy theoretical requirements. -But in fact and in truth there are innumerable processes -of which we are feebly conscious for only a scarcely appreciable -instant and which anon disappear from consciousness. Here and -not in the strong and repeated “psychomes”—I beg your indulgence -for this word, with which I would for the sake of brevity -designate each and every psychic unit—are we to seek the transition -from the conscious to the apparently unconscious. Even in -this case, however, the feeble condition of consciousness is only -apparent, because the inner reflex of these processes can merely -echo faintly in the field of a strongly diverted attention. This, -therefore, in no wise proves that such half conscious processes are -in and for themselves so feebly represented in consciousness, since -a flash of attention is sufficient subsequently to give them definite -shape in consciousness. Only in consequence of the diversion of -the attention do they lose more and more their connection with the -chain of intensity-maxima which, under ordinary circumstances, -constitute the remembered contents of our superconsciousness. -The more feebly, however, they are bound to the latter, with the -more difficulty are such half-conscious processes later associated -anew through memory with the dominant chain. Of such a nature -are all dreams, all the subordinate circumstances of our lives, all -automatised habits, all instincts. But if there exists between the -clearly conscious and the unconscious, a half-conscious brain-life, -whose consciousness appears to us so feeble merely on account of -the deviation of our ordinary train of memories, this is an unequivocal -indication that a step further on the remaining connection -would be completely severed, so that we should no longer have the -right to say that the brain-activities thus fading away nebulously -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span> -from our superconsciousness do not have consciousness in and for -themselves. For the sake of brevity and simplicity we will ascribe -subconsciousness to these so-called unconscious brain-processes.</p> - -<p>If this assumption is correct—and all things point in this direction—we -are not further concerned with consciousness. It does -not at all exist as such, but only through the brain-activity of which -it is the inner reflex. With the disappearance of this activity, consciousness -disappears. When the one is complicated, the other, -too, is complicated. When the one is simple, the other is correspondingly -simple. If the brain-activity be dissociated, consciousness -also becomes dissociated. Consciousness is only an abstract -concept, which loses all its substance with the falling away of -“conscious” brain-activity. The brain-activity reflected in the -mirror of consciousness appears therein subjectively as a summary -synthesis, and the synthetical summation grows with the higher -complications and abstractions acquired through habit and practice, -so that details previously conscious (e. g., those involved in -the act of reading) later become subconscious, and the whole takes -on the semblance of a psychical unit.</p> - -<p>Psychology, therefore, cannot restrict itself merely to a study -of the phenomena of our superconsciousness by means of introspection, -for the science would be impossible under such circumstances. -Everybody would have only his own subjective psychology, -after the manner of the old scholastic spiritualists, and would -therefore be compelled to doubt the very existence of the external -world and his fellow-men. Inference from analogy, scientific induction, -the comparison of the experiences of our five senses, prove -to us the existence of the outer world, our fellow-men and the psychology -of the latter. They also prove to us that there is such a -thing as comparative psychology, a psychology of animals. Finally -our own psychology, without reference to our brain-activity, is an -incomprehensible patchwork full of contradictions, a patchwork -which above all things seems to contradict the law of the conservation -of energy.</p> - -<p>It follows, furthermore, from these really very simple reflections -that a psychology that would ignore brain-activity, is a monstrous -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span> -impossibility. The contents of our superconsciousness are continually -influenced and conditioned by subconscious brain-activities. -Without these latter it can never be understood. On the -other hand, we understand the full value and the ground of the -complex organisation of our brain only when we observe it in the -inner light of consciousness, and when this observation is supplemented -by a comparison of the consciousness of our fellow-men as -this is rendered possible for us through spoken and written language -by means of very detailed inferences from analogy. The -mind must therefore be studied simultaneously from within and -from without. Outside ourselves the mind can, to be sure, be -studied only through analogy, but we are compelled to make use of -this the only method which we possess.</p> - -<p>Some one has said that language was given to man not so -much for the expression as for the concealment of his thoughts. It -is also well known that different men in all honesty attribute very -different meanings to the same words. A savant, an artist, a -peasant, a woman, a wild Wedda from Ceylon, interpret the same -words very differently. Even the same individual interprets them -differently according to his moods and their context. Hence it -follows that to the psychologist and especially to the psychiatrist—and -as such I am here speaking—the mimetic expression, glances -and acts of a man often betray his true inner being better than his -spoken language. Hence also the attitudes and behavior of animals -have for us the value of a “language,” the psychological importance -of which must not be underestimated. Moreover, the -anatomy, physiology and pathology of the animal and human brain -have yielded irrefutable proof that our mental faculties depend on -the quality, quantity, and integrity of the living brain and are one -with the same. It is just as impossible that there should exist a -human brain without a mind, as a mind without a brain, and to -every normal or pathological change in the mental activity, there -corresponds a normal or pathological change of the neurocymic activity -of the brain, i. e., of its nervous elements. Hence what we -perceive introspectively in consciousness is cerebral activity.</p> - -<p>As regards the relation of pure psychology (introspection) to -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span> -the physiology of the brain (observation of brain-activity from without), -we shall take the theory of identity for granted so long as it -is in harmony with the facts. The word identity, or monism, implies -that every psychic phenomenon is the same real thing as the -molecular or neurocymic activity of the brain-cortex coinciding -with it, but that this may be viewed from two standpoints. The -phenomenon alone is dualistic, the thing itself is monistic. If this -were otherwise there would result from the accession of the purely -psychical to the physical, or cerebral, an excess of energy which -would necessarily contradict the law of the conservation of energy. -Such a contradiction, however, has never been demonstrated and -would hold up to derision all scientific experience. In the manifestations -of our brain-life, wonderful as they undoubtedly are, -there is absolutely nothing which contradicts natural laws and justifies -us in postulating the existence of a mythical, supernatural -“psyche.”</p> - -<p>On this account I speak of monistic identity and not of psycho-physical -parallelism. A thing cannot be parallel with itself. Of -course, psychologists of the modern school, when they make use of -this term, desire merely to designate a supposed parallelism of -phenomena without prejudice either to monism or dualism. Since, -however, many central nervous processes are accessible neither to -physiological nor to psychological observation, the phenomena accessible -to us through these two methods of investigation are not -in the least parallel, but separated from one another very unequally -by intermediate processes. Moreover, inasmuch as the dualistic -hypothesis is scientifically untenable, it is altogether proper to -start out from the hypothesis of identity.</p> - -<p>It is as clear as day that the same activity in the nervous system -of an animal, or even in my own nervous system, observed by -myself, first by means of physiological methods from without, and -second, as reflecting itself in my consciousness, must appear to me -to be totally different, and it would indeed be labor lost to try to -convert the physiological into psychological qualities or <i>vice versa</i>. -We cannot even convert one psychological quality into another, so -far as the reality symbolised by both is concerned; e. g., the tone, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span> -the visual and tactile sensation, which a uniform, low, tuning-fork -vibration produces on our three corresponding senses. Nevertheless, -we may infer inductively that it is the same reality, the same -vibration which is symbolised for us in these three qualitatively -and totally different modes i. e., produces in us these three different -psychical impressions which cannot be transformed into one -another. These impressions depend on activities in different parts -of the brain and are, of course, as such actually different from one -another in the brain. We speak of psycho-physiological identity -only when we mean, on the one hand, the cortical neurocyme which -directly conditions the conscious phenomena known to us, on the -other hand, the corresponding phenomena of consciousness.</p> - -<p>And, in fact, a mind conceived as dualistic could only be devoid -of energy or energy-containing. If it be conceived as devoid -of energy (Wasmann), i. e., independent of the laws of energy, -we have arrived at a belief in the miraculous, a belief which countenances -the interference with and arbitrary suspension of the laws -of nature. If it be conceived as energy-containing, one is merely -playing upon words, for a mind which obeys the law of energy is -only a portion of the cerebral activities arbitrarily severed from its -connections and dubbed “psychic essence,” only that this may be -forthwith discredited. Energy can only be transformed qualitatively, -not quantitatively. A mind conceived as dualistic, if supposed -to obey the law of energy, would have to be transformed -completely into some other form of energy. But then it would no -longer be dualistic, i. e., no longer essentially different from the -brain-activities.</p> - -<p>Bethe, Uexkull, and others would require us to hold fast to -the physiological method, because it alone is exact and restricts itself -to what can be weighed and measured. This, too, is an error -which has been refuted from time immemorial. Only pure mathematics -is exact, because in its operations it makes use solely of -equations of abstract numbers. The concrete natural sciences can -never be exact and are as unable to subsist without the inductive -method of inference from analogy as a tree without its roots. Bethe -and Uexkull do not seem to know that knowledge is merely relative. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span> -They demand absolute exactitude and cannot understand -that such a thing is impossible. Besides, physiology has no reason -to pride itself upon the peculiar exactitude of its methods and results.</p> - -<p>Although we know that our whole psychology appears as the -activity of our cerebrum in connection with the activities of more -subordinate nerve-centers, the senses and the muscles, nevertheless -for didactic purposes it may be divided into the psychology of cognition, -of feeling and volition. Relatively speaking, this subdivision -has an anatomico-physiological basis. Cognition depends, in -the first instance, on the elaboration of sense-impressions by the -brain; the will represents the psycho- or cerebrofugal resultants of -cognition and the feelings together with their final transmission to -the muscles. The feelings represent general conditions of excitation -of a central nature united with elements of cognition and with -cerebrofugal impulses, which are relatively differentiated and refined -by the former, but have profound hereditary and phylogenetic -origins and are relatively independent. There is a continual interaction -of these three groups of brain-activities upon one another. -Sense-impressions arouse the attention; this necessitates movements; -the latter produce new sense-impressions and call for an -active selection among themselves. Both occasion feelings of pleasure -and pain and these again call forth movements of defense, -flight, or desire, and bring about fresh sense-impressions, etc. -Anatomically, at least, the sensory pathways to the brain and their -cortical centers are sharply separated from the centers belonging -to the volitional pathways to the muscles. Further on in the cerebrum, -however, all three regions merge together in many neurons -of the cortex.</p> - -<p>Within ourselves, moreover, we are able to observe in the three -above-mentioned regions all varieties and degrees of so-called -psychic dignity, from the simplest reflex to the highest mental -manifestations. The feelings and impulses connected with self-preservation -(hunger, thirst, fear) and with reproduction (sexual -love and its concomitants) represent within us the region of long-inherited, -profoundly phyletic, fixed, instinct-life. These instincts -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span> -are nevertheless partially modified and partly kept within due -bounds through the interference of the higher cerebral activities. -The enormous mass of brain-substance, which in man stands in no -direct relation to the senses and musculature, admits not only of -an enormous storing up of impressions and of an infinite variety of -motor innervations, but above all, of prodigious combinations of -these energies among themselves through their reciprocal activities -and the awakening of old, so-called memory images through the -agency of new impressions. In contradistinction to the compulsory, -regular activities of the profoundly phyletic automatisms, I -have used the term “plastic” to designate those combinations and -individual adaptations which depend on actual interaction in the -activities of the cerebrum. Its loftiest and finest expression is the -plastic imagination, both in the province of cognition and in the -province of feeling, or in both combined. In the province of the -will the finest plastic adaptability, wedded to perseverance and -firmness, and especially when united with the imagination, yields -that loftiest mental condition which gradually brings to a conclusion -during the course of many years decisions that have been long -and carefully planned and deeply contemplated. Hence the plastic -gift of combination peculiar to genius ranks much higher than -any simpler plastic adaptability.</p> - -<p>The distinction between automatism and plasticity in brain-activity -is, however, only a relative one and one of degree. In the -most different instincts which we are able to influence through our -cerebrum, i. e., more or less voluntarily, like deglutition, respiration, -eating, drinking, the sexual impulse, maternal affection, jealousy, -we observe gradations between compulsory heredity and plastic -adaptability, yes, even great individual fluctuations according -to the intensity of the corresponding hereditary predispositions.</p> - -<p>Now it is indisputable that the individual Pithecanthropus or -allied being, whose cerebrum was large enough gradually to construct -from onomatopœas, interjections and the like, the elements -of articulate speech, must thereby have acquired a potent means of -exploiting his brain. Man first fully acquired this power through -written language. Both developed the abstract concept symbolised -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span> -by words, as a higher stage in generalisation. All these things -give man a colossal advantage, since he is thereby enabled to stand -on the shoulders of the written encyclopædia of his predecessors. -This is lacking in all animals living at the present time. Hence, if -we would compare the human mind with the animal mind, we must -turn, not to the poet or the savant, but to the Wedda or at any rate -to the illiterate. These people, like children and animals, are very -simple and extremely concrete in their thinking. The fact that it -is impossible to teach a chimpanzee brain the symbols of language -proves only that it is not sufficiently developed for this purpose. -But the rudiments are present nevertheless. Of course the “language” -of parrots is no language, since it symbolises nothing. On -the other hand, some animals possess phyletic, i. e., hereditarily -and instinctively fixed cries and gestures, which are as instinctively -understood. Such instinctive animal languages are also very widely -distributed and highly developed among insects, and have been -fixed by heredity for each species. Finally it is possible to develop -by training in higher animals a certain mimetic and acoustic conventional -language-symbolism, by utilising for this purpose the peculiar -dispositions of such species. Thus it is possible to teach a -dog to react in a particular manner to certain sounds or signs, but -it is impossible to teach a fish or an ant these things. The dog -comprehends the sign, not, of course, with the reflections of human -understanding, but with the capacity of a dog’s brain. And it is, -to be sure, even more impossible to teach its young an accomplishment -so lofty for its own brain as one which had to be acquired by -training, than for the Wedda or even the negro to transmit his acquired -culture by his own impulse. Even the impulse to do this is -entirely lacking. Nevertheless, every brain that is trained by man -is capable of learning and profiting much from the experience of -its own individual life. And one discovers on closer examination -that even lower animals may become accustomed to some extent to -one thing or another, and hence trained, although this does not -amount to an understanding of conventional symbols.</p> - -<p>In general we may say, therefore, that the central nervous system -operates in two ways: <i>automatically</i> and <i>plastically</i>. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span></p> - -<p>The so-called reflexes and their temporary, purposefully adaptive, -but hereditarily stereotyped combinations, which respond -always more or less in the same manner to the same stimuli, constitute -the paradigm of automatic activities. These have the deceptive -appearance of a “machine” owing to the regularity of their -operations. But a machine which maintains, constructs, and reproduces -itself is not a machine. In order to build such a machine -we should have to possess the key of life, i. e., the understanding -of the supposed, but by no means demonstrated, mechanics of living -protoplasm. Everything points to the conclusion that the instinctive -automatisms have been gradually acquired and hereditarily -fixed by natural selection and other factors of inheritance. But -there are also secondary automatisms or habits which arise through -the frequent repetition of plastic activities and are therefore especially -characteristic of man’s enormous brain-development.</p> - -<p>In all the psychic provinces of intellect, feeling, and will, -habits follow the constant law of perfection through repetition. -Through practice every repeated plastic brain-activity gradually -becomes automatic, becomes “second nature,” i. e., similar to instinct. -Nevertheless instinct is not inherited habit, but phylogenetically -inherited intelligence which has gradually become adapted -and crystalised by natural selection or by some other means.</p> - -<p>Plastic activity manifests itself, in general, in the ability of the -nervous system to conform or adapt itself to new and unexpected -conditions and also through its faculty of bringing about internally -new combinations of neurocyme. Bethe calls this the power of -modification. But since, notwithstanding his pretended issue with -anthropomorphism, he himself continually proceeds in an anthropomorphic -spirit and demands human ratiocination of animals, if -they are to be credited with plasticity (power of modification),—he -naturally overlooks the fact that the beginnings of plasticity are -primordial, that they are in fact already present in the Amœba, -which adapts itself to its environment. Nor is this fact to be conjured -out of the world by Loeb’s word “tropisms.”</p> - -<p>Automatic and plastic activities, whether simple or complex, -are merely relative antitheses. They grade over into each other, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span> -e. g., in the formation of habits but also in instincts. In their extreme -forms they resemble two terminal branches of a tree, but -they may lead to similar results through so-called convergence of -the conditions of life (slavery and cattle-keeping among ants and -men). The automatic may be more easily derived from the plastic -activities than <i>vice versa</i>. One thing is established, however: since -a tolerably complicated plastic activity admits of many possibilities -of adaptation in the individual brain, it requires much more nervous -substance, many more neurons, but has more resistances to -overcome in order to attain a complicated result. The activities -of an Amœba belong therefore rather to the plasticity of living -molecules, but not as yet to that of coöperating nerve-elements; as -cell-plasticity it should really be designated as “undifferentiated.”<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> -There are formed in certain animals specially complex automatisms, -or instincts, which require relatively little plasticity and few neurons. -In others, on the contrary, there remains relatively considerable -nerve-substance for individual plasticity, while the instincts -are less complicated. Other animals, again, have little besides the -lower reflex centers and are extremely poor in both kinds of complex -activities. Still others, finally, are rich in both. Strong so-called -“hereditary predispositions” or unfinished instincts constitute -the phylogenetic transitions between both kinds of activity -and are of extraordinarily high development in man.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">1</a> -If I expressly refrain from accepting the premature and unjustifiable identification -of cell-life with a “machine,” I nevertheless do not share the so-called vitalistic -views. It is quite possible that science may sometime be able to produce living -protoplasm from inorganic matter. The vital forces have undoubtedly originated -from physico-chemical forces. But the ultimate nature of the latter and of -the assumed material atoms is, of course, metaphysical, i. e., unknowable.</p></div> - -<p>Spoken and especially written language, moreover, enable man -to exploit his brain to a wonderful extent. This leads us to underestimate -animals. Both in animals and man the true value of the -brain is falsified by training, i. e., artificially heightened. We -overestimate the powers of the educated negro and the trained dog -and underestimate the powers of the illiterate individual and the -wild animal.</p> - -<p>I beg your indulgence for this lengthy introduction to my subject, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span> -but it seemed necessary that we should come to some understanding -concerning the validity of comparative psychology. My -further task now consists in demonstrating to you what manner of -psychical faculties may be detected in insects. Of course, I shall -select in the first place the ants as the insects with which I am -most familiar. Let us first examine the brain of these animals.</p> - -<p>In order to determine the psychical value of a central nervous -system it is necessary, first, to eliminate all the nerve-centers which -subserve the lower functions, above the immediate innervation of -the muscles and sense-organs as first centers. The volume of such -neuron-complexes does not depend on the intricacy of mental work -but on the number of muscle-fibres concerned in it, the sensory -surfaces, and the reflex apparatus, hence above all things on the -size of the animals. Complex instincts already require the intervention -of much more plastic work and for this purpose such nerve-centers -alone would be inadequate.</p> - -<p>A beautiful example of the fact that complex mental combinations -require a large nerve-center dominating the sensory and muscular -centers is furnished by the brain of the ant. The ant-colony -commonly consists of three kinds of individuals: the queen, or -female (largest), the workers which are smaller, and the males -which are usually larger than the workers. The workers excel in -complex instincts and in clearly demonstrable mental powers -(memory, plasticity, etc.). These are much less developed in the -queens. The males are incredibly stupid, unable to distinguish -friends from enemies and incapable of finding their way back to -their nest. Nevertheless the latter have very highly developed -eyes and antennae, i. e., the two sense-organs which alone are connected -with the brain, or supra-oesophageal ganglion and enable -them to possess themselves of the females during the nuptial flight. -No muscles are innervated by the supra-oesophageal ganglion. -These conditions greatly facilitate the comparison of the perceptive -organs, i. e., of the brain (<i>corpora pedunculata</i>) in the three -sexes. This is very large in the worker, much smaller in the female, -and almost vestigial in the male, whereas the optic and -olfactory lobes are very large in the latter. The cortical portion -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span> -of the large worker brain is, moreover, extremely rich in cellular -elements. In this connection I would request you to glance at the -figures and their explanation.</p> - -<p>Very recently, to be sure, it has come to be the fashion to underestimate -the importance of brain-morphology in psychology and -even in nerve-physiology. But fashions, especially such absurd -ones as this, should have no influence on true investigation. Of -course, we should not expect anatomy to say what it was never intended -to say.</p> - -<p>In ants, injury to the cerebrum leads to the same results as injury -to the brain of the pigeon.</p> - -<p>In this place I would refer you for a fuller account of the details -of sensation and the psychic peculiarities of insects to my -more extended work above mentioned: <i>Sensations des Insectes</i>.</p> - -<p>It can be demonstrated that insects possess the senses of -sight, smell, taste, and touch. The auditory sense is doubtful. -Perhaps a sense of touch modified for the perception of delicate -vibrations may bear a deceptive resemblance to hearing. A sixth -sense has nowhere been shown to occur. A photodermatic sense, -modified for light-sensation, must be regarded as a form of the tactile -sense. It occurs in many insects. This sense is in no respect -of an optic nature. In aquatic insects the olfactory and gustatory -senses perhaps grade over into each other somewhat (Nagel), since -both perceive chemical substances dissolved in the water.</p> - -<p>The visual sense of the facetted eyes is especially adapted for -seeing movements, i. e., for perceiving relative changes of position -in the retinal image. In flight it is able to localise large spatial -areas admirably, but must show less definite contours of the objects -than our eyes. The compound eye yields only a single upright -image (Exner), the clearness of which increases with the -number of facets and the convexity of the eye. Exner succeeded -in photographing this image in the fire-fly (Lampyris). As the -eyes are immovable the sight of resting objects soon disappears so -far as the resting insect is concerned. For this reason resting insects -are easily captured when very slowly approached. In flight -insects orient themselves in space by means of their compound -eyes. Odor, when perceived, merely draws these animals in a -particular direction. When the compound eyes are covered, all -powers of orientation in the air are lost. Many insects can adapt -their eyes for the day or night by a shifting of the pigment. Ants -see the ultra-violet with their eyes. Honey-bees and humble-bees -can distinguish colors, but obviously in other tones than we do, -since they cannot be deceived by artificial flowers of the most skilful -workmanship. This may be due, to admixtures of the ultra-violet -rays which are invisible to our eyes.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="fig_w" src="images/fig_w.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. <i>W.</i></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="fig_f" src="images/fig_f.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. <i>F.</i>]</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="fig_m" src="images/fig_m.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. <i>M.</i></p> -</div> - -<h3>EXPLANATION OF THE FIGURES.</h3> - -<p>Brain (supra-œsophageal ganglion) of an ant (<i>Lasius fuliginosus</i>), magnified -60 diameters, seen from above.</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">Fig. <i>W.</i> Brain of the Worker.<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Fig. <i>F.</i> Brain of the Queen (Female)<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Fig. <i>M.</i> Brain of the Male.<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p><i>St.</i> = Brain trunk. <i>L. op.</i> = Lobus opticus (optic lobe). <i>L. olf.</i> = Lobus olfactorius -sive antennalis (olfactory lobe). <i>N.</i> = Facetted eye. <i>N. olf.</i> = Nervus olfactorius -sive antennalis (olfactory nerve). <i>O.</i> = Ocelli, or simple eyes with their -nerves (present only in the male and queen). <i>H.</i> = Cellular brain cortex (developed -only in the worker and queen). <i>C. p.</i> = Corpora pedunculata, or fungiform bodies -(developed only in the worker and queen). <i>R.</i> = Rudimental cortex of male.</p> - -<p>The length of the whole ant is:</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">in the worker 4.5 mm;<br /></span> -<span class="i0">in the queen 6.0 mm;<br /></span> -<span class="i0">in the male 4.5 mm.<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>N. B. The striation of the corpora pedunculata and their stems is represented -diagrammatically, for the purpose of indicating rather coarsely their extremely -delicate fibrillar structure.</p> - -<p>The ocelli (simple eyes) play a subordinate rôle, and probably -serve as organs of sight for objects situated in the immediate vicinity -and in dark cavities.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>The olfactory sense has its seat in the antennæ, usually in the -club-shaped flagellum, or rather in the pore-plates and olfactory -rods of these portions of the antennæ. On account of its external -and moveable position at the tip of the antenna, the olfactory organ -possesses two properties which are lacking in the vertebrates, -and particularly in man. These are:</p> - -<p>1. The power of perceiving the chemical nature of a body by -direct contact (contact-odor);</p> - -<p>2. The power of space-perception and of perceiving the form -of objects and that of the animal’s own trail by means of odor, and -the additional property of leaving associated memories.</p> - -<p>The olfactory sense of insects, therefore, gives these animals -definite and clear-cut perceptions of space-relations, and enables -the animal while moving on the surface of the ground to orient itself -with facility. I have designated this sense, which is thus qualitatively, -i. e., in its specific energy, very different from our olfactory -sense, as the topochemical (olfactory) sense. Probably the -pore-plates are used for perceiving odor at a distance and the olfactory -rods for contact-odor, but this is pure conjecture. Extirpation -of the antennæ destroys the power of distinguishing friends from -enemies and deprives the ant of the faculty of orienting itself on -the ground and of finding its way, whereas it is possible to cut off -three legs and an antenna without seriously impairing these powers. -The topochemical sense always permits the ant to distinguish between -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span> -the directions of its trail, a faculty which Bethe attributes to -a mysterious polarisation. The ability to sense different odors -varies enormously in different insects. An object possessing odor -for one species is often odorless for other species (and for ourselves) -and <i>vice versa</i>.</p> - -<p>The gustatory organs are situated on the mouth-parts. Among -insects the reactions of this sense are very similar to our own. Will -accustomed some wasps to look in a particular place for honey, -which he afterwards mixed with quinine. The wasps detected the -substance at once, made gestures of disgust, and never returned to -the honey. Mixing the honey with alum had the same result. At -first they returned, but after the disagreeable gustatory experience -they failed to reappear. Incidentally this is also a proof of their -gustatory memory and of their powers of association.</p> - -<p>Several organs have been found and described as auditory. -But after their removal the supposed reaction to sounds persists. -This would seem to indicate that a deceptive resemblance to hearing -may be produced by the perception of delicate vibrations -through the tactile sense (Dugès).</p> - -<p>The tactile sense is everywhere represented by tactile hairs -and papillæ. It reacts more especially to delicate tremors of the -atmosphere or soil. Certain arthropods, especially the spiders, -orient themselves mainly by means of this sense.</p> - -<p>It may be demonstrated that insects, according to the species -and conditions of life, use their different senses in combination for -purposes of orienting themselves and for perceiving the external -world. Many species lack eyes and hence also the sense of sight. -In others, again, the olfactory sense is obtuse; certain other forms -lack the contact-odor sense (e. g., most Diptera).</p> - -<p>It has been shown that the superb powers of orientation exhibited -by certain aerial animals, like birds (carrier-pigeons), bees, -etc., depend on vision and its memories. Movement in the air -gives this sense enormous and manifold values. The semi-circular -canals of the auditory organ are an apparatus of equilibrium in -vertebrates and mediate sensations of acceleration and rotation -(Mach-Breuer), but do not give external orientation. For the demonstration -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span> -of these matters I must refer you to my work above-cited. -A specific, magnetic, or other mode of orientation, independent -of the known senses, does not exist.</p> - -<p>The facts above presented constitute the basis of insect psychology. -The social insects are especially favorable objects for -study on account of their manifold reciprocal relationships. If in -speaking of their behavior I use terms borrowed from human life, -I request you, once for all, to bear in mind that these are not to -be interpreted in an anthropomorphic but in an analogous sense.</p> - -<h3>THE PROVINCE OF COGNITION.</h3> - -<p>Many insects (perhaps all, in a more rudimental condition) -possess memory, i. e., they are able to store up sense-impressions -in their brains for subsequent use. Insects are not merely attracted -directly by sensory stimuli, as Bethe imagines. Huber, myself, -Fabre, Lubbock, Wasmann, Von Buttel-Reepen, have demonstrated -this fact experimentally. That bees, wasps, etc., can find their way -in flight through the air, notwithstanding wind and rain (and hence -under circumstances precluding the existence of any possible odoriferous -trail), and even after the antennæ have been cut off, to a -concealed place where they have found what they desired, though -this place may be quite invisible from their nest, and this even -after the expiration of days and weeks, is a fact of special importance -as proof of the above assertion. It can be shown that these -insects recognise objects by means of their colors, their forms, and -especially by their position in space. Position they perceive -through the mutual relations and succession of the large objects in -space, as these are revealed to them in their rapid change of place -during flight in their compound eyes (shifting of retinal images). -Especially the experiments performed by Von Buttel-Reepen and -myself leave no doubt concerning this fact. Additional proof of a -different nature is furnished by Von Buttel, who found that ether or -chloroform narcosis deprives bees of all memory. By this means -enemies can be converted into friends. Under these circumstances, -too, all memory of locality is lost and must be reacquired by means -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span> -of a new flight of orientation. An animal, however, certainly cannot -forget without having remembered.</p> - -<p>The topochemical antennal sense also furnishes splendid proofs -of memory in ants, bees, etc. An ant may perform an arduous -journey of thirty meters from her ruined nest, there find a place -suitable for building another nest, return, orienting herself by -means of her antenna, seize a companion who forthwith rolls herself -about her abductrix, and is carried to the newly selected spot. -The latter then also finds her way to the original nest, and both -each carry back another companion, etc. The memory of the suitable -nature of the locality for establishing a new nest must exist in -the brain of the first ant or she would not return, laden with a companion, -to this very spot. The slave-making ants (<i>Polyergus</i>) undertake -predatory expeditions, led by a few workers, who for days -and weeks previously have been searching the neighborhood for -nests of <i>Formica fusca</i>. The ants often lose their way, remain -standing and hunt about for a long time till one or the other finds -the topochemical trail and indicates to the others the direction to -be followed by rapidly pushing ahead. Then the pupæ of the <i>Formica -fusca</i> nest, which they have found, are brought up from the -depths of the galleries, appropriated and dragged home, often a -distance of forty meters or more. If the plundered nest still contains -pupæ, the robbers return on the same or following days and -carry off the remainder, but if there are no pupæ left they do not -return. How do the Polyergus know whether there are pupæ remaining? -It can be demonstrated that smell could not attract them -from such a distance, and this is even less possible for sight or any -other sense. Memory alone, i. e., the recollection that many pupæ -still remain behind in the plundered nest can induce them to return. -I have carefully followed a great number of these predatory -expeditions.</p> - -<p>While Formica species follow their topochemical trail with -great difficulty over new roads, they nevertheless know the immediate -surroundings of their nest so well that even shovelling away -the earth can scarcely disconcert them, and they find their way at -once, as Wasmann emphatically states and as I myself have often -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span> -observed. That this cannot be due to smelling at long range can -be demonstrated in another manner, for the olfactory powers of the -genus Formica, like those of honey-bees, are not sufficiently acute -for this purpose, as has been shown in innumerable experiments by -all connoisseurs of these animals. Certain ants can recognise friends -even after the expiration of months. In ants and bees there are -very complex combinations and mixtures of odors, which Von Buttel -has very aptly distinguished as nest-odor, colony- (family-) odor, -and individual odor. In ants we have in addition a species-odor, -while the queen-odor does not play the same rôle as among bees.</p> - -<p>It follows from these and many other considerations that the -social Hymenoptera can store up in their brains visual images and -topochemical odor-images and combine these to form perceptions -or something of a similar nature, and that they can associate such -perceptions, even those of different senses, especially sight, odor, -and taste, with one another and thereby acquire spatial images.</p> - -<p>Huber as well as Von Buttel, Wasmann, and myself have -always found that these animals, through frequent repetition of an -activity, journey, etc., gain in the certainty and rapidity of the execution -of their instincts. Hence they form, very rapidly to be -sure, habits. Von Buttel gives splendid examples of these in the -robber-bees, i. e., in some of the common honey-bees that have -acquired the habit of stealing the honey from the hives of strangers. -At first the robbers display some hesitation, though later they become -more and more impudent. But he who uses the term habit, -must imply secondary automatism and a pre-existing plastic adaptability. -Von Buttel adduces an admirable proof of this whole matter -and at the same time one of the clearest and simplest refutations -of Bethe’s innumerable blunders, when he shows that bees -that have never flown from the hive, even though they may be -older than others that have already flown, are unable to find their -way back even from a distance of a few meters, when they are unable -to see the hive, whereas old bees know the whole environment, -often to a distance of six or seven kilometers.</p> - -<p>It results, therefore, from the unanimous observations of all -the connoisseurs that sensation, perception, and association, inference, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span> -memory and habit follow in the social insects on the whole -the same fundamental laws as in the vertebrates and ourselves. -Furthermore, attention is surprisingly developed in insects, often -taking on an obsessional character and being difficult to divert.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, inherited automatism exhibits a colossal -preponderance. The above-mentioned faculties are manifested -only in an extremely feeble form beyond the confines of the -instinct-automatism stereotyped in the species.</p> - -<p>An insect is extraordinarily stupid and inadaptable to all things -not related to its instincts. Nevertheless I succeeded in teaching -a water-beetle (<i>Dytiscus marginalis</i>) which in nature feeds only in -the water, to eat on my table. While thus feeding, it always executed -a clumsy flexor-movement with its fore-legs which brought it -over on its back. The insect learned to keep on feeding while on -its back, but it would not dispense with this movement, which is -adapted to feeding in the water. On the other hand, it always attempted -to leap out of the water (no longer fleeing to the bottom -of the vessel) when I entered the room, and nibbled at the tip of -my finger in the most familiar manner. Now these are certainly -plastic variations of instinct. In a similar manner some large -Algerian ants which I transplanted to Zurich, learned during the -course of the summer months to close the entrance of their nest -with pellets of earth, because they were being persecuted and annoyed -by our little <i>Lasius niger</i>. In Algiers I always saw the nest-opening -wide open. There are many similar examples which go -to show that these tiny animals can utilise some few of their experiences -even when this requires a departure from the usual instincts.</p> - -<p>That ants, bees, and wasps are able to exchange communications -that are understood, and that they do not merely titillate one -another with their antennæ as Bethe maintains, has been demonstrated -in so many hundred instances, that it is unnecessary to -waste many words on this subject. The observations of a single -predatory expedition of Polyergus, with a standing still of the whole -army and a seeking for the lost trail, is proof sufficient of the above -statement. But, of course, this is not language in the human sense! -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span> -There are no abstract concepts corresponding to the signs. We -are here concerned only with hereditary, instinctively automatic -signs. The same is true of their comprehension (pushing with the -head, rushing at one another with wide-open mandibles, titillation -with the antennæ, stridulatory movement of the abdomen, etc.). -Moreover, imitation plays a great rôle. Ants, bees, etc., imitate -and follow their companions. Hence it is decidedly erroneous (and -in this matter Wasmann, Von Buttel, and myself are of but one -opinion) to inject human thought-conception and human ratiocination -into this instinct-language, as has been done to some extent, -at least, even by Pierre Huber, not to mention others. It is even -very doubtful whether a so-called general sensory idea (i. e., a general -idea of an object, like the idea “ant,” “enemy,” “nest,” -“pupa”) can arise in the emmet brain. This is hardly capable of -demonstration. Undoubtedly perception and association can be -carried on in a very simple way, after the manner of insects, without -ever rising to such complex results. At any rate proofs of such -an assumption are lacking. But what exists is surely in itself sufficiently -interesting and important. It gives us at least an insight -into the brain-life of these animals.</p> - -<p>Better than any generalisations, a good example will show -what I mean.</p> - -<p>Plateau had maintained that when Dahlia blossoms are covered -with green leaves, bees nevertheless return to them at once. At -first he concealed his Dahlias incompletely (i. e., only their -ray-florets), afterwards completely, but still in an unsatisfactory manner, -and inferred from the results that bees are attracted by odor -and not by sight.</p> - -<p><i>a.</i> In a Dahlia bed visited by many bees and comprising about -forty-three floral heads of different colors, I covered first seventeen -and then eight at 2.15 P. M., September 10th, with grape-leaves -bent around them and fastened with pins.</p> - -<p><i>b.</i> Of four I covered only the yellow disc;</p> - -<p><i>c.</i> Of one, on the other hand, I covered only the outer ray-florets, -leaving the disc visible. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span></p> - -<p>So many bees were visiting the Dahlias that at times there -were two or three to a flower.</p> - -<p>Result: Immediately all the completely covered flowers ceased -to be visited by the bees. Dahlia (<i>c</i>) continued to be visited like -those completely visible. The bees often flew to Dahlias (<i>b</i>) but at -once abandoned them; a few, however, succeeded in finding the -disc beneath the leaves.</p> - -<p>Then as soon as I removed the covering from a red Dahlia the -bees at once flew to it; and soon a poorly concealed specimen was -detected and visited. Later an inquisitive bee discovered the entrance -to a covered Dahlia from the side or from below. Thenceforth -this bee, but only this one, returned to this same covered -flower.</p> - -<p>Nevertheless several bees seemed to be seeking the Dahlias -which had so suddenly disappeared. Towards 5.30 o’clock some -of them had detected the covered flowers. Thenceforth these insects -were rapidly imitated by the other bees, and in a short time -the hidden flowers were again being visited. As soon as a bee had -discovered my imposition and found the entrance to a hidden -flower, she flew in her subsequent journeys, without hesitation to -the concealed opening of the grape-leaf. As long as a bee had -merely made the discovery by herself, she remained unnoticed by -the others. When this was accomplished by several, however, (usually -by four or five,) the others followed their example.</p> - -<p>Plateau, therefore, conducted his experiments in a faulty manner -and obtained erroneous results. The bees still saw the Dahlias -which he at first incompletely concealed. Then, by the time he -had covered them up completely, but only from above, they had -already detected the fraud and saw the Dahlias also from the side. -Plateau had failed to take into consideration the bee’s memory and -attention.</p> - -<p>September 13th I made some crude imitations of Dahlias by -sticking the yellow heads of Hieracium (hawkweed) each in a Petunia -flower, and placed them among the Dahlias. Neither the -Petunias nor the Hieracium had been visited by the bees. Nevertheless -many of the honey and humble-bees flew at first to the artefacts -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span> -in almost as great numbers as to the Dahlias, but at once -abandoned the flowers when they had detected the error, obviously -by means of their sense of smell. The same results were produced -by a Dahlia, the disc of which had been replaced by the disc of a -Hieracium.</p> - -<p>As a control experiment I had placed a beautiful, odorous -Dahlia disc among the white and yellow Chrysanthemums which -had been neglected by the bees. For a whole half hour the bees -flew by only a few centimeters above the disc without noticing it; -not till then was it visited by a bee that happened to be followed -by a second. From this moment the Dahlia disc which lay in the -path of flight was visited like the others, whereas on the other hand -the Petunia-Hieracium artefacts, now known to be fraudulent, were -no longer noticed.</p> - -<p>Plateau has demonstrated that artificial flowers, no matter how -carefully copied from the human standpoint, are not noticed by insects. -I placed artefacts of this description among the Dahlias. -They remained in fact entirely neglected. Perhaps, as above suggested, -the bees are able to distinguish the chlorophyll colors from -other artificial hues, owing to admixtures of the ultra-violet rays, -or by some other means. But since Plateau imagines that the artificial -flowers repel insects, I cut out, Sept. 19th, the following -rather crude paper-flowers:</p> - -<p>α. A red flower;</p> - -<p>β. A white flower;</p> - -<p>γ. A blue flower;</p> - -<p>δ A blue flower, with a yellow center made from a dead leaf;</p> - -<p>ε. A rose-colored piece of paper with a dry Dahlia disc;</p> - -<p>ζ. A green Dahlia leaf (unchanged).</p> - -<p>It was nine o’clock in the morning. I placed a drop of honey -on each of the six artefacts mounted among the Dahlias. For a -quarter of an hour many bees flew past, very close to my artefacts -but without perceiving and hence without smelling the honey. I -went away for an hour. On my return artefact δ was without honey, -and must therefore have been discovered by the bees. All the -others had remained quite untouched and unnoticed. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span></p> - -<p>With some difficulty I next undertook to bring artefact α very -close to a bee resting on a Dahlia. But the attention of the bee -was so deeply engrossed by the Dahlia that I had to repeat the experiment -four or five times till I succeeded in bringing the honey -within reach of her proboscis. The insect at once began to suck -up the honey from the paper-flower. I marked the bee’s back with -blue paint so that I might be able to recognise her, and repeated -the experiment with β and ε. In these cases one of the bees was -painted yellow, the other white.</p> - -<p>Soon the blue bee, which had in the meantime gone to the -hive, returned, flew at once to α, first hovering about it dubiously, -then to δ, where she fed, then again to α, but not to the Dahlias. -Later the yellow bee returned to β and fed, and flew to α and δ -where she again fed, but gave as little heed to the Dahlias as did -the blue bee.</p> - -<p>Thereupon the white bee returned seeking ε, but failing to find -it, at once went to feeding on some of the Dahlias. But she tarried -only a moment on each Dahlia as if tortured by the <i>idée fixe</i> of -honey. She returned to the artefacts, the perception of which, -however, she was not quite able to associate with the memory of -the honey flavor. At last she found a separate piece of ε, which -happened to be turned down somewhat behind, and began lapping -up the honey.</p> - -<p>Thenceforth the three painted bees, and these alone, returned -regularly to the artefacts and no longer visited the Dahlias. The -fact is of great importance that the painted bees entirely of their -own accord, undoubtedly through an instinctive inference from -analogy, discovered the other artefacts as soon as their attention -had been attracted by the honey on one of them, notwithstanding -the fact that the artefacts were some distance from one another and -of different colors. For were not the Dahlias, too, which they had -previously visited, of different colors? Thus the blue bee flew to -α, β, γ, and δ, the yellow to β, α, δ, and γ, the white ε, α, β, and δ. -Matters continued thus for half an hour. The hidden green ζ was -not found, evidently because it was indistinguishable from the green -foliage. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span></p> - -<p>Finally one bee, by herself, having had in all probability her -attention attracted by the three others, came to δ and fed. I marked -her with carmine. Thereupon she flew to α and drove the blue bee -away. Another bee was attracted to ε of her own accord and was -painted with cinnobar. Still another bee came by herself to β and -was painted green. It was now 12.30 o’clock. The experiment -had therefore lasted more than three hours, and during this time -only six bees had come to know the artefacts, while the great majority -still kept on visiting the Dahlias. But now the other bees -began to have their attention attracted by the visitors to the artefacts. -One, then two, then three, and finally more new ones followed, -and I had not sufficient colors with which to mark them. -Every moment I was obliged to replenish the honey. Then I went -to dinner and returned at 1.25. At this moment seven bees were -feeding on β, two on α, one on γ, three on δ, the white one alone -on ε. More than half of all these were new, unpainted followers. -Now a veritable swarm of bees threw themselves on the artefacts -and licked up the last traces of the honey. Then for the first time, -after more than four hours, a bee from the swarm discovered the -honey on the artefact ζ, which on account of its color had remained -concealed up to this time!</p> - -<p>As a pack of hounds throws itself on an empty skeleton, the -swarm of bees, now completely diverted from the Dahlias, cast -themselves on the completely empty artefacts and vainly searched -every corner of them for honey. It was 1.55 P. M. The bees began -to scatter and return to the Dahlias. Then I replaced α and -β by a red and white paper respectively, which had never come in -contact with honey and could not therefore smell of the substance. -These pieces of paper, nevertheless, were visited and examined by -various bees, whose brains were still possessed with the fixed idea -of the flavor of honey. The white bee, e. g., investigated the white -paper very carefully for a period of three to four minutes. There -could, of course, be no such thing as an unknown force or attraction -of odor, or brilliancy of floral colors. This fact can only be -explained by an association of space, form, and color memories with -memories of taste. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span></p> - -<p>Thereupon I took all the artefacts in my left hand for the purpose -of carrying them away. Two or three bees followed me, hovering -about my left hand, and tried to alight on the empty artefacts. -The space-image had changed and only the color and form could -any longer be of service to the bees in their recognition of these -objects.</p> - -<p>This experiment is so clear and unequivocal that I mention it -here among many others. It demonstrates:</p> - -<p>1. The space, form, and color perceptions of the honey-bee. -That these are possible only through the agency of the compound -eyes is proved by other experiments (varnishing the eyes, extirpation -of the antennæ, mouth-parts, etc.).</p> - -<p>2. The memory of the honey-bee, in particular her visual and -gustatory memory.</p> - -<p>3. Her power of associating gustatory with visual memories.</p> - -<p>4. Her ability instinctively to draw inferences from analogy: -If she has once been offered honey in an artefact, she will investigate -others, even those of a different color and hitherto unnoticed. -These she compares by means of the visual sense, since they are -relatively similar, and recognises them as similar though such objects -are most unusual in the bee’s experience.</p> - -<p>5. Her poor olfactory sense, which is useful only at very close -range.</p> - -<p>6. The onesidedness and narrow circle of her attention.</p> - -<p>7. The rapid formation of habits.</p> - -<p>8. The limits of imitation of bees by one another.</p> - -<p>Of course, I should not allow myself to draw these conclusions -from a single experiment, if they had not been confirmed by innumerable -observations by the ablest investigators in this field. -Lubbock showed clearly that it is necessary to train a bee for some -time to go to a particular color if one wishes to compel her to pay -no attention to other colors. This is the only way in which it is -possible to demonstrate her ability to distinguish colors. My bees, -on the contrary, had been trained on differently colored objects -(Dahlias and artefacts) and therefore paid no attention to differences -in color. It would be a fallacy to conclude from this that -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span> -they do not distinguish colors. On the contrary, by means of other -experiments I have fully confirmed Lubbock’s results.</p> - -<p>By 2.20 P. M. all of my bees, even the painted ones, had returned -to the Dahlias.</p> - -<p>On September 27, a week later, I wished to perform a fresh -experiment with the same bees. I intended to make them distinguish -between differently colored discs, placed at different points on -a long scale, representing on a great sheet of paper, varying intensities -of light from white through gray to black. First, I wished to -train a bee to a single color. But I had calculated without the -bee’s memory, which rendered the whole experiment impracticable. -Scarcely had I placed my paper with the discs on the lawn near -the Dahlia bed, and placed one or two bees on the blue discs and -marked them with colors, when they began to investigate all the -red, blue, white, black and other discs with or without honey. After -a few moments had elapsed, other bees came from the Dahlia bed -and in a short time a whole swarm threw itself on the paper discs. -Of course, those that had been provided with honey were most visited, -because they detained the bees, but even the discs without -honey were stormed and scrutinised by bees following one another -in their flight. The bees besieged even the paint-box. Among -these there was one that I had previously deprived of her antennæ. -She had previously partaken of the honey on the blue discs and -had returned to the hive. This bee examined the blue piece of -paint in the color-box.</p> - -<p>In brief, my experiment was impossible, because all the bees -still remembered from a former occasion the many-colored artefacts -provided with honey, and therefore examined all the paper discs -no matter of what color. The association between the taste of the -honey and the paper discs had been again aroused by the sight-perception -of the latter, and had acquired both consistency and -rapid and powerful imitation, because honey happened to be actually -found on some of the discs.</p> - -<p>Together with the perceptive and associative powers, the -power of drawing simple, instinctive inferences from analogy is -also apparent. Without this, indeed, the operation of perception -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span> -and memory would be inconceivable! We have just given an example. -I have shown on a former occasion that humble-bees, -whose nest I had transferred to my window, when they returned -home often confounded other windows of the same façade and examined -them for a long time before they discovered the right one. -Lubbock reports similar facts. Von Buttel shows that bees that -are accustomed to rooms and windows, learn to examine the rooms -and windows in other places, i. e., other houses. When Pissot -suspended wire netting with meshes twenty-two mm. in diameter -in front of a wasp nest, the wasps hesitated at first, then went -around the netting by crawling along the ground or avoided it in -some other way. But they soon learned to fly directly through the -meshes. The sense of sight, observed during flight, is particularly -well adapted to experiments of this kind, which cannot therefore -be performed with ants. But the latter undoubtedly draw similar -inferences from the data derived from their topochemical antennal -sense. The discovery of prey or other food on a plant or an object -induces these insects to examine similar plants or objects and -to perform other actions of a like nature.</p> - -<p>There are, on the other hand, certain very stupid insects, like -the males of ants, the Diptera and may-flies (Ephemerids) with -rudimental brains, incapable of learning anything or of combining -sense-impressions to any higher degree than as simple automatisms, -and without any demonstrable retention of memory-images. Such -insects lead a life almost exclusively dominated by sensory stimuli; -but their lives are adapted to extremely simple conditions. In -these very instances the difference is most striking, and they demonstrate -most clearly through comparison and contrast the <i>plus</i> -possessed by more intelligent insects.</p> - -<h3>THE REALM OF WILL.</h3> - -<p>The notion of volition, in contradistinction to the notion of -reflex action, presupposes the expiration of a certain time interval -and the operation of mediating and complex brain-activities between -the sense-impression and the movement which it conditions. -In the operation of the purposeful automatisms of instinct which -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span> -arouse one another into activity in certain sequences, there is also -a time interval, filled out by internal, dynamic brain-processes as -in the case of the will. Hence these are not pure reflexes. They -may for a time suffer interruption and then be again continued. -But their operation is brought about in great measure by a concatenation -of complicated reflexes which follow one another in a -compulsory order. On this account the term automatism or instinct -is justifiable.</p> - -<p>If we are to speak of will in the narrower sense, we must be -able to establish the existence of individual decisions, which can be -directed according to circumstances, i. e., are modifiable, and may, -for a certain period, remain dormant in the brain to be still performed -notwithstanding. Such volition may be very different from -the complex volition of man, which consists of the resultants of -prodigiously manifold components that have been long preparing -and combining. The ants exhibit positive and negative volitional -phenomena, which cannot be mistaken. The ants of the genus -Formica Linné are particularly brilliant in this respect, and they -also illustrate the individual psychical activities most clearly. The -above-mentioned migrations from nest to nest show very beautifully -the individual plans of single workers carried out with great -tenacity. For hours at a time an ant may try to overcome a multitude -of difficulties for the purpose of attaining an aim which she -has set herself. This aim is not accurately prescribed by instinct, -as the insect may be confronted with several possibilities, so that -it often happens that two ants may be working in opposition to -each other. This looks like stupidity to the superficial observer. -But it is just here that the ant’s plasticity reveals itself. For a -time the two little animals interfere with each other, but finally -they notice the fact, and one of them gives in, goes away, or assists -the other.</p> - -<p>These conditions are best observed during the building of nests -or roads, e. g., in the horse-ant (<i>Formica rufa</i>) and still better in -<i>F. pratensis</i>. It is necessary, however, to follow the behavior of a -few ants for hours, if one would have a clear conception of this -matter, and for this much patience and much time are necessary. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span> -The combats between ants, too, show certain very consistent aims -of behavior, especially the struggles which I have called chronic -combats (<i>combats à froid</i>). After two parties (two colonies brought -together) have made peace with each other, one often sees a few -individuals persecuting and maltreating certain individuals of the -opposite party. They often carry their victims a long distance off, -for the purpose of excluding them from the nest. If the ant that -has been borne away returns to the nest and is found by her persecutrix, -she is again seized and carried away to a still greater distance. -In one such case in an artificial nest of a small species of -Leptothorax, the persecuting ant succeeded in dragging her victim -to the edge of my table. She then stretched out her head and -allowed her burden to fall on the floor. This was not chance, for -she repeated the performance twice in succession after I had again -placed the victim on the table. Among the different individuals of -the previously hostile, but now pacified opposition, she had concentrated -her antipathy on this particular ant and had tried to make -her return to the nest impossible. One must have very strong preconceived -opinions if in such and many similar cases one would -maintain that ants are lacking in individual decision and execution. -Of course, all these things happen within the confines of the instinct-precincts -of the species, and the different stages in the execution -of a project are instinctive. Moreover, I expressly defend myself -against the imputation that I am importing human reflection -and abstract concepts into this volition of the ant, though we must -honestly admit, nevertheless, that in the accomplishment of our -human decisions both hereditary and secondary automatisms are -permitted to pass unnoticed. While I am writing these words, my -eyes operate with partially hereditary, and my hand with secondary -automatisms. But it goes without saying that only a human brain -is capable of carrying out my complex innervations and my concomitant -abstract reflections. But the ant must, nevertheless, associate -and consider somewhat in a concrete way after the manner -of an ant, when it pursues one of the above-mentioned aims and -combines its instincts with this special object in view. While, -however, the instinct of the ant can be combined for only a few -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span> -slightly different purposes, by means of a small number of plastic -adaptations or associations, individually interrupted in their concatenation -or <i>vice versa</i>, in the thinking human being both inherited -and secondary automatisms are only fragments or instruments in -the service of an overwhelming, all-controlling, plastic brain-activity. -It may be said incidentally that the relative independence of -the spinal chord and of subordinate brain-centers in the lower animals -(and even in the lower mammals) as compared with the cerebrum, -may be explained in a similar manner if they are compared -with the profound dependence of these organs and their functions -on the massive cerebrum in man and even to some extent in the -apes. The cerebrum splits up and controls its automatisms (<i>divide -et impera</i>).</p> - -<p>While success visibly heightens both the audacity and tenacity -of the ant-will, it is possible to observe after repeated failure or in -consequence of the sudden and unexpected attacks of powerful enemies -a form of abulic dejection, which may lead to a neglect of -the most important instincts, to cowardly flight, to the devouring -or casting away of offspring, to neglect of work, and similar conditions. -There is a chronically cumulative discouragement in degenerate -ant-colonies and an acute discouragement when a combat is -lost. In the latter case one may see troops of large powerful ants -fleeing before a single enemy, without even attempting to defend -themselves, whereas the latter a few moments previously would -have been killed by a few bites from the fleeing individuals. It is -remarkable how soon the victor notices and utilises this abulic discouragement. -The dejected ants usually rally after the flight and -soon take heart and initiative again. But they offer but feeble resistance, -e. g., to a renewed attack from the same enemy on the -following day. Even an ant’s brain does not so soon forget the -defeats which it has suffered.</p> - -<p>In bitter conflicts between two colonies of nearly equal strength -the tenacity of the struggle and with it the will to conquer increases -till one of the parties is definitively overpowered. In the realm of -will imitation plays a great rôle. Even among ants protervity and -dejection are singularly contagious. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span></p> - -<h3>THE REALM OF FEELING.</h3> - -<p>It may perhaps sound ludicrous to speak of feelings in insects. -But when we stop to consider how profoundly instinctive and -fixed is our human life of feeling, how pronounced are the emotions -in our domestic animals, and how closely interwoven with the impulses, -we should expect to encounter emotions and feelings in -animal psychology. And these may indeed be recognised so clearly -that even Uexkuell would have to capitulate if he should come to -know them more accurately. We find them already interwoven -with the will as we have described it. Most of the emotions of insects -are profoundly united to the instincts. Of such a nature is -the jealousy of the queen bee when she kills the rival princesses, -and the terror of the latter while they are still within their cells; -such is the rage of fighting ants, wasps, and bees, the above-mentioned -discouragement, the love of the brood, the self-devotion of -the worker honey-bees, when they die of hunger while feeding their -queen, and many other cases of a similar description. But there -are also individual emotions that are not compelled altogether by -instinct, e. g., the above-mentioned mania of certain ants for maltreating -some of their antagonists. On the other hand, as I have -shown, friendly services (feeding), under exceptional circumstances, -may call forth feelings of sympathy and finally of partnership, -even between ants of different species. Further than this, -feelings of sympathy, antipathy, and anger among ants may be intensified -by repetition and by the corresponding activities, just as -in other animals and man.</p> - -<p>The social sense of duty is instinctive in ants, though they exhibit -great individual, temporary, and occasional deviations, which -betray a certain amount of plasticity.</p> - -<h3>PSYCHIC CORRELATIONS.</h3> - -<p>I have rapidly reviewed the three main realms of ant-psychology. -It is self-evident that in this matter they no more admit of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span> -sharp demarcation from one another than elsewhere. The will -consists of centrifugal resultants of sense-impressions and feelings -and in turn reacts powerfully on both of these.</p> - -<p>It is of considerable interest to observe the antagonism between -different perceptions, feelings, and volitions in ants and -bees, and the manner in which in these animals the intensely fixed -(obsessional) attention may be finally diverted from one thing to -another. Here experiment is able to teach us much. While bees -are busy foraging on only one species of flower, they overlook -everything else, even other flowers. If their attention is diverted -by honey offered them directly, although previously overlooked, -they have eyes only for the honey. An intense emotion, like the -swarming of honey-bees (von Buttel) compels these insects to -forget all animosities and even the old maternal hive to which they -no longer return. But if the latter happens to be painted blue, -and if the swarming is interrupted by taking away the queen, the -bees recollect the blue color of their old hive and fly to hives that -are painted blue. Two feelings often struggle with each other in -bees that are “crying” and without a queen: that of animosity -towards strange bees and the desire for a queen. Now if they be -given a strange queen by artificial means, they kill or maltreat her, -because the former feeling at first predominates. For this reason -the apiarist encloses the strange queen in a wire cage. Then the -foreign odor annoys the bees less because it is further away and -they are unable to persecute the queen. Still they recognise the -specific queen-odor and are able to feed her through the bars of the -cage. This suffices to pacify the hive. Then the second feeling -quickly comes to the front; the workers become rapidly inured to -the new odor and after three or four days have elapsed, the queen -may be liberated without peril.</p> - -<p>It is possible in ants to make the love of sweets struggle with -the sense of duty, when enemies are made to attack a colony and -honey is placed before the ants streaming forth to defend their -nest. I have done this with <i>Formica pratensis</i>. At first the ants -partook of the honey, but only for an instant. The sense of duty -conquered and all of them without exception, hurried forth to battle -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span> -and most of them to death. In this case a higher decision of instinct -was victorious over the lower impulse.</p> - -<p>In <i>résumé</i> I would lay stress on the following general conclusions:</p> - -<p>1. From the standpoint of natural science we are bound to -hold fast to the psychophysiological theory of identity (Monism) in -contradistinction to dualism, because it alone is in harmony with -the facts and with the law of the conservation of energy.</p> - -<p>Our mind must be studied simultaneously both directly from -within and indirectly from without, through biology and the conditions -of its origin. Hence there is such a thing as comparative -psychology of other individuals in addition to that of self, and in -like manner we are led to a psychology of animals. Inference from -analogy, applied with caution, is not only permissible in this science, -but obligatory.</p> - -<p>2. The senses of insects are our own. Only the auditory sense -still remains doubtful, so far as its location and interpretation are -concerned. A sixth sense has not yet been shown to exist, and a -special sense of direction and orientation is certainly lacking. The -vestibular apparatus of vertebrates is merely an organ of equilibration -and mediates internal sensations of acceleration, but gives no -orientation in space outside of the body. On the other hand the -visual and olfactory senses of insects present varieties in the range -of their competency and in their specific energies (vision of ultra-violet, -functional peculiarities of the facetted eye, topochemical -antennal sense and contact-odor).</p> - -<p>3. Reflexes, instincts, and plastic, individually adaptive, central -nervous activities pass over into one another by gradations. -Higher complications of these central or psychic functions correspond -to a more complicated apparatus of superordinated neuron-complexes -(cerebrum).</p> - -<p>4. Without becoming antagonistic, the central nervous activity -in the different groups and species of animals complicates itself -in two directions: (<i>a</i>) through inheritance (natural selection, etc.) -of the complex, purposeful automatisms, or instincts; (<i>b</i>) through -the increasingly manifold possibilities of plastic, individually adaptive -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span> -activities, in combination with the faculty of gradually developing -secondary individual automatisms (habits).</p> - -<p>The latter mode requires many more nerve-elements. Through -hereditary predispositions (imperfect instincts) of greater or less -stability, it presents transitions to the former mode.</p> - -<p>5. In social insects the correlation of more developed psychic -powers with the volume of the brain may be directly observed.</p> - -<p>6. In these animals it is possible to demonstrate the existence -of memory, associations of sensory images, perceptions, attention, -habits, simple powers of inference from analogy, the utilisation of -individual experiences and hence distinct, though feeble, plastic, -individual deliberations or adaptations.</p> - -<p>7. It is also possible to detect a corresponding, simpler form -of volition, i. e., the carrying out of individual decisions in a more -or less protracted time-sequence, through different concatenations -of instincts; furthermore different kinds of discomfort and pleasure -emotions, as well as interactions and antagonisms between these diverse -psychic powers.</p> - -<p>8. In insect behavior the activity of the attention is one-sided -and occupies a prominent place. It narrows the scope of behavior -and renders the animal temporarily blind (inattentive) to other -sense-impressions.</p> - -<p>Thus, however different may be the development of the automatic -and plastic, central neurocyme activities in the brains of different -animals, it is surely possible, nevertheless, to recognise certain -generally valid series of phenomena and their fundamental -laws.</p> - -<p>Even to-day I am compelled to uphold the seventh thesis -which I established in 1877 in my habilitation as <i>privat-docent</i> in -the University of Munich:</p> - -<p>“All the properties of the human mind may be derived from -the properties of the animal mind.”</p> - -<p>I would merely add to this:</p> - -<p>“And all the mental attributes of higher animals may be derived -from those of lower animals.” In other words: The doctrine -of evolution is quite as valid in the province of psychology as it is -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span> -in all the other provinces of organic life. Notwithstanding all the -differences presented by animal organisms and the conditions of -their existence, the psychic functions of the nerve-elements seem -nevertheless, everywhere to be in accord with certain fundamental -laws, even in the cases where this would be least expected on account -of the magnitude of the differences.</p> - -<h3>APPENDIX.<br /> - -THE PECULIARITIES OF THE OLFACTORY SENSE IN INSECTS.</h3> - -<p>Our sense of smell, like our sense of taste, is a chemical sense. -But while the latter reacts only to substances dissolved in liquids -and with but few (about five) different principal qualities, the -olfactory sense reacts with innumerable qualities to particles of the -most diverse substances dissolved in the atmosphere. Even to our -relatively degenerate human olfactories, the number of these odor-qualities -seems to be almost infinite.</p> - -<p>In insects that live in the air and on the earth the sense of -taste seems to be located, not only like our own, in the mouth-parts, -but also to exhibit the same qualities and the corresponding -reactions. At any rate it is easy to show that these animals are -usually very fond of sweet, and dislike bitter things, and that they -perceive these two properties only after having tasted of the respective -substances. F. Will, in particular, has published good -experiments on this subject.</p> - -<p>In aquatic insects the conditions are more complicated. Nagel, -who studied them more closely, shows how difficult it is in these -cases to distinguish smell from taste, since substances dissolved in -water are more or less clearly perceived or discerned from a distance -by both senses and sought or avoided in consequence. Nagel, -at any rate, succeeded in showing that the palpi, which are of less -importance in terrestrial insects, have an important function in -aquatic forms.</p> - -<p>In this place we are concerned with an investigation of the -sense of smell in terrestrial insects. Its seat has been proved to be -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span> -in the antennæ. A less important adjunct to these organs is located, -as Nagel and Wasmann have shown, in the palpi. In the antennæ -it is usually the club or foliaceous or otherwise formed dilatations -which accommodate the cellular ganglion of the antennary nerve. -I shall not discuss the histological structure of the nerve-terminations -but refer instead to Hicks, Leydig, Hauser, my own investigations -and the other pertinent literature, especially to K. Kraepelin’s -excellent work. I would merely emphasise the following -points:</p> - -<p>1. All the olfactory papillæ of the antennæ are transformed, -hair-like pore-canals.</p> - -<p>2. All of these present a cellular dilatation just in front of the -nerve-termination.</p> - -<p>3. Tactile hairs are found on the antennæ together with the -olfactory papillæ.</p> - -<p>4. The character and form of the nerve-terminations are highly -variable, but they may be reduced to three principal types: pore-plates, -olfactory rods, and olfactory hairs. The two latter are -often nearly or quite indistinguishable from each other. The nerve-termination -is always covered with a cuticula which may be never -so delicate.</p> - -<p>Other end-organs of the Hymenopteran antenna described by -Hicks and myself, are still entirely obscure, so far as their function -is concerned, but they can have nothing to do with the sense of -smell, since they are absent in insects with a delicate sense of smell -(wasps) and occur in great numbers in the honey-bees, which have -obtuse olfactories.</p> - -<p>That the antennæ and not the nerve-terminations of the mouth -and palate function, as organs of smell, has been demonstrated by -my control experiments, which leave absolutely no grounds for -doubt and have, moreover, been corroborated on all sides. Terrestrial -insects can discern chemical substances at a distance by -means of their antennæ only. But in touch, too, these organs are -most important and the palpi only to a subordinate extent, namely -in mastication. The antennæ enable the insect to perceive the -chemical nature of bodies and in particular, to recognise and distinguish -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span> -plants, other animals and food, except in so far as the -visual and gustatory senses are concerned in these activities. These -two senses may be readily eliminated, however, since the latter -functions only during feeding and the former can be removed by -varnishing the eyes or by other means. Many insects, too, are -blind and find their way about exclusively by means of their antennæ. -This is the case, e. g., with many predatory ants of the -genus Eciton.</p> - -<p>But I will here assume these questions to be known and answered, -nor will I indulge in polemics with Bethe and his associates -concerning the propriety of designating the chemical antennal -sense as “smell.” I have discussed this matter elsewhere.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> -What I wish to investigate in this place is the psychological quality -of the antennal olfactory sense, how it results in part from observation -and in part from the too little heeded correlative laws of the -psychological exploitation of each sense in accordance with its -structure. I assume as known the doctrines of specific energies -and adequate stimuli, together with the more recent investigations -on the still undifferentiated senses, like photodermatism and the -like, and would refer, moreover, to Helmholtz’s <i>Die Thatsachen in -der Wahrnehmung</i>, 1879. Hirschwald, Berlin.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">2</a> -“Sensations des Insectes,” <i>Rivista di Biologia Generale</i>. Como, 1900-1901. -For the remainder see also A. Forel, <i>Mitth. des Münchener entom. Vereins</i>, 1878, -and <i>Recueil. Zool. Suisse</i>, 1886-1887.</p></div> - -<p>When in our own human subjective psychology, which alone -is known to us directly, we investigate the manner in which we interpret -our sensations, we happen upon a peculiar fact to which -especially Herbert Spencer has called attention. We find that so-called -perceptions consist, as is well known, of sensations which -are bound together sometimes firmly, sometimes more loosely. The -more intimately the sensations are bound together to form a whole, -the easier it is for us to recall in our memory the whole from a -part. Thus, e. g., it is easy for me to form an idea from the thought -of the head of an acquaintance as to the remainder of his body. In -the same manner the first note of a melody or the first verse of a -poem brings back the remainder of either. But the thought of an -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span> -odor of violets, a sensation of hunger, or a stomach-ache, are incapable -of recalling in me either simultaneous or subsequent odors -or feelings.</p> - -<p>These latter conditions call up in my consciousness much -more easily certain associated visual, tactile, or auditory images -(e. g., the visual image of a violet, a table set for a meal). As -ideas they are commonly to be represented in consciousness only -with considerable difficulty, and sometimes not at all, and they are -scarcely capable of association among themselves. We readily observe, -moreover, that visual images furnish us mainly with space -recollections, auditory images with sequences in time, and tactile -images with both, but less perfectly. These are indubitable and -well-known facts.</p> - -<p>But when we seek for the wherefore of these phenomena, we -find the answer in the structure of the particular sense-organ and -in its manner of functioning.</p> - -<p>It is well known that the eye gives us a very accurate image -of the external world on our retina. Colors and forms are there -depicted in the most delicate detail, and both the convergence of -our two eyes and their movement and accommodation gives us besides -the dimensions of depth through stereoscopic vision. Whatever -may be still lacking or disturbing is supplied by instinctive -inferences acquired by practice, both in memory and direct perception -(like the lacunæ of the visual field), or ignored (like the -turbidity of the corpus vitreum). But the basis of the visual image -is given in the coördinated <i>tout ensemble</i> of the retinal stimuli, -namely the retinal image.<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> Hence, since the retina furnishes us -with such spatial projections, and these in sharp details, or relations, -definitely coöordinated with one another, the sense of sight -gives us knowledge of space. For this reason, also, and solely on -this account, we find it so easy to supply through memory by association -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span> -the missing remnant of a visual spatial image. For this -reason, too, the visual sensations are preëminently associative or -relational in space, to use Spencer’s expression. For the same -reason the insane person so readily exhibits hallucinations of complicated -spatial images in the visual sphere. This would be impossible -in the case of the olfactory sense.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">3</a> -It is well known that in this matter the movements of the eyes, the movements -of the body and of external objects play an essential part, so that without -these the eye would fail to give us any knowledge of space. But I need not discuss -this further, since the antennæ of ants are at least quite as moveable and their -olfactory sense is even more easily educated in unison with the tactile sense.</p></div> - -<p>Similarly, the organ of Corti in the ear gives us tone or sound -scales in accurate time-sequence, and hence also associations of -sequence much more perfectly than the other senses. Its associations -are thus in the main associations of sequence, because the -end-apparatus registers time-sequences in time-intervals and not -as space images.</p> - -<p>The corresponding cortical receptive areas are capable, in the -first instance, merely of registering what is brought to them by the -sense-stimuli and these are mainly associated spatial images for -sight and tone or sound-sequences for hearing.</p> - -<p>Let us consider for a moment how odors strike the mucous -membranes of our choanæ. They are wafted towards us as wild -mixtures in an airy maelstrom, which brings them to the olfactory -terminations without order in the inhaled air or in the mucous of -the palate. They come in such a way that there cannot possibly -be any spatial association of the different odors in definite relationships. -In time they succeed one another slowly and without order, -according to the law of the stronger element in the mixture, but -without any definite combination. If, after one has been inhaling -the odor of violets, the atmosphere gradually becomes charged -with more roast meat than violet particles, the odor of roast succeeds -that of violet. But nowhere can we perceive anything like a -definitely associated sequence, so that neither our ideas of time nor -those of space comprise odors that revive one another through association. -By much sniffing of the surface of objects we could at -most finally succeed in forming a kind of spatial image, but this -would be very difficult owing to man’s upright posture. Nevertheless -it is probable that dogs, hedge-hogs, and similar animals acquire -a certain olfactory image by means of sniffing. The same -conditions obtain in the sphere of taste and the visceral sensations -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span> -for the same reasons. None of these senses furnish us with any -sharply defined qualitative relations either in space or time. On -this account they furnish by themselves no associations, no true -perceptions, no memory images, but merely sensations, and these -often as mixed sensations, which are vague and capable of being -associated only with associative senses. The hallucinations of -smell, taste, and of the splanchnic sensations, are not deceptive -perceptions, since they cannot have a deceptive resemblance to objects. -They are simply paræsthesias or hyperæsthesias, i. e., pathological -sensations of an elementary character either without adequate -stimulus or inadequate to the stimulus.</p> - -<p>The tactile sense furnishes us with a gross perception of space -and of definite relations, and may, therefore, give rise to hallucinations, -or false perceptions of objects. By better training its associative -powers in the blind may be intensified. The visual sensations -are usually associated with tactile localisations.</p> - -<p>Thus we see that there is a law according to which the psychology -of a sense depends not only on its specific energy but also -on the manner in which it is able to transmit to the brain the relations -of its qualities in space and time. On this depends the -knowledge we acquire concerning time and space relations through -a particular sense and hence also its ability to form perceptions -and associations in the brain. More or less experience is, of course, -to be added or subtracted, but this is merely capable of enriching -the knowledge of its possessor according to the measure of the relations -of the particular sense-stimuli in space and time.</p> - -<p>I would beg you to hold fast to what I have said and then to -picture to yourselves an olfactory sense, i. e., a chemical sense -effective at a distance and like our sense of smell, capable of receiving -impressions from particles of the most diverse substances -diffused through the atmosphere, located not in your nostrils, but -on your hands. For of such a nature is the position of the olfactory -sense on the antennal club of the ant.</p> - -<p>Now imagine your olfactory hands in continual vibration, touching -all objects to the right and to the left as you walk along, thereby -rapidly locating the position of all odoriferous objects as you approach -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span> -or recede from them, and perceiving the surfaces both simultaneously -and successively as parts of objects differing in odor and -position. It is clear from the very outset that such sense-organs -would enable you to construct a veritable odor-chart of the path -you had traversed and one of double significance:</p> - -<p>1. A clear contact-odor chart, restricted, to be sure, to the -immediate environment and giving the accurate odor-form of the -objects touched (round odors, rectangular odors, elongate odors, -etc.) and further hard and soft odors in combination with the tactile -sensations.</p> - -<p>2. A less definite chart which, however, has orienting value -for a certain distance, and produces emanations which we may picture -to ourselves like the red gas of bromine which we can actually -see.</p> - -<p>If we have demonstrated that ants perceive chemical qualities -through their antennæ both from contact and from a distance, then -the antennæ must give them knowledge of space, if the above formulated -law is true, and concerning this there can be little doubt. -This must be true even from the fact that the two antennæ simultaneously -perceive different and differently odoriferous portions of -space.<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">4</a> -It is not without interest to compare these facts with Condillac’s discussion -(<i>Treatise on the Sensations</i>) concerning his hypothetical statue. Condillac shows -that our sense of smell is of itself incapable of giving us space knowledge. But it -is different in the case of the topochemical sense of smell in combination with the -antennary movements. Here Condillac’s conditions of the gustatory sense are fulfilled.</p></div> - -<p>They must therefore also transmit perceptions and topographically -associated memories concerning a path thus touched and -smelled. Both the trail of the ants themselves and the surrounding -objects must leave in their brains a chemical (odor-) space-form -with different, more or less definitely circumscribed qualities, -i. e., an odor-image of immediate space, and this must render associated -memories possible. Thus an ant must perceive the forms -of its trail by means of smell. This is impossible, at least for the -majority of the species, by means of the eyes. If this is true, an -ant will always be able, no matter where she may be placed on her -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span> -trail, to perceive what is to the right, left, behind or before her, -and consequently what direction she is to take, according to whether -she is bound for home, or in the opposite direction to a tree infested -with Aphides, or the like.</p> - -<p>Singularly enough, I had established this latter fact in my -“Études Myrmécologiques en 1886” (<i>Annales de la Societé Entomologique -de Belgique</i>) before I had arrived at its theoretical interpretation. -But I was at once led by this discovery in the same -work to the interpretation just given. Without knowing of my -work in this connection, A. Bethe has recently established (discovered, -as he supposes) this same fact, and has designated it as -“polarisation of the ant-trail.” He regards this as the expression -of a mysterious, inexplicable force, or polarisation. As we have -seen, the matter is not only no enigma, but on the contrary, a necessary -psychological postulate. We should rather find the absence -of this faculty incomprehensible.</p> - -<p>But everything I have just said presupposes a receptive brain. -The formation of lasting perceptions and associations cannot take -place without an organ capable of fixing the sense-impressions and -of combining them among themselves. Experience shows that the -immediate sensory centers are inadequate to the performance of -this task. Though undoubtedly receptive, they are, nevertheless, -incapable of utilising what has been received in the development -of more complex instincts and can turn it to account only in the -grosser, simpler reflexes and automatisms. To be sure, a male -ant has better eyes than a worker ant, and probably quite as good -antennæ, but he is unable to remember what he has seen and is -especially incapable of associating it in the form of a trail-image, -because he is almost devoid of a brain. For this reason he is unable -to find his way back to the nest. On the other hand, it is well -known that the brain of a man who has lost a limb or whose hearing -is defective, will enable him to paint pictures with his foot, -write with the stump of an arm or construct grand combinations -from the images of defective senses.</p> - -<p>I venture, therefore, to designate as topochemical the olfactory -antennal sense of honey-bees, humble-bees, wasps, etc. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span></p> - -<p>Can we generalise to such an extent as to apply this term without -further investigation to all arthropods? To a considerable extent -this must be denied.</p> - -<p>In fact, the multiformity in the structure and development of -the arthropod sense-organs is enormous, and we must exercise caution -in making premature generalisations.</p> - -<p>It is certain that in some aerial insects the olfactory sense has -dwindled to a minimum, e. g., in those species in which the male -recognises and follows the female exclusively by means of the eyes, -as in the Odonata (dragon-flies). To insects with such habits an -olfactory sense would be almost superfluous. Here, too, the antennæ -have dwindled to diminutive dimensions.</p> - -<p>But there are insects whose antennæ are immovable and quite -unable to touch objects. This is the case in most Diptera (flies). -Still these antennæ are often highly developed and present striking -dilatations densely beset with olfactory papillæ. By experiment I -have demonstrated the existence of an olfactory sense in such -Dipteran antennæ, and I have been able to show that, e. g., in -<i>Sarcophaga vivipara</i> and other carrion flies, the egg-laying instinct -is absolutely dependent on the sensation of the odor of carrion and -the presence of the antennæ. In these cases the contact-odor sense -is undoubtedly absent. More or less of a topochemical odor-sense -at long range must, of course, be present, since the antennæ are -external, but the precision of the spatial image must be very imperfect, -owing to the immobility of the antennæ. Nevertheless, -flies move about so rapidly in the air that they must be able by -means of their antennæ to distinguish very quickly the direction -from which odors are being wafted. These insects do, in fact, find -the concealed source of odors with great assurance. But this is no -great art, for even we ourselves are able to do the same by sniffing -or going to and fro. But the flies find their way through the air -with their eyes and not at all by means of their sense of smell. -Hence their olfactory powers probably constitute a closer psychological -approximation to those of mammals than to the topochemical -odor-sense of ants, for they can hardly furnish any constant and -definite space-relations. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span></p> - -<p>Even in many insects with movable antennæ and of less ærial -habits, e. g., the chafers and bombycid moths, the antennal olfactory -sense is evidently much better adapted to function at a distance, -i. e., to the perception of odors from distant objects, than -to the perception of space and trails. Such insects find their way -by means of their eyes, but fly in the direction whence their antennæ -perceive an odor that is being sought.</p> - -<p>A genuine topochemical antennal sense is, therefore, probably -best developed in all arthropods, whose antennæ are not only movable -in the atmosphere, but adapted to feeling of objects. In these -cases the still imperfect topochemical odor-sense for distances can -be momentarily controlled by the contact-odor-sense and definitively -fixed topographically, i. e., topochemically, as we see so extensively -practised in the ants.</p> - -<p>It would be possible to meet this view with the objection that -a contact-odor sense could not accomplish much more than the -tactile sense. I have made this objection to myself. But in the -first place it is necessary to reckon with the facts. Now it is a fact -that insects in touching objects with their antennæ mainly perceive -and distinguish the chemical constitution of the objects touched -and heed these very much more than they do the mechanical impacts -also perceived at the same time. Secondly, the tactile sense -gives only resistance and through this, form. On the other hand, -the multiplicity of odors is enormous, and it is possible to demonstrate, -as I have done for the ants, and Von Buttel-Reepen for the -bees, that these animals in distinguishing their different nest-mates -and their enemies, betray nothing beyond the perception of extremely -delicate and numerous gradations in the qualities of odors.</p> - -<p>In combination with topochemical space-perception, these -numerous odor-qualities must constitute a spatial sense which is -vastly superior to the tactile sense. The whole biology of the social -Hymenoptera furnishes the objective proof of this assertion.</p> - -<p>It would certainly be well worth while to investigate this matter -in other groups of arthropods which possess complex instincts.</p> - -<p>In conclusion I will cite an example, which I have myself observed, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span> -for the purpose of illustrating the capacity of the topochemical -olfactory sense.</p> - -<p>The American genus Eciton comprises predatory ants that -build temporary nests from which they undertake expeditions for -the purpose of preying on all kinds of insects. The Ecitons follow -one another in files, like geese, and are very quick to detect new -hunting grounds. As “ants of visitation,” like the Africo-Indian -species of Dorylus, they often take possession of human dwellings, -ferret about in all the crevices of the walls and rooms for spiders, -roaches, mice, and even rats, attack and tear to pieces all such -vermin in the course of a few hours and then carry the booty home. -They can convert a mouse into a clean skeleton. They also attack -other ants and plunder their nests.</p> - -<p>Now all the workers of the African species of Dorylus and of -many of the species of Eciton are totally blind, so that they must -orient themselves exclusively by means of their antennal sense.</p> - -<p>In 1899 at Faisons, North Carolina, I was fortunate enough to -find a temporary nest of the totally blind little <i>Eciton carolinense</i> in -a rotten log. I placed the ants in a bag and made them the subject -of some observations. The Eciton workers carry their elongate -larvæ in their jaws and extending back between their legs in -such a position that the antennæ have full play in front.</p> - -<p>Their ability to follow one another and to find their way about -rapidly and unanimously in new territory without a single ant going -astray, is incredible. I threw a handful of Ecitons with their -young into a strange garden in Washington, i. e., after a long railway -journey and far away from their nest. Without losing a moment’s -time, the little animals began to form in files which were -fully organised in five minutes. Tapping the ground continually -with their antennæ, they took up their larvæ and moved away in -order, reconnoitering the territory in all directions. Not a pebble, -not a crevice, not a plant was left unnoticed or overlooked. The -place best suited for concealing their young was very soon found, -whereas most of our European ants under such conditions, i. e., in -a completely unknown locality, would probably have consumed at -least an hour in accomplishing the same result. The order and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span> -dispatch with which such a procession is formed in the midst of a -totally strange locality is almost fabulous. I repeated the experiment -in two localities, both times with the same result. The antennæ -of the Ecitons are highly developed, and it is obvious that -their brain is instinctively adapted to such rapid orientation in -strange places.</p> - -<p>In Colombia, to be sure, I had had opportunities of observing, -not the temporary nests, but the predatory expeditions of larger -Ecitons (<i>E. Burchelli</i> and <i>hamatum</i>) possessing eyes. But these -in no respect surpassed the completely blind <i>E. carolinense</i> in their -power of orientation and of keeping together in files. As soon as -an ant perceives that she is not being followed, she turns back and -follows the others. But the marvellous fact is the certainty of this -recognition, the quickness and readiness with which the animals -recognise their topochemical trail without hesitation. There is -none of the groping about and wandering to and fro exhibited by -most of our ants. Our species of Tapinoma and Polyergus alone -exhibit a similar but less perfect condition. It is especially interesting, -however, to watch the <i>perpetuum mobile</i> of the antennæ of -the Ecitons, the lively manner in which these are kept titillating -the earth, all objects, and their companions.</p> - -<p>All this could never be accomplished by a tactile sense alone. -Nor could it be brought about by an olfactory sense which furnished -no spatial associations. As soon as an Eciton is deprived of its -two antennæ it is utterly lost, like any other ant under the same -circumstances. It is absolutely unable to orient itself further or to -recognise its companions.</p> - -<p>In combination with the powerful development of the cerebrum -(<i>corpora pedunculata</i>) the topochemical olfactory sense of the -antennæ constitutes the key to ant psychology. Feeling obliged -to treat of the latter in the preceding lecture, I found it necessary -here to discuss in detail this particular matter which is so often -misunderstood.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>[In his latest <i>Souvenirs entomologiques</i> (Seventh Series) J. H. Fabre has -recorded a number of ingenious experiments showing the ability of the males of -Saturnia and Bombyx to find their females at great distances and in concealment. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span> -He tried in vain (which was to have been foreseen) to conceal the female by odors -which are strong even to our olfactories. The males came notwithstanding. He -established the following facts: (1) Even an adverse wind does not prevent the -males from finding their way; (2) if the box containing the female is loosely closed, -the males come nevertheless; (3) if it is hermetically closed (e. g., with wadding or -soldered) they no longer come; (4) the female must have settled for some time on -a particular spot before the males come; (5) if the female is then suddenly placed -under a wire netting or a bell-jar, though still clearly visible, <i>the males nevertheless -do not fly to her, but pass on to the spot where she had previously rested -and left her odor</i>; (6) the experiment of cutting off the antennæ proves very little. -The males without antennæ do not, of course, come again; but even the other -males usually come only once: their lives are too short and too soon exhausted.</p> - -<p>At first Fabre did not wish to believe in smell, but he was compelled finally, -as a result of his own experiments, to eliminate sight and hearing. Now he makes -a bold hypothesis: the olfactory sense of insects has two energies, one (ours), -which reacts to dissolved chemical particles, and another which receives “physical -odor-waves,” similar to the waves of light and sound. He already foresees how -science will provide us with a “radiography of odors” (after the pattern of the -Roentgen rays). But his own results, enumerated above under (4) and (5) contradict -this view. The great distances from which the Bombyx males can discern -their females is a proof to him that this cannot be due to dissolved chemical particles. -And these same animals smell the female only after a certain time and -smell the spot where she had rested, instead of the female when she is taken away! -This, however, would be inconceivable on the theory of a physical wave-sense, -while it agrees very well with that of an extremely delicate, chemical olfactory -sense.</p> - -<p>It is a fact that insects very frequently fail to notice odors which we perceive -as intense, and even while these are present, detect odors which are imperceptible -to our olfactories. We must explain this as due to the fact that the olfactory papillæ -of different species of animals are especially adapted to perceiving very different -substances. All biological observations favor this view, and our psycho-chemical -theories will have to make due allowance for the fact.]</p></blockquote> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1b">1</span></p> - -<h4>THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO., CHICAGO.</h4> - -<h2 id="Biology_Evolution_Etc">Biology, Evolution, Etc.</h2> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<div class="figleft"> -<img src="images/cat_1a.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Charles Darwin</span>, 1809-1882<br /> -From a private photograph taken in Darwin’s prime.</p> -</div> - -<h3>Darwin and After Darwin</h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>An Exposition of the Darwinian Theory and a -Discussion of Post-Darwinian Questions. By -<span class="smcap">George John Romanes</span>, LL. D., F. R. S.</p></blockquote> - -<h4>Part I. The Darwinian Theory</h4> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Pp. xiv., 460. 125 illustrations. Second Edition. -With portrait of Darwin. 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(10s.).</p></blockquote> - -<p>A comprehensive handbook of the Neo-Lamarckian -theory of Evolution, drawing its main evidence -from paleontology, as distinguished from œcology -(Darwin) and embryology (Weismann). Discusses -the “Energy of Evolution,” and lays special emphasis -on the function of consciousness in organic -development.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>“Will stand as the most concise and complete exposition of the doctrines -of the Neo-Lamarckian school hitherto published. A most -valuable text-book for teachers and students.”—Science, N. Y.</p> - -<p>“A work of unusual originality. No one can read the book without -admiring the intimate knowledge of facts and the great power of -generalization which it discloses.”—Prof. J. McK. Cattell.</p></blockquote> - -<h3>On Germinal Selection</h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>As a Source of Definitely Directed Variation. -By <span class="smcap">August Weismann</span>. Translated by <span class="smcap">Thomas J. -McCormack</span>. Pp., xii, 61. Paper, 25c. (1s. 6d.).</p></blockquote> - -<blockquote> - -<p>“Professor Weismann considers this one of the most important of all his contributions on the evolution problem.... -important as marking some fundamental changes in Weismann’s position.”—Science, New York.</p> - -<p>“Forms the crown and capsheaf of Weismann’s theory of heredity.”—Exchange.</p></blockquote> - -<div class="figright"> -<img src="images/cat_2b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Butterfly’s Wing from Eimer’s<br /> -<span class="smcap">Orthogenesis</span>.<br /> -Illustrating the Definite Character of<br /> -Evolution.]</p> - -</div> - -<h3>On Orthogenesis (Definite Evolution)</h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Or the Impotence of Darwinian Selection in the Formation -of Species. By <span class="smcap">Th. Eimer</span>, Professor of Zoology in -the University of Tuebingen. Translated by <span class="smcap">Thomas J. -McCormack</span>. 19 cuts. Pp., 56. Paper 25c. (1s. 6d.).</p></blockquote> - -<blockquote> - -<p>This little brochure was written in reply to Weismann’s “Germinal Selection.” -Prof. Eimer argues upon the same lines as the American Neo-Lamarckians, -Cope, Hyatt, etc. His doctrine of orthogenesis, which he declares to be a -universally valid law, has been framed to show that organisms develop in -definite directions, without regard for utility, through purely physiological -causes, through the transmission of acquired characters, through the combined -agency of the constitution of the animal and the effects of outward influences.</p></blockquote> - -<h3>A Mechanico-Physiological Theory -of Organic Evolution</h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Summary. By <span class="smcap">Carl von Naegeli</span>, Translated by <span class="smcap">V. A. -Clark</span> and <span class="smcap">F. A. Waugh</span>, of the University of Vermont. -The only original account of Naegeli’s theories in English. -Pp., 52. Price, paper, 15 cents. 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Translated -from the German and annotated by <span class="smcap">Edwin O. Jordan</span>, Ph.D., Professor in the University -of Chicago. 28 cuts. Five colored plates. Pages, 465—x. Price, $1.75 net (9s.). -Invaluable to the physician, the scientist, the student of hygiene, and practical people -in all walks of life.</p></blockquote> - -<blockquote> - -<p>“It affords more ground for serious thought and reflection than perhaps any of the works on bacteriology hitherto -published. The original and able manner in which the author attacks biological problems of great difficulty and complexity -deserves all praise, and we can cordially recommend the book, not only to bacteriologists pure and simple, but -also to those physicians who recognize the limitations of medical science.”—Nature.</p></blockquote> - -<p>Articles Published in The Monist and The Open Court on -Subjects Related to Biology and Evolution</p> - -<p>For prices on the back numbers of “The Open Court” and “The Monist,” containing the articles -here listed, please consult 2nd cover page of this catalogue.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p><b>A. R. Wallace on Physiological Selection.</b> By <span class="smcap">Prof. George J. Romanes</span>. “The Monist,” -Vol. I, No. 1. 50 cents.</p> - -<p><b>On the Material Relations of Sex in Human Society.</b> By <span class="smcap">Prof. E. D. Cope</span>. “The Monist,” -Vol. I, No. 1. 50 cents.</p> - -<p><b>The Immortality of Infusoria.</b> By <span class="smcap">Dr. Alfred Binet</span>. “The Monist,” Vol. I, No. 1. 50 cents.</p></blockquote> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_4b">4</span></p> - -<p>For prices on the back numbers of “The Open Court” and “The Monist,” containing the articles -here listed, please consult 2nd cover page of this catalogue.</p> - -<div class="figleft"> -<img src="images/cat_4a.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Joseph Le Conte.</span><br /> -(1823-1901.)</p> -</div> - -<blockquote> - -<p><b>The Factors of Evolution.</b> By <span class="smcap">Joseph Le Conte</span>. -“The Monist,” Vol. I, No. 3. 50 cents.</p> - -<p><b>The Continuity of Evolution.</b> The Science of Language -versus The Science of Life, as represented -by Prof. F. Max Mueller and Prof. G. J. Romanes. -By <span class="smcap">Dr. Paul Carus</span>. “The Monist,” -Vol. II, No. 1. 50 cents.</p> - -<p><b>Mental Evolution.</b> An Old Speculation in a New -Light. By <span class="smcap">Prof. C. Lloyd Morgan</span>. “The -Monist,” Vol. II, No. 2. 50 cents.</p> - -<p><b>The Nervous Ganglia of Insects.</b> By <span class="smcap">Dr. Alfred -Binet</span>. “The Monist,” Vol. III, No. 1. 50c.</p> - -<p><b>Panpsychism and Panbiotism.</b> By <span class="smcap">Dr. Paul Carus</span>. -“The Monist,” Vol. III, No. 2. 50 cents.</p> - -<p><b>Automatism and Spontaneity.</b> By <span class="smcap">Dr. Edmund -Montgomery</span>. “The Monist,” Vol. IV, No. -1. 50 cents.</p> - -<p><b>Dr. Weismann on Heredity and Progress.</b> By <span class="smcap">Prof. -C. Lloyd Morgan</span>. “The Monist,” Vol. IV, -No. 1. 50 cents. Regarded by Prof. Weismann -as one of the most powerful criticisms of -his doctrine.</p> - -<p><b>The Nervous Centre of Flight in Coleoptera.</b> By <span class="smcap">Alfred Binet</span>, “The Monist,” Vol. IV, -No. 1. 50 cents.</p> - -<p><b>The Problem of Woman From a Bio-Sociological Point of View.</b> By. <span class="smcap">Dr. G. Ferrero</span>. “The -Monist,” Vol. IV, No. 2. 50 cents.</p> - -<p><b>Modern Physiology</b>. By <span class="smcap">Dr. Max Verworn</span>, Professor -of Physiology in the University of Jena. “The -Monist,” Vol. IV, No. 3. 50 cents.</p> - -<p><b>Longevity and Death. (A Posthumous Essay.)</b> By -the late <span class="smcap">Prof. George J. Romanes</span>. “The Monist,” -Vol. V, No. 2. 50 cents.</p> - -<p><b>To Be Alive, What is It?</b> By <span class="smcap">Dr. Edmund Montgomery</span>. -“The Monist,” Vol. V, No. 2. 50 cents.</p> - -<p><b>Bonnet’s Theory of Evolution.</b> By <span class="smcap">Prof. C. O. Whitman</span>. -“The Monist,” Vol. V, No. 3. 50 cents.</p> - -<p><b>The Theory of Evolution and Social Progress.</b> By -<span class="smcap">Prof. Joseph Le Conte</span>. “The Monist,” Vol. V, -No. 4. 50 cents.</p> - -<p><b>Naturalism.</b> By <span class="smcap">Prof. C. Lloyd Morgan</span>. “The -Monist,” Vol. VI, No. 1. 50 cents.</p> - -<p><b>From Animal to Man.</b> By <span class="smcap">Prof. Joseph Le Conte</span>. -“The Monist,” Vol. VI, No. 3. 50 cents.</p> - -<p><b>Some Points in Intracranial Physics.</b> By <span class="smcap">Dr. James -Cappie</span>. “The Monist,” Vol. VII, No. 3. 50 cents.</p></blockquote> - -<div class="figright"> -<img src="images/cat_4b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Prof. C. Lloyd Morgan.</span><br /> -(Born February 6, 1852.) -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5b">5</span></p> -</div> - -<blockquote> - -<p><b>Illustrative Studies In Criminal Anthropology.</b> (1) “La Bête Humaine” and Criminal Anthropology. -(2) Psychiatry and Criminal Anthropology. By <span class="smcap">Prof. Cesare Lombroso</span>. -“The Monist,” Vol. I, No. 2. 50 cents.</p> - -<p><b>On Egg-Structure and the Heredity of Instincts.</b> By <span class="smcap">Prof. Jacques Loeb</span>, of the University -of Chicago. “The Monist,” Vol. VII, No. 4. 50 cents.</p></blockquote> - -<div class="figright"> -<img src="images/cat_5.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Prof. Ernst Haeckel.</span><br /> -(Born February 16, 1834.)</p> -</div> - -<blockquote> - -<p><b>The Aryans and the Ancient Italians.</b> A Page of Primitive -History. By <span class="smcap">G. Sergi</span>. “The Monist,” -Vol. VIII, No. 2. 50 cents.</p> - -<p><b>Regressive Phenomena in Evolution.</b> By <span class="smcap">Prof. Cesare -Lombroso</span>. “The Monist,” Vol. VIII, No. 3. -50 cents.</p> - -<p><b>Assimilation and Heredity.</b> By <span class="smcap">Prof. Jacques Loeb</span>, -University of Chicago. “The Monist,” Vol. VIII, -No. 4. 50 cents.</p> - -<p><b>Evolution Evolved.</b> A Philosophical Criticism. By -<span class="smcap">Prof. Alfred H. Lloyd</span>, University of Michigan. -“The Monist,” Vol. IX, No. 2. 50 cents.</p> - -<p><b>The Primitive Inhabitants of Europe.</b> By <span class="smcap">Prof. Giuseppe -Sergi</span>, University of Rome, Italy. “The -Monist,” Vol. IX, No. 3. 50 cents.</p> - -<p><b>Vitalism.</b> By <span class="smcap">Prof. C. Lloyd Morgan</span>. “The Monist,” -Vol. IX, No. 2. 50 cents.</p> - -<p><b>Biology and Metaphysics.</b> By <span class="smcap">Prof. C. Lloyd Morgan</span>. -“The Monist,” Vol. IX, No. 4. 50 cents.</p> - -<p><b>The Man of Genius.</b> By <span class="smcap">Prof. Giuseppe Sergi</span>, University of Rome, Italy. “The Monist,” -Vol. X, No. 1. 50 cents.</p> - -<p><b>The Psychic Life of Micro-Organisms.</b> A Controversy Between <span class="smcap">Dr. Alfred Binet</span> and -<span class="smcap">Prof. G. J. Romanes</span>. “The Open Court,” Nos. 98, 116 and 127. In complete sets only.</p> - -<p><b>On Retrogression in Animal and Vegetable Life.</b> By <span class="smcap">Prof. August Weismann</span>. "The -Open Court," Nos. 105, 107, 108, 109. In complete sets only.</p> - -<p><b>Evolution and Human Progress.</b> By <span class="smcap">Prof. Joseph Le Conte</span>. “The Open Court,” No. -191.</p> - -<p><b>Phylogeny and Ontogeny.</b> By <span class="smcap">Prof. Ernst Haeckel</span>. From the “Phylogenie.” “The -Open Court," No. 214.</p> - -<p><b>Instinct and Intelligence in Chicks and Ducklings.</b> By <span class="smcap">Prof. C. Lloyd Morgan</span>. "The -Open Court,” No. 348.</p> - -<p><b>The General Phylogeny of the Protista.</b> By <span class="smcap">Prof. Ernst Haeckel</span>. “The Open Court,” -No. 391.</p> - -<p><b>The Kingdom of Protista.</b> By <span class="smcap">Prof. Ernst Haeckel</span>. “The Open Court,” No. 394.</p> - -<p><b>The Cellular Soul.</b> By <span class="smcap">Prof. Ernst Haeckel</span>. From Haeckel’s “Phylogenie.” “The -Open Court,” No. 396.</p> - -<p><b>The Phylogeny of the Plant-Soul.</b> By <span class="smcap">Prof. Ernst Haeckel</span>, From the “Phylogenie.” -“The Open Court,” No. 398.</p> - -<p><b>Epigenesis or Preformation.</b> By <span class="smcap">Prof. Ernst Haeckel</span>. “The Open Court,” No. 405.</p></blockquote> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_6b">6</span></p> - -<p class="table w100"> -<span class="trow"> -<span class="tcell">10 Cents Per</span> -<span class="tcell tdr">Copy $1.00 Per Year</span> -</span> -</p> - -<h2>The Open Court</h2> - -<h3>An Illustrated Monthly Magazine</h3> - -<p class="copy">Devoted to the Science of Religion, The Religion of Science<br /> -<img src="images/i_060.jpg" alt="" />and the Extension of the Religious Parliament Idea.<img src="images/i_060.jpg" alt="" /></p> - -<p>Science is slowly but surely transforming the world.</p> - -<p>Science is knowledge verified; it is Truth proved; and Truth will always -conquer in the end.</p> - -<p>The power of Science is irresistible.</p> - -<p>Science is the still small voice; it is not profane, it is sacred; it is not human, -it is superhuman; Science is a divine revelation.</p> - -<p>Convinced of the religious significance of Science, <i>The Open Court</i> believes -that there is a holiness in scientific truth which is not as yet recognised in its full -significance either by scientists or religious leaders. The scientific spirit, if it -but be a genuine devotion to Truth, contains a remedy for many ills; it leads the -way of conservative progress and comes not to destroy but to fulfil.</p> - -<p><i>The Open Court</i> on the one hand is devoted to the <i>Science of Religion</i>; it -investigates the religious problems in the domain of philosophy, psychology, and -history; and on the other hand advocates the <i>Religion of Science</i>. It believes -that Science can work out a reform within the Churches that will preserve of -religion all that is true, and good, and wholesome.</p> - -<h4><i>Illustrated Catalogue and sample copies free.</i></h4> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h3>SUBSCRIPTION FORM</h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>To THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO.</i></p> - -<p class="author"> -<i>324 Dearborn Street, Chicago, Ill.</i></p> - -<p><i>Gentlemen</i>,—</p> - -<p class="i4"><i>Please send THE OPEN COURT for...................year ..., -beginning with.................190... to the address given below.</i></p> - -<p class="i4"><i>I enclose..............for $..........</i></p> - -<p class="i8"> -<i>Signature</i>......................................<br /> -<br /> -<i>Address</i>........................................<br /> -<br /> -<i>Date</i>...........................................<br /> -</p></blockquote> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_7b">7</span></p> - -<p class="table w100"> -<span class="trow"> -<span class="tcell">50 Cents per copy</span> -<span class="tcell tdr">$2.00 per Year</span> -</span> -</p> - -<h2>THE MONIST</h2> - -<p><i>The Monist</i> is a Quarterly Magazine, devoted to the Philosophy of Science. -Each copy contains 160 pages; original articles, correspondence from foreign -countries, discussions, and book reviews.</p> - -<h3>The Monist Advocates the -Philosophy of Science <img src="images/i_061.jpg" alt="" /></h3> - -<p>which is an application of the scientific method to philosophy.</p> - -<p>The old philosophical systems were mere air castles (constructions of abstract -theories,) built in the realm of pure thought. The Philosophy of Science is a -systematisation of positive facts; it takes experience as its foundation, and uses -the systematised formal relations of experience (mathematics, logic, etc.) as its -method. It is opposed on the one hand to the dogmatism of groundless <i>a priori</i> -assumptions, and on the other hand to the scepticism of negation which finds -expression in the agnostic tendencies of to-day.</p> - -<h3>Monism Means a Unitary World-Conception</h3> - -<p>There may be different aspects and even contrasts, diverse views and opposite -standpoints, but there can never be contradiction in truth.</p> - -<p>Monism is not a one-substance theory, be it materialistic or spiritualistic or -agnostic; it means simply and solely <i>consistency</i>.</p> - -<p>All truths form one consistent system, and any dualism of irreconcilable -statements indicates that there is a problem to be solved; there must be fault -somewhere either in our reasoning or in our knowledge of facts. Science always -implies Monism, i. e., a unitary world conception.</p> - -<h4><i>Illustrated Catalogue and sample copies free.</i></h4> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<h3>SUBSCRIPTION FORM</h3> - -<p><i>To THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO.</i></p> - -<p class="author"> -<i>324 Dearborn Street, Chicago, Ill.</i></p> - -<p><i>Gentlemen</i>,—</p> - -<p class="i4"><i>Please send THE MONIST for.................year ..., beginning -with.................to the address given below.</i></p> - -<p class="i4"><i>I enclose..............for $..........</i></p> - -<p> -<i class="i8">Signature</i>.....................................<br /> -<br /> -<i class="i8">Address</i>.......................................<br /> -<br /> -<i class="i8">Date</i>..........................................<br /> -</p> - -<div class="transnote"> - -<h3>Transcriber's Note:</h3> - -<p>Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original.</p> -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Ants and Some Other Insects: An -Inquiry Into the Psychic Powers, by Auguste Forel - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANTS, OTHER INSECTS: PSYCHIC POWERS *** - -***** This file should be named 52134-h.htm or 52134-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/2/1/3/52134/ - -Produced by Wayne Hammond, MWS, Bryan Ness and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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