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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3598923 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #54075 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/54075) diff --git a/old/54075-0.txt b/old/54075-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index e68c834..0000000 --- a/old/54075-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1150 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Windmills, Picturesque and Historic: The -Motors of the Past, by F. H. Shelton - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Windmills, Picturesque and Historic: The Motors of the Past - -Author: F. H. Shelton - -Release Date: January 30, 2017 [EBook #54075] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WINDMILLS *** - - - - -Produced by Chuck Greif, deaurider and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - - WINDMILLS, PICTURESQUE AND - HISTORIC: THE MOTORS OF - THE PAST - - BY - - F. H. SHELTON - Philadelphia. Member of the Institute - - REPRINTED FROM THE JOURNAL OF THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE - FEBRUARY, 1919 - - [Illustration: colophon] - - PRESS OF - J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY - 1919 - - (REPRINTED FROM THE JOURNAL OF THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE, - FEBRUARY, 1919.) - - WINDMILLS, PICTURESQUE AND HISTORIC: THE - MOTORS OF THE PAST.[A] - - BY - F. H. SHELTON. - - Philadelphia. - Member of the Institute. - - [Illustration] - - -The pessimist says that man is a lazy animal and that he invents -machines to save himself work. The optimist, that man is an industrious -creature who invents machines that he may accomplish the more. Whichever -doctrine is right, there is but little question that of all the -ingenious contrivances evolved by man none is more picturesque, of more -historic interest nor of greater usefulness in its day than the -old-fashioned windmill, the world’s principal motor for some eight -hundred years. And “motor” is the viewpoint to take of this old piece of -mechanism, for just as the later devices of steam, electricity or -gasoline are for the purposes of making power for the needs of man, so -was this old appliance for the prime purpose of securing power from the -wind, and by thus harnessing that most widely distributed of Nature’s -forces, of enabling the accomplishment of work far beyond the limits of -manual power. - -The steam engine came into use in the early part of the nineteenth -century. By 1825 most of the principal English cities had it in use. -Before that period, and dating back to remote ages, the only sources of -power--other than man or bullocks, etc.--were the two great forces of -wind and water. But only countries of waterways and varying levels -afforded waterfalls; while the wind was universal. Therefore, while -water wheels were in use in parallel periods with the oldest of -windmills, in number they were infinitely less, so that one can properly -say that the world’s motor for some eight centuries was the old-time -windmill. These eight centuries are from about 1000 to 1825, when, with -the advent of Watt’s invention, the zenith of windmill design and use -had been attained. After that date they so declined that in fifty years -not only had new construction ceased, but the old structures in very -large measure had fallen into decay and abandonment. It is evident from -the above that an account of this old, picturesque, historic and -effective tool of mankind should have some interest, both from the -standpoint of engineering and that of sentiment; and it is believed that -what follows will give the essential facts relating to it. It may be -proper to say here that what is related applies entirely to the -old-style windmill, and in no measure whatever to the modern American -type of windmill, which, while cheap, effective and useful, is -nevertheless a prosaic, galvanized iron, squeaky thing, of which happily -the larger proportion of the millions annually made is exported out of -our country! - -While the antiquity of windmills is traced by some back to the Romans -there is really nothing very definitely known of their existence before -the period of the Crusaders. They were said to have been brought into -central Europe in that period from the Far East; though this is open to -question. Practically their origin is lost in antiquity, and we only -know that they appear in the earliest records as existent in some form -or other. - -But by 1200 they were well established. The first English windmill is of -1191. There are numerous records of them in the thirteenth century. -There is a brass tablet of 1349 at Lynn church, with a windmill graven -on it. In old stained glass of the early churches windmills are shown in -some of the landscapes; as at Great Greenford and Fairfield. In a view, -“London in the time of the Tudors” (1560), windmills are seen; and Great -Windmill Street commemorates to this day the location of one in the past -in that city. Elsewhere it was the same. Rembrandt, of the early part of -the seventeenth century, shows such mills in some of his pictures; and -in the early prints and views of France, Germany and other countries is -abundant evidence of the use of these old, useful machines, in various -forms, places and ways. - -What was standard in the old world was naturally brought into the new, -and so we find in America, concurrent with the colonies and settlements -of the early days, the introduction and use of windmills. The Dutch in -New Amsterdam, in 1625 and later; the Swedes on the Delaware, in 1643; -the English in Rhode Island, in 1665 and 1675, and Boston, in 1660; and -on the Carolina coast--all had their mills, as shown by early records, -maps and views. And these mills were logically the types used by the -respective settlers, according to the district from which they had come. -For instance, the old mill in Somerville, Mass., built in 1710 by Jean -Mallet, a French Huguenot, is of the pure French type; as were those -near Detroit, by the followers of the fortunes of Cadillac; while those -in Talbot, Kent and Dorset counties, Maryland, reflected the clear -English design of the old country. The same applies to the numerous ones -erected in the colonial days of 1725 to 1775, in Easthampton, -Bridgehampton, etc., on Long Island; at various points on Cape Cod; at -Nantucket (1746); in numerous instances on Newport Island, Rhode Island, -etc. A notable one of this type and period was that on Windmill Island -in the Delaware River, shown in an old view, “An east prospect of the -City of Philadelphia,” 1746. All these reflected the English design of -the emigrant settlers, bringing with them and promptly setting up and -using the motors or machinery of the mother country. - -There are two forms into which these old mills can be grouped, _viz._, -vertical and horizontal. By that is meant the relative position of the -wheel and shaft. The vertical is that form in which the wheel is -vertical, mounted on a shaft which is horizontal or nearly so. This is -the form almost universal, for while various instances of the other have -been tried, scarcely one in a thousand has been used compared with the -vertical type. The reason for this is that in the vertical form of -wheel, its face directly confronting the wind, all vanes are acted upon -at once, and there is not only the greatest resulting power, but the -greatest simplicity of construction and of operation and handling. The -horizontal wheel, on the other hand, occupying a horizontal zone and -attached to a shaft that is vertical, like the usual small water -turbine, in position (but not in the fluid impact) receives the wind -impact upon only some of the vanes at a time--not the whole -circumference--with less proportional power and greater complexity of -construction. So secondary has been the use of this style of windmill -that consideration of it is negligible. - -From the design standpoint, windmills involve four essential component -parts: - -(_a_) A tower, or means of support for the moving wheel and mechanism. - -(_b_) A revolving wheel that receives the impact of the wind, converting -it into power. - -(_c_) Some means of turning the wheel, to follow the shifting of the -wind; and, - -(_d_) The driven machinery. - -(_A_) _The Towers or Supports._--The support in the earliest form of -mill was merely a post, made of a suitable log or tree trunk--sometimes -30 inches thick--upon which the entire structure was carried or hung and -pivoted, so that it could turn freely to the wind. This was the original -type--the old “post-mill,” appearing in the earliest known prints and -records, and alone used until about 1650. At that time the “tower mill” -was developed, and this, of larger possibilities, soon resulted in great -structures of that style being built, that generally replaced and threw -far into the shade the earlier and simple post form. - -The towers of this latter form of old windmill were made of every -conceivable or possible form and material. Straight or cylindrical; -tapering or cone shaped; octagonal or multi-sided; even bottle shaped, -like a mammoth milk bottle of the present time. Again, on open arches, -as in two notable structures later referred to--anything to carry the -overhead work, according to the fancy or purse or conditions governing -the builder. Of brick or stone or wood; slate, shingle or thatch -covered, in height these towers ranged from 25 to 100 feet. The largest -ever built was at Great Yarmouth, England, 11 stories high, and over 100 -feet, exclusive of the great vanes. The great Dutch grist mills were -however, a close second in height, and with a base of some 35 feet and a -top width of 16 feet were massive structures indeed. These tall -structures were divided by various floor levels, the lower rooms thus -formed containing the mill-stones or saw or other driven machinery, -while the upper ones were used for living quarters or storage. The -structure of the smaller post mills, however, being suspended on the -centre posts, was never of stone or brick, but wholly of wood, and these -rotating or movable buildings ranged in size from about 10 by 12 feet to -16 by 24 feet in the larger ones, and up to two stories in height. - -At the top of the mills, of course, was located the wheel shaft and -gearing, and to protect this from the weather there was always a -covering or “mill head” or top, and these tops have taken a great -variety of interesting forms, for no apparent particular reason, and yet -often a fixed style, following some geographical location. For instance, -in France the almost universal - -[Illustration: POST MILLS. - -All pivoting on single centre post support. - -Small form. - -Large form. - -North Carolina, U.S.A. - -England, turret form. - -TURNTABLE MILL. - -Holland, side and end view. - -HYBRID MILLS. - -France, grist mill. - -Holland, dumping mill. - -TOWER MILLS. - -England and Holland, brick. - -Holland, Germany, Sweden, etc., wood. - -France, stone. - -Hungary, stone. - -Spain, stone. - -Turkey and Eastern Mediterranean. - -THE FOUR TYPES OF WINDMILLS.] - -or characteristic shape is that of a steep true cone; in Denmark, -Sweden, etc., a Turk’s head or turban type was the standard; also in -England, on the great tower mills. Yet in Holland, on the same type of -mill, such was never used, but a distinct Dutch form of irregular shape, -and almost always thatched. And in the Mediterranean countries the tops -become so flattened or lowered as to in some cases almost disappear. -The accompanying plate well illustrates these structural and -geographical differences. - -While the old mills all divide into either post or tower mills, there -are yet two well-defined further forms, or variations of type, that -should be remarked. - -[Illustration: England, Turk head, brick tower mill. - -South of England, wood tower mill. - -Holland, tower mill. - -Holland, turntable type. - -France, tower mill. - -France, hybrid mill. - -Belgium, tower mill. - -Hungary, tower mill. - -Mediterranean, tower mill. - -Plain, post mill. - -Belgium, post mill. - -Barbadoes, tower mill. - -Rhode Island, wood tower mill. - -Long Island, wood tower mill. - -Sweden, wood tower mill. - -Turkey, stone tower mill. - -TYPICAL WINDMILL HEADS.] - -Sometimes a tower mill would be constructed on a circular - -[Illustration: TYPICAL WINDMILL ARMS. - -Usual canvas covered sweep. - -England, Bywater’s rolling canvas. - -England, Cubit’s patent shutter. - -England, Meikle’s spring sweep. - -England, double shutter. - -France, double sweep. - -France, folding sweep. - -Primitive sweep, interlaced boards. - -Mediterranean, double sweep canvas. - -Mediterranean, flying jib; Greece, Turkey, etc.] - -timber framework or base, carried on rollers or iron balls, forming a -large turntable, enabling the turning of the entire edifice to the wind, -as need be, the same as a locomotive turntable or a rotary drawbridge is -turned. This therefore parallels the post mill type, in which the entire -structure is turned to follow the wind, but turning on this turntable -base instead of a post. This form was extensively used in the saw mill -and lumber districts of Holland. - -The other variation is what may be called a hybrid form--part post type, -part tower type. In this the contained machinery is fixed in the base, -and does not rotate, being thus of the tower mill design; while in the -upper part of the mill a rectangular wood housing, like a post mill, is -pivoted and revolves with a tail beam, as in the post design. Such -hybrid forms are found in Holland and in the valley of the Loire, at -Saumur, Chinon, etc. - -(_B_) _The Sweeps._--With mills built for centuries and by all -countries, it is but natural to expect to find a wide range of form in -this most characteristic part of a windmill--the sweeps or vanes; and in -this one is not disappointed. - -The usual, earliest and simple form was that of a canvas or sail covered -framework. This canvas covering could be reefed to suit the strength of -the wind, and the four measures of sail spread were known as “full -sail,” “quarter sail,” “sword point” and “dagger point,” -respectively--these last two, from a fancied resemblance of the shape of -the partly furled or reefed cloth to the point of a sword or dagger. But -these canvas sails were laborious to handle, and in no sense automatic -in varying the amount of surface according to the strength of the wind, -which resulted in numerous schemes for betterment. The most successful -of these and that known as “patent” sails was the invention of Cubit, an -Englishman, who, a century and a quarter or so ago, devised a series of -wood shutters forming the face of the vane, all connected by little -levers and cords or rods to a counterweight. This, when adjusted, would -cause the shutters to give a full, flat surface to the wind, but if the -wind should increase to a danger point, its force would overcome the -pull of the weight and the hinged shutters would all open the necessary -amount to spill some of the wind through and thus ease the pressure on -the sweeps. This was a good deal like a huge Venetian blind arrangement, -as to the shutters or slats; and in some cases these shutters worked -against the tension of a spring instead of the pull of a weight, and -such were known as Meikle’s “spring sweeps.” Still another -arrangement--Bywater’s--was that of the canvas being mounted upon a long -roller, a good deal like a modern window shade, which rolled and -unrolled as needed; but this was rather complicated and not much in -vogue. - -It was usual to have four-fifths of the area of the sweeps on one side -of the arm and one-fifth on the other, and these were “single sweeps”; -while those in which there was a wide area on both sides--as almost the -universal practice in France--were known as “double sweeps.” Wood has -been used as a sweep covering as well as canvas--as for instance in -France, where one finds some of the most primitive, crude mills, with -sails made of thin boards interlaced or woven into the vane framework; -while, on the other hand, one also finds quite an elaborate -construction. This is in the mills of the Loire valley, in which a dozen -parallel boards on each vane are rigged much like a great Japanese fan, -which when open presents a large surface, but when closed presents but -little, the boards or wood strips overlapping and resting one upon the -other. This construction I have found nowhere but in that section. - -Going still further toward the primitive, we find in the Mediterranean, -especially in the eastern end, in Asia Minor, in the vicinity of Smyrna, -Turkey; the islands of Rhodes, Chios, Samos, and of Greece and the Sea -of Marmora, a construction consisting simply of poles, anywhere from six -to a dozen, stuck in the hub, carrying flying jibs, resulting in a wheel -not far different in form from the paper spinwheel that a child may -make! In Sicily and the Balearic islands these become a little better, -having the wood framework to hold the canvas in the most effective -position, and they form a transition phase between the crude jib wheels -of the Orient and the elaborated types of the north. - -In number the arms of the usual mill were four--and almost universally, -for this was not only the simplest and strongest construction compared -with the difficulty of framing six or eight firmly at the hub, but also -the most effective. For it was found that the wind had to have a certain -amount of exit space between the vanes to get away freely, and that if -this part of the circle was too much filled with additional sweeps no -corresponding gain in power was secured. A few very fine examples, -however, can be found of these five-and six-arm mills, as in the famous -100-foot brick tower mill of Whitby, England, with five arms and its -Turk’s head top; and at Lewes, where a fine turret mill and others have -five and six arms. - -The length of these arms in an ordinary size mill was about 30 feet, -giving a diameter to the wheel of 60 feet; but in the big tower mills -referred to the arms were sometimes 50 and 60 feet long, making the -wheels well over 100 feet in diameter. The usual speed was about 16 -revolutions a minute. If faster than 20 a danger point was reached that -was very real, for there have been many cases of runaway mills, -resulting from defective brakes or accident or carelessness; in which -accidents millers have been caught in the vanes or sweeps and carried -around and around and thrown off; or millstones bursting from too high -speed have amputated the miller’s legs; or friction heat has set the -structure afire. - -It is of course obvious that the surface of these windmill sails could -not be really flat, as in that case the wind blowing against it would -merely recoil and exert no power effect. A warp or twist was requisite, -that the wind might give a thrust to the sail in passing through the -wheel, precisely the reverse action of a screw propeller on a boat. - -This twist was known as the “angle of weather” or “bosom,” and the -precise amount and form were the subjects of many early abstruse and -learned studies. Practice finally settled down to an angle of about 17° -at the inner end and about 8° at the outer end of the sail as being the -most effective. - -The mounting of these huge wheels was a matter of some moment, requiring -very heavy construction, and this resulted in the use, as a rule, in all -the earlier and medium size mills of a great shaft or log, turned or -hewed octagonal, carried by gudgeon bearings, on old blocks of -soapstone, or greased oak, or cast iron bearings at either end. Into the -outer projecting end, outside the roof, the square ends of the vane -shafts or sweeps were mortised and bound with straps and bolts of iron. -Later and in the larger mills, and after foundry work was more -available, these “great-shafts” were made of iron, giving much better -bearings and enabling the sweeps to be bolted into square openings more -conveniently. But with all these mills, especially the early simpler -forms, there was an enormous loss in dead weight moved and in friction, -and it is doubtful whether in most of them 50 per cent of the force of -the wind reached the mill stones below for useful work. - -There was a popular belief that the wind came down from the heavens -above, and that therefore the wheel should “look up” a little, to best -meet it; with the result that the shaft of the mill was virtually never -set level, as one might suppose, but always with the outer end a little -higher than the inner, which angle of uplift varied from 5° to 10°. A -very practical result of this was also gotten, in the necessary -clearance of the tapering tower by the revolving vanes. For these -revolving vanes were something to be respected--a 60-foot wheel, for -instance, weighing several tons and having a periphery speed of perhaps -3000 feet a minute, and more than one horse or cow straying into the -path of the arms in a mill in operation has been struck and paid the -penalty. To guard against that, mills were at times set upon a dais or -raised foundation, or fenced in. - -The great shaft would have mounted upon it a “great wheel,” from 8 to 12 -or 15 feet in diameter, with cog teeth, and these engaged in a pinion or -lantern or trundle or wallower wheel, as variously styled, on a vertical -shaft, which led to the machinery below, and there, by any suitable and -usual gear work of the olden times, whatever grist, saw, grinding, -stamping or other machinery was to be driven would be duly operated by -the wind power from above. - -(_C_) _The Tail Beam or Vane._--The third essential feature of these old -mills was the device for keeping the wheel head-on to the wind, for the -purpose of securing the fullest amount of power. And this was quite a -point, in view of the perpetual shifting of the wind. - -The first arrangement was that of a long beam or pole projecting from -the rear of the old-time post mill, used precisely like a rudder. When -the direction of the wind changed this would be pushed from one side to -the other, to steer the post mill structure, pivoted on the post, again -into the wind. And in the succeeding tower mills, where only the top or -head would be turned, the tail beam principle was continued--as best -developed in Holland, where a somewhat elaborately braced and -several-membered framework was carried down to a point where it could be -reached and moved as the wind shifted. But in Holland the mills became -of large size and the weight to be moved was great, so that the old -Dutch miller would blow a whistle to summon his hands for help. In later -years they made use of a further rig of chains and tackle and a wheel -like a pilot’s, which enabled the snubbing around of the vanes and cap -to be done far more easily than by pushing by hand alone. This old tail -beam is, however, characteristic of the old-time small mill, and many -are the tracks, well worn and circular, around the mill that betoken -the years of labor of the miller, even if eased by an old cartwheel to -carry the end of the beam, as instanced in the well-known old mill at -Nantucket and elsewhere. - -[Illustration: Usual tail beam on post mills and hybrid mills. - -Tail beam. France, tower mill. - -Tiller on Holland mill. - -Chain-wheel on tower mill. - -Cubit’s automatic tail wheel, England. - -Turntable mill, rollers and snubbing posts. - -WINDMILL TAIL BEAMS OR TURNING GEAR. - -For keeping mill-head on the wind.] - -Probably the next device for turning to the wind was the use of a chain -pull, connected to overhead gear wheels and a cogged track; for not -only is this found in some early mills of Holland, and in the mills at -Newport, R. I., but also in the rare old Peyto mill at Leamington, -England, of 1632, of which I shall speak further. These chain pulls were -either inside or out; the former being more protected from the weather. - -[Illustration: Thatched tower pumping mill. Holland.] - -But all these hand devices were completely eclipsed by another invention -of Cubit--he of the “patent” sweep-shutter--known as Cubit’s tail vane. -This was the use of a small wheel of from 4 to 10 vanes, usually 6, -placed in the rear of the head of the mill, up aloft, and so connected -by a train of small gearing that when it rotated it would turn the main -head a little, and if need be follow up the variations of the wind. So -accurately was this designed that it is said that even with the wind -shifting but a couple of degrees around the horizon the tail wheel would -then begin to turn, and with its gearing would in turn wind the mill -head, carrying the sweeps, into the wind. This automatic arrangement was -almost universally adopted in England, in the better class of mills; -yet, with the stolidity of the Dutch temperament, apparently content to -continue with hand labor as did their grandfathers, this admirable -device was rarely transplanted even to a place as nearby as Holland. - -Turning now from the mechanical side of these old mills, as above, it is -interesting to note the varied forms, uses and characteristics as found -in the diverse parts of the world, and in the variety of races where and -by whom these old home-made motors have been used. - -[Illustration: Saw-mill; turntable type. Holland.] - -Holland is usually taken as the home of the windmill, but that is so -only in the greater proportionate number there in use than elsewhere. It -is not true as regards origin nor the best development of them. It is a -country notably flat, without water power, on the sea coast, and -requiring great pumping equipment for draining, etc. This early resulted -in the great number of windmills there found and associated with that -little kingdom. It is said that in early days there were 10,000 of them. -The greater number of them were used for lifting water to drain the -“polders,” or meadows or lowlands, through the medium of a scoop wheel -or Archimedes screw. Some of them can yet be seen and in use, with fat -Dutch babies apparently ever on the edge of falling in the sluiceways, -yet never doing so. Nearly all of these mills have been replaced by -great steam-driven government pumping stations. For sawing wood, also, -great numbers are yet used in the Zaandam district, where several -hundred can be seen almost adjacent, a vista and forest of windmills. -And in the heart of the chief cities one yet sees, here and there, an -old-time brick tower mill, probably 200 years old--a family heritage, -with its clean and trim curtained little Dutch windows, its individual -name, as of a ship, such as “The Admiral” or “The Parrot,” over the -door, and its old coat of arms and carvings and touches of color. For -the Dutchman is fond of his substantial woodwork, and of his bits of -color; and such finds expression in his mills, where carving like the -stern of an old galley and color stripings of all the rainbow are both -tucked in and flagrantly added. - -[Illustration: “Petmolen” or small pumping mill. Holland.] - -The characteristic of the Dutch mill is, however, that of a thatch -covering, both on sides and top, on the usual size common -mill--something not found in any other country. It is said of them that -there is also a code worked out--sort of a wigwag or semaphore -system--so that by the position of the vanes as left when shutting down, -the long-distance observer can read whether a carpenter is needed or a -baby has been born, etc., etc. Certain it is that the mills make fine -elevations for flag-flying on holiday occasions, for then the staunch -colors of Holland will be found on the flagpoles atop the most of them. -In noting the Dutch mills, one cannot overlook--nor wants to--the -picturesque little “petmolens” or “jaskers”--diminutive post pumping -mills, for small fields only--that, with long, slender vanes, seen -through the haze or afar, almost suggest one of the old rocs from Sinbad -the Sailor, caught in the act of alighting. - -[Illustration: Brick tower mill; largest built. Great Yarmouth, England. -(With Cubit’s tail vane.)] - -England, while numerically far inferior to Holland, is yet far in -advance from the viewpoint of the fullest engineering development of -this world’s motor, as may be gathered from what has been said above as -to the automatic shutters, tail vanes, etc. The largest, the most varied -and the most efficient are found there. Many fine examples of these -mills can be seen, a few of which are still in operation. In the south -of England there are plenty of old wood structures of all forms--of -which the turret is perhaps the most locally characteristic. This is a -huge, or at least large size, post mill, often for some fine estate, -with the base enclosed with a circular low or one-story building, used -for storage, so that the external effect suggests a turret. In central -England a good number of the tall brick tower mills yet stand. - -[Illustration: Tower grist mill. South of England.] - -For picturesqueness, however, no country surpasses old France. There the -mills are small; the huge, towering structure of the Dutch and English -is unknown. But one can find many of great antiquity, great variety of -form and of great charm. The type seems to be the true cylindrical -tower--not tapering--with the cone top. In the racetrack at Longchamps, -near Paris, is an instance, while on the golf course at St. Lunaire, -overlooking the sea coast, on the Channel, as in innumerable other -places in the northern part of France, these little sentries of the past -can be found. Picturesque as they are, however, they are not yet as much -so as even an older and cruder form suggesting an old blockhouse. For -above the stone first story is an overhanging wood second story, as so -well instanced at St. Briac. And in the Loire valley are the very unique -hybrid mills with the folding boards vane arrangement, already referred -to, which at Saumur date back to 1682, as doubtless do the others of -that not-to-be-found-elsewhere form. - -[Illustration: Turret post-mill. South of England.] - -Of old post mills of the usual wood form France has plenty, of which the -one on top of Montmartre, in the Moulin de la Galette grounds, is -perhaps the most prominent. It is one of the two or three remaining that -were part of a dozen or more that crowned that hill in the early days, -as shown in several views of old Paris. What changes it has seen in its -600 years of accredited age! In its timbers are shot and balls of the -revolutions of 1814 and 1871. Within are the old bells and bunks and -shrines of the generations of millers who operated it, one of whom is -said to have been killed and quartered and hung on the four arms of his -own mill by the successful assailants. In the same premises is a dear -little miniature mill, which, with diminutive stones of but 18 or 20 -inches in diameter, was used for grinding spices, in place of the usual -grain for bread. - -[Illustration: Tower mill and tail beam. St. Lunaire, France.] - -In Belgium we find, in the main, the post and tower mills of Holland -and the Netherlands; while in Germany, as well, the similarity to the -Dutch mills is the only or chief characteristic. In Denmark and Sweden -and in Iceland are the usual mills of this section, excepting that their -octagonal, typical squatty grist mill nearly always has the Turk’s head -top instead of the irregular shape of Holland and Germany. And so -pronounced is that that in Lawrence, Kan., where a mill was erected in -1858, with a Swedish top, inquiry develops that it was by Swedish -emigrants. Iceland can claim probably the most northern mill ever -erected, for in Reykiavik, a little isolated town of about 3000 -inhabitants, we find an old mill, probably the first and only motor in -the early days in Iceland. - -[Illustration: Tower mill; double sweeps. St. Briac, France.] - -There is greater picturesqueness--but, as usual, accompanied with less -efficiency--in the southern part of Europe, as, for instance, in Spain. -Here, aside from the jib flying mills of the - -[Illustration: Hybrid type of grist mill, 1682. Saumur, France.] - -[Illustration: Crude forms of tower grist mills; vicinity of Buda-Pesth, -Hungary.] - -Mediterranean, we find primitive construction, crude devices and even -the clay water bottles, or jars, bound to a cumbrous wheel, slowly -turning over by wind power, for lifting water for irrigation, similar to -devices seen on the banks of the Nile--although there operated by oxen. -And in Spain we tread the country where the ever immortal Don Quixote, -despite the adjurations of the faithful Sancho Panzo, charged at full -speed a flock of windmills on the plains of Montiel. - -[Illustration: Mid-European type of post mill. Belgium.] - -The crude structures of Greece and Turkey, already mentioned, are so -crude that often no device is provided for turning to the wind, but, on -the contrary, four mills are sometimes built in a field, facing, -respectively, north, south, east and west; so that whichever way the -wind comes some power can be secured. It is, however, more likely that -prevailing winds are so constant from one quarter there is but little -use for a turning device, resulting in its omission. - -[Illustration: Tower mill. Trapani, Sicily.] - -And so one can go the world over and find these old mills; to the -Barbadoes, where they are still extensively used--and of English -type--for crushing sugar cane; to Jamaica, where they once were, as -shown by an old print of the earthquake of 1792, in which several mills -are depicted bodily upside down almost, as would be a child’s toy; to -Peru, where over 13,000 feet above sea level in the Potosi silver mining -districts of past times--centuries past--old prints show mills of the -manifest Spanish type operating stamps for crushing silver ore; to the -St. Lawrence, where the early settlers, both French and English, left -their imprint in the shape of old mills on several promontories and -points; to southern Illinois, where the German emigrants of the - -[Illustration: Multi-jib tower mill. Samos, Turkey in Asia.] - -[Illustration: Tower of the old Newport mill, of 1675, as now standing. -Truro Park, Newport, R. I.] - -1820’s and ’30’s brought with them the mills of the Fatherland, etc. In -all quarters of the globe the world’s chief motor for eight centuries -can still be found. - -[Illustration: Chesterton mill, vertical section between columns.] - -And in closing this review of old windmills there is no instance to -which reference should be made of quite as much interest as the old mill -at Newport, known to every American antiquary and which, some two or -three generations ago, was ingeniously ascribed to the Norse in the -period of 1100 or thereabouts. This theory, while highly picturesque, -was unfortunate chiefly in never having anything except surmise to back -it up. Not a jot nor tittle of record or physical remains could be -developed to substantiate it, and it has long since been practically -dropped by most students of American history. And when the following, -that has in recent years been developed, is borne in mind, there seems -no vestige of reason left in the Norse theory. There is no question as -to the following facts in relation to the Newport mill, and I speak with -confidence, having in person surveyed and thoroughly investigated both -it and its English prototype, as described: - -[Illustration: Newport mill restored, vertical section.] - -In 1675 Governor Benedict Arnold (the grandfather of the traitor) was in -charge of the then early colony of Rhode Island. Sixty years before he -had been born in the Warwickshire section, England, in which the Peyto -estate was perhaps the greatest and finest. On that estate there was -completed the most elaborate windmill ever built. Inigo Jones, England’s -great architect of that time, designed it, and it was unique in its open -arch design, its finely chiselled stonework and unusual adornment. Young -Arnold was a lad of 17 at that time, and the building of this beautiful -and remarkable windmill, in 1632, was, with small - -[Illustration: Inigo Jones-Peyto mill of 1632. Chesterton, Warwickshire, -England.] - -doubt, a marked episode in his life and knowledge. Forty odd years -later, he, by the chance of fate, was the Governor of the Rhode Island -Colony. With the destruction of a previous wood windmill of 1665, blown -down in a great storm, it became his duty to provide another one for the -use of the little colony. And there is small doubt, indeed, that in -doing that he undertook to provide a mill that should be as nearly as -possible a copy of the old mill at Chesterton, near Leamington--the best -mill of which he knew. And so, without the measurements as to the -general arrangement, size and design, from memory only, he there built, -with the most limited facilities, a virtual replica of the -Leamington-Peyto-Jones mill. In order to secure greater permanence and -protection against Indian attacks the mill was built of stone instead of -wood. - -[Illustration: Newport, R. I., mill as “restored” or probably -constructed.] - -For, while of course the fine stone work and carving and detail are -missing, in this colonial condition, the general dimensions, the design -and the interior arrangements are in substance the same throughout. It -needs only the comparison of the plans of the two--side by side--to be -satisfied as to that. Governor Arnold’s birthplace and connection afford -the reason of the similarity, and his will even speaks of “my stone -built windmill.” This old structure, still standing--as to its walls--in -Truro Park, Newport, R. I., is perhaps America’s greatest colonial -relic, and with its prototype of Chesterton constitutes the most unique -pair of windmills, having the greatest historic interest, of any -attaching to our country’s windmill history. - - -NOTE: - -[A] Presented at a meeting of the Mechanical and Engineering -Section, held Thursday, March 14, 1918. - - - - - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Windmills, Picturesque and Historic: -The Motors of the Past, by F. H. 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H. Shelton - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Windmills, Picturesque and Historic: The Motors of the Past - -Author: F. H. Shelton - -Release Date: January 30, 2017 [EBook #54075] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WINDMILLS *** - - - - -Produced by Chuck Greif, deaurider and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="277" height="500" alt="" title="" /> -</div> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="" -style="border: 2px black solid;margin:auto auto;max-width:50%; -padding:1%;"> -<tr><td> -<p class="c"> <span class="nonvis">(In certain versions of this etext [in certain browsers] -clicking on the image, -will bring up a larger version.)</span></p> - -<p class="c">(etext transcriber's note)</p></td></tr> -</table> - -<h1> -WINDMILLS, PICTURESQUE AND<br /> -HISTORIC: THE MOTORS OF<br /> -THE PAST</h1> - -<p class="cb">BY<br /> -F. H. SHELTON<br /> -<small>Philadelphia. Member of the Institute</small><br /><br /><br /> -<span class="smcap">Reprinted from the Journal of The Franklin Institute<br /> -February, 1919</span><br /><br /><br /> -<img src="images/colophon.png" -width="90" -alt="[Image of colophon unavailable.]" -/><br /><br /><br /> - -PRESS OF -J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY -1919<br /><br /><br /> - -(<small><span class="smcap">Reprinted from the Journal of The Franklin Institute,<br /> -February, 1919.</span></small>) -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_171" id="page_171"></a>{171}</span></p> - -<h2>WINDMILLS, PICTURESQUE AND HISTORIC: THE<br /> -MOTORS OF THE PAST.<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a></h2> - -<p class="cb"><small>BY</small><br /> -F. H. SHELTON.<br /> -<small>Philadelphia.<br /> -Member of the Institute.</small></p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> pessimist says that man is a lazy animal and that he invents -machines to save himself work. The optimist, that man is an industrious -creature who invents machines that he may accomplish the more. Whichever -doctrine is right, there is but little question that of all the -ingenious contrivances evolved by man none is more picturesque, of more -historic interest nor of greater usefulness in its day than the -old-fashioned windmill, the world’s principal motor for some eight -hundred years. And “motor” is the viewpoint to take of this old piece of -mechanism, for just as the later devices of steam, electricity or -gasoline are for the purposes of making power for the needs of man, so -was this old appliance for the prime purpose of securing power from the -wind, and by thus harnessing that most widely distributed of Nature’s -forces, of enabling the accomplishment of work far beyond the limits of -manual power.</p> - -<p>The steam engine came into use in the early part of the nineteenth -century. By 1825 most of the principal English cities had it in use. -Before that period, and dating back to remote ages, the only sources of -power—other than man or bullocks, etc.—were the two great forces of -wind and water. But only countries of waterways and varying levels -afforded waterfalls; while the wind was universal. Therefore, while -water wheels were in use in parallel periods with the oldest of -windmills, in number they were infinitely less, so that one can properly -say that the world’s motor for some eight centuries was the old-time -windmill. These eight centuries are from about 1000 to 1825, when, with -the advent of Watt’s invention, the zenith of windmill design and use -had been attained. After that date they so declined that in fifty years -not only had new construction ceased, but the old structures in very -large measure had fallen into decay and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_172" id="page_172"></a>{172}</span> abandonment. It is evident from -the above that an account of this old, picturesque, historic and -effective tool of mankind should have some interest, both from the -standpoint of engineering and that of sentiment; and it is believed that -what follows will give the essential facts relating to it. It may be -proper to say here that what is related applies entirely to the -old-style windmill, and in no measure whatever to the modern American -type of windmill, which, while cheap, effective and useful, is -nevertheless a prosaic, galvanized iron, squeaky thing, of which happily -the larger proportion of the millions annually made is exported out of -our country!</p> - -<p>While the antiquity of windmills is traced by some back to the Romans -there is really nothing very definitely known of their existence before -the period of the Crusaders. They were said to have been brought into -central Europe in that period from the Far East; though this is open to -question. Practically their origin is lost in antiquity, and we only -know that they appear in the earliest records as existent in some form -or other.</p> - -<p>But by 1200 they were well established. The first English windmill is of -1191. There are numerous records of them in the thirteenth century. -There is a brass tablet of 1349 at Lynn church, with a windmill graven -on it. In old stained glass of the early churches windmills are shown in -some of the landscapes; as at Great Greenford and Fairfield. In a view, -“London in the time of the Tudors” (1560), windmills are seen; and Great -Windmill Street commemorates to this day the location of one in the past -in that city. Elsewhere it was the same. Rembrandt, of the early part of -the seventeenth century, shows such mills in some of his pictures; and -in the early prints and views of France, Germany and other countries is -abundant evidence of the use of these old, useful machines, in various -forms, places and ways.</p> - -<p>What was standard in the old world was naturally brought into the new, -and so we find in America, concurrent with the colonies and settlements -of the early days, the introduction and use of windmills. The Dutch in -New Amsterdam, in 1625 and later; the Swedes on the Delaware, in 1643; -the English in Rhode Island, in 1665 and 1675, and Boston, in 1660; and -on the Carolina coast—all had their mills, as shown by early records, -maps and views. And these mills were logically the types used by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_173" id="page_173"></a>{173}</span> -respective settlers, according to the district from which they had come. -For instance, the old mill in Somerville, Mass., built in 1710 by Jean -Mallet, a French Huguenot, is of the pure French type; as were those -near Detroit, by the followers of the fortunes of Cadillac; while those -in Talbot, Kent and Dorset counties, Maryland, reflected the clear -English design of the old country. The same applies to the numerous ones -erected in the colonial days of 1725 to 1775, in Easthampton, -Bridgehampton, etc., on Long Island; at various points on Cape Cod; at -Nantucket (1746); in numerous instances on Newport Island, Rhode Island, -etc. A notable one of this type and period was that on Windmill Island -in the Delaware River, shown in an old view, “An east prospect of the -City of Philadelphia,” 1746. All these reflected the English design of -the emigrant settlers, bringing with them and promptly setting up and -using the motors or machinery of the mother country.</p> - -<p>There are two forms into which these old mills can be grouped, <i>viz.</i>, -vertical and horizontal. By that is meant the relative position of the -wheel and shaft. The vertical is that form in which the wheel is -vertical, mounted on a shaft which is horizontal or nearly so. This is -the form almost universal, for while various instances of the other have -been tried, scarcely one in a thousand has been used compared with the -vertical type. The reason for this is that in the vertical form of -wheel, its face directly confronting the wind, all vanes are acted upon -at once, and there is not only the greatest resulting power, but the -greatest simplicity of construction and of operation and handling. The -horizontal wheel, on the other hand, occupying a horizontal zone and -attached to a shaft that is vertical, like the usual small water -turbine, in position (but not in the fluid impact) receives the wind -impact upon only some of the vanes at a time—not the whole -circumference—with less proportional power and greater complexity of -construction. So secondary has been the use of this style of windmill -that consideration of it is negligible.</p> - -<p>From the design standpoint, windmills involve four essential component -parts:</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) A tower, or means of support for the moving wheel and mechanism.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) A revolving wheel that receives the impact of the wind, converting -it into power.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_174" id="page_174"></a>{174}</span></p> - -<p>(<i>c</i>) Some means of turning the wheel, to follow the shifting of the -wind; and,</p> - -<p>(<i>d</i>) The driven machinery.</p> - -<p>(<i>A</i>) <i>The Towers or Supports.</i>—The support in the earliest form of -mill was merely a post, made of a suitable log or tree trunk—sometimes -30 inches thick—upon which the entire structure was carried or hung and -pivoted, so that it could turn freely to the wind. This was the original -type—the old “post-mill,” appearing in the earliest known prints and -records, and alone used until about 1650. At that time the “tower mill” -was developed, and this, of larger possibilities, soon resulted in great -structures of that style being built, that generally replaced and threw -far into the shade the earlier and simple post form.</p> - -<p>The towers of this latter form of old windmill were made of every -conceivable or possible form and material. Straight or cylindrical; -tapering or cone shaped; octagonal or multi-sided; even bottle shaped, -like a mammoth milk bottle of the present time. Again, on open arches, -as in two notable structures later referred to—anything to carry the -overhead work, according to the fancy or purse or conditions governing -the builder. Of brick or stone or wood; slate, shingle or thatch -covered, in height these towers ranged from 25 to 100 feet. The largest -ever built was at Great Yarmouth, England, 11 stories high, and over 100 -feet, exclusive of the great vanes. The great Dutch grist mills were -however, a close second in height, and with a base of some 35 feet and a -top width of 16 feet were massive structures indeed. These tall -structures were divided by various floor levels, the lower rooms thus -formed containing the mill-stones or saw or other driven machinery, -while the upper ones were used for living quarters or storage. The -structure of the smaller post mills, however, being suspended on the -centre posts, was never of stone or brick, but wholly of wood, and these -rotating or movable buildings ranged in size from about 10 by 12 feet to -16 by 24 feet in the larger ones, and up to two stories in height.</p> - -<p>At the top of the mills, of course, was located the wheel shaft and -gearing, and to protect this from the weather there was always a -covering or “mill head” or top, and these tops have taken a great -variety of interesting forms, for no apparent particular reason, and yet -often a fixed style, following some geographical location. For instance, -in France the almost universal<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_175" id="page_175"></a>{175}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<span class="caption">POST MILLS<br /> -All pivoting on single centre post support. -</span> -<br /> -<a href="images/i_07a_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_07a_sml.png" width="500" alt="POST MILLS." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption"> -Small form. - -Large form. - -North Carolina, U.S.A. - -England, turret form. -</span> - -<br /><br /> -<span class="caption"> -TURNTABLE MILL. - -HYBRID MILLS. -</span><br /> -<br /> -<a href="images/i_07b_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_07b_sml.png" width="500" alt="POST MILLS." /></a><br /> -<span class="caption"> -Holland, side and end view. - -France, grist mill. - -Holland, dumping mill.</span> -<br /><br /> - -<a href="images/i_07c_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_07c_sml.png" width="500" alt="POST MILLS." /></a> -<br /> -<table border="0" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="0" summary="" class="caption"> - -<tr valign="top"><td>England and<br /> Holland, brick.</td> - -<td>Holland, Germany,<br /> Sweden, etc., wood.</td> - -<td>France,<br /> stone.</td> - -<td>Hungary,<br /> stone.</td> - -<td>Spain,<br /> stone.</td> - -<td>Turkey and Eastern<br /> Mediterranean.</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="6" class="c"><a href="images/i_07_lg.png">THE FOUR TYPES OF WINDMILLS.</a></td></tr> -</table> -</div> - -<p class="nind">or characteristic shape is that of a steep true cone; in Denmark, -Sweden, etc., a Turk’s head or turban type was the standard; also in -England, on the great tower mills. Yet in Holland, on the same type of -mill, such was never used, but a distinct Dutch form of irregular shape, -and almost always thatched. And in the Mediterranean countries the tops -become so flattened or<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_176" id="page_176"></a>{176}</span> lowered as to in some cases almost disappear. -The accompanying plate well illustrates these structural and -geographical differences.</p> - -<p>While the old mills all divide into either post or tower mills, there -are yet two well-defined further forms, or variations of type, that -should be remarked.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - -<a href="images/i_08a_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_08a_sml.png" width="500" alt="England, Turk head, brick tower mill." /></a> -<br /><br /> -<table border="0" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="0" summary="" class="caption"> -<tr valign="top"><td>England,<br /> Turk head<br /> brick tower mill.</td> -<td>South of England,<br /> wood tower mill.</td> -<td>Holland,<br /> tower mill.</td> -<td>Holland,<br /> turntable type.</td></tr> -</table> -<br /> - -<a href="images/i_08b_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_08b_sml.png" width="500" alt="England, Turk head, brick tower mill." /></a> -<br /> -<table border="0" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="0" summary="" class="caption"> -<tr valign="top"><td>France, tower mill.</td> -<td>France, hybrid mill.</td> -<td>Belgium, tower mill.</td> -<td>Hungary, tower mill.</td></tr> -</table> -<br /> -<a href="images/i_08c_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_08c_sml.png" width="500" alt="England, Turk head, brick tower mill." /></a> - -<br /> -<table border="0" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="0" summary="" class="caption"> -<tr valign="top"><td>Mediterranean, tower mill.</td> - -<td>Plain, post mill.</td> - -<td>Belgium, post mill.</td> - -<td>Barbadoes,<br /> tower mill.</td></tr> -</table> -<br /> - -<a href="images/i_08d_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_08d_sml.png" width="500" alt="England, Turk head, brick tower mill." /></a> -<br /> -<table border="0" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="0" summary="" class="caption"> - -<tr valign="top"><td>Rhode Island,<br /> wood tower mill.</td> - -<td>Long Island,<br /> wood tower mill.</td> - -<td>Sweden,<br /> wood tower mill.</td> - -<td>Turkey,<br /> stone tower mill.</td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="4" class="c"><a href="images/i_08_lg.png">TYPICAL WINDMILL HEADS.</a></td></tr> -</table> - -</div> - -<p>Sometimes a tower mill would be constructed on a circular -timber framework or base, carried on rollers or iron balls, forming a -large turntable, enabling the turning of the entire edifice to the wind, -as need be, the same as a locomotive turntable or a rotary drawbridge is -turned. This therefore parallels the post -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_177" id="page_177"></a>{177}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_09a_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_09a_sml.png" width="500" alt="TYPICAL WINDMILL ARMS." /></a> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="" class="caption"> - -<tr valign="top"><td>Usual canvas covered sweep.</td> - -<td>England, Bywater’s rolling canvas.</td> - -<td>England, Cubit’s patent shutter.</td> - -<td>England, Meikle’s spring sweep.</td> - -<td>England, double shutter.</td></tr> -</table> -<br /> -<a href="images/i_09b_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_09b_sml.png" width="500" alt="TYPICAL WINDMILL ARMS." /></a> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="0" summary="" class="caption"> - -<tr valign="top"><td>France,<br /> double sweep.</td> - -<td>France,<br /> folding sweep.</td> - -<td>Primitive sweep,<br /> interlaced boards.</td> - -<td>Mediterranean,<br /> double sweep<br /> canvas.</td> - -<td>Mediterranean,<br /> flying jib;<br /> Greece, Turkey, etc.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="c" colspan="5"><a href="images/i_09_lg.png">TYPICAL WINDMILL ARMS.</a></td></tr> - -</table> -</div> - -<p class="nind"> mill type, in which the entire -structure is turned to follow the wind, but turning on this turntable -base instead of a post. This form was extensively used in the saw mill -and lumber districts of Holland.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_178" id="page_178"></a>{178}</span></p> - -<p>The other variation is what may be called a hybrid form—part post type, -part tower type. In this the contained machinery is fixed in the base, -and does not rotate, being thus of the tower mill design; while in the -upper part of the mill a rectangular wood housing, like a post mill, is -pivoted and revolves with a tail beam, as in the post design. Such -hybrid forms are found in Holland and in the valley of the Loire, at -Saumur, Chinon, etc.</p> - -<p>(<i>B</i>) <i>The Sweeps.</i>—With mills built for centuries and by all -countries, it is but natural to expect to find a wide range of form in -this most characteristic part of a windmill—the sweeps or vanes; and in -this one is not disappointed.</p> - -<p>The usual, earliest and simple form was that of a canvas or sail covered -framework. This canvas covering could be reefed to suit the strength of -the wind, and the four measures of sail spread were known as “full -sail,” “quarter sail,” “sword point” and “dagger point,” -respectively—these last two, from a fancied resemblance of the shape of -the partly furled or reefed cloth to the point of a sword or dagger. But -these canvas sails were laborious to handle, and in no sense automatic -in varying the amount of surface according to the strength of the wind, -which resulted in numerous schemes for betterment. The most successful -of these and that known as “patent” sails was the invention of Cubit, an -Englishman, who, a century and a quarter or so ago, devised a series of -wood shutters forming the face of the vane, all connected by little -levers and cords or rods to a counterweight. This, when adjusted, would -cause the shutters to give a full, flat surface to the wind, but if the -wind should increase to a danger point, its force would overcome the -pull of the weight and the hinged shutters would all open the necessary -amount to spill some of the wind through and thus ease the pressure on -the sweeps. This was a good deal like a huge Venetian blind arrangement, -as to the shutters or slats; and in some cases these shutters worked -against the tension of a spring instead of the pull of a weight, and -such were known as Meikle’s “spring sweeps.” Still another -arrangement—Bywater’s—was that of the canvas being mounted upon a long -roller, a good deal like a modern window shade, which rolled and -unrolled as needed; but this was rather complicated and not much in -vogue.</p> - -<p>It was usual to have four-fifths of the area of the sweeps on one side -of the arm and one-fifth on the other, and these were<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_179" id="page_179"></a>{179}</span> “single sweeps”; -while those in which there was a wide area on both sides—as almost the -universal practice in France—were known as “double sweeps.” Wood has -been used as a sweep covering as well as canvas—as for instance in -France, where one finds some of the most primitive, crude mills, with -sails made of thin boards interlaced or woven into the vane framework; -while, on the other hand, one also finds quite an elaborate -construction. This is in the mills of the Loire valley, in which a dozen -parallel boards on each vane are rigged much like a great Japanese fan, -which when open presents a large surface, but when closed presents but -little, the boards or wood strips overlapping and resting one upon the -other. This construction I have found nowhere but in that section.</p> - -<p>Going still further toward the primitive, we find in the Mediterranean, -especially in the eastern end, in Asia Minor, in the vicinity of Smyrna, -Turkey; the islands of Rhodes, Chios, Samos, and of Greece and the Sea -of Marmora, a construction consisting simply of poles, anywhere from six -to a dozen, stuck in the hub, carrying flying jibs, resulting in a wheel -not far different in form from the paper spinwheel that a child may -make! In Sicily and the Balearic islands these become a little better, -having the wood framework to hold the canvas in the most effective -position, and they form a transition phase between the crude jib wheels -of the Orient and the elaborated types of the north.</p> - -<p>In number the arms of the usual mill were four—and almost universally, -for this was not only the simplest and strongest construction compared -with the difficulty of framing six or eight firmly at the hub, but also -the most effective. For it was found that the wind had to have a certain -amount of exit space between the vanes to get away freely, and that if -this part of the circle was too much filled with additional sweeps no -corresponding gain in power was secured. A few very fine examples, -however, can be found of these five-and six-arm mills, as in the famous -100-foot brick tower mill of Whitby, England, with five arms and its -Turk’s head top; and at Lewes, where a fine turret mill and others have -five and six arms.</p> - -<p>The length of these arms in an ordinary size mill was about 30 feet, -giving a diameter to the wheel of 60 feet; but in the big tower mills -referred to the arms were sometimes 50 and 60 feet long, making the -wheels well over 100 feet in diameter. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_180" id="page_180"></a>{180}</span> usual speed was about 16 -revolutions a minute. If faster than 20 a danger point was reached that -was very real, for there have been many cases of runaway mills, -resulting from defective brakes or accident or carelessness; in which -accidents millers have been caught in the vanes or sweeps and carried -around and around and thrown off; or millstones bursting from too high -speed have amputated the miller’s legs; or friction heat has set the -structure afire.</p> - -<p>It is of course obvious that the surface of these windmill sails could -not be really flat, as in that case the wind blowing against it would -merely recoil and exert no power effect. A warp or twist was requisite, -that the wind might give a thrust to the sail in passing through the -wheel, precisely the reverse action of a screw propeller on a boat.</p> - -<p>This twist was known as the “angle of weather” or “bosom,” and the -precise amount and form were the subjects of many early abstruse and -learned studies. Practice finally settled down to an angle of about 17° -at the inner end and about 8° at the outer end of the sail as being the -most effective.</p> - -<p>The mounting of these huge wheels was a matter of some moment, requiring -very heavy construction, and this resulted in the use, as a rule, in all -the earlier and medium size mills of a great shaft or log, turned or -hewed octagonal, carried by gudgeon bearings, on old blocks of -soapstone, or greased oak, or cast iron bearings at either end. Into the -outer projecting end, outside the roof, the square ends of the vane -shafts or sweeps were mortised and bound with straps and bolts of iron. -Later and in the larger mills, and after foundry work was more -available, these “great-shafts” were made of iron, giving much better -bearings and enabling the sweeps to be bolted into square openings more -conveniently. But with all these mills, especially the early simpler -forms, there was an enormous loss in dead weight moved and in friction, -and it is doubtful whether in most of them 50 per cent of the force of -the wind reached the mill stones below for useful work.</p> - -<p>There was a popular belief that the wind came down from the heavens -above, and that therefore the wheel should “look up” a little, to best -meet it; with the result that the shaft of the mill was virtually never -set level, as one might suppose, but always with the outer end a little -higher than the inner, which angle of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_181" id="page_181"></a>{181}</span> uplift varied from 5° to 10°. A -very practical result of this was also gotten, in the necessary -clearance of the tapering tower by the revolving vanes. For these -revolving vanes were something to be respected—a 60-foot wheel, for -instance, weighing several tons and having a periphery speed of perhaps -3000 feet a minute, and more than one horse or cow straying into the -path of the arms in a mill in operation has been struck and paid the -penalty. To guard against that, mills were at times set upon a dais or -raised foundation, or fenced in.</p> - -<p>The great shaft would have mounted upon it a “great wheel,” from 8 to 12 -or 15 feet in diameter, with cog teeth, and these engaged in a pinion or -lantern or trundle or wallower wheel, as variously styled, on a vertical -shaft, which led to the machinery below, and there, by any suitable and -usual gear work of the olden times, whatever grist, saw, grinding, -stamping or other machinery was to be driven would be duly operated by -the wind power from above.</p> - -<p>(<i>C</i>) <i>The Tail Beam or Vane.</i>—The third essential feature of these old -mills was the device for keeping the wheel head-on to the wind, for the -purpose of securing the fullest amount of power. And this was quite a -point, in view of the perpetual shifting of the wind.</p> - -<p>The first arrangement was that of a long beam or pole projecting from -the rear of the old-time post mill, used precisely like a rudder. When -the direction of the wind changed this would be pushed from one side to -the other, to steer the post mill structure, pivoted on the post, again -into the wind. And in the succeeding tower mills, where only the top or -head would be turned, the tail beam principle was continued—as best -developed in Holland, where a somewhat elaborately braced and -several-membered framework was carried down to a point where it could be -reached and moved as the wind shifted. But in Holland the mills became -of large size and the weight to be moved was great, so that the old -Dutch miller would blow a whistle to summon his hands for help. In later -years they made use of a further rig of chains and tackle and a wheel -like a pilot’s, which enabled the snubbing around of the vanes and cap -to be done far more easily than by pushing by hand alone. This old tail -beam is, however, characteristic of the old-time small mill, and many -are the tracks, well worn and circular, around the mill that betoken -the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_182" id="page_182"></a>{182}</span> years of labor of the miller, even if eased by an old cartwheel to -carry the end of the beam, as instanced in the well-known old mill at -Nantucket and elsewhere.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_14a_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_14a_sml.png" width="500" alt="Usual tail beam on post mills and hybrid mills." /></a> -<br /> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="0" summary="" class="caption"> -<tr valign="top"><td>Usual tail beam on post mills<br /> and hybrid mills.</td> -<td> </td> -<td>Tail beam. France,<br /> tower mill.</td></tr> -</table> - -<br /> -<a href="images/i_14b_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_14b_sml.png" width="500" alt="Usual tail beam on post mills and hybrid mills." /></a> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="0" summary="" class="caption"> -<tr valign="top"><td>Tiller on Holland mill.</td><td> </td> -<td>Chain-wheel on tower mill.</td></tr> -</table> -<br /> -<a href="images/i_14c_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_14c_sml.png" width="500" alt="Usual tail beam on post mills and hybrid mills." /></a> -<br /> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="0" summary="" class="caption"> -<tr><td align="left">Cubit’s automatic tail wheel, England.</td><td align="left">Turntable mill, rollers and snubbing posts.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="c" colspan="2"><a href="images/i_14_lg.png">WINDMILL TAIL BEAMS OR TURNING GEAR.</a><br /> -For keeping mill-head on the wind.</td></tr> -</table> -</div> - -<p>Probably the next device for turning to the wind was the use of a chain -pull, connected to overhead gear wheels and a cogged<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_183" id="page_183"></a>{183}</span> track; for not -only is this found in some early mills of Holland, and in the mills at -Newport, R. I., but also in the rare old Peyto mill at Leamington, -England, of 1632, of which I shall speak further. These chain pulls were -either inside or out; the former being more protected from the weather.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_15_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_15_sml.jpg" width="500" height="395" alt="Thatched tower pumping mill. Holland." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">Thatched tower pumping mill. Holland.</span> -</div> - -<p>But all these hand devices were completely eclipsed by another invention -of Cubit—he of the “patent” sweep-shutter—known as Cubit’s tail vane. -This was the use of a small wheel of from 4 to 10 vanes, usually 6, -placed in the rear of the head of the mill, up aloft, and so connected -by a train of small gearing that when it rotated it would turn the main -head a little, and if need be follow up the variations of the wind. So -accurately was this designed that it is said that even with the wind -shifting but a couple of degrees around the horizon the tail wheel would -then begin to turn, and with its gearing would in turn wind the mill -head, carrying the sweeps, into the wind. This automatic arrangement was -almost universally adopted in England, in the better class of mills; -yet, with the stolidity of the Dutch temperament, apparently content to -continue with hand labor as did their grandfathers,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_184" id="page_184"></a>{184}</span> this admirable -device was rarely transplanted even to a place as nearby as Holland.</p> - -<p>Turning now from the mechanical side of these old mills, as above, it is -interesting to note the varied forms, uses and characteristics as found -in the diverse parts of the world, and in the variety of races where and -by whom these old home-made motors have been used.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_16_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_16_sml.jpg" width="500" height="380" alt="Saw-mill; turntable type. Holland." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">Saw-mill; turntable type. Holland.</span> -</div> - -<p>Holland is usually taken as the home of the windmill, but that is so -only in the greater proportionate number there in use than elsewhere. It -is not true as regards origin nor the best development of them. It is a -country notably flat, without water power, on the sea coast, and -requiring great pumping equipment for draining, etc. This early resulted -in the great number of windmills there found and associated with that -little kingdom. It is said that in early days there were 10,000 of them. -The greater number of them were used for lifting water to drain the -“polders,” or meadows or lowlands, through the medium of a scoop wheel -or Archimedes screw. Some of them can yet be seen and in use, with fat -Dutch babies apparently ever on the edge of falling in the sluiceways, -yet never doing so. Nearly all of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_185" id="page_185"></a>{185}</span> these mills have been replaced by -great steam-driven government pumping stations. For sawing wood, also, -great numbers are yet used in the Zaandam district, where several -hundred can be seen almost adjacent, a vista and forest of windmills. -And in the heart of the chief cities one yet sees, here and there, an -old-time brick tower mill, probably 200 years old—a family heritage, -with its clean and trim curtained little Dutch windows, its individual -name, as of a ship, such as “The Admiral” or “The Parrot,” over the -door, and its old coat of arms and carvings and touches of color. For -the Dutchman is fond of his substantial woodwork, and of his bits of -color; and such finds expression in his mills, where carving like the -stern of an old galley and color stripings of all the rainbow are both -tucked in and flagrantly added.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_17_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_17_sml.jpg" width="405" height="500" alt="“Petmolen” or small pumping mill. Holland." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">“Petmolen” or small pumping mill. Holland.</span> -</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_186" id="page_186"></a>{186}</span></p> - -<p>The characteristic of the Dutch mill is, however, that of a thatch -covering, both on sides and top, on the usual size common -mill—something not found in any other country. It is said of them that -there is also a code worked out—sort of a wigwag or semaphore -system—so that by the position of the vanes as left when shutting down, -the long-distance observer can read whether a carpenter is needed or a -baby has been born, etc., etc. Certain it is that the mills make fine -elevations for flag-flying on holiday occasions, for then the staunch -colors of Holland will be found on the flagpoles atop the most of them. -In noting the Dutch mills, one cannot overlook—nor wants to—the -picturesque little “petmolens” or “jaskers”—diminutive post pumping -mills, for small fields only—that, with long, slender vanes, seen -through the haze or afar, almost suggest one of the old rocs from Sinbad -the Sailor, caught in the act of alighting.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_18_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_18_sml.jpg" width="379" height="500" alt="Brick tower mill; largest built. Great Yarmouth, England. -(With Cubit’s tail vane.)" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">Brick tower mill; largest built. Great Yarmouth, England. -(With Cubit’s tail vane.)</span> -</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_187" id="page_187"></a>{187}</span></p> - -<p>England, while numerically far inferior to Holland, is yet far in -advance from the viewpoint of the fullest engineering development of -this world’s motor, as may be gathered from what has been said above as -to the automatic shutters, tail vanes, etc. The largest, the most varied -and the most efficient are found there. Many fine examples of these -mills can be seen, a few of which are still in operation. In the south -of England there are plenty of old wood structures of all forms—of -which the turret is perhaps the most locally characteristic. This is a -huge, or at least large size, post mill, often for some fine estate, -with the base enclosed with a circular low or one-story building, used -for storage, so that the external effect suggests a turret. In central -England a good number of the tall brick tower mills yet stand.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_19_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_19_sml.jpg" width="416" height="500" alt="Tower grist mill. South of England." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">Tower grist mill. South of England.</span> -</div> - -<p>For picturesqueness, however, no country surpasses old France. There the -mills are small; the huge, towering structure<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_188" id="page_188"></a>{188}</span> of the Dutch and English -is unknown. But one can find many of great antiquity, great variety of -form and of great charm. The type seems to be the true cylindrical -tower—not tapering—with the cone top. In the racetrack at Longchamps, -near Paris, is an instance, while on the golf course at St. Lunaire, -overlooking the sea coast, on the Channel, as in innumerable other -places in the northern part of France, these little sentries of the past -can be found. Picturesque as they are, however, they are not yet as much -so as even an older and cruder form suggesting an old blockhouse. For -above the stone first story is an overhanging wood second story, as so -well instanced at St. Briac. And in the Loire valley are the very unique -hybrid mills with the folding boards vane arrangement, already referred -to, which at Saumur date back to 1682, as doubtless do the others of -that not-to-be-found-elsewhere form.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_20_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_20_sml.jpg" width="412" height="500" alt="Turret post-mill. South of England." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">Turret post-mill. South of England.</span> -</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_189" id="page_189"></a>{189}</span></p> - -<p>Of old post mills of the usual wood form France has plenty, of which the -one on top of Montmartre, in the Moulin de la Galette grounds, is -perhaps the most prominent. It is one of the two or three remaining that -were part of a dozen or more that crowned that hill in the early days, -as shown in several views of old Paris. What changes it has seen in its -600 years of accredited age! In its timbers are shot and balls of the -revolutions of 1814 and 1871. Within are the old bells and bunks and -shrines of the generations of millers who operated it, one of whom is -said to have been killed and quartered and hung on the four arms of his -own mill by the successful assailants. In the same premises is a dear -little miniature mill, which, with diminutive stones of but 18 or 20 -inches in diameter, was used for grinding spices, in place of the usual -grain for bread.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_21_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_21_sml.jpg" width="414" height="500" alt="Tower mill and tail beam. St. Lunaire, France." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">Tower mill and tail beam. St. Lunaire, France.</span> -</div> - -<p>In Belgium we find, in the main, the post and tower mills of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_190" id="page_190"></a>{190}</span> Holland -and the Netherlands; while in Germany, as well, the similarity to the -Dutch mills is the only or chief characteristic. In Denmark and Sweden -and in Iceland are the usual mills of this section, excepting that their -octagonal, typical squatty grist mill nearly always has the Turk’s head -top instead of the irregular shape of Holland and Germany. And so -pronounced is that that in Lawrence, Kan., where a mill was erected in -1858, with a Swedish top, inquiry develops that it was by Swedish -emigrants. Iceland can claim probably the most northern mill ever -erected, for in Reykiavik, a little isolated town of about 3000 -inhabitants, we find an old mill, probably the first and only motor in -the early days in Iceland.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_22_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_22_sml.jpg" width="413" height="500" alt="Tower mill; double sweeps. St. Briac, France." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">Tower mill; double sweeps. St. Briac, France.</span> -</div> - -<p>There is greater picturesqueness—but, as usual, accompanied with less -efficiency—in the southern part of Europe, as, for instance, in Spain. -Here, aside from the jib flying mills of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_191" id="page_191"></a>{191}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_23a_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_23a_sml.jpg" width="500" height="372" alt="Hybrid type of grist mill, 1682. Saumur, France." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">Hybrid type of grist mill, 1682. Saumur, France.</span> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_23b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_23b_sml.jpg" width="500" height="318" alt="Crude forms of tower grist mills; vicinity of Buda-Pesth, -Hungary." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">Crude forms of tower grist mills; vicinity of Buda-Pesth, -Hungary.</span> -</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_192" id="page_192"></a>{192}</span></p> - -<p>Mediterranean, we find primitive construction, crude devices and even -the clay water bottles, or jars, bound to a cumbrous wheel, slowly -turning over by wind power, for lifting water for irrigation, similar to -devices seen on the banks of the Nile—although there operated by oxen. -And in Spain we tread the country where the ever immortal Don Quixote, -despite the adjurations of the faithful Sancho Panzo, charged at full -speed a flock of windmills on the plains of Montiel.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_24_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_24_sml.jpg" width="382" height="500" alt="Mid-European type of post mill. Belgium." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">Mid-European type of post mill. Belgium.</span> -</div> - -<p>The crude structures of Greece and Turkey, already mentioned, are so -crude that often no device is provided for turning to the wind, but, on -the contrary, four mills are sometimes built in a field, facing, -respectively, north, south, east and west; so that whichever way the -wind comes some power can be secured. It is, however, more likely that -prevailing winds are so constant<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_193" id="page_193"></a>{193}</span> from one quarter there is but little -use for a turning device, resulting in its omission.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_25_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_25_sml.jpg" width="418" height="500" alt="Tower mill. Trapani, Sicily." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">Tower mill. Trapani, Sicily.</span> -</div> - -<p>And so one can go the world over and find these old mills; to the -Barbadoes, where they are still extensively used—and of English -type—for crushing sugar cane; to Jamaica, where they once were, as -shown by an old print of the earthquake of 1792, in which several mills -are depicted bodily upside down almost, as would be a child’s toy; to -Peru, where over 13,000 feet above sea level in the Potosi silver mining -districts of past times—centuries past—old prints show mills of the -manifest Spanish type operating stamps for crushing silver ore; to the -St. Lawrence, where the early settlers, both French and English, left -their imprint in the shape of old mills on several promontories and -points; to southern Illinois, where the German emigrants of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_194" id="page_194"></a>{194}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_26a_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_26a_sml.jpg" width="500" height="360" alt="Multi-jib tower mill. Samos, Turkey in Asia." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">Multi-jib tower mill. Samos, Turkey in Asia.</span> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_26b_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_26b_sml.jpg" width="500" height="389" alt="Tower of the old Newport mill, of 1675, as now standing. -Truro Park, Newport, R. I." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">Tower of the old Newport mill, of 1675, as now standing. -Truro Park, Newport, R. I.</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_195" id="page_195"></a>{195}</span></p> - -<p>1820’s and ’30’s brought with them the mills of the Fatherland, etc. In -all quarters of the globe the world’s chief motor for eight centuries -can still be found.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_27_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_27_sml.jpg" width="323" height="500" alt="Chesterton mill, vertical section between columns." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">Chesterton mill, vertical section between columns.</span> -</div> - -<p>And in closing this review of old windmills there is no instance to -which reference should be made of quite as much interest as the old mill -at Newport, known to every American antiquary and which, some two or -three generations ago, was ingeniously ascribed to the Norse in the -period of 1100 or thereabouts. This theory, while highly picturesque, -was unfortunate chiefly in never having anything except surmise to back -it up. Not a jot nor tittle of record or physical remains could be -developed to substantiate it, and it has long since been practically -dropped by most students of American history. And when the following, -that has in recent years been developed, is borne in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_196" id="page_196"></a>{196}</span> mind, there seems -no vestige of reason left in the Norse theory. There is no question as -to the following facts in relation to the Newport mill, and I speak with -confidence, having in person surveyed and thoroughly investigated both -it and its English prototype, as described:</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_28_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_28_sml.jpg" width="366" height="500" alt="Newport mill restored, vertical section." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">Newport mill restored, vertical section.</span> -</div> - -<p>In 1675 Governor Benedict Arnold (the grandfather of the traitor) was in -charge of the then early colony of Rhode Island. Sixty years before he -had been born in the Warwickshire section, England, in which the Peyto -estate was perhaps the greatest and finest. On that estate there was -completed the most elaborate windmill ever built. Inigo Jones, England’s -great architect of that time, designed it, and it was unique in its open -arch design, its finely chiselled stonework and unusual adornment. Young -Arnold was a lad of 17 at that time, and the building of this beautiful -and remarkable windmill, in 1632, was, with small<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_197" id="page_197"></a>{197}</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_29_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_29_sml.jpg" width="383" height="500" alt="Inigo Jones-Peyto mill of 1632. Chesterton, Warwickshire, -England." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">Inigo Jones-Peyto mill of 1632. Chesterton, Warwickshire, -England.</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">doubt, a marked episode in his life and knowledge. Forty odd years -later, he, by the chance of fate, was the Governor of the Rhode Island -Colony. With the destruction of a previous wood windmill of 1665, blown -down in a great storm, it became his duty to provide another one for the -use of the little colony. And there is small doubt, indeed, that in -doing that he undertook to provide a mill that should be as nearly as -possible a copy of the old mill at Chesterton, near Leamington—the best -mill of which he knew. And so, without the measurements as to the -general arrangement, size and design, from memory only, he there built, -with the most limited facilities, a virtual replica of the -Leamington-Peyto-Jones mill. In order to secure greater<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_198" id="page_198"></a>{198}</span> permanence and -protection against Indian attacks the mill was built of stone instead of -wood.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_30_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_30_sml.jpg" width="411" height="500" alt="Newport, R. I., mill as “restored” or probably -constructed." /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">Newport, R. I., mill as “restored” or probably -constructed.</span> -</div> - -<p>For, while of course the fine stone work and carving and detail are -missing, in this colonial condition, the general dimensions, the design -and the interior arrangements are in substance the same throughout. It -needs only the comparison of the plans of the two—side by side—to be -satisfied as to that. Governor Arnold’s birthplace and connection afford -the reason of the similarity, and his will even speaks of “my stone -built windmill.” This old structure, still standing—as to its walls—in -Truro Park, Newport, R. I., is perhaps America’s greatest colonial -relic, and with its prototype of Chesterton constitutes the most unique -pair of windmills, having the greatest historic interest, of any -attaching to our country’s windmill history.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><p class="cb">NOTE:</p> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> Presented at a meeting of the Mechanical and Engineering -Section, held Thursday, March 14, 1918.</p></div> -</div> - -<hr class="full" /> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Windmills, Picturesque and Historic: -The Motors of the Past, by F. H. 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