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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #55846 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/55846)
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-The Project Gutenberg EBook of Boat Sailing, by A. J. Kenealy
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-
-
-Title: Boat Sailing
-       In Fair Weather and Foul, 6th ed.
-
-Author: A. J. Kenealy
-
-Release Date: October 29, 2017 [EBook #55846]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BOAT SAILING ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Chris Curnow, readbueno and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
-file was produced from images generously made available
-by The Internet Archive)
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-
-
-                             BOAT SAILING,
-
-                         FAIR WEATHER AND FOUL.
-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  _Good Luck and a Fair Wind._
-
-  _A. J. Kenealy._
-]
-
-
-
-
-                        OUTING LIBRARY OF SPORT.
-
-                              BOAT SAILING
-
-                                   IN
-
-                         FAIR WEATHER AND FOUL.
-
-                                  _BY_
-
-                         CAPTAIN A. J. KENEALY.
-
-
-                 "Man made him a boat of a hollow tree,
-               And thus became lord of the bounding sea."
-
-[Illustration]
-
-                                _1903._
-                            _SIXTH EDITION._
-                               _REVISED._
-
-                   _WITH ILLUSTRATIONS AND DIAGRAMS._
-
-
-                       THE OUTING PUBLISHING CO.,
-                        NEW YORK.        LONDON.
-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
-
-
-                             Copyrighted by
-                  THE OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY, 1903,
-                               NEW YORK.
-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
-
-
-                                PREFACE.
-
-
-When the first edition of this little book was printed in 1894 my
-publishers thought they would be very lucky if they ever disposed of
-half the number of copies turned out by the press. I had the same
-melancholy forebodings. The result has shown that our fears were
-groundless. The book was written in a simple sailorly style for all
-lovers of the sea and boats. That it should have received such cordial
-commendation as it has from amateurs and professionals has been both a
-pleasure and a surprise. In sending it out on its sixth edition, I
-cannot lose the opportunity of thanking my critics who have been very
-flattering to whatever merits it may possess.
-
-                                                          A. J. KENEALY.
-
-_New York, April, 1903._
-
-
-
-
-                               CONTENTS.
-
-
-                              CHAPTER I.
-
-       Preliminary Hints to an Amateur with Ambitions
-       Toward Owning a Boat—Why He Ought Join a
-       Yacht—Club Handiness of the Cat-Rig                    15
-
-                              CHAPTER II.
-
-       The Choice of a Boat—Advantages of Stationary
-       Ballast and a Centerboard—How to Avoid Being
-       "Done" in a Boat Trade—Bargains at the Navy
-       Yard—The Way to Cure a "Nail-Sick" Craft               22
-
-                             CHAPTER III.
-
-       Trial Spin in a Cat-Boat—How to Get Under Way,
-       Beat to Windward and Run Back, with Instructions
-       How to Act if Caught in a Squall or Stranded on a
-       Shoal, and How to Avoid Collisions and Come to
-       Anchor                                                 28
-
-                              CHAPTER IV.
-
-       Advantages of the Yawl-Rig for General Cruising
-       Purposes, especially when "Single Handed," with a
-       Description of a Representative
-       Craft—Disadvantages of the Ballast Fin for All
-       Purposes Except Racing—The Fin in Model Yachting
-       Years Ago                                              37
-
-                              CHAPTER V.
-
-       The Popularity of the Knockabout as an Excellent
-       Cruising Craft, with Some Observations on the
-       One-design Classes from Schooners to Dories            55
-
-                              CHAPTER VI.
-
-       Keep Your Weather-Eye Open All the Time When
-       Afloat—How to Handle a Boat in Heavy Weather or a
-       Summer Squall—The Use of the Sea Anchor in Riding
-       Out a Gale, and How Shipwreck May Be Avoided by
-       the Judicious Use of Oil                               65
-
-                             CHAPTER VII.
-
-       Overhauling the Yacht—Practical Instructions for
-       Cleaning and Painting the Craft Inside and Out,
-       with Hints on the Care of Hull, Spars, Canvas and
-       Running gear                                           88
-
-                             CHAPTER VIII.
-
-       Fitting Out for a Cruise—Hints on Equipping and
-       Provisioning a Boat so as to be Prepared for All
-       Emergencies—A Sailor's Solution of the Culinary
-       Problem—Hot "Grub" in a Gale                          115
-
-                              CHAPTER IX.
-
-       Beating to Windward—The Theory and Practice of
-       Sailing a Vessel Against the Breeze                   128
-
-                              CHAPTER X.
-
-       Combination Rowing and Sailing Boats—The Jib and
-       Mainsail Sprit, Leg-of-Mutton, Cat, Balance Lug
-       and Sliding Gunter-Rigs—The Folding Centerboard       140
-
-                              CHAPTER XI.
-
-       Rigging and Sails, with Some Impartial Remarks on
-       the Lanyard and the Deadeye, as Opposed to the
-       Turnbuckle—Standing and Running Gear, and the
-       Bending and Setting of Canvas                         155
-
-                             CHAPTER XII.
-
-       Laying Up for the Winter—Practical Suggestions for
-       Protecting a Boat and Her Gear from the Stress of
-       Our Inclement Climate—A Plea for Trustworthy
-       Skippers and Engineers                                168
-
-                             CHAPTER XIII.
-
-       Useful Hints and Recipes, with Some Remarks on the
-       Buying of a Binocular Marine Glass, from the
-       "Brain-Pan" of a Practical Sailor                     175
-
-                             CHAPTER XIV.
-
-       The Rule of the Road at Sea: Being a Digest of the
-       Present International Regulations for Preventing
-       Collisions on Oceans and in Harbors                   185
-
-                              CHAPTER XV.
-
-       The Mariner's Compass, with Remarks on Deviation,
-       Variation, Leeway, etc.                               192
-
-                             CHAPTER XVI.
-
-       Charts, with Some Hints as to Navigation by
-       Dead-reckoning—Lead, Log, and Lookout                 203
-
-                             CHAPTER XVII.
-
-       Marlinespike Seamanship: Being Practical
-       Instructions in the Art of Making the Splices,
-       Knots and Bends in Ordinary Use                       207
-
-                            CHAPTER XVIII.
-
-       Weather Wrinkles from the Scientific Point of View
-       of Professional Meteorologists and also Jack Tar      217
-
-                             CHAPTER XIX.
-
-       Sea Cookery for Yachtsmen                             223
-
-                              CHAPTER XX.
-
-       Nautical Terms in Common Use, from which all
-       Obsolete and Antiquated Terms, such as were in use
-       aboard the Ark, have been eliminated                  236
-
-       _Addenda_—Recent Changes of Sail Plan and Rigging
-       in Modern Craft                                       248
-
-
-
-
-                      ILLUSTRATIONS AND DIAGRAMS.
-
-
-                   Frontispiece. _Turning the Stake._
-
-                                                        PAGE
-
-            Yawl in a Squall,                             41
-
-            Latest Type of Fin-Keel,                      49
-
-            Sail Plan of Modern Fin-Keel,                 54
-
-            Seawanhaka, 21-foot Knockabout,               56
-
-            Seawanhaka Knockabout,                        57
-
-            Sail Plan Seawanhaka Knockabout,              58
-
-            Drogue, or Sea Anchor,                        70
-
-            Diagram of Floating Anchor,                   71
-
-            Floating Anchor in Use,                       72
-
-            The Boston Knockabout, _Gosling_,             75
-
-            Plan of Oil Distributor,                      80
-
-            In Dry Dock,                                  98
-
-            Hauled Out for Painting,                      98
-
-            Making Ready for a New Dress,                114
-
-            Pleasant Cat-Boat Sailing,                   119
-
-            Sailing Under Varying Conditions of Wind,    128
-
-            Running Before the Wind,                     130
-
-            Gybing,                                      131
-
-            Close Hauled on Port Tack,                   132
-
-            Close Hauled on Starboard Tack,              133
-
-            Dead Beat to Windward,                       134
-
-            A Long Leg and a Short Leg,                  138
-
-            The Manœuvre of Tacking,                     139
-
-            Whip Purchase and Traveler,                  140
-
-            Jib and Mainsail Rig,                        141
-
-            Sprit Rig,                                   143
-
-            Leg-of-Mutton Rig,                           147
-
-            Cat Rig,                                     148
-
-            Balance Lug Rig,                             150
-
-            Sliding Gunter Rig,                          151
-
-            Detail of Sliding Gunter Rig,                152
-
-            Folding Centerboard,                         154
-
-            Shroud, Deadeye, Lanyard,                    156
-
-            Turnbuckle,                                  157
-
-            Topmast Rigging,                             158
-
-            Rig of Running Bowsprit,                     159
-
-            Horse for Main Sheet,                        161
-
-            Gear for Hauling Out Loose-footed Mainsail,  166
-
-            Luncheon in the Cock-pit,                    179
-
-            Scowing an Anchor,                           180
-
-            "Half Raters,"                               184
-
-            The Compass,                                 193
-
-            Marlinespike,                                207
-
-            Knots and Splices,                           208
-
-            Cautionary Signals,                          221
-
-            Storm Signals,                               222
-
-            A Yachtsman's Stove,                         223
-
-            The Ideal Fry-pan,                           225
-
-            A Nest of Stew-Pans,                         227
-
-            Ice Tub,                                     229
-
-            A Traveling Companion,                       231
-
-            The Sloop Yacht,                             246
-
-            The Cutter Yacht,                            247
-
-            The Sail Plan and Rig of a Modern Schooner,  249
-
-            The Sail Plan and Rig of a Modern Yawl,      251
-
-[Illustration: TURNING THE STAKE.]
-
-
-
-
-                                   I.
-
-                         ADVICE TO AN AMATEUR.
-
-
-All of us remember the old sailor's retort to the man who reproached him
-for soaking his clay in bad rum. "There ain't such a thing under heaven
-as _bad_ rum," he sagely remarked. "Of course some rum is better than
-another, but I have been knocking about the world for more than fifty
-years and never did I drink a glass of rum that deserved to be called
-_bad_, and I got outside of some pretty fiery tipple in my time."
-
-The same is true in a general way of boats. There are many types of boat
-and each has some peculiar attribute to recommend it. No two craft, for
-instance, could be more widely different in every way than a Gloucester
-fishing dory and a Cape Cod cat-boat, yet each when properly handled has
-safely ridden out an Atlantic gale. Of course if their movements had
-been directed by farm hands both would have foundered. In point of fact,
-there is no royal road to the acquisition of seamanship. Experience is
-what is needed first, last and all the time. It is true, however, that
-the rough sea over which the learner has necessarily to sail may be
-smoothed for him, even as the breakers on a harbor bar are rendered
-passable for a homeward-bound craft by the judicious application of a
-little oil.
-
-The choice of a boat depends upon a vast variety of circumstances, the
-chief of which is the location of the prospective boat owner. If he
-lives on the Great South Bay, for example, he should provide himself
-with a craft of light draught, almost capable of sailing on a clover
-field after a heavy fall of dew. Equipped with a centerboard and a sail
-a boat of this kind, if of the right shape and construction, will be
-found comfortable, safe and of moderate speed. A man may also enjoy an
-infinite amount of pleasure aboard her, after he has mastered the secret
-of her management. There are so many sandbars in the Great South Bay
-that a boat of light draught is indispensable to successful sailing. The
-same remark applies also to Barnegat Bay and adjacent New Jersey waters.
-There are some persons who believe that it is impossible to combine
-light draught and safety. They make a great mistake. A twelve-foot
-sneakbox in Barnegat Bay, with the right man steering, will live for a
-long time in rough water that would sorely try the capacity of a much
-larger craft in the hands of a lubber. The same is true of a sharpie.
-
-The man who makes up his mind that he wants a sailing boat should study
-well the geography of his vicinity. If he lives in New York or on the
-Sound his course is easy. He is sure to be within reach of a yacht or
-boat club from whose members he can get all the information he needs.
-They will tell him the boat best adapted to his requirements and his
-finances, and if they persuade him to join their organization they will
-be conferring upon him a favor. I have traveled a good deal among the
-yacht clubs of New York, New Jersey and Connecticut, and I never came
-across a more generous, more obliging and more sportsmanlike body of men
-than those enrolled on the rosters of these enterprising associations.
-They are convinced that there is more real pleasure to the square inch
-in the possession of a stout boat capable of being managed by a couple
-of men, than there is in the proprietorship of a big yacht that carries
-a crew of twenty and whose owner probably knows nothing about the art of
-sailing her, but depends all the time on his skipper. It is a pleasure
-to meet these men and listen to their yarns. The earnestness, the zeal
-and the ability with which they pursue their favorite pastime are indeed
-commendable. And the best of it is they are always ready to welcome
-recruits, and to pass them through the rudimentary mill of seamanship
-and navigation, their motto being "Every man his own skipper." The only
-requisite necessary to membership in one or more of these clubs is that
-you should be a "clubable" man with manly instincts. Young fellows, too,
-are eagerly sought, so you need have no compunction about seeking their
-doors, the latchstrings of which are always down.
-
-By all means join a club, I say. You get all the advantages of the house
-and the anchorage, and all the benefits that accrue to association with
-men who are ardent and enthusiastic in the enjoyment of their pet
-diversion. Besides—let me whisper a word in your ear, my brother, you of
-the slender purse or may be economic instincts—it will be cheaper for
-you in the end; it will put money in your purse. Your boat will be
-looked after all the year round by watchful guardians, who will see that
-it isn't stripped or rifled by river pirates, and that the elements do
-not mar its beauty. I confess I was surprised when I learned how little
-it costs to become entitled to all the privileges of these clubs, and it
-is owing to their moderate charges that the "mosquito fleet" in the
-vicinity of New York is growing so big and interest in the sport is
-increasing so rapidly.
-
-What I have written of New York is true, perhaps, in a greater measure
-of Boston. There is no finer sheet of water for boat sailing than Boston
-Bay, and no people in the world are more devoted to the sport than those
-who dwell in the city of culture and its sea-washed environs. There are
-plenty of yacht clubs between Point Allerton, on the south, and
-Marblehead, on the north. It has been ascertained that more than five
-thousand members have joined these organizations and that nineteen
-hundred yachts are enrolled on their lists, most of the craft being less
-than twenty feet on the water line. It will thus be seen that Boston
-fully appreciates the value of small sailing craft as a means of
-amusement and healthful recreation. The port from which _Volunteer_,
-_Mayflower_ and _Puritan_ originally hailed, though justly proud of
-those three magnificent racing yachts, has always been distinguished for
-turning out stout, able and seaworthy vessels of the smaller type, and
-also for breeding a sturdy race of men who know every trick of
-seamanship. The majority of the boats are so constructed and rigged as
-to ensure that they will render a good account of themselves in a blow
-and a seaway. Thus the "sandbagger" type of vessel is rarely found "down
-east," and this, in my opinion, need not be regretted.
-
-The catrigged boat, with stationary ballast and a centerboard, may be
-said to be the type generally preferred in those waters. The Newport
-cat-boat is famous the world over for her handiness, speed and ability.
-I know that it is fashionable for scientific men and swell naval
-architects to decry the seaworthiness of these boats. It has been urged
-that the weight of the mast in the eyes of the craft is a serious
-objection, a strain on the hull, and not unlikely to be carried away for
-want of proper staying. The long boom also has been objected to, because
-of its liability to trip. The craft has been declared difficult to steer
-and a regular "yawer." But while saying unkind things of the cat-boat's
-behavior in a blow, no critic, however biased, has ventured to deny her
-general handiness.
-
-I might remind these gentlemen that the owner of a pleasure boat does
-not as a rule sail her in a blow or in a seaway, but this would not be a
-fair or legitimate argument. The elements are treacherous. A summer
-storm often plays havoc among the shipping, and a man who ventures
-seaward in the morning in a balmy breeze and with the water smooth as a
-horsepond may be caught in a savage blow, followed by a heavy sea, both
-of which may sorely try the capabilities of his craft and his own
-resources as a seaman.
-
-I am such a devout believer, however, in a cat-boat of proper form and
-rig, that I will defend her as a good and handy craft in both fair
-weather and foul. It blows hard in Narragansett Bay sometimes, and I
-have often known a devil of a sea to be kicked up off Brenton's Reef
-lightship. But the Newport cat-boat, with a couple of reefs down, comes
-out of the harbor and dances over the steep waves like a duck or a cork.
-I never saw one of them come to grief, and in fact they have always
-impressed me as being the handiest all-round boat afloat. I have sailed
-in them in all sorts of weather, and I am not likely to alter my
-opinion. Many of the objections raised against them are idle. For
-instance, the mast can be so stayed as to be perfectly secure. There is
-also no reason why the boom should project so far over the stern as to
-trip, and in this connection I should like to ask of what use is a
-topping lift unless one avails himself of it in just such an emergency?
-A man should always keep the boom well topped up when running before the
-wind in a seaway, and by this means he may avoid much trouble and
-possibly peril.
-
-The above remarks are applicable to both salt water and fresh water, to
-the yachts of the North, the South, as well as of the Great and Little
-Lakes, and indeed wherever the glorious sport flourishes. In point of
-fact, all the hints and directions given in these chapters may be
-followed with profit on the Pacific Coast as well as on the Atlantic
-Seaboard, on Lake Michigan or on the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
-
-
-
-
-                                  II.
-
-                         THE CHOICE OF A BOAT.
-
-
-If any ambitious would-be mariner, old or young, hailing from anywhere
-were to ask me what sort of a boat I would recommend him to build or
-buy, I would answer him frankly that an able cat-boat, with a
-centerboard and stationary ballast would, in my judgment, be best. I
-would advise him to shun the "sandbaggers"—not that one cannot enjoy an
-immense amount of exciting sport in one of them, but because they seem
-to me to be only fit for racing, and I will tell you why. A man when he
-goes on a quiet cruise doesn't want to be bothered by having to shift
-heavy bags of sand every time the boat goes about. It is too much like
-hard work, and by the time your day's fun is finished you feel stiff in
-the joints. I have other arguments against the use of shifting ballast,
-but do not think any other save the one mentioned is necessary.
-
-This point disposed of, let us confer. Of what shall the stationary
-ballast for our able cat-boat consist? Outside lead is of course the
-best, but its first cost is a serious matter. A cast-iron false keel or
-shoe answers admirably, and is moderate in price. Some persons object to
-it, claiming that it rusts and corrodes; that its fastenings decay the
-wooden keel to which it is bolted, and that its weight strains a boat
-and soon causes her to become leaky. There is of course some truth in
-these charges; but if the boat is built by a mechanic and not an
-impostor, none of these disadvantages will exist, and the cast-iron keel
-will prove to be both efficient and economical.
-
-But if, by straining a point, lead can be afforded, procure it by all
-means and have it bolted on outside. It neither tarnishes nor corrodes,
-and as it does not deteriorate, its marketable value is always the same.
-Racing yachts have, however, been known to sell for less than their lead
-ballast cost, but such instances are rare. It should be borne in mind
-that the lower down the lead is placed the less the quantity required,
-and the greater its efficiency.
-
-There are always a number of second-hand cat-boats in the market for
-sale at a reasonable rate, and an advertisement will bring plenty of
-replies. But for a tyro to purchase a boat haphazard is a mistake on
-general principles. It is like a sailor buying a horse. Get some honest
-shipwright or boat builder to examine, say, some half-dozen boats whose
-dimensions suit you, and whose prices are about what you think you can
-afford. There are certain portions of a cat-boat that are subject to
-violent strains when the craft is under way. The step of the mast and
-the centerboard trunk are parts that require the vigilant eye of an
-expert.
-
-Human nature is prone to temptation, and paint and putty are used quite
-often to conceal many important defects in a craft advertised for sale.
-The keen eye of a mechanic who has served his time to a boat-builder
-will soon detect all deficiencies of this kind, will ferret out rotten
-timbers, and under his advice and counsel you may succeed in picking up
-at a bargain some sound, seaworthy and serviceable craft in which you
-can enjoy yourself to your heart's content.
-
-But if some rotten hull is foisted on you by an unscrupulous person you
-will be apt to "kick yourself round the block," for she will be always
-in need of repairs, and in the end, when she is finally condemned, you
-will find on figuring up the cost that it would have been money in your
-pocket if you had built a new boat.
-
-The principal boat-builders of New York, New Jersey, Connecticut and
-Massachusetts are men of high character, who take a pride in their work
-(which is thoroughly first-class), and whose prices are strictly
-moderate. Any one of these will construct a capital boat of good model
-and fair speed. I am an old crank and a bigot in many things
-appertaining to boats and the sea, but I hope that any reader of this
-who is going to build a pleasure craft will follow my advice at least in
-this instance: Let her be copper-fastened above and below the
-water-line. Don't use a single galvanized nail or bolt in her
-construction. See that the fastenings are clenched on a roove—not simply
-turned down. Don't spoil the ship for a paltry ha'porth of tar. Many
-builders, for the sake of economy, use galvanized iron throughout, and
-will take a solemn affidavit that it is quite as good as copper. But in
-the innermost cockles of their hearts they know they are wrong. Others
-more conscientious use copper fastenings below the water-line and
-galvanized iron above; but copper throughout is my cry, and so will I
-ever maintain while I am on this side of the Styx.
-
-Sometimes one may pick up a good serviceable boat at a Navy Yard sale.
-Uncle Sam's boats are of fair design and well built. They are often
-condemned because they are what is called "nail sick," a defect which
-can be easily remedied. Occasionally a steamship's life-boat can be
-bought for a trifle, and if it be fitted with a false keel with an iron
-shoe on it, will prove thoroughly seaworthy and a moderately good
-sailer.
-
-Mr. E. F. Knight, the English barrister and author of the "Cruise of the
-_Falcon_," tells how he bought a life-boat condemned by the Peninsular
-and Oriental Company. She was thirty feet long with a beam of eight
-feet, very strong, being built of double skins of teak, and, like all
-the life-boats used by that company, an excellent sea boat. This craft
-he timbered and decked, rigged her as a ketch, and crossed the North Sea
-in her, going as far as Copenhagen and back, and encountering plenty of
-bad weather during the adventurous voyage. Mr. Knight is a believer in
-the pointed or life-boat stern for a small vessel. He was caught in a
-northwest gale, in the Gulf of Heligoland, in the above-mentioned craft,
-and had to sail sixty miles before a high and dangerous sea. His boat
-showed no tendency to broach to, "but rushed straight ahead across the
-steep sea in a fashion that gave us confidence and astonished us. Had
-she had the ordinary yacht's stern to present to those following masses
-of water, instead of a graceful wedge offering little resistance, we
-should have had a very uncomfortable time of it. Many men dislike a
-pointed stern and consider it ugly. However that may be it behaves
-handsomely, and we should certainly recommend any amateur building a
-sailing boat for coasting purposes to give her the life-boat stern."
-
-Mr. Knight fitted his boat with lee boards, which no doubt served their
-purpose admirably. I should, however, favor a false keel and an iron
-shoe as being more efficient and less unsightly. I should not advise the
-purchaser of a condemned life-boat to have her fitted with a
-centerboard. The cost would be high, and unless the job was done in a
-first-class manner by a man experienced at this sort of work it would be
-very unsatisfactory.
-
-A "nail-sick," clencher-built boat should be hauled up on the beach and
-filled with water. Every leak should be marked on the outside with chalk
-or white paint. After all the leaks have been discovered, run the water
-out of her and dry her thoroughly. Next examine every nail and try the
-lands or joinings of the planks with the blade of a very thin knife. Any
-rivets which have worked loose must be taken out and replaced with nails
-and rooves of a larger size. Through the chief parts of the bottom it
-may be necessary to put an additional nail between every two originally
-driven. Many of the old nails which are only a little slack should be
-hardened at their clench by a few taps from inside, one hand holding a
-"dollie" against the head of the nail on the outside. Melt a pound of
-pitch in a gallon of boiling North Carolina tar and give her bottom a
-good coat inside, filling the lands or ledges well. The garboard strake
-fastenings and also those of the hooded ends should be carefully
-caulked. So should the seams. The seams of the planking should also be
-caulked.
-
-There are various methods of making a boat unsinkable. Cork is sometimes
-used, but it takes up too much room and is not so buoyant as air. Copper
-or zinc cases, made to fit under the thwarts and in various odd corners,
-have been fitted in boats, but their cost is high. Amateurs have used
-powder flasks and cracker cans, with their covers soldered on, cigar
-boxes, covered with duck and painted, bladders inflated with air, etc.,
-etc. A boat displacing one ton will take about forty cubic feet of air
-to make her unsinkable.
-
-
-
-
-                                  III.
-
-                       TRIAL SPIN IN A CAT-BOAT.
-
-
-Before getting a cat-boat under way from an anchorage, or casting adrift
-from moorings, the captain should see all gear clear, that the
-centerboard works easily in its trunk, and that oars, rowlocks and a
-baler are aboard. An oar is very handy for turning a boat's head round
-in a light air when she has barely steerage way on; and in case you are
-confronted with a flat calm, a pair of oars are indispensable for
-working homeward. A boat-hook, too, should not be neglected. There is a
-story that I heard in the forecastle, of a mean old Dutch skipper who
-left his new anchor ashore on purely economic grounds. He was afraid it
-might rust, I suppose. The result of this thrifty dodge was the loss of
-his vessel on the Goodwin Sands. My counsel to the young boat-skipper is
-to see that his anchor is snugly stowed away forward, and that his
-chain—if his cable is of chain—is properly shackled to the ring of the
-anchor, and that the inner end of the cable is fast to the heel of the
-mast by a lashing that can be cut if it is necessary to slip at any
-time. If the cable is of rope, take care that it is not made fast to the
-ring with a slippery hitch. Anchors cost money, and a bend that will not
-come adrift is quite simple to make.
-
-Cast the tyers off the mainsail and hoist it, pulling up best on the
-throat halyards and then "swigging" on the peak till the after-leech is
-taut and the sail begins to wrinkle slightly at the throat. While you
-are setting the sail, let the sheet fly. Next coil down the throat and
-peak halyards clear for running, and see that the mainsheet is free from
-kinks and coiled so that it can be eased off at a moment's notice
-without any danger of jamming in the block. A kink in the mainsheet has
-capsized many a cat-boat. Before you reeve a new mainsheet, stretch it
-well and take all the kinks out of it. Take care that the running parts
-of all sheets and halyards are coiled uppermost, with the ends
-underneath.
-
-Let us suppose that there is a nice breeze blowing and that your
-intention is to essay a four or five mile beat to windward, and then
-conclude your trial trip with a run home. Cast adrift from your moorings
-or get your anchor aboard, as the case may be, and start out on
-whichever tack is convenient. When on the starboard tack the boom is
-over to port, and _vice versa_. Lower the centerboard and fill away on
-the boat with one hand on the tiller and the other holding the
-mainsheet, which should never be belayed, but may be held by half a turn
-round the cleat.
-
-Do not make the mistake of trimming in the sheet too flat, but let the
-boom off till it is well on the quarter and keep the sail well full, not
-allowing it to shiver. This is called steering "full-and-by," which
-signifies as close to the wind as possible with the sail not shaking. If
-your boat is well balanced—that is, if her weights are well adjusted and
-her sail of proper cut—she will carry quite a little weather helm. So
-much so that if you allow the rudder to come amidships or on a line with
-the keel she will fly up in the wind and her sails will shake. This is
-by no means a fault unless it is carried to excess, and it may be said,
-indeed, that there is something radically wrong with a craft that
-requires lee helm—a defect that should be remedied at once.
-
-The young sailor should bear in mind that to accomplish the best results
-in beating to windward the sail should always be kept full. Nothing is
-gained by sailing a boat right in the wind's eye with the sail
-shivering. The boat then points higher but she goes to leeward like a
-crab. Instances have been known of a fore-and-aft racing yacht sailing
-within three points of the wind, but these are rare, indeed. The
-ordinary cat-boat will not often do better than pointing up within four
-points of the breeze, and her best windward work is generally thus
-accomplished. There are occasions, indeed, when what is known as a
-"fisherman's luff" may be indulged in with profit, such as when rounding
-a mark or shooting up to an anchorage where there is little room. The
-maneuver consists in luffing the boat up into the wind so that the sails
-shake, and she shoots dead to windward by her own momentum. If the boat
-is a heavy one she will shoot quite a distance. Care must be taken to
-put the helm up and fill on her before she loses way, or she will get
-"in irons" and acquire sternway, or perhaps pay off on the other tack.
-If a boat acquires sternway the helm must be shifted at once. The rudder
-will now produce the reverse effect to what it would if the boat were
-going ahead. Putting the tiller to starboard turns the vessel's head to
-port, and _vice versa_ in the case of sternway.
-
-The beginner will find that his boat spins along quite merrily and obeys
-the slightest touch of the tiller. He should not relax his vigilance in
-the least, but should keep his weather eye skinned for sudden gusts of
-wind or catspaws which may be seen ruffling the water to windward, in
-timely season before they strike the boat. As the little craft begins to
-heel or list over to the pressure, luff up a little so that the
-fore-leech of the sail begins to shiver. If there is not weight enough
-in the puff to put the lee rail under, sail her along with just the
-suspicion of a shake in the luff of the sail, so that if she goes over
-far enough for the water to threaten to come over the lee coamings and
-deluge the cockpit you can put your helm down and luff up until the boat
-comes nearly head to wind, at the same time lowering away your sail and
-making preparations for taking in a reef.
-
-If you are a novice, and the water is neither too rough nor too deep and
-the breeze seems likely to last, and you think your craft is not up to
-carrying a whole mainsail, there is no reason why you should not drop
-anchor and reef your sail in leisurely and comfortable fashion. If you
-feel at all nervous take in a couple of reefs.
-
-After sail has been shortened set the mainsail, hoist up the anchor
-again and thresh her at it. You will observe that she inclines less to
-the puffs under the pressure of the reduced sail, and that the lee
-gunwale is always well clear of the water. Watch the boat well; look out
-for coming squalls, and be prepared to ease off the sheet and luff up
-instantly should occasion arise. If there are other boats in company
-with you tacking toward the same point you must remember that those on
-the starboard tack have the right of way, and thus when you are on the
-port tack you must keep clear of them. I would not advise a novice in a
-boat on the port tack to try and cross the bow of a boat on the
-starboard tack unless there is plenty of room. Distances on the water
-are deceptive to the tyro, and it is well to run no risk of collision.
-If the boat on the port tack will not keep away for you when you are on
-the starboard tack, and seems to be making for you with the intention of
-running you down, keep cool. Stand by to put your helm hard down so as
-to luff right up in the wind or even to go about. If you put your helm
-up and keep away, and a collision ensues, you would probably have to pay
-all the damage. The strict legal rule is that the vessel on the
-starboard tack must keep her course and neither luff nor bear up. If
-this rule is observed you will be within the letter of the law. In yacht
-racing a yacht on the port tack can be disqualified if she is struck by
-a yacht which is on the starboard tack, no matter how the striking
-happened; if she herself strikes a yacht which is on the starboard tack;
-if she causes a yacht which is on the starboard tack to bear away to
-avoid a collision. It is apparent, therefore, that no wise helmsman will
-run any risks. If he is on the port tack he will give way with a good
-grace and try to look pleasant. It is better than a collision, which is
-sure in a brisk breeze to do a lot of damage, and may possibly cause
-serious personal injuries or even loss of life.
-
-The beginner may, after threshing to windward for an hour or so, begin
-to feel homesick. Let him then put his helm up, easing the mainsheet off
-at the same time until he gets the boom at a right angle with the mast
-and the boat dead before the wind. He will at this time have to pay
-particular attention to the steering, giving the boat "small helm" and
-giving it to her quickly in order to keep her steady on her course.
-Steering a cat-boat in a stiff breeze and lumpy water requires both
-skill and experience. I should counsel a green hand to lower the peak of
-the mainsail and run her under easy sail until he acquires the art. In
-that case, should he accidentally gybe the boom over, the result is not
-likely to be particularly disastrous; whereas, if the sail were peaked
-up, the boom might snap in two or the boat herself might broach to.
-
-The centerboard should be hoisted up into the trunk when running before
-the wind, and the boom should be kept well topped up. In some small
-cat-boats there is no topping lift and the sail has only one halyard,
-which hoists both the throat and peak. This is a faulty rig. Throat and
-peak halyards should be separate, and a topping lift should always be
-fitted.
-
-I think it my duty to warn the inexperienced boat sailer against gybing
-his little craft. It is a maneuver that requires skill and care,
-especially in a brisk breeze. If you must gybe, lower the peak so as to
-"scandalize" the sail, and haul the boom well aboard as the helm is put
-up. As the wind shifts from dead astern and comes on the other quarter,
-carrying the boom over, ease off the sheet handsomely and take care to
-meet her promptly with the helm as she flies to, which is invariably the
-case. You can then hoist the peak up again.
-
-If you have women and children aboard the boat, gybing should never be
-resorted to if the wind is strong. It is far preferable to luff up into
-the wind and tack and then keep off again.
-
-In coming to anchor or picking up moorings make the boat describe a good
-sweep, so that she may come up in the wind and lose her way exactly
-where you wish. You can then either let go the anchor or pick up the
-moorings, as the case may be. Then lower the sail, furl it snugly, put
-on the sail cover, stow away everything neatly, haul taut the halyards
-and the mainsheet, which you should coil up, and leave everything tidy
-and in readiness for getting under way next time.
-
-When, on a wind with a light breeze and in smooth water, it becomes
-necessary to heave to to let a boat come alongside, haul the mainsheet
-flat aft and haul the fore and jib sheets a-weather. If in a fresh
-breeze, flatten in the mainsheet, let the jib sheet flow, and haul the
-fore sheet a-weather.
-
-For small open boats the anchor should weigh one pound for every foot of
-length up to twenty feet length. If the boat is ballasted, another half
-pound per foot should be added.
-
-If you have the misfortune to get stuck fast in the mud or on a sand
-bank, you must act quickly. If you ground while running before the wind,
-lower your sails at once. If you have a dinghy, run out your kedge
-anchor, with a line fast to it, astern into deep water and try to haul
-off. Work the helm to and fro. Run from side to side so as to loosen the
-boat from her muddy bed. If the tide is rising and your kedge does not
-drag, you will be sure to get off.
-
-If you run aground while close-hauled, let go the mainsheet, put the
-helm hard over and try to back her off with the jib, at the same time
-using a boathook or oar to try to shove her into deep water. If you have
-any passengers, concentrate all their weight as far aft as possible.
-Send out a kedge, and let all hands clap to on the line. If the tide is
-on the ebb, you may probably have to wait till high water. Now comes a
-ticklish crisis. If your craft is beamy, with full bilges, she will take
-the ground and lie easily as the water recedes. If, on the other hand,
-your little ship is of the deep and narrow kind and is not provided with
-"legs," you will have to improvise something in that direction to
-prevent her from careening on her side. "Legs" are not fashionable on
-this side of the Atlantic. They are props of wood shod with iron, one
-end of which rests on the bottom, while the other fits under the
-channels, or is lashed to a shroud. If you have no other spar available,
-unbend the head of the mainsail from the gaff. Stick it in the mud jaws
-downward close to the rigging and lash it firmly to a shroud. List the
-boat over to the side the gaff is out by guying over the boom and
-putting any extra weight you happen to have on the same side. The boat
-will then take the ground in safety.
-
-
-
-
-                                  IV.
-
-                             THE YAWL RIG.
-
-
-Though I recommend the catboat as a general craft for knocking about and
-having a good time in, I am not blind to the advantages of the yawl rig.
-In fact, the bold young seaman contemplating long cruises and sometimes
-venturing out of sight of land will find that the yawl rig possesses no
-mean merit. For single-handed cruising its worth has long been
-recognized. The sails are so divided that they are small and easy to
-handle, but this division of sail inevitably decreases the speed and
-also the weatherly qualities of the boat. If we take a catboat and
-change her into a yawl rig she will not be nearly so fast, nor will she
-point so close to the wind. There are fathoms of scientific reasons for
-this with which I will not bother my readers. Suffice it to say that it
-has been demonstrated practically over and over again.
-
-But although the yawl-rigged sailing boat of the smallest type has at
-least three sails—foresail, mainsail and mizzen—yet the last named,
-after once being set, practically takes care of itself. The mainsail,
-too, is quite easily handled, the whole sail being in the body of the
-boat. The foresail sometimes gives a little annoyance in taking it in,
-if the boat is pitching her nose under in a steep sea. This, however, is
-unavoidable. Headsails on all sailing vessels, big or little, have never
-been conducive to dry skins under certain conditions of wind and sea.
-The yawl is always under control, and in this attribute lies her chief
-charm. When a squall is bearing down all one has to do is to lower the
-mainsail and pass a tyer or two round it to keep it muzzled. When the
-gust strikes the boat she is under easy sail and is not likely to come
-to grief. If the squall is of exceptional strength, ease off the
-foresheet and keep the sail shaking a little until you have felt the
-full strength of the wind. Act then as judgment may dictate. If the blow
-is very heavy and seems likely to last it may be necessary to take in
-the foresail and the mizzen, and close reef the mainsail.
-
-If you are sailing with the wind a-beam and a squall smites you it may
-not be necessary to lower the mainsail at all. Ease the sheet right off
-so as to spill the wind, and you will pass safely through the ordeal
-without parting a rope yarn.
-
-In getting under way or in working up to anchorage in a crowded harbor
-or roadstead the yawl rig is one of the handiest known, for by having
-the mainsail furled the speed of the boat is reduced so that you can
-pick your way among the craft without danger of collision or striking
-flaws. So many famous cruises have been made in small yawl-rigged craft
-that there can be no doubt about their adaptability for such work, and
-to the man anxious for more ambitious achievement than merely sailing in
-rivers, bays and sheltered harbors, I most certainly would recommend the
-rig.
-
-Despite the yawl's certain safety for single handed cruising, I am not
-in favor of sailing by myself. I prefer a congenial companion to share
-whatever pleasure or peril may be encountered. Of course one must
-exercise some wise discrimination in the choice of a cruising companion;
-for when once at sea there is no way of ridding yourself of an
-objectionable mate except throwing him overboard, which would not be
-exactly fair to him. Besides, he might throw you overboard, which would
-be bad for you. There are, however, hundreds of good yachtsmen and
-boatmen who have made long voyages alone and have written charming
-accounts of their nautical expeditions. John McGregor's "Voyage Alone in
-the Yawl Rob Roy" and E. Middleton's "Cruise of the Kate" (also a yawl)
-are two entertaining books of sea travel which I heartily recommend to
-those who contemplate sailing by themselves.
-
-While I am in favor of a catboat for general purposes in the
-neighborhood of New York, yet when long distance trips are to be made
-the yawl rig will, on the whole, be found preferable.
-
-That keen sportsman, Mr. W. H. H. Murray, is a firm believer in the yawl
-rig for cruising. In OUTING for May, 1891, there appeared a most
-valuable article from his facile pen entitled "How I sail _Champlain_."
-The _Champlain_ is of sharpie model, thirty feet on the water-line. She
-is of remarkably strong construction, her oaken keel being sixteen by
-twenty inches amidships and tapering properly fore and aft. Through this
-keel is sunk a mortise four inches wide and sixteen feet long, through
-which the centerboard works. This "fin" is of oak planking thick enough
-to easily enter the case when hoisted, but leaving little space between
-it and the case when in use. The centerboard is sixteen feet long, four
-feet deep forward and seven feet aft, and it has fifteen hundred pounds
-of iron for ballast. Mr. Murray says: "When the centerboard is lowered
-this mass of metal is eight feet below her water-line, and guarantees a
-stability adequate to resist any pressure which the wind can put upon
-her sails and the sails withstand. Of course I am speaking with the
-supposition that the boat receives, when under stress, judicious
-management."
-
-The centerboard, which weighs two thousand pounds, is lifted by a
-"differential hoist," by means of which "the helmsman, with one hand on
-the tiller, can, if need occurs, with the other easily run the heavy
-board rapidly up into the case. The value of this adjustment can only be
-appreciated by a cruising yachtsman. It places him in perfect control of
-his craft under all conditions of varying depth of water and difficult
-weather. In a heavy seaway; in rapidly shoaling water on an unknown
-coast; when suddenly compelled to beat up against a swiftly flowing
-tide; or when finding himself unexpectedly near a reef, unobserved
-through carelessness or not plainly charted—this hoist is simply
-priceless. It is not over expensive, and can easily be adjusted to any
-yacht."
-
-[Illustration: YAWL IN A SQUALL]
-
-The cockpit is roomy, and, because of its high coamings, is also deep.
-The cabin is sixteen feet long, the forward half being permanently
-roofed. The after-half of the cabin is constructed, as to its roof, in
-equal divisions. The forward-half is tracked, and the after-half is
-grooved to run upon it. Mr. Murray finds this arrangement most
-convenient, as it gives to the yacht such coolness and comfort as cannot
-be obtained in a cabin permanently roofed. The whole roof is so fitted
-to the coamings that it can be quickly and easily removed and stowed,
-leaving the yacht to be sailed as an open one, decked from stem to
-midship section. This arrangement is an admirable one for harbor sailing
-in bright weather or for racing.
-
-Regarding the handiness of _Champlain_ Mr. Murray says: "All yachtsmen
-know what a disagreeable job it is to reef a sloop or cat-boat in rough
-water, and from this cause many skippers will delay reefing as long as
-possible and often until too late. And because of this many accidents
-happen yearly. In this respect the yawl rig shows to the greatest
-advantage and commends itself to all sensible yachtsmen. For when the
-moment has come to reef, if the boat is running free her head is brought
-up to the wind, the mizzen and jib sheets trimmed in, and with the main
-boom well inboard the pennants are lashed and the reef points tied down,
-when she is let off again and goes bowling along on her former course.
-In _Champlain_ the three reef cringles on the leech of the mainsail are
-all within easy reach from the cockpit, and the skipper, without leaving
-the tiller, can lash the pennants, and hence, with only one assistant,
-the three reefs can successively, if need be, be tied down. Indeed, so
-well do the jib and mizzen sail work in unison, that unless the wind is
-very puffy and variable, the helm can be lashed and she will hold her
-course steadily onward while the skipper is tying down the after reef
-points. It is a matter of pleasant surprise to one not accustomed to
-this rig how easily and rapidly a reef in most trying conditions can be
-taken in the mainsail of a yawl whose sails are well balanced.
-
-"Moreover, unless the squall is a very heavy one, a yawl can be eased
-through it without reefing at all. For when the wind comes roaring down
-and the white line of froth and spray is right upon you, the boat can be
-brought up to the wind and the mainsheet eased handsomely out, and with
-jib and mizzen drawing finely and the mainboom off to leeward the wind
-whistles harmlessly between the masts, while the yacht, only slightly
-disturbed in her balance, sails steadily along. Or, if the squall is a
-heavy one and there is no time to reef down before it strikes, the yacht
-can be luffed up, the mainsail let down at a run, and with the belly of
-the sail held within the lazy-lines the yacht is under safe conditions.
-But ordinarily it is better to reef or even tie down the mainsail
-snugly, and as in a yawl it can be done rapidly and easily there is no
-reason why it should not be done and everything be kept shipshape.
-
-"In cruising I often sailed _Champlain_ under jib and mizzen alone, with
-the mainsail stowed and the boom crutched and tied snugly down
-amidships, especially in the night time when it was very dark and the
-weather foul. Under this scant canvas with a favorable wind she would
-sail along at a very fair rate of speed and even make good progress in
-beating up against quite a sea, and I need not say that it adds greatly
-to the pleasure of cruising in a small yacht with only one man for your
-crew to feel that you have your boat in a condition of perfect control.
-It is evident that with no other rig can this condition to the same
-degree be obtained or such a sense of absolute security be enjoyed.
-
-"To an amateur nothing is more trying than coming to or getting away
-from moorings, especially if the wind is blowing strongly and the
-anchorage ground is crowded with other yachts, not to speak of vessels
-of commerce, bateaux, tugs and ferryboats. Under such circumstances it
-is no easy matter for any, save an expert, to work a sloop or cat-boat
-or schooner safety out through the crowded harbor or basin to the open
-water beyond; and it is all the more trying to a skipper if there is a
-strong tide running at the moment. But with a yawl the difficulties of
-the situation are almost wholly removed. For with mainsail unlashed he
-can hoist his anchor or cast off from moorings, and under his two small
-sails work his boat out slowly and safely from the jammed basin or
-crowded space within the breakwater. He must be a tyro indeed who cannot
-safely manage a yawl under the worst possible conditions of this sort.
-
-"In cruising, if the weather is threatening it is well to carry a single
-reef in the mainsail until it clears up, for a yawl works well under
-such a sail with jib and mizzen furled. In such trim the yacht is as a
-cat-boat with a small sail, and as her main boom is shorter than a
-cat-boat's or a sloop's she can be worked in a very heavy sea with her
-boom's end well above the rollers. And I know of nothing more trying to
-a skipper than to sail his craft with his boom's end half the time under
-water. In such a condition the spars, rigging and boat are under a
-stress and strain which every prudent skipper dreads and seeks to avoid,
-and it speaks volumes in favor of the yawl rig to say that with it such
-a trying condition can never arise. Indeed a yawl under a double-reefed
-mainsail alone is in perfect trim for scudding. If well modeled she will
-neither yaw nor thrash the water with her boom's end, but career along
-almost with the speed of the wind itself. For her canvas is low down, as
-it should be, and her boom carried well above the seething water. In
-this shape, moreover, she can lay a course with the wind well over her
-quarter without strain, and it must be a very hard blow and rough water
-indeed to give anxiety to any on board of her."
-
-That the _Champlain_ is a capital sea-boat is beyond question. Her owner
-thus describes a run on the lower St. Lawrence in returning from a
-cruise to the Saguenay: "We passed Baie St. Paul in the evening, whirled
-along by a rising gale blowing directly up the river. The night was
-pitchy dark, the tide running fiercely on the ebb at the rate of five
-miles an hour at the least. The water was very wild, as one can easily
-imagine. Stemming such a current it would not do to shorten sail if one
-wished to pass Cape Tourmente and get into quiet water, the Isle of
-Orleans and the north shore, so we let every sail stand, cleated the
-sheets tightly and let her drive. How she did tear onward! The froth and
-spume lay deep on her pathways and after-deck. The waves crested
-fiercely, rolling against the current, and the black water broke into
-phosphor as we slashed through it. I do not recall that I ever saw a
-yacht forced along more savagely. How the water roared under the ledges
-and along the rough shores of Tourmente! And I was profoundly grateful
-when we were able to bear off to starboard and run into the still water
-back of Orleans. Perhaps that midnight cup of coffee did not taste well!
-Its heat ran through my chilled veins like Chartreuse. I can taste it
-yet!"
-
-The ordinary jib-and-mainsail rigged boat, as seen in the waters round
-New York, might easily be improved upon. In the first place, the
-majority of them are too much after the skimming-dish pattern to suit my
-fancy. Then the mast is stepped as a rule too far forward for the best
-work, and renders reefing difficult, as she will not "lay to"
-comfortably under her headsail, whereas if the mast of a boat is stepped
-well aft, cutter fashion, the boat will lay to quite well, and reefing
-the mainsail is easy. The American sloop rig is open to the same
-criticism, and that is why the English way of rigging a single-sticker
-has been adopted in all our new racing craft. To my mind there is
-nothing more hideous than a "bobbed" jib. It renders good windward work
-impossible, as it causes a boat to sag off to leeward and is in other
-ways a detriment. A small boat with the mast stepped in the right place
-and carrying a jib and a mainsail is, however, a very satisfactory
-craft, good at beating to windward as well as reaching or running. I
-should advise that a "spit-fire" or storm jib be carried along whenever
-a sail of any distance is contemplated, and also a gaff-headed trysail,
-so that the adventurous skipper may be always prepared for storm and
-stress of weather. This extra "muslin" takes up little room when
-properly rolled up.
-
-The simplest and safest rig in the world is the leg-of-mutton sail. It
-is the one fitted exactly for river work, where one is sure to encounter
-puffs of some force as ravines are reached or valleys passed. To
-amateurs it is the sail _par excellence_ for experimenting with, for no
-matter how many blunders are made a mishap is well nigh impossible. The
-leg-of-mutton sail has no gaff, nor need it have a boom. There is little
-or no leverage aloft, and all the power for mischief it has can be taken
-out of it by slacking off the sheet and spilling the wind. The learner
-might with advantage practice with a sail of this shape until he becomes
-proficient. If he eventually determines upon a jib and mainsail or yawl
-rig for permanent use, he may avoid wasting it by having it made over
-into a storm trysail.
-
-I would strongly advise every amateur skipper to shun the ballast-fin
-device as he would shun cold poison or a contagious disease. That is
-unless he intends to go in for a regular racing career, in which case
-the cups carried off might possibly compensate him for the woe, the
-anguish and the premature gray hairs inseparable from this contrivance.
-Mind you these remarks of mine apply only to amateurs and not to
-grizzled sailing-masters of yachts who fully understand how to navigate
-and handle all types of pleasure craft. Theoretically the ballast-fin
-has many obvious advantages.
-
-[Illustration: TYPE OF FIN-KEEL.]
-
-The fin consists of a plate of iron or steel to the base of which is
-affixed a bulb of lead, which, being in the best possible place, insures
-stability. The fin proper gives lateral resistance in an almost perfect
-form, for there is no deadwood either forward or aft and the least
-possible amount of wetted surface. I remember when a little boy in a
-fishing village on the bank of a land-locked arm of the sea, where the
-water was always smooth, how we youngsters came to appreciate fully the
-worth of an improvised ballast-fin. We used to enjoy the diversion of
-model yacht sailing and the delights of many regattas. I owned one of
-the smartest models in the village. She was rigged as a cutter with
-outside lead, self-steering gear and all the latest maritime
-improvements, and she generally came out a winner. I tell you I used to
-put on a great many airs on this account, and as a natural result was
-duly hated and envied by my playmates, who owned more or less tubby
-craft that could scarcely get out of their own way.
-
-But the day arrived when my pride was destined to have a fall. A shrewd
-youth of Scottish extraction came to our village for the summer with his
-father. He had the keenest, greenest eye you ever saw, and one of those
-money-making noses that are unmistakable. His whole physiognomy and form
-indicated shrewdness. He mingled with us for some time on the beach,
-mudlarked with the boys and watched our model yacht matches with
-undisguised interest. We all got the notion that he was an inland
-landlubber, though it is only fair to him to acknowledge that he never
-told us so in so many words.
-
-One Saturday afternoon, after my little cutter had surpassed herself by
-distancing all her opponents, I indulged in some unusually tall talk,
-and challenged each and every one of my rivals to a race across the
-"creek," as the sheet of water was called, offering to give them four
-minutes' start, the distance being half a mile.
-
-To my surprise, our green-eyed friend came along and accepted the
-challenge, saying that on the following Saturday he would produce a
-craft that would knock spots out of my cutter without any time allowance
-whatever, and without the aid of a longer hull or larger sailspread. He
-also remarked that he had a month's pocket money saved up, and was
-willing to wager it on the result. I accepted his offer without
-superfluous parleying, and in my mind's eye was already investing that
-pocket money of his in various little treasures for which I hankered.
-But, for all that, I made every preparation for the fray, using very
-fine sandpaper and pot lead till my boat's bottom was beautifully
-burnished, and seeing that her sails and gear were in tip top racing
-condition. All the boys wondered what sort of a craft my opponent would
-bring out. He had never been seen with a boat of any description. We
-laughed in our sleeves and whispered it about that he would probably
-produce one of those showy vessels that one sees in the city toy store,
-and that generally sail on their beam ends.
-
-The hour for the race arrived. The boys were all excited and flocked to
-the water's edge, whence the start was to be made. There was a goodly
-throng of them present, and, notwithstanding their contempt for the
-Scotchman, it was no doubt the desire of their hearts that some of my
-overweening conceit should be taken down a couple of pegs or so.
-Presently my rival appeared on the scene, carrying in his arms the
-queerest looking craft any of us had ever seen. Her hull was shaped like
-an Indian birch bark canoe, except that to the rounded bottom a keel was
-fastened. A groove was made in the keel, in which an oblong piece of
-slate was placed, to the bottom of which a strip of lead was secured.
-The rig was that of a cutter, and I noticed that her sails were well
-cut. She looked quite business-like, and when she was measured we found
-she was two inches shorter than my cutter.
-
-There was a nice, fresh westerly wind blowing, and quite a lop of a sea
-running for diminutive craft such as were about to race. I had already
-deemed it prudent to take in a reef in the mainsail of my vessel, and
-set a No. 2 jib, but my Scotch friend said he thought his boat would
-carry whole sail without any trouble. The course was south, so the craft
-had to sail with the wind a-beam. The start was made, my boat being to
-windward, as I had won the toss. And that was all I did win. The
-"ballast-fin" craft beat my cutter so badly that even at this distance
-of time my ears tingle and I feel ashamed. While my boat was burying
-herself, her rival took the curling wavelets right buoyantly, standing
-up to her work valiantly, and moving two feet to the cutter's one. We
-accompanied the model yachts in row-boats, keeping well to leeward, but
-quite close enough to observe their movements accurately. That was my
-first experience of the ballast-fin. We all became converts, and shoal,
-round-bottomed craft, with slate fins to give stability and lateral
-resistance, were thenceforward the fashion. My successful rival, we
-afterward discovered, was the son of a naval architect of repute, and he
-is now practising his father's profession with a good deal of success.
-
-Thus I have not a word to say against the ballast-fin so far as racing
-is concerned, but in cruising the average man who sails for pleasure
-wants a craft that he can haul out of the water easily to scrub, clean
-and paint. Now, if you put a ballast-fin boat on the mud for any one or
-all of these purposes she requires a "leg" on each side to keep her
-upright, and also supports at the bow and stern to prevent her from
-turning head over heels. The stationary fin always represents your true
-draught of water. It is always with you and is an integral portion of
-the boat's hull. If you happen to get stuck on a shoal—and this is a
-contingency that has occurred frequently to the most skillful and
-careful navigator—in thick weather for instance, your lot is by no means
-to be envied. This is particularly true if the tide is falling fast. The
-boat would go over on her side as soon as the water got low enough. The
-crew and passengers might have to wait aboard until high water, and a
-precious uncomfortable time they would pass I am certain. When the flood
-tide made it might be a moot question whether the boat would float or
-fill with water.
-
-The movable centerplate will always let you know when you get on a
-shoal, and will in nearly all cases give you warning in time to avoid
-grounding, which is always an unpleasant predicament and one entailing
-much labor. Then, again, the anchorages at which small boats can safely
-lie are generally pretty shallow at low water and the ballast-fin is
-found to be mighty inconvenient for such places.
-
-[Illustration: SAIL PLAN OF FIN-KEEL.]
-
-
-
-
-                                   V.
-
-                        THE KNOCKABOUT CLASSES.
-
-
-The knockabouts, which had their origin in Boston, have much to
-recommend them. They are free from freakiness. None of them at this time
-of writing have been fitted with fin-keels to harass their skippers when
-they come in contact with the ground. They have a moderate sail area,
-and thus are under control at all times. In a blow one is as safe aboard
-one of these craft as a converted Chinaman under the lee of his fair
-Sunday-school teacher at church-time. The variety in vogue in Boston in
-1897 was limited to 500 square feet of sail. All were keel boats, 21
-feet being the limit of length on the load water-line.
-
-This class gained popularity from the intrinsic excellence of the boats
-themselves, combining capital cruising qualities with fair speed and
-good accommodations. Several designers competed, the restrictions
-governing their construction, dimensions, and sail area being such that
-the boats were very even in speed, and the contests in which they took
-part were keen, close, and exciting.
-
-[Illustration: SEAWANHAKA 21-FOOT KNOCKABOUT.]
-
-The type of knockabout chosen for the season of 1898 by the Seawanhaka
-Corinthian Yacht Club and the Westchester Country Club has proved to be
-quite admirably adapted for cruising and racing. They were designed and
-built by Mr. W. B. Stearns, of Marblehead, their dimensions being:
-Length over all, 33 feet; on the load water-line, 21 feet; beam, 7 feet
-8 inches; draught, 4 feet; with board down, 7 feet. The area of the
-mainsail and jib contains 550 square feet. The centerboard is a small
-one of iron, and houses below the cabin floor. The trunk cabin is 8 feet
-long, with 5 feet head-room. The price of these boats was $750 complete,
-and, their construction being sound and strong, they will, if taken care
-of properly, be good for many years.
-
-It is impossible to speak in terms too high of this class after a
-surfeit of the racing machines and freaks like the 20-footers whose
-alarming antics so often amused and amazed us whenever they happened to
-meet in a reefing breeze. Another good property they possess is that
-they look like boats when hauled up on the beach, and can never be
-mistaken when their masts are unstepped for pig-troughs or fish floats.
-There is no doubt of the seaworthiness of these craft. They are
-perfectly safe in a northwest squall off Sandy Hook or in a dirty
-easterly gale on Long Island Sound.
-
-[Illustration: SEAWANHAKA KNOCKABOUT.]
-
-Another craft of this type which was deservedly popular last year is of
-larger size than the one described above. She is 25 feet on the load
-water-line, 38 feet over all, with a beam of 8 feet 6 inches, and 5 feet
-draught with centerboard up. The boat, which was designed by Mr. B. B.
-Crowninshield, of Boston, has a commodious cabin with six feet
-head-room, a seven-foot cockpit, and 800 square feet of duck in mainsail
-and jib. A very able and roomy boat nearly twice as costly as the
-Stearns craft, but indeed quite a little ship.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  SAIL-PLAN OF SEAWANHAKA KNOCKABOUT—550 SQUARE FEET.
-]
-
-Personally I favor a short bowsprit in a knockabout, it being convenient
-for hoisting the anchor, keeping it clear of the hull, and preventing
-unseemly dents from the flukes.
-
-I fear that knockabouts, or raceabouts, even in restricted classes, are
-destined eventually to be fitted with fin-keels. As a speed-inducing
-factor the fin has fully demonstrated its capacity since the first
-edition of this little book appeared. I have not, however, altered my
-opinion one iota since my remarks on the ballast-fin made in the chapter
-which precedes this. In my judgment the fin is admirably adapted as an
-adjunct to a racing machine, but for cruising craft I like it not. Brand
-me as an old fogy, if you will; half a century behind the times, if it
-so pleases you, shipmates, but give me credit for sincerity.
-
-The keen sense of rivalry inherent in every American will not permit him
-to be content with a good, honest sailing boat for cruising purposes
-only. If one of his chums comes out with a faster craft, whether a
-fin-keel or a modification thereof, he will become dissatisfied with his
-own boat, no matter how seaworthy and comfortable she may be, and will
-promptly discard her for a new-fangled design in which speed is the
-principal characteristic. The so-called restricted classes, which are so
-popular just now, are, I think, sure in the end to become purely racing
-classes, something after the fashion of the Herreshoff 30-footers now so
-fashionable in Newport. As racing boats, none afford more sport than
-these wonderfully smart flyers, and I can well understand what
-fascinating toys they have proved to their owners. But, after all, they
-are only toys, vastly expensive, too, with no accommodations for
-cruising and apt to be uncomfortably wet in a breeze.
-
-The one-design classes of small yachts are not confined to knockabouts
-only. Cruising schooners, designed by Cary Smith, made their appearance
-in 1898, and the class, from a modest beginning, seems likely to grow.
-The features of the boats are their sound and wholesome characteristics.
-They possess moderate draught, large accommodations, and strength of
-construction. They are 64 feet 2 inches over all, 46 feet long on the
-load water-line, 16 feet beam, draught without board 6 feet 6 inches,
-least freeboard 3 feet. A rather low cabin trunk gives full head-room
-for the greater part of the yacht's length, the main saloon being more
-than 13 feet long with a floor width of 6 feet 9 inches. On each side
-are two berths and two sofas with drawers beneath. There is
-accommodation in the forecastle for four men. The yachts carry 20,000
-pounds of lead ballast, of which 18,000 pounds is on keel. Another
-one-design division is the Riverside Yacht Club dory class, which has
-been adopted by many of the clubs enrolled in the Yacht-Racing Union of
-Long Island Sound. These boats are thirteen feet on the keel, seventeen
-feet over all, with four feet beam, fitted with a centerboard and rigged
-with a small jib and a leg-of-mutton sail. They are for single-handed
-racing, but for pleasure cruising or fishing a man can take his chum
-along. Fully equipped with oars, sails, etc., they cost about forty
-dollars, and afford capital sport on fine afternoons. To encourage this
-little class, prizes worth winning are offered by the club, and
-sweepstake races are popular features.
-
-The idea was probably taken from the Nahant Dory Club, organized in
-1894, which did much to encourage sport in this serviceable and
-inexpensive class. Spectators will find amusement in watching "green
-hands" in their maiden efforts at sailing these dories, as strange and
-startling results often follow the rash experiments of an adventurous
-tyro. But apart from the comic element, valuable lessons in yacht-racing
-may be learned by steering and manœuvring a dory against a fleet of
-half-a-dozen eager competitors. Thus, yachtsmen cannot help approving
-this new Riverside venture, originated, I believe, by Mr. F. Bowne
-Jones, of the Regatta Committee.
-
-The origin of the one-design class was Dublin Bay, where the "Water Wag"
-type was first evolved. A Norwegian praam with a boiler-plate
-centerboard, combining ballast and lateral resistance, and carrying a
-big sail, was built in 1878 at Shankhill. She was christened
-_Cemiostama_ and proved an ideal boat. The conditions were a sloping
-sandy shore on which the high surf not infrequently broke, and from
-which the craft had to be launched every time her owner wanted a sail,
-and onto which she had to be beached after the cruise was finished.
-_Cemiostama_ was a capital sea-boat; she pointed well, hit what she
-aimed at, did not sag off to leeward, and was quite fast. When the
-centerboard, weighing about one hundred pounds, was raised she ran up
-easily on the beach, resting quietly on her flat bottom. Her centerboard
-was then lifted out, and her crew of two hauled her up.
-
-The knowing Irish yachtsmen, appreciating a good thing, saw that there
-was a lot of fun in a boat of this class, and several were built, and
-many scrub races were indulged in. In 1887 the Water Wag Association was
-started, the craft being built on the same lines and the sail-area being
-limited. Their dimensions were thirteen feet in length, with a beam of
-four feet ten inches, full lines and a flat floor.
-
-The Water Wags are presided over by a king and a queen, bishop, knights
-and rooks; and although the boats were at first used principally for
-pleasure, they are now racers pure and simple. Their headquarters are
-now in Kingstown Harbor, and prizes are put up for them at all the local
-regattas. They are very handy, too, and quite admirable for the purpose
-for which they were designed. They cost from $75 to $100, and the rules
-that govern their races provide that they shall be similar in every
-respect except sail-plan. The mast must not exceed thirteen feet over
-all, measured from top of keel to truck; the fore and aft sails must not
-exceed seventy-five square feet in area, and the spinnaker (which is to
-be used only before the wind and never as a jib) must not exceed sixty
-square feet.
-
-Each boat shall carry no less than two or more than three persons in a
-race, all of whom shall be amateurs. A member or a lady may steer. No
-prize shall be awarded a boat for a sail-over, but she may fly a winning
-flag therefor. A pair of oars and a life-buoy must be carried in every
-race. It is only right to mention that these sailing regulations are
-vigorously enforced.
-
-The latest one-design class established by our rollicking Irish cousins
-is known as the 25-footers of the Dublin Bay Sailing Club. These craft
-are of such noteworthy type as to deserve a few lines of description and
-approval here, especially as it was wisely decided that the type shall
-not be altered for five years from January 1, 1898. The boats, of which
-quite a number were built and raced, are deep-keeled cutters of the
-following dimensions: Length over all, 37 feet 3 inches; length on load
-water-line, 25 feet; beam, 8 feet 8 inches; draught, 6 feet 3 inches;
-lead on keel, 3 tons 5 cwt., and sail area, 845 square feet, divided
-into a mainsail laced to the boom, gafftopsail, foresail and jib. A
-second jib, jibtopsail, balloon foresail, spinnaker, storm jib and
-trysail may also be carried. The design, made by Will Fife, Jr., of
-Fairlie, is handsome, the type being eminently adapted for Dublin Bay.
-Restrictions of the strictest kind ensure the boats being exactly alike
-in size, material, construction and canvas.
-
-The "Mermaids," a craft much used by the B division of the same club,
-are large Water Wags, 18 feet long, with 6 feet beam, fitted with
-centerboards, but carrying no ballast, and limited when racing to 180
-square feet of sail. These are vastly popular, and a dozen or so race
-every Saturday afternoon during the season.
-
-Although one-design racing originated on the other side of the Atlantic,
-it is questionable if any one class has been sailed with more spirit or
-persistency than were the Herreshoff 30-footers at Newport during the
-yachting season of 1897 and since.
-
-That the classes are destined to prosper there is no doubt, the only
-condition being that the type must be carefully adapted to the location
-for which it is intended, and the more it is available for fishing
-excursions and pleasure trips the greater favor will attend it. Another
-helpful feature is the substantial economic gain from the construction
-of several boats by the same builder from the same design.
-
-
-
-
-                                  VI.
-
-                      KEEP YOUR WEATHER EYE OPEN.
-
-
-The sailer of a boat, little or big, should keep his weather eye open
-all the time. When sailing in a river where the banks are of irregular
-height he should be especially on his guard, because puffs of
-considerable violence frequently come with little or no warning. A few
-inches of sheet eased off, and a gentle luff not quite sufficient to
-spill the sail, will generally prevent the shipping of water over the
-lee gunwale, and a possible capsize. Thus the mainsheet should never be
-made fast permanently, and should always be coiled so as to be clear for
-running. A neglect of either of these precautions has often been
-attended with fatal results. If by any mischance the mainsheet becomes
-jammed do not hesitate, but cut it. A sharp knife in such an emergency
-has often saved life when an upset has seemed inevitable through the
-boat being nearly on her beam ends. If you are sailing in a jib and
-mainsail craft, and the squall has a good deal of weight in it, let fly
-the jib sheet and let the boat come up in the wind, at the same time
-lowering away the mainsail and taking care to spill it as it comes down.
-A reef should then be taken in, and the boat be filled away on her
-course.
-
-While sailing anywhere in the vicinity of New York, and when one of
-those heavy thunder-squalls that are so frequent in the summer time is
-seen rising in the northwest, waste no time. If not in too deep water,
-anchor at once and stow your sails snugly. You can then ride out the
-fury of the squall in perfect safety; that is, if your ground tackle is
-sufficiently strong. If your cable parts and you are on a lee shore and
-there is a harbor to run for, scud for it under bare poles or with a
-fragment of sail set. If there is no refuge under your lee, set as much
-sail as your boat can safely carry and thresh her off shore. The chances
-are that you will be successful, because these squalls while often very
-dangerous seldom last long, and are generally followed by a flat calm
-which is more exasperating than a blow.
-
-We will take it for granted, however, that your anchor and chain are of
-the correct strength and quality, and that you bring up before the
-squall strikes you. If you have time it would be well to close-reef your
-mainsail before furling it, and then you would be prepared for any
-emergency. But let me impress upon all who are in charge of boats with
-women and children aboard, that it is their duty, when one of those
-peril-fraught thunder-squalls is seen approaching, to dowse every stitch
-of sail at once and let go the anchor. There is a wide gulf between
-bravado and bravery, and no truly courageous man would imperil the lives
-of anyone, especially of helpless women and children. The rash carrying
-on of canvas has been responsible for more loss of life on the water
-than any other cause. It is a seaman who shortens sail in time, but a
-lubber who "cracks on till all's blue."
-
-Great caution is necessary when passing under the lee of a vessel at
-anchor or under way, especially in a fresh breeze. Your boat is sure to
-get becalmed and may possibly nearly lose her way, so that as she draws
-clear of the object the full force of the breeze will strike her when
-she has scarcely steerage way on. The result may be a complete knockdown
-or even a capsize. Therefore have your mainsheet clear for running, and
-do not hesitate to let it fly in a hurry before your little vessel's
-gunwale is anywhere near the water. By all means endeavor to keep clear
-of vessels at anchor. Do not try to get in the wash of steamboats, as
-some foolhardy persons do, "just for fun." On the contrary take special
-pains to avoid them. When you must encounter their wash, which in the
-case of large and fast steamers is heavy and dangerous, do your best to
-let your boat take the brunt of the waves on the bluff of the bow. If
-they strike her broadside on, swamping is a possibility not far remote.
-
-In sailing a boat in rough water the greatest precaution is necessary. A
-craft that in smooth water could safely carry all sail, might when the
-sea is perturbed be forced to stagger along under double reefs, the
-force of the wind being the same in both instances. Especially is this
-the case when the wind and sea are both abeam, the former strong and the
-latter heavy. This is probably the most dangerous point of sailing there
-is, and requires the most careful touch of the tiller. A boat heeled
-over to fifteen degrees by the force of the wind, by the joint influence
-of a sudden puff and a heavy roll to leeward may be inclined to such an
-angle that a capsize is inevitable. When there seems to be any danger of
-this mishap occurring the helmsman must not close his eyes to keep them
-warm. When he sees a larger wave than usual coming along he should put
-his helm up a little, so that it may strike the boat abaft the beam and
-so reduce the danger to a minimum. The judicious application of weather
-helm in a beam sea has saved many a big ship's deck from being swept,
-and many a small boat from being capsized.
-
-It is in my judgment rash to sail a small boat under these conditions
-unless it is imperative, such as when a harbor is being entered, or when
-the boat's course must necessarily be steered with wind and sea abeam. I
-should strongly advise the hauling of the boat on a wind until she
-reaches the point where her sheets may be eased off and she can be
-headed for her destination with wind and sea on the quarter. A boat with
-any pretensions at all can be sailed close-hauled in rough water with
-safety if certain elementary precautions are observed. Everybody on
-board except the helmsman should sit amidships in the bottom of the
-boat, so as to keep the weight as low as possible and the craft herself
-in her natural trim. No unusual weight is wanted in the bow of the
-vessel, which should lift in a prompt and lively manner to each sea. In
-an open boat and a nasty sea no more sail should be carried than will
-keep her under proper command.
-
-A great deal depends upon the nerve and skill of the man at the tiller.
-Keep her moving all the time. If a big wave threatens to come aboard
-over the weather bow, luff smartly into it and meet it as nearly end on
-as possible. Then up with the helm at once and fill on her again,
-repeating the process as often as it may be needful. Never let the lee
-gunwale get under water in a seaway, nor at any other time, but always
-luff before it is too late, and help her to come up in the wind if
-necessary by easing away the jib sheet.
-
-If the wind keeps increasing and the sea rising, haul down the headsail
-and pass a gasket round it, close-reef your mainsail, previously seeing
-your sea anchor clear for letting go. If you have no sea anchor with
-you, rig some sort of a raft with oars, boathook and sails, the latter
-lashed securely to the spars. Make a line fast to this raft and pay out
-about twenty fathoms and let the boat ride to it as to an anchor. It is
-surprising what a good effect this contrivance has in breaking the waves
-and keeping the boat head to sea. Nothing else can now be done until the
-gale moderates sufficiently for sail to be made and the boat headed for
-her destination. It may be consolatory to those aboard a craft in such a
-contingency to buoy themselves up by remembering that some of the
-heaviest gales known have been safely ridden out in cockleshell boats
-without any damage to crew, hull or gear.
-
-[Illustration: DROGUE, OR SEA ANCHOR.]
-
-The sea anchor consists of a hinge-jointed galvanized ring about three
-feet in diameter. A conical bag made of stout canvas is sewed to the
-ring and roped, as shown in sketch. A bridle is fitted to the ring, to
-which the riding hawser is bent. A cork buoy prevents the anchor from
-diving. When thrown overboard the mouth of the anchor opens and fills.
-To hoist the anchor on board, the tripping line, shown in diagram, is
-hauled on. When not in use the ring is folded together by the joints,
-and the bag is made fast snugly round it.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  DIAGRAM OF FLOATING ANCHOR.
-]
-
-Another plan for making a floating anchor is shown below. K, M, N, O,
-are the ends of two iron bars formed into a cross and connected by a
-stout bolt, nut and pin at their intersection, S. At each end of the
-bars is an eye through which a strong rope is rove, hauled taut, and
-well secured. Thus a square is formed, and over the square a piece of
-strong canvas is laced to the roping. Four ropes are made fast to the
-iron bars, forming a bridle. To this the riding hawser is made fast. To
-prevent the anchor from sinking, a buoy, B, is made fast to one corner
-by a rope, with five or six fathoms of drift. The buoy rope, P, leads on
-board. H is the hawser to which the boat is riding, A is the anchor, and
-B the buoy. To get the anchor aboard haul in on the line, P. This will
-cause the anchor to cant edgewise, and it can then be easily hauled in.
-
-[Illustration: FLOATING ANCHOR IN USE.]
-
-In scudding before a strong wind and a heavy sea in a small craft, a
-trysail is always preferable to a sail with a boom, which may effect
-much mischief by trailing in the water or suddenly gybing. The helmsman
-must be always on the alert to prevent the boat from "broaching to,"
-which means flying up in the wind; or from being "brought by the lee,"
-which means running off so as to bring the wind on the other quarter. A
-long, narrow boat will always run before the wind better than a short,
-beamy craft, as she is better adapted for taking the seas, and she also
-steers easier, not yawing about so much or turning round every few
-minutes to take a look at her wake. The inexperienced boat sailer should
-bear in mind that scudding in a seaway is ticklish work, and is not
-unlikely to be attended with peril. If you have no trysail, reef the
-mainsail and lower the peak. Hoist on the weather topping lift so as to
-keep the boom as high as possible out of the water. By no means run a
-boat before the wind until it blows too hard and the sea is too high to
-heave to with safety. If the breeze seems likely to pipe up, make up
-your mind immediately. Delay is dangerous. Have your sea anchor ready.
-Watch for a smooth. When it comes put your helm down smartly, trimming
-in the mainsheet. When she gets the wind on the bow, heave your sea
-anchor overboard and ride to it either with the mainsail set or lowered,
-as may be deemed best.
-
-If you happen to be on a lee shore, with the surf breaking high on the
-beach, and you cannot claw off, do not wait until it is too late and
-your boat is in the breakers. Let go the anchor, and if it holds try to
-ride out the storm. If your ground tackle gives way, do your best to set
-the mainsail and steer boldly for the shore. The faster you go the
-better chance you have to be carried high and dry. Remember that this
-will give you a fighting chance for your life, whereas if your boat gets
-broadside on in the breakers she will most likely roll over and over and
-in all probability drown you and your crew.
-
-It may be thought preposterous for me to advocate the use of oil to
-break the force of curling wave-crests when a small craft is riding to a
-raft or sea anchor. Most people would naturally suppose that a boat
-could not carry enough oil aboard her for it to have any beneficial
-effect in smoothing a turbulent sea. Nor could it if it was poured into
-the ocean out of its original package, or out of "bags with small holes
-punctured in their bottoms," as some marine experts advise. The proper
-way to apply oil is to fill a round bottomed canvas bag, about two feet
-long and eight inches in diameter, three parts full of oakum or cotton
-waste. Do not pack too tightly. Pour into this as much fish or animal
-oil as the oakum or waste will suck up. Sew the mouth up tightly with
-palm and needle. Secure a lanyard to it. Make a few holes in its sides
-with a marlinespike and hang it over the lee bow, and you will be
-surprised at the result. The seas, instead of breaking over the boat and
-threatening to swamp her, will become comparatively smooth as soon as
-they approach the limits of the film of the oil as it oozes slowly out
-of the bag. When running over a harbor bar where the sea is breaking
-badly, a couple of these bags suspended from either bow will prevent the
-waves from pooping the little craft and help her materially in her
-struggle for existence. Mineral oil will do if no other is available,
-and a gallon of it will go a long way if used in the manner mentioned
-above. These bags should be carried all ready for use when cruising, so
-that all you will have to do is to pour the oil in, sew up the mouths
-and hang them over the bows by the lanyards. A ship's boat with a dozen
-men aboard once safely weathered an Atlantic gale by riding to a couple
-of buckets and a cork fender saturated with kerosene. Pouring oil on
-troubled waters is by no means a case of bluff or the dream of an opium
-smoker, but a capital "wrinkle" by means of which many a good man has
-been saved from Davy Jones' yawning locker. I trust that these little
-bags will form part of the outfit of all going on long cruises. They may
-serve as pillows or may be made in the shape of cushions, so long as the
-above general idea is followed.
-
-[Illustration: THE BOSTON KNOCKABOUT "GOSLING."]
-
-As a striking instance of the value of oil in a heavy gale I will quote
-the case of the British ship _Slivemore_, which took fire in June, 1885,
-while in the Indian Ocean about eight hundred miles northeastward of the
-Seychelle Islands. The ship was abandoned and the boats steered for the
-islands. Capt. Conly, of the _Slivemore_, gave orders that each boat
-should take aboard two cans of paint oil for use in bad weather, and he
-also instructed the officer in command of each boat in the use of the
-oil. Three days after the ship was left the boats encountered a cyclone.
-Drags made from spars, oars and sails lashed together were rigged, and
-to these improvised sea anchors the frail craft rode securely. Stockings
-filled with oakum saturated with the oil were hung over the bows of the
-boats and formed an oil-slick of considerable expanse. Before the
-stockings were hung out the boats narrowly escaped being swamped and the
-men had to bail hard with buckets. The oil prevented the seas from
-breaking and the boats rode over the enormous waves in safety. Little
-water was shipped, and those on board the boats were able to lie down
-and sleep while a tropical cyclone was raging furiously. All the boats
-reached the islands in safety without the loss of a man, but had it not
-been for the oil the loss of the _Slivemore_ would have remained an
-untold mystery of the ocean.
-
-A still more wonderful example of the efficacy of oil is told by the
-captain of the ship _Martha Cobb_, and it relates to the achievement of
-a sixteen-foot dinghy. In December, 1886, the _Martha Cobb_, petroleum
-laden, encountered a heavy gale in the North Atlantic. She shipped some
-tremendous seas which swept away all her large boats, washed away her
-bulwarks and played havoc generally with her decks. The only boat that
-was left uninjured was the aforesaid sixteen-foot dinghy, intended
-solely for smooth water work.
-
-While laboring and plunging in the mountainous sea, the _Martha Cobb_
-fell in with a sinking vessel flying signals of distress to the effect
-that the water was fast gaining on her and that all her boats were stove
-in. The captain of the _Martha Cobb_ determined to stand by the vessel
-in distress, in the hope that the gale would abate. He knew that his
-little cockleshell of a dinghy could not possibly live in such weather,
-and that it would be suicidal to lower her and attempt a rescue.
-
-After standing by till near nightfall with no prospect of the storm
-moderating, the commander of the _Martha Cobb_ determined to make an
-effort to save the crew of the fast foundering craft. The _Martha
-Cobb's_ petroleum was in casks, some of which leaked. The captain had
-noticed that when the pumps were being worked the sea in the wake of his
-ship was always much smoother. He got the _Martha Cobb_ to windward of
-the wreck and started the pumps, in the hope that the oil in the well
-and bilges would create a smooth when it reached the sea, so that the
-dinghy could be lowered in safety.
-
-He found, however, that the ships drifted faster than the oil, so that
-while the sea to windward was comparatively smooth the water to leeward
-was rough as ever. So he kept his ship away, ran down under the vessel's
-stern and luffed up under her lee. Then he started the pumps and also
-allowed a five-gallon can of fish oil to trickle into the water through
-the scuppers. The effect was almost miraculous. In less than
-half-an-hour the crested surges and breaking combers were converted into
-long heavy swells such as you see when a calm has succeeded a heavy
-gale.
-
-The little dinghy was lowered, and manned by three men was pulled to
-windward alongside the wreck with little difficulty. All hands were
-rescued, and the tiny boat, while engaged in the gallant work, shipped
-no water. All this time the waves were breaking furiously outside the
-magic limit of the oil-slick.
-
-One more illustration and I am done. Capt. Amlot, of the steamer
-_Barrowmore_, on January twenty-fourth, 1885, while in 51 degrees north
-latitude and 21 degrees west longitude, fell in with the sinking ship
-_Kirkwood_. This ship had for part of her cargo several hundred casks of
-canned salmon. In order to make a smooth and allow the boat of the
-_Barrowmore_ to come alongside in safety, the crew of the _Kirkwood_
-broached a number of the cases, and opening the cans poured the oil from
-them into the sea. This had the desired result, and although the sea was
-very heavy the oil reduced it rapidly, and the boat of the _Barrowmore_
-had no difficulty in taking off the twenty-six men that composed the
-ship's company of the _Kirkwood_.
-
-Two quarts of oil used per hour will produce effective results. A ship
-scudding before the wind, with a mountainous sea running and threatening
-to poop her, has expended this amount and kept dry. Experts have
-calculated that this quantity of oil has covered the sea with an
-infinitesimal film measuring thirty feet in width and ten nautical miles
-in length. As the thickness of this film is only .0000047 of an inch,
-its efficacy is indeed marvelous.
-
-A simple and excellent device for distributing oil has been invented by
-Capt. Townsend, of the United States Signal Office. It is cheap and
-convenient, and is especially adapted for use in boats or small yachts.
-It has been thus described:
-
-"It consists of a hollow metal globe ten inches in diameter, with a
-capacity of about one and a-half gallons of oil. It has an air chamber
-separated by a partition to keep it afloat in a certain position, and
-there are two valves. When filled with oil the upper valve is adjusted
-to allow oil to flow out at any desired rate, while the lower valve
-admits water. When placed in the sea it floats with the upper valve a
-little above the surface, and water will enter to displace the oil from
-the graduated upper valve. The specific gravity of oil will keep it in
-the upper part of the distributor, and the motion of the globe on the
-breaking waves or swell will insure the ejection of the oil through the
-graduated valve in any quantity."
-
-[Illustration: OIL DISTRIBUTOR.]
-
-This may be used by towing over the bow when running, or made fast to a
-sea anchor when hove to.
-
-People inclined to be skeptical are, of course, at liberty to doubt the
-efficacy of oil to lessen the dangerous effect of heavy seas, but the
-examples I have quoted are simply a few culled from several hundred well
-authenticated cases.
-
-[Illustration: PLAN OF OIL DISTRIBUTOR.]
-
-The lesson learned from the Shipwash lightship ever so many years ago,
-has not been without profit and benefit to naval architects. Let me spin
-you the yarn. The Shipwash lightship is moored in one of the most
-exposed places on the east coast of England, and is thus continually
-encountering particularly heavy seas. It came to pass that the old
-lightship was replaced by a new and scientific vessel. The new-fangled
-craft was, however, so remarkably unsteady and rolled so heavily that to
-the storm-tossed mariner beating up the coast her light appeared to be
-of crescent shape. Her crew got scared. They were afraid she would turn
-turtle. A surveyor from the Trinity House was sent aboard, and he made a
-report which was submitted to her designer, who eventually said the
-fault complained of could be easily remedied by the addition of extra
-ballast. Accordingly this was done, and the next gale she rode out her
-rolling was worse than ever, and produced quite a panic among her crew,
-who were afraid to go below while the storm lasted. Another report was
-made to headquarters. Other students of naval architecture were
-consulted, who not only advised that the extra ballast be taken out, but
-that four tons of lead be attached to the frame or cage supporting the
-light. These instructions were carried out, and the result was the
-steadiest lightship on the east coast.
-
-A vessel will carry herself full of coal and behave herself in heavy
-weather. But when she comes to be laden with copper ore or lead, a
-certain amount of ingenuity has to be used in the storage of such heavy
-cargo to make her seaworthy at all. If it were all stowed in the bottom
-of the vessel she would roll so heavily in a seaway as to get dismasted,
-and would probably become a total wreck. It is now that the experienced
-art of the stevedore comes in. The man who follows the proper
-authorities would construct a bin or compartment in which to stow this
-dangerous freight thus:
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 1]
-
-The result would be highly satisfactory. The vessel's center of gravity
-would be the same as though she were laden with coal, and her movements
-in a seaway would therefore be quite as easy.
-
-Another man might construct his compartment thus:
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 2]
-
-The vessel in this case would labor quite heavily on the slightest
-provocation and would not be so steady or so seaworthy as the one first
-mentioned, with the narrow bin or compartment extending to the upper
-deck.
-
-The same remarks apply to the ballasting of yachts. Before the days of
-outside lead, when pleasure craft shifted their racing for a cruising
-rig preparatory to a deep-water voyage, it was customary to raise the
-inside lead ballast by placing layers of cork beneath it, thus ensuring
-easy movements in a seaway. Racing yachts nowadays have all their weight
-outside, and this device for their relief cannot therefore be resorted
-to. When crossing the Atlantic, say for a race for the _America's_ Cup,
-they are always in danger of getting caught in a gale of wind and an
-accompanying mountainous sea. In order to prevent excessive rolling,
-which might endanger the mast and consequently the vessel herself, it is
-necessary to keep a press of sail set. For this purpose a trysail with
-plenty of hoist to it is indispensable. It should not be one of those
-jib-headed impostors that some racing skippers most unaccountably
-affect, but one with a good long gaff that will successfully prevent the
-otherwise inevitable and peril-fraught roll to windward.
-
-A yacht under these circumstances, it is true, cannot carry a great
-press of canvas when on the top of one of those big rollers that a gale
-soon kicks up in the Atlantic. But she wants as much of her sail area as
-possible exposed to the gale when she is in the hollow of the wave.
-Otherwise there will not be sufficient pressure to prevent her from
-rolling to windward.
-
-Rolling to windward—easy enough to write, you may think—but every sailor
-knows what may follow. Green seas fore and aft, mast sprung, men washed
-overboard; and if the gale does not abate, why, Davy Jones' locker for
-all hands and the cook!
-
-The storm trysail must necessarily be a sheet-footed sail set over the
-furled mainsail. It is a sail comparatively narrow at the foot, but it
-should for obvious reasons be made as broad as possible at the head, in
-proper proportion of course to the breadth of the foot. It need not have
-quite as much hoist as the mainsail, for the throat halyards at such a
-time must have a good drift, while to keep the sail inboard the peak
-should be quite extreme. It follows, therefore, that although the
-rollers may be high the peak of the trysail is above them, and the yacht
-is kept jogging along steadily without any sudden and violent shocks or
-strains to spar or rigging.
-
-The following rough sketches will, I think, serve to demonstrate the
-superiority of the gaff-headed trysail over that abortion, the
-thimble-headed variety, which I do not hesitate to condemn as useless
-for a modern yacht ballasted with outside lead in a seaway.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-No. 1 shows vessel with gaffheaded sail on the crest of a wave. She
-drops down into the hollow of the wave and becomes No. 2. The shaded
-part of the sail catches the wind over the crests of the waves, and the
-area so exposed is sufficient to steady the vessel and give her a safe
-heel or list.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Now I wish to call your attention to No. 3. She has enough sail spread
-when on the crest of a wave. But observe her when in the hollow. She has
-scarcely a stitch of sail above the level of the crest. The consequence
-is that her weight being so low down, and her form having so much
-stability, she swings with a violent roll to windward and her mast is
-thereby imperilled. This is the result of not having the requisite
-amount of pressure at the head of the sail.
-
-The commanders of square-rigged vessels always bear this in mind. They
-heave to under a close-reefed maintopsail, never under a lower course,
-and the ship when in the trough of the sea has enough sail exposed to
-keep her steady. The smart schooners that used to ply between St.
-Michaels and London in the fruit trade, and that were bound to make
-smart passages or lose money, were always fitted with gaffheaded
-trysails, and found them most efficacious in beating to windward in
-strong gales. Their sturdy skippers would have looked with contempt and
-ridicule upon any person so fatuous as to recommend a jibheaded trysail.
-And they were skilled sailors of fore-and-aft rigged craft, and were
-well acquainted with that stretch of the wild Atlantic between the
-Lizard and the Azores. These vessels used to beat up the English Channel
-in the teeth of an easterly gale and fight their way homeward inch by
-inch, and I consider the practical experience of their captains as far
-more reliable than the theoretical vagaries of men who were never out of
-soundings in a small craft.
-
-What is true of comparatively large yachts in an Atlantic gale applies
-equally to the small cruiser. The theory is precisely the same, and in
-ordering a storm trysail from his sailmaker the aspiring owner of a
-smart, seaworthy cruiser might well be guided by the few hints given
-above. A gaffheaded trysail is just what he wants to steady his boat
-when hove to, and to counteract that tendency toward rolling that
-outside lead always has on the hull of a boat in a seaway.
-
-When coming to anchor at any other time than low water, do not forget to
-allow for the fall of the tide. For instance, if you bring up in 10 feet
-of water when the tide is high, in a boat drawing, say 5 feet, and the
-range of rise and fall is also 5 feet, at low water your vessel would be
-aground and perhaps under untoward circumstances in danger of damage or
-even total loss. This hint is worth remembering in many parts of the
-world, especially in some parts of the Bay of Fundy, where there is a
-range of no less than 50 feet! Soundings on the chart denote the depth
-at mean low water.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-
-
-                                  VII.
-
-                         OVERHAULING THE YACHT.
-
-
-No matter how small a craft the yachtsman owns she will, after a
-winter's lay-up, require a good deal of attention before she is fit for
-the water; and there is no reason why a keen yachtsman who owns a tidy
-little craft should not fit her out himself in his spare time. In fact,
-I am acquainted with many boat-owners who find nearly as much delight in
-getting their own vessels into proper fettle for the season's sport as
-they do in navigating them. There is much to be said in favor of this
-enterprise. The principal argument is that a man overhauling the hull of
-the boat which belongs to him will not be at all likely to "scamp" the
-work. On the contrary, it is to his interest to do the job thoroughly
-while he is about it, for he is improving his own property; whereas if
-he employs a mechanic to do it by piece work, or by the day, the task
-may be performed in a manner more or less perfunctory, or at any rate
-without the attention to minor details which the actual proprietor would
-be expected to bring to the task.
-
-I would not counsel a man to attempt repairs which call for the skilled
-shipwright or boat-builder. The result would in all probability be a
-lamentable failure, and in the end a mechanic would have to be called
-in. But the work of cleaning, painting and varnishing a hull
-intrinsically sound may be accomplished by the man or boy of average
-intelligence and industry.
-
-What is true about a hull is still more so of her rig. When I first went
-to sea on a deep-water voyage, as soon as the ship was out of soundings
-the crew's first duty was to undo the work of the professional rigger,
-stay the masts anew by shrouds and backstays, and replace the hurried
-botch-work of knots and splices by seamanlike and shipshape work.
-
-Anything in the shape of a boat may be made water-tight, no matter how
-leaky she may be, if treated with careful ingenuity. I would be the last
-man to suggest patching and puttying up a ramshackle craft whose frames
-and planking are rotten. Supposing, however, that the hull is fairly
-sound, but through exposure to the hot sun her planks are cracked in
-sundry places, and that in fact she leaks like a sieve, there is no
-reason why she should be condemned. There is a lot of good fun to be got
-out of a craft of this kind, if the proper repairs are made. If put in
-the hands of a professional boat-builder the cost would be very high,
-even if he could be induced to undertake the work. Here, then, is where
-a handy man or boy has a capital opportunity to try his hand as a
-craftsman. I repaired an old 18 foot boat in my younger days, when money
-was scarce and I had the alternative of giving up my pet diversion of
-sailing or making the ancient bucket tight.
-
-This is how I went about it.
-
-The craft in question was hauled out on the shore above high-water mark.
-She had been abandoned by her rightful owner, who had moved inland and
-left her to the tender mercies of the sun in summer and the snow in
-winter. For sixteen months she lay on the beach neglected. Every day I
-cast covetous eyes on her. I will make a clean breast of it now in my
-old age and confess that I had contemplated stealing her. That sin was,
-however, spared me, as I found her owner's address and wrote, asking if
-he would sell her. He replied that he would give her to me and welcome,
-and thus made me the happiest youth in the land.
-
-The boat was originally a first-class little lap-streaker of good model,
-built of teak throughout and copper-fastened; but there were many cracks
-in her planks and most of her fastenings were loose, and in a general
-way she might be described as "nail-sick" all over. With the help of a
-couple of chums I placed her on chocks and shored her up on an even
-keel, supporting her well, so that she should not suffer from any
-unequal strain when I filled her later on with water. She was very dirty
-inside, and I remember it took me the greater part of a day to
-thoroughly clean her with soap, hot water and a scrubbing brush. Then I
-put the plug in and started to fill her up with water. Although I had
-plenty of help from the village boys, who were never so joyous as when
-pottering about a boat, it took a long time to fill her, for the water
-poured out of her like the streams from a shower-bath. But her dry and
-thirsty planks soon began to swell a little and the leaks to diminish. I
-kept her as full of water as possible for two or three days, marking
-with chalk every leak that appeared. I may remark that the chocks on
-which her keel was raised were high enough for me to crawl completely
-under her bottom and get at every part of her. Her hull, which
-originally had been varnished to show the grain of the natural wood, was
-pretty well checkered with chalk-marks by the time I had finished. Then
-I let the water drain out of her, and waited until she was dried
-thoroughly by wind and sun.
-
-Meanwhile I bought a lot of copper nails of the requisite length and
-rooves to match, with the use of which I had become thoroughly familiar
-from watching the men in the boat-shop hard by.
-
-Then I began operations, aided by an apprentice from the boat-builder's
-establishment whom I induced, by the proffer of pocket money, to turn
-out of his bed at dawn and lend me a hand till the clang of the bell
-summoned him to his daily toil. We replaced all the rivets that had
-worked very loose with new ones of a larger size, and drove an
-additional nail between every two originally driven. The old nails,
-which were only a little slack, I hardened with a few taps of the hammer
-from the inside, while Toby, the afore-mentioned apprentice, "held on"
-against the heads of the nails with another hammer on the outside. This
-was slow and tedious work, but it paid in the long run, for it made the
-boat almost as good as new, her frames, as I have already mentioned,
-being in capital condition.
-
-My next operation was to borrow a pitch-kettle from the boat shop and to
-put in it a pound of pitch and a gallon of North Carolina tar. Kindling
-a fire under it I let it boil until the pitch had melted, stirring it
-constantly. This mixture I applied boiling hot to the inside of the boat
-with a paint-brush, filling every crevice and ledge up to the level of
-the underside of the thwarts. It was astonishing what a quantity of this
-composition the planks absorbed. I put only half a ladleful of the tar
-into my paint-pot at a time, so that it should not stand long enough to
-cool, replenishing every few minutes from the boiling kettle. Tar when
-at the boiling point is comparatively thin, and has superior penetrative
-qualities, so it can be worked with the point of the brush into every
-crevice, no matter how minute. When it hardens it forms a water-tight
-seam which possesses, from the nature of its ingredients, a certain
-amount of elasticity.
-
-There were a number of sun-cracks in the planking, which I filled with
-fish glue, run in hot from the outside. This composition dries very hard
-and does not crack. My next task was to sandpaper the outside, smoothing
-the very rough places with pumice-stone after wetting them well. I ached
-all over by the time this process was completed but I got her as smooth
-as glass. Then I gave her outside a couple of good coats of raw linseed
-oil applied on a hot day. As a finish, not caring to waste money on
-varnish, I gave her a final coat of boiled linseed oil, in which a
-generous lump of rosin had been melted. This is the mixture used from
-time immemorial by the Dutch on the bottoms and topsides of their
-galliots, and it wears well and looks well, resisting the action of both
-fresh and salt water. I may say that this method of making my boat
-water-tight was economical and successful. The example may be followed
-with similar results by anybody who owns a leaky lapstreak craft.
-
-Another method, as practiced on a St. Lawrence skiff that was badly
-checked and rotten in places, is thus described by a veteran boatman who
-made the successful experiment: "The boat was of lapstreak construction,
-and many of the seams had opened. I went entirely over the boat, first
-closing the seams as much as possible by drawing together with
-clout-nails. Next, where there were cracks through the 3/16-inch
-planking, I cleaned the painted surface, and where the paint had
-blistered I removed all of it by scraping. When the surface was in
-proper condition I cut a strip of eight-ounce duck of a length and width
-to cover the crack (generally 3/4 inch was wide enough) and smeared one
-side, by means of a stick, with liquid glue. The canvas was applied to
-the crack and pressed down, and the glue-stick drawn over the raveled
-ends from the center outward, to make them adhere closely to the boat.
-Then the canvas and surrounding wood were brushed over with enamel
-paint. The painting must be done before the glue sets, as otherwise the
-canvas is apt to warp. Open cracks 1/8 inch wide were covered in this
-manner, and also cracks at the butts of the strakes. After all of the
-cracks were treated I gave the boat two good coats of paint over all,
-and the result was a comparatively smooth surface, and one that was
-absolutely watertight." The veteran very truly adds that an old boat
-repaired in this way will not stand any rough usage, and the patches are
-not proof against being dragged over rocks, or even a sand-beach; but by
-a little labor a boat that is practically worthless may be so made
-serviceable for an indefinite time.
-
-By either of the methods mentioned above a lapstreak boat may be made
-tight as a bottle. A carvel-built craft—that is, one with the planks
-flush, edge and edge, and the seams between calked and payed—may
-generally be made tight by recalking her with threads of cotton prepared
-for that purpose and sold by ship-chandlers, driving the cotton well
-home with iron and mallet, and afterward puttying up the seams. Care
-should be taken, however, not to put the cotton in too tight, or drive
-it right through the seam. Serious damage has often been done to a boat
-in the way of increasing her leakiness by too hard calking. Or the
-boat's hull may be completely covered with light duck nailed on with
-copper tacks, and afterward well painted. This, however, is rather
-difficult for a greenhorn to accomplish so as to make a neat fit of it;
-but I have seen several boats repaired and renovated in this manner by
-young men gifted with ingenuity, and a great deal of patience. I may say
-that the result, if the work is well done, is worth the pains thereon
-expended.
-
-Rowboats, sailboats, and launches propelled by any kind of power may
-have their hulls treated after one of these fashions, with quite
-satisfactory results.
-
-If the owner does not think he is sufficiently handy to undertake the
-stopping of leaks he can, at any rate, paint and varnish his craft. To
-paint a boat outside or inside a perfectly smooth surface is necessary,
-and to obtain this all rough spots should be smoothed with pumice-stone
-and sand-paper. Enamel paint should be used above the water-line, and
-the bottom may be painted with any one of the excellent compositions now
-in the market, which prevent grass and barnacles from flourishing too
-luxuriantly on the underbodies of boats.
-
-The interior of the boat, after being thoroughly washed and scrubbed,
-should also have a coat or even two coats of enamel paint, as this
-composition is lasting and wears three times as long as the ordinary
-preparation of white lead, oil, turpentine, and pigment. One thing,
-however, is worth remembering. Never use washing soda or boiling water
-to clean wood covered with enamel paint. Rub it with a sponge or flannel
-cloth dipped in lukewarm water and a little soap. For protecting and
-beautifying natural wood above deck or below, use a good brand of spar
-varnish. This will resist the damp, salt air of the ocean, or the more
-penetrating moisture of fresh-water lakes and rivers, far better than
-the higher grade of varnish used for the indoor decoration of dwelling
-houses, which, when it gets damp, acquires a plum-like bloom on its
-surface by no means beautiful.
-
-Mr. W. Baden-Powell, than whom there is no better authority, says very
-truly, that there is no more dangerous time in their lives for the spars
-of canoes than when stowed away in a boat-house roof for the damp
-winter's rest. Bamboo spars are more liable to suffer than pine, or
-solid spruce, but each and all are in danger of splitting or kinking,
-especially so in the case of built spars, if glued up, instead of
-screw-built. With such convenient lengths as are found in canoe spars,
-there is no excuse for leaving them in damp boat-houses, as they can be
-stacked in a room corner, on end, and the sails and rigging in drawers
-or boxes. In this way each item of rigging can be overhauled, mended,
-improved, and set in order for the coming year, just as convenient spare
-time offers.
-
-About the middle of March in these latitudes we generally are blessed
-with ideal sailing breezes, a trifle blustering and boisterous, perhaps,
-when the merry music of the stiff nor'wester pipes through the rigging,
-but nevertheless vastly enjoyable to the ardent amateur, who grasps the
-tiller of his stanch shippie and fearlessly luffs up to the strident
-puffs, knowing that he has a stout hull beneath him, and that sails and
-gear are of trusty strength.
-
-It is all very well for the steam-yachtsmen and such-like marine
-Sybarites to wait for the hot days of July to arrive before ordering
-their floating palaces to go into commission, but he who depends upon
-sails can ill afford to allow all the glorious winds of the fresh and
-fragrant springtime to blow themselves to waste in such reckless,
-feckless fashion. There may be a chilly sting or bite in the spray that
-breaks on the weather bow in a silver shower and smites the helmsman
-mercilessly in the face, but there is invigorating ozone in wind and
-water, and a glow of triumph after a successful battle with breeze and
-billow.
-
-[Illustration: IN DRY DOCK.]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Photo by Dr. Titus.
-
-  HAULED OUT FOR PAINTING.
-]
-
-It is prudent, too, to fit out early and lay up late, for life, alas! is
-brief, and it behooves us, my boating brethren, to enjoy as many brave
-sailing days as possible ere we make our final voyage across the Styx,
-with grim Charon, the ferryman, taking his perennial trick at the
-tiller, while his pets, the frogs, plash and play and croak in his muddy
-wake.
-
-If the yacht is a small one—a knockabout or a 30-footer—and she has
-wintered afloat, the first thing is to haul her out and prepare to clean
-her hull of barnacles and grass, of which a goodly crop is sure to have
-grown on her below the water-line. Start in with scrubbing brushes, sand
-and canvas and use plenty of elbow grease until she is thoroughly
-cleaned and all rough places smoothed with pumice stone. Use plenty of
-fresh water, with a flannel cloth as a final application to her hull.
-Then leave her until she is thoroughly dry. Carefully examine her seams
-for leaks, calking where necessary.
-
-When your boat is out of water open her wide to the fresh air. Rig up a
-windsail, and let the healthful breezes circulate through her interior.
-If she has hatches or skylights, lift them off; if portholes, unscrew
-them and give the wind a chance to blow all close impurities away. Rig
-the pump and relieve her of all malodorous bilge water, the most
-nauseating and offensive evil that is met with by mariners. Take up the
-cabin flooring. If the ballast consists of pig iron, rout it out, clean
-off the rust, and before replacing give it a good coat of coal tar,
-applied hot. Clean the limbers and flush them with plenty of water,
-using a bristly broom to remove the dirt. Splash the water about
-lavishly, and then pump it out dry. If there happens to be a cooking
-stove below, as there generally is in a vessel of any size, light a
-roaring fire and do your best to kill all fungoid germs or spores that
-may have gathered in damp places during the winter. Examine the ceiling
-for leaks.
-
-Should, through imprudent oversight, any bedding, matting, carpet, or
-clothing, have been left in the boat since last season, take them out
-and have them cleansed and dried. If mold and mildew have attacked them,
-destroy without compunction, and resolve to take better care next time.
-
-After thoroughly cleansing the craft inside from the eyes of her to
-right aft with soap and hot water, you can paint her cabin, if you deem
-she needs it, using enamel paint if you are willing to go to a little
-extra expense, or, at any rate, if not, using a generous quantity of
-spar varnish with the oil and dryers you mix your white lead with. This
-dries good and hard and is easily cleansed with warm water, soap and a
-sponge, and is far more durable and satisfactory than paint mixed in the
-ordinary manner. Two coats should be given.
-
-The next process is to clean the deck of the coat of varnish with which
-it was doubtless covered when the yacht was prepared for the winter. To
-accomplish this in the most efficacious manner, procure from a ship
-chandler a sufficient quantity of one of the many preparations of
-caustic soda, with which the market is well equipped. Dissolve it in an
-iron bucket in hot water, mixing it strong enough to act as a powerful
-detergent. These preparations vary in power, so it will be well to
-experiment on a section of the deck with a sample and then add more soda
-or more water as required.
-
-After sundown apply plentifully to the deck with a mop, rubbing the
-mixture well into the planks. Next morning before sunrise arm yourself
-with a good hard deck-scrubber, and set to work in earnest, using plenty
-of hot water and scrubbing the deck planks (fore and aft, mind you,
-always, and never athwart-ship) until every particle of the old varnish
-and every speck and stain is removed. If the detergent is allowed to
-remain on the deck while the sun is shining, it is bound to eat into the
-planks and burn them.
-
-The next operation is the painting of the boat inside and out. There are
-many excellent compositions for coating the hull below the water-line,
-but if you do not care to experiment with them, use the recipe given in
-the chapter on "Useful Hints and Recipes." Choose a clear, dry day and
-apply the paint. For above the water-line use pure white lead of the
-best quality reduced to the proper consistency with equal parts of raw
-and boiled linseed oil and copal varnish. Add a dash of dryers and a few
-drops of blue paint, strain and apply.
-
-Personally, I prefer to varnish the deck of a small craft, though I am
-quite willing to acknowledge the superior beauty of a spotless deck
-white as a hound's tooth. The friends of a yachtsman often wear boots
-with ugly nails in them, both on soles and heels, and these are apt to
-play havoc with the spick and span appearance of a deck innocent of
-varnish. After cleaning the decks thoroughly let them dry well. Wait for
-a sunny morning and a northwesterly wind, when the air is comparatively
-free from moisture. Get your can of spar varnish out, and after sweeping
-the decks and dusting them thoroughly with a feather-duster, apply with
-a regular varnish brush of convenient size. It is advisable to pour out
-the varnish into a shallow jar, a marmalade pot for instance, in small
-quantities as required, as varnish loses its virtue rapidly by exposure
-to sun and air. It is expedient, therefore, that the varnish can, or
-bottle, should never be left uncorked. The varnishing process should not
-be undertaken until the last thing, after the boat has been cleaned and
-painted inside and out, spars and blocks scraped and polished, standing
-rigging set up, running rigging rove and sails bent. Two thin coats of
-varnish will be ample for the decks and spars, as well as all the
-hardwood fittings and trimmings of the yacht inside and out.
-
-Should the varnish be too thick to flow freely from the brush, _don't_
-thin it with oil or spirits of turpentine unless you wish to dim its
-luster and deprive it of much of its preservative quality. Simply place
-the varnish can in a bucket of hot water, and let it remain there until
-it gets warm, when you will experience no difficulty in applying it to
-advantage. Another hint worth taking is never to buy cheap and inferior
-varnish. The best is none too good.
-
-These suggestions may appear superfluous to a professional yachtsman,
-who, if he happens to read this yarn, might feel tempted to observe:
-"Why, every darned chump knows that!" As a matter of fact, amateurs as a
-rule are not familiar with these little "wrinkles," which are in many
-cases tricks of the trade. This yarn is spun for amateurs only, and not
-for the edification or instruction of veteran professionals. About half
-a century ago, when I first became a boat owner, I should have been
-delighted to get the fruits of a practical man's ripe experience.
-
-Fashionable craft with spoon bows and long overhangs forward have
-abolished the long bowsprits and simplified the head gear. The short
-bowsprit is secured with a steel bobstay extending from the stem to the
-cranze iron on the bowsprit, the bobstay being set up taut with a
-turnbuckle of galvanized iron. The bowsprit shrouds are of steel wire
-also set up by turnbuckles.
-
-The polemast has also done away with all the topmast gear, the mast
-being secured by a forestay which sets up to the stem head and by one or
-sometimes two shrouds on each side set up by turnbuckles. The days of
-deadeyes and lanyards and of reefing bowsprits are departed. A sailor to
-be quite down-to-date should combine with his nautical knowledge some of
-the art of the blacksmith. Strength and lightness and handiness are the
-watchwords of to-day, and with modern methods the gear of a small craft
-is so simple that it takes little time to rig her.
-
-I suppose I may take it for granted that all the running rigging was
-neatly coiled up and labeled and stored ashore when you went out of
-commission last fall. I know many smart young yachtsmen who while away
-many a long winter evening with pleasure and profit overhauling sheets
-and halyards, stropping blocks, varnishing them, splicing, serving and
-generally repairing all of the running gear that needs attention, making
-manropes, scraping and polishing the gangway ladder, the tiller, etc.,
-and in other ways preparing for their summer's amusement. The study of
-navigation, the rule of the road at sea, the coast pilot, the learning
-of marlinspike seamanship and a rudimentary knowledge of the use of the
-palm and needle, so that if a sail should need some simple repairs they
-may be made without loss of time and without seeking aid from a
-sailmaker—all these the amateur will find useful. It is astonishing how
-much one can learn in one winter if he devotes only an hour a night to
-the acquirement of nautical lore.
-
-But supposing that his running gear has not been touched since it was
-unrove, it will take only a short time to get it in tip-top order, and
-the work may be done in the evening when it is too dark to potter about
-the yacht.
-
-While you are about it you may as well make a thorough job of this
-fitting out. Shin up the mast and make a tail-block fast to the masthead
-as high as possible, reeving a gantline through it so that you may sit
-in a boatswain's chair or in a bowline while you survey the stick. If
-the collars of the shrouds or forestay show any sign of chafe, they must
-come down and be served over again with spun yarn or covered with canvas
-sewn on with a palm and needle, using plenty of lead colored paint in
-the process to prevent rust. Examine the masthead carefully for weak
-parts, which generally are to be found in the wake of the rigging. If
-rot and signs of serious strains are met with, it is evident that a new
-mast is needed. Longitudinal cracks may be disregarded unless they are
-glaringly apparent, but transverse cracks should be viewed with
-suspicion.
-
-If, after close inspection, you conclude that the mast is good enough to
-stand, you may as well begin to scrape it, engaging your chum to lower
-you down by your gantline. After scraping, use sandpaper until it is
-polished smooth. Then give it a couple of coats of spar varnish. If the
-boat has a bowsprit, treat it in the same way. If she carries a topmast,
-scrape and varnish it and the boom, gaff, spinnaker-boom, boathook and
-the oars of your dinghy as well as all blocks ashore, wherever
-convenient.
-
-Next set up your rigging good and taut, taking care to stay the mast
-perfectly plumb—no rake aft or forward. If you carry a topmast, send it
-up and stay it in the usual way. Get your boom in position by means of
-the gooseneck and the crotch; reeve your topping-lift and hook it on to
-its place at the end of the boom. Get the gaff in place, hook on the
-throat and peak halyards, and there you are all ready to bend sails.
-
-It is imperative that your vessel, whether she be a cruiser pure and
-simple or a racer, should have a well cut suit of sails. If it is your
-intention to treat her to the luxury of a brand new suit, I hope that
-you placed your order with a responsible sailmaker weeks ago. The winter
-is the correct time to have your sails made, when the knights of the
-palm and needle are not so apt to be rushed.
-
-Yacht owners have the habit of procrastinating where sails are
-concerned, and postpone their orders for new canvas to the very last
-moment. This causes such a hurry in the loft that large orders are apt
-to receive the first and best attention of the sailmaker, while the
-owner of a moderate-sized vessel has to wait the foreman's convenience;
-whereas, if an order is placed before, say, Christmas, one of the firm
-is as likely as not to give the matter his personal attention, measure
-your craft himself, and let the cut and the sit of the sails have the
-benefit of his own supervision. It is also a fact that the sailmaking
-firms make it a point to keep their best men at work all the year round,
-while the mere ordinary workmen are "laid off" when the season closes.
-The consequence is that the yachtsman who orders his sails in good time
-has the advantage of the most skillful craftsmen in the market, and he
-is likely, too, to have better prices quoted him than in the rush of the
-season, when all hands are hard at it. Therefore, my advice is to take
-early action and win the best results at the most favorable figure.
-
-It was always my custom, before unbending my yacht's sails preparatory
-to going out of commission, to summon my sailmaker aboard and take him
-for a short trip, pointing out what I considered to be the defects in
-the muslin and listening to his suggestions for their remedy. He would
-make notes in his memorandum-book and inscribe certain hieroglyphic
-marks on the sails themselves. When the canvas was unbent he would send
-for it, make the repairs and alterations at his leisure and store the
-sails for me until the spring, when I would find them in perfect
-condition for setting. All this was done for moderate compensation,
-considering the excellence of the workmanship.
-
-The importance of a well-cut and well-sitting suit of sails cannot be
-over-estimated. No matter how well the naval architect may have executed
-his work in the design of a vessel's hull, if the sailmaker has failed
-in his task, success in racing is an impossibility. You might just as
-well expect a fast homing pigeon to attain his normal speed with a
-crippled wing as a yacht to win a cup hampered by sails of poor material
-and faulty construction.
-
-If low-grade material is used, despite the best efforts of the
-scientific sailmaker, the sails are sure to be unsatisfactory. The
-climate on the Atlantic coast is peculiarly trying even to the finest
-grades of cotton duck, which is assuredly the best fabric known that can
-be used for the purpose of the sailmaker. The hot and arid westerly
-winds dry out the sails so that they become soft and open, causing them
-to stretch abnormally and to get full of what are technically termed
-"hard places." The wind shifts to the eastward, a damp, moist quarter,
-and the result is a severe shrinking, which, in conjunction with the
-previous violent stretching, is enough to play havoc with the best and
-closest woven material, no matter how scientifically designed and
-constructed. You can imagine how a suit of sails of cheap and common
-duck, botched by some ordinary tentmaker, would be likely to behave
-under such circumstances.
-
-My advice is to order your sails of a reputable firm of experience, have
-them made of the best material, and take care that they are bent by a
-man of judgment and skill and not by some habitué of a hay-mow or a
-pig-drover fresh from the farm. I have known a suit of sails that cost
-several hundred dollars irretrievably ruined by being overstretched in
-the first instance by a sailing-master ignorant of the first principles
-of his calling.
-
-A well-known sailmaker, who has made sails for some of the crack racing
-yachts of America, gives the following admirable instructions for
-setting the sails of a 40-foot single-sticker: Cast off the tyers from
-the mainsail; hook on the peak halyards; see that the gaff goes up
-between the topping-lifts as you hoist up on the throat and peak
-halyards; hoist up on the throat until the luff-rope is straight; if the
-sail has a slide on the boom, haul out on it till the canvas is just
-straight and smooth on the foot; too hard a pull will throw a heavy
-strain on the diagonal, from the end of the boom to the jaws of the
-gaff, giving a bad after leech when the peak is swayed up; next sway up
-the luff pretty taut; it is not necessary to top the boom up to too
-great an angle out of the crotch; man the peak halyards and hoist on
-them until the after leech is so lifted that it spreads and stretches
-every square inch of the after angle of the sail; as soon as the peak
-begins to lift the outer end of the boom, the mainsheet should be made
-fast (unless the boom extends so far over the taffrail that it would
-bring an undue leverage on the boom and spring it to breaking); now
-sweat up the peak halyards until the stretch is entirely taken out of
-the halyard canvas; if the peak is hoisted beyond its proper angle, it
-puts an undue strain on the diagonal, from the end of the gaff to the
-center of effort of the sail, the consequence being a nasty gutter just
-inside the leech, which gives rise to the groundless complaint that
-there is a tight cloth inside the after leech. It should be remembered
-that the trouble lies in stretching the head and foot of the sail too
-taut, and over-setting, the peak.
-
-These instructions are so clear as to be intelligible to the merest
-tyro, and should be followed out on all occasions. A good mainsail costs
-a large sum, and there is no reason why it should be ruined by neglect
-of proper precautions.
-
-In setting a thimble-headed topsail hoist away on the halyards, then
-bowse the tack down with a purchase, then sheet it out to the gaff end
-so that there shall be an exact and even strain on both foot and leech.
-
-The proper angle of the jib-sheet depends entirely on the position its
-clew occupies in relation to the stay. It should always hold the foot of
-the sail a little more than it does the after leech, so as to allow the
-proper flow, which is so effective as well as so beautiful.
-
-If you determine that the craft's old suit is good enough for another
-year, overhaul it for holes. Perhaps the sails have been stowed away
-where rats or mice have had free access to them. If so, they will need
-repairs. If they were rolled up damp, or stored in a damp place, they
-will probably be badly mildewed. The unsightly stains of mildew can be
-partially removed by scrubbing the sail on both sides with fresh water
-and soap, and afterward rubbing whiting over it and leaving it to dry
-and bleach in the sun.
-
-If the sails are discolored, they may be improved by laying them on a
-plot of clean sand, scrubbing them on both sides with sea-water and
-salt-water soap, and afterward sprinkling them with salt-water in which
-whiting is dissolved until it looks like milk. Let them bleach in the
-sun until one side is quite dry, and then turn them over.
-
-To prevent mildew from spoiling the sails, keep them dry and well
-ventilated. If a sail is furled when damp, the inner folds will mildew.
-Always roll up a wet sail loosely, and shake it out and dry it the first
-chance you get; in any case open it out and give it air, even if rain
-continues to fall. Remember that new sails will mildew very quickly
-because of the "dressing" in the duck, which sets up a fungoid growth or
-fermentation. For these reasons don't depend too much on your watertight
-sail-covers, but give your canvas frequent air and sun baths if you wish
-your "white wings" to remain things of beauty.
-
-The same attention to the sails to avoid mildew should be given to the
-hull to prevent dry rot, which is quite as frequently caused by the lack
-of ventilation as by the use of unseasoned timber in the construction of
-a vessel.
-
-The principal labor of fitting out has been described, but the cabin is
-yet to be fixed up for occupation, and stores taken aboard for the
-opening cruise. It is well to have a list prepared of the actual
-necessities in the way of supplies that must not be left ashore when you
-get under way. Here are a few things that cannot be dispensed with:
-Anchor and chain, small kedge anchor, tow-rope, life-buoy, side-lights,
-anchor light, oil and wicks, bell, foghorn, compass with binnacle, hand
-lead, chart of waters you intend to navigate, dinghy, either on board or
-towing astern, properly fitted with oars, boathook, rowlocks and plug,
-all secured by lashings. A good supply of fresh water should be taken
-along, and a stock of provisions suitable to the tastes of the skipper
-and his guests. An awning for the cockpit may prove a great comfort both
-in hot and rainy weather, when becalmed or at anchor.
-
-I recommend that a storm trysail, a storm jib and a drogue, or
-sea-anchor, form part of the yacht's equipment, and that they be stowed
-away in some place convenient for instant use. Perhaps they may never be
-needed, but it is often the unforeseen that happens, and in this world
-of uncertainty it is best to be always ready for an emergency.
-
-Thus prepared the yachtsman may safely venture for a cruise, selecting
-those waters with which he is most familiar or most anxious to explore.
-He will find April an ideal month for yachting, and if he puts in his
-time to the best advantage he will have his craft "tuned up" to racing
-pitch, his amateur crew so admirably drilled and disciplined, and his
-sails and gear in such capital shape that, if there is really any speed
-in the craft at all, prizes should be the inevitable reward of his skill
-and his enterprise.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration: "MAKING READY FOR A NEW DRESS."]
-
-
-
-
-                                 VIII.
-
-                       FITTING OUT FOR A CRUISE.
-
-
-In equipping a boat for a cruise, even in summer, it is always well to
-remember that gales of wind are not unusual even in July. I once knew it
-to blow with spiteful ferocity in the last week of that month, and to
-disperse the Atlantic Yacht Club squadron and drive them to seek shelter
-in various harbors of Long Island Sound, between Black Rock and New
-Haven. Out of the whole fleet only two yachts reached their destination,
-New London. One was the sloop _Athlon_, Vice-Commodore E. B. Havens, on
-board of which I was a guest, and the forty-footer _Chispa_. It was
-quite an exciting and hard thrash to windward in the teeth of an
-easterly gale, but we got there. Had not the two yachts mentioned been
-properly prepared for such an exigency, they also would have been forced
-to bear up and run for some land-locked haven in which to linger until
-the wind had blown itself out. Although these summer gales generally
-exhaust themselves in twenty-four hours, they are often quite savage
-while they last, and the sensible yachtsman will always be prepared to
-meet them. His standing and running rigging will be in first-class
-condition; whatever storm canvas he carries will be ready for bending at
-a moment's notice; his sea anchor or drogue will also be at hand for
-letting go should the necessity arise.
-
-Of course I need not impress upon the amateur boat sailer that a compass
-should be taken along on a cruise. But I have mingled a good deal with
-the owners of small craft, and have met many who either did not carry
-one at all or, if it was aboard, as likely as not stowed it away in the
-same locker with a hatchet, marlinespike and other tools not likely to
-improve it. A compass should always form part of a boat's outfit. A fog
-often makes its appearance when a party of pleasure seekers are enjoying
-a sail on sound or bay, and when it shuts down on you thick as a hedge I
-will defy you not to lose your bearings, and consequently your way. In
-times such as these a compass will prove a source of great comfort, and
-instead of being compelled to anchor and await clear weather you can
-steer for your destination under shortened sail. In such cases never
-fail to blow the foghorn, which should be of regulation size and not a
-penny squeaking trumpet such as a six-year old schoolboy affects. The
-ordinary boat's compass will answer admirably if only short sails are
-contemplated, but on a long cruise where a heavy sea is not unlikely to
-be encountered, a fluid compass should be carried. The motion of a small
-craft in rough water causes the common compass card to jump about so
-much as to be perfectly useless to steer by, while a fluid compass
-remains steady and reliable under all circumstances and conditions.
-There are several fluid compasses in the market at a reasonable price,
-which can be depended upon in an emergency. The fluid on which the
-needle floats is generally alcohol, to guard against freezing, and is
-simply a development of a primitive compass used by the daring seamen of
-the twelfth century. This old-fashioned instrument consisted of an iron
-needle, one end of which was stuck into a piece of cork. The other end
-was well rubbed with a loadstone, and when the cork was floated in an
-earthenware bowl of water the end so treated pointed to the magnetic
-North. In spite of the meager knowledge of those early navigators
-concerning variation and deviation, they generally managed to make a
-sufficiently good land-fall. It may not be generally known that a sewing
-needle rubbed on a magnet and carefully dropped into a vessel of water
-will float and point to the North.
-
-The rule of the road at sea requires vessels in a fog to go at a
-moderate speed and to blow the foghorn at intervals of not less than two
-minutes; when on the starboard tack one blast, when on the port tack two
-blasts in succession, and when with the wind abaft the beam three blasts
-in succession. It also has certain imperative rules for a vessel at
-anchor in a fog.
-
-The law provides that a vessel not under way in a fog shall at intervals
-of not more than two minutes ring a bell. It will be seen therefore that
-a bell is quite as necessary as a foghorn. If a boat at anchor or under
-way in thick weather, with neither bell nor foghorn in use as provided
-by the law, should be run into and damaged or sunk by any other vessel,
-her owner would have no redress. On the contrary, if he escaped with his
-life he could be forced to pay for any damage, however trifling, the
-vessel colliding with him sustained in the act. If he was drowned his
-estate would be liable.
-
-A bell should form part of the careful boatowner's outfit. But if you
-have neglected providing one, don't despair. Get out a frying pan or a
-tin kettle and kick up as much racket as you can by beating one or both
-with a hammer or a marlinespike. A fishhorn has many times answered the
-purpose of a foghorn, but I would not recommend it as a steady
-substitute. All I wish to convey is that a frying pan and a fishhorn are
-better than nothing.
-
-The variety of anchor to be carried depends very much upon choice. There
-are several kinds for sale quite suitable for small cruisers, all of
-which have good points to recommend them.
-
-[Illustration: PLEASANT CAT-BOAT SAILING.]
-
-The law is imperative as regards the carrying of lights by night when at
-anchor or under way. If your craft is very small, there is a light in
-the market fitted with green and red slides to be shown when required,
-which may suit your purpose. But if your craft has any pretensions to
-size provide yourself with a pair of brass side lights and also a good
-brass anchor light. Avoid those flimsy articles with which the market is
-flooded. The best are cheapest in the end. See that all the lamps you
-have aboard take the same sized wick. Buy the brand of oil known as
-mineral sperm, which is used by all first-class steamship lines. Its
-quality has borne the test of years and has never been found wanting.
-For lamp cleaning take a plentiful supply of cotton waste and old
-newspapers, the last named for polishing the glass. A hand lead and line
-must not be forgotten, while an aneroid barometer, a thermometer and a
-marine clock will be both useful and ornamental. Do not forget a canvas
-bucket and a deck scrubber.
-
-A few tools will be found necessary. A hatchet, hammer, chisel, file,
-jack-knife, gimlet, screw driver, small crosscut saw and an assortment
-of screws and nails will be about all that is essential in this
-direction. A few yards of duck, palm and needles and sewing twine, a
-ball of marline, one of spun yarn and a marlinespike may be stowed away
-snugly, and their possession in case of need is often a great boon. The
-adventurous voyager must use his own discretion as to his wardrobe. The
-marine "dude" is in evidence in our midst, and who am I that I should
-condemn a man for trying to look his prettiest, both ashore and afloat?
-Don't forget to buy a good suit of oilers, and don't fail to slip them
-on when it rains. When you come to get to my age, and feel the
-rheumatism in your old bones, you will wish you had followed my advice.
-
-Tastes differ so widely that it is hard to advise a man as to his
-_cuisine_ when afloat. What would suit an old sea dog "right down to the
-ground" might not be palatable to the nautical epicure with a taste for
-humming-bird's livers on toast, or other such dainty kickshaws.
-Personally, I can enjoy a good square meal of sardines and hardtack,
-wash it down with a cup of coffee and wind up with a pipe of plug
-tobacco, and conclude that I have feasted like a prince. This is
-probably due to my forecastle training. Others are more fastidious.
-Luckily this is the age of canned viands, and almost every delicacy
-under the sun is put up in convenient form, requiring only a can-opener
-to extract the hidden sweetness.
-
-The culinary difficulty that confronts the sailer of a small craft is
-the cooking stove. Like the servant girl problem, it is still unsolved.
-Many great geniuses have wasted the midnight oil and have nearly
-exhausted the gray matter of their brains in trying to invent a stove
-that shall be suitable for a little cockleshell of a boat with a
-_penchant_ for dancing over the waves in lively style. Some have tried
-cast-iron stoves with a smokestack, and coal for fuel, and have cursed
-their folly ever after. Gasoline stoves, so long as they don't explode
-and set fire to the boat, are convenient and cleanly. Various kinds of
-alcohol lamps, hung on gimbals to accommodate themselves to the
-perpetual motion of a vessel, are in use and are thoroughly adapted for
-making a pot of coffee, tea or chocolate, and for heating a can of soup
-or preserved meat. A hungry boatman should not ask for more luxurious
-fare. There are preparations of coffee and milk and cocoa and milk in
-cans, which can be got ready in a hurry and with the least possible
-trouble. They are also nice, and I do not hesitate to stamp them with
-the seal of my approval. By looking over the catalogue of the canned
-goods of any first-class grocer, you will find a quantity of varieties
-to select from, all of excellent quality and moderate in price. In order
-to provide against waste it would be advisable if cruising alone to buy
-the smallest packages in which the viands are put up. Hardtack should be
-kept in airtight tin boxes to guard against damp. Matches can be stowed
-in a glass fruit jar, and in this snug receptacle defy salt spray and
-sea air which threaten the integrity of brimstone and phosphorus. The
-man who indulges in tobacco (and what lover of the sea does not?) will
-find it well to pack a supply of wind matches in a glass jar, so that he
-can keep his match safe replenished and be able to light his pipe or
-cigar no matter how the breeze may blow. I have found tobacco a mighty
-source of comfort under adverse mental and physical conditions, and its
-soothing influence has made many a trick at the tiller seem less weary.
-
-Cooking in a small craft tossed like a cork on the waves is a confounded
-nuisance, but a hot meal tastes well after you have been stuck at the
-tiller for four or five hours in squally weather. I remember an incident
-that occurred on board my cutter, the _Heather Bell_, when ingenuity
-provided a hot breakfast which otherwise we should not have enjoyed. We
-were caught in a southerly gale in the English Channel, and under
-trysail and spitfire jib we were doing our best to claw off a lee shore.
-I had been at the tiller nearly all night, and when day broke I was
-thoroughly exhausted. The little cutter—she was only fifteen tons—was
-pitching and 'scending at such a lively rate that lighting a fire in the
-stove was out of the question. My chum, however, managed to make some
-coffee with the aid of a spirit lamp, and also to cook a couple of plump
-Yarmouth bloaters. This last-named feat was difficult, but my chum was a
-man of genius. An inspiration came to him. He split the bloaters down
-the backs, put them in an extra deep frying pan, such as should always
-be used at sea, deluged them with Scotch whiskey, old and smoky, and set
-fire to it. I can see him now, hanging on to the cabin ladder with one
-hand and balancing the frying pan in the other, so that the blazing
-whiskey should not overflow and set fire to the cabin. Those bloaters
-were fine. They went right to the spot. It was rather an expensive mode
-of cooking, for the whiskey in question was choice, but we both agreed
-that the fishes were worthy of it. I suppose they would have tasted just
-as well if they had been cooked in alcohol, but that idea did not occur
-to my friend. A beefsteak prepared in the same way was delicious. We had
-it for dinner and soon after there came a shift of wind which enabled us
-to run for Newhaven and sleep comfortably.
-
-You should take with you a box of seidlitz powders, a bottle of
-vaseline, court plaster, a box of your pet pills, a bottle of extract of
-witch hazel, a bottle of extract of ginger, a bottle of _Sun_ cholera
-mixture, and a bottle of Horsford's acid phosphate. These should be
-stowed away in a medicine-chest, which, if you have any mechanical skill
-at all, you can make yourself. If you are no hand at a saw or a chisel,
-a small medicine-chest, filled with all the requisites and adapted for
-use in a boat, can be obtained from any good drug-store at a reasonable
-figure.
-
-A locker for the storage of ice is indispensable for one's comfort when
-sailing in these latitudes in summer. The locker should be lined with
-zinc, and should be fitted with a brass tap to draw off the waste water.
-Wrap your ice up in paper first, and then in a piece of coarse flannel,
-and you will be surprised at the length of time it will keep. A porous
-earthenware bottle should form part of your equipment. It can be
-suspended in a draught, and will supply you with a moderately cool drink
-when your ice is all used.
-
-Remember that sea air generates damp very quickly in a cabin. Bedding
-should be aired and sunned if possible every day, and the cabin should
-be well ventilated. Cleanliness and comfort go together in a boat, and
-scrubbing-brush and swab should not be allowed to get dry-rot by disuse.
-Cultivate order and tidiness so far as the domestic economy of your
-yacht is concerned. Have a place for everything and everything in its
-place, or your little cabin will present a slovenly appearance instead
-of looking pretty and snug.
-
-If the interior of your cabin is painted white, use enamel paint, which
-dries hard and smooth, and can be easily cleaned by washing with warm
-(not hot) water, soap and sponge.
-
-Cocoa-nut matting is better than carpet or oil-cloth as a covering for a
-small craft's cabin floor. It is difficult to dry carpet when it gets
-thoroughly drenched with salt water. Oil-cloth is comfortless and cold
-to bare feet, but cocoa-nut matting is open to neither of these
-objections. It is easily washed and dries quickly.
-
-The cushions for the cabin may be stuffed with cork shavings or
-horse-hair and covered with india-rubber sheeting. These may again be
-covered with corduroy or blue flannel, as the india-rubber sheeting is
-cold. Mattresses made of deers' hair are in the market, and are quite
-comfortable. Being buoyant, they can be used as life-savers in an
-emergency.
-
-Cups, saucers, plates and dishes of enameled iron or agate ware are
-unbreakable and much superior to those of tin, which rust and are hard
-to keep clean. Crockery and glassware are easily destroyed in a cruising
-craft, in spite of the ingenious racks and lockers invented to preserve
-them.
-
-Don't omit to include fishing tackle among your stores. There is lots of
-sport in catching blue-fish or mackerel when under way, and many a weary
-hour when your craft is becalmed may be beguiled with hook and line.
-Besides, a fish fresh from the water forms an agreeable and appetizing
-change from the monotony of canned goods. There is no necessity to
-purchase expensive tackle for sea-fishing. All that is wanted is strong
-and serviceable gear. For blue-fishing provide yourself with a well-laid
-cotton line, which is not liable to kink. The line should be
-seven-sixteenths of an inch in circumference for the big fish one
-catches in spring and fall, and the hooks should be strong. It is well
-to carry with you several varieties of squid. For smaller blue-fish a
-lighter, cotton-braided line is good. When I go blue-fishing I take
-rubber finger-stalls along to prevent my fingers being chafed by the
-line. My readers should do the same. Horse-mackerel and Spanish mackerel
-are often taken with a blue-fish line.
-
-For navigating purposes all that is really necessary for a coasting
-voyage is a chart of the waters you propose to sail in, a pair of
-dividers and parallel rulers, and a book of sailing directions. A patent
-log may be added if so desired, and will add to the accuracy of your
-dead reckoning.
-
-Thus equipped, the navigator may boldly venture forth either by himself
-or with a congenial companion. If he does not enjoy every moment of his
-cruise, and gain health and strength from the tonic sea breezes, he can
-safely conclude that Nature never intended him for a sailor. In that
-case he should dispose of his craft at once and seek such consolation as
-agricultural pursuits afford.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-
-
-                                  IX.
-
-                          BEATING TO WINDWARD.
-
-
-There is an old nautical truism to the effect that a haystack will sail
-well to leeward, but that it takes a correctly-modeled vessel to beat to
-windward. It is easy to comprehend how a straw hat thrown into a pond on
-its northerly edge will, under the influence of a brisk breeze from the
-north, make a fast passage to the southerly bank. It is more difficult
-to understand how the same straw hat, if put into the water at the
-southerly end of the pond, might be so manœuvred as to make a passage to
-the northern extremity of the sheet of water, though the wind continued
-to pipe from the north. This was, no doubt, a tough nut for the early
-navigators to crack, and the problem may have taken centuries to solve.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Diagram No. 1.
-  Sailing under Varying Conditions
-  of Wind.
-]
-
-The paddle was naturally the first means of propelling a rude craft
-through the water, and the ingenious savage (probably an indolent
-rascal) who discovered that a bough of a tree, or the skin of a beast
-extended to a favoring breeze, would produce the same effect as constant
-and laborious plying of paddles, was presumably hailed as a benefactor
-by his tribe. But this device, artful no doubt in its inception, was
-only of avail while the wind blew towards the quarter in which the
-destination of the enterprising voyager lay. If the wind drew ahead, or
-dropped, the skin or leafy bough was no longer of use as a labor-saving
-contrivance, and the wearisome paddle was necessarily resumed.
-
-The primitive square sail of antiquity embodies the same principle as
-that governing the motion through the water of the modern full rigged
-ship, which is admirably adapted for efficient beating to windward, or
-sailing against the wind. Superiority in this branch of sailing is the
-crucial test of every vessel whose propelling power is derived from
-canvas, and the shipbuilders and sailmakers of all seafaring nations
-have vied with each other for centuries to secure the desired
-perfection.
-
-Beating to windward may be described as the method by which a vessel
-forces her way by a series of angles in the direction from which the
-wind is blowing. Some vessels will sail closer to the wind than others.
-That is to say, with their sails full they will head a point or more
-nearer to the direction from which the wind comes than vessels of
-different rig.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Diagram No. 2.
-  Running Before the Wind.
-]
-
-Broadly speaking, an ordinary fore-and-aft rigged yacht with the wind
-due north, will head northwest on the starboard tack, and northeast on
-the port tack. That is, she will head up within four points of the wind.
-Some will do better than this by a good half point. The famous old sloop
-_Maria_, owned by Commodore J. C. Stevens, founder of the New York Yacht
-Club, is said to have sailed within three points and a half of the wind,
-and I am informed that _Constitution_, in her races this year, achieved
-a similar remarkable feat.
-
-A square-rigger, because the sails cannot be trimmed to form so sharp an
-angle to the breeze as a fore-and-aft rigged vessel, rarely sails closer
-than six points of the wind. Consequently, she has to make more tacks
-and consume a longer time in accomplishing a similar distance in the
-teeth of the breeze than a vessel driven by fore-and-aft canvas. It is
-possible to make my meaning clearer by means of simple diagrams, and to
-these I refer the reader.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Diagram No. 3.
-  Gybing.
-]
-
-A vessel is said to be close-hauled when the sheets are trimmed flat aft
-and the boat is headed as near to the wind as the sails will permit
-without their luffs shaking. When a vessel is so trimmed, she is said to
-be sailing "full and bye," which means as close to the wind as the craft
-will point with the sails bellying out and full of wind. If a vessel is
-sailed so close to the wind that the sails quiver, the pressure is
-diminished and speed is decreased. Thus the art of beating to windward
-successfully consists in keeping the boat's sails full, while her head
-should not be permitted to "fall off" for an instant. This requires a
-watchful eye and an artistic touch. To become an adept, one should have
-plenty of practice.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Diagram No. 4.
-  Close Hauled on Port Tack.
-]
-
-A boat is on the starboard tack when the main boom is over the port
-quarter and the port jib sheet is hauled aft. The wind is then on the
-starboard bow. The conditions are reversed when the craft goes on the
-port tack. In diagram No. 1, four conditions of sailing are shown, the
-figures representing a boat sailing with the wind astern, on the
-quarter, abeam, and close hauled. It will be observed how the main boom
-is trimmed to meet the varied changes of wind or course.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Diagram No. 5,
-  Close Hauled on Starboard Tack.
-]
-
-Diagram No. 2 shows a racing yacht running before the wind with all her
-balloons expanded to the breeze. The spinnaker set to starboard not only
-adds greatly to her speed, but it also makes the steering easier, as it
-counteracts the pressure of the huge mainsail and club topsail on the
-port side, thus causing a nicely-adjusted balance. The balloon
-jibtopsail catches every stray breath of air that is spilled out of the
-spinnaker, and it also has considerable possibilities as a steering
-sail, in addition to its splendid pulling power. For a vessel, however
-finely balanced and carefully steered, owing to various conditions of
-breeze and sea, has a tendency to yaw and fly up in the wind. Thus a
-strong puff or a heavy sea striking the boat may make her swerve from
-her course in an effort to broach to. Then the jibtopsail does good
-service as, when it gets full of wind, it pays the head of the boat off
-the wind, and materially assists the helmsman in steadying the vessel on
-her course.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Diagram No. 6.
-  Dead Beat to Windward.
-]
-
-It may be remarked that steering a yacht under these conditions, in a
-strong and puffy breeze with a lumpy, following sea, calls for the best
-work of the ablest helmsman. A boat will generally develop an
-inclination to broach to, which means to fly up in the wind. Sometimes,
-however, the notion may strike her to run off the wind so much as to
-bring the wind on the other quarter, causing her to gybe. This would
-mean disaster, probably a broken boom and a topmast snapped off short
-like a pipe-stem, with other incidental perils.
-
-Diagram No. 3 shows the manœuvre of gybing, which is to keep the vessel
-away from the wind until it comes astern, and then on the opposite
-quarter to which it has been blowing. Fig. 1 shows a boat sailing before
-the wind with the main boom over to starboard. Fig. 2 shows the
-operation of luffing to get in the main sheet. Fig. 3 shows the boom
-over on the port quarter, and the operation complete, except trimming
-sail for the course to be steered.
-
-It may be remarked that gybing a racing yacht "all standing" in a strong
-wind requires consummate skill and care. A cool hand at the helm is the
-prime requisite, but smart handling of the main sheet is of scarcely
-less importance. The topmast preventer backstays should be attended to
-by live men. When a vessel is not racing, gybing in heavy weather may be
-accomplished without the slightest risk; the topsail may be clewed up
-and the peak of the mainsail lowered, and with ordinary attention the
-manœuvre is easily performed.
-
-Diagrams Nos. 4 and 5 show the same racing yacht close hauled on the
-port and starboard tack. The spinnaker and balloon jibtopsail are taken
-in. A small jibtopsail takes the place of the flying kite. This sail,
-however, is only carried in light winds, as it has a tendency, when a
-breeze blows, to make a craft sag off to leeward.
-
-Diagram No. 6 shows a boat beating out of a bay with the wind dead in
-her teeth, a regular "nose-ender" or "muzzler." She starts out from her
-anchorage on the port tack, stands in as close to the shore as is
-prudent, goes about on the starboard tack, stands out far enough to
-weather the point of land, then tacks again, and on the port tack
-fetches the open sea.
-
-Diagram No. 7 illustrates a contingency frequently met with in beating
-to windward, when a vessel can sail nearer her intended course on one
-tack than another. Thus suppose her course is East by South and the wind
-SE, she would head up East on one tack (the long leg) and South on the
-other (the short leg).
-
-Diagram No. 8 depicts the manœuvre of tacking that is the method of
-"going into stays," or shifting from one tack to the other. Fig. 1 shows
-a boat steering "full and bye" on the starboard tack. It becomes
-necessary to go about. "Helm's a-lee!" cries the man at the tiller, at
-the same time easing the helm down to leeward and causing the boat's
-head to fly up in the wind. The jib sheet is let go at the cry "Helm's
-a-lee!" decreasing the pressure forward and making the boat, if well
-balanced, spin round. A modern racer turns on her heel so smartly that
-the men have all they can do to trim the head sheets down before she is
-full on the other tack. Some of the old style craft, however, hang in
-the wind, and it sometimes becomes necessary to pay her head off by
-trimming down on the port jib sheet and by shoving the main boom over on
-the starboard quarter (Fig. 3). Soon she fills on the port tack, and
-goes dancing merrily along, as shown in Fig. 4.
-
-In beating to windward in a strong breeze and a heavy sea leeway must be
-considered.
-
-Leeway may be defined as the angle between the line of the vessel's
-apparent course and the line she actually makes good through the water.
-In other and untechnical words, it is the drift that the ship makes
-sideways through the water because of the force of the wind and the
-heave of the sea, both factors causing the craft to slide bodily off to
-leeward.
-
-This crab-like motion is due to a variety of causes, to the shape of the
-craft, to her trim, and to the amount of sail carried, and its quality
-and sit. Boats deficient in the element of lateral resistance, such as a
-shallow craft with the centerboard hoisted, will drift off to leeward at
-a surprising rate. A deep boat of good design and fair sail-carrying
-capacity will, on the other hand, if her canvas is well cut and
-skillfully trimmed, make little or no leeway. In fact, she may, under
-favorable circumstances, eat up into the wind and fetch as high as she
-points.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Diagram No. 7.
-  A Long Leg and a Short Leg.
-]
-
-Leeway is always a dead loss, and to counteract it is always the aim of
-the practical seaman and navigator. Captain Lecky, in his admirable
-work, "Wrinkles in Practical Navigation," puts the case clearly, and his
-advice should be followed whenever feasible. He says: "Suppose a vessel
-on a wind heading NW by N, under short canvas and looking up within
-three points of her port, which, accordingly, bears north; but, owing to
-its blowing hard, she is making 2-1/2 points leeway. Clearly this vessel
-is only _making good_ a NW by W1/2W course, which is 5-1/2 points from
-the direction of port. Let her speed under these conditions be, say,
-four knots per hour. Now, if the yards are checked in a point or so, and
-the vessel be kept off NW by W, she will slip away much faster through
-the water, and probably will make not more than half a point leeway.
-This keeps the course _made good_ exactly the same as before, with the
-advantage of increased speed. Therefore, if you can possibly avoid it,
-do not allow your vessel to sag to leeward by jamming her up in the
-wind. Keep your wake right astern, unless it be found from the bearing
-of the port that the course _made good_ is actually taking the vessel
-away from it, in which case it is obvious that the less the speed the
-better."
-
-This excellent counsel applies to every kind of sailing vessel, whether
-square-rigger or fore-and-after, whether used for business or pleasure.
-It is of no avail to pinch a boat for the purpose of keeping her
-bowsprit pointed for her destination, when it is obvious that she will
-only fetch a point several miles to leeward. Keep the sails clean full
-and the boat will make better weather of it, as well as greater speed.
-It may frequently be necessary to "luff and shake it out of her" when
-struck by a hard squall, or, by the aid of a "fisherman's luff," to
-clear an object without tacking, but a good rule is to keep a sailing
-craft moving through the water and not permit her to pitch and rear end
-on to the sea.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Diagram No. 8.
-  The Manœuvre of Tacking.
-]
-
-
-
-
-                                   X.
-
-                     COMBINATION ROWING AND SAILING
-                                 BOATS.
-
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Whip purchase
-  and traveler.
-  Fig. 1.
-]
-
-A boat intended for both rowing and sailing should be partly decked, and
-have as high a coaming as possible round the cockpit. A folding
-centerboard should be fitted as in Fig. 10, so as to avoid the
-awkwardness of a trunk, which in a small craft takes up too much room.
-Outside ballast is not necessary; a few bags of sand will do instead. An
-open boat under sail is dangerous except in the hands of a skilled
-boatman. In a scrub race the helmsman cracks on until the lee gunwale is
-almost on a level with the water. He may go along like this for some
-time, but if the water is rough, ten to one a sea will sooner or later
-come in over the lee bow, and the weight of water to leeward may cause
-the boat to capsize before the sheet can be let go and the helm put hard
-down to bring her head to wind. This in itself is not agreeable; and
-failing to right the boat one may be compelled to cling to the keel or
-rail until relief comes, or till he gets too tired to hang on any
-longer. The excellent sport of sailing in a stiff breeze is obtained at
-its best only in a partly decked boat. The half-decked craft may also be
-made into a life-boat with the aid of water-tight boxes of tin or zinc.
-The cockpit should be made as narrow as is compatible with comfort.
-
-The combination rowing and sailing boat should have as little gear as
-possible. Sheets and halyards should always be kept clear for running
-and never be allowed to get foul. If you are so unlucky or so imprudent
-as to meet with a capsize, keep clear of the ropes, for a turn of one
-round the leg may send you to Davy Jones's locker.
-
-[Illustration: Jib and Mainsail Rig. Fig. 2.]
-
-In writing of rigs suitable for small craft I shall not weary my readers
-with descriptions of sails that are not at all adapted for practical use
-in American waters. The amateur desirous of becoming acquainted with the
-rig of boats suitable for Bermuda waters, the Norfolk Broads, the Nile,
-or the inland lakes of Timbuctoo must look elsewhere. Nevertheless the
-amateur may rest confident that I give practical instructions for the
-best possible rigs, and he may adopt any one of them after due
-consideration of the comments on each variety without any fear of future
-regret.
-
-The mast of the combination sailing and rowing boat which is shown in
-Fig. 2, should be so stepped that it can be taken down at a moment's
-notice. It should not be stepped into the keelson through a hole in the
-thwart, but should be fitted with a strong iron clamp and pin screwed to
-the after part of the thwart, so that it may be unshipped in a hurry.
-The mast should be light and strong. The sheave-hole in the head should
-be fitted with a galvanized-iron or yellow-metal sheave, and should be
-sufficiently large for the halyards to travel freely when the rope is
-swollen with water. A block may be fitted to the mast-head for the jib
-halyards. The boat should be provided with a galvanized-iron horse for
-the lower block of the mainsheet to travel on. This is a great
-convenience in beating to windward as the boom will go over by itself
-without the aid of the helmsman. The sail also sets better with the aid
-of a horse to keep the boom down.
-
-The jib sheets and all halyards should lead aft within easy reach of the
-helmsman so that he may be able to handle them without letting go the
-tiller. The cushions of the stern sheets should be stuffed with cork
-shavings such as grapes come packed in from Spain. They should have life
-lines sewed to them so that in case of need they may be used as
-life-preservers.
-
-[Illustration: Sprit Rig. Fig. 3.]
-
-The boat should be equipped with three oars (as one may be broken), a
-boat-hook and a baler; and the plug in the bottom should be secured to
-the boat by a lanyard and screw-eye. A tiller should be used for
-steering when sailing and not a yoke and lines.
-
-Remember that you must luff when the first breath of the squall strikes
-the boat, for if way is lost and the boat is hove down on her beam ends,
-lee helm ceases to possess its virtue and the boat may capsize. This is
-a sound and wise axiom and one that a beginner should impress rigidly on
-his mind. Never allow skylarking in a boat. Never attempt to climb the
-mast of an open boat, as it is an operation fraught with danger. Rather
-unstep the mast for any repairs that may be necessary. Never stand on
-the thwarts of a small boat when under way.
-
-If women and children are on board never gybe the boom over. Many
-accidents have happened through the neglect of this precaution. No
-matter how expert a boat-sailer you may be, never take women and
-children out in a boat with only yourself to handle her. Always take
-care that you have with you either a skilled professional hand or an
-amateur who knows the ropes, can take his trick at the tiller and does
-not lose his head in a squall or other emergency of sea, lake, sound or
-river. In default of being able to command the services of such a man,
-leave the women and children ashore and postpone the excursion heedless
-of the tears and entreaties of your best girl and the black looks of
-your prospective mother-in-law. A lovers' quarrel is easily made up, but
-a capsized boat may mean loss of life and agonies of regret and
-self-reproach.
-
-I was once persuaded against my better judgment to take out a party of
-ladies for a sail in a jib-and-mainsail boat. We put out from a dock at
-Perth-Amboy in the afternoon, with a cloudless sky and a soft, sweet
-summer zephyr blowing. There was one other of my sex aboard and he told
-me he perfectly understood the handling of a boat. He wore a yachting
-suit and cocked his eye aloft in a knowing and nautical manner that
-deceived even an old stager like myself. A huge black bank of clouds
-arose in the northwest presaging the speedy approach of a savage
-thunder-squall. I told my nautical-looking shipmate to lower the jib,
-but he did not know how to find the halyards, and he was equally
-ignorant of the whereabouts of the sheet. I gave the tiller to one of
-the girls to hold, hauled down the jib, made it fast, lowered the
-mainsail and furled it as snugly as I could and then let go the anchor
-which, luckily, hadn't been left ashore. All this time my
-nautical-looking chum was star-gazing. As a matter of fact he knew no
-more about a boat than a bull knows of trigonometry. His specialty, I
-was afterwards informed, was measuring off tape by the yard and ogling
-his customers. I had to do a good deal of hustling to get the craft snug
-for the squall and to stow away my girl guests in the shelter of the
-little half-deck forward, where they fitted as tight as sardines in a
-box.
-
-When the squall struck us it was a hummer and no mistake. I veered out
-all the cable there was and she rode to it quite well. There came a
-deluge of rain with the blast, and the boat was soon nearly half full.
-The girls screamed and prayed. The counter-jumper looked pale about the
-gills and being too scared to bail flopped on his marrow-bones. Now
-praying on shipboard is not to be scoffed at, but it should be delayed
-until man has exhausted every possible means of saving the ship. I had
-to do all the bailing myself and when the squall had blown itself out I
-had to set the sails and hoist the anchor without any aid from the
-linen-draper.
-
-That is one reason why I don't go sailing single-handed anymore with a
-boatload of girls. Do you blame me, shipmates? They are as likely to get
-cranky as the boat herself, and one female at a time is all the average
-man can keep on an even keel. Of course I know many girls who can give
-me points and beat me easily in yachting and all that appertains
-thereto; but fair ones of that sort are not so plentiful as they might
-be.
-
-It should be remembered that these small rowing and sailing boats are
-not intended for a spin round Sandy Hook lightship. They are for smooth
-water and in their place are capable of affording their owners an
-immense amount of wholesome enjoyment. On a pinch they will stand a hard
-tussle with wind and wave, but it is never wise to tempt Providence. I
-once knew an Irishman who often declared that he was so favored by
-fortune that he could fall off a dock into the water and not get wet,
-but the average man is not built that way. An ambitious amateur may well
-begin his career on the water with one of these interesting little toys
-I have described, and even if he aspires to become the owner of a
-stouter and more seaworthy craft in which to essay adventurous cruises
-of great emprise, he will learn much that is of value from her.
-
-With these cautionary remarks I will proceed to describe the rigs which
-in my judgment are suitable for boats measuring from twelve to seventeen
-feet over all.
-
-[Illustration: Leg-of-mutton Rig. Fig. 4.]
-
-The leg-of-mutton rig, whether combined with a jib or not, is the
-simplest and safest known, for there is no weight aloft such as is
-inevitable with a gaff. It is a sail exactly adapted to the requirements
-of a learner. The most nervous mother need not be alarmed if her boy
-goes sailing in a boat equipped with this rig. The sail is hoisted by a
-single halyard bent to the cringle at the head of the sail and rove
-through either a sheave or a block at the masthead. Sometimes the luff
-is laced to the mast, but it is better that it should be seized to
-hoops, as shown in Fig. 4. If a boom is used a larger sail can be
-carried, but it should be only a light spar and the foot of the sail
-should be laced to it. The boom may be fitted with a topping lift and
-the sheet be rove as shown in the illustration. In a small open boat no
-stays are necessary for the mast, but the jib halyards should be belayed
-to a cleat on one gunwale of the boat and the main halyards on the
-other, so as to afford support to the mast.
-
-[Illustration: Cat Rig. Fig. 9.]
-
-The jib and leg-of-mutton sail is a deservedly popular rig. A short
-bowsprit may be fitted to a boat and secured to an eyebolt in the stem
-by a wire bob-stay. A wire forestay may be set up to the bowsprit end
-and a jib may be bent to iron hanks on it and hoisted by a single
-halyard. Or it may be set flying.
-
-The advantages of the cat rig (Fig. 9) for general handiness have been
-often explained. I should advise that the sail be hoisted by both throat
-and peak halyards and not by a single halyard as is sometimes the case.
-It is often most convenient to be able to drop the peak, when gybing,
-for instance, or when struck by a squall. A single topping lift should
-be fitted with an eye splice to the end of the boom and rove through a
-block at the masthead and belayed to a cleat on the mast. The main sheet
-should travel on an iron horse. A short boomkin, with forestay and
-bob-stay, may help to secure the mast.
-
-The balance lug, which is illustrated in Fig. 8, is quite a popular rig,
-and it has much in its favor. The sail is laced to a yard and boom and
-is hoisted by a single halyard rove through a sheave-hole in the
-masthead and spliced to the eye of the hook of a galvanized-iron
-traveler, to which a strop on the yard is hooked, as shown in the
-illustration. On the other end of the halyard a single block is turned
-in, through which a rope is rove, the standing part of which is made
-fast to an eyebolt at the foot of the mast and the hauling part rove
-through a block and led aft within easy reach of the helmsman. The tack
-should be made fast to the boom and set up to the mast thwart after
-being passed round the mast. The main sheet should work on a
-galvanized-iron horse. This rig is quite handy and a boat so equipped is
-smart in stays.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Balance Lug Rig. Fig. 8.
-  Showing Traveler and Halyards.
-]
-
-[Illustration: Sliding Gunter Rig. Fig. 5.]
-
-[Illustration: Detail of Sliding Gunter Rig, Fig. 6.]
-
-The sliding gunter rig, which is shown in Fig. 5, has this much to
-recommend it: it is easily set if rigged as shown in the illustration
-and it can quickly be reefed. It will be seen that the mast is in two
-pieces, the topmast sliding up and down the lower mast on two
-wrought-iron rings or travelers. The halyards are sometimes made fast to
-the lower traveler and sometimes to the upper. They reeve through a
-sheave-hole in the lower masthead and may be set up with a single whip
-purchase. The lower mast may be supported with a single wire shroud on
-each side and, if the double headrig is carried, with a wire stay to the
-stem head. The sail should be laced to the topmast and secured to the
-lower mast by hoops or iron rings leathered. These should be large
-enough to slide easily up and down the mast, which should be kept well
-greased. The topmast should be so rigged that the upper iron can be
-unclamped and the topmast lowered down so as to permit the sail to be
-stowed like a gaff-sail along the boom. With the sail thus furled the
-boat will ride much easier in a breeze or a seaway. In Fig. 6 the
-working of the rig is shown: 1 is the lower mast, 2 the topmast, 3 the
-halyards, 4 the upper ring, or traveler, with a clamp and pin to permit
-the lowering of the topmast, 5 the lower ring or traveler, which is
-fitted with a hinge at 6; 7 is the gooseneck of the boom to which the
-foot of the sail is laced. Reefing is simple. Lower away on the
-halyards, make fast the cringle on the luff of the sail, at whatever
-reef band is desired, to the gooseneck on the boom. Haul out the
-corresponding reef earing, make it fast, tie your reef points and hoist
-up the sail again by the halyards. A topping lift is necessary.
-
-The spritsail is not often seen in these waters, but it is a good sail
-for a small boat. I warn the beginner, however, against its use in a
-craft of any pretensions to size, for he will find the heavy sprit much
-more difficult to handle than a gaff. A spritsail is similar in shape to
-the mainsail of a cutter, with the peak higher and the foot shorter, as
-in Fig. 3. The sprit is a spar which crosses the sail diagonally from
-luff to peak. It is thick in the middle, and each end is tapered. The
-upper end fits into a cringle or eye in the peak of the sail and the
-lower end into a snotter on the mast. The sprit stretches the sail quite
-flat and thus a boat is able to point well to windward. The snotter is a
-piece of stout rope having an eye in each end, one being passed round
-the mast and rove through the eye in the other end, the heel of the
-sprit fitting in the remaining eye. If the snotter carries away, the
-heel of the sprit may be forced by its own weight through the bottom of
-the boat; accordingly, as it has to stand considerable strain, it should
-be made of stout stuff. To set the sail, hoist it up by the halyards,
-slip the upper end of the sprit into the cringle in the peak, push it up
-as high as you can and insert the heel into the snotter; then trim the
-sheet. In large boats the snotter is made fast to an iron traveler which
-is hoisted by a whip purchase as shown in Figs. 1 and 3.
-
-[Illustration: Folding Centerboard. Fig. 10.]
-
-[Illustration: Turtles]
-
-The sprit rig cannot be said to be pretty, and when the sail is large it
-is difficult to reef it. I should not counsel its use except in a boat
-intended for both rowing and sailing, where the sail would be so small
-as to be easily muzzled in case of a squall. The spritsail is hoisted by
-halyards, rove through a block or sheave-hole at the masthead and hooked
-to a cringle at the throat of the sail. The tack of the sail is lashed
-to an eyebolt in the mast. In reefing the sprit must be lowered by
-shifting the snotter further down the mast.
-
-
-
-
-                                  XI.
-
-                           RIGGING AND SAILS.
-
-
-Wire has entirely superseded rope for standing rigging, and deadeyes and
-lanyards are fast giving way before the advance of the turnbuckle. An
-old sailor cannot help regretting the decline and fall of his profession
-and the growing popularity of the art of the blacksmith. So far as the
-rigging of ships is concerned, when wire rigging was first introduced it
-was thought that its rigidity would prove a fatal objection to its
-successful use.
-
-Science has, however, set its foot down firmly on such objections. The
-decree has gone forth that rigging cannot possibly be set up too taut,
-and the less it stretches the better. The old argument that a yacht's
-standing rigging should "give" when the craft is caught in a squall,
-which old sea dogs were so fond of advancing, has been knocked on the
-head by scientific men who declare that a vessel's heeling capacity
-affords much more relief than the yielding quality of rigging. Thus all
-or nearly all of the modern immense steel sailing vessels in the East
-Indian and Australian trade have their steel masts stayed as rigidly as
-possible by means of turnbuckles, and practice seems to have
-demonstrated the truth of the theory. These ships encounter terrific
-seas and gales off the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Horn, and their masts
-are thus subjected to violent and sudden strains, but I have been
-assured by the commanders of several of these great freight carriers
-that they have never known their "sticks" to be imperiled by the
-rigidity of the rigging, and the tauter it can be set up the more secure
-the masts are supposed to be.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  SHROUD, DEADEYE, LANYARD.
-]
-
-There are, however, a number of old salts who condemn this theory as
-rank heresy, and go in for deadeyes and lanyards of the old-fashioned
-kind, and the greater the stretch between the upper and the lower
-deadeyes the better are they pleased. There is no doubt that turnbuckles
-look neater than deadeyes, and they are probably well suited for small
-craft. The Herreshoffs have long used them for setting up the rigging of
-the sloops and yawls of moderate size which they used to turn out in
-such numbers, and which first laid the foundation of their fame. The
-boat owner can please himself as to which method he may choose, and he
-can rely that with either his mast will be perfectly secure. Both
-methods are shown in the accompanying cuts.
-
-There is one thing in connection with wire rigging that I must warn the
-amateur against. Beware of shod wire rigging. "Shoes" are iron plates
-riveted to the ends of wire rigging to receive shackle bolts. They are
-never reliable. Eye splices in wire never draw. "Shoes" often collapse
-without notice.
-
-[Illustration: TURNBUCKLE.]
-
-Turnbuckles are very handy appliances for setting up rigging in a hurry,
-whereas the same operation conducted by means of a deadeye and a lanyard
-takes much more time and trouble. A small craft rigged as a sloop,
-cutter or yawl, requires only one shroud on each side to afford lateral
-support to the mast, and a forestay—which in the case of a cutter or
-yawl should set up at the stem head, but on a sloop is set up on the
-bowsprit. A simple way to fit the rigging is to splice an eye in each
-shroud, forming a collar sufficiently large to pass over the masthead,
-first covering the part that is to form the eye with canvas sewn on and
-painted. The starboard shroud goes over the masthead first, then the
-port one and last the forestay. In large yachts the lower rigging is
-often fitted in pairs, the bight of the shrouds being passed over the
-masthead and secured in the form of an eye with a stout wire seizing.
-
-Many riggers shackle the shrouds to an iron band fitted to the hounds.
-This plan is open to objection. There may be a flaw in the iron and the
-band may give way suddenly, causing the mast to snap off short like the
-stem of a clay pipe. Bands may look a little more snug than the collars,
-but they are heavier aloft and not so reliable, and for these reasons I
-am old-fashioned enough to prefer the collars.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  TOPMAST RIGGING.
-]
-
-For a small sloop, cutter or yawl, a pole mast is preferable; but all
-boats more than twenty feet on the water line should be fitted with
-topmasts, the rigging of which is shown in the cut.
-
-The running bowsprit is almost obsolete now-a-days, but the device still
-finds favor with certain owners of cutters and yawls of large size. It
-certainly has its advantages. The length of the bowsprit is reduced as
-the jibs are shifted, until when the "spitfire" or storm-jib is set the
-bowsprit is run so far inboard that it looks like a mere stump. In a
-sea-way the benefit of this is obvious, the weight being materially
-reduced forward and the pitching consequently lessened. The jib also
-sits well and does its work, and is far preferable to that horror of
-horrors the "bobbed" jib of a sloop, which always makes a sailor's flesh
-creep when he sees it. How it has managed to survive is a marvel to me.
-It is a lubberly and slovenly device not good enough for a scow. The
-rigging of a running bowsprit is shown in the cut.
-
-[Illustration: RIG OF RUNNING BOWSPRIT.]
-
-When it becomes necessary to set the storm trysail, lower away the
-mainsail and furl it as fast as possible. Lower the boom down into the
-crutch amidships, and secure it by hauling the sheet taut and by tackles
-or lashings from each quarter. Unhook the throat and peak halyards and
-hook them on to the trysail gaff, the jaws of which parral on to the
-mast, allowing the gaff end to rest on the deck. The topping lifts must
-be unhooked from the main boom and taken in to the mast or the rigging,
-so as to be out of the way of the trysail. Lace the head of the trysail
-to the gaff. The clew of the trysail is hauled aft by a luff-tackle
-which forms the sheet. Another tackle should be hooked to the clew and
-made fast to windward over the main boom and gaff, so that in case of a
-shift of wind the sheet may be hauled aft on the other side without
-delay or the danger of getting aback. Then you can man the throat and
-peak halyards and set the sail, trimming the sheet well down.
-
-If you should have the misfortune to carry away the main boom, and you
-have no trysail on board, lower away the sail, unlace it from the boom,
-close-reef it, and set it with a luff-tackle for a sheet. When about to
-set the storm trysail and your vessel is yawl rigged, set the storm
-mizzen. It will keep her head up to the sea while the sails are being
-shifted. In a cutter, heave to by hauling the fore sheet to windward,
-keeping the jib full. Shifting jibs in heavy weather in a cutter
-requires care. The first thing to do is to get the sail up from below
-and stretch it along the weather side of the forward deck with the head
-aft. Haul the foresheet to windward and trim the mainsheet in flat,
-tricing up the tack if the sail is loose-footed. Keep the boat as close
-to the wind as possible. Let go the jib outhaul, and the sail will fly
-in along the bowsprit. Muzzle it, man the down-haul, let go the halyards
-and down with it! Then reef the bowsprit. Some cutters are fitted with a
-rack and pinion wheel, with a handle like that of a winch, for this
-purpose. If not supplied with this handy contrivance, reeve a heel rope,
-and after slacking the bobstay fall and the falls of the shrouds and
-topmast stay, heave on it until you can knock the fid out. Then rouse
-the bowsprit in by the shroud tackles to the second or third fid holes,
-as desired; ship the fid and set up the gear, beginning with the
-bobstay, the weather shroud next and the lee shroud last, at the same
-time taking in the slack of the topmast stay. Now to set the jib. First
-hook on the sheets and take a turn with the lee one; next hook on the
-tack to the traveler and the halyards to the head. Man the outhaul and
-bowse the tack out to the bowsprit end. Hoist up on the halyards and
-sweat up with the purchase. Trim the sheet, let draw the foresheet, ease
-off the mainsheet and sail her along again. If these instructions are
-carried out a storm jib may be set on a reefed bowsprit without parting
-a rope yarn.
-
-[Illustration: HORSE FOR MAIN SHEET.]
-
-To shake a reef out in the mainsail, set up on the topping lift so that
-it may take the weight of the boom. Untie all the reef points. Cast off
-the lashing at the tack if the sail is laced to the boom, or come up the
-tack tackle if it is loose-footed. Then ease off the reef earring and
-hoist the sail, setting up the throat first. You can then ease up the
-topping lift and trim sheet.
-
-A convenient method of bending and unbending a storm trysail is shown in
-Fig. X and Fig. E.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. X.
-
-  FIG. E.
-]
-
-Fig. X represents the shape of the mast hoops, to each of which two iron
-hooks are fastened. The hoops are of the ordinary size, but about
-one-quarter of their length is sawn out and to the ends the iron hooks
-are riveted. Fig. E shows how the thimble toggles are seized to the luff
-of the sail at regular intervals. When it is necessary to set the
-trysail, adjust the jaws of the gaff to the mast, make fast the parral,
-hook on the throat and peak halyard blocks and mouse them. Hoist up
-slowly, slipping the thimbles over the hooks on the ends of the hoops as
-the sail goes up. The sheet must be hauled aft before the sail is
-hoisted, and should be slacked off handsomely to allow the sail to be
-properly set. Then all hands should clap on it and flatten it in.
-
-If your boat is rigged as a cutter or yawl the foresail may have the
-tack made fast to the eyebolt to which the stay is set up. The luff of
-the sail is seized to galvanized iron hanks that run up and down on the
-stay. If the foresail has a reef band in it (as it should) a lacing is
-used between the reef and tack cringles. Don't bowse up the halyards too
-taut the first time you set the sail, and don't break your back
-flattening in the sheet. Give it a chance to stretch fairly. The same
-remark also applies to the jib, whether set on a stay or flying on its
-own luff, as it must necessarily do if your craft is equipped with a
-running bowsprit.
-
-For the sake of lightness, blocks are frequently made too small. Manilla
-rope, of which both sheets and halyards should be made, has a habit of
-swelling when wet. It is generally rove on a dry day, and renders
-through blocks quite easily when in this condition. A rain squall will
-swell this rope to such an extent, and halyards will jam so hard, that
-sails will not come down when wanted, and disasters happen. The work of
-setting and taking in sail is made very laborious through small blocks
-and large sized halyards. It should be borne in mind that halyards ought
-to run through blocks as freely when wet as dry. Blocks should always be
-fitted with patent sheaves.
-
-The running rigging of a mainsail consists of peak and throat halyards,
-topping lifts, main sheet and peak down-haul. To bend a mainsail,
-shackle the throat cringle to the eyebolt under the jaws of the gaff,
-stretch the head of the sail along the gaff, reeve the peak earring
-through the hole in the end of the gaff and haul it out, securing it in
-the manner shown in the illustration. The earring is represented with
-the turns passed loosely in order to give the amateur a clear and
-distinct view of the proper method. It will be seen that _a a_ is the
-peak end of the gaff; _b_ is a cheek block for the topsail sheet; _c_ is
-a block for the peak down haul, used also as signal halyards, hooked to
-an eyebolt screwed into the end of the gaff, the hook of the block being
-moused; _d_ is a hole in the gaff end through which the earring is
-passed. The earring is spliced into the cringle with a long eye splice.
-It is then passed through _d_ round through the cringle _e_; through _d_
-again and through _e_ again; then up over the gaff at _i_ and _k_, down
-the other side and through _e_ again, and so on up round the gaff four
-or five times; at the last, instead of going up over the gaff again, the
-earring is passed between the parts round the gaff as shown at _f_,
-round all the parts that were passed through _d_, as shown at _m_, and
-jammed by two half hitches _m_ and _h_.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-If the sail is new from the sailmaker's loft, only haul the head out
-hand taut or you will ruin it. I have seen yacht skippers clap a "handy
-billy" tackle on the head of a new mainsail and haul on it till they
-could get no more. I have seen them treat the foot in the same way, the
-result being a great bag of canvas of no possible use in beating to
-windward. A mainsail costs a good deal of money and is easily spoiled.
-One of Mr. John M. Sawyer's splendidly cut sails can have all its
-utility and beauty taken out of it in half-an-hour by a lubberly sailing
-master.
-
-After the head earring is passed, lace the head of the sail to the gaff,
-taking a half hitch at each eyelet hole. Next seize the luff of the sail
-to the mast hoops with marline. The foot of the mainsail should next be
-made fast to the boom in the same manner as the peak, the lacing going
-round a wire jackstay rove through eyebolts on the top of the boom. Do
-not "sweat up" either the throat or peak halyards too taut the first
-time you set it, and avoid reefing a new sail. Lower it down altogether,
-set the trysail, or do the best you can under head sail and the mizzen
-if on board a yawl. A mainsail should always be allowed to stretch
-gradually, and the slack of the head and the foot should be taken up at
-intervals. Remember that no greater injury can be done to a new sail
-than to try and make it sit flat by hauling out the foot too taut before
-it has been properly stretched. The best authorities advise that the
-sail should be set with the leech slack, and the boat run before a
-strong wind for several hours. Another excellent plan is to hoist the
-sail up with the foot and head slack while the boat is at anchor, and as
-it flaps about in the breeze the sail will stretch without injury. Of
-course when the head and foot are thoroughly stretched they can be
-hauled out taut as they can be got.
-
-Personally, I prefer a mainsail with the foot laced to the boom, but all
-are not of my way of thinking. A loose-footed mainsail still has
-admirers and this is how it works. The mainsail outhaul consists of an
-iron horse on the boom, a shackle as traveler, a wire outhaul made fast
-to the shackle and rove through a sheavehole at the boom end and set up
-by a purchase.
-
-[Illustration: GEAR FOR HAULING OUT LOOSE-FOOTED MAINSAIL.]
-
-If the mainsail is of the loose-footed variety it should be fitted with
-a tack tricing tackle and a main tack purchase. The last named is handy
-for bowsing down the luff of the sail "bar taut" for racing. Sweating-up
-the throat halyards lowers the peak slightly, and peaking the sail
-slackens the luff. By hauling up on the main tack tricing tackle till
-you can get no more, and at the same time lowering the peak, the
-mainsail is "scandalized" and the boom can then be gybed over in a
-strong breeze with the least possible risk of carrying away something.
-
-To prevent masthoops from jamming when the mainsail is being hoisted or
-lowered, a small line is seized to the foreside of the top hoop and then
-to every hoop down the mast. When the throat halyards are pulled on, the
-foresides of the hoops feel the strain and go up parallel with the after
-sides. The accompanying figure shows this at a glance.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-It is true that this method has found little favor with amateurs, but I
-tried it with great success on my first cruising craft, and later on in
-a yacht of far greater pretensions. The "wrinkle" should by no means be
-despised.
-
-
-
-
-                                  XII.
-
-                       LAYING UP FOR THE WINTER.
-
-
-The judicious yachtsman will personally superintend the laying up of his
-craft. If he has that inestimable blessing, a good skipper, he should
-not discharge him at the close of his summer season. If he does he will
-bitterly regret it. A yacht requires as much watchful care as a baby,
-and this is especially true during the trying winter season. So wise
-yacht-owners who have in their employ faithful captains should hold on
-to them like grim death to a deceased army mule. Good men are not too
-plentiful these times.
-
-A few practical suggestions as to preparing the vessel for the winter
-are here appended. In the first place, sails should be well dried before
-being unbent, and then should be carefully stopped and labeled, and the
-same remark applies also to the running gear. By all means secure
-storage ashore for sails, gear, cabin fitments and furniture, carpets,
-upholstery and bedding, otherwise you may have cause to regret it in the
-spring. In most of the buildings devoted to the storage of yacht gear
-proper platforms or stages are provided, so that a free current of air
-may circulate, and thus prevent damp, mildew and decay. The lower tier
-on the platform should consist of the warps and running gear, on top of
-which the sails should be snugly coiled. Above these the furniture,
-bedding and upholstery should go. All can be covered over with an old
-light sail to protect them from dust. This can be removed as often as
-necessary for airing purposes.
-
-On the other side of the Atlantic judicious owners of storage warehouses
-make their platforms rat-proof, following out the same idea as the
-farmer does with his wheat stacks. Each support to the stage is capped
-with a metal cone, which effectually stops the upward progress of the
-sail-devouring vermin. Well-conducted warehouses are well ventilated,
-and the temperature is kept tolerably even by heat.
-
-Of course, all articles of value, such as plate and nautical
-instruments, should find repository in their owner's dwelling.
-
-All light spars should be sent ashore and lashed up under the beams of
-the warehouse. The same with the rowboats, but with attention to the
-fact that they should be so supported as to have their weight evenly
-distributed, and thus prevent them from being pulled out of shape.
-
-Many expensive boats are hopelessly ruined by neglect of this
-precaution. This is the proper method of supporting a rowboat so that
-straining her is impossible. Six eyebolts should be screwed into the
-under side of the beams of the warehouse at proper intervals to take the
-weight of the boat amidships and at the third of her length forward and
-aft. From these eyebolts ropes of sufficient length should depend, to
-which, in the bight, a handspike is passed, on which, bottom upward, the
-boat is hung.
-
-A yacht laid up without the greatest care deteriorates in value to an
-enormous extent. The first process after dismantling is to clean the
-vessel thoroughly inside and out, just as carefully as if she was about
-to be continued in commission. After getting her as bright as a new pin,
-all the hardwood—that which is varnished or gilded—should be covered up
-with canvas.
-
-After the yacht has been thoroughly skinned, as far as her internal
-arrangements are concerned, the last process preliminary to paying her
-out of commission, is to give her decks a coat or two of bright
-varnish—shunning that mixture known in the trade as pure oil, as
-deleterious to all decks.
-
-It is cheaper in the long run to provide a yacht with properly fitted
-winter hatches which entirely cover the hardwood deck fittings and
-secure thorough ventilation, as then the regular skylights can be left
-open.
-
-In small craft the sailing master will be sufficient to keep the boat in
-first-class condition. On larger vessels, according to size, he should
-have competent assistance.
-
-Whether a yacht is moored alongside a quay or another vessel, winter
-storms cause her to do a little rolling, which invariably induces
-chafing. Unless a vessel is properly protected by fenders, her
-planksheer and bulwarks are sure to be seriously injured, and to repair
-this part of a ship is costly in the extreme, especially in regard to
-the planksheer. Should the planksheer be "shoved up" by contact with the
-dock or the ship to which she is moored alongside, the damage done could
-only be properly repaired by the removal of both bulwark and rail. To
-guard against severe injuries of this kind unceasing vigilance is
-necessary. If you can induce your skipper to live on board, all the
-better. In such a case your yacht will be kept in as dainty condition as
-your wife's boudoir. Snow is very penetrating. It will find its way even
-through rubber boots. A little leak may at first have no significance.
-But the leak increases and rot follows, fastenings are corroded and
-paintwork discolored.
-
-Every vessel afloat suffers more or less from "sweating," caused by the
-difference between the temperature of the air outside and inside the
-ship. To obviate this a fire should be kept going; not a furious furnace
-that would involve a great expenditure of coal, but simply some heating
-device that gives a moderate amount of warmth all through the ship.
-Thus, when the owner returns to his yacht in the spring, he will find
-her sweet and clean, and will never regret the few paltry dollars it has
-cost him to keep his floating summer home in seagoing condition. The
-careful skipper will see that his extra help is kept busy, so that not
-only a casual visitor must compliment her owner on her spick and span
-condition, but a naval architect or a Lloyd's surveyor can find no flaw
-or fault to peck at. For, down to her deadwood and timbers, by the
-application of soap, hot water and plenty of elbow-grease, she is made
-fit for repainting right down to her keel.
-
-By conservative and preservative methods such as these a yacht's life is
-prolonged, and she will always fetch her value in the market, the
-noisome odor of bilge water being unknown.
-
-The foregoing remarks are applicable to pleasure craft that are kept
-afloat during the winter. It is needless to expatiate on the benefit of
-hauling out yachts of any size or construction, whether of wood,
-composite, iron, steel or Tobin bronze or aluminum. The expense of
-hauling large boats out is considerable, for obvious reasons, and thus
-it is that yacht owners do not care to incur the cost. This objection
-does not apply to small craft, which should invariably be landed for the
-winter and efficiently protected by canvas, or other covering, from the
-destructive influence of snow and rain. All that has been said above in
-relation to the storage of sails and gear applies as much to a
-one-tonner as to the largest pleasure craft afloat.
-
-When we go into the question of steam yachts, no better advice can be
-given than that contained above, so far as hull and equipment are
-concerned. It is different when the proper care of machinery is
-considered. There it is where the services of a loyal and skillful
-engineer come into full play. Unless sufficient attention is paid to a
-vessel's boilers and engines during the critical time when she reposes
-in dock, disastrous results, entailing vast expenditure, are sure to
-follow. The complicated and ingenious mechanism which propels the modern
-steam yacht requires devoted regard. Very expensive when new, repairs
-during their second season, if in any way neglected in the winter, call
-for the resources of the purse of a Crœsus. In matters of this kind the
-old adage which relates to a stitch in time should be noted by the
-prudent yacht owner. Thus it is that an engineer and a sufficient staff
-should be kept on the pay roll in the winter for economic reasons alone.
-By this means extravagant bills for unnecessary repairs will be avoided.
-The engineer will take pride in his work and do justice to a liberal
-employer.
-
-It is well known that engineers can only become acquainted with the true
-capacity of machinery by long and careful study. Statistics have proved
-that marine engines in the navy under the direction of good men have
-been run with less coal, less oil and greater working power year by year
-when the same man has had control of the engine-room. All of which means
-less strain on the owner's bank account.
-
-Lincoln's famous aphorism about the unwisdom of swapping horses when
-crossing a stream applies with great precision to skippers and
-engineers. It takes time for the most masterly and adroit captain to
-become acquainted with the peculiar idiosyncrasies of a vessel, for it
-is true that each one has her own individuality, and it takes time to
-comprehend her. In this they much resemble the fair sex. It is a case of
-whip and spur on one hand, and saddle and bridle on the other. Which is
-to wield the whip or wear the saddle is a question between captain and
-ship. The struggle is sometimes a long one, but in the end mind conquers
-matter.
-
-The captain, as in the case of Gen. Paine and the _Mayflower_,
-eventually gets the hang of her, brings her into a state of submission,
-and compels her to become a cup winner. The engineer in his own sphere
-accomplishes similar results. His machinery runs with the regularity of
-a chronometer. His owner's bills for coal and oil are confined within
-reasonable limits. There are no breakdowns. His firemen implicitly obey
-his orders, and all goes well in engine-room and stoke-hold.
-
-If these few practical suggestions and hints prove of any service to
-yachtsmen, captains and engineers, the writer will feel happy. He has
-simply touched on the limits of a wide and fertile subject that might be
-expatiated upon at a large expense of paper and printer's ink.
-
-
-
-
-                                 XIII.
-
-                       USEFUL HINTS AND RECIPES.
-
-
-To whiten decks, mix oxalic acid with fresh water in the proportion of
-one pound to the gallon. Apply lightly with a mop and wash off
-immediately.
-
-Good elastic marine glue for paying seams after they are caulked, can be
-made of one part of india rubber, twelve parts of coal tar heated gently
-in a pitch kettle, and twenty parts of shellac added to the mixture.
-When about to use this preparation, dip the caulking iron, used to drive
-the oakum or cotton thread into the seams, in naphtha, which dissolves
-the glue and helps to closely cement the seams. If oil is used instead
-of naphtha, the glue will not adhere. When melting marine glue for
-paying, take care to heat it very slowly.
-
-Mildew on sails is almost impossible to remove, but the stains can be
-rendered a little less unsightly by well scrubbing the sail on both
-sides with soap and fresh water, and then leaving the sail to dry and
-bleach in the sun. Avoid the use of chloride of lime or other caustics
-or acids, which, while they might take out the mildew stains, would
-certainly rot the duck. Sometimes sails must necessarily be stowed when
-damp or wet, but they should be hoisted up to dry as soon as
-practicable. Every boat should be provided with water-proof sail covers.
-
-Composition paints and other mixtures for preventing the fouling of
-boats' bottoms are plentiful as clams. Each one is warranted to be a
-specific against weeds and barnacles. But wooden or iron vessels,
-however treated, if left for any length of time at anchor anywhere on
-the Atlantic or Pacific coasts, are sure to become encrusted with
-barnacles and to be covered with such a rich growth of marine grasses as
-would take some particularly active work with a lawn mower to remove.
-Luckily small boats can easily be hauled out and scrubbed, but those
-with any pretension to size should most certainly be coppered. Copper in
-salt water will keep clean for a long time, the exfoliation being
-extensive. Some authorities recommend that the copper be coated with one
-or other of the compositions prepared for that purpose, but I think that
-to leave the copper clean will be more satisfactory in the long run. A
-coppered cruising vessel should not require her bottom to be cleaned
-more than four times in the season, but the oftener a racing yacht is
-hauled out to have her copper burnished the better should be the result,
-so far as speed is concerned.
-
-There are several capital paints in the market with which to coat a
-yacht or boat below the water-line. But admirable though they may be,
-they are by no means weed or barnacle proof.
-
-In choosing a binocular marine glass, take care not to be persuaded into
-buying a trashy article. A good one should have a magnifying power of
-seven times, as well as what is known as good definition—that is, the
-quality of showing all the outlines of an object with complete
-distinctness and without any haziness. To find out if a glass has this
-quality, direct it at any object clearly outlined against the sky—a
-church steeple, for instance. If the outlines of the object are
-indistinct, or if they are bordered with violet, blue, orange or red
-light, reject the glass, as it will never be worth anything. The frame
-of the glass should be rigid, or the tubes will become twisted and then
-you will see two objects in place of one. The more powerful a glass is
-the less field it possesses. While high power is desirable, it is well
-that a glass should have a large field. A poor glass is worse than none
-at all.
-
-That sterling seaman, Capt. S. T. S. Lecky, tells a capital story about
-a marine glass, which I commend to anybody about to purchase one. In the
-window of a shop he noticed a binocular with a tag on it, which asserted
-that the glass had rendered an "object" visible at the distance of
-ninety miles. This was attested by a letter to be seen within. The
-captain's curiosity was excited. On inquiry in the shop he found out
-that the "object" was none other than the peak of the Island of Tristan
-d'Acunha, in the Southern ocean, which is so lofty that it can be seen
-in clear weather by the naked eye at a distance of one hundred miles.
-Therefore I say let your motto be _caveat emptor_ when you go cruising
-about in search of either a cheap marine telescope or binocular among
-marine store dealers or pawnshops. Remember that clearness of definition
-is more to be sought than high magnifying power, as in misty weather the
-glass with the last-named quality in a marked degree magnifies the haze
-as well as the object, and, of course, makes it still more blurred and
-indistinct—a defect on which it is unnecessary for me to further
-enlarge.
-
-It is hard to distinguish with a low-priced binocular on a thick or
-rainy night the color of a vessel's lights, a white one sometimes
-appearing with a green or reddish tinge, and a green one looking like a
-white one. This applies also to lightships and lighthouses, and should
-make you careful as to your selection of a glass.
-
-Captain Lecky says the proper way to test a binocular for night use is
-not to stand at a shop door in broad daylight, trying how much the glass
-enlarges some distant clock-face, but to wait till nightfall and test it
-by looking up a dark street or passage, and if figures before only dimly
-visible to the naked eye are rendered tolerably clear by the aid of the
-glasses, you may rest assured you have hit on a suitable instrument. It
-is well to go in the first place to an optician, and not to a
-"shoptician" versed in cheap-jack methods.
-
-[Illustration: LUNCHEON IN THE COCK-PIT]
-
-Iron ballast should be coal-tarred, painted, or white-washed with hot
-lime.
-
-Masts and spars should be scraped and sand-papered. If there are any
-cracks in them, they should be stopped with marine glue before scraping.
-Apply a coat of wood-filler, then a coat of spar composition. When hard,
-give a second coat. Never apply varnish when there is much moisture in
-the atmosphere. In the vicinity of New York, wait till the wind is
-northwest if you wish to secure the best and most brilliant results.
-
-If your boat is white, when repainting don't forget to mix a little blue
-with your white lead, raw linseed oil and dryers. This cerulean dash
-improves the look of the paint, and is far better than black, which
-produces a ghastly tint.
-
-[Illustration: SCOWING AN ANCHOR.]
-
-When for any purpose it becomes necessary or desirable to anchor a small
-boat on ground known, or suspected, to be foul, it is advisable to scow
-the anchor. Unbend the cable from the ring; make the end fast round the
-crown shank and flukes with a clove hitch, and bring the end _a_ back to
-_s_, and stop it round the cable with a piece of spunyarn; take the
-cable back to the shackle and stop it as at _b_. When the cable is
-hauled upon by the part _o_, the stop at _b_ will part and the fluke of
-the anchor can be easily broken out and lifted. For larger vessels a
-trip-line is sometimes bent to the crown and buoyed instead of scowing
-the anchor.
-
-A capital composition for painting the bottoms of boats up to the
-water-line is made as follows: Take one pound of red lead, four ounces
-of copper bronze powder, the same weights of arsenic, chrome yellow and
-paris blue, one pint of dryers, one pint of boiled oil and one pint of
-copal varnish. Mix thoroughly, strain and apply. If too thick add more
-varnish. It will dry a rich copper color. It is neither barnacle nor
-weed proof, but is as good as some of the more expensive paints which
-pretend to possess both these qualities. Before painting, scrub the wood
-well and smooth down with pumice stone. Let it thoroughly dry before you
-begin to use the brush.
-
-A good black paint for the outside of boats is made thus: To six pounds
-of best black paint add one pound of dark blue paint and half a pint of
-dryers. Mix with equal quantities of raw and boiled linseed oil until of
-the proper consistency. Stir well. Strain carefully, and then add one
-pint of copal varnish.
-
-To stop cracks in a spar: When the spar is thoroughly dry run in marine
-glue. When the glue is hard scrape some of it out and stop the crevice
-with putty stained the same color as the spar.
-
-Iron mould and other stains can be removed from a deck by a solution of
-one part of muriatic acid and three parts of water.
-
-
-                             THE LEAD LINE.
-
-The hand lead weighs fourteen pounds. The line to which it is attached
-is twenty-five fathoms long, and is marked as follows: At two fathoms,
-leather with two ends; at three fathoms, leather with three ends; at
-five fathoms, white muslin; at seven fathoms, red bunting; at ten
-fathoms, leather with hole in it; at thirteen fathoms, blue serge; at
-fifteen fathoms, white muslin; at seventeen fathoms, red bunting; at
-twenty fathoms, strand with two knots in it. By the different feel of
-the materials used it is easy to distinguish the marks in the dark. In
-sounding when the boat is in motion, swing the lead round and heave it
-as far forward as you can. By filling the hollow at the base of the lead
-with grease or tallow, a sample of the bottom mud or sand adheres to it,
-which may be useful in verifying the position of the boat by comparing
-it with the chart on which the nature of the bottom is indicated.
-
-The first fathom of the hand lead line for use in a boat of light
-draught may be marked off in feet in any legible manner satisfactory to
-the marker.
-
-The marks on the deep sea lead line commence with two knots at twenty
-fathoms, another knot being added for every ten fathoms, and a single
-knot at each intermediate five.
-
-A hand lead for use in a small craft need not be so heavy as fourteen
-pounds.
-
-It may not be generally known that all watches are compasses if used
-according to the following instructions. Point the hour hand to the Sun,
-and the South is exactly half-way between the hour and the figure XII on
-the dial. For instance, suppose it is four o'clock; point the hand
-indicating four to the Sun, and II on the dial is South. Suppose again
-it is eight o'clock; point the hand indicating eight to the Sun, and the
-figure X on the dial is South. Some cranks carry a compass card in their
-watch case so that they may always determine without delay or trouble
-the direction of the wind whenever the Sun is visible.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Photo by J. S. Johnston.
-
-  "HALF RATERS."
-]
-
-
-
-
-                                  XIV.
-
-                        RULE OF THE ROAD AT SEA.
-
-
-The boat sailer must possess a knowledge of the rule of the road at sea,
-unless he wants his sport brought to an untimely end by collision. He
-should become thoroughly familiar with the International Steering and
-Sailing Rules, so that if he encounters steamships, fishing craft, pilot
-boats, etc., he will be able so to maneuver his own vessel as to escape
-collision.
-
-The prudent skipper of a little vessel should always give steamships and
-ferryboats a wide berth. Big steamships sometimes are slow to answer
-their helms, and often will not get out of the way of small craft,
-although compelled to by international law. Should your boat be run down
-by one of these monsters of the deep you, of course, have your remedy in
-a court, but you are apt to find litigation very expensive when suing a
-steamship company, and a suit often lingers for years until, having
-exhausted every process, it finds itself at last on the calendar of the
-Supreme Court of the United States.
-
-It is not advisable to attempt to cross the bows of a steamer unless you
-have plenty of room and you are a good judge of distances. Steam vessels
-go at a faster rate than they seem to, and the momentum of their impact
-is very great. Instead of crossing a steamer's bow go about on the other
-tack, or haul your foresheet to windward till she has passed. Discretion
-is always the better part of valor. Not to monkey with ocean steamships
-or ferryboats is as valuable advice as that time-honored warning to boys
-not to fool with the buzz-saw.
-
-Do not get "rattled," whatever you do, but keep your eyes "skinned" and
-your head clear.
-
-Skippers of ferryboats often try to show off their smartness by steering
-as close as possible to small pleasure boats and then giving them the
-benefit of their wash, sometimes swamping their unfortunate victims. It
-is fun for the fellow in the ferryboat's pilot-house, but it is the
-reverse of pleasant to the man wallowing in the seething water.
-Therefore, do not court danger by approaching too near these unwieldy
-marine brutes, but if you are so luckless as to get into their wash
-handle your boat so that she shall not get into the trough of the waves,
-but take the sea on the bluff of the bow, where it will do the least
-harm.
-
-Navigation by daylight in fine, clear weather is easy, but when it is
-dark and foggy special precautions must be taken or collision is
-inevitable. I do not propose to reprint in this little book the full
-text of the international regulations for preventing collisions at sea,
-but I have prepared an abstract, which will be sufficient for the
-practical purposes of an amateur sailor.
-
-
-                                LIGHTS.
-
-Between sunset and sunrise the following lights shall be carried by a
-steamship when under way:
-
-At the foremast head a bright white light, visible on a clear night at a
-distance of five miles, showing the light ten points on either side of
-the ship from right ahead to two points abaft the beam.
-
-On the starboard side a green light showing from right ahead to two
-points abaft the beam, visible at a distance of two miles.
-
-On the port side a red light similar in all respects, except color, to
-the green light.
-
-To prevent these green and red lights from being seen across the bow
-they must be fitted with inboard screens projecting at least three feet
-forward from the light.
-
-Steamships towing other vessels shall carry two white masthead lights in
-addition to their side lights.
-
-Sailing vessels when under way or being towed shall carry only the green
-and red lights as provided for steamships under way.
-
-Small vessels that cannot carry fixed side lights in bad weather must
-have them on deck on their respective sides ready for instant exhibition
-on the approach of another vessel.
-
-All vessels at anchor shall show where it can best be seen, at a height
-not exceeding twenty feet above the hull, a white light in a globular
-lantern of eight inches in diameter, visible all round the horizon at a
-distance of at least a mile.
-
-Pilot vessels shall only carry a white light at the masthead, visible
-all round the horizon, and shall exhibit a flare-up light every fifteen
-minutes.
-
-Open boats are not required to carry fixed sidelights, but must, in
-default of such, be provided with a lantern, having a green slide on one
-side and a red slide on the other, which must be properly shown in time
-to prevent collision, taking care that the green light shall not be seen
-on the port side nor the red light on the starboard side.
-
-Fishing and open boats, when at anchor or riding to their nets and
-stationary, shall exhibit a bright white light, and may, in addition,
-use a flare-up light if deemed expedient.
-
-
-                              FOG SIGNALS.
-
-In fog, mist, or falling snow, whether by day or night, a steamship
-under way shall blow a prolonged blast of her steam whistle every two
-minutes, or oftener. A sailing vessel under way shall blow her foghorn
-(which must be sounded by a bellows or other mechanical device and not
-by mouth power) at intervals of not less than two minutes, when on the
-starboard tack one blast, when on the port tack two blasts in
-succession, and when with the wind abaft the beam three blasts in
-succession.
-
-Vessels not under way shall ring the bell at intervals of not less than
-two minutes.
-
-
-                       STEERING AND SAILING RULES
-                          FOR SAILING VESSELS.
-
-A ship running free shall keep out of the way of a ship closehauled.
-
-A ship closehauled on the port tack shall keep out of the way of a ship
-closehauled on the starboard tack.
-
-When both are running free with the wind on different sides, the ship
-which has the wind on the port side shall keep out of the way of the
-other.
-
-When both are running free with the wind on the same side, the ship
-which is to windward shall keep out of the way of the ship to leeward.
-
-A ship which has the wind aft shall keep out of the way of the other
-ship.
-
-
-                           FOR STEAM VESSELS.
-
-If two ships under steam are meeting end on, or nearly end on, so as to
-involve risk of collision, each shall alter her course to starboard so
-that each may pass on the port side of the other.
-
-If two ships under steam are crossing so as to involve risk of
-collision, the ship which has the other on her own starboard side shall
-keep out of the way of the other.
-
-Steamships must, in cases where there is risk of collision, keep out of
-the way of sailing vessels.
-
-A vessel, whether sail or steam, when overtaking another, must keep out
-of the way of the overtaken ship.
-
-Where by the above rules one of two ships is to keep out of the way, the
-other shall keep her course.
-
-The following rhymes should be committed to memory:
-
-                 When both sidelights you see ahead,
-                 Port your helm and show your red!
-                 Green to green or red to red,
-                 Perfect safety—go ahead!
-
-                 If on the port tack you steer,
-                 It is your duty to keep clear
-                 Of every closehauled ship ahead,
-                 No matter whether green or red.
-
-                 But when upon your port is seen
-                 A stranger's starboard light of green,
-                 There's not so much for you to do,
-                 For green to port keeps clear of you.
-
-A ship which is being overtaken by another shall show from her stern to
-such last-mentioned ship a white light or a flare-up light. This rule
-was only adopted in 1884, but I saw it practically exemplified in the
-ship _Rajah of Cochin_ in the year 1874. The _Rajah_ was running down
-the Southeast trades one pitch dark night in April, homeward bound; I
-was in charge of the deck. We had studdingsails set on both sides, on
-the mainmast and foremast. Suddenly out of the darkness astern there
-loomed up the sails on the foremast of a big ship whose jibboom seemed
-to be right over the _Rajah's_ stern. She carried no side lights, her
-skipper being probably of an economical turn of mind. I took the lighted
-lamp out of the binnacle, and jumping on the wheel gratings waved it as
-high as I could, at the same time yelling with all my might. I could
-hear the man on the lookout aboard the pursuing vessel roar out, and
-then came a clatter and a rattle of ropes and a flapping of sails as
-with her helm hard to port the ship that was pursuing us luffed out
-across our stern. She snapped off a few stunsail booms, but that was
-better than running us down. Capt. Sedgwick, who was in command of the
-_Rajah_, was awakened by the noise and came up from below in his
-pajamas. He quickly realized what a close shave his ship had
-experienced.
-
-
-                           BUOYS AND BEACONS.
-
-In approaching channels from seaward red buoys marked with even numbers
-will be found on the starboard side of the channel and must be left on
-the starboard side in passing in. Black buoys with odd numbers will be
-found on the port side of the channel and must be left on the port hand
-in passing in.
-
-Buoys with red and black horizontal stripes will be found on
-obstructions with channel ways on either side of them, and may be left
-on either hand.
-
-Buoys painted with black and white perpendicular stripes will be found
-in mid-channel, and must be passed close aboard to avoid danger.
-
-All other marks to buoys will be in addition to the foregoing and may be
-employed to mark particular spots, a description of which will be found
-in the printed Government lists.
-
-Perches, with balls, cages, etc., will, when placed on buoys, be at
-turning points, the color and number indicating on what side they shall
-be passed.
-
-
-
-
-                                  XV.
-
-                              THE COMPASS.
-
-
-I have no space in this volume to write an exhaustive chapter on
-navigation. It is, however, an art easily acquired, and may be wholly
-self-taught. There are certain rudimentary rules for finding one's way
-at sea by dead reckoning, that everyone starting out on a cruise should
-master. The instruments needful are a compass, parallel rulers,
-dividers, patent log, lead line, aneroid barometer, clock, and the
-necessary charts of the sea which it is proposed to navigate.
-
-In a small cruiser a compass is generally carried in a portable
-binnacle. When steering by it take care that the lubber's point is in a
-direct line with the keel or stem and sternpost. For the benefit of the
-uninitiated, I will explain that the lubber's point is the black
-vertical line in the foreside of the compass bowl, by which the
-direction of the vessel's head is determined. A misplaced lubber's point
-is sure to cause grave errors in the course actually made. The compass
-should be as far removed as possible from ironwork of any kind. A spirit
-compass, as I have remarked elsewhere, is the only kind suitable for
-small craft. Those with cards of hard enamel, floating in undiluted
-alcohol, which renders freezing impossible, are the best. The amateur
-boat sailer should become familiar with the compass, be able to box it
-by both points and degrees, and to name its back bearings.
-
-[Illustration: compass]
-
-The points of the compass are thirty-two in number, as follows:
-
-North
-
-North by East
-
-North, North-East
-
-North-East by N.
-
-North-East
-
-North-East by E.
-
-East, North-East
-
-East by North
-
-East
-
-East by South
-
-East, South-East
-
-South-East by E.
-
-South-East
-
-South-East by S.
-
-South, South-E.
-
-South by East
-
-South
-
-South by West
-
-South, South-W.
-
-South-West by S.
-
-South-West
-
-South-West by W.
-
-West, South-W.
-
-West by South
-
-West
-
-West by North
-
-West, North-West
-
-North-West by W.
-
-North-West
-
-North-West by W.
-
-North, North-W.
-
-North by West
-
-North
-
-These points are sub-divided into quarter points, and again into
-degrees. The table given on pages 142-143 shows the angles which every
-point and quarter point of the compass makes with the meridian:
-
-POINTS, ANGLES AND BACK BEARINGS OF THE COMPASS.
-
-
-   _Opposite or Back   _Pts._    _Dgrs.   _Pts._   _Opposite or Back
-       Bearings._                 &c._                 Bearings._
-
-    North.   South.      0       0  0  0      0    North.   South.
-
-                       0-1/4     2 48 45    0-1/4
-
-    N. 1/2   S. 1/2    0-1/2     5 37 30    0-1/2  N. 1/2   S. 1/2
-    E.       W.                                    W.       E.
-
-                       0-3/4     8 26 15    0-3/4
-
-    N. b. E. S. b. W.    1      11 15  0      1    N. b. W. S. b. E.
-
-                       1-1/4    14  3 45    1-1/4
-
-    N. b. E. S. b. W.                              N. b. W. S. b. E.
-
-    1/2 E.   1/2 W.    1-1/2    16 52 30    1-1/2  1/2 W.   1/2 E.
-
-                       1-3/4    19 41 15    1-3/4
-
-    N. N. E. S. S. W.    2      22 30  0      2    N. N. W. S. S. E.
-
-                       2-1/4    25 18 45    2-1/4
-
-    N. N. E. S. S. W.                              N. N. W. S. S. E.
-
-    1/2 E.   1/2 W.    2-1/2    28  7 30    2-1/2  1/2 W.   1/2 E.
-
-                       2-3/4    30 56 15
-
-    N. E. b. S. W. b.                              N. W. b. S. E. b.
-
-    N.       S.          3      33 45  0           N.       S.
-
-                       3-1/4    36 33 45
-
-    N. E.    S. W.              39 22 30           N. W.    S. E.
-
-    1/2 N.   1/2 S.    3-1/2    39 22 30           1/2 N.   1/2 S.
-
-                       3-3/4    42 11 15
-
-    N. E.    S. W.       4      45  0  0           N. W.    S. E.
-
-                       4-1/4    47 48 45    4-1/4
-
-    N. E.    S. W.                                 N. W.    S. E.
-
-    1/2 E.   1/2 W.    4-1/2    50 37 30    4-1/2  1/2 W.   1/2 E.
-
-                       4-3/4    53 26 15    4-3/4
-
-    N. E.    S. W.                                 N. W.    S. E.
-
-    b. E.    b. W.       5      56 15  0      5    b. W.    b. E.
-
-                       5-1/4    59  3 45    5-1/4
-
-    N. E. b. S. W. b.                              N. W. b. S. E. b.
-
-    E. 1/2   W. 1/2    5-1/2    61 52 30    5-1/2  W. 1/2   E. 1/2
-    E.       W.                                    W.       E.
-
-                       5-3/4    64 41 15    5-3/4
-
-    E. N. E. W. S. W.    6      67 30  0      6    W. N. W. E. S. E.
-
-                       6-1/4    70 18 45    6-1/4
-
-    E. b. N. W. b. S.                              W. b. N. E. b. S.
-
-    1/2 N.   1/2 S.    6-1/2    73  7 30    6-1/2  1/2 N.   1/2 S.
-
-                       6-3/4    75 56 15    6-3/4
-
-    E. b. N. W. b. S.    7      78 45  0      7    W. b. N. E. b. S.
-
-                       7-1/4    81 33 45    7-1/4
-
-    E. 1/2   W. 1/2    7-1/2    84 22 30    7-1/2  W. 1/2   E. 1/2
-    N.       S.                                    N.       S.
-
-                       7-3/4    87 11 15    7-3/4
-
-    East.    West.       8      90  0  0      8    West.    East.
-
-The mariner's compass does not, however, give the true direction of the
-various points of the horizon. The needle points to the magnetic North
-and not to the true North, the difference between them being called the
-variation of the compass, which differs widely in various parts of the
-world, being sometimes easterly and sometimes westerly, and constantly
-changing. The amount is generally marked on the charts. In New York the
-variation for 1894 was 8° 26´ West, or three-quarters of a point to the
-West of the true North. Thus, to make good a true North course, the
-vessel would have to steer North three-quarters West. A rule easy to
-remember is that westerly variation is allowed to the left of the
-compass course, or bearing, and that easterly variation is allowed to
-the right of the compass course or bearing.
-
-To convert true courses and bearings into compass courses and bearings
-with variation westerly, allow it to the right of the true course or
-bearing, and with variation easterly allow it to the left of the true
-course or bearing.
-
-Deviation is another error of the compass caused by local attraction,
-such as the ironwork and iron ballast in a boat, or the proximity of a
-marlinespike to the binnacle. In a wooden boat, if proper care is taken,
-there should be no appreciable deviation of the compass. Deviation can
-be discovered by swinging the boat as she lies at her moorings, having
-first obtained the true magnetic bearing of some distant object, such as
-a lighthouse or a church steeple. As the vessel's head comes to each
-point of the compass, a compass bearing is taken of the object, and the
-difference between that bearing and the true magnetic bearing is
-observed and noted, and afterward tabulated. It will often be found that
-the deviation differs not only in amount, but in name, for different
-directions of the ship's head, being easterly at certain points and
-westerly at others.
-
-The rule is to allow westerly deviation to the left to get the correct
-magnetic course, and easterly deviation to the right to get the correct
-magnetic course.
-
-To find out the error of the compass in order to steer a true course,
-the _sum_ of the deviation and the variation when both are of the same
-name, and their _difference_ when they have different names, must be
-ascertained. For instance, deviation 20° West and variation 25° West,
-would give an error of compass 45° West, which should be applied to the
-left.
-
-If the deviation was 20° East and the variation 10° West, the difference
-between them would be 10° East, which compass error should be applied to
-the right to steer a true course.
-
-In order to find the compass course or course to steer, proceed as
-follows, the true course being North 40° East, the variation being 38°
-West and the deviation 18° East:
-
-      Variation,  38° W., being of contrary names, take their difference.
-      Deviation,  18° E.
-                 ------
-      Correction, 20°, apply to the right, being westerly.
-
- True course    N.40° E.
-                  ------
- Compass course N.60° E.
-
-Another example is given where the variation and deviation are both
-easterly and the true course is S., 75° West.
-
-               Variation, 24° W., being of same name.
-               Deviation, 16° W., add together.
-                         ------
-              Correction, 40°, apply to the left, being easterly.
-
-       True course,    S. 75° W.
-                       ------
-       Compass course, S. 35° W.
-
-A volume might be written on the mariner's compass. It is a fascinating
-study, but unfortunately my space is limited.
-
-There is another correction to the compass that the amateur should have
-cognizance of. It is called leeway, and is, in untechnical language, the
-drift that the ship makes sideways through the water because of the
-force of the wind or the impulsive heave of the sea. Some craft, because
-of deficiency in the element of lateral resistance, such as in the case
-of a shallow, "skimming-dish" sort of a boat, with the centerboard
-hoisted up, will go to leeward like a crab. Others of a different type,
-such as the "plank-on-edge" variety, with a lead line attached, will
-hang on to windward in a wonderful manner. It requires, therefore, a
-certain amount of judgment as well as of knowledge in this particular
-section of nautical lore to be able to estimate with any degree of
-approximate certainty the leeway a vessel may happen to make. It should
-not be forgotten that build has much to do with this, and that trim and
-draught of water are also two powerful elements in this connection. For
-instance, a boat with outside lead and a centerboard in a strong breeze
-and a lumpy sea, so long as the wind permitted her to carry a commanding
-spread of sail, might make no appreciable leeway, but, on the contrary,
-might "eat up" into the wind. But given the same boat without the lead
-and without the adventitious aid that the centerboard affords, she would
-be compelled to dowse her muslin at the first puff, and as a purely
-physical consequence she would retain no hold on the water and would
-drift off to leeward like an irresponsible she-crab.
-
-Thus leeway must be estimated by experience. It is often a most
-disturbing quantity, especially when the weather is foggy and the
-channel in which you are steering is perplexing on account of rocks or
-shoals. I have already expatiated on the wisdom of anchoring in such a
-contingency as this whenever the elements will permit. But, of course,
-one is a slave of the winds and the waves, and "bringing-up" is not
-always possible. I should, therefore, advise the amateur to carefully
-watch his boat and endeavor to find out approximately the amount of
-leeway she makes when the first reef is taken in by comparing the
-direction of the fore and aft line of the boat with that of her wake.
-This method may also be pursued with advantage under all conditions of
-wind and weather, and by this means a moderately correct and very useful
-table may be made.
-
-The old navigators like the Drakes and the Frobishers had this matter
-arranged for them, so when they sailed forth on voyages of great emprise
-and portent they were guided by certain tabulated formula that gave them
-full and implicit directions for the allowance of leeway. Thus the
-skipper of a ship with topgallantsails furled was told to allow one
-point; when under double-reefed topsails, one point and a half; when
-under close-reefed topsails, two points; when the topsails are furled,
-three points and a half; when the fore-course is furled, four points;
-when under the mainsail only, five points; when under the balanced
-mizzen or mizzen staysail, six points; and when under bare poles, seven
-points.
-
-This antiquated method of computation answered very well, for those
-sterling and sturdy navigators of the olden times seemed to have had a
-rare faculty of achieving their adventurous purpose and of gaining, too,
-both fame and fortune. But the commander of a clipper ship, with whom I
-sailed as a youngster, undertook to demonstrate to me the absurdity of
-any such hard-and-fast rule. We had carried away our three topgallant
-masts, off Cape Agulhas, while threshing hard against a westerly gale.
-They were whipped out of us like pipe-stems. It took all hands a whole
-day to clear away the wreck. Next day the weather moderated sufficiently
-for us to have carried every stitch of canvas could we have set it.
-There were a number of vessels beating round the Cape, and all took
-advantage of the cessation of the gale to spread all their flying kites
-to the breeze. Our ship, under three topsails, inner and outer jibs,
-foresail, mainsail, crossjack, spanker, foretopmast, maintopmast and
-mizzentopmast staysails, beat all the fleet. When it came on to blow
-again we were the first to reef, because some of our rigging had got
-badly strained in the squall that took our topgallantmasts away. Still
-we maintained our lead, although jogging along comfortably while our
-opponents were driving at it, hugging their topgallantsails and with lee
-rails under.
-
-"Now," said our captain, coming on the poop after he had worked up his
-dead reckoning at noontime, "you see all those ships dead to
-leeward—well they ought to be to windward of us unless all the books on
-navigation are wrong. I have entered in my traverse-table the courses we
-were supposed to have made good under the old rule, and have thus proved
-its falsity. The fact is the ships that were turned out in the days when
-these nautical axioms were first propounded were built by the mile and
-cut off in lengths to suit. They had no shape to speak of below the
-water-line, and perhaps the rule applied to each alike. Times are
-different now, and leeway must be determined by the model of the ship."
-
-The rule for reckoning leeway is as follows:
-
-Wind on starboard side, allow leeway to the left.
-
-Wind on port side, allow leeway to the right.
-
-Or you may thus define it:
-
-Vessel on starboard tack, allow leeway to the left.
-
-Vessel on port tack, allow leeway to the right.
-
-In this connection it might be well to urge the young mariner against
-keeping his boat all a-shiver and bucking against a head sea, and all
-the while sagging off bodily to leeward. It is better far to keep the
-wake right astern and keep way on the vessel—unless, of course, the
-weather is too violent.
-
-The direction and rate of tides and currents have also to be allowed for
-when correcting a compass course. Thus in crossing Long Island Sound
-from Larchmont to Oyster Bay in thick weather, the magnetic course as
-given in the Government chart would have to be rectified and allowance
-made for the condition of the tide, whether ebb or flood, or your boat
-might never reach her destination.
-
-
-
-
-                                  XVI.
-
-                                CHARTS.
-
-
-There are no better charted coasts in the world than those bounded by
-the North Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The United States Navy has done
-and is doing magnificent hydrographic work. The charts issued by the
-Government are accurate, reliable, up-to-date and reasonable in price.
-
-The top of a chart when spread out in front of you so that the reading
-part appears to you like the page of a book, and you can read it from
-left to right, is the North, the bottom is the South, the side on your
-right is the East, and the side on your left is the West. There are
-always compasses on a chart, either true or magnetic, by reference to
-which and with the aid of the parallel rulers the bearing of one point
-from another may easily be ascertained by the following method:
-
-Lay the edge of the rulers over the two places; then slide them
-(preserving the direction) till the edge of one ruler is on the center
-of the nearest compass; when this is done read off the course indicated
-by the direction of the ruler.
-
-To measure the distance between two places on the chart spread out the
-dividers till their points are over them, then apply to the graduated
-scale at the bottom of the chart, which will give you the required
-distance. This method, it should be remembered, is only accurate when
-applied to the large coasting charts. When measuring distances on
-general charts which extend across many degrees of latitude, the mean
-latitude of the two places must be measured from.
-
-There are certain signs and abbreviations used on charts which are
-easily comprehended, such as _hrd_ for hard, _rky_ for rocky, etc.
-Lighthouses and lightships are clearly marked, and shoals, rocks and
-other obstructions to navigation are plainly defined. All the marginal
-notes on the charts should be made familiar by the navigator. I need
-scarcely say that charts, instruments and books of sailing instructions
-should be kept dry. There are cylindrical tin boxes for charts which are
-quite cheap, and these I recommend.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 6.]
-
-The position of a vessel may be ascertained simply and accurately by
-cross-bearings. Suppose you are in a ship at _A_ in Fig. 6. The point
-with the lighthouse on it bears correct magnetic N. by W., and the point
-with the tree on it E. by N. You lay the parallel rules over the compass
-on your chart at N. by W., and work them to the lighthouse, preserving
-the direction. You then draw the line from the lighthouse to _a_. You
-then lay the parallel rules over the compass on your chart at E. by N.,
-and work them in a similar way to the tree. Then draw the line from the
-tree to _a_. The spot where the two lines cut was the vessel's position
-on the chart when the bearings were first taken. The distance of the
-ship from both lighthouse and tree can be measured by taking in the
-dividers the distance between either and the ship, and referring to the
-scale on the chart.
-
-It should be remembered that when sailing along the land cross-bearings
-will always determine your position, always allowing the proper
-corrections on the compass. In taking cross-bearings, try to have a
-difference between the two objects of as nearly ninety degrees as
-possible.
-
-The old-fashioned log-ship and log-line for determining the distance run
-by a vessel need have no place in the equipment of a small yacht. There
-are several patent self-registering logs which record the distance run,
-either on the taffrail or on dials on the log itself. Their performance
-is fairly satisfactory, but they should be kept well oiled, and should
-be often examined and tested—for instance, in a run between two objects
-whose distance apart is well known.
-
-By careful attention to the Lead, the Log and the Look-out, a boat may
-be navigated, by dead reckoning, with a certain amount of accuracy.
-
-A nautical mile, or knot, is the same as a geographical mile. Its length
-is six thousand and eighty feet. A statute mile in the United States
-measures five thousand two hundred and eighty feet.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-
-
-                                 XVII.
-
-                        MARLINESPIKE SEAMANSHIP.
-
-                  WITH INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING SPLICES
-                            KNOTS AND BENDS.
-
-[Illustration: MARLINESPIKE.]
-
-
-The amateur yachtsman should be able to make all the splices and most of
-the knots in common use. This knowledge will come in quite handy when
-fitting out his craft in the spring, and will save him the expense of
-hiring a sailor to do the work. I have spent many happy hours in rigging
-a fifteen-ton cutter, doing all the work myself (except stepping the
-mast) with the aid of a boy.
-
-A few fathoms of rope, a marlinespike, a knife, a small pot of grease, a
-ball of spun yarn, another of marline and one of roping twine, and you
-are equipped for work. Splicing ropes and making fancy knots may be made
-a quite pleasant way of spending a winter's evening. It keeps one out of
-mischief, and the art once learned is rarely forgotten. I think if you
-follow my directions and take heed of the diagrams that accompany them
-(which I have taken pains to make as clear as possible) you will have no
-difficulty in becoming quite expert in the use of a marlinespike.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The ends of all ropes, whether belonging to the running or standing
-rigging, must be whipped with tarred roping twine or they will unravel.
-Take the rope in your left hand and lap the twine round it very tight a
-dozen times, taking care that the end lies under the first turns so as
-to secure it. Then make a loop with the twine and continue the lapping
-for four turns round the rope and the end of the twine, as shown above.
-Haul taut and cut off the end.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-EYE SPLICE—Unlay the rope and lay the strands E, F, G at the proper
-distance upon the standing part, as shown at A. Now push the strand H
-through the strand next to it, as shown in B, having first opened it
-with a marlinespike. Strand I is then thrust over the part through which
-H was passed. Strand K is thrust through the third on the other side.
-Repeat the process with each strand, and then hammer the splice into
-shape with the butt of the marlinespike. Stretch and cut off the ends of
-the strands. If particular neatness is required, the strands, after
-having been passed through the standing part the first time, should be
-halved and passed again, and then still further tapered by being
-quartered before being passed for the third and last time. An eye splice
-is useful. Standing rigging should have eyes spliced in to go over the
-mast-head, and for dead-eyes to be turned in, etc.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 1.
-
-  FIG. 2.
-]
-
-SHORT SPLICE—Unlay the ends of two ropes of the same size and bring
-their ends together, as shown in Fig. 1. Hold the rope D and the strands
-A, B and C in the left hand. Pass the strand E over A and under C of
-rope H and haul taut. Pass strand G over B and under A. Pass strand F
-over the strand next to it and under the second. Turn the rope round and
-treat the other side in the same way, when the splice will be like Fig.
-2. The single tucking of the strands will not, however, be strong
-enough, and the process should be repeated on both sides, halving the
-strands for the sake of neatness. This splice is used only for rope that
-is not required to run through a block.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Fig. 1.
-
-  Fig. 2.
-]
-
-LONG SPLICE—Unlay the ends of the two ropes that are to be joined some
-two or three feet, according to the size of the rope. Place the two ends
-together, as shown in Fig. 1. Unlay strand C and lead it back to A; then
-take D and lay it up in the space left by C. Do this with the strands E
-and F on the opposite side. The rope will now look like Fig. 2. Give the
-two middle strands, G and H, a lick of tar if the rope is of hemp, and
-grease if of manilla, and knot them together with an overhand knot,
-taking care that the knot is so formed as to follow the lay of the rope.
-Then halve these strands and pass them over one strand and under two.
-Treat the remaining strands in the same way, after which stretch the
-rope well and cut off the ends of the strands. A long splice is the
-neatest way there is of putting two ends of a rope together. If well
-made it does not increase the diameter of the rope, and therefore
-renders through blocks as though it did not exist. If one strand of a
-rope is chafed through while the other two are sound, a new strand may
-be put in to replace it, and the ends may be finished off in the same
-way as in a long splice.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-CUT SPLICE—A cut splice is made the same as an eye splice, only with two
-ropes instead of one.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-OVERHAND KNOT—It is used at the ends of ropes to prevent them from
-unreeving. There should always be one in the end of the mainsheet, which
-is difficult to reeve again in anything like a breeze.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-REEF KNOT—It is always used to tie the reef points of a sail. First make
-an overhand knot and then pass the ends so that they take the same lay
-as the crossed parts of the overhand knot. If passed the other way, the
-knot will form what sailors call a granny, which will slip when it is
-subjected to a strain.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-BOWLINE KNOT—Take the end (1) of the rope in the right hand and the
-standing part (2) in the left hand. Lay the end over the standing part
-and turn the left wrist so that the standing part forms a loop (4)
-enclosing the end. Next lead the end back of the standing part and above
-the loop, and bring the end down through the loop as shown. This is a
-very useful knot.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-RUNNING BOWLINE—It is made by passing the end of a rope round its
-standing part and forming a bowline as in Fig. 8.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-BOWLINE ON A BIGHT—To make it, double the rope and take the doubled end
-(1) in the right hand, the standing part (2) of the rope in the left
-hand. Lay the end over the standing part, and by turning the left wrist
-form a loop (3) having the end inside. Next pull up enough of the end
-(1) to dip under the bight (4), bringing the end towards the right and
-dipping it under the bight, then passing it up to the left over the loop
-and hauling taut.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-TWO HALF HITCHES—Pass the end of the rope round the standing part and
-bring it up through the bight. This makes a half hitch. Repeat the
-process and haul taut. If the knot is to bear a great strain, seize the
-end back with spunyarn to the standing part.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-TIMBER HITCH—Pass the end of a rope round the spar, then round the
-standing part _b_, then several times round its own part _c_ against the
-lay of the rope.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-GAFF TOPSAIL HALYARD BEND—Pass two turns round the spar, then lead the
-end back round the standing part and underneath all the turns, bringing
-it round to its own part and back again over the two outer turns and
-underneath the inner turn.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-BLACKWALL HITCH—It is the simplest method known of making fast the end
-of a rope to the hook of a tackle. The figure is self-explanatory, the
-underneath part or the rope being jammed hard and fast by the strain on
-the hook.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-COMMON BEND—Make a bight with the end of one rope, and pass the end of
-the other through the bight from beneath, and round both parts with the
-end under its own standing part. The greater the strain, the faster will
-this bend jam.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-MAGNUS HITCH—Pass two round turns with the end of a rope over a spar,
-then take it before the standing part, pass it again under the spar and
-up through the bight.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-SELVAGEE STROP—It is made by driving two nails into a length of plank at
-a distance apart equal to the desired length of the strop. Make fast one
-end of a ball of spunyarn or knotted ropeyarns to one of the nails and
-pass it round the other, continuing the process until the strop is as
-thick as required. Marl it down with spunyarn and sew canvas or leather
-round it if intended for a block.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-GROMMET STROP—It is made of a single strand of rope. To make it, lay one
-end over the other at the size required, and with the long end follow
-the lay round until a ring is formed with three parts of the strand all
-round. Finish by dividing the ends, overhand knotting, and passing them
-over one strand and under the other exactly as in a long splice. To make
-a neat job, use a strand from rope that has been some time in use and is
-well stretched. The strand should be about a foot more than three times
-the length of the strop, to allow for the knotting. It may be wormed and
-covered with canvas or leather if intended for a block.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Fig. 19.
-
-  Fig. 20.
-
-  Fig. 21.
-
-  Fig. 22.
-]
-
-Figs. 19 and 20 show a Wall Knot. Unlay the end of a rope and with the
-strand A in Fig. 19 form a bight, hold it down at the side B, pass the
-end of the next strand C, round A, the end of strand D round C and
-through the bight of A. Haul taut and the knot is made as in Fig. 20.
-This can be crowned by taking strand in Fig. 21 and laying it over the
-top of the knot. Then lay B over A, and C over B and through the bight
-of A and haul taut. Fig. 22 shows a double wall and double crown, which
-is made by letting the ends follow their own parts round until all the
-parts appear double, first walling and then crowning.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-MATTHEW WALKER KNOT—Made by unlaying the end of a rope and taking the
-end A round the rope and through its own bight, the strand B underneath
-through the bight of A, and the strand C underneath through the bights
-of strands A and B, and hauling all the strands taut. This knot is used
-principally for the ends of lanyards. In making these knots a whipping
-of sailmaker's twine should be put round the rope where the knot is to
-be when formed.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-This illustration shows the process of worming a rope, which consists of
-winding spunyarn of suitable size into the space between the strands
-with the lay of the rope, so as to make the rope smooth for parcelling.
-This must be done with the rope on the stretch. A shows the spunyarn.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-This illustration shows the process of parcelling and serving. After the
-worming is finished wrap narrow strips of canvas—tarred, if the rope is
-of hemp, and painted if it is of wire—round the rope with the lay,
-secure the parcelling to the rope by marling it with twine, the rope can
-then be served against the lay. Lay the serving mallet B with its groove
-on the rope. Take a turn with the spunyarn round the rope and head of
-the mallet, round the side next you, and two turns on the other side and
-twist it round the handle. Get an assistant to pass the ball A round the
-rope while you heave round the mallet. The last half-dozen turns of the
-service must have the end of the spunyarn put through them and hauled
-taut to secure it.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-
-
-                                 XVIII.
-
-                           WEATHER "WRINKLES"
-
-
-The boat sailer or yachtsman should be able, from close observation of
-the barometer and the general appearance of the sky, to foretell the
-weather with a certain degree of accuracy. The aneroid barometer is
-peculiarly sensitive to all atmospheric changes, and is thus invaluable
-for meteorological forecasts. A regular code of phenomena has been
-formulated by meteorologists, from which I take the following:
-
-A rapid rise indicates unsettled weather.
-
-A gradual rise indicates settled weather.
-
-A rise with dry air and cold increasing in summer indicates wind from
-the northward, and if rain has fallen better weather may be expected.
-
-A rise with moist air and a low temperature indicates a continuance of
-fine weather.
-
-A rapid fall indicates stormy weather.
-
-A rapid fall with westerly wind indicates stormy weather from northward.
-
-A fall with northerly wind indicates storm with rain and hail in summer
-and snow in winter.
-
-A fall with increased moisture in the air and increasing heat indicates
-southerly wind and rain.
-
-A fall after very calm and warm weather indicates rain and squalls.
-
-The barometer rises for a northerly wind, including from northwest by
-north to the eastward, for dry or less wet weather, for less wind, or
-for more than one of these changes, except on a few occasions when rain,
-hail or snow comes from the northward with strong wind.
-
-The barometer falls for a southerly wind, including from southeast by
-south to the westward, for wet weather, for stronger wind, or for more
-than one of these changes, except on a few occasions, when moderate
-wind, with rain or snow, comes from the northward.
-
-A fall, with a south wind, precedes rain.
-
-A sudden and considerable fall, with the wind due west, presages a
-violent storm from the north or northwest, during which the glass will
-rise to its former height.
-
-A steady and considerable fall of the barometer during an east wind
-indicates a shift of wind to the southward, unless a heavy fall of snow
-or rain immediately follows.
-
-A falling barometer, with the wind at north, brings bad weather; in
-summer rain and gales; in spring snows and frosts.
-
-If, after a storm of wind and rain, the barometer remains steady at the
-point to which it had fallen, severe weather may follow without a change
-in the wind. But on the rising of the barometer a change of wind may be
-looked for.
-
-The following rhymes are familiar to most sailors:
-
-                       When the glass falls low,
-                       Look out for a blow.
-
-                       First rise after low,
-                       Portends a stronger blow.
-
-                       When the glass is high,
-                       Let all your kites fly.
-
-                       Long foretold—long last;
-                       Short notice—soon past.
-
-The following notes may be relied on for forecasting the weather:
-
-              Red sky at sunset, fine weather.
-
-              Red sky in the morning, wind or rain, and
-              often both.
-
-              Gray sky in the morning, fine weather.
-
-              Hard, oily looking clouds, strong wind.
-
-              Yellowish green clouds, wind and rain.
-
-              Bright yellow sky at sunset, wind.
-
-              Pale yellow sky at sunset, rain.
-
-              Very clear atmosphere near the horizon is a
-              sign of more wind and often rain.
-
-Here follow some old sailors' jingles which I heard when a boy in the
-forecastle:
-
-                   When rain comes before the wind,
-                   Sheets and halyards you must mind;
-                   When wind comes before the rain,
-                   Hoist your topsails up again.
-
-                   Evening red and morning gray
-                   Are sure signs of a fine day;
-                   But evening gray and morning red,
-                   Makes a sailor shake his head.
-
-Amateurs while on a cruise should frequently look at the barometer and
-take notes of its height and enter them in the log.
-
-The action of the aneroid barometer depends on the effect produced by
-the pressure of the atmosphere on a circular metallic chamber partially
-exhausted of air and hermetically sealed. This kind of barometer is
-liable to changes on account of its mechanism getting out of order, and
-it should be often compared with a mercurial barometer, which from its
-cumbersomeness cannot be conveniently carried in a small craft. Aneroid
-barometers of excellent quality, and of about the size of an ordinary
-watch, are offered for sale at a reasonable price, and a cruise should
-not be undertaken without one.
-
-A phosphorescent sea is a certain sign of continuance of fine weather.
-
-When porpoises come into shallow water and ascend the river stormy
-weather is near.
-
-Sea birds fly far out to sea in fine weather, but if they fly inland bad
-weather may be expected.
-
-A halo round the moon, especially if it appears distant and yet very
-distinct, indicates a gale of wind and probably rain.
-
-When the wind changes it usually shifts with the sun from left to right.
-Thus an East wind shifts to West by way of Southeast, South and
-Southwest, and a West wind shifts to East by way of Northwest, North and
-Northeast. If the wind shifts the opposite way it is said to "back," but
-this it rarely does except in unsettled weather.
-
-The United States Signal Service has a local observer stationed at each
-of the principal ports. When the "information signal," which consists of
-a red pennant, is displayed, it indicates that information has been
-received from the central office of a storm covering a limited area,
-dangerous only for vessels about to sail to certain points. Ship-masters
-and others interested will be supplied with the necessary information on
-application.
-
-A cautionary signal, which is a Yellow Flag with a white center,
-indicates that the winds expected are not so violent that well found and
-seaworthy vessels cannot encounter them without great danger. A
-cautionary flag hoisted alone signifies that the direction of the
-expected wind is doubtful.
-
-[Illustration: CAUTIONARY SIGNALS.]
-
-A dangerous storm signal, which is a Red Square Flag with black center,
-is hoisted when the wind is over thirty-five miles an hour.
-
-At night a Red Light indicates Easterly winds, and a Red and White Light
-Westerly winds.
-
-[Illustration: STORM SIGNALS.]
-
-Following are the weather signals, which explain themselves:
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  WEATHER.
-]
-
-Beaufort's scale is used to measure the velocity of the wind. It is
-given below:
-
-                _Hourly      _Scale._ _State._
-                Velocity
-                in Miles._
-
-                -                   0 calm.
-
-                1                   1 light airs.
-
-                2 to 3              2 light breezes.
-
-                4 to 7              3 gentle breeze.
-
-                9 to 15             4 moderate breeze.
-
-                15 to 18            5 fresh breeze.
-
-                19 to 22            6 strong breeze.
-
-                23 to 28            7 moderate gale.
-
-                28 to 40            8 fresh gale.
-
-                40 to 48            9 strong gale.
-
-                48 to 56           10 whole gale.
-
-                57 to 80           11 storm.
-
-                80 to 100          12 hurricane.
-
-
-
-
-                                  XIX.
-
-                       SEA COOKERY FOR YACHTSMEN.
-
-
-Those who go a-sailing for pleasure in small craft, frequently suffer
-hardships, or at least inconvenience, in the way of meals, because of
-their lack of knowledge of the provisions to take with them, and of
-simple methods of preparing wholesome and appetizing dishes.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 1. A Yachtsman's Stove.]
-
-Sea cooking differs materially from shore cooking, inasmuch as the stove
-in a house is erected on a floor that is both stationary and stable. The
-yachtsman who has a cosy galley with a fixed stove that burn coal or
-coke or charcoal, and that draws well, has reason to bless his fortunate
-stars.
-
-There have now come into vogue several varieties of the blue-flame
-wickless cooking stove. In the accompanying illustration, Fig. 1, I have
-depicted a stove which I have found to suit. It is wickless and burns
-the ordinary kerosene oil. To suit sea conditions the stove is slung on
-gimbals like a ship's compass, so as to yield to every motion of the
-vessel. The railing round the top prevents pots and pans from sliding to
-leeward. Fig. 2 shows the finest fry-pan ever invented for an oil stove,
-on which broiling is impracticable. It acts as a broiler or fryer at
-will. The raised bars prevent the steak or cutlet from being soddened
-with fat, the result being equal or nearly equal to a gridiron. If
-frying is required put the necessary quantity of oil, butter or fat in
-the pan. Let it come to a boil, and then immerse in it the article,
-fish, flesh, fowl, reptile, or vegetable that you wish to cook.
-
-With a stove having only one lid or burner the sea-cook might often have
-some difficulty in keeping three utensils on the boil at once. Luckily
-ingenuity has surmounted the obstacle, and Fig. 3 shows three stew-pans
-of small size that will fit over the burner of the stove shown in Fig.
-1. They are in the market, but it took me a long time to find out where
-they are for sale. In one you may cook curry, in the second rice, while
-clam broth may simmer in the third. In good sooth a very cerberus of
-stew-pans!
-
-Some sort of a contrivance for storing ice so as to keep it solid as
-long as possible is indispensable. Such a device is shown in Fig. 4.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Fig. 2. The Ideal Fry-Pan.
-]
-
-For sea picnics buy as many of the thin wooden plates (costing only a
-trifle) as you may require. These after being used may be thrown
-overboard. Take no crockery ware or china to sea in a small boat. Cups,
-saucers, plates and dishes can be obtained made of enameled steel. These
-are unbreakable and cleanly. Stew-pans, kettles, pitchers, coffee-pots
-and fry-pans are also made of enameled steel, and they cannot be
-surpassed. Cooks' furnishings depend on the size of the boat and the
-hands she carries. I suggest the following, but leave the sizes to the
-discretion of the purchaser who knows about how many mouths he has to
-feed: One kettle for boiling water for tea or coffee, one deep fry-pan,
-one iron pot with tight-fitting cover for boiling meat, fish or cooking
-chowder, one teapot, one coffee-pot, a soup ladle, a long iron
-two-pronged fork (known aboard ship as the cook's tormentors), two
-stew-pans for cooking vegetables, one broiler (if the implement can be
-used), one cook's knife, one vegetable knife, one swab for washing pots,
-pans and plates, and dish towels for drying them, soap, cups, plates,
-dishes, knives, forks, spoons, glasses, _quant. suff._ Do not forget a
-galvanized iron bucket for the cook, a can opener and a corkscrew. Also
-matches in an airtight can or glass. Fuel in either fluid or solid shape
-should not be omitted.
-
-When we come to the question of the food supplies to be taken aboard,
-much will depend upon the individual. Hard tack, salt tack, flour,
-beans, corned beef, salt pork, bacon, hams, canned meats, sardines,
-canned fruits and vegetables, cornmeal, lard, butter, cheese, condensed
-milk, sweetened and unsweetened coffee, tea, cocoa, chocolate, pepper,
-salt, mustard, vinegar, poultry seasoning, sugar and rice are some of
-the staple comestibles that suggest themselves, but these may be added
-to or subtracted from according to circumstances.
-
-A ham is one of the most easily procured comestibles. Pick out a small
-one, not too fat. If you want it tough as leather, boil it furiously for
-a couple of hours, then haul it out of the pot and eat it. If you want a
-delicate, tender and juicy ham soak it in a bucket of fresh water for
-twelve hours. Then scrape it well and pop it into a big pot full of cold
-fresh water. Let it come slowly to the boil. As soon as the water
-reaches the boiling stage, regulate the heat so that a gentle simmering,
-the faintest possible ebullition is kept up for five or six hours,
-according to the size of the joint. Then take it out of the pot and skin
-it. The rind will come off as easily as an old shoe. Then return meat to
-the water in which it was boiled and let it remain until it is quite
-cold. Next dish it, drain it and put it in the ice box to harden. Cut in
-very thin slices with a sharp knife, and you will admit that cooked
-after this scientific formula ham is mighty fine eating.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 3. A Nest of Stew-pans.]
-
-Corned beef cooked after this same fashion will also be a success. The
-secret is a simple one of chemistry. Hard boiling hardens the fibers and
-tears the meat to rags. Gentle simmering softens the meat while allowing
-it to retain its juices.
-
-The navy bean at present in use, though much may be said in its praise,
-is far inferior to the lima bean. This legume if substituted for the
-insignificant (by comparison only) little bean on which Boston
-breakfasts every Sabbath morn will be found so palatable that the lesser
-variety will never again be used. Procure a quart of lima beans. Pick
-out all that are shriveled or discolored. Soak the rest all night in
-plenty of cold fresh water and in the morning you will find them plump
-and tender. Wash them well and place them in a pot on the fire with a
-square piece of salt pork weighing three-quarters of a pound; simmer
-them gently till they are tender, but not till they reach the porridge
-stage. On the contrary, let each bean be separate like the soft and
-swelling grains of well-cooked rice. Strain through a colander, saving a
-pint of the water in which they were boiled. Pack in the bean pot. Bury
-the chunk of pork in the beans. Season the pint of water reserved as
-mentioned above, to your liking. Pour over the beans in the pot and put
-in the oven to bake. The flavoring of beans depends upon the taste of
-the cook.
-
-Sirloin steaks are a good staple viand. Make the butcher cut them not
-less than two inches thick. If you cannot grill them heat your fry-pan
-almost red-hot. Put no fat in the pan. Place your steak cut into
-convenient chunks into the hot pan. Let one side sear for a minute or so
-to keep in the juices. Then turn meat over. It will be cooked
-sufficiently for most palates in five or six minutes. Place on a piping
-hot platter, spread some fresh butter on the steak, sprinkle with
-pepper, and pipe to grub. Chops may be cooked in the same way.
-
-Meat may be roasted in an iron pot if the cook has no oven. Moderate
-heat, continuous care to prevent burning, and frequent basting are the
-three requisites of a successful pot roast.
-
-So far as beverages are concerned, useful hints in that direction are
-given in Fig. 5, which shows a picturesque and shipshape vessel to carry
-when a-cruising.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 4. Ice Tub.]
-
-There is no daintier dish than a fresh, fat lobster, generous and juicy,
-just hauled from the pot in which he was caught. Pick out a particularly
-lively specimen of medium size but heavy. The cock lobster may be
-distinguished from the hen by the narrowness of the tail, the upper two
-fins of which are stiff and hard, while the tail of the hen is broader
-and the fins soft. The male has the higher flavor; the flesh, too, is
-firmer and the color when boiled is a deeper red. The hen is well
-adapted for lobster _a la_ Newburg, but for eating on the half-shell a
-male in prime condition is far preferable.
-
-The secret of cooking lobsters is to plunge them into a pot of furiously
-boiling sea water, and to keep the water in a condition of fast
-ebullition for just twenty minutes. Fresh water to which salt is added
-will not do so well. Salt water fresh from the ocean is indispensable.
-It brings out the correct flavor and imparts an indefinable zest to the
-lobster. Hard-shell crabs may be boiled in the same way, but ten minutes
-will be ample time.
-
-All fresh vegetables are, in the opinion of the writer, improved in
-flavor by cooking them in sea water fresh from the ocean, not from a
-harbor contaminated by noxious influences from the shore. All vegetables
-should be immersed in boiling water and cooked till done. Potatoes will
-take about half an hour to boil, but cabbages, carrots and turnips much
-longer. I should not advise the cooking of the last-named three
-esculents aboard a small craft. Canned asparagus, French peas and string
-beans take little time to prepare and are excellent if a reliable brand
-is purchased. Open the can, drain off the liquid and throw it away. Wash
-the vegetables, strain the water off, place in a stew-pan with a lump of
-butter, and heat thoroughly. The liquid of canned vegetables is unfit
-for human food.
-
-Hard clams or quahaugs are plentiful at any port during the boating
-season. The recuperative qualities of the small variety served ice-cold
-on the half shell with a dash of Tabasco sauce and no other seasoning
-are beyond praise. Now while the little clam is excellent eating just as
-soon as opened from the shell, taking care to waste none of his precious
-juices, his elder brother also has inestimable gastronomic values.
-
-The easiest and simplest method of preparing clam broth is to scrub the
-clams well and wash them in several waters. Put them in an iron pot,
-without any water or liquid. Let them remain on the fire for twenty
-minutes. Then strain the juice, into which put a little fresh butter, a
-small quantity of milk, and a dash of red pepper. Drink while hot.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 5. A Traveling Companion.]
-
-Never add water to clam broth, and never let it boil after the milk is
-added, as it will curdle nine times out of ten.
-
-To make clam soup, clean the clams as for broth. Place them in an iron
-pot on the stove. As soon as they open take them out of their shells and
-chop very fine. A hardwood bowl and a two-blade chopping knife are the
-best apparatus for this job. Strain the clam liquor, return to the pot,
-add minced onions to taste and the chopped clams; simmer gently for one
-hour, thicken to taste with cracker dust, season with sweet herbs and
-pepper; let boil fast for ten minutes, take off the stove and add some
-hot milk and a lump of fresh butter. Serve.
-
-Clam chowder is an old sea dish whose popularity seems likely never to
-wane. It is a simple dish to prepare, although many cooks make a mystery
-of it. Cut half a pound of streaky salt pork into small cubes. Fry in an
-iron pot together with half a dozen medium-sized sliced onions until
-they are a light brown. Chop fifty hard-shell clams fine. Peel and slice
-thin a dozen large raw potatoes. Break up four sea biscuits and soak
-till soft in cold water or milk. Scald and peel and slice six ripe and
-juicy tomatoes. Put these ingredients into the pot in layers, pour over
-them the strained juice of the clams. Season with red and black pepper,
-sauces and herbs to taste. Cover an inch with hot fresh water and simmer
-for three hours. A pint of sound California claret added just before
-serving is an improvement. An old hen makes tip-top chowder cooked in
-the same fashion.
-
-Fish chowder may be prepared in a similar way. Cod, haddock, sea bass
-and bluefish are good made into a chowder.
-
-The soft-shell clam makes a delicate stew or broth. The tough parts
-should be rejected from the chopping bowl. Boiled for twenty minutes and
-eaten from the shell with a little butter and pepper they are also very
-appetizing. A big potful soon disappears.
-
-There is no excuse for the yachtsman neglecting to enjoy the delights of
-fish fresh from the sea. Fishing tackle should always be carried.
-Bluefish and mackerel may be caught by trolling; and if you have
-fisherman's luck, once in a blue moon a Spanish mackerel may fall to
-your lot. If so, that day must be marked by a white stone, for a Spanish
-mackerel transferred in about two shakes of a lamb's tail from the
-fish-hook to the fry-pan, or better still, if your arrangements permit,
-to the gridiron or broiler, is good enough for the gods to feed on. Two
-axioms should be borne in mind, namely, to fry in plenty of boiling fat
-or to plunge into boiling water. Never humiliate a fish by placing him
-in a cold fry-pan or into a cooking pot of cold water.
-
-Before frying fish dip in well-beaten egg and then sprinkle with bread
-crumbs or cracker dust, dip in egg again, and then add more bread crumbs
-or cracker dust. This is for epicures. For ordinary seafarers if the
-fish is rolled in yellow cornmeal without the egg the result will be
-nearly the same. Cut up large fish into suitable sizes, but fry small
-fish whole.
-
-Soft-shell crabs should be cooked in boiling fat. When brown they are
-done. Ten minutes is usually enough to cook them thoroughly.
-
-Always when you boil fish of any kind indigenous to salt water or fresh
-put them in boiling water either from the sea or fresh water well
-salted. A little vinegar added is good. A two-pound fish should cook
-sufficiently in fifteen or at most twenty minutes. Fish with white flesh
-take longer to boil than those with dark.
-
-An excellent sauce for boiled fish may be made thus: Put a piece of
-butter as big as an egg in a saucepan or a tomato can; heat till it
-bubbles, add a heaping tablespoonful of flour, stir till quite smooth;
-pour slowly into this, stirring continually, a pint of the water the
-fish was cooked in, and add two hard-boiled eggs chopped fine. This may
-be flavored with anchovy sauce or a few drops of Harvey or
-Worcestershire. Some prefer the addition of a little lemon juice or even
-vinegar. Every man to his taste!
-
-When a very little boy I sailed in the _Derwent_, a small schooner
-engaged in carrying bottles from Sunderland to London. The bottles were
-taken in from the factory where they were made, stowed in the hold of
-the schooner and transported to a wharf at Wapping. Bottles are a clean
-kind of freight, and our skipper being a very particular kind of a man
-the _Derwent_ was kept as bright as a new pin outside and inside, alow
-and aloft. On this dashing little vessel I was cook and cabin boy. There
-was no regular galley on deck, simply an iron cooking stove erected on
-the foreside of the mainmast; and on that in storm and calm I boiled and
-baked for a crew of four for more than a year—in fact till I quit the
-coasting trade and signed away foreign. My skipper took me under his
-special guidance. The grub had to be well cooked and the deck kept
-spotless or I used to suffer. Skipper and mate were epicures after a
-fashion, so I had to keep my weather eye open.
-
-My experience in merchant vessels and pleasure craft has fitted me to
-write with some small assumption of authority on the subject of sea
-cooking.
-
-Some of my methods may seem queer and perhaps grotesque, but condemn
-them not till you have tested them in the crucible of experiment.
-
-
-
-
-                                  XX.
-
-                     NAUTICAL TERMS IN COMMON USE.
-
-
-Aback—A sail's condition when the sheet is to windward and it drives the
-vessel astern.
-
-Abaft—The position toward the stern of any object or point such as
-"abaft the mast" or "abaft the binnacle."
-
-Afore—The contrary of abaft.
-
-Ahoy!—An interjection used in hailing a vessel, such as "_Vigilant_
-ahoy!"
-
-Athwart—Across the keel.
-
-Atrip—When the anchor is broken out of the ground.
-
-Avast—Stop, discontinue. As "avast hauling" (stop hauling).
-
-Balance reef—A diagonal reef in a fore-and-aft sail extending from
-throat to clew.
-
-Batten down—Covering hatches with tarpaulins and securing them with
-battens.
-
-Beam ends—A vessel is said to be on her beam ends when knocked down by a
-squall to an angle of about 45 degrees.
-
-Belay—To make fast a rope or fall of a tackle.
-
-Below—Greenhorns call it "downstairs" and seamen laugh at them.
-
-Bight—A loop of a rope.
-
-Bilge—The round in a vessel's timbers where they turn from her sides
-toward the keel.
-
-Binnacle—A case in which the compass is contained.
-
-Block and block—When the blocks of a tackle are hauled close together.
-
-Bolt rope—The rope sewn round the edges of sails. It is made of the best
-hemp.
-
-Bonnet—An extra piece of canvas laced to the foot of a jib or foresail,
-taken off when it blows hard.
-
-Box the compass—To call over the points of the compass in correct order.
-
-Break off—When a vessel sailing close-hauled is headed by the wind and
-is unable to lay the course she was steering.
-
-Bring up—To anchor.
-
-Broach to—To come to against wind and helm.
-
-Capsize—To turn over.
-
-Carvel built—Constructed with the planks flush edge to edge and the
-seams caulked and payed.
-
-Caulking—Driving oakum into the seams of a vessel with a mallet and a
-blunt chisel called a caulking iron.
-
-Clews—The lower corners of square sails; the lower after-corners of
-fore-and-aft sails.
-
-Clinch—To fasten a rope by a half hitch and then seize the end back to
-the standing part.
-
-Close-hauled—Hauled as close to the wind as the sails will permit
-without shaking their luffs. A cutter-rigged yacht with well-cut canvas
-should lie within four and a quarter points of the wind. Some modern
-racing craft have done half a point better than this. Square-rigged
-vessels cannot head better than five and a-half points of the wind.
-
-Collar—An eye spliced in a shroud or stay to go over the masthead.
-
-Comber—A big wave.
-
-Companion—The entrance from the deck to the cabin below.
-
-Compass bowl—The bowl in the binnacle that contains the compass.
-
-Corinthian—A term in yachting possessing the same significance as
-amateur; the opposite of professional.
-
-Counter—That part of a vessel which projects abaft the sternpost.
-
-Covering board—The outside deck plank fitted over the timber heads. The
-same as planksheer.
-
-Cracking on—Carrying a press of sail.
-
-Crank—Not stiff under canvas; easily heeled or listed.
-
-Cranze or Cranse—A metal band with eyes on it fitted to the end of a
-bowsprit or other spar.
-
-Cringle—A metal thimble worked in the clews and leeches of sails.
-
-Dandy—A cutter-rigged vessel with lug-mizzen set on a jigger-mast.
-
-Davits—Iron cranes on vessels to which boats are hoisted.
-
-Deadeye—A circular wooden block with three holes in it without sheaves,
-through which a lanyard is rove to set up standing rigging.
-
-Dead wood—Solid wood worked on top of the keel forward and aft.
-
-Depth of hold—The height between the keelson and the deck of a
-single-decked vessel.
-
-Displacement—The quantity of water displaced by a vessel, which in
-weight is always equal to her own weight.
-
-Dogvane—A light vane made of bunting or feathers to show the direction
-of the wind.
-
-Dowse—To lower a sail suddenly.
-
-Down-haul—A rope by which a sail is hauled down.
-
-Draught of water—The depth of a vessel measured from the under side of
-the keel to the load water-line.
-
-Earrings—Ropes for fastening the corners of the heads of sails to yards
-and for reefing.
-
-Ease off—To slacken a rope handsomely.
-
-Eyelet holes—Small holes worked in sails for lacings or lashings to be
-rove through.
-
-Eyes of the rigging—Collars spliced in the ends of shrouds to go over
-the masthead and also over the deadeyes.
-
-Fair leaders—Holes in planks, etc., for ropes to be rove through so that
-they lead fairly.
-
-Fair wind—A wind that permits a vessel to steer her course without
-tacking.
-
-Fall—The hauling part of the rope of a tackle.
-
-False keel—A timber bolted to the under side of the keel proper.
-
-Fathom—A sea measure of six feet.
-
-Fender—A species of buffer made of wood, rope or other material to hang
-over a vessel's side to prevent her from chafing against a dock, or
-another vessel.
-
-Fid—An iron or wooden bar to keep bowsprits and topmasts in place; a
-conical wooden instrument used by riggers and sailmakers.
-
-Fish, To—To strengthen a weak or repair a broken spar by lashing another
-spar or batten to it.
-
-Flare—To project outwards; contrary to tumbling home.
-
-Flat aft—When sheets are trimmed as close as possible for effective
-windward work.
-
-Floors—The bottom timbers of a vessel.
-
-Flowing sheet—The sheet eased off to a fair wind.
-
-Flush decked—Having neither poop nor forecastle.
-
-Foot—The lower edge of a sail.
-
-Forereach—To sail faster through the water on a wind than another
-vessel.
-
-Freeboard—That part of a ship's side above the water.
-
-Full and by—To steer as close to the wind as possible, while at the same
-time keeping the sails full of wind.
-
-Futtocks—The timbers which join and butt above the floors, called first,
-second and third futtocks.
-
-Gammon iron—An iron hoop fitted to the side of the stem, or on top of
-the stem, to receive and hold the bowsprit.
-
-Garboard—The strake of plank next above the keel, into which it is
-rabbeted and bolted.
-
-Gripe, To—A vessel gripes when she has a tendency to come up in the wind
-and requires much weather helm.
-
-Gudgeons—Metal straps with eyes secured to the stern post, into which
-the pintles of the rudder are fitted.
-
-Gunwale—The timber fitted over the timber heads and fastened to the top
-strake.
-
-Guys—Ropes used to steady a spar or other thing.
-
-Gybe—To let a fore-and-aft sail shift from one side to the other when
-running before the wind. To let a vessel go so much off the wind as to
-bring the wind on the opposite quarter.
-
-Half-mast high—When a flag is hoisted halfway up as a mark of respect to
-a person recently dead.
-
-Halyards—Ropes for hoisting sails.
-
-Handsomely—Steadily; carefully.
-
-Handy billy—A watch tackle kept on deck for getting a pull on sheets or
-halyards.
-
-Hanks—Rings or hooks for fastening the luffs of sails to stays.
-
-Hard down—The order to put the tiller a-lee. Hard up, the order to put
-the tiller a-weather.
-
-Heave to—To so trim a vessel's sails that she does not move ahead.
-
-Heel rope—The rope by which a running bowsprit is hauled out or a
-topmast lowered.
-
-Hoist—The length of the luff of a fore-and-aft sail.
-
-Horns—The projections forming the jaws of gaffs or booms.
-
-Hounds—The projections on a mast that support the lower cap and rigging.
-
-House—To lower a topmast down within the cap.
-
-Inhaul—The rope used to haul sails inboard.
-
-In irons—The condition of a vessel head to wind and with way lost,
-unable to pay off on one tack or the other.
-
-Irish pennants—Loose ropes flying in the breeze or dangling over the
-side.
-
-Jackstay—A rod of iron, a wooden cleating, or a wire rope for sails or
-yards to travel on; also a wire rope on the main boom to which the foot
-of the sail is laced.
-
-Jiggermast—The mizzenmast of a yawl or dandy.
-
-Kentledge—Pig iron used as ballast.
-
-Lanyards—Ropes rove through deadeyes by which shrouds or stays are set
-up.
-
-Leeboard—An old-fashioned contrivance to check leeway, still in use on
-some Dutch vessels and English barges.
-
-Load water-line—The line of flotation when a vessel is properly
-ballasted or laden.
-
-Luff—To come closer to the wind.
-
-Make fast—To belay a rope.
-
-Masthead—That part of the mast above the hounds.
-
-Mast hoops—The hoops to which the luffs of fore and aft sails are seized
-to secure the sails to the masts.
-
-Miss stays, To—To fail in an attempt to tack.
-
-Mousing—A yarn wound round a hook to prevent it from becoming unhooked.
-
-Near—Very close to the wind.
-
-Nip—To nip a vessel is to sail her too close to the wind.
-
-On a wind—Closehauled.
-
-Outhaul—A rope or tackle by which a sail is hauled out on a spar.
-
-Paddy's hurricane—A dead calm.
-
-Painter—A rope spliced to a ring bolt in the bow of a boat to make fast
-by.
-
-Pay—To pour hot pitch or marine glue into seams after they are caulked.
-
-Pintles—The metal hooks by which rudders are attached to the gudgeons.
-
-Pole mast—A mast without a topmast, but with a long masthead above the
-hounds.
-
-Put about—To tack.
-
-Raffee—A square or triangular sail set flying on the foretopmasts of
-schooners.
-
-Rake—To incline forward or aft from the vertical, as raking mast, a
-raking sternpost, etc.
-
-Reef band—A strip of canvas sewn across a sail, in which eyelet holes
-for the reef points are worked.
-
-Reef pendant—A strong rope with a Matthew Walker knot in one end. It is
-passed up through a hole in the cleat on the boom, and then through the
-reef cringle in the sail and down through the hole in the cleat on the
-other side of the boom.
-
-Reef points—Short lengths of rope in sails to tie up the part rolled up
-when reefing.
-
-Reeve—To pass a rope through a block or a hole of any kind.
-
-Roach—The curved part of the foot of a sail.
-
-Rockered keel—A keel whose ends curve upward.
-
-Running bowsprit—A bowsprit so fitted as to run in or out and reef.
-
-Serve—To cover a rope with spunyarn.
-
-Shake out a reef—To untie the reef points and set the sail.
-
-Sheathing—The copper or other metal nailed on the bottom of a vessel.
-
-Sheave—The grooved wheel in a block or in the sheave hole of a spar over
-which the rope passes.
-
-Sheet—The rope by which the clew of a sail is secured.
-
-Snotter—An eye strop used to support the heel of a sprit.
-
-Spitfire jib—The smallest storm jib.
-
-Taunt—Tall, high.
-
-Taut—Tight.
-
-Tie up—A lubber's synonym for moor. You tie up a dog. You moor a vessel.
-
-Thimble—A heart shaped or circular ring with a groove outside for ropes
-to fit in. They are used for the eye splices in ropes, the straps of
-blocks and for the cringles in sails.
-
-Thwarts—The transverse seats in boats.
-
-Tumble home—When the sides of a vessel near the deck incline inward the
-opposite to flaring.
-
-Tyers—Ropes that secure a mainsail when stowed.
-
-Unbend—To cast loose a sail from stay, gaff, boom or yard.
-
-Veer—To pay out chain.
-
-Wear—To bring the wind on the other side of a vessel by turning her head
-from the wind. The reverse of tacking.
-
-Weather gauge—The condition of a vessel that is to windward of another.
-
-Weather helm—A vessel is said to carry weather helm when she has a
-tendency to fly up in the wind.
-
-Weathering—If one vessel eats to windward of another, she is said to
-weather on her. Weathering an object is passing it on the windward side.
-
-Whip, To—To bind the end of a rope with twine to prevent it from
-unlaying.
-
-Yaw—A vessel yaws when her head flies from one direction to the other;
-as, for instance, when her helmsman is unable to keep her steady on her
-course.
-
-Yawl—A cutter-rigged vessel with a mizzenmast stepped in her counter.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  THE SLOOP YACHT.
-
-  _Names of Spars, Rigging, Sails, Etc._
-
-   1 Jib Topsail.
-   2 Club Topsail Sprit.
-   3 Topsail Club.
-   4 Club Topsail Guy.
-   5 Jib.
-   6 Club Topsail.
-   7 Mainsail.
-   8 Bowsprit.
-   9 Club Topsail Tack Line.
-  10 Mainsheet.
-  11 Foresail or Forestaysail Sheet.
-  12 Jib Topsail Sheet.
-  13 Topping Lift.
-  14 Gaff Topsail, Clewed Down.
-  15 Tack of Jib.
-  16 Tack of Jib Topsail.
-  17 Luff of Jib Topsail.
-  18 Head of Jib Topsail.
-  19 Jib Topsail Halyards.
-  20 Leach of Jib Topsail.
-  21 Main Gaff.
-  22 Main Boom.
-  23 Main Topmast.
-  24 Foot of Jib.
-  25 Leach of Jib.
-  26 Clew of Jib.
-  27 Reef Points.
-  28 Tack of Mainsail.
-  29 Clew of Mainsail.
-  30 Peak of Mainsail.
-  31 Throat of Mainsail.
-  32 Main Crosstrees.
-  33 Masthead Runner and Tackle.
-  34 Head of Club Topsail.
-  35 Clew of Club Topsail.
-  36 Tack of Club Topsail.
-  37 Topmast Shrouds.
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  THE CUTTER YACHT.
-
-  _Names of Spars, Sails, Standing and Running Rigging, Etc._
-
-  SPARS.
-
-  1 Lowermast.
-  2 Topmast.
-  3 Bowsprit.
-  4 Main Boom.
-  5 Gaff.
-  6 Topsail Sprit.
-  7 Spinnaker Boom.
-  8 Tiller.
-
-  RIGGING AND ROPES.
-
-   9 Crosstrees.
-  10 Shrouds.
-  11 Topmast Shrouds.
-  12 Topping Lift.
-  13 Masthead Runner and Tackle.
-  14 Forestay.
-  15 Topmast Stay.
-  16 Bobstay.
-  17 Bobstay Fall.
-  18 Spinnaker Boom Topping Lift.
-  19 Spinnaker Boom Brace.
-  20 Topmast Backstay.
-  21 Reef Pennant.
-  22 Truck.
-  23 Ensign.
-  24 Channels.
-  25 Mainsheet.
-  26 Spinnaker Boom Guy.
-  27 Clew of Sprit Topsail.
-  28 Tack of Sprit Topsail.
-  29 Tack Line or Pendant.
-  30 Sprit Topsail Halyards.
-
-  SAILS.
-
-  A Jib.
-  B Sprit Topsail.
-  C Mainsail.
-  D Foresail.
-  E Jib Topsail.
-]
-
-
-
-
-                                ADDENDA.
-
-                 RECENT CHANGES IN SAIL PLAN AND RIG OF
-                             MODERN CRAFT.
-
-
-Since the first edition of this book was printed, yacht designers have
-studied to reduce weight aloft.
-
-This has not infrequently resulted in fitting ironwork blocks, etc., far
-too flimsy to endure the strain of a stiff breeze. There is always a
-happy medium between spider-web rigging and rigging uselessly heavy and
-clumsy, and my advice therefore is not to go to extremes. In racing
-craft on the fresh-water lakes piano wire has been used for standing
-rigging, and because of its enormous strength and notable lightness has
-answered well enough. In salt water, however, it should be avoided
-because of its liability to corrosion.
-
-The principal changes in rig of late years follow: The substitution of
-turnbuckles and rigging screws for the old-fashioned dead eyes and
-lanyards; the reduction of the length of the bowsprit because of the
-long overhang forward, which has done away with the reefing bowsprit on
-all modern craft; the invention of masthead shrouds, bridles on gaffs,
-and the throat halyard pennant. By means of the three devices mentioned,
-strains aloft are both minimized and equalized. Large vessels carry
-double masthead shrouds, and every racing yacht is fitted with single
-ones. Gaff bridles and throat halyard pennants are also considered to be
-well-nigh indispensable.
-
-[Illustration: SAIL PLAN AND RIG OF A MODERN SCHOONER.]
-
-[Illustration: RIG AND SAIL PLAN OF A MODERN YAWL.]
-
-In the matter of running rigging, flexible steel wire is now much used
-for throat and peak halyards. Its advantage is that there is little or
-no "give" to it. The rig of a modern 25-foot water-line sloop with a
-pole mast is as follows: Bobstay-rod of steel 3/4-inch in diameter, set
-up with a turnbuckle at the end of the bowsprit; shrouds, two each side,
-1-1/8-inch steel wire; forestay set up to stem head, 1-1/4-inch steel
-wire; jib set flying, hoisted with 3/4-inch 8-stranded flexible
-steel-wire halyards, set up with a jig-purchase; runner-shrouds of
-7/8-inch wire canvased over; main lifts 3/4-inch flexible steel wire,
-parcelled, sewed over with white codline and then covered with white
-canvas sewn on. The throat and peak halyards are of 3/4-inch flexible
-steel wire. The blocks are all strapped with grommets of flexible steel
-wire sewed and leathered.
-
-Steel wire is now also used for the leech ropes of racing sails, and is
-employed largely in the lower canvas of all the big racing yachts.
-Flexible steel wire is nearly as pliable as new hemp rope of the same
-strength. The greater the diameter of the sheaves over which it passes
-the longer it will last. This wire cannot be belayed to a cleat.
-Therefore, Manila rope is spliced to the hauling end of the wire, which
-insures its remaining fast after once being belayed. This is a most
-difficult splice to make.
-
-The accompanying illustrations show the sail plans and rigs of a modern
-schooner and a modern yawl. When compared with the sloop and cutter rigs
-on pages 211 and 212, it will be easily seen that many radical changes
-have been made.
-
-It occurred to me in revising the book for this edition, that it might
-be wise to omit the directions for rigging a running bowsprit, bending a
-loose-footed mainsail, and some other devices which in the light of
-modern improvements might be deemed either archaic or obsolete. On
-second thoughts, however, I decided to let them stand as written. There
-is still a goodly fleet of "old-timers," cutters and yawls with straight
-stems and reefing bowsprits—craft some of them half a century old or
-more, and sound as a gold dollar in spite of severe service. The deadeye
-and the lanyard, although being pushed hard by the turnbuckle, die
-slowly, and are yet to be found in brand new vessels of the twentieth
-century.
-
-To equalize and minimize strains on mainbooms, mainsheet bridles are now
-fitted. Overhangs are growing longer and longer and bowsprits shorter.
-The Larchmont one-design class of 1901 has a length on deck of 40 feet 7
-inches, with a water-line length of 25 feet. The sail area is 1,103
-feet, and the out side ballast weighs 6,100 pounds. The centerboard
-houses entirely below the cabin floor, the draught being 4 feet 6
-inches, and 8 feet with the board down. The aim of the designer is to
-combine racing and cruising qualities—a much-to-be-desired combination,
-never to be completely attained, I fear.
-
-
-                                THE END.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-POMMERY
-
-"SEC" (A Very Dry Wine.) "BRUT" (No Sweetening Whatever.)
-
-The
-
-Standard for
-
-Champagne
-
-Quality.
-
-CHAMPAGNE
-
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-
-WHITE'S
-
-YACHT AGENCY
-
-EUGENE WHITE, _Proprietor_
-
-OFFICE _for_ SELLING, CHARTERING _and_ PURCHASING YACHTS _and_ BOATS OF
-EVERY DESCRIPTION DESIGNS _and_ ESTIMATES FURNISHED _Terms Moderate_
-
-11 EAST BROADWAY
-
-(_Chatham Square_) NEW YORK
-
-
-                  ------------------------------------
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Air Whistles
-
-FOR YACHTS and LAUNCHES
-
-[Illustration]
-
-A powerful Air Whistle, shrill and far-reaching. Indispensable in fog or
-stormy night. Either fixed or portable. Specially adapted for small
-yachts. Prices from $9 00 upward.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-GLEASON-PETERS AIR PUMP CO.,
-
-Houston and Mercer Sts., NEW YORK CITY.
-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
-                           Established 1840.
-
-GEO. B. CARPENTER & CO.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Yacht Sailmakers and dealers in every yachting requisite. We have all
-the new fabrics for =racing sails=.
-
-Send 6c in stamps for our up-to-date catalogue of yacht fittings and
-supplies, or 4c in stamps for catalogue of tents, etc.
-
-Tents, Camp Furniture and Flags.
-
-202-208 South Water Street, CHICAGO.
-
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-
-
-                              SPAR COATING
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PRESERVATIVE COATINGS
-  E.S.
-  1827
-  & CO.
-  TRADE MARK.
-]
-
-A PERFECT FINISH
-
-FOR ALL WOODWORK, SPARS AND IRONWORK
-
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-
-EDWARD SMITH & CO.
-
-VARNISH MAKERS AND COLOR GRINDERS
-
-45 BROADWAY, NEW YORK
-
-
-
-
-                              Boat Sailing
-
-                         Fair Weather and Foul.
-
-                          Capt. A. J. Kenealy.
-
-                            Price 50 Cents.
-
-                       The Outing Publishing Co.,
-
-
-                          239-241 Fifth Ave.,
-
-                               New York.
-
-                         INTERNATIONAL NEWS CO.
-
-                                London.
-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
-
-
-                          Transcriber's Notes.
-
-In the compass back bearing chart, Points and Degrees have been
-abbreviated to Pts., Dgrs., to reduce width.
-
-The original spelling and punctuation has been retained.
-
-Variations in hyphenation and compound words have been preserved.
-
-Italicized words and phrases in the text version are presented by
-surrounding the text with underscores.
-
-Bold words and phrases in the text version are presented by surrounding
-the text with equals signs.
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Boat Sailing, by A. J. Kenealy
-
-*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BOAT SAILING ***
-
-***** This file should be named 55846-0.txt or 55846-0.zip *****
-This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
-        http://www.gutenberg.org/5/5/8/4/55846/
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-file was produced from images generously made available
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-
-
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-
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-
-<pre>
-
-The Project Gutenberg EBook of Boat Sailing, by A. J. Kenealy
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-
-
-Title: Boat Sailing
-       In Fair Weather and Foul, 6th ed.
-
-Author: A. J. Kenealy
-
-Release Date: October 29, 2017 [EBook #55846]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BOAT SAILING ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Chris Curnow, readbueno and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
-file was produced from images generously made available
-by The Internet Archive)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-</pre>
-
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/cover.jpg' alt='cover' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span>
-  <h1 class='c000'>BOAT SAILING,<br /> <br />FAIR WEATHER AND FOUL.</h1>
-</div>
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c001' />
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_6'>6</span>
-<img src='images/i_002.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><i>Good Luck and a Fair Wind.</i><br /><br /><i>A. J. Kenealy.</i></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-<div class='nf-center c002'>
-    <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span>OUTING LIBRARY OF SPORT.</div>
-    <div class='c001'><span class='xxlarge'><span class='sc'>Boat Sailing</span></span></div>
-    <div class='c001'>IN</div>
-    <div class='c001'>FAIR WEATHER AND FOUL.</div>
-    <div class='c001'><i>BY</i></div>
-    <div class='c001'>CAPTAIN A. J. KENEALY.</div>
-    <div class='c003'><span class='small'>"Man made him a boat of a hollow tree,</span></div>
-    <div><span class='small'>And thus became lord of the bounding sea."</span></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id003'>
-<img src='images/i_003.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-  <div class='nf-center'>
-    <div><i>1903.</i></div>
-    <div><i>SIXTH EDITION.</i></div>
-    <div><i>REVISED.</i></div>
-    <div class='c001'><i>WITH ILLUSTRATIONS AND DIAGRAMS.</i></div>
-    <div class='c003'>THE OUTING PUBLISHING CO.,</div>
-    <div>NEW YORK.        LONDON.</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-<div class='nf-center c002'>
-    <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>Copyrighted by</div>
-    <div><span class='sc'>The Outing Publishing Company</span>, 1903,</div>
-    <div>NEW YORK.</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c001' />
-</div>
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span>
-  <h2 class='c004'>PREFACE.</h2>
-</div>
-<p class='drop-capa0_4_0_6 c005'>When the first edition of this little
-book was printed in 1894 my publishers
-thought they would be
-very lucky if they ever disposed
-of half the number of copies turned out
-by the press. I had the same melancholy
-forebodings. The result has shown that
-our fears were groundless. The book
-was written in a simple sailorly style for
-all lovers of the sea and boats. That it
-should have received such cordial commendation
-as it has from amateurs and
-professionals has been both a pleasure
-and a surprise. In sending it out on its
-sixth edition, I cannot lose the opportunity
-of thanking my critics who have
-been very flattering to whatever merits
-it may possess.</p>
-<div class='c006'><span class='sc'>A. J. Kenealy.</span></div>
-
-<p class='c007'><i>New York, April, 1903.</i></p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>
-  <h2 class='c004'>CONTENTS.</h2>
-</div>
-<table class='table0' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='89%' />
-<col width='10%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'>CHAPTER I.</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Preliminary Hints to an Amateur with Ambitions Toward Owning a Boat—Why He Ought Join a Yacht—Club Handiness of the Cat-Rig</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_15'>15</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'>CHAPTER II.</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>The Choice of a Boat—Advantages of Stationary Ballast and a Centerboard—How to Avoid Being "Done" in a Boat Trade—Bargains at the Navy Yard—The Way to Cure a "Nail-Sick" Craft</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_22'>22</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'>CHAPTER III.</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Trial Spin in a Cat-Boat—How to Get Under Way, Beat to Windward and Run Back, with Instructions How to Act if Caught in a Squall or Stranded on a Shoal, and How to Avoid Collisions and Come to Anchor</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_28'>28</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'>CHAPTER IV.</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Advantages of the Yawl-Rig for General Cruising Purposes, especially when "Single Handed," with a Description of a Representative Craft—Disadvantages of the Ballast Fin for All Purposes Except Racing—The Fin in Model Yachting Years Ago</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_37'>37</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'>CHAPTER V.</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>The Popularity of the Knockabout as an Excellent Cruising Craft, with Some Observations on the One-design Classes from Schooners to Dories</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_55'>55</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'>CHAPTER VI.</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Keep Your Weather-Eye Open All the Time When Afloat—How to Handle a Boat in Heavy Weather or a Summer Squall—The Use of the Sea Anchor in Riding Out a Gale, and How Shipwreck May Be Avoided by the Judicious Use of Oil</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_65'>65</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'>CHAPTER VII.</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Overhauling the Yacht—Practical Instructions for Cleaning and Painting the Craft Inside and Out, with Hints on the Care of Hull, Spars, Canvas and Running gear</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_88'>88</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'>CHAPTER VIII.</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Fitting Out for a Cruise—Hints on Equipping and Provisioning a Boat so as to be Prepared for All Emergencies—A Sailor's Solution of the Culinary Problem—Hot "Grub" in a Gale</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_115'>115</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'><span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>CHAPTER IX.</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Beating to Windward—The Theory and Practice of Sailing a Vessel Against the Breeze</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_128'>128</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'>CHAPTER X.</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Combination Rowing and Sailing Boats—The Jib and Mainsail Sprit, Leg-of-Mutton, Cat, Balance Lug and Sliding Gunter-Rigs—The Folding Centerboard</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_140'>140</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XI.</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Rigging and Sails, with Some Impartial Remarks on the Lanyard and the Deadeye, as Opposed to the Turnbuckle—Standing and Running Gear, and the Bending and Setting of Canvas</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_155'>155</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XII.</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Laying Up for the Winter—Practical Suggestions for Protecting a Boat and Her Gear from the Stress of Our Inclement Climate—A Plea for Trustworthy Skippers and Engineers</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_168'>168</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XIII.</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Useful Hints and Recipes, with Some Remarks on the Buying of a Binocular Marine Glass, from the "Brain-Pan" of a Practical Sailor</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_175'>175</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XIV.</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>The Rule of the Road at Sea: Being a Digest of the Present International Regulations for Preventing Collisions on Oceans and in Harbors</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_185'>185</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XV.</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>The Mariner's Compass, with Remarks on Deviation, Variation, Leeway, etc.</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_192'>192</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XVI.</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Charts, with Some Hints as to Navigation by Dead-reckoning—Lead, Log, and Lookout</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_203'>203</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XVII.</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Marlinespike Seamanship: Being Practical Instructions in the Art of Making the Splices, Knots and Bends in Ordinary Use</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_207'>207</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XVIII.</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Weather Wrinkles from the Scientific Point of View of Professional Meteorologists and also Jack Tar</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_217'>217</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XIX.</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Sea Cookery for Yachtsmen</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_223'>223</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'>CHAPTER XX.</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Nautical Terms in Common Use, from which all Obsolete and Antiquated Terms, such as were in use aboard the Ark, have been eliminated</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_236'>236</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><i>Addenda</i>—Recent Changes of Sail Plan and Rigging in Modern Craft</td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_248'>248</a></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>
-  <h2 class='c004'>ILLUSTRATIONS AND DIAGRAMS.</h2>
-</div>
-<table class='table1' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='91%' />
-<col width='8%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr><td class='c008' colspan='2'>Frontispiece. <i>Turning the Stake.</i></td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c011'>PAGE</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_41'>Yawl in a Squall,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_41'>41</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_49'>Latest Type of Fin-Keel,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_49'>49</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_54'>Sail Plan of Modern Fin-Keel,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_54'>54</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_56'>Seawanhaka, 21-foot Knockabout,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_56'>56</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_57'>Seawanhaka Knockabout,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_57'>57</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_58'>Sail Plan Seawanhaka Knockabout,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_58'>58</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_70'>Drogue, or Sea Anchor,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_70'>70</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_71'>Diagram of Floating Anchor,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_71'>71</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_72'>Floating Anchor in Use,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_72'>72</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_75'>The Boston Knockabout, <i>Gosling</i>,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_75'>75</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_80'>Plan of Oil Distributor,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_80'>80</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_98'>In Dry Dock,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_98'>98</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_98'>Hauled Out for Painting,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_98'>98</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_114'>Making Ready for a New Dress,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_114'>114</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_119'>Pleasant Cat-Boat Sailing,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_119'>119</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_128'>Sailing Under Varying Conditions of Wind,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_128'>128</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_130'>Running Before the Wind,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_130'>130</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_131'>Gybing,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_131'>131</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_132'>Close Hauled on Port Tack,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_132'>132</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_133'>Close Hauled on Starboard Tack,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_133'>133</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_134'>Dead Beat to Windward,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_134'>134</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_138'>A Long Leg and a Short Leg,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_138'>138</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_139'>The Manœuvre of Tacking,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_139'>139</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_140'>Whip Purchase and Traveler,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_140'>140</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_141'>Jib and Mainsail Rig,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_141'>141</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_143'>Sprit Rig,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_143'>143</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_147'>Leg-of-Mutton Rig,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_147'>147</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_148'>Cat Rig,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_148'>148</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_150'>Balance Lug Rig,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_150'>150</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_151'>Sliding Gunter Rig,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_151'>151</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_152'>Detail of Sliding Gunter Rig,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_152'>152</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_154'>Folding Centerboard,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_154'>154</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_156'>Shroud, Deadeye, Lanyard,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_156'>156</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_157'>Turnbuckle,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_157'>157</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_158'>Topmast Rigging,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_158'>158</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_159'>Rig of Running Bowsprit,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_159'>159</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_161'>Horse for Main Sheet,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_161'>161</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_166'>Gear for Hauling Out Loose-footed Mainsail,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_166'>166</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_179'>Luncheon in the Cock-pit,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_179'>179</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_180'>Scowing an Anchor,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_180'>180</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_184'>"Half Raters,"</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_184'>184</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_193'>The Compass,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_193'>193</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_207'>Marlinespike,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_207'>207</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_208'>Knots and Splices,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_208'>208</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_221'>Cautionary Signals,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_221'>221</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_222'>Storm Signals,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_222'>222</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_223'>A Yachtsman's Stove,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_223'>223</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_225'>The Ideal Fry-pan,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_225'>225</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_227'>A Nest of Stew-Pans,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_227'>227</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_229'>Ice Tub,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_229'>229</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_231'>A Traveling Companion,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_231'>231</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_246'>The Sloop Yacht,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_246'>246</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_247'>The Cutter Yacht,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_247'>247</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_249'>The Sail Plan and Rig of a Modern Schooner,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_249'>249</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_251'>The Sail Plan and Rig of a Modern Yawl,</a></td>
-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_251'>251</a></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>
-<img src='images/i_010.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>TURNING THE STAKE.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>
-  <h2 class='c004'>I.<br /> <br />ADVICE TO AN AMATEUR.</h2>
-</div>
-<div class='c012'>
-  <img class='drop-capi' src='images/i_011.jpg' width='100' height='103' alt='' />
-</div><p class='drop-capi1_1'>
-All of us remember the
-old sailor's retort to the
-man who reproached
-him for soaking his clay
-in bad rum. "There
-ain't such a thing under
-heaven as <i>bad</i> rum," he
-sagely remarked. "Of
-course some rum is better than another,
-but I have been knocking about the
-world for more than fifty years and
-never did I drink a glass of rum that
-deserved to be called <i>bad</i>, and I got
-outside of some pretty fiery tipple in
-my time."</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The same is true in a general way of
-boats. There are many types of boat
-and each has some peculiar attribute to
-recommend it. No two craft, for instance,
-could be more widely different
-in every way than a Gloucester fishing
-dory and a Cape Cod cat-boat, yet each
-when properly handled has safely ridden
-out an Atlantic gale. Of course if
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>their movements had been directed by
-farm hands both would have foundered.
-In point of fact, there is no royal road
-to the acquisition of seamanship. Experience
-is what is needed first, last and
-all the time. It is true, however, that
-the rough sea over which the learner
-has necessarily to sail may be smoothed
-for him, even as the breakers on a harbor
-bar are rendered passable for a homeward-bound
-craft by the judicious application
-of a little oil.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The choice of a boat depends upon a
-vast variety of circumstances, the chief
-of which is the location of the prospective
-boat owner. If he lives on the
-Great South Bay, for example, he should
-provide himself with a craft of light
-draught, almost capable of sailing on a
-clover field after a heavy fall of dew.
-Equipped with a centerboard and a sail
-a boat of this kind, if of the right shape
-and construction, will be found comfortable,
-safe and of moderate speed. A
-man may also enjoy an infinite amount
-of pleasure aboard her, after he has
-mastered the secret of her management.
-There are so many sandbars in the
-Great South Bay that a boat of light
-draught is indispensable to successful
-sailing. The same remark applies also
-to Barnegat Bay and adjacent New
-Jersey waters. There are some persons
-who believe that it is impossible to combine
-light draught and safety. They
-make a great mistake. A twelve-foot
-sneakbox in Barnegat Bay, with the
-right man steering, will live for a long
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span>time in rough water that would sorely
-try the capacity of a much larger craft
-in the hands of a lubber. The same is
-true of a sharpie.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The man who makes up his mind that
-he wants a sailing boat should study
-well the geography of his vicinity. If
-he lives in New York or on the Sound
-his course is easy. He is sure to be
-within reach of a yacht or boat club from
-whose members he can get all the information
-he needs. They will tell him
-the boat best adapted to his requirements
-and his finances, and if they persuade
-him to join their organization they
-will be conferring upon him a favor. I
-have traveled a good deal among the
-yacht clubs of New York, New Jersey
-and Connecticut, and I never came
-across a more generous, more obliging
-and more sportsmanlike body of men
-than those enrolled on the rosters of
-these enterprising associations. They
-are convinced that there is more real
-pleasure to the square inch in the possession
-of a stout boat capable of being
-managed by a couple of men, than there
-is in the proprietorship of a big yacht
-that carries a crew of twenty and whose
-owner probably knows nothing about
-the art of sailing her, but depends all the
-time on his skipper. It is a pleasure to
-meet these men and listen to their yarns.
-The earnestness, the zeal and the ability
-with which they pursue their favorite
-pastime are indeed commendable.
-And the best of it is they are always
-ready to welcome recruits, and to pass
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>them through the rudimentary mill of
-seamanship and navigation, their motto
-being "Every man his own skipper."
-The only requisite necessary to membership
-in one or more of these clubs is
-that you should be a "clubable" man
-with manly instincts. Young fellows,
-too, are eagerly sought, so you need have
-no compunction about seeking their
-doors, the latchstrings of which are always
-down.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>By all means join a club, I say. You
-get all the advantages of the house and
-the anchorage, and all the benefits that
-accrue to association with men who are
-ardent and enthusiastic in the enjoyment
-of their pet diversion. Besides—let
-me whisper a word in your ear, my
-brother, you of the slender purse or
-may be economic instincts—it will be
-cheaper for you in the end; it will put
-money in your purse. Your boat will
-be looked after all the year round by
-watchful guardians, who will see that it
-isn't stripped or rifled by river pirates,
-and that the elements do not mar its
-beauty. I confess I was surprised when
-I learned how little it costs to become
-entitled to all the privileges of these
-clubs, and it is owing to their moderate
-charges that the "mosquito fleet" in
-the vicinity of New York is growing so
-big and interest in the sport is increasing
-so rapidly.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>What I have written of New York
-is true, perhaps, in a greater measure of
-Boston. There is no finer sheet of
-water for boat sailing than Boston Bay,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>and no people in the world are more
-devoted to the sport than those who
-dwell in the city of culture and its sea-washed
-environs. There are plenty of
-yacht clubs between Point Allerton,
-on the south, and Marblehead, on the
-north. It has been ascertained that
-more than five thousand members
-have joined these organizations and
-that nineteen hundred yachts are enrolled
-on their lists, most of the craft
-being less than twenty feet on the water
-line. It will thus be seen that Boston
-fully appreciates the value of small
-sailing craft as a means of amusement
-and healthful recreation. The port
-from which <i>Volunteer</i>, <i>Mayflower</i> and
-<i>Puritan</i> originally hailed, though justly
-proud of those three magnificent racing
-yachts, has always been distinguished
-for turning out stout, able and seaworthy
-vessels of the smaller type, and
-also for breeding a sturdy race of men
-who know every trick of seamanship.
-The majority of the boats are so constructed
-and rigged as to ensure that
-they will render a good account of
-themselves in a blow and a seaway.
-Thus the "sandbagger" type of vessel
-is rarely found "down east," and this,
-in my opinion, need not be regretted.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The catrigged boat, with stationary
-ballast and a centerboard, may be said
-to be the type generally preferred in
-those waters. The Newport cat-boat is
-famous the world over for her handiness,
-speed and ability. I know that it is
-fashionable for scientific men and swell
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>naval architects to decry the seaworthiness
-of these boats. It has been urged
-that the weight of the mast in the eyes
-of the craft is a serious objection, a strain
-on the hull, and not unlikely to be carried
-away for want of proper staying.
-The long boom also has been objected
-to, because of its liability to trip. The
-craft has been declared difficult to steer
-and a regular "yawer." But while saying
-unkind things of the cat-boat's behavior
-in a blow, no critic, however
-biased, has ventured to deny her general
-handiness.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>I might remind these gentlemen that
-the owner of a pleasure boat does not
-as a rule sail her in a blow or in a seaway,
-but this would not be a fair or
-legitimate argument. The elements
-are treacherous. A summer storm often
-plays havoc among the shipping, and a
-man who ventures seaward in the morning
-in a balmy breeze and with the
-water smooth as a horsepond may be
-caught in a savage blow, followed by a
-heavy sea, both of which may sorely try
-the capabilities of his craft and his own
-resources as a seaman.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>I am such a devout believer, however,
-in a cat-boat of proper form and rig, that
-I will defend her as a good and handy
-craft in both fair weather and foul. It
-blows hard in Narragansett Bay sometimes,
-and I have often known a devil
-of a sea to be kicked up off Brenton's
-Reef lightship. But the Newport cat-boat,
-with a couple of reefs down, comes
-out of the harbor and dances over the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>steep waves like a duck or a cork. I
-never saw one of them come to grief,
-and in fact they have always impressed
-me as being the handiest all-round boat
-afloat. I have sailed in them in all sorts
-of weather, and I am not likely to alter
-my opinion. Many of the objections
-raised against them are idle. For instance,
-the mast can be so stayed as to
-be perfectly secure. There is also no
-reason why the boom should project so
-far over the stern as to trip, and in this
-connection I should like to ask of what
-use is a topping lift unless one avails
-himself of it in just such an emergency?
-A man should always keep the boom
-well topped up when running before
-the wind in a seaway, and by this means
-he may avoid much trouble and possibly
-peril.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The above remarks are applicable to
-both salt water and fresh water, to the
-yachts of the North, the South, as well
-as of the Great and Little Lakes, and
-indeed wherever the glorious sport
-flourishes. In point of fact, all the hints
-and directions given in these chapters
-may be followed with profit on the
-Pacific Coast as well as on the Atlantic
-Seaboard, on Lake Michigan or on the
-Gulf of St. Lawrence.</p>
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>
-  <h2 class='c004'>II.<br /> <br />THE CHOICE OF A BOAT.</h2>
-</div>
-<p class='drop-capa0_4_0_6 c005'>If any ambitious would-be mariner,
-old or young, hailing from anywhere
-were to ask me what sort of a boat
-I would recommend him to build
-or buy, I would answer him frankly
-that an able cat-boat, with a centerboard
-and stationary ballast would,
-in my judgment, be best. I would advise
-him to shun the "sandbaggers"—not
-that one cannot enjoy an immense
-amount of exciting sport in one of them,
-but because they seem to me to be only
-fit for racing, and I will tell you why.
-A man when he goes on a quiet cruise
-doesn't want to be bothered by having
-to shift heavy bags of sand every time
-the boat goes about. It is too much
-like hard work, and by the time your
-day's fun is finished you feel stiff in the
-joints. I have other arguments against
-the use of shifting ballast, but do not
-think any other save the one mentioned
-is necessary.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>This point disposed of, let us confer.
-Of what shall the stationary ballast for
-our able cat-boat consist? Outside lead
-is of course the best, but its first cost is
-a serious matter. A cast-iron false keel
-or shoe answers admirably, and is moderate
-in price. Some persons object to
-it, claiming that it rusts and corrodes;
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>that its fastenings decay the wooden
-keel to which it is bolted, and that its
-weight strains a boat and soon causes
-her to become leaky. There is of course
-some truth in these charges; but if the
-boat is built by a mechanic and not an
-impostor, none of these disadvantages
-will exist, and the cast-iron keel will
-prove to be both efficient and economical.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>But if, by straining a point, lead can
-be afforded, procure it by all means and
-have it bolted on outside. It neither
-tarnishes nor corrodes, and as it does
-not deteriorate, its marketable value is
-always the same. Racing yachts have,
-however, been known to sell for less
-than their lead ballast cost, but such instances
-are rare. It should be borne in
-mind that the lower down the lead is
-placed the less the quantity required,
-and the greater its efficiency.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>There are always a number of second-hand
-cat-boats in the market for sale at
-a reasonable rate, and an advertisement
-will bring plenty of replies. But for a
-tyro to purchase a boat haphazard is a
-mistake on general principles. It is
-like a sailor buying a horse. Get some
-honest shipwright or boat builder to
-examine, say, some half-dozen boats
-whose dimensions suit you, and whose
-prices are about what you think you
-can afford. There are certain portions
-of a cat-boat that are subject to violent
-strains when the craft is under way.
-The step of the mast and the centerboard
-trunk are parts that require the
-vigilant eye of an expert.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>Human nature is prone to temptation,
-and paint and putty are used quite
-often to conceal many important defects
-in a craft advertised for sale. The keen
-eye of a mechanic who has served his
-time to a boat-builder will soon detect
-all deficiencies of this kind, will ferret
-out rotten timbers, and under his advice
-and counsel you may succeed in picking
-up at a bargain some sound, seaworthy
-and serviceable craft in which you can
-enjoy yourself to your heart's content.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>But if some rotten hull is foisted on
-you by an unscrupulous person you will
-be apt to "kick yourself round the
-block," for she will be always in need of
-repairs, and in the end, when she is
-finally condemned, you will find on figuring
-up the cost that it would have
-been money in your pocket if you had
-built a new boat.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The principal boat-builders of New
-York, New Jersey, Connecticut and
-Massachusetts are men of high character,
-who take a pride in their work
-(which is thoroughly first-class), and
-whose prices are strictly moderate. Any
-one of these will construct a capital boat
-of good model and fair speed. I am an
-old crank and a bigot in many things
-appertaining to boats and the sea, but I
-hope that any reader of this who is going
-to build a pleasure craft will follow
-my advice at least in this instance: Let
-her be copper-fastened above and below
-the water-line. Don't use a single galvanized
-nail or bolt in her construction.
-See that the fastenings are clenched
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>on a roove—not simply turned down.
-Don't spoil the ship for a paltry ha'porth
-of tar. Many builders, for the sake of
-economy, use galvanized iron throughout,
-and will take a solemn affidavit that
-it is quite as good as copper. But in the
-innermost cockles of their hearts they
-know they are wrong. Others more
-conscientious use copper fastenings below
-the water-line and galvanized iron
-above; but copper throughout is my cry,
-and so will I ever maintain while I am
-on this side of the Styx.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Sometimes one may pick up a good
-serviceable boat at a Navy Yard sale.
-Uncle Sam's boats are of fair design and
-well built. They are often condemned
-because they are what is called "nail
-sick," a defect which can be easily remedied.
-Occasionally a steamship's life-boat
-can be bought for a trifle, and if it
-be fitted with a false keel with an iron
-shoe on it, will prove thoroughly seaworthy
-and a moderately good sailer.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Mr. E. F. Knight, the English barrister
-and author of the "Cruise of the
-<i>Falcon</i>," tells how he bought a life-boat
-condemned by the Peninsular and Oriental
-Company. She was thirty feet long
-with a beam of eight feet, very strong,
-being built of double skins of teak, and,
-like all the life-boats used by that company,
-an excellent sea boat. This craft
-he timbered and decked, rigged her as a
-ketch, and crossed the North Sea in her,
-going as far as Copenhagen and back,
-and encountering plenty of bad weather
-during the adventurous voyage. Mr.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>Knight is a believer in the pointed or
-life-boat stern for a small vessel. He
-was caught in a northwest gale, in the
-Gulf of Heligoland, in the above-mentioned
-craft, and had to sail sixty miles before
-a high and dangerous sea. His boat
-showed no tendency to broach to, "but
-rushed straight ahead across the steep
-sea in a fashion that gave us confidence
-and astonished us. Had she had the
-ordinary yacht's stern to present to those
-following masses of water, instead of a
-graceful wedge offering little resistance,
-we should have had a very uncomfortable
-time of it. Many men dislike a
-pointed stern and consider it ugly.
-However that may be it behaves handsomely,
-and we should certainly recommend
-any amateur building a sailing
-boat for coasting purposes to give her
-the life-boat stern."</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Mr. Knight fitted his boat with lee
-boards, which no doubt served their
-purpose admirably. I should, however,
-favor a false keel and an iron shoe as
-being more efficient and less unsightly.
-I should not advise the purchaser of a
-condemned life-boat to have her fitted
-with a centerboard. The cost would be
-high, and unless the job was done in a
-first-class manner by a man experienced
-at this sort of work it would be very unsatisfactory.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A "nail-sick," clencher-built boat
-should be hauled up on the beach and
-filled with water. Every leak should
-be marked on the outside with chalk or
-white paint. After all the leaks have
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>been discovered, run the water out of
-her and dry her thoroughly. Next examine
-every nail and try the lands or
-joinings of the planks with the blade of
-a very thin knife. Any rivets which
-have worked loose must be taken out
-and replaced with nails and rooves of a
-larger size. Through the chief parts of
-the bottom it may be necessary to put
-an additional nail between every two
-originally driven. Many of the old nails
-which are only a little slack should be
-hardened at their clench by a few taps
-from inside, one hand holding a "dollie"
-against the head of the nail on the outside.
-Melt a pound of pitch in a gallon
-of boiling North Carolina tar and give
-her bottom a good coat inside, filling the
-lands or ledges well. The garboard
-strake fastenings and also those of the
-hooded ends should be carefully caulked.
-So should the seams. The seams of the
-planking should also be caulked.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>There are various methods of making
-a boat unsinkable. Cork is sometimes
-used, but it takes up too much room and
-is not so buoyant as air. Copper or zinc
-cases, made to fit under the thwarts
-and in various odd corners, have been
-fitted in boats, but their cost is high.
-Amateurs have used powder flasks and
-cracker cans, with their covers soldered
-on, cigar boxes, covered with duck and
-painted, bladders inflated with air, etc.,
-etc. A boat displacing one ton will take
-about forty cubic feet of air to make her
-unsinkable.</p>
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>
-  <h2 class='c004'>III.<br /> <br />TRIAL SPIN IN A CAT-BOAT.</h2>
-</div>
-<p class='drop-capa0_4__6 c005'>Before getting a cat-boat under
-way from an anchorage, or casting
-adrift from moorings, the captain
-should see all gear clear, that
-the centerboard works easily in its
-trunk, and that oars, rowlocks and
-a baler are aboard. An oar is very
-handy for turning a boat's head
-round in a light air when she has
-barely steerage way on; and in case you
-are confronted with a flat calm, a pair
-of oars are indispensable for working
-homeward. A boat-hook, too, should
-not be neglected. There is a story that
-I heard in the forecastle, of a mean old
-Dutch skipper who left his new anchor
-ashore on purely economic grounds.
-He was afraid it might rust, I suppose.
-The result of this thrifty dodge was the
-loss of his vessel on the Goodwin Sands.
-My counsel to the young boat-skipper
-is to see that his anchor is snugly stowed
-away forward, and that his chain—if
-his cable is of chain—is properly
-shackled to the ring of the anchor, and
-that the inner end of the cable is fast
-to the heel of the mast by a lashing
-that can be cut if it is necessary to slip
-at any time. If the cable is of rope,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>take care that it is not made fast to the
-ring with a slippery hitch. Anchors
-cost money, and a bend that will not
-come adrift is quite simple to make.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Cast the tyers off the mainsail and
-hoist it, pulling up best on the throat
-halyards and then "swigging" on the
-peak till the after-leech is taut and the
-sail begins to wrinkle slightly at the
-throat. While you are setting the sail,
-let the sheet fly. Next coil down the
-throat and peak halyards clear for running,
-and see that the mainsheet is free
-from kinks and coiled so that it can be
-eased off at a moment's notice without
-any danger of jamming in the block.
-A kink in the mainsheet has capsized
-many a cat-boat. Before you reeve a new
-mainsheet, stretch it well and take all
-the kinks out of it. Take care that the
-running parts of all sheets and halyards
-are coiled uppermost, with the ends
-underneath.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Let us suppose that there is a nice
-breeze blowing and that your intention
-is to essay a four or five mile beat to
-windward, and then conclude your trial
-trip with a run home. Cast adrift from
-your moorings or get your anchor
-aboard, as the case may be, and start
-out on whichever tack is convenient.
-When on the starboard tack the boom
-is over to port, and <i>vice versa</i>. Lower
-the centerboard and fill away on the
-boat with one hand on the tiller and
-the other holding the mainsheet, which
-should never be belayed, but may be
-held by half a turn round the cleat.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>Do not make the mistake of trimming
-in the sheet too flat, but let the boom
-off till it is well on the quarter and keep
-the sail well full, not allowing it to
-shiver. This is called steering "full-and-by,"
-which signifies as close to the
-wind as possible with the sail not shaking.
-If your boat is well balanced—that
-is, if her weights are well adjusted
-and her sail of proper cut—she will carry
-quite a little weather helm. So much
-so that if you allow the rudder to come
-amidships or on a line with the keel she
-will fly up in the wind and her sails will
-shake. This is by no means a fault unless
-it is carried to excess, and it may be
-said, indeed, that there is something
-radically wrong with a craft that requires
-lee helm—a defect that should
-be remedied at once.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The young sailor should bear in mind
-that to accomplish the best results in
-beating to windward the sail should always
-be kept full. Nothing is gained
-by sailing a boat right in the wind's eye
-with the sail shivering. The boat then
-points higher but she goes to leeward
-like a crab. Instances have been known
-of a fore-and-aft racing yacht sailing
-within three points of the wind, but
-these are rare, indeed. The ordinary
-cat-boat will not often do better than
-pointing up within four points of the
-breeze, and her best windward work is
-generally thus accomplished. There
-are occasions, indeed, when what is
-known as a "fisherman's luff" may be
-indulged in with profit, such as when
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>rounding a mark or shooting up to an
-anchorage where there is little room.
-The maneuver consists in luffing the
-boat up into the wind so that the sails
-shake, and she shoots dead to windward
-by her own momentum. If the boat is
-a heavy one she will shoot quite a distance.
-Care must be taken to put the
-helm up and fill on her before she loses
-way, or she will get "in irons" and
-acquire sternway, or perhaps pay off
-on the other tack. If a boat acquires
-sternway the helm must be shifted at
-once. The rudder will now produce the
-reverse effect to what it would if the
-boat were going ahead. Putting the
-tiller to starboard turns the vessel's head
-to port, and <i>vice versa</i> in the case of
-sternway.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The beginner will find that his boat
-spins along quite merrily and obeys the
-slightest touch of the tiller. He should
-not relax his vigilance in the least, but
-should keep his weather eye skinned for
-sudden gusts of wind or catspaws which
-may be seen ruffling the water to windward,
-in timely season before they strike
-the boat. As the little craft begins to
-heel or list over to the pressure, luff up
-a little so that the fore-leech of the sail
-begins to shiver. If there is not weight
-enough in the puff to put the lee rail
-under, sail her along with just the suspicion
-of a shake in the luff of the sail,
-so that if she goes over far enough for
-the water to threaten to come over the
-lee coamings and deluge the cockpit you
-can put your helm down and luff up
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>until the boat comes nearly head to
-wind, at the same time lowering away
-your sail and making preparations for
-taking in a reef.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>If you are a novice, and the water is
-neither too rough nor too deep and the
-breeze seems likely to last, and you think
-your craft is not up to carrying a whole
-mainsail, there is no reason why you
-should not drop anchor and reef your
-sail in leisurely and comfortable fashion.
-If you feel at all nervous take in a
-couple of reefs.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>After sail has been shortened set the
-mainsail, hoist up the anchor again and
-thresh her at it. You will observe that
-she inclines less to the puffs under the
-pressure of the reduced sail, and that
-the lee gunwale is always well clear of
-the water. Watch the boat well; look
-out for coming squalls, and be prepared
-to ease off the sheet and luff up instantly
-should occasion arise. If there
-are other boats in company with you
-tacking toward the same point you must
-remember that those on the starboard
-tack have the right of way, and thus
-when you are on the port tack you must
-keep clear of them. I would not advise
-a novice in a boat on the port tack to
-try and cross the bow of a boat on the
-starboard tack unless there is plenty of
-room. Distances on the water are deceptive
-to the tyro, and it is well to run
-no risk of collision. If the boat on the
-port tack will not keep away for you
-when you are on the starboard tack,
-and seems to be making for you with
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>the intention of running you down, keep
-cool. Stand by to put your helm hard
-down so as to luff right up in the wind
-or even to go about. If you put your
-helm up and keep away, and a collision
-ensues, you would probably have to pay
-all the damage. The strict legal rule
-is that the vessel on the starboard tack
-must keep her course and neither luff
-nor bear up. If this rule is observed
-you will be within the letter of the law.
-In yacht racing a yacht on the port tack
-can be disqualified if she is struck by a
-yacht which is on the starboard tack, no
-matter how the striking happened; if
-she herself strikes a yacht which is on
-the starboard tack; if she causes a yacht
-which is on the starboard tack to bear
-away to avoid a collision. It is apparent,
-therefore, that no wise helmsman
-will run any risks. If he is on the port
-tack he will give way with a good grace
-and try to look pleasant. It is better
-than a collision, which is sure in a brisk
-breeze to do a lot of damage, and may
-possibly cause serious personal injuries
-or even loss of life.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The beginner may, after threshing to
-windward for an hour or so, begin to feel
-homesick. Let him then put his helm up,
-easing the mainsheet off at the same
-time until he gets the boom at a right
-angle with the mast and the boat dead
-before the wind. He will at this time
-have to pay particular attention to the
-steering, giving the boat "small helm"
-and giving it to her quickly in order to
-keep her steady on her course. Steering
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>a cat-boat in a stiff breeze and lumpy
-water requires both skill and experience.
-I should counsel a green hand to lower
-the peak of the mainsail and run her
-under easy sail until he acquires the art.
-In that case, should he accidentally gybe
-the boom over, the result is not likely to
-be particularly disastrous; whereas, if
-the sail were peaked up, the boom might
-snap in two or the boat herself might
-broach to.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The centerboard should be hoisted
-up into the trunk when running before
-the wind, and the boom should be kept
-well topped up. In some small cat-boats
-there is no topping lift and the sail has
-only one halyard, which hoists both the
-throat and peak. This is a faulty rig.
-Throat and peak halyards should be
-separate, and a topping lift should always
-be fitted.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>I think it my duty to warn the inexperienced
-boat sailer against gybing
-his little craft. It is a maneuver that
-requires skill and care, especially in a
-brisk breeze. If you must gybe, lower
-the peak so as to "scandalize" the sail,
-and haul the boom well aboard as the
-helm is put up. As the wind shifts from
-dead astern and comes on the other
-quarter, carrying the boom over, ease
-off the sheet handsomely and take care
-to meet her promptly with the helm as
-she flies to, which is invariably the case.
-You can then hoist the peak up again.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>If you have women and children
-aboard the boat, gybing should never be
-resorted to if the wind is strong. It is
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>far preferable to luff up into the wind
-and tack and then keep off again.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>In coming to anchor or picking up
-moorings make the boat describe a good
-sweep, so that she may come up in the
-wind and lose her way exactly where
-you wish. You can then either let go
-the anchor or pick up the moorings, as
-the case may be. Then lower the sail,
-furl it snugly, put on the sail cover, stow
-away everything neatly, haul taut the
-halyards and the mainsheet, which you
-should coil up, and leave everything tidy
-and in readiness for getting under way
-next time.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>When, on a wind with a light breeze
-and in smooth water, it becomes necessary
-to heave to to let a boat come
-alongside, haul the mainsheet flat aft
-and haul the fore and jib sheets a-weather.
-If in a fresh breeze, flatten in the
-mainsheet, let the jib sheet flow, and
-haul the fore sheet a-weather.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>For small open boats the anchor
-should weigh one pound for every foot
-of length up to twenty feet length. If
-the boat is ballasted, another half pound
-per foot should be added.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>If you have the misfortune to get
-stuck fast in the mud or on a sand bank,
-you must act quickly. If you ground
-while running before the wind, lower
-your sails at once. If you have a
-dinghy, run out your kedge anchor,
-with a line fast to it, astern into deep
-water and try to haul off. Work the
-helm to and fro. Run from side to
-side so as to loosen the boat from her
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>muddy bed. If the tide is rising and
-your kedge does not drag, you will be
-sure to get off.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>If you run aground while close-hauled,
-let go the mainsheet, put the helm
-hard over and try to back her off with
-the jib, at the same time using a boathook
-or oar to try to shove her into
-deep water. If you have any passengers,
-concentrate all their weight as far
-aft as possible. Send out a kedge, and
-let all hands clap to on the line. If the
-tide is on the ebb, you may probably
-have to wait till high water. Now comes
-a ticklish crisis. If your craft is beamy,
-with full bilges, she will take the
-ground and lie easily as the water recedes.
-If, on the other hand, your
-little ship is of the deep and narrow
-kind and is not provided with "legs,"
-you will have to improvise something
-in that direction to prevent her from
-careening on her side. "Legs" are not
-fashionable on this side of the Atlantic.
-They are props of wood shod with iron,
-one end of which rests on the bottom,
-while the other fits under the channels,
-or is lashed to a shroud. If you have
-no other spar available, unbend the head
-of the mainsail from the gaff. Stick it
-in the mud jaws downward close to the
-rigging and lash it firmly to a shroud.
-List the boat over to the side the gaff is
-out by guying over the boom and putting
-any extra weight you happen to
-have on the same side. The boat will
-then take the ground in safety.</p>
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>
-  <h2 class='c004'>IV.<br /> <br />THE YAWL RIG.</h2>
-</div>
-<p class='drop-capa0_3_0_5 c005'>Though I recommend the catboat
-as a general craft for knocking
-about and having a good time in,
-I am not blind to the advantages
-of the yawl rig. In fact, the
-bold young seaman contemplating long
-cruises and sometimes venturing out of
-sight of land will find that the yawl rig
-possesses no mean merit. For single-handed
-cruising its worth has long been
-recognized. The sails are so divided
-that they are small and easy to handle,
-but this division of sail inevitably decreases
-the speed and also the weatherly
-qualities of the boat. If we take
-a catboat and change her into a yawl
-rig she will not be nearly so fast, nor
-will she point so close to the wind.
-There are fathoms of scientific reasons
-for this with which I will not
-bother my readers. Suffice it to say
-that it has been demonstrated practically
-over and over again.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>But although the yawl-rigged sailing
-boat of the smallest type has at least
-three sails—foresail, mainsail and mizzen—yet
-the last named, after once being
-set, practically takes care of itself. The
-mainsail, too, is quite easily handled,
-the whole sail being in the body of the
-boat. The foresail sometimes gives a
-little annoyance in taking it in, if the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>boat is pitching her nose under in a
-steep sea. This, however, is unavoidable.
-Headsails on all sailing vessels,
-big or little, have never been conducive
-to dry skins under certain conditions of
-wind and sea. The yawl is always under
-control, and in this attribute lies her
-chief charm. When a squall is bearing
-down all one has to do is to lower the
-mainsail and pass a tyer or two round it to
-keep it muzzled. When the gust strikes
-the boat she is under easy sail and is
-not likely to come to grief. If the squall
-is of exceptional strength, ease off the
-foresheet and keep the sail shaking a
-little until you have felt the full strength
-of the wind. Act then as judgment may
-dictate. If the blow is very heavy and
-seems likely to last it may be necessary
-to take in the foresail and the mizzen,
-and close reef the mainsail.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>If you are sailing with the wind a-beam
-and a squall smites you it may not be
-necessary to lower the mainsail at all.
-Ease the sheet right off so as to spill the
-wind, and you will pass safely through
-the ordeal without parting a rope yarn.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>In getting under way or in working
-up to anchorage in a crowded harbor
-or roadstead the yawl rig is one of the
-handiest known, for by having the mainsail
-furled the speed of the boat is reduced
-so that you can pick your way
-among the craft without danger of collision
-or striking flaws. So many famous
-cruises have been made in small
-yawl-rigged craft that there can be no
-doubt about their adaptability for such
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>work, and to the man anxious for more
-ambitious achievement than merely
-sailing in rivers, bays and sheltered
-harbors, I most certainly would recommend
-the rig.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Despite the yawl's certain safety for
-single handed cruising, I am not in favor
-of sailing by myself. I prefer a congenial
-companion to share whatever pleasure
-or peril may be encountered. Of course
-one must exercise some wise discrimination
-in the choice of a cruising companion;
-for when once at sea there is no
-way of ridding yourself of an objectionable
-mate except throwing him overboard,
-which would not be exactly fair
-to him. Besides, he might throw you
-overboard, which would be bad for you.
-There are, however, hundreds of good
-yachtsmen and boatmen who have made
-long voyages alone and have written
-charming accounts of their nautical expeditions.
-John McGregor's "Voyage
-Alone in the Yawl Rob Roy" and E.
-Middleton's "Cruise of the Kate" (also
-a yawl) are two entertaining books of
-sea travel which I heartily recommend to
-those who contemplate sailing by themselves.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>While I am in favor of a catboat for
-general purposes in the neighborhood
-of New York, yet when long distance
-trips are to be made the yawl rig will,
-on the whole, be found preferable.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>That keen sportsman, Mr. W. H. H.
-Murray, is a firm believer in the yawl
-rig for cruising. In <span class='sc'>Outing</span> for May,
-1891, there appeared a most valuable
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>article from his facile pen entitled
-"How I sail <i>Champlain</i>." The <i>Champlain</i>
-is of sharpie model, thirty feet on
-the water-line. She is of remarkably
-strong construction, her oaken keel being
-sixteen by twenty inches amidships
-and tapering properly fore and aft.
-Through this keel is sunk a mortise
-four inches wide and sixteen feet long,
-through which the centerboard works.
-This "fin" is of oak planking thick
-enough to easily enter the case when
-hoisted, but leaving little space between
-it and the case when in use. The
-centerboard is sixteen feet long, four
-feet deep forward and seven feet aft,
-and it has fifteen hundred pounds of iron
-for ballast. Mr. Murray says: "When
-the centerboard is lowered this mass of
-metal is eight feet below her water-line,
-and guarantees a stability adequate to
-resist any pressure which the wind can
-put upon her sails and the sails withstand.
-Of course I am speaking with
-the supposition that the boat receives,
-when under stress, judicious management."</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The centerboard, which weighs two
-thousand pounds, is lifted by a "differential
-hoist," by means of which "the
-helmsman, with one hand on the tiller,
-can, if need occurs, with the other easily
-run the heavy board rapidly up into
-the case. The value of this adjustment
-can only be appreciated by a cruising
-yachtsman. It places him in perfect
-control of his craft under all conditions
-of varying depth of water and difficult
-weather. In a heavy seaway; in rapidly
-shoaling water on an unknown
-coast; when suddenly compelled to
-beat up against a swiftly flowing tide;
-or when finding himself unexpectedly
-near a reef, unobserved through carelessness
-or not plainly charted—this
-hoist is simply priceless. It is not over
-expensive, and can easily be adjusted to
-any yacht."</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>
-<img src='images/i_037.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>YAWL IN A SQUALL</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>The cockpit is roomy, and, because of
-its high coamings, is also deep. The
-cabin is sixteen feet long, the forward
-half being permanently roofed. The
-after-half of the cabin is constructed, as
-to its roof, in equal divisions. The forward-half
-is tracked, and the after-half
-is grooved to run upon it. Mr. Murray
-finds this arrangement most convenient,
-as it gives to the yacht such coolness
-and comfort as cannot be obtained in a
-cabin permanently roofed. The whole
-roof is so fitted to the coamings that it
-can be quickly and easily removed and
-stowed, leaving the yacht to be sailed
-as an open one, decked from stem to
-midship section. This arrangement is
-an admirable one for harbor sailing in
-bright weather or for racing.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Regarding the handiness of <i>Champlain</i>
-Mr. Murray says: "All yachtsmen
-know what a disagreeable job it
-is to reef a sloop or cat-boat in rough
-water, and from this cause many skippers
-will delay reefing as long as possible
-and often until too late. And because
-of this many accidents happen
-yearly. In this respect the yawl rig
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>shows to the greatest advantage and
-commends itself to all sensible yachtsmen.
-For when the moment has come
-to reef, if the boat is running free her
-head is brought up to the wind, the
-mizzen and jib sheets trimmed in, and
-with the main boom well inboard the
-pennants are lashed and the reef points
-tied down, when she is let off again and
-goes bowling along on her former
-course. In <i>Champlain</i> the three reef
-cringles on the leech of the mainsail
-are all within easy reach from the cockpit,
-and the skipper, without leaving the
-tiller, can lash the pennants, and hence,
-with only one assistant, the three reefs
-can successively, if need be, be tied
-down. Indeed, so well do the jib and
-mizzen sail work in unison, that unless
-the wind is very puffy and variable, the
-helm can be lashed and she will hold
-her course steadily onward while the
-skipper is tying down the after reef
-points. It is a matter of pleasant surprise
-to one not accustomed to this rig
-how easily and rapidly a reef in most
-trying conditions can be taken in the
-mainsail of a yawl whose sails are well
-balanced.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>"Moreover, unless the squall is a very
-heavy one, a yawl can be eased through
-it without reefing at all. For when the
-wind comes roaring down and the white
-line of froth and spray is right upon
-you, the boat can be brought up to the
-wind and the mainsheet eased handsomely
-out, and with jib and mizzen
-drawing finely and the mainboom off to
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>leeward the wind whistles harmlessly
-between the masts, while the yacht, only
-slightly disturbed in her balance, sails
-steadily along. Or, if the squall is a
-heavy one and there is no time to reef
-down before it strikes, the yacht can be
-luffed up, the mainsail let down at a run,
-and with the belly of the sail held within
-the lazy-lines the yacht is under safe
-conditions. But ordinarily it is better
-to reef or even tie down the mainsail
-snugly, and as in a yawl it can be done
-rapidly and easily there is no reason
-why it should not be done and everything
-be kept shipshape.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>"In cruising I often sailed <i>Champlain</i>
-under jib and mizzen alone, with the
-mainsail stowed and the boom crutched
-and tied snugly down amidships, especially
-in the night time when it was
-very dark and the weather foul. Under
-this scant canvas with a favorable wind
-she would sail along at a very fair rate
-of speed and even make good progress
-in beating up against quite a sea, and I
-need not say that it adds greatly to the
-pleasure of cruising in a small yacht
-with only one man for your crew to feel
-that you have your boat in a condition
-of perfect control. It is evident that
-with no other rig can this condition to
-the same degree be obtained or such a
-sense of absolute security be enjoyed.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>"To an amateur nothing is more trying
-than coming to or getting away
-from moorings, especially if the wind is
-blowing strongly and the anchorage
-ground is crowded with other yachts,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>not to speak of vessels of commerce,
-bateaux, tugs and ferryboats. Under
-such circumstances it is no easy matter
-for any, save an expert, to work a sloop
-or cat-boat or schooner safety out
-through the crowded harbor or basin to
-the open water beyond; and it is all
-the more trying to a skipper if there is
-a strong tide running at the moment.
-But with a yawl the difficulties of the
-situation are almost wholly removed.
-For with mainsail unlashed he can hoist
-his anchor or cast off from moorings,
-and under his two small sails work his
-boat out slowly and safely from the
-jammed basin or crowded space within
-the breakwater. He must be a tyro indeed
-who cannot safely manage a yawl
-under the worst possible conditions of
-this sort.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>"In cruising, if the weather is threatening
-it is well to carry a single reef in
-the mainsail until it clears up, for a
-yawl works well under such a sail with
-jib and mizzen furled. In such trim
-the yacht is as a cat-boat with a small
-sail, and as her main boom is shorter
-than a cat-boat's or a sloop's she can be
-worked in a very heavy sea with her
-boom's end well above the rollers. And
-I know of nothing more trying to a
-skipper than to sail his craft with his
-boom's end half the time under water.
-In such a condition the spars, rigging
-and boat are under a stress and strain
-which every prudent skipper dreads and
-seeks to avoid, and it speaks volumes in
-favor of the yawl rig to say that with it
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>such a trying condition can never arise.
-Indeed a yawl under a double-reefed
-mainsail alone is in perfect trim for
-scudding. If well modeled she will
-neither yaw nor thrash the water with
-her boom's end, but career along almost
-with the speed of the wind itself. For
-her canvas is low down, as it should be,
-and her boom carried well above the
-seething water. In this shape, moreover,
-she can lay a course with the wind well
-over her quarter without strain, and it
-must be a very hard blow and rough
-water indeed to give anxiety to any on
-board of her."</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>That the <i>Champlain</i> is a capital sea-boat
-is beyond question. Her owner
-thus describes a run on the lower St.
-Lawrence in returning from a cruise to
-the Saguenay: "We passed Baie St.
-Paul in the evening, whirled along by a
-rising gale blowing directly up the river.
-The night was pitchy dark, the tide
-running fiercely on the ebb at the rate
-of five miles an hour at the least. The
-water was very wild, as one can easily
-imagine. Stemming such a current it
-would not do to shorten sail if one
-wished to pass Cape Tourmente and get
-into quiet water, the Isle of Orleans and
-the north shore, so we let every sail
-stand, cleated the sheets tightly and let
-her drive. How she did tear onward!
-The froth and spume lay deep on her
-pathways and after-deck. The waves
-crested fiercely, rolling against the current,
-and the black water broke into
-phosphor as we slashed through it. I
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>do not recall that I ever saw a yacht
-forced along more savagely. How the
-water roared under the ledges and
-along the rough shores of Tourmente!
-And I was profoundly grateful when we
-were able to bear off to starboard and
-run into the still water back of Orleans.
-Perhaps that midnight cup of coffee did
-not taste well! Its heat ran through
-my chilled veins like Chartreuse. I can
-taste it yet!"</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The ordinary jib-and-mainsail rigged
-boat, as seen in the waters round New
-York, might easily be improved upon.
-In the first place, the majority of them
-are too much after the skimming-dish
-pattern to suit my fancy. Then the
-mast is stepped as a rule too far forward
-for the best work, and renders reefing
-difficult, as she will not "lay to" comfortably
-under her headsail, whereas if
-the mast of a boat is stepped well aft,
-cutter fashion, the boat will lay to quite
-well, and reefing the mainsail is easy.
-The American sloop rig is open to the
-same criticism, and that is why the English
-way of rigging a single-sticker has
-been adopted in all our new racing
-craft. To my mind there is nothing
-more hideous than a "bobbed" jib. It
-renders good windward work impossible,
-as it causes a boat to sag off to leeward
-and is in other ways a detriment.
-A small boat with the mast stepped in
-the right place and carrying a jib and a
-mainsail is, however, a very satisfactory
-craft, good at beating to windward as
-well as reaching or running. I should
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>advise that a "spit-fire" or storm jib
-be carried along whenever a sail of any
-distance is contemplated, and also a gaff-headed
-trysail, so that the adventurous
-skipper may be always prepared for
-storm and stress of weather. This extra
-"muslin" takes up little room when
-properly rolled up.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The simplest and safest rig in the
-world is the leg-of-mutton sail. It is
-the one fitted exactly for river work,
-where one is sure to encounter puffs of
-some force as ravines are reached or
-valleys passed. To amateurs it is the
-sail <i>par excellence</i> for experimenting
-with, for no matter how many blunders
-are made a mishap is well nigh impossible.
-The leg-of-mutton sail has no gaff,
-nor need it have a boom. There is little
-or no leverage aloft, and all the power
-for mischief it has can be taken out of
-it by slacking off the sheet and spilling
-the wind. The learner might with advantage
-practice with a sail of this
-shape until he becomes proficient. If
-he eventually determines upon a jib and
-mainsail or yawl rig for permanent use,
-he may avoid wasting it by having it
-made over into a storm trysail.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>I would strongly advise every amateur
-skipper to shun the ballast-fin device
-as he would shun cold poison or a
-contagious disease. That is unless he
-intends to go in for a regular racing
-career, in which case the cups carried
-off might possibly compensate him for
-the woe, the anguish and the premature
-gray hairs inseparable from this contrivance.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>Mind you these remarks of
-mine apply only to amateurs and not to
-grizzled sailing-masters of yachts who
-fully understand how to navigate and
-handle all types of pleasure craft. Theoretically
-the ballast-fin has many obvious
-advantages.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_045.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>TYPE OF FIN-KEEL.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>The fin consists of a plate of iron or
-steel to the base of which is affixed a
-bulb of lead, which, being in the best
-possible place, insures stability. The
-fin proper gives lateral resistance in an
-almost perfect form, for there is no
-deadwood either forward or aft and the
-least possible amount of wetted surface.
-I remember when a little boy in a fishing
-village on the bank of a land-locked
-arm of the sea, where the water was
-always smooth, how we youngsters
-came to appreciate fully the worth of
-an improvised ballast-fin. We used to
-enjoy the diversion of model yacht sailing
-and the delights of many regattas.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>I owned one of the smartest models in
-the village. She was rigged as a cutter
-with outside lead, self-steering gear and
-all the latest maritime improvements,
-and she generally came out a winner.
-I tell you I used to put on a great many
-airs on this account, and as a natural
-result was duly hated and envied by my
-playmates, who owned more or less
-tubby craft that could scarcely get out
-of their own way.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>But the day arrived when my pride
-was destined to have a fall. A shrewd
-youth of Scottish extraction came to our
-village for the summer with his father.
-He had the keenest, greenest eye you
-ever saw, and one of those money-making
-noses that are unmistakable. His
-whole physiognomy and form indicated
-shrewdness. He mingled with us for
-some time on the beach, mudlarked
-with the boys and watched our model
-yacht matches with undisguised interest.
-We all got the notion that he was
-an inland landlubber, though it is only
-fair to him to acknowledge that he never
-told us so in so many words.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>One Saturday afternoon, after my
-little cutter had surpassed herself by
-distancing all her opponents, I indulged
-in some unusually tall talk, and challenged
-each and every one of my rivals
-to a race across the "creek," as the sheet
-of water was called, offering to give
-them four minutes' start, the distance
-being half a mile.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>To my surprise, our green-eyed friend
-came along and accepted the challenge,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>saying that on the following Saturday
-he would produce a craft that would
-knock spots out of my cutter without
-any time allowance whatever, and without
-the aid of a longer hull or larger
-sailspread. He also remarked that he
-had a month's pocket money saved up,
-and was willing to wager it on the
-result. I accepted his offer without
-superfluous parleying, and in my mind's
-eye was already investing that pocket
-money of his in various little treasures
-for which I hankered. But, for all that,
-I made every preparation for the fray,
-using very fine sandpaper and pot lead
-till my boat's bottom was beautifully
-burnished, and seeing that her sails and
-gear were in tip top racing condition.
-All the boys wondered what sort of a
-craft my opponent would bring out.
-He had never been seen with a boat of
-any description. We laughed in our
-sleeves and whispered it about that he
-would probably produce one of those
-showy vessels that one sees in the city
-toy store, and that generally sail on
-their beam ends.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The hour for the race arrived. The
-boys were all excited and flocked to the
-water's edge, whence the start was to
-be made. There was a goodly throng
-of them present, and, notwithstanding
-their contempt for the Scotchman, it
-was no doubt the desire of their hearts
-that some of my overweening conceit
-should be taken down a couple of pegs
-or so. Presently my rival appeared on
-the scene, carrying in his arms the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>queerest looking craft any of us had
-ever seen. Her hull was shaped like an
-Indian birch bark canoe, except that to
-the rounded bottom a keel was fastened.
-A groove was made in the keel, in which
-an oblong piece of slate was placed, to
-the bottom of which a strip of lead
-was secured. The rig was that of a
-cutter, and I noticed that her sails were
-well cut. She looked quite business-like,
-and when she was measured we found she
-was two inches shorter than my cutter.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>There was a nice, fresh westerly wind
-blowing, and quite a lop of a sea running
-for diminutive craft such as were
-about to race. I had already deemed it
-prudent to take in a reef in the mainsail
-of my vessel, and set a No. 2 jib, but
-my Scotch friend said he thought his
-boat would carry whole sail without any
-trouble. The course was south, so the
-craft had to sail with the wind a-beam.
-The start was made, my boat being to
-windward, as I had won the toss. And
-that was all I did win. The "ballast-fin"
-craft beat my cutter so badly that
-even at this distance of time my ears
-tingle and I feel ashamed. While my
-boat was burying herself, her rival took
-the curling wavelets right buoyantly,
-standing up to her work valiantly,
-and moving two feet to the cutter's one.
-We accompanied the model yachts in
-row-boats, keeping well to leeward, but
-quite close enough to observe their
-movements accurately. That was my
-first experience of the ballast-fin. We
-all became converts, and shoal, round-bottomed
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>craft, with slate fins to give stability
-and lateral resistance, were thenceforward
-the fashion. My successful
-rival, we afterward discovered, was the
-son of a naval architect of repute, and
-he is now practising his father's profession
-with a good deal of success.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Thus I have not a word to say against
-the ballast-fin so far as racing is concerned,
-but in cruising the average man
-who sails for pleasure wants a craft that
-he can haul out of the water easily to
-scrub, clean and paint. Now, if you
-put a ballast-fin boat on the mud for any
-one or all of these purposes she requires
-a "leg" on each side to keep her upright,
-and also supports at the bow and
-stern to prevent her from turning head
-over heels. The stationary fin always
-represents your true draught of water.
-It is always with you and is an integral
-portion of the boat's hull. If you happen
-to get stuck on a shoal—and this is
-a contingency that has occurred frequently
-to the most skillful and careful
-navigator—in thick weather for instance,
-your lot is by no means to be
-envied. This is particularly true if the
-tide is falling fast. The boat would go
-over on her side as soon as the water
-got low enough. The crew and passengers
-might have to wait aboard
-until high water, and a precious uncomfortable
-time they would pass I am
-certain. When the flood tide made it
-might be a moot question whether the
-boat would float or fill with water.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The movable centerplate will always
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>let you know when you get on a shoal,
-and will in nearly all cases give you
-warning in time to avoid grounding,
-which is always an unpleasant predicament
-and one entailing much labor.
-Then, again, the anchorages at which
-small boats can safely lie are generally
-pretty shallow at low water and the ballast-fin
-is found to be mighty inconvenient
-for such places.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_050.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>SAIL PLAN OF FIN-KEEL.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>
-  <h2 class='c004'>V.<br /> <br />THE KNOCKABOUT CLASSES.</h2>
-</div>
-<p class='drop-capa0_4_0_5 c005'>The knockabouts, which had their
-origin in Boston, have much to
-recommend them. They are free
-from freakiness. None of them
-at this time of writing have been fitted
-with fin-keels to harass their skippers
-when they come in contact with the
-ground. They have a moderate sail
-area, and thus are under control at all
-times. In a blow one is as safe aboard
-one of these craft as a converted Chinaman
-under the lee of his fair Sunday-school
-teacher at church-time. The
-variety in vogue in Boston in 1897 was
-limited to 500 square feet of sail. All
-were keel boats, 21 feet being the limit
-of length on the load water-line.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>This class gained popularity from the
-intrinsic excellence of the boats themselves,
-combining capital cruising qualities
-with fair speed and good accommodations.
-Several designers competed,
-the restrictions governing their construction,
-dimensions, and sail area
-being such that the boats were very
-even in speed, and the contests in
-which they took part were keen, close,
-and exciting.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>
-<img src='images/i_052.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>SEAWANHAKA 21-FOOT KNOCKABOUT.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>The type of knockabout chosen for
-the season of 1898 by the Seawanhaka
-Corinthian Yacht Club and the Westchester
-Country Club has proved to be quite
-admirably adapted for cruising and
-racing. They were designed and built
-by Mr. W. B. Stearns, of Marblehead,
-their dimensions being: Length over
-all, 33 feet; on the load water-line, 21
-feet; beam, 7 feet 8 inches; draught, 4
-feet; with board down, 7 feet. The
-area of the mainsail and jib contains 550
-square feet. The centerboard is a small
-one of iron, and houses below the cabin
-floor. The trunk cabin is 8 feet long,
-with 5 feet head-room. The price of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>these boats was $750 complete, and,
-their construction being sound and
-strong, they will, if taken care of properly,
-be good for many years.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>It is impossible to speak in terms too
-high of this class after a surfeit of the
-racing machines and freaks like the
-20-footers whose alarming antics so
-often amused and amazed us whenever
-they happened to meet in a reefing
-breeze. Another good property they
-possess is that they look like boats when
-hauled up on the beach, and can never
-be mistaken when their masts are unstepped
-for pig-troughs or fish floats.
-There is no doubt of the seaworthiness
-of these craft. They are perfectly safe
-in a northwest squall off Sandy Hook
-or in a dirty easterly gale on Long
-Island Sound.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_053.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>SEAWANHAKA KNOCKABOUT.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>Another craft of this type which was
-deservedly popular last year is of larger
-size than the one described above. She
-is 25 feet on the load water-line, 38 feet
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>over all, with a beam of 8 feet 6 inches,
-and 5 feet draught with centerboard up.
-The boat, which was designed by Mr.
-B. B. Crowninshield, of Boston, has a
-commodious cabin with six feet head-room,
-a seven-foot cockpit, and 800
-square feet of duck in mainsail and jib.
-A very able and roomy boat nearly twice
-as costly as the Stearns craft, but indeed
-quite a little ship.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_054.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>SAIL-PLAN OF SEAWANHAKA KNOCKABOUT—550 SQUARE FEET.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>Personally I favor a short bowsprit in
-a knockabout, it being convenient for
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>hoisting the anchor, keeping it clear of
-the hull, and preventing unseemly dents
-from the flukes.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>I fear that knockabouts, or raceabouts,
-even in restricted classes, are destined
-eventually to be fitted with fin-keels.
-As a speed-inducing factor the fin has
-fully demonstrated its capacity since the
-first edition of this little book appeared.
-I have not, however, altered my opinion
-one iota since my remarks on the ballast-fin
-made in the chapter which precedes
-this. In my judgment the fin is
-admirably adapted as an adjunct to a
-racing machine, but for cruising craft I
-like it not. Brand me as an old fogy,
-if you will; half a century behind the
-times, if it so pleases you, shipmates, but
-give me credit for sincerity.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The keen sense of rivalry inherent in
-every American will not permit him to
-be content with a good, honest sailing
-boat for cruising purposes only. If one
-of his chums comes out with a faster
-craft, whether a fin-keel or a modification
-thereof, he will become dissatisfied
-with his own boat, no matter how seaworthy
-and comfortable she may be, and
-will promptly discard her for a new-fangled
-design in which speed is the
-principal characteristic. The so-called
-restricted classes, which are so popular
-just now, are, I think, sure in the end to
-become purely racing classes, something
-after the fashion of the Herreshoff 30-footers
-now so fashionable in Newport.
-As racing boats, none afford more sport
-than these wonderfully smart flyers, and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>I can well understand what fascinating
-toys they have proved to their owners.
-But, after all, they are only toys, vastly
-expensive, too, with no accommodations
-for cruising and apt to be uncomfortably
-wet in a breeze.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The one-design classes of small yachts
-are not confined to knockabouts only.
-Cruising schooners, designed by Cary
-Smith, made their appearance in 1898,
-and the class, from a modest beginning,
-seems likely to grow. The features of
-the boats are their sound and wholesome
-characteristics. They possess moderate
-draught, large accommodations, and
-strength of construction. They are 64
-feet 2 inches over all, 46 feet long on
-the load water-line, 16 feet beam,
-draught without board 6 feet 6 inches,
-least freeboard 3 feet. A rather low
-cabin trunk gives full head-room for
-the greater part of the yacht's length,
-the main saloon being more than 13
-feet long with a floor width of 6 feet 9
-inches. On each side are two berths
-and two sofas with drawers beneath.
-There is accommodation in the forecastle
-for four men. The yachts carry
-20,000 pounds of lead ballast, of which
-18,000 pounds is on keel. Another one-design
-division is the Riverside Yacht
-Club dory class, which has been adopted
-by many of the clubs enrolled in the
-Yacht-Racing Union of Long Island
-Sound. These boats are thirteen feet
-on the keel, seventeen feet over all,
-with four feet beam, fitted with a centerboard
-and rigged with a small jib and a
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>leg-of-mutton sail. They are for single-handed
-racing, but for pleasure cruising
-or fishing a man can take his chum
-along. Fully equipped with oars, sails,
-etc., they cost about forty dollars, and
-afford capital sport on fine afternoons.
-To encourage this little class, prizes
-worth winning are offered by the club,
-and sweepstake races are popular features.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The idea was probably taken from
-the Nahant Dory Club, organized in
-1894, which did much to encourage
-sport in this serviceable and inexpensive
-class. Spectators will find amusement
-in watching "green hands" in
-their maiden efforts at sailing these
-dories, as strange and startling results
-often follow the rash experiments of an
-adventurous tyro. But apart from the
-comic element, valuable lessons in yacht-racing
-may be learned by steering and
-manœuvring a dory against a fleet of
-half-a-dozen eager competitors. Thus,
-yachtsmen cannot help approving this
-new Riverside venture, originated, I
-believe, by Mr. F. Bowne Jones, of the
-Regatta Committee.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The origin of the one-design class was
-Dublin Bay, where the "Water Wag"
-type was first evolved. A Norwegian
-praam with a boiler-plate centerboard,
-combining ballast and lateral resistance,
-and carrying a big sail, was built in
-1878 at Shankhill. She was christened
-<i>Cemiostama</i> and proved an ideal boat.
-The conditions were a sloping sandy
-shore on which the high surf not infrequently
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>broke, and from which the craft
-had to be launched every time her
-owner wanted a sail, and onto which
-she had to be beached after the cruise
-was finished. <i>Cemiostama</i> was a capital
-sea-boat; she pointed well, hit what
-she aimed at, did not sag off to leeward,
-and was quite fast. When the centerboard,
-weighing about one hundred
-pounds, was raised she ran up easily on
-the beach, resting quietly on her flat bottom.
-Her centerboard was then lifted
-out, and her crew of two hauled her up.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The knowing Irish yachtsmen, appreciating
-a good thing, saw that there was
-a lot of fun in a boat of this class, and
-several were built, and many scrub races
-were indulged in. In 1887 the Water
-Wag Association was started, the craft
-being built on the same lines and the
-sail-area being limited. Their dimensions
-were thirteen feet in length, with
-a beam of four feet ten inches, full lines
-and a flat floor.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The Water Wags are presided over by
-a king and a queen, bishop, knights and
-rooks; and although the boats were at
-first used principally for pleasure, they
-are now racers pure and simple. Their
-headquarters are now in Kingstown Harbor,
-and prizes are put up for them at
-all the local regattas. They are very
-handy, too, and quite admirable for the
-purpose for which they were designed.
-They cost from $75 to $100, and the
-rules that govern their races provide
-that they shall be similar in every respect
-except sail-plan. The mast must
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>not exceed thirteen feet over all, measured
-from top of keel to truck; the fore
-and aft sails must not exceed seventy-five
-square feet in area, and the spinnaker
-(which is to be used only before
-the wind and never as a jib) must not
-exceed sixty square feet.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Each boat shall carry no less than
-two or more than three persons in a
-race, all of whom shall be amateurs. A
-member or a lady may steer. No prize
-shall be awarded a boat for a sail-over,
-but she may fly a winning flag therefor.
-A pair of oars and a life-buoy must be
-carried in every race. It is only right
-to mention that these sailing regulations
-are vigorously enforced.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The latest one-design class established
-by our rollicking Irish cousins is
-known as the 25-footers of the Dublin
-Bay Sailing Club. These craft are of
-such noteworthy type as to deserve a
-few lines of description and approval
-here, especially as it was wisely decided
-that the type shall not be altered for
-five years from January 1, 1898. The
-boats, of which quite a number were
-built and raced, are deep-keeled cutters
-of the following dimensions: Length
-over all, 37 feet 3 inches; length on
-load water-line, 25 feet; beam, 8 feet 8
-inches; draught, 6 feet 3 inches; lead on
-keel, 3 tons 5 cwt., and sail area, 845
-square feet, divided into a mainsail
-laced to the boom, gafftopsail, foresail
-and jib. A second jib, jibtopsail, balloon
-foresail, spinnaker, storm jib and
-trysail may also be carried. The design,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>made by Will Fife, Jr., of Fairlie, is
-handsome, the type being eminently
-adapted for Dublin Bay. Restrictions
-of the strictest kind ensure the boats
-being exactly alike in size, material,
-construction and canvas.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The "Mermaids," a craft much used
-by the B division of the same club, are
-large Water Wags, 18 feet long, with 6
-feet beam, fitted with centerboards, but
-carrying no ballast, and limited when
-racing to 180 square feet of sail. These
-are vastly popular, and a dozen or so
-race every Saturday afternoon during
-the season.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Although one-design racing originated
-on the other side of the Atlantic,
-it is questionable if any one class has
-been sailed with more spirit or persistency
-than were the Herreshoff 30-footers
-at Newport during the yachting
-season of 1897 and since.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>That the classes are destined to prosper
-there is no doubt, the only condition
-being that the type must be carefully
-adapted to the location for which
-it is intended, and the more it is available
-for fishing excursions and pleasure
-trips the greater favor will attend it.
-Another helpful feature is the substantial
-economic gain from the construction
-of several boats by the same builder
-from the same design.</p>
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>
-  <h2 class='c004'>VI.<br /> <br />KEEP YOUR WEATHER EYE OPEN.</h2>
-</div>
-<p class='drop-capa0_4_0_5 c005'>The sailer of a boat, little or big,
-should keep his weather eye
-open all the time. When sailing
-in a river where the banks
-are of irregular height he should be
-especially on his guard, because puffs
-of considerable violence frequently
-come with little or no warning. A
-few inches of sheet eased off, and
-a gentle luff not quite sufficient to
-spill the sail, will generally prevent the
-shipping of water over the lee gunwale,
-and a possible capsize. Thus the mainsheet
-should never be made fast permanently,
-and should always be coiled
-so as to be clear for running. A neglect
-of either of these precautions has often
-been attended with fatal results. If by
-any mischance the mainsheet becomes
-jammed do not hesitate, but cut it. A
-sharp knife in such an emergency has
-often saved life when an upset has
-seemed inevitable through the boat being
-nearly on her beam ends. If you
-are sailing in a jib and mainsail craft,
-and the squall has a good deal of weight
-in it, let fly the jib sheet and let the
-boat come up in the wind, at the same
-time lowering away the mainsail and
-taking care to spill it as it comes down.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>A reef should then be taken in, and the
-boat be filled away on her course.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>While sailing anywhere in the vicinity
-of New York, and when one of those
-heavy thunder-squalls that are so frequent
-in the summer time is seen rising
-in the northwest, waste no time. If not
-in too deep water, anchor at once and
-stow your sails snugly. You can then
-ride out the fury of the squall in perfect
-safety; that is, if your ground tackle
-is sufficiently strong. If your cable
-parts and you are on a lee shore and
-there is a harbor to run for, scud for it
-under bare poles or with a fragment of
-sail set. If there is no refuge under
-your lee, set as much sail as your boat
-can safely carry and thresh her off shore.
-The chances are that you will be successful,
-because these squalls while often
-very dangerous seldom last long, and
-are generally followed by a flat calm
-which is more exasperating than a blow.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>We will take it for granted, however,
-that your anchor and chain are of the
-correct strength and quality, and that
-you bring up before the squall strikes
-you. If you have time it would be well
-to close-reef your mainsail before furling
-it, and then you would be prepared
-for any emergency. But let me impress
-upon all who are in charge of boats
-with women and children aboard, that
-it is their duty, when one of those peril-fraught
-thunder-squalls is seen approaching,
-to dowse every stitch of sail
-at once and let go the anchor. There
-is a wide gulf between bravado and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>bravery, and no truly courageous man
-would imperil the lives of anyone,
-especially of helpless women and children.
-The rash carrying on of canvas
-has been responsible for more loss of
-life on the water than any other cause.
-It is a seaman who shortens sail in
-time, but a lubber who "cracks on till
-all's blue."</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Great caution is necessary when passing
-under the lee of a vessel at anchor
-or under way, especially in a fresh
-breeze. Your boat is sure to get becalmed
-and may possibly nearly lose
-her way, so that as she draws clear
-of the object the full force of the
-breeze will strike her when she has
-scarcely steerage way on. The result
-may be a complete knockdown or even
-a capsize. Therefore have your mainsheet
-clear for running, and do not
-hesitate to let it fly in a hurry before
-your little vessel's gunwale is anywhere
-near the water. By all means endeavor
-to keep clear of vessels at anchor. Do
-not try to get in the wash of steamboats,
-as some foolhardy persons do,
-"just for fun." On the contrary take
-special pains to avoid them. When
-you must encounter their wash, which
-in the case of large and fast steamers
-is heavy and dangerous, do your best
-to let your boat take the brunt of the
-waves on the bluff of the bow. If they
-strike her broadside on, swamping is a
-possibility not far remote.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>In sailing a boat in rough water the
-greatest precaution is necessary. A
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>craft that in smooth water could safely
-carry all sail, might when the sea is
-perturbed be forced to stagger along
-under double reefs, the force of the
-wind being the same in both instances.
-Especially is this the case when the
-wind and sea are both abeam, the former
-strong and the latter heavy. This is
-probably the most dangerous point of
-sailing there is, and requires the most
-careful touch of the tiller. A boat heeled
-over to fifteen degrees by the force of the
-wind, by the joint influence of a sudden
-puff and a heavy roll to leeward may be
-inclined to such an angle that a capsize
-is inevitable. When there seems to be
-any danger of this mishap occurring the
-helmsman must not close his eyes to
-keep them warm. When he sees a
-larger wave than usual coming along he
-should put his helm up a little, so that
-it may strike the boat abaft the beam and
-so reduce the danger to a minimum.
-The judicious application of weather
-helm in a beam sea has saved many a
-big ship's deck from being swept, and
-many a small boat from being capsized.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>It is in my judgment rash to sail a
-small boat under these conditions unless
-it is imperative, such as when a harbor
-is being entered, or when the boat's
-course must necessarily be steered with
-wind and sea abeam. I should strongly
-advise the hauling of the boat on a wind
-until she reaches the point where her
-sheets may be eased off and she can be
-headed for her destination with wind
-and sea on the quarter. A boat with
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>any pretensions at all can be sailed
-close-hauled in rough water with safety
-if certain elementary precautions are
-observed. Everybody on board except
-the helmsman should sit amidships in
-the bottom of the boat, so as to keep
-the weight as low as possible and the
-craft herself in her natural trim. No
-unusual weight is wanted in the bow
-of the vessel, which should lift in a
-prompt and lively manner to each sea.
-In an open boat and a nasty sea no
-more sail should be carried than will
-keep her under proper command.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A great deal depends upon the nerve
-and skill of the man at the tiller. Keep
-her moving all the time. If a big wave
-threatens to come aboard over the
-weather bow, luff smartly into it and
-meet it as nearly end on as possible.
-Then up with the helm at once and fill
-on her again, repeating the process as
-often as it may be needful. Never let the
-lee gunwale get under water in a seaway,
-nor at any other time, but always
-luff before it is too late, and help her to
-come up in the wind if necessary by
-easing away the jib sheet.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>If the wind keeps increasing and the
-sea rising, haul down the headsail and
-pass a gasket round it, close-reef your
-mainsail, previously seeing your sea anchor
-clear for letting go. If you have no
-sea anchor with you, rig some sort of a
-raft with oars, boathook and sails, the latter
-lashed securely to the spars. Make a
-line fast to this raft and pay out about
-twenty fathoms and let the boat ride to
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>it as to an anchor. It is surprising what
-a good effect this contrivance has in
-breaking the waves and keeping the
-boat head to sea. Nothing else can now
-be done until the gale moderates sufficiently
-for sail to be made and the boat
-headed for her destination. It may be
-consolatory to those aboard a craft in
-such a contingency to buoy themselves
-up by remembering that some of the
-heaviest gales known have been safely
-ridden out in cockleshell boats without
-any damage to crew, hull or gear.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_066.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>DROGUE, OR SEA ANCHOR.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>The sea anchor consists of a hinge-jointed
-galvanized ring about three feet
-in diameter. A conical bag made of
-stout canvas is sewed to the ring and
-roped, as shown in sketch. A bridle is
-fitted to the ring, to which the riding
-hawser is bent. A cork buoy prevents
-the anchor from diving. When thrown
-overboard the mouth of the anchor
-opens and fills. To hoist the anchor on
-board, the tripping line, shown in diagram,
-is hauled on. When not in use the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>ring is folded together by the joints, and
-the bag is made fast snugly round it.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id004'>
-<img src='images/i_067.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>DIAGRAM OF FLOATING ANCHOR.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>Another plan for
-making a floating anchor
-is shown below. K,
-M, N, O, are the ends
-of two iron bars formed
-into a cross and connected
-by a stout bolt, nut
-and pin at their intersection,
-S. At each end
-of the bars is an eye
-through which a strong
-rope is rove, hauled
-taut, and well secured.
-Thus a square is formed,
-and over the square
-a piece of strong canvas
-is laced to the roping. Four ropes
-are made fast to the iron bars, forming
-a bridle. To this the riding hawser
-is made fast. To prevent the anchor
-from sinking, a buoy, B, is made fast
-to one corner by a rope, with five or six
-fathoms of drift. The buoy rope, P,
-leads on board. H is the hawser to
-which the boat is riding, A is the anchor,
-and B the buoy. To get the anchor
-aboard haul in on the line, P. This will
-cause the anchor to cant edgewise, and
-it can then be easily hauled in.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>
-<img src='images/i_068.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>FLOATING ANCHOR IN USE.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>In scudding before a strong wind and
-a heavy sea in a small craft, a trysail is
-always preferable to a sail with a boom,
-which may effect much mischief by
-trailing in the water or suddenly gybing.
-The helmsman must be always on the
-alert to prevent the boat from "broaching
-to," which means flying up in the
-wind; or from being "brought by the
-lee," which means running off so as to
-bring the wind on the other quarter.
-A long, narrow boat will always run
-before the wind better than a short,
-beamy craft, as she is better adapted
-for taking the seas, and she also steers
-easier, not yawing about so much or
-turning round every few minutes to
-take a look at her wake. The inexperienced
-boat sailer should bear in
-mind that scudding in a seaway is ticklish
-work, and is not unlikely to be
-attended with peril. If you have no
-trysail, reef the mainsail and lower the
-peak. Hoist on the weather topping
-lift so as to keep the boom as high as
-possible out of the water. By no means
-run a boat before the wind until it blows
-too hard and the sea is too high to heave
-to with safety. If the breeze seems
-likely to pipe up, make up your mind
-immediately. Delay is dangerous.
-Have your sea anchor ready. Watch
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>for a smooth. When it comes put your
-helm down smartly, trimming in the
-mainsheet. When she gets the wind on
-the bow, heave your sea anchor overboard
-and ride to it either with the
-mainsail set or lowered, as may be
-deemed best.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>If you happen to be on a lee shore,
-with the surf breaking high on the
-beach, and you cannot claw off, do not
-wait until it is too late and your boat is
-in the breakers. Let go the anchor, and
-if it holds try to ride out the storm. If
-your ground tackle gives way, do your
-best to set the mainsail and steer boldly
-for the shore. The faster you go the
-better chance you have to be carried
-high and dry. Remember that this will
-give you a fighting chance for your life,
-whereas if your boat gets broadside on
-in the breakers she will most likely roll
-over and over and in all probability
-drown you and your crew.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>It may be thought preposterous for
-me to advocate the use of oil to break
-the force of curling wave-crests when
-a small craft is riding to a raft or sea
-anchor. Most people would naturally
-suppose that a boat could not carry
-enough oil aboard her for it to have
-any beneficial effect in smoothing a
-turbulent sea. Nor could it if it was
-poured into the ocean out of its original
-package, or out of "bags with small
-holes punctured in their bottoms," as
-some marine experts advise. The
-proper way to apply oil is to fill a round
-bottomed canvas bag, about two feet
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>long and eight inches in diameter, three
-parts full of oakum or cotton waste.
-Do not pack too tightly. Pour into this
-as much fish or animal oil as the oakum
-or waste will suck up. Sew the mouth
-up tightly with palm and needle. Secure
-a lanyard to it. Make a few holes
-in its sides with a marlinespike and hang
-it over the lee bow, and you will be
-surprised at the result. The seas, instead
-of breaking over the boat and
-threatening to swamp her, will become
-comparatively smooth as soon as they
-approach the limits of the film of the oil
-as it oozes slowly out of the bag. When
-running over a harbor bar where the
-sea is breaking badly, a couple of these
-bags suspended from either bow will
-prevent the waves from pooping the
-little craft and help her materially in her
-struggle for existence. Mineral oil will
-do if no other is available, and a gallon
-of it will go a long way if used in the
-manner mentioned above. These bags
-should be carried all ready for use when
-cruising, so that all you will have to do
-is to pour the oil in, sew up the mouths
-and hang them over the bows by the
-lanyards. A ship's boat with a dozen
-men aboard once safely weathered an
-Atlantic gale by riding to a couple of
-buckets and a cork fender saturated
-with kerosene. Pouring oil on troubled
-waters is by no means a case of bluff or
-the dream of an opium smoker, but a
-capital "wrinkle" by means of which
-many a good man has been saved from
-Davy Jones' yawning locker. I trust
-that these little bags will form part of
-the outfit of all going on long cruises.
-They may serve as pillows or may be
-made in the shape of cushions, so long
-as the above general idea is followed.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>
-<img src='images/i_071.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>THE BOSTON KNOCKABOUT "GOSLING."</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>As a striking instance of the value of
-oil in a heavy gale I will quote the case
-of the British ship <i>Slivemore</i>, which
-took fire in June, 1885, while in the Indian
-Ocean about eight hundred miles
-northeastward of the Seychelle Islands.
-The ship was abandoned and the boats
-steered for the islands. Capt. Conly,
-of the <i>Slivemore</i>, gave orders that each
-boat should take aboard two cans of
-paint oil for use in bad weather, and he
-also instructed the officer in command
-of each boat in the use of the oil. Three
-days after the ship was left the boats
-encountered a cyclone. Drags made
-from spars, oars and sails lashed together
-were rigged, and to these improvised
-sea anchors the frail craft rode securely.
-Stockings filled with oakum saturated
-with the oil were hung over the bows of
-the boats and formed an oil-slick of considerable
-expanse. Before the stockings
-were hung out the boats narrowly
-escaped being swamped and the men
-had to bail hard with buckets. The oil
-prevented the seas from breaking and
-the boats rode over the enormous waves
-in safety. Little water was shipped, and
-those on board the boats were able to
-lie down and sleep while a tropical
-cyclone was raging furiously. All the
-boats reached the islands in safety without
-the loss of a man, but had it not
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span>been for the oil the loss of the <i>Slivemore</i>
-would have remained an untold
-mystery of the ocean.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A still more wonderful example of
-the efficacy of oil is told by the captain
-of the ship <i>Martha Cobb</i>, and it relates
-to the achievement of a sixteen-foot
-dinghy. In December, 1886, the <i>Martha
-Cobb</i>, petroleum laden, encountered
-a heavy gale in the North Atlantic.
-She shipped some tremendous seas
-which swept away all her large boats,
-washed away her bulwarks and played
-havoc generally with her decks. The
-only boat that was left uninjured was
-the aforesaid sixteen-foot dinghy, intended
-solely for smooth water work.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>While laboring and plunging in the
-mountainous sea, the <i>Martha Cobb</i> fell
-in with a sinking vessel flying signals
-of distress to the effect that the water
-was fast gaining on her and that all her
-boats were stove in. The captain of
-the <i>Martha Cobb</i> determined to stand
-by the vessel in distress, in the hope
-that the gale would abate. He knew
-that his little cockleshell of a dinghy
-could not possibly live in such weather,
-and that it would be suicidal to lower
-her and attempt a rescue.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>After standing by till near nightfall
-with no prospect of the storm moderating,
-the commander of the <i>Martha
-Cobb</i> determined to make an effort to
-save the crew of the fast foundering
-craft. The <i>Martha Cobb's</i> petroleum
-was in casks, some of which leaked.
-The captain had noticed that when the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>pumps were being worked the sea in
-the wake of his ship was always much
-smoother. He got the <i>Martha Cobb</i> to
-windward of the wreck and started the
-pumps, in the hope that the oil in the
-well and bilges would create a smooth
-when it reached the sea, so that the
-dinghy could be lowered in safety.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>He found, however, that the ships
-drifted faster than the oil, so that while
-the sea to windward was comparatively
-smooth the water to leeward was rough
-as ever. So he kept his ship away, ran
-down under the vessel's stern and luffed
-up under her lee. Then he started the
-pumps and also allowed a five-gallon
-can of fish oil to trickle into the water
-through the scuppers. The effect was
-almost miraculous. In less than half-an-hour
-the crested surges and breaking
-combers were converted into long heavy
-swells such as you see when a calm has
-succeeded a heavy gale.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The little dinghy was lowered, and
-manned by three men was pulled to
-windward alongside the wreck with little
-difficulty. All hands were rescued,
-and the tiny boat, while engaged in the
-gallant work, shipped no water. All this
-time the waves were breaking furiously
-outside the magic limit of the oil-slick.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>One more illustration and I am done.
-Capt. Amlot, of the steamer <i>Barrowmore</i>,
-on January twenty-fourth, 1885, while in
-51 degrees north latitude and 21 degrees
-west longitude, fell in with the sinking
-ship <i>Kirkwood</i>. This ship had for part of
-her cargo several hundred casks of canned
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span>salmon. In order to make a smooth
-and allow the boat of the <i>Barrowmore</i>
-to come alongside in safety, the crew of
-the <i>Kirkwood</i> broached a number of the
-cases, and opening the cans poured the
-oil from them into the sea. This had
-the desired result, and although the sea
-was very heavy the oil reduced it rapidly,
-and the boat of the <i>Barrowmore</i> had
-no difficulty in taking off the twenty-six
-men that composed the ship's company
-of the <i>Kirkwood</i>.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Two quarts of oil used per hour will
-produce effective results. A ship scudding
-before the wind, with a mountainous
-sea running and threatening to
-poop her, has expended this amount and
-kept dry. Experts have calculated that
-this quantity of oil has covered the sea
-with an infinitesimal film measuring
-thirty feet in width and ten nautical
-miles in length. As the thickness of this
-film is only .0000047 of an inch, its efficacy
-is indeed marvelous.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A simple and excellent device for distributing
-oil has been invented by Capt.
-Townsend, of the United States Signal
-Office. It is cheap and convenient, and is
-especially adapted for use in boats or
-small yachts. It has been thus described:</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>"It consists of a hollow metal globe
-ten inches in diameter, with a capacity of
-about one and a-half gallons of oil. It
-has an air chamber separated by a partition
-to keep it afloat in a certain position,
-and there are two valves. When
-filled with oil the upper valve is adjusted
-to allow oil to flow out at any desired
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>rate, while the lower valve admits
-water. When placed in the sea it floats
-with the upper valve a little above the
-surface, and water will enter to displace
-the oil from the graduated upper valve.
-The specific gravity of oil will keep it
-in the upper part of the distributor, and
-the motion of the globe on the breaking
-waves or swell will insure the ejection
-of the oil through the graduated valve
-in any quantity."</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_076a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>OIL DISTRIBUTOR.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>This may be used by towing over the
-bow when running, or made fast to a sea
-anchor when hove to.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>People inclined to be skeptical are, of
-course, at liberty to doubt the efficacy
-of oil to lessen the
-dangerous effect
-of heavy seas,
-but the examples I
-have quoted are
-simply a few culled
-from several hundred
-well authenticated
-cases.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_076b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>PLAN OF OIL DISTRIBUTOR.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>The lesson learned from the Shipwash
-lightship ever so many years ago,
-has not been without profit and benefit
-to naval architects. Let me spin you the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span>yarn. The Shipwash lightship is moored
-in one of the most exposed places on
-the east coast of England, and is thus
-continually encountering particularly
-heavy seas. It came to pass that the
-old lightship was replaced by a new and
-scientific vessel. The new-fangled craft
-was, however, so remarkably unsteady
-and rolled so heavily that to the storm-tossed
-mariner beating up the coast her
-light appeared to be of crescent shape.
-Her crew got scared. They were afraid
-she would turn turtle. A surveyor from
-the Trinity House was sent aboard, and
-he made a report which was submitted
-to her designer, who eventually said
-the fault complained of could be easily
-remedied by the addition of extra ballast.
-Accordingly this was done, and
-the next gale she rode out her rolling
-was worse than ever, and produced
-quite a panic among her crew, who
-were afraid to go below while the storm
-lasted. Another report was made to
-headquarters. Other students of naval
-architecture were consulted, who not
-only advised that the extra ballast
-be taken out, but that four tons of lead
-be attached to the frame or cage supporting
-the light. These instructions
-were carried out, and the result was the
-steadiest lightship on the east coast.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A vessel will carry herself full of coal
-and behave herself in heavy weather.
-But when she comes to be laden with
-copper ore or lead, a certain amount of
-ingenuity has to be used in the storage
-of such heavy cargo to make her seaworthy
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>at all. If it were all stowed in
-the bottom of the vessel she would roll
-so heavily in a seaway as to get dismasted,
-and would probably become a
-total wreck. It is now that the experienced
-art of the stevedore comes in.
-The man who follows the proper authorities
-would construct a bin or compartment
-in which to stow this dangerous
-freight thus:</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_078a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>Fig. 1</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>The result would be highly satisfactory.
-The vessel's center of gravity
-would be the same as though she were
-laden with coal, and her movements in a
-seaway would therefore be quite as easy.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Another man might construct his
-compartment thus:</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_078b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>Fig. 2</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>The vessel in this case would labor
-quite heavily on the slightest provocation
-and would not be so steady or so
-seaworthy as the one first mentioned,
-with the narrow bin or compartment
-extending to the upper deck.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span>The same remarks apply to the ballasting
-of yachts. Before the days of
-outside lead, when pleasure craft shifted
-their racing for a cruising rig preparatory
-to a deep-water voyage, it was
-customary to raise the inside lead ballast
-by placing layers of cork beneath it,
-thus ensuring easy movements in a seaway.
-Racing yachts nowadays have
-all their weight outside, and this device
-for their relief cannot therefore be
-resorted to. When crossing the Atlantic,
-say for a race for the <i>America's</i> Cup,
-they are always in danger of getting
-caught in a gale of wind and an accompanying
-mountainous sea. In order to
-prevent excessive rolling, which might
-endanger the mast and consequently the
-vessel herself, it is necessary to keep a
-press of sail set. For this purpose a
-trysail with plenty of hoist to it is indispensable.
-It should not be one of those
-jib-headed impostors that some racing
-skippers most unaccountably affect, but
-one with a good long gaff that will successfully
-prevent the otherwise inevitable
-and peril-fraught roll to windward.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A yacht under these circumstances, it
-is true, cannot carry a great press of
-canvas when on the top of one of those
-big rollers that a gale soon kicks up in
-the Atlantic. But she wants as much
-of her sail area as possible exposed to
-the gale when she is in the hollow of
-the wave. Otherwise there will not be
-sufficient pressure to prevent her from
-rolling to windward.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Rolling to windward—easy enough to
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>write, you may think—but every sailor
-knows what may follow. Green seas
-fore and aft, mast sprung, men washed
-overboard; and if the gale does not
-abate, why, Davy Jones' locker for all
-hands and the cook!</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The storm trysail must necessarily be
-a sheet-footed sail set over the furled
-mainsail. It is a sail comparatively
-narrow at the foot, but it should for obvious
-reasons be made as broad as possible
-at the head, in proper proportion
-of course to the breadth of the foot. It
-need not have quite as much hoist as
-the mainsail, for the throat halyards at
-such a time must have a good drift,
-while to keep the sail inboard the peak
-should be quite extreme. It follows,
-therefore, that although the rollers may
-be high the peak of the trysail is above
-them, and the yacht is kept jogging
-along steadily without any sudden and
-violent shocks or strains to spar or rigging.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The following rough sketches will, I
-think, serve to demonstrate the superiority
-of the gaff-headed trysail over
-that abortion, the thimble-headed variety,
-which I do not hesitate to condemn
-as useless for a modern yacht
-ballasted with outside lead in a seaway.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_080.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>No. 1 shows vessel with gaffheaded
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>sail on the crest of a wave. She drops
-down into the hollow of the wave and
-becomes No. 2. The shaded part of the
-sail catches the wind over the crests of
-the waves, and the area so exposed is
-sufficient to steady the vessel and give
-her a safe heel or list.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_081.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>Now I wish to call your attention to
-No. 3. She has enough sail spread when
-on the crest of a wave. But observe her
-when in the hollow. She has scarcely a
-stitch of sail above the level of the crest.
-The consequence is that her weight
-being so low down, and her form having
-so much stability, she swings with a
-violent roll to windward and her mast
-is thereby imperilled. This is the result
-of not having the requisite amount of
-pressure at the head of the sail.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The commanders of square-rigged
-vessels always bear this in mind. They
-heave to under a close-reefed maintopsail,
-never under a lower course, and the
-ship when in the trough of the sea has
-enough sail exposed to keep her steady.
-The smart schooners that used to ply
-between St. Michaels and London in the
-fruit trade, and that were bound to make
-smart passages or lose money, were
-always fitted with gaffheaded trysails,
-and found them most efficacious in beating
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span>to windward in strong gales. Their
-sturdy skippers would have looked with
-contempt and ridicule upon any person
-so fatuous as to recommend a jibheaded
-trysail. And they were skilled sailors
-of fore-and-aft rigged craft, and were
-well acquainted with that stretch of the
-wild Atlantic between the Lizard and
-the Azores. These vessels used to beat
-up the English Channel in the teeth of
-an easterly gale and fight their way
-homeward inch by inch, and I consider
-the practical experience of their captains
-as far more reliable than the theoretical
-vagaries of men who were never
-out of soundings in a small craft.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>What is true of comparatively large
-yachts in an Atlantic gale applies
-equally to the small cruiser. The theory
-is precisely the same, and in ordering a
-storm trysail from his sailmaker the
-aspiring owner of a smart, seaworthy
-cruiser might well be guided by the few
-hints given above. A gaffheaded trysail
-is just what he wants to steady his boat
-when hove to, and to counteract that
-tendency toward rolling that outside
-lead always has on the hull of a boat in
-a seaway.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>When coming to anchor at any other
-time than low water, do not forget to
-allow for the fall of the tide. For instance,
-if you bring up in 10 feet of
-water when the tide is high, in a boat
-drawing, say 5 feet, and the range of rise
-and fall is also 5 feet, at low water your
-vessel would be aground and perhaps
-under untoward circumstances in danger
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>of damage or even total loss. This hint
-is worth remembering in many parts of
-the world, especially in some parts of
-the Bay of Fundy, where there is a
-range of no less than 50 feet! Soundings
-on the chart denote the depth at
-mean low water.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_083.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span>
-  <h2 class='c004'>VII.<br /> <br />OVERHAULING THE YACHT.</h2>
-</div>
-<p class='drop-capa0_4_0_6 c005'>No matter how small a craft the
-yachtsman owns she will, after a
-winter's lay-up, require a good
-deal of attention before she is fit
-for the water; and there is no reason
-why a keen yachtsman who owns a tidy
-little craft should not fit her out himself
-in his spare time. In fact, I am acquainted
-with many boat-owners who find
-nearly as much delight in getting their
-own vessels into proper fettle for the
-season's sport as they do in navigating
-them. There is much to be said in favor
-of this enterprise. The principal argument
-is that a man overhauling the hull
-of the boat which belongs to him will
-not be at all likely to "scamp" the work.
-On the contrary, it is to his interest to do
-the job thoroughly while he is about it,
-for he is improving his own property;
-whereas if he employs a mechanic to do
-it by piece work, or by the day, the task
-may be performed in a manner more or
-less perfunctory, or at any rate without
-the attention to minor details which the
-actual proprietor would be expected to
-bring to the task.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>I would not counsel a man to attempt
-repairs which call for the skilled
-shipwright or boat-builder. The result
-would in all probability be a lamentable
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>failure, and in the end a mechanic would
-have to be called in. But the work of
-cleaning, painting and varnishing a hull
-intrinsically sound may be accomplished
-by the man or boy of average intelligence
-and industry.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>What is true about a hull is still more
-so of her rig. When I first went to sea
-on a deep-water voyage, as soon as the
-ship was out of soundings the crew's
-first duty was to undo the work of the
-professional rigger, stay the masts anew
-by shrouds and backstays, and replace
-the hurried botch-work of knots and
-splices by seamanlike and shipshape
-work.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Anything in the shape of a boat may
-be made water-tight, no matter how
-leaky she may be, if treated with careful
-ingenuity. I would be the last man
-to suggest patching and puttying up
-a ramshackle craft whose frames and
-planking are rotten. Supposing, however,
-that the hull is fairly sound, but
-through exposure to the hot sun her
-planks are cracked in sundry places, and
-that in fact she leaks like a sieve, there
-is no reason why she should be condemned.
-There is a lot of good fun to
-be got out of a craft of this kind, if the
-proper repairs are made. If put in the
-hands of a professional boat-builder the
-cost would be very high, even if he
-could be induced to undertake the work.
-Here, then, is where a handy man or
-boy has a capital opportunity to try his
-hand as a craftsman. I repaired an old
-18 foot boat in my younger days, when
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>money was scarce and I had the alternative
-of giving up my pet diversion of
-sailing or making the ancient bucket
-tight.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>This is how I went about it.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The craft in question was hauled out
-on the shore above high-water mark.
-She had been abandoned by her rightful
-owner, who had moved inland and left
-her to the tender mercies of the sun in
-summer and the snow in winter. For
-sixteen months she lay on the beach
-neglected. Every day I cast covetous
-eyes on her. I will make a clean breast
-of it now in my old age and confess that
-I had contemplated stealing her. That
-sin was, however, spared me, as I found
-her owner's address and wrote, asking
-if he would sell her. He replied that
-he would give her to me and welcome,
-and thus made me the happiest youth
-in the land.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The boat was originally a first-class
-little lap-streaker of good model, built
-of teak throughout and copper-fastened;
-but there were many cracks in her
-planks and most of her fastenings were
-loose, and in a general way she might
-be described as "nail-sick" all over.
-With the help of a couple of chums I
-placed her on chocks and shored her up
-on an even keel, supporting her well,
-so that she should not suffer from any
-unequal strain when I filled her later on
-with water. She was very dirty inside,
-and I remember it took me the greater
-part of a day to thoroughly clean her
-with soap, hot water and a scrubbing
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>brush. Then I put the plug in and
-started to fill her up with water. Although
-I had plenty of help from the
-village boys, who were never so joyous
-as when pottering about a boat, it took
-a long time to fill her, for the water
-poured out of her like the streams from
-a shower-bath. But her dry and thirsty
-planks soon began to swell a little and
-the leaks to diminish. I kept her as
-full of water as possible for two or three
-days, marking with chalk every leak
-that appeared. I may remark that the
-chocks on which her keel was raised
-were high enough for me to crawl completely
-under her bottom and get at
-every part of her. Her hull, which
-originally had been varnished to show
-the grain of the natural wood, was pretty
-well checkered with chalk-marks by the
-time I had finished. Then I let the
-water drain out of her, and waited until
-she was dried thoroughly by wind and
-sun.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Meanwhile I bought a lot of copper
-nails of the requisite length and rooves
-to match, with the use of which I
-had become thoroughly familiar from
-watching the men in the boat-shop
-hard by.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Then I began operations, aided by an
-apprentice from the boat-builder's establishment
-whom I induced, by the proffer
-of pocket money, to turn out of his bed
-at dawn and lend me a hand till the
-clang of the bell summoned him to his
-daily toil. We replaced all the rivets that
-had worked very loose with new ones
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>of a larger size, and drove an additional
-nail between every two originally driven.
-The old nails, which were only a little
-slack, I hardened with a few taps of the
-hammer from the inside, while Toby,
-the afore-mentioned apprentice, "held
-on" against the heads of the nails with
-another hammer on the outside. This
-was slow and tedious work, but it paid
-in the long run, for it made the boat
-almost as good as new, her frames, as I
-have already mentioned, being in capital
-condition.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>My next operation was to borrow a
-pitch-kettle from the boat shop and to
-put in it a pound of pitch and a gallon
-of North Carolina tar. Kindling a fire
-under it I let it boil until the pitch
-had melted, stirring it constantly. This
-mixture I applied boiling hot to the inside
-of the boat with a paint-brush, filling
-every crevice and ledge up to the
-level of the underside of the thwarts.
-It was astonishing what a quantity of
-this composition the planks absorbed. I
-put only half a ladleful of the tar into my
-paint-pot at a time, so that it should not
-stand long enough to cool, replenishing
-every few minutes from the boiling
-kettle. Tar when at the boiling point
-is comparatively thin, and has superior
-penetrative qualities, so it can be worked
-with the point of the brush into every
-crevice, no matter how minute. When
-it hardens it forms a water-tight seam
-which possesses, from the nature of its
-ingredients, a certain amount of elasticity.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>There were a number of sun-cracks in
-the planking, which I filled with fish
-glue, run in hot from the outside. This
-composition dries very hard and does
-not crack. My next task was to sandpaper
-the outside, smoothing the very
-rough places with pumice-stone after
-wetting them well. I ached all over by
-the time this process was completed but
-I got her as smooth as glass. Then I
-gave her outside a couple of good coats
-of raw linseed oil applied on a hot day.
-As a finish, not caring to waste money
-on varnish, I gave her a final coat of
-boiled linseed oil, in which a generous
-lump of rosin had been melted. This
-is the mixture used from time immemorial
-by the Dutch on the bottoms
-and topsides of their galliots, and it
-wears well and looks well, resisting the
-action of both fresh and salt water. I
-may say that this method of making
-my boat water-tight was economical and
-successful. The example may be followed
-with similar results by anybody
-who owns a leaky lapstreak craft.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Another method, as practiced on a St.
-Lawrence skiff that was badly checked
-and rotten in places, is thus described
-by a veteran boatman who made the successful
-experiment: "The boat was of
-lapstreak construction, and many of the
-seams had opened. I went entirely over
-the boat, first closing the seams as much
-as possible by drawing together with
-clout-nails. Next, where there were
-cracks through the 3/16-inch planking,
-I cleaned the painted surface, and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>where the paint had blistered I removed
-all of it by scraping. When the surface
-was in proper condition I cut a
-strip of eight-ounce duck of a length
-and width to cover the crack (generally
-3/4 inch was wide enough) and smeared
-one side, by means of a stick, with liquid
-glue. The canvas was applied to the
-crack and pressed down, and the glue-stick
-drawn over the raveled ends from
-the center outward, to make them adhere
-closely to the boat. Then the canvas
-and surrounding wood were brushed
-over with enamel paint. The painting
-must be done before the glue sets, as
-otherwise the canvas is apt to warp.
-Open cracks 1/8 inch wide were covered
-in this manner, and also cracks at the
-butts of the strakes. After all of the
-cracks were treated I gave the boat two
-good coats of paint over all, and the
-result was a comparatively smooth surface,
-and one that was absolutely watertight."
-The veteran very truly adds
-that an old boat repaired in this way
-will not stand any rough usage, and the
-patches are not proof against being
-dragged over rocks, or even a sand-beach;
-but by a little labor a boat that
-is practically worthless may be so made
-serviceable for an indefinite time.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>By either of the methods mentioned
-above a lapstreak boat may be made
-tight as a bottle. A carvel-built craft—that
-is, one with the planks flush, edge
-and edge, and the seams between
-calked and payed—may generally be
-made tight by recalking her with threads
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>of cotton prepared for that purpose and
-sold by ship-chandlers, driving the cotton
-well home with iron and mallet, and
-afterward puttying up the seams. Care
-should be taken, however, not to put
-the cotton in too tight, or drive it right
-through the seam. Serious damage has
-often been done to a boat in the way
-of increasing her leakiness by too hard
-calking. Or the boat's hull may be
-completely covered with light duck
-nailed on with copper tacks, and afterward
-well painted. This, however, is
-rather difficult for a greenhorn to accomplish
-so as to make a neat fit of it; but
-I have seen several boats repaired and
-renovated in this manner by young men
-gifted with ingenuity, and a great deal
-of patience. I may say that the result,
-if the work is well done, is worth the
-pains thereon expended.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Rowboats, sailboats, and launches
-propelled by any kind of power may
-have their hulls treated after one of
-these fashions, with quite satisfactory
-results.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>If the owner does not think he is
-sufficiently handy to undertake the stopping
-of leaks he can, at any rate, paint
-and varnish his craft. To paint a boat
-outside or inside a perfectly smooth
-surface is necessary, and to obtain this
-all rough spots should be smoothed with
-pumice-stone and sand-paper. Enamel
-paint should be used above the water-line,
-and the bottom may be painted
-with any one of the excellent compositions
-now in the market, which prevent
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>grass and barnacles from flourishing too
-luxuriantly on the underbodies of boats.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The interior of the boat, after being
-thoroughly washed and scrubbed, should
-also have a coat or even two coats of
-enamel paint, as this composition is
-lasting and wears three times as long
-as the ordinary preparation of white
-lead, oil, turpentine, and pigment. One
-thing, however, is worth remembering.
-Never use washing soda or boiling
-water to clean wood covered with enamel
-paint. Rub it with a sponge or flannel
-cloth dipped in lukewarm water and a
-little soap. For protecting and beautifying
-natural wood above deck or below,
-use a good brand of spar varnish. This
-will resist the damp, salt air of the
-ocean, or the more penetrating moisture
-of fresh-water lakes and rivers, far
-better than the higher grade of varnish
-used for the indoor decoration of dwelling
-houses, which, when it gets damp,
-acquires a plum-like bloom on its surface
-by no means beautiful.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Mr. W. Baden-Powell, than whom
-there is no better authority, says very
-truly, that there is no more dangerous
-time in their lives for the spars of
-canoes than when stowed away in a
-boat-house roof for the damp winter's
-rest. Bamboo spars are more liable to
-suffer than pine, or solid spruce, but
-each and all are in danger of splitting
-or kinking, especially so in the case of
-built spars, if glued up, instead of screw-built.
-With such convenient lengths as
-are found in canoe spars, there is no
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span>excuse for leaving them in damp boat-houses,
-as they can be stacked in a room
-corner, on end, and the sails and rigging
-in drawers or boxes. In this way each
-item of rigging can be overhauled,
-mended, improved, and set in order for
-the coming year, just as convenient
-spare time offers.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>About the middle of March in these
-latitudes we generally are blessed with
-ideal sailing breezes, a trifle blustering
-and boisterous, perhaps, when the
-merry music of the stiff nor'wester
-pipes through the rigging, but nevertheless
-vastly enjoyable to the ardent
-amateur, who grasps the tiller of his
-stanch shippie and fearlessly luffs up
-to the strident puffs, knowing that
-he has a stout hull beneath him,
-and that sails and gear are of trusty
-strength.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>It is all very well for the steam-yachtsmen
-and such-like marine Sybarites
-to wait for the hot days of July to
-arrive before ordering their floating
-palaces to go into commission, but he
-who depends upon sails can ill afford to
-allow all the glorious winds of the fresh
-and fragrant springtime to blow themselves
-to waste in such reckless, feckless
-fashion. There may be a chilly
-sting or bite in the spray that breaks on
-the weather bow in a silver shower and
-smites the helmsman mercilessly in the
-face, but there is invigorating ozone in
-wind and water, and a glow of triumph
-after a successful battle with breeze
-and billow.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>
-<img src='images/i_094a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>IN DRY DOCK.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_094b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>Photo by Dr. Titus.</span><br /><br /><span class='small'>HAULED OUT FOR PAINTING.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>It is prudent, too, to fit out early and
-lay up late, for life, alas! is brief, and it
-behooves us, my boating brethren, to
-enjoy as many brave sailing days as
-possible ere we make our final voyage
-across the Styx, with grim Charon, the
-ferryman, taking his perennial trick at
-the tiller, while his pets, the frogs,
-plash and play and croak in his muddy
-wake.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>If the yacht is a small one—a knockabout
-or a 30-footer—and she has wintered
-afloat, the first thing is to haul
-her out and prepare to clean her hull of
-barnacles and grass, of which a goodly
-crop is sure to have grown on her below
-the water-line. Start in with scrubbing
-brushes, sand and canvas and use plenty
-of elbow grease until she is thoroughly
-cleaned and all rough places smoothed
-with pumice stone. Use plenty of fresh
-water, with a flannel cloth as a final
-application to her hull. Then leave her
-until she is thoroughly dry. Carefully
-examine her seams for leaks, calking
-where necessary.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>When your boat is out of water open
-her wide to the fresh air. Rig up a
-windsail, and let the healthful breezes
-circulate through her interior. If she
-has hatches or skylights, lift them off;
-if portholes, unscrew them and give the
-wind a chance to blow all close impurities
-away. Rig the pump and relieve
-her of all malodorous bilge water, the
-most nauseating and offensive evil that
-is met with by mariners. Take up the
-cabin flooring. If the ballast consists of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>pig iron, rout it out, clean off the rust,
-and before replacing give it a good coat
-of coal tar, applied hot. Clean the
-limbers and flush them with plenty of
-water, using a bristly broom to remove
-the dirt. Splash the water about lavishly,
-and then pump it out dry. If there
-happens to be a cooking stove below,
-as there generally is in a vessel of any
-size, light a roaring fire and do your
-best to kill all fungoid germs or spores
-that may have gathered in damp places
-during the winter. Examine the ceiling
-for leaks.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Should, through imprudent oversight,
-any bedding, matting, carpet, or clothing,
-have been left in the boat since last
-season, take them out and have them
-cleansed and dried. If mold and mildew
-have attacked them, destroy without
-compunction, and resolve to take
-better care next time.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>After thoroughly cleansing the craft
-inside from the eyes of her to right aft
-with soap and hot water, you can paint
-her cabin, if you deem she needs it,
-using enamel paint if you are willing
-to go to a little extra expense, or, at any
-rate, if not, using a generous quantity
-of spar varnish with the oil and dryers
-you mix your white lead with. This
-dries good and hard and is easily
-cleansed with warm water, soap and a
-sponge, and is far more durable and
-satisfactory than paint mixed in the
-ordinary manner. Two coats should be
-given.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The next process is to clean the deck
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>of the coat of varnish with which it was
-doubtless covered when the yacht was
-prepared for the winter. To accomplish
-this in the most efficacious manner, procure
-from a ship chandler a sufficient
-quantity of one of the many preparations
-of caustic soda, with which the
-market is well equipped. Dissolve it in
-an iron bucket in hot water, mixing it
-strong enough to act as a powerful detergent.
-These preparations vary in
-power, so it will be well to experiment
-on a section of the deck with a sample
-and then add more soda or more water
-as required.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>After sundown apply plentifully to
-the deck with a mop, rubbing the mixture
-well into the planks. Next morning
-before sunrise arm yourself with a good
-hard deck-scrubber, and set to work in
-earnest, using plenty of hot water and
-scrubbing the deck planks (fore and
-aft, mind you, always, and never athwart-ship)
-until every particle of the old
-varnish and every speck and stain is removed.
-If the detergent is allowed to
-remain on the deck while the sun is
-shining, it is bound to eat into the planks
-and burn them.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The next operation is the painting of
-the boat inside and out. There are
-many excellent compositions for coating
-the hull below the water-line, but if
-you do not care to experiment with
-them, use the recipe given in the chapter
-on "Useful Hints and Recipes."
-Choose a clear, dry day and apply the
-paint. For above the water-line use
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span>pure white lead of the best quality
-reduced to the proper consistency with
-equal parts of raw and boiled linseed
-oil and copal varnish. Add a dash of
-dryers and a few drops of blue paint,
-strain and apply.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Personally, I prefer to varnish the
-deck of a small craft, though I am quite
-willing to acknowledge the superior
-beauty of a spotless deck white as a
-hound's tooth. The friends of a yachtsman
-often wear boots with ugly nails in
-them, both on soles and heels, and these
-are apt to play havoc with the spick and
-span appearance of a deck innocent of
-varnish. After cleaning the decks thoroughly
-let them dry well. Wait for a
-sunny morning and a northwesterly
-wind, when the air is comparatively free
-from moisture. Get your can of spar
-varnish out, and after sweeping the
-decks and dusting them thoroughly with
-a feather-duster, apply with a regular
-varnish brush of convenient size. It is
-advisable to pour out the varnish into a
-shallow jar, a marmalade pot for instance,
-in small quantities as required,
-as varnish loses its virtue rapidly by exposure
-to sun and air. It is expedient,
-therefore, that the varnish can, or bottle,
-should never be left uncorked. The
-varnishing process should not be undertaken
-until the last thing, after the boat
-has been cleaned and painted inside and
-out, spars and blocks scraped and polished,
-standing rigging set up, running
-rigging rove and sails bent. Two thin
-coats of varnish will be ample for the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>decks and spars, as well as all the hardwood
-fittings and trimmings of the yacht
-inside and out.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Should the varnish be too thick to
-flow freely from the brush, <i>don't</i> thin it
-with oil or spirits of turpentine unless
-you wish to dim its luster and deprive
-it of much of its preservative quality.
-Simply place the varnish can in a bucket
-of hot water, and let it remain there
-until it gets warm, when you will experience
-no difficulty in applying it to
-advantage. Another hint worth taking
-is never to buy cheap and inferior varnish.
-The best is none too good.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>These suggestions may appear superfluous
-to a professional yachtsman, who,
-if he happens to read this yarn, might
-feel tempted to observe: "Why, every
-darned chump knows that!" As a matter
-of fact, amateurs as a rule are not
-familiar with these little "wrinkles,"
-which are in many cases tricks of the
-trade. This yarn is spun for amateurs
-only, and not for the edification or instruction
-of veteran professionals. About half
-a century ago, when I first became a boat
-owner, I should have been delighted to
-get the fruits of a practical man's ripe
-experience.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Fashionable craft with spoon bows
-and long overhangs forward have abolished
-the long bowsprits and simplified
-the head gear. The short bowsprit is
-secured with a steel bobstay extending
-from the stem to the cranze iron on the
-bowsprit, the bobstay being set up taut
-with a turnbuckle of galvanized iron.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span>The bowsprit shrouds are of steel wire
-also set up by turnbuckles.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The polemast has also done away with
-all the topmast gear, the mast being secured
-by a forestay which sets up to the
-stem head and by one or sometimes two
-shrouds on each side set up by turnbuckles.
-The days of deadeyes and
-lanyards and of reefing bowsprits are
-departed. A sailor to be quite down-to-date
-should combine with his nautical
-knowledge some of the art of the
-blacksmith. Strength and lightness and
-handiness are the watchwords of to-day,
-and with modern methods the gear of a
-small craft is so simple that it takes little
-time to rig her.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>I suppose I may take it for granted
-that all the running rigging was neatly
-coiled up and labeled and stored ashore
-when you went out of commission last
-fall. I know many smart young yachtsmen
-who while away many a long winter
-evening with pleasure and profit
-overhauling sheets and halyards, stropping
-blocks, varnishing them, splicing,
-serving and generally repairing all of
-the running gear that needs attention,
-making manropes, scraping and polishing
-the gangway ladder, the tiller, etc.,
-and in other ways preparing for their
-summer's amusement. The study of
-navigation, the rule of the road at sea,
-the coast pilot, the learning of marlinspike
-seamanship and a rudimentary
-knowledge of the use of the palm and
-needle, so that if a sail should need
-some simple repairs they may be made
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span>without loss of time and without seeking
-aid from a sailmaker—all these the
-amateur will find useful. It is astonishing
-how much one can learn in one
-winter if he devotes only an hour a night
-to the acquirement of nautical lore.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>But supposing that his running gear
-has not been touched since it was unrove,
-it will take only a short time to
-get it in tip-top order, and the work may
-be done in the evening when it is too
-dark to potter about the yacht.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>While you are about it you may as
-well make a thorough job of this fitting
-out. Shin up the mast and make a tail-block
-fast to the masthead as high as
-possible, reeving a gantline through it
-so that you may sit in a boatswain's
-chair or in a bowline while you survey
-the stick. If the collars of the shrouds
-or forestay show any sign of chafe, they
-must come down and be served over
-again with spun yarn or covered with
-canvas sewn on with a palm and needle,
-using plenty of lead colored paint in the
-process to prevent rust. Examine the
-masthead carefully for weak parts, which
-generally are to be found in the wake
-of the rigging. If rot and signs of
-serious strains are met with, it is evident
-that a new mast is needed. Longitudinal
-cracks may be disregarded unless
-they are glaringly apparent, but transverse
-cracks should be viewed with
-suspicion.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>If, after close inspection, you conclude
-that the mast is good enough to stand,
-you may as well begin to scrape it,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>engaging your chum to lower you down
-by your gantline. After scraping, use
-sandpaper until it is polished smooth.
-Then give it a couple of coats of spar
-varnish. If the boat has a bowsprit,
-treat it in the same way. If she carries
-a topmast, scrape and varnish it and the
-boom, gaff, spinnaker-boom, boathook
-and the oars of your dinghy as well as
-all blocks ashore, wherever convenient.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Next set up your rigging good and
-taut, taking care to stay the mast perfectly
-plumb—no rake aft or forward.
-If you carry a topmast, send it up and
-stay it in the usual way. Get your boom
-in position by means of the gooseneck
-and the crotch; reeve your topping-lift
-and hook it on to its place at the end of
-the boom. Get the gaff in place, hook
-on the throat and peak halyards, and
-there you are all ready to bend sails.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>It is imperative that your vessel,
-whether she be a cruiser pure and
-simple or a racer, should have a well
-cut suit of sails. If it is your intention
-to treat her to the luxury of a brand
-new suit, I hope that you placed your
-order with a responsible sailmaker
-weeks ago. The winter is the correct
-time to have your sails made, when the
-knights of the palm and needle are not
-so apt to be rushed.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Yacht owners have the habit of procrastinating
-where sails are concerned,
-and postpone their orders for new canvas
-to the very last moment. This
-causes such a hurry in the loft that large
-orders are apt to receive the first and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>best attention of the sailmaker, while
-the owner of a moderate-sized vessel
-has to wait the foreman's convenience;
-whereas, if an order is placed before,
-say, Christmas, one of the firm is as
-likely as not to give the matter his personal
-attention, measure your craft
-himself, and let the cut and the sit of
-the sails have the benefit of his own
-supervision. It is also a fact that the
-sailmaking firms make it a point to
-keep their best men at work all the year
-round, while the mere ordinary workmen
-are "laid off" when the season
-closes. The consequence is that the
-yachtsman who orders his sails in good
-time has the advantage of the most
-skillful craftsmen in the market, and he
-is likely, too, to have better prices
-quoted him than in the rush of the
-season, when all hands are hard at it.
-Therefore, my advice is to take early
-action and win the best results at the
-most favorable figure.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>It was always my custom, before unbending
-my yacht's sails preparatory to
-going out of commission, to summon
-my sailmaker aboard and take him for
-a short trip, pointing out what I considered
-to be the defects in the muslin
-and listening to his suggestions for their
-remedy. He would make notes in his
-memorandum-book and inscribe certain
-hieroglyphic marks on the sails themselves.
-When the canvas was unbent
-he would send for it, make the repairs
-and alterations at his leisure and store
-the sails for me until the spring, when
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span>I would find them in perfect condition
-for setting. All this was done for moderate
-compensation, considering the
-excellence of the workmanship.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The importance of a well-cut and
-well-sitting suit of sails cannot be over-estimated.
-No matter how well the
-naval architect may have executed his
-work in the design of a vessel's hull, if
-the sailmaker has failed in his task, success
-in racing is an impossibility. You
-might just as well expect a fast homing
-pigeon to attain his normal speed with
-a crippled wing as a yacht to win a cup
-hampered by sails of poor material and
-faulty construction.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>If low-grade material is used, despite
-the best efforts of the scientific sailmaker,
-the sails are sure to be unsatisfactory.
-The climate on the Atlantic
-coast is peculiarly trying even to the
-finest grades of cotton duck, which is
-assuredly the best fabric known that can
-be used for the purpose of the sailmaker.
-The hot and arid westerly
-winds dry out the sails so that they become
-soft and open, causing them to
-stretch abnormally and to get full of
-what are technically termed "hard
-places." The wind shifts to the eastward,
-a damp, moist quarter, and the result
-is a severe shrinking, which, in
-conjunction with the previous violent
-stretching, is enough to play havoc with
-the best and closest woven material, no
-matter how scientifically designed and
-constructed. You can imagine how a
-suit of sails of cheap and common duck,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>botched by some ordinary tentmaker,
-would be likely to behave under such
-circumstances.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>My advice is to order your sails of
-a reputable firm of experience, have
-them made of the best material, and
-take care that they are bent by a man of
-judgment and skill and not by some
-habitué of a hay-mow or a pig-drover
-fresh from the farm. I have known a
-suit of sails that cost several hundred
-dollars irretrievably ruined by being
-overstretched in the first instance by a
-sailing-master ignorant of the first principles
-of his calling.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A well-known sailmaker, who has
-made sails for some of the crack racing
-yachts of America, gives the following
-admirable instructions for setting the
-sails of a 40-foot single-sticker: Cast
-off the tyers from the mainsail; hook
-on the peak halyards; see that the gaff
-goes up between the topping-lifts as
-you hoist up on the throat and peak halyards;
-hoist up on the throat until the
-luff-rope is straight; if the sail has a
-slide on the boom, haul out on it till the
-canvas is just straight and smooth on
-the foot; too hard a pull will throw a
-heavy strain on the diagonal, from the
-end of the boom to the jaws of the gaff,
-giving a bad after leech when the peak
-is swayed up; next sway up the luff
-pretty taut; it is not necessary to top
-the boom up to too great an angle out
-of the crotch; man the peak halyards
-and hoist on them until the after leech
-is so lifted that it spreads and stretches
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span>every square inch of the after angle of
-the sail; as soon as the peak begins to
-lift the outer end of the boom, the mainsheet
-should be made fast (unless the
-boom extends so far over the taffrail
-that it would bring an undue leverage
-on the boom and spring it to breaking);
-now sweat up the peak halyards until
-the stretch is entirely taken out of the
-halyard canvas; if the peak is hoisted
-beyond its proper angle, it puts an undue
-strain on the diagonal, from the end of
-the gaff to the center of effort of the
-sail, the consequence being a nasty gutter
-just inside the leech, which gives
-rise to the groundless complaint that
-there is a tight cloth inside the after
-leech. It should be remembered that
-the trouble lies in stretching the head
-and foot of the sail too taut, and over-setting,
-the peak.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>These instructions are so clear as to
-be intelligible to the merest tyro, and
-should be followed out on all occasions.
-A good mainsail costs a large sum, and
-there is no reason why it should be
-ruined by neglect of proper precautions.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>In setting a thimble-headed topsail
-hoist away on the halyards, then
-bowse the tack down with a purchase,
-then sheet it out to the gaff end so that
-there shall be an exact and even strain
-on both foot and leech.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The proper angle of the jib-sheet depends
-entirely on the position its clew
-occupies in relation to the stay. It
-should always hold the foot of the sail
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_111'>111</span>a little more than it does the after leech,
-so as to allow the proper flow, which is
-so effective as well as so beautiful.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>If you determine that the craft's old
-suit is good enough for another year,
-overhaul it for holes. Perhaps the sails
-have been stowed away where rats or
-mice have had free access to them. If
-so, they will need repairs. If they were
-rolled up damp, or stored in a damp
-place, they will probably be badly mildewed.
-The unsightly stains of mildew
-can be partially removed by scrubbing
-the sail on both sides with fresh water
-and soap, and afterward rubbing whiting
-over it and leaving it to dry and
-bleach in the sun.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>If the sails are discolored, they may
-be improved by laying them on a plot
-of clean sand, scrubbing them on both
-sides with sea-water and salt-water soap,
-and afterward sprinkling them with
-salt-water in which whiting is dissolved
-until it looks like milk. Let them bleach
-in the sun until one side is quite dry,
-and then turn them over.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>To prevent mildew from spoiling the
-sails, keep them dry and well ventilated.
-If a sail is furled when damp, the inner
-folds will mildew. Always roll up a wet
-sail loosely, and shake it out and dry it
-the first chance you get; in any case
-open it out and give it air, even if rain
-continues to fall. Remember that new
-sails will mildew very quickly because
-of the "dressing" in the duck, which
-sets up a fungoid growth or fermentation.
-For these reasons don't depend
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span>too much on your watertight sail-covers,
-but give your canvas frequent air
-and sun baths if you wish your "white
-wings" to remain things of beauty.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The same attention to the sails to
-avoid mildew should be given to the hull
-to prevent dry rot, which is quite as frequently
-caused by the lack of ventilation
-as by the use of unseasoned timber
-in the construction of a vessel.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The principal labor of fitting out has
-been described, but the cabin is yet to
-be fixed up for occupation, and stores
-taken aboard for the opening cruise. It
-is well to have a list prepared of the
-actual necessities in the way of supplies
-that must not be left ashore when
-you get under way. Here are a few
-things that cannot be dispensed with:
-Anchor and chain, small kedge anchor,
-tow-rope, life-buoy, side-lights, anchor
-light, oil and wicks, bell, foghorn, compass
-with binnacle, hand lead, chart of
-waters you intend to navigate, dinghy,
-either on board or towing astern, properly
-fitted with oars, boathook, rowlocks
-and plug, all secured by lashings.
-A good supply of fresh water should be
-taken along, and a stock of provisions
-suitable to the tastes of the skipper and
-his guests. An awning for the cockpit
-may prove a great comfort both in hot
-and rainy weather, when becalmed or at
-anchor.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>I recommend that a storm trysail, a
-storm jib and a drogue, or sea-anchor,
-form part of the yacht's equipment, and
-that they be stowed away in some place
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span>convenient for instant use. Perhaps
-they may never be needed, but it is
-often the unforeseen that happens, and
-in this world of uncertainty it is best to
-be always ready for an emergency.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Thus prepared the yachtsman may
-safely venture for a cruise, selecting
-those waters with which he is most familiar
-or most anxious to explore. He
-will find April an ideal month for yachting,
-and if he puts in his time to the best
-advantage he will have his craft "tuned
-up" to racing pitch, his amateur crew so
-admirably drilled and disciplined, and his
-sails and gear in such capital shape that,
-if there is really any speed in the craft
-at all, prizes should be the inevitable
-reward of his skill and his enterprise.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_109.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-<div class='pbb'>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span>
-<img src='images/i_110.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>"MAKING READY FOR A NEW DRESS."</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>
-  <h2 class='c004'>VIII.<br /> <br />FITTING OUT FOR A CRUISE.</h2>
-</div>
-<p class='drop-capa0_3_0_6 c005'>In equipping a boat for a cruise,
-even in summer, it is always well
-to remember that gales of wind
-are not unusual even in July.
-I once knew it to blow with spiteful
-ferocity in the last week of that
-month, and to disperse the Atlantic
-Yacht Club squadron and drive them to
-seek shelter in various harbors of Long
-Island Sound, between Black Rock and
-New Haven. Out of the whole fleet
-only two yachts reached their destination,
-New London. One was the sloop
-<i>Athlon</i>, Vice-Commodore E. B. Havens,
-on board of which I was a guest, and
-the forty-footer <i>Chispa</i>. It was quite
-an exciting and hard thrash to windward
-in the teeth of an easterly gale,
-but we got there. Had not the two
-yachts mentioned been properly prepared
-for such an exigency, they also
-would have been forced to bear up and
-run for some land-locked haven in which
-to linger until the wind had blown itself
-out. Although these summer gales
-generally exhaust themselves in twenty-four
-hours, they are often quite savage
-while they last, and the sensible yachtsman
-will always be prepared to meet
-them. His standing and running rigging
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span>will be in first-class condition;
-whatever storm canvas he carries will
-be ready for bending at a moment's
-notice; his sea anchor or drogue will
-also be at hand for letting go should
-the necessity arise.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Of course I need not impress upon the
-amateur boat sailer that a compass
-should be taken along on a cruise. But
-I have mingled a good deal with the
-owners of small craft, and have met
-many who either did not carry one at
-all or, if it was aboard, as likely as not
-stowed it away in the same locker with
-a hatchet, marlinespike and other tools
-not likely to improve it. A compass
-should always form part of a boat's outfit.
-A fog often makes its appearance
-when a party of pleasure seekers are
-enjoying a sail on sound or bay, and
-when it shuts down on you thick as a
-hedge I will defy you not to lose your
-bearings, and consequently your way.
-In times such as these a compass will
-prove a source of great comfort, and instead
-of being compelled to anchor and
-await clear weather you can steer for
-your destination under shortened sail.
-In such cases never fail to blow the
-foghorn, which should be of regulation
-size and not a penny squeaking trumpet
-such as a six-year old schoolboy affects.
-The ordinary boat's compass will answer
-admirably if only short sails are contemplated,
-but on a long cruise where a
-heavy sea is not unlikely to be encountered,
-a fluid compass should be carried.
-The motion of a small craft in rough
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>water causes the common compass card
-to jump about so much as to be perfectly
-useless to steer by, while a fluid compass
-remains steady and reliable under
-all circumstances and conditions. There
-are several fluid compasses in the market
-at a reasonable price, which can be
-depended upon in an emergency. The
-fluid on which the needle floats is generally
-alcohol, to guard against freezing,
-and is simply a development of a primitive
-compass used by the daring seamen
-of the twelfth century. This old-fashioned
-instrument consisted of an iron
-needle, one end of which was stuck into
-a piece of cork. The other end was
-well rubbed with a loadstone, and when
-the cork was floated in an earthenware
-bowl of water the end so treated pointed
-to the magnetic North. In spite of the
-meager knowledge of those early navigators
-concerning variation and deviation,
-they generally managed to make a
-sufficiently good land-fall. It may not
-be generally known that a sewing needle
-rubbed on a magnet and carefully
-dropped into a vessel of water will float
-and point to the North.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The rule of the road at sea requires
-vessels in a fog to go at a moderate
-speed and to blow the foghorn at intervals
-of not less than two minutes; when
-on the starboard tack one blast, when
-on the port tack two blasts in succession,
-and when with the wind abaft the beam
-three blasts in succession. It also has
-certain imperative rules for a vessel at
-anchor in a fog.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span>The law provides that a vessel not
-under way in a fog shall at intervals of
-not more than two minutes ring a bell.
-It will be seen therefore that a bell is
-quite as necessary as a foghorn. If a
-boat at anchor or under way in thick
-weather, with neither bell nor foghorn
-in use as provided by the law, should be
-run into and damaged or sunk by any
-other vessel, her owner would have no
-redress. On the contrary, if he escaped
-with his life he could be forced to pay
-for any damage, however trifling, the
-vessel colliding with him sustained in
-the act. If he was drowned his estate
-would be liable.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A bell should form part of the careful
-boatowner's outfit. But if you have
-neglected providing one, don't despair.
-Get out a frying pan or a tin kettle and
-kick up as much racket as you can by
-beating one or both with a hammer or a
-marlinespike. A fishhorn has many times
-answered the purpose of a foghorn,
-but I would not recommend it as a
-steady substitute. All I wish to convey
-is that a frying pan and a fishhorn are
-better than nothing.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The variety of anchor to be carried
-depends very much upon choice. There
-are several kinds for sale quite suitable
-for small cruisers, all of which have
-good points to recommend them.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>
-<img src='images/i_115.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>PLEASANT CAT-BOAT SAILING.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>The law is imperative as regards the
-carrying of lights by night when at
-anchor or under way. If your craft is
-very small, there is a light in the market
-fitted with green and red slides to be
-shown when required, which may suit
-your purpose. But if your craft has any
-pretensions to size provide yourself with
-a pair of brass side lights and also a
-good brass anchor light. Avoid those
-flimsy articles with which the market
-is flooded. The best are cheapest in
-the end. See that all the lamps you
-have aboard take the same sized wick.
-Buy the brand of oil known as mineral
-sperm, which is used by all first-class
-steamship lines. Its quality has borne
-the test of years and has never been
-found wanting. For lamp cleaning take
-a plentiful supply of cotton waste and
-old newspapers, the last named for polishing
-the glass. A hand lead and line
-must not be forgotten, while an aneroid
-barometer, a thermometer and a marine
-clock will be both useful and ornamental.
-Do not forget a canvas bucket and
-a deck scrubber.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A few tools will be found necessary.
-A hatchet, hammer, chisel, file, jack-knife,
-gimlet, screw driver, small crosscut
-saw and an assortment of screws
-and nails will be about all that is essential
-in this direction. A few yards of
-duck, palm and needles and sewing
-twine, a ball of marline, one of spun
-yarn and a marlinespike may be stowed
-away snugly, and their possession
-in case of need is often a great boon.
-The adventurous voyager must use his
-own discretion as to his wardrobe.
-The marine "dude" is in evidence in
-our midst, and who am I that I should
-condemn a man for trying to look his
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span>prettiest, both ashore and afloat? Don't
-forget to buy a good suit of oilers, and
-don't fail to slip them on when it rains.
-When you come to get to my age, and
-feel the rheumatism in your old bones,
-you will wish you had followed my
-advice.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Tastes differ so widely that it is hard
-to advise a man as to his <i>cuisine</i> when
-afloat. What would suit an old sea dog
-"right down to the ground" might not
-be palatable to the nautical epicure with
-a taste for humming-bird's livers on
-toast, or other such dainty kickshaws.
-Personally, I can enjoy a good square
-meal of sardines and hardtack, wash it
-down with a cup of coffee and wind up
-with a pipe of plug tobacco, and conclude
-that I have feasted like a prince.
-This is probably due to my forecastle
-training. Others are more fastidious.
-Luckily this is the age of canned viands,
-and almost every delicacy under the sun
-is put up in convenient form, requiring
-only a can-opener to extract the hidden
-sweetness.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The culinary difficulty that confronts
-the sailer of a small craft is the cooking
-stove. Like the servant girl problem, it
-is still unsolved. Many great geniuses
-have wasted the midnight oil and have
-nearly exhausted the gray matter of
-their brains in trying to invent a stove
-that shall be suitable for a little cockleshell
-of a boat with a <i>penchant</i> for
-dancing over the waves in lively style.
-Some have tried cast-iron stoves with a
-smokestack, and coal for fuel, and have
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span>cursed their folly ever after. Gasoline
-stoves, so long as they don't explode and
-set fire to the boat, are convenient and
-cleanly. Various kinds of alcohol lamps,
-hung on gimbals to accommodate themselves
-to the perpetual motion of a
-vessel, are in use and are thoroughly
-adapted for making a pot of coffee, tea
-or chocolate, and for heating a can of
-soup or preserved meat. A hungry
-boatman should not ask for more luxurious
-fare. There are preparations of
-coffee and milk and cocoa and milk in
-cans, which can be got ready in a hurry
-and with the least possible trouble.
-They are also nice, and I do not hesitate
-to stamp them with the seal of my
-approval. By looking over the catalogue
-of the canned goods of any first-class
-grocer, you will find a quantity of
-varieties to select from, all of excellent
-quality and moderate in price. In order
-to provide against waste it would be
-advisable if cruising alone to buy the
-smallest packages in which the viands
-are put up. Hardtack should be kept in
-airtight tin boxes to guard against damp.
-Matches can be stowed in a glass fruit jar,
-and in this snug receptacle defy salt spray
-and sea air which threaten the integrity
-of brimstone and phosphorus. The
-man who indulges in tobacco (and what
-lover of the sea does not?) will find it
-well to pack a supply of wind matches in
-a glass jar, so that he can keep his match
-safe replenished and be able to light his
-pipe or cigar no matter how the breeze
-may blow. I have found tobacco a
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span>mighty source of comfort under adverse
-mental and physical conditions, and its
-soothing influence has made many a
-trick at the tiller seem less weary.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Cooking in a small craft tossed like a
-cork on the waves is a confounded
-nuisance, but a hot meal tastes well
-after you have been stuck at the tiller
-for four or five hours in squally weather.
-I remember an incident that occurred
-on board my cutter, the <i>Heather Bell</i>,
-when ingenuity provided a hot breakfast
-which otherwise we should not
-have enjoyed. We were caught in a
-southerly gale in the English Channel,
-and under trysail and spitfire jib we
-were doing our best to claw off a lee
-shore. I had been at the tiller nearly
-all night, and when day broke I was
-thoroughly exhausted. The little cutter—she
-was only fifteen tons—was pitching
-and 'scending at such a lively rate
-that lighting a fire in the stove was out
-of the question. My chum, however,
-managed to make some coffee with the
-aid of a spirit lamp, and also to cook a
-couple of plump Yarmouth bloaters.
-This last-named feat was difficult, but
-my chum was a man of genius. An inspiration
-came to him. He split the
-bloaters down the backs, put them
-in an extra deep frying pan, such as
-should always be used at sea, deluged
-them with Scotch whiskey, old and
-smoky, and set fire to it. I can see him
-now, hanging on to the cabin ladder
-with one hand and balancing the frying
-pan in the other, so that the blazing
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span>whiskey should not overflow and set fire
-to the cabin. Those bloaters were fine.
-They went right to the spot. It was
-rather an expensive mode of cooking,
-for the whiskey in question was choice,
-but we both agreed that the fishes were
-worthy of it. I suppose they would
-have tasted just as well if they had been
-cooked in alcohol, but that idea did not
-occur to my friend. A beefsteak prepared
-in the same way was delicious.
-We had it for dinner and soon after there
-came a shift of wind which enabled us
-to run for Newhaven and sleep comfortably.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>You should take with you a box of
-seidlitz powders, a bottle of vaseline,
-court plaster, a box of your pet pills, a
-bottle of extract of witch hazel, a bottle
-of extract of ginger, a bottle of <i>Sun</i>
-cholera mixture, and a bottle of Horsford's
-acid phosphate. These should be
-stowed away in a medicine-chest, which,
-if you have any mechanical skill at all,
-you can make yourself. If you are no
-hand at a saw or a chisel, a small medicine-chest,
-filled with all the requisites
-and adapted for use in a boat, can be
-obtained from any good drug-store at a
-reasonable figure.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A locker for the storage of ice is indispensable
-for one's comfort when sailing
-in these latitudes in summer. The
-locker should be lined with zinc, and
-should be fitted with a brass tap to draw
-off the waste water. Wrap your ice up
-in paper first, and then in a piece of
-coarse flannel, and you will be surprised
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span>at the length of time it will keep. A
-porous earthenware bottle should form
-part of your equipment. It can be suspended
-in a draught, and will supply
-you with a moderately cool drink when
-your ice is all used.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Remember that sea air generates damp
-very quickly in a cabin. Bedding should
-be aired and sunned if possible every
-day, and the cabin should be well ventilated.
-Cleanliness and comfort go together
-in a boat, and scrubbing-brush
-and swab should not be allowed to get
-dry-rot by disuse. Cultivate order and
-tidiness so far as the domestic economy
-of your yacht is concerned. Have a
-place for everything and everything in
-its place, or your little cabin will present
-a slovenly appearance instead of looking
-pretty and snug.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>If the interior of your cabin is painted
-white, use enamel paint, which dries
-hard and smooth, and can be easily
-cleaned by washing with warm (not
-hot) water, soap and sponge.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Cocoa-nut matting is better than carpet
-or oil-cloth as a covering for a small
-craft's cabin floor. It is difficult to dry
-carpet when it gets thoroughly drenched
-with salt water. Oil-cloth is comfortless
-and cold to bare feet, but cocoa-nut
-matting is open to neither of these objections.
-It is easily washed and dries
-quickly.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The cushions for the cabin may be
-stuffed with cork shavings or horse-hair
-and covered with india-rubber sheeting.
-These may again be covered with corduroy
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span>or blue flannel, as the india-rubber
-sheeting is cold. Mattresses made
-of deers' hair are in the market, and
-are quite comfortable. Being buoyant,
-they can be used as life-savers in an
-emergency.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Cups, saucers, plates and dishes of
-enameled iron or agate ware are unbreakable
-and much superior to those
-of tin, which rust and are hard to keep
-clean. Crockery and glassware are easily
-destroyed in a cruising craft, in spite
-of the ingenious racks and lockers invented
-to preserve them.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Don't omit to include fishing tackle
-among your stores. There is lots of
-sport in catching blue-fish or mackerel
-when under way, and many a weary
-hour when your craft is becalmed may
-be beguiled with hook and line. Besides,
-a fish fresh from the water forms
-an agreeable and appetizing change
-from the monotony of canned goods.
-There is no necessity to purchase expensive
-tackle for sea-fishing. All that
-is wanted is strong and serviceable gear.
-For blue-fishing provide yourself with
-a well-laid cotton line, which is not liable
-to kink. The line should be seven-sixteenths
-of an inch in circumference
-for the big fish one catches in spring
-and fall, and the hooks should be strong.
-It is well to carry with you several varieties
-of squid. For smaller blue-fish
-a lighter, cotton-braided line is good.
-When I go blue-fishing I take rubber
-finger-stalls along to prevent my fingers
-being chafed by the line. My readers
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span>should do the same. Horse-mackerel
-and Spanish mackerel are often taken
-with a blue-fish line.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>For navigating purposes all that is
-really necessary for a coasting voyage
-is a chart of the waters you propose to
-sail in, a pair of dividers and parallel
-rulers, and a book of sailing directions.
-A patent log may be added if so desired,
-and will add to the accuracy of your
-dead reckoning.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Thus equipped, the navigator may
-boldly venture forth either by himself
-or with a congenial companion. If he
-does not enjoy every moment of his
-cruise, and gain health and strength
-from the tonic sea breezes, he can safely
-conclude that Nature never intended
-him for a sailor. In that case he should
-dispose of his craft at once and seek
-such consolation as agricultural pursuits
-afford.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_123.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span>
-  <h2 class='c004'>IX.<br /> <br />BEATING TO WINDWARD.</h2>
-</div>
-<p class='drop-capa0_4_0_5 c005'>There is an old nautical truism to
-the effect that a haystack will sail
-well to leeward, but that it takes a
-correctly-modeled vessel to beat
-to windward. It is easy to comprehend
-how a straw hat thrown into a pond on
-its northerly
-edge will, under
-the influence
-of a brisk
-breeze from
-the north,
-make a fast
-passage to the
-southerly
-bank. It is
-more difficult
-to understand
-how the same
-straw hat, if
-put into the
-water at the
-southerly end
-of the pond,
-might be so
-manœuvred as
-to make a passage to the northern extremity
-of the sheet of water, though
-the wind continued to pipe from the
-north. This was, no doubt, a tough nut
-for the early navigators to crack, and
-the problem may have taken centuries
-to solve.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_124.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>Diagram No. 1.</span><br /><span class='small'>Sailing under Varying Conditions</span><br /><span class='small'>of Wind.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span>The paddle was naturally the first
-means of propelling a rude craft through
-the water, and the ingenious savage
-(probably an indolent rascal) who discovered
-that a bough of a tree, or the
-skin of a beast extended to a favoring
-breeze, would produce the same effect
-as constant and laborious plying of
-paddles, was presumably hailed as a
-benefactor by his tribe. But this device,
-artful no doubt in its inception,
-was only of avail while the wind blew
-towards the quarter in which the destination
-of the enterprising voyager lay.
-If the wind drew ahead, or dropped, the
-skin or leafy bough was no longer of
-use as a labor-saving contrivance, and
-the wearisome paddle was necessarily
-resumed.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The primitive square sail of antiquity
-embodies the same principle as that
-governing the motion through the water
-of the modern full rigged ship, which is
-admirably adapted for efficient beating
-to windward, or sailing against the wind.
-Superiority in this branch of sailing is
-the crucial test of every vessel whose
-propelling power is derived from canvas,
-and the shipbuilders and sailmakers
-of all seafaring nations have vied with
-each other for centuries to secure the
-desired perfection.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Beating to windward may be described
-as the method by which a vessel
-forces her way by a series of angles in
-the direction from which the wind is
-blowing. Some vessels will sail closer
-to the wind than others. That is to say,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_130'>130</span>with their sails full they will head a
-point or more nearer to the direction
-from which the wind comes than vessels
-of different rig.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_126.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>Diagram No. 2.</span><br /><span class='small'>Running Before the Wind.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>Broadly speaking, an ordinary fore-and-aft
-rigged yacht with the wind due
-north, will head northwest on the starboard
-tack, and northeast on the port
-tack. That is, she will head up within
-four points of the wind. Some will do
-better than this by a good half point.
-The famous old sloop <i>Maria</i>, owned by
-Commodore J. C. Stevens, founder of
-the New York Yacht Club, is said to
-have sailed within three points and a
-half of the wind, and I am informed
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_131'>131</span>that <i>Constitution</i>, in her races this year,
-achieved a similar remarkable feat.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A square-rigger, because the sails
-cannot be trimmed to form so sharp an
-angle to the breeze as a fore-and-aft
-rigged vessel, rarely sails closer than
-six points of the wind. Consequently,
-she has to make more tacks and consume
-a longer time in accomplishing a
-similar distance in the teeth of the
-breeze than a vessel driven by fore-and-aft
-canvas. It is possible to make my
-meaning clearer by means of simple
-diagrams, and to these I refer the reader.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_127.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>Diagram No. 3.</span><br /><span class='small'>Gybing.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>A vessel is said to be close-hauled
-when the sheets are trimmed flat aft
-and the boat is headed as near to the
-wind as the sails will permit without
-their luffs shaking. When a vessel is so
-trimmed, she is said to be sailing "full
-and bye," which means as close to the
-wind as the craft will point with the
-sails bellying out and full of wind. If
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_132'>132</span>a vessel is sailed so close to the wind
-that the sails quiver, the pressure is
-diminished and speed is decreased.
-Thus the art of beating to windward
-successfully consists in keeping the boat's
-sails full, while her head should not be
-permitted to "fall off" for an instant.
-This requires a watchful eye and an
-artistic touch. To become an adept, one
-should have plenty of practice.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_128.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>Diagram No. 4.</span><br /><span class='small'>Close Hauled on Port Tack.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>A boat is on the starboard tack when
-the main boom is over the port quarter
-and the port jib sheet is hauled aft. The
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_133'>133</span>wind is then on the starboard bow. The
-conditions are reversed when the craft
-goes on the port tack. In diagram No. 1,
-four conditions of sailing are shown,
-the figures representing a boat sailing
-with the wind astern, on the quarter,
-abeam, and close hauled. It will be observed
-how the main boom is trimmed
-to meet the varied changes of wind or
-course.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_129.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>Diagram No. 5,</span><br /><span class='small'>Close Hauled on Starboard Tack.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>Diagram No. 2 shows a racing yacht
-running before the wind with all her
-balloons expanded to the breeze. The
-spinnaker set to starboard not only adds
-greatly to her speed, but it also makes
-the steering easier, as it counteracts the
-pressure of the huge mainsail and club
-topsail on the port side, thus causing a
-nicely-adjusted balance. The balloon
-jibtopsail catches every stray breath of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_134'>134</span>air that is spilled out of the spinnaker,
-and it also has considerable possibilities
-as a steering sail, in addition to its
-splendid pulling power. For a vessel,
-however finely balanced and carefully
-steered, owing to various conditions of
-breeze and sea, has a tendency to yaw
-and fly up in the wind. Thus a strong
-puff or a heavy sea striking the boat may
-make her swerve from her course in an
-effort to broach to. Then the jibtopsail
-does good service as, when it gets full
-of wind, it pays the head of the boat off
-the wind, and materially assists the
-helmsman in steadying the vessel on her
-course.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_130.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>Diagram No. 6.</span><br /><span class='small'>Dead Beat to Windward.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>It may be remarked that steering a
-yacht under these conditions, in a strong
-and puffy
-breeze with a
-lumpy, following
-sea, calls
-for the best
-work of the
-ablest helmsman.
-A boat
-will generally
-develop an
-inclination to
-broach to,
-which means
-to fly up in the
-wind. Sometimes,
-however,
-the notion
-may strike
-her to run off
-the wind so
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_135'>135</span>much as to bring the wind on the other
-quarter, causing her to gybe. This
-would mean disaster, probably a broken
-boom and a topmast snapped off short
-like a pipe-stem, with other incidental
-perils.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Diagram No. 3 shows the manœuvre
-of gybing, which is to keep the
-vessel away from the wind until it comes
-astern, and then on the opposite quarter
-to which it has been blowing. Fig. 1
-shows a boat sailing before the wind
-with the main boom over to starboard.
-Fig. 2 shows the operation of luffing to
-get in the main sheet. Fig. 3 shows the
-boom over on the port quarter, and the
-operation complete, except trimming
-sail for the course to be steered.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>It may be remarked that gybing a
-racing yacht "all standing" in a strong
-wind requires consummate skill and
-care. A cool hand at the helm is the
-prime requisite, but smart handling of
-the main sheet is of scarcely less importance.
-The topmast preventer backstays
-should be attended to by live men.
-When a vessel is not racing, gybing in
-heavy weather may be accomplished
-without the slightest risk; the topsail
-may be clewed up and the peak of the
-mainsail lowered, and with ordinary
-attention the manœuvre is easily performed.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Diagrams Nos. 4 and 5 show the same
-racing yacht close hauled on the port
-and starboard tack. The spinnaker and
-balloon jibtopsail are taken in. A small
-jibtopsail takes the place of the flying
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_136'>136</span>kite. This sail, however, is only carried
-in light winds, as it has a tendency,
-when a breeze blows, to make a craft
-sag off to leeward.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Diagram No. 6 shows a boat beating
-out of a bay with the wind dead in her
-teeth, a regular "nose-ender" or "muzzler."
-She starts out from her anchorage
-on the port tack, stands in as close
-to the shore as is prudent, goes about
-on the starboard tack, stands out far
-enough to weather the point of land,
-then tacks again, and on the port tack
-fetches the open sea.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Diagram No. 7 illustrates a contingency
-frequently met with in beating to
-windward, when a vessel can sail nearer
-her intended course on one tack than another.
-Thus suppose her course is East
-by South and the wind SE, she would
-head up East on one tack (the long leg)
-and South on the other (the short leg).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Diagram No. 8 depicts the manœuvre
-of tacking that is the method of "going
-into stays," or shifting from one tack to
-the other. Fig. 1 shows a boat steering
-"full and bye" on the starboard tack.
-It becomes necessary to go about.
-"Helm's a-lee!" cries the man at the
-tiller, at the same time easing the helm
-down to leeward and causing the boat's
-head to fly up in the wind. The jib
-sheet is let go at the cry "Helm's a-lee!"
-decreasing the pressure forward and
-making the boat, if well balanced, spin
-round. A modern racer turns on her
-heel so smartly that the men have all
-they can do to trim the head sheets
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_137'>137</span>down before she is full on the other
-tack. Some of the old style craft, however,
-hang in the wind, and it sometimes
-becomes necessary to pay her
-head off by trimming down on the port
-jib sheet and by shoving the main boom
-over on the starboard quarter (Fig. 3).
-Soon she fills on the port tack, and goes
-dancing merrily along, as shown in
-Fig. 4.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>In beating to windward in a strong
-breeze and a heavy sea leeway must be
-considered.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Leeway may be defined as the angle
-between the line of the vessel's apparent
-course and the line she actually makes
-good through the water. In other and
-untechnical words, it is the drift that the
-ship makes sideways through the water
-because of the force of the wind and the
-heave of the sea, both factors causing
-the craft to slide bodily off to leeward.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>This crab-like motion is due to a variety
-of causes, to the shape of the craft,
-to her trim, and to the amount of sail
-carried, and its quality and sit. Boats
-deficient in the element of lateral resistance,
-such as a shallow craft with the
-centerboard hoisted, will drift off to leeward
-at a surprising rate. A deep boat
-of good design and fair sail-carrying
-capacity will, on the other hand, if her
-canvas is well cut and skillfully trimmed,
-make little or no leeway. In fact, she
-may, under favorable circumstances,
-eat up into the wind and fetch as high
-as she points.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_138'>138</span>
-<img src='images/i_134.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>Diagram No. 7.</span><br /><span class='small'>A Long Leg and a Short Leg.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>Leeway is always a dead loss, and to
-counteract it is always the aim of the
-practical seaman and navigator. Captain
-Lecky, in his admirable work,
-"Wrinkles in Practical Navigation,"
-puts the case clearly, and his advice
-should be followed whenever feasible.
-He says: "Suppose a vessel on a wind
-heading NW by N, under short canvas
-and looking up within three points of
-her port, which, accordingly, bears north;
-but, owing to its blowing hard, she is
-making 2-1/2 points leeway. Clearly this
-vessel is only <i>making good</i> a NW by
-W1/2W course, which is 5-1/2 points from
-the direction of port. Let her speed
-under these conditions be, say, four
-knots per hour.
-Now, if the yards
-are checked in a
-point or so, and
-the vessel be
-kept off NW by
-W, she will slip
-away much faster
-through the water,
-and probably will
-make not more
-than half a point
-leeway. This keeps
-the course <i>made
-good</i> exactly the
-same as before,
-with the advantage
-of increased
-speed. Therefore,
-if you can possibly
-avoid it, do not allow
-your vessel to
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_139'>139</span>sag to leeward by jamming her up in
-the wind. Keep your wake right astern,
-unless it be found from the bearing of
-the port that the course <i>made good</i> is
-actually taking the vessel away from it,
-in which case it is obvious that the less
-the speed the better."</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>This excellent counsel applies to every
-kind of sailing vessel, whether square-rigger
-or fore-and-after, whether used
-for business or pleasure. It is of no avail
-to pinch a boat for the purpose of keeping
-her bowsprit pointed for her destination,
-when it is obvious that she will only
-fetch a point several
-miles to leeward.
-Keep the
-sails clean full and
-the boat will make
-better weather of
-it, as well as greater
-speed. It may
-frequently be necessary
-to "luff and
-shake it out of her"
-when struck by a
-hard squall, or, by
-the aid of a "fisherman's
-luff," to
-clear an object
-without tacking,
-but a good rule is
-to keep a sailing
-craft moving
-through the water
-and not permit her
-to pitch and rear
-end on to the sea.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_135.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>Diagram No. 8.</span><br /><span class='small'>The Manœuvre of Tacking.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_140'>140</span>
-  <h2 class='c004'>X.<br /> <br />COMBINATION ROWING AND SAILING<br />BOATS.</h2>
-</div>
-<div  class='figcenter id005'>
-<img src='images/i_136.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>Whip purchase</span><br /><span class='small'>and traveler.</span><br />Fig. 1.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='drop-capa0_4_0_6 c005'>A boat intended for both
-rowing and sailing
-should be partly decked,
-and have as high a
-coaming as possible round the
-cockpit. A folding centerboard
-should be fitted as in Fig. 10,
-so as to avoid the awkwardness
-of a trunk, which in a small craft
-takes up too much room. Outside
-ballast is not necessary; a
-few bags of sand will do instead.
-An open boat under
-sail is dangerous except in the
-hands of a skilled boatman. In
-a scrub race the helmsman
-cracks on until the lee gunwale
-is almost on a level with the
-water. He may go along like this for
-some time, but if the water is rough,
-ten to one a sea will sooner or later come
-in over the lee bow, and the weight of
-water to leeward may cause the boat
-to capsize before the sheet can be let go
-and the helm put hard down to bring
-her head to wind. This in itself is not
-agreeable; and failing to right the boat
-one may be compelled to cling to the
-keel or rail until relief comes, or till he
-gets too tired to hang on any longer.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_141'>141</span>The excellent sport of sailing in a stiff
-breeze is obtained at its best only in a
-partly decked boat. The half-decked
-craft may also be made into a life-boat
-with the aid of water-tight boxes of tin
-or zinc. The cockpit should be made as
-narrow as is compatible with comfort.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The combination rowing and sailing
-boat should have as little gear as possible.
-Sheets and halyards should always
-be kept clear for running and never be
-allowed to get foul. If you are so unlucky
-or so imprudent as to meet with
-a capsize, keep clear of the ropes, for a
-turn of one round the leg may send you
-to Davy Jones's locker.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_137.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>Jib and Mainsail Rig. Fig. 2.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>In writing of rigs suitable for small
-craft I shall not weary my readers with
-descriptions of sails that are not at all
-adapted for practical use in American
-waters. The amateur desirous of becoming
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_142'>142</span>acquainted with the rig of boats
-suitable for Bermuda waters, the Norfolk
-Broads, the Nile, or the inland lakes
-of Timbuctoo must look elsewhere.
-Nevertheless the amateur may rest confident
-that I give practical instructions
-for the best possible rigs, and he may
-adopt any one of them after due consideration
-of the comments on each variety
-without any fear of future regret.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The mast of the combination sailing
-and rowing boat which is shown in Fig.
-2, should be so stepped that it can be
-taken down at a moment's notice. It
-should not be stepped into the keelson
-through a hole in the thwart, but should
-be fitted with a strong iron clamp and pin
-screwed to the after part of the thwart,
-so that it may be unshipped in a hurry.
-The mast should be light and strong.
-The sheave-hole in the head should be
-fitted with a galvanized-iron or yellow-metal
-sheave, and should be sufficiently
-large for the halyards to travel freely
-when the rope is swollen with water. A
-block may be fitted to the mast-head for
-the jib halyards. The boat should be
-provided with a galvanized-iron horse
-for the lower block of the mainsheet to
-travel on. This is a great convenience
-in beating to windward as the boom will
-go over by itself without the aid of the
-helmsman. The sail also sets better
-with the aid of a horse to keep the
-boom down.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The jib sheets and all halyards should
-lead aft within easy reach of the helmsman
-so that he may be able to handle
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_143'>143</span>them without letting go the tiller. The
-cushions of the stern sheets should be
-stuffed with cork shavings such as
-grapes come packed in from Spain.
-They should have life lines sewed to
-them so that in case of need they may
-be used as life-preservers.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_139.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>Sprit Rig. Fig. 3.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>The boat should be equipped with
-three oars (as one may be broken),
-a boat-hook and a baler; and the plug
-in the bottom should be secured to the
-boat by a lanyard and screw-eye. A
-tiller should be used for steering when
-sailing and not a yoke and lines.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Remember that you must luff when
-the first breath of the squall strikes the
-boat, for if way is lost and the boat is
-hove down on her beam ends, lee helm
-ceases to possess its virtue and the boat
-may capsize. This is a sound and wise
-axiom and one that a beginner should
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_144'>144</span>impress rigidly on his mind. Never
-allow skylarking in a boat. Never attempt
-to climb the mast of an open boat,
-as it is an operation fraught with danger.
-Rather unstep the mast for any
-repairs that may be necessary. Never
-stand on the thwarts of a small boat
-when under way.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>If women and children are on board
-never gybe the boom over. Many accidents
-have happened through the neglect
-of this precaution. No matter how
-expert a boat-sailer you may be, never
-take women and children out in a boat
-with only yourself to handle her. Always
-take care that you have with you
-either a skilled professional hand or an
-amateur who knows the ropes, can take
-his trick at the tiller and does not lose
-his head in a squall or other emergency
-of sea, lake, sound or river. In default
-of being able to command the services
-of such a man, leave the women and
-children ashore and postpone the excursion
-heedless of the tears and entreaties
-of your best girl and the black looks of
-your prospective mother-in-law. A lovers'
-quarrel is easily made up, but a
-capsized boat may mean loss of life and
-agonies of regret and self-reproach.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>I was once persuaded against my better
-judgment to take out a party of ladies
-for a sail in a jib-and-mainsail boat.
-We put out from a dock at Perth-Amboy
-in the afternoon, with a cloudless
-sky and a soft, sweet summer zephyr
-blowing. There was one other of my
-sex aboard and he told me he perfectly
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_145'>145</span>understood the handling of a boat. He
-wore a yachting suit and cocked his eye
-aloft in a knowing and nautical manner
-that deceived even an old stager like
-myself. A huge black bank of clouds
-arose in the northwest presaging the
-speedy approach of a savage thunder-squall.
-I told my nautical-looking
-shipmate to lower the jib, but he did not
-know how to find the halyards, and he
-was equally ignorant of the whereabouts
-of the sheet. I gave the tiller to one of
-the girls to hold, hauled down the jib,
-made it fast, lowered the mainsail and
-furled it as snugly as I could and then
-let go the anchor which, luckily, hadn't
-been left ashore. All this time my nautical-looking
-chum was star-gazing. As
-a matter of fact he knew no more about
-a boat than a bull knows of trigonometry.
-His specialty, I was afterwards informed,
-was measuring off tape by the
-yard and ogling his customers. I had
-to do a good deal of hustling to get the
-craft snug for the squall and to stow
-away my girl guests in the shelter of the
-little half-deck forward, where they fitted
-as tight as sardines in a box.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>When the squall struck us it was a
-hummer and no mistake. I veered out
-all the cable there was and she rode to
-it quite well. There came a deluge of
-rain with the blast, and the boat was
-soon nearly half full. The girls screamed
-and prayed. The counter-jumper looked
-pale about the gills and being too scared
-to bail flopped on his marrow-bones.
-Now praying on shipboard is not to be
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_146'>146</span>scoffed at, but it should be delayed until
-man has exhausted every possible means
-of saving the ship. I had to do all the
-bailing myself and when the squall had
-blown itself out I had to set the sails
-and hoist the anchor without any aid
-from the linen-draper.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>That is one reason why I don't go sailing
-single-handed anymore with a boatload
-of girls. Do you blame me, shipmates?
-They are as likely to get cranky
-as the boat herself, and one female at a
-time is all the average man can keep on
-an even keel. Of course I know many
-girls who can give me points and beat
-me easily in yachting and all that appertains
-thereto; but fair ones of that sort
-are not so plentiful as they might be.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>It should be remembered that these
-small rowing and sailing boats are not
-intended for a spin round Sandy Hook
-lightship. They are for smooth water
-and in their place are capable of affording
-their owners an immense amount of
-wholesome enjoyment. On a pinch they
-will stand a hard tussle with wind and
-wave, but it is never wise to tempt Providence.
-I once knew an Irishman who
-often declared that he was so favored by
-fortune that he could fall off a dock into
-the water and not get wet, but the average
-man is not built that way. An ambitious
-amateur may well begin his career
-on the water with one of these
-interesting little toys I have described,
-and even if he aspires to become the
-owner of a stouter and more seaworthy
-craft in which to essay adventurous
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_147'>147</span>cruises of great emprise, he will learn
-much that is of value from her.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>With these cautionary remarks I will
-proceed to describe the rigs which in
-my judgment are suitable for boats
-measuring from twelve to seventeen
-feet over all.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_143.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>Leg-of-mutton Rig. Fig. 4.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>The leg-of-mutton rig, whether combined
-with a jib or not, is the simplest
-and safest known, for there is no weight
-aloft such as is inevitable with a gaff.
-It is a sail exactly adapted to the requirements
-of a learner. The most
-nervous mother need not be alarmed if
-her boy goes sailing in a boat equipped
-with this rig. The sail is hoisted by a
-single halyard bent to the cringle at the
-head of the sail and rove through either
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_148'>148</span>a sheave or a block at the masthead.
-Sometimes the luff is laced to the mast,
-but it is better that it should be seized
-to hoops, as shown in Fig. 4. If a boom
-is used a larger sail can be carried, but
-it should be only a light spar and the
-foot of the sail should be laced to it.
-The boom may be fitted with a topping
-lift and the sheet be rove as shown in
-the illustration. In a small open boat
-no stays are necessary for the mast, but
-the jib halyards should be belayed to a
-cleat on one gunwale of the boat and
-the main halyards on the other, so as to
-afford support to the mast.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_144.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>Cat Rig. Fig. 9</span>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_149'>149</span>The jib and leg-of-mutton sail is a deservedly
-popular rig. A short bowsprit
-may be fitted to a boat and secured
-to an eyebolt in the stem by a wire bob-stay.
-A wire forestay may be set up to
-the bowsprit end and a jib may be bent
-to iron hanks on it and hoisted by a single
-halyard. Or it may be set flying.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The advantages of the cat rig (Fig.
-9) for general handiness have been often
-explained. I should advise that the
-sail be hoisted by both throat and peak
-halyards and not by a single halyard
-as is sometimes the case. It is often
-most convenient to be able to drop the
-peak, when gybing, for instance, or
-when struck by a squall. A single topping
-lift should be fitted with an eye
-splice to the end of the boom and
-rove through a block at the masthead
-and belayed to a cleat on the mast.
-The main sheet should travel on an
-iron horse. A short boomkin, with forestay
-and bob-stay, may help to secure
-the mast.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The balance lug, which is illustrated
-in Fig. 8, is quite a popular rig, and it
-has much in its favor. The sail is laced
-to a yard and boom and is hoisted by a
-single halyard rove through a sheave-hole
-in the masthead and spliced to the
-eye of the hook of a galvanized-iron
-traveler, to which a strop on the yard
-is hooked, as shown in the illustration.
-On the other end of the halyard a single
-block is turned in, through which a
-rope is rove, the standing part of which
-is made fast to an eyebolt at the foot
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_150'>150</span>of the mast and the hauling part rove
-through a block and led aft within easy
-reach of the helmsman. The tack should
-be made fast to the boom and set up
-to the mast thwart after being passed
-round the mast. The main sheet should
-work on a galvanized-iron horse. This
-rig is quite handy and a boat so
-equipped is smart in stays.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_146.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>Balance Lug Rig. Fig. 8.</span><br /><span class='small'>Showing Traveler and Halyards.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_151'>151</span>
-<img src='images/i_147.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>Sliding Gunter Rig. Fig. 5.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id006'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_152'>152</span>
-<img src='images/i_148.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>Detail of Sliding Gunter Rig, Fig. 6.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>The sliding gunter rig, which is shown
-in Fig. 5, has this much to recommend
-it: it is easily set if rigged as shown in
-the illustration and it can quickly be
-reefed. It will be seen that the mast is
-in two pieces, the topmast sliding up and
-down the lower mast on two wrought-iron
-rings or travelers. The halyards
-are sometimes made fast to the lower
-traveler and sometimes to the upper.
-They reeve through a sheave-hole in the
-lower masthead and may be set up with
-a single whip purchase. The lower mast
-may be supported with a single wire
-shroud on each side and, if the double
-headrig is carried, with a wire stay to
-the stem head. The sail should be laced
-to the topmast and secured to the lower
-mast by hoops or iron rings leathered.
-These should be large enough to slide
-easily up and down the mast, which
-should be kept well greased. The topmast
-should be so rigged that the upper
-iron can be unclamped and the topmast
-lowered down so as to permit the sail
-to be stowed like a gaff-sail along the
-boom. With the sail thus furled the
-boat will ride much easier in a breeze
-or a seaway. In Fig. 6 the working of
-the rig is shown: 1 is the lower mast,
-2  the topmast, 3 the halyards, 4 the
-upper ring, or traveler, with a clamp
-and pin to permit the lowering of the
-topmast, 5 the lower ring or traveler,
-which is fitted with a hinge at 6; 7 is
-the gooseneck of the boom to which
-the foot of the sail is laced. Reefing is
-simple. Lower away on the halyards,
-make fast the cringle on the luff of the
-sail, at whatever reef band is desired, to
-the gooseneck on the boom. Haul out
-the corresponding reef earing, make it
-fast, tie your reef points and hoist up
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_153'>153</span>the sail again by the halyards. A topping
-lift is necessary.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The spritsail is not often seen in these
-waters, but it is a good sail for a small
-boat. I warn the beginner, however,
-against its use in a craft of any pretensions
-to size, for he will find the heavy
-sprit much more difficult to handle than
-a gaff. A spritsail is similar in shape
-to the mainsail of a cutter, with the peak
-higher and the foot shorter, as in Fig. 3.
-The sprit is a spar which crosses the
-sail diagonally from luff to peak. It is
-thick in the middle, and each end is
-tapered. The upper end fits into a
-cringle or eye in the peak of the sail
-and the lower end into a snotter on
-the mast. The sprit stretches the sail
-quite flat and thus a boat is able to
-point well to windward. The snotter
-is a piece of stout rope having an eye
-in each end, one being passed round
-the mast and rove through the eye in
-the other end, the heel of the sprit fitting
-in the remaining eye. If the
-snotter carries away, the heel of the
-sprit may be forced by its own weight
-through the bottom of the boat; accordingly,
-as it has to stand considerable
-strain, it should be made of stout stuff.
-To set the sail, hoist it up by the halyards,
-slip the upper end of the sprit
-into the cringle in the peak, push it up
-as high as you can and insert the heel
-into the snotter; then trim the sheet.
-In large boats the snotter is made fast
-to an iron traveler which is hoisted by a
-whip purchase as shown in Figs. 1 and 3.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_154'>154</span>
-<img src='images/i_150a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>Folding Centerboard.  Fig. 10.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_150b.jpg' alt='Turtles' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>The sprit rig cannot be said to be
-pretty, and when the sail is large it is
-difficult to reef it. I should not counsel
-its use except in a boat intended for
-both rowing and sailing, where the sail
-would be so small as to be easily
-muzzled in case of a squall. The spritsail
-is hoisted by halyards,
-rove through a block or
-sheave-hole at the masthead
-and hooked to a cringle
-at the throat of the sail.
-The tack of the sail is lashed
-to an eyebolt in the mast.
-In reefing
-the
-sprit
-must
-be lowered
-by
-shifting the
-snotter further
-down the mast.</p>
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_155'>155</span>
-  <h2 class='c004'>XI.<br /> <br />RIGGING AND SAILS.</h2>
-</div>
-<p class='drop-capa0_4_0_6 c005'>Wire has entirely superseded rope
-for standing rigging, and deadeyes
-and lanyards are fast
-giving way before the advance
-of the turnbuckle. An old sailor cannot
-help regretting the decline and fall
-of his profession and the growing
-popularity of the art of the blacksmith.
-So far as the rigging of ships is
-concerned, when wire rigging was first
-introduced it was thought that its rigidity
-would prove a fatal objection to its
-successful use.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Science has, however, set its foot down
-firmly on such objections. The decree
-has gone forth that rigging cannot possibly
-be set up too taut, and the less it
-stretches the better. The old argument
-that a yacht's standing rigging should
-"give" when the craft is caught in a
-squall, which old sea dogs were so fond
-of advancing, has been knocked on the
-head by scientific men who declare that
-a vessel's heeling capacity affords much
-more relief than the yielding quality of
-rigging. Thus all or nearly all of the
-modern immense steel sailing vessels in
-the East Indian and Australian trade
-have their steel masts stayed as rigidly
-as possible by means of turnbuckles, and
-practice seems to have demonstrated the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_156'>156</span>truth of the theory. These ships encounter
-terrific seas and gales off the
-Cape of Good Hope and Cape Horn, and
-their masts are thus subjected to violent
-and sudden strains, but I have been assured
-by the commanders of several of
-these great freight carriers that they
-have never known their "sticks" to be
-imperiled by the rigidity of the rigging,
-and the tauter it can be set up the more
-secure the masts are supposed to be.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id007'>
-<img src='images/i_152.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>SHROUD, DEADEYE, LANYARD.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>There are, however, a number of old
-salts who condemn this theory as rank
-heresy, and go in for deadeyes and lanyards
-of the old-fashioned kind, and the
-greater the stretch between the upper
-and the lower deadeyes the better are
-they pleased. There is no doubt that
-turnbuckles look neater than deadeyes,
-and they are probably well suited for
-small craft. The Herreshoffs have long
-used them for setting
-up the rigging of the
-sloops and yawls of
-moderate size which
-they used to turn out
-in such numbers, and
-which first laid the
-foundation of their
-fame. The boat owner
-can please himself as to
-which method he may
-choose, and he can rely
-that with either his
-mast will be perfectly
-secure. Both methods
-are shown in the accompanying
-cuts.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_157'>157</span>There is one thing in connection with
-wire rigging that I must warn the amateur
-against. Beware of shod wire rigging.
-"Shoes" are iron plates riveted
-to the ends of wire rigging to receive
-shackle bolts. They are never reliable.
-Eye splices in wire never draw. "Shoes"
-often collapse without notice.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id008'>
-<img src='images/i_153.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>TURNBUCKLE.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>Turnbuckles are very
-handy appliances for setting
-up rigging in a hurry,
-whereas the same operation
-conducted by means
-of a deadeye and a lanyard
-takes much more time and
-trouble. A small craft
-rigged as a sloop, cutter
-or yawl, requires only one
-shroud on each side to
-afford lateral support to
-the mast, and a forestay—which
-in the case of a
-cutter or yawl should set
-up at the stem head, but
-on a sloop is set up on the
-bowsprit. A simple way
-to fit the rigging is to
-splice an eye in each
-shroud, forming a collar
-sufficiently large to pass over the
-masthead, first covering the part that
-is to form the eye with canvas sewn
-on and painted. The starboard shroud
-goes over the masthead first, then
-the port one and last the forestay.
-In large yachts the lower rigging
-is often fitted in pairs, the bight of the
-shrouds being passed over the masthead
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_158'>158</span>and secured in the form of an eye with a
-stout wire seizing.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Many riggers shackle the shrouds to
-an iron band fitted to the hounds. This
-plan is open to objection. There may
-be a flaw in the iron and the band may
-give way suddenly, causing the mast to
-snap off short like the stem of a clay
-pipe. Bands may look a little more
-snug than the collars, but they are
-heavier aloft and not so
-reliable, and for these
-reasons I am old-fashioned
-enough to prefer
-the collars.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id009'>
-<img src='images/i_154.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>TOPMAST RIGGING.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>For a small sloop, cutter
-or yawl, a pole mast
-is preferable; but all
-boats more than twenty
-feet on the water line
-should be fitted with topmasts,
-the rigging of
-which is shown in the
-cut.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The running bowsprit
-is almost obsolete now-a-days,
-but the device still
-finds favor with certain
-owners of cutters and
-yawls of large size. It
-certainly has its advantages.
-The length of the
-bowsprit is reduced as the jibs are
-shifted, until when the "spitfire" or
-storm-jib is set the bowsprit is run
-so far inboard that it looks like a
-mere stump. In a sea-way the benefit
-of this is obvious, the weight being
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_159'>159</span>materially reduced forward and the
-pitching consequently lessened. The
-jib also sits well and does its work, and
-is far preferable to that horror of horrors
-the "bobbed" jib of a sloop, which
-always makes a sailor's flesh creep when
-he sees it. How it has managed to survive
-is a marvel to me. It is a lubberly
-and slovenly device not good enough
-for a scow. The rigging of a running
-bowsprit is shown in the cut.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_155.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>RIG OF RUNNING BOWSPRIT.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>When it becomes necessary to set the
-storm trysail, lower away the mainsail
-and furl it as fast as possible. Lower
-the boom down into the crutch amidships,
-and secure it by hauling the sheet
-taut and by tackles or lashings from
-each quarter. Unhook the throat and
-peak halyards and hook them on to the
-trysail gaff, the jaws of which parral on
-to the mast, allowing the gaff end to
-rest on the deck. The topping lifts
-must be unhooked from the main boom
-and taken in to the mast or the rigging,
-so as to be out of the way of the trysail.
-Lace the head of the trysail to
-the gaff. The clew of the trysail is
-hauled aft by a luff-tackle which forms
-the sheet. Another tackle should be
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_160'>160</span>hooked to the clew and made fast to
-windward over the main boom and gaff,
-so that in case of a shift of wind the
-sheet may be hauled aft on the other
-side without delay or the danger of
-getting aback. Then you can man the
-throat and peak halyards and set the
-sail, trimming the sheet well down.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>If you should have the misfortune to
-carry away the main boom, and you
-have no trysail on board, lower away
-the sail, unlace it from the boom, close-reef
-it, and set it with a luff-tackle for
-a sheet. When about to set the storm
-trysail and your vessel is yawl rigged,
-set the storm mizzen. It will keep her
-head up to the sea while the sails are
-being shifted. In a cutter, heave to by
-hauling the fore sheet to windward,
-keeping the jib full. Shifting jibs in
-heavy weather in a cutter requires care.
-The first thing to do is to get the sail
-up from below and stretch it along
-the weather side of the forward deck
-with the head aft. Haul the foresheet
-to windward and trim the mainsheet in
-flat, tricing up the tack if the sail is
-loose-footed. Keep the boat as close
-to the wind as possible. Let go the
-jib outhaul, and the sail will fly in along
-the bowsprit. Muzzle it, man the down-haul,
-let go the halyards and down with
-it! Then reef the bowsprit. Some
-cutters are fitted with a rack and pinion
-wheel, with a handle like that of a
-winch, for this purpose. If not supplied
-with this handy contrivance, reeve a
-heel rope, and after slacking the bobstay
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_161'>161</span>fall and the falls
-of the shrouds and
-topmast stay, heave
-on it until you can
-knock the fid out.
-Then rouse the bowsprit
-in by the shroud
-tackles to the second
-or third fid holes, as
-desired; ship the fid
-and set up the gear,
-beginning with the
-bobstay, the weather
-shroud next and the lee shroud last,
-at the same time taking in the slack
-of the topmast stay. Now to set the
-jib. First hook on the sheets and
-take a turn with the lee one; next
-hook on the tack to the traveler and
-the halyards to the head. Man the
-outhaul and bowse the tack out to the
-bowsprit end. Hoist up on the halyards
-and sweat up with the purchase.
-Trim the sheet, let draw the foresheet,
-ease off the mainsheet and sail her along
-again. If these instructions are carried
-out a storm jib may be set on a reefed
-bowsprit without parting a rope yarn.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id010'>
-<img src='images/i_157.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>HORSE FOR MAIN SHEET.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>To shake a reef out in the mainsail,
-set up on the topping lift so that it may
-take the weight of the boom. Untie all
-the reef points. Cast off the lashing at
-the tack if the sail is laced to the boom,
-or come up the tack tackle if it is loose-footed.
-Then ease off the reef earring
-and hoist the sail, setting up the throat
-first. You can then ease up the topping
-lift and trim sheet.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_162'>162</span>A convenient method of bending and
-unbending a storm trysail is shown in
-Fig. X and Fig. E.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_158.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p>FIG. X.<br /><br />FIG. E.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>Fig. X represents the shape of the
-mast hoops, to each of which two iron
-hooks are fastened. The hoops are of
-the ordinary size, but about one-quarter
-of their length is sawn out and to the
-ends the iron hooks are riveted. Fig. E
-shows how the thimble toggles are
-seized to the luff of the sail at regular
-intervals. When it is necessary to set
-the trysail, adjust the jaws of the gaff to
-the mast, make fast the parral, hook on
-the throat and peak halyard blocks and
-mouse them. Hoist up slowly, slipping
-the thimbles over the hooks on the ends
-of the hoops as the sail goes up. The
-sheet must be hauled aft before the sail
-is hoisted, and should be slacked off
-handsomely to allow the sail to be properly
-set. Then all hands should clap on
-it and flatten it in.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>If your boat is rigged as a cutter or
-yawl the foresail may have the tack
-made fast to the eyebolt to which the
-stay is set up. The luff of the sail is
-seized to galvanized iron hanks that run
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_163'>163</span>up and down on the stay. If the foresail
-has a reef band in it (as it should) a
-lacing is used between the reef and tack
-cringles. Don't bowse up the halyards
-too taut the first time you set the sail,
-and don't break your back flattening in
-the sheet. Give it a chance to stretch
-fairly. The same remark also applies
-to the jib, whether set on a stay or flying
-on its own luff, as it must necessarily
-do if your craft is equipped with a running
-bowsprit.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>For the sake of lightness, blocks are
-frequently made too small. Manilla
-rope, of which both sheets and halyards
-should be made, has a habit of swelling
-when wet. It is generally rove on a
-dry day, and renders through blocks
-quite easily when in this condition. A
-rain squall will swell this rope to such
-an extent, and halyards will jam so hard,
-that sails will not come down when
-wanted, and disasters happen. The
-work of setting and taking in sail is
-made very laborious through small
-blocks and large sized halyards. It
-should be borne in mind that halyards
-ought to run through blocks as freely
-when wet as dry. Blocks should always
-be fitted with patent sheaves.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The running rigging of a mainsail
-consists of peak and throat halyards,
-topping lifts, main sheet and peak down-haul.
-To bend a mainsail, shackle the
-throat cringle to the eyebolt under the
-jaws of the gaff, stretch the head of
-the sail along the gaff, reeve the peak
-earring through the hole in the end of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_164'>164</span>the gaff and haul it out, securing it in
-the manner shown in the illustration.
-The earring is represented with the
-turns passed loosely in order to give the
-amateur a clear and distinct view of the
-proper method. It will be seen that <i>a a</i>
-is the peak end of the gaff; <i>b</i> is a cheek
-block for the topsail sheet; <i>c</i> is a block
-for the peak down haul, used also as
-signal halyards, hooked to an eyebolt
-screwed into the end of the gaff, the
-hook of the block being moused; <i>d</i> is a
-hole in the gaff end through which the
-earring is passed. The earring is spliced
-into the cringle with a long eye splice.
-It is then passed through <i>d</i> round
-through the cringle <i>e</i>; through <i>d</i> again
-and through <i>e</i> again; then up over the
-gaff at <i>i</i> and <i>k</i>, down the other side and
-through <i>e</i> again, and so on up round the
-gaff four or five times; at the last, instead
-of going up over the gaff again,
-the earring is passed between the parts
-round the gaff as shown at <i>f</i>, round all
-the parts that were passed through <i>d</i>, as
-shown at <i>m</i>, and jammed by two half
-hitches <i>m</i> and <i>h</i>.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_160.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>If the sail is new from the sailmaker's
-loft, only haul the head out hand taut or
-you will ruin it. I have seen yacht skippers
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_165'>165</span>clap a "handy billy" tackle on the
-head of a new mainsail and haul on it till
-they could get no more. I have seen
-them treat the foot in the same way, the
-result being a great bag of canvas of no
-possible use in beating to windward. A
-mainsail costs a good deal of money
-and is easily spoiled. One of Mr. John
-M. Sawyer's splendidly cut sails can
-have all its utility and beauty taken out
-of it in half-an-hour by a lubberly sailing
-master.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>After the head earring is passed, lace
-the head of the sail to the gaff, taking a
-half hitch at each eyelet hole. Next
-seize the luff of the sail to the mast
-hoops with marline. The foot of the
-mainsail should next be made fast to
-the boom in the same manner as the
-peak, the lacing going round a wire
-jackstay rove through eyebolts on the
-top of the boom. Do not "sweat up"
-either the throat or peak halyards too
-taut the first time you set it, and avoid
-reefing a new sail. Lower it down
-altogether, set the trysail, or do the best
-you can under head sail and the mizzen
-if on board a yawl. A mainsail should
-always be allowed to stretch gradually,
-and the slack of the head and the foot
-should be taken up at intervals. Remember
-that no greater injury can be
-done to a new sail than to try and make
-it sit flat by hauling out the foot too
-taut before it has been properly
-stretched. The best authorities advise
-that the sail should be set with the leech
-slack, and the boat run before a strong
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_166'>166</span>wind for several hours. Another excellent
-plan is to hoist the sail up with the
-foot and head slack while the boat is at
-anchor, and as it flaps about in the breeze
-the sail will stretch without injury. Of
-course when the head and foot are thoroughly
-stretched they can be hauled
-out taut as they can be got.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Personally, I prefer a mainsail with
-the foot laced to the boom, but all are
-not of my way of thinking. A loose-footed
-mainsail still has admirers and
-this is how it works. The mainsail outhaul
-consists of an iron horse on the
-boom, a shackle as traveler, a wire outhaul
-made fast to the shackle and rove
-through a sheavehole at the boom end
-and set up by a purchase.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_162.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>GEAR FOR HAULING OUT LOOSE-FOOTED MAINSAIL.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>If the mainsail is of the loose-footed
-variety it should be fitted with a tack
-tricing tackle and a main tack purchase.
-The last named is handy for bowsing
-down the luff of the sail "bar taut" for
-racing. Sweating-up the throat halyards
-lowers the peak slightly, and peaking the
-sail slackens the luff. By hauling up on
-the main tack tricing tackle till you can
-get no more, and at the same time lowering
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_167'>167</span>the peak, the mainsail is "scandalized"
-and the boom can then be gybed
-over in a strong breeze with the least
-possible risk of carrying away something.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>To prevent masthoops from jamming
-when the mainsail is being hoisted or
-lowered, a small line is seized to the foreside
-of the top hoop and then to every
-hoop down the mast. When the throat
-halyards are pulled on, the foresides of
-the hoops feel the strain and go up parallel
-with the after sides. The accompanying
-figure shows this at a glance.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_163.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>It is true that this method has found
-little favor with amateurs, but I tried it
-with great success on my first cruising
-craft, and later on in a yacht of far
-greater pretensions. The "wrinkle"
-should by no means be despised.</p>
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_168'>168</span>
-  <h2 class='c004'>XII.<br /> <br />LAYING UP FOR THE WINTER.</h2>
-</div>
-<p class='drop-capa0_4_0_5 c005'>The judicious yachtsman will personally
-superintend the laying up
-of his craft. If he has that inestimable
-blessing, a good skipper,
-he should not discharge him at the close
-of his summer season. If he does he will
-bitterly regret it. A yacht requires as
-much watchful care as a baby, and this is
-especially true during the trying winter
-season. So wise yacht-owners who have
-in their employ faithful captains should
-hold on to them like grim death to a
-deceased army mule. Good men are
-not too plentiful these times.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A few practical suggestions as to preparing
-the vessel for the winter are here
-appended. In the first place, sails
-should be well dried before being unbent,
-and then should be carefully
-stopped and labeled, and the same remark
-applies also to the running gear.
-By all means secure storage ashore for
-sails, gear, cabin fitments and furniture,
-carpets, upholstery and bedding, otherwise
-you may have cause to regret it in
-the spring. In most of the buildings
-devoted to the storage of yacht gear
-proper platforms or stages are provided,
-so that a free current of air may circulate,
-and thus prevent damp, mildew
-and decay. The lower tier on the platform
-should consist of the warps and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_169'>169</span>running gear, on top of which the sails
-should be snugly coiled. Above these
-the furniture, bedding and upholstery
-should go. All can be covered over
-with an old light sail to protect them
-from dust. This can be removed as
-often as necessary for airing purposes.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>On the other side of the Atlantic judicious
-owners of storage warehouses
-make their platforms rat-proof, following
-out the same idea as the farmer does
-with his wheat stacks. Each support
-to the stage is capped with a metal
-cone, which effectually stops the upward
-progress of the sail-devouring vermin.
-Well-conducted warehouses are well
-ventilated, and the temperature is kept
-tolerably even by heat.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Of course, all articles of value, such as
-plate and nautical instruments, should
-find repository in their owner's dwelling.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>All light spars should be sent ashore
-and lashed up under the beams of the
-warehouse. The same with the rowboats,
-but with attention to the fact that
-they should be so supported as to have
-their weight evenly distributed, and
-thus prevent them from being pulled
-out of shape.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Many expensive boats are hopelessly
-ruined by neglect of this precaution.
-This is the proper method of supporting
-a rowboat so that straining her is
-impossible. Six eyebolts should be
-screwed into the under side of the
-beams of the warehouse at proper intervals
-to take the weight of the boat
-amidships and at the third of her length
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_170'>170</span>forward and aft. From these eyebolts
-ropes of sufficient length should depend,
-to which, in the bight, a handspike
-is passed, on which, bottom upward,
-the boat is hung.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A yacht laid up without the greatest
-care deteriorates in value to an enormous
-extent. The first process after
-dismantling is to clean the vessel
-thoroughly inside and out, just as carefully
-as if she was about to be continued
-in commission. After getting
-her as bright as a new pin, all the hardwood—that
-which is varnished or gilded—should
-be covered up with canvas.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>After the yacht has been thoroughly
-skinned, as far as her internal arrangements
-are concerned, the last process
-preliminary to paying her out of commission,
-is to give her decks a coat or
-two of bright varnish—shunning that
-mixture known in the trade as pure oil,
-as deleterious to all decks.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>It is cheaper in the long run to provide
-a yacht with properly fitted winter
-hatches which entirely cover the hardwood
-deck fittings and secure thorough
-ventilation, as then the regular skylights
-can be left open.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>In small craft the sailing master will
-be sufficient to keep the boat in first-class
-condition. On larger vessels, according
-to size, he should have competent
-assistance.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Whether a yacht is moored alongside
-a quay or another vessel, winter storms
-cause her to do a little rolling, which
-invariably induces chafing. Unless a
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_171'>171</span>vessel is properly protected by fenders,
-her planksheer and bulwarks are sure
-to be seriously injured, and to repair
-this part of a ship is costly in the extreme,
-especially in regard to the planksheer.
-Should the planksheer be
-"shoved up" by contact with the dock
-or the ship to which she is moored alongside,
-the damage done could only be
-properly repaired by the removal of
-both bulwark and rail. To guard
-against severe injuries of this kind unceasing
-vigilance is necessary. If you
-can induce your skipper to live on board,
-all the better. In such a case your
-yacht will be kept in as dainty condition
-as your wife's boudoir. Snow is
-very penetrating. It will find its way
-even through rubber boots. A little
-leak may at first have no significance.
-But the leak increases and rot follows,
-fastenings are corroded and paintwork
-discolored.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Every vessel afloat suffers more or
-less from "sweating," caused by the
-difference between the temperature of
-the air outside and inside the ship. To
-obviate this a fire should be kept going;
-not a furious furnace that would involve
-a great expenditure of coal, but simply
-some heating device that gives a moderate
-amount of warmth all through
-the ship. Thus, when the owner returns
-to his yacht in the spring, he will
-find her sweet and clean, and will never
-regret the few paltry dollars it has cost
-him to keep his floating summer home
-in seagoing condition. The careful
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_172'>172</span>skipper will see that his extra help is
-kept busy, so that not only a casual visitor
-must compliment her owner on her
-spick and span condition, but a naval
-architect or a Lloyd's surveyor can find
-no flaw or fault to peck at. For, down
-to her deadwood and timbers, by the
-application of soap, hot water and plenty
-of elbow-grease, she is made fit for repainting
-right down to her keel.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>By conservative and preservative
-methods such as these a yacht's life is
-prolonged, and she will always fetch her
-value in the market, the noisome odor
-of bilge water being unknown.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The foregoing remarks are applicable
-to pleasure craft that are kept afloat
-during the winter. It is needless to expatiate
-on the benefit of hauling out
-yachts of any size or construction,
-whether of wood, composite, iron, steel
-or Tobin bronze or aluminum. The
-expense of hauling large boats out is
-considerable, for obvious reasons, and
-thus it is that yacht owners do not
-care to incur the cost. This objection
-does not apply to small craft, which
-should invariably be landed for the
-winter and efficiently protected by canvas,
-or other covering, from the destructive
-influence of snow and rain.
-All that has been said above in relation
-to the storage of sails and gear applies
-as much to a one-tonner as to the largest
-pleasure craft afloat.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>When we go into the question of
-steam yachts, no better advice can be
-given than that contained above, so far
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_173'>173</span>as hull and equipment are concerned. It
-is different when the proper care of
-machinery is considered. There it is
-where the services of a loyal and skillful
-engineer come into full play. Unless
-sufficient attention is paid to a vessel's
-boilers and engines during the critical
-time when she reposes in dock, disastrous
-results, entailing vast expenditure,
-are sure to follow. The complicated
-and ingenious mechanism which propels
-the modern steam yacht requires devoted
-regard. Very expensive when
-new, repairs during their second season,
-if in any way neglected in the winter,
-call for the resources of the purse of a
-Crœsus. In matters of this kind the old
-adage which relates to a stitch in time
-should be noted by the prudent yacht
-owner. Thus it is that an engineer and
-a sufficient staff should be kept on the
-pay roll in the winter for economic
-reasons alone. By this means extravagant
-bills for unnecessary repairs will
-be avoided. The engineer will take
-pride in his work and do justice to a
-liberal employer.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>It is well known that engineers can
-only become acquainted with the true
-capacity of machinery by long and careful
-study. Statistics have proved that
-marine engines in the navy under the
-direction of good men have been run
-with less coal, less oil and greater working
-power year by year when the same
-man has had control of the engine-room.
-All of which means less strain
-on the owner's bank account.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_174'>174</span>Lincoln's famous aphorism about the
-unwisdom of swapping horses when
-crossing a stream applies with great
-precision to skippers and engineers.
-It takes time for the most masterly and
-adroit captain to become acquainted
-with the peculiar idiosyncrasies of a
-vessel, for it is true that each one has
-her own individuality, and it takes time
-to comprehend her. In this they much
-resemble the fair sex. It is a case of
-whip and spur on one hand, and saddle
-and bridle on the other. Which is to
-wield the whip or wear the saddle is a
-question between captain and ship.
-The struggle is sometimes a long one,
-but in the end mind conquers matter.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The captain, as in the case of Gen.
-Paine and the <i>Mayflower</i>, eventually
-gets the hang of her, brings her into a
-state of submission, and compels her to
-become a cup winner. The engineer in
-his own sphere accomplishes similar results.
-His machinery runs with the
-regularity of a chronometer. His owner's
-bills for coal and oil are confined
-within reasonable limits. There are no
-breakdowns. His firemen implicitly
-obey his orders, and all goes well in engine-room
-and stoke-hold.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>If these few practical suggestions and
-hints prove of any service to yachtsmen,
-captains and engineers, the writer
-will feel happy. He has simply touched
-on the limits of a wide and fertile
-subject that might be expatiated
-upon at a large expense of paper and
-printer's ink.</p>
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_175'>175</span>
-  <h2 class='c004'>XIII.<br /> <br />USEFUL HINTS AND RECIPES.</h2>
-</div>
-<p class='drop-capa0_4_0_5 c005'>To whiten decks, mix oxalic acid
-with fresh water in the proportion
-of one pound to the gallon.
-Apply lightly with a mop and wash off
-immediately.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Good elastic marine glue for paying
-seams after they are caulked, can be
-made of one part of india rubber, twelve
-parts of coal tar heated gently in a pitch
-kettle, and twenty parts of shellac added
-to the mixture. When about to use this
-preparation, dip the caulking iron, used
-to drive the oakum or cotton thread
-into the seams, in naphtha, which dissolves
-the glue and helps to closely
-cement the seams. If oil is used instead
-of naphtha, the glue will not adhere.
-When melting marine glue for paying,
-take care to heat it very slowly.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Mildew on sails is almost impossible
-to remove, but the stains can be rendered
-a little less unsightly by well
-scrubbing the sail on both sides with
-soap and fresh water, and then leaving
-the sail to dry and bleach in the sun.
-Avoid the use of chloride of lime or
-other caustics or acids, which, while
-they might take out the mildew stains,
-would certainly rot the duck. Sometimes
-sails must necessarily be stowed
-when damp or wet, but they should be
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_176'>176</span>hoisted up to dry as soon as practicable.
-Every boat should be provided with
-water-proof sail covers.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Composition paints and other mixtures
-for preventing the fouling of boats'
-bottoms are plentiful as clams. Each
-one is warranted to be a specific against
-weeds and barnacles. But wooden or
-iron vessels, however treated, if left for
-any length of time at anchor anywhere
-on the Atlantic or Pacific coasts, are
-sure to become encrusted with barnacles
-and to be covered with such a
-rich growth of marine grasses as would
-take some particularly active work with
-a lawn mower to remove. Luckily small
-boats can easily be hauled out and
-scrubbed, but those with any pretension
-to size should most certainly be coppered.
-Copper in salt water will keep
-clean for a long time, the exfoliation
-being extensive. Some authorities recommend
-that the copper be coated with
-one or other of the compositions prepared
-for that purpose, but I think that
-to leave the copper clean will be more
-satisfactory in the long run. A coppered
-cruising vessel should not require
-her bottom to be cleaned more than four
-times in the season, but the oftener a
-racing yacht is hauled out to have her
-copper burnished the better should be
-the result, so far as speed is concerned.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>There are several capital paints in the
-market with which to coat a yacht or
-boat below the water-line. But admirable
-though they may be, they are by
-no means weed or barnacle proof.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_177'>177</span>In choosing a binocular marine glass,
-take care not to be persuaded into buying
-a trashy article. A good one should
-have a magnifying power of seven times,
-as well as what is known as good definition—that
-is, the quality of showing all
-the outlines of an object with complete
-distinctness and without any haziness.
-To find out if a glass has this quality,
-direct it at any object clearly outlined
-against the sky—a church steeple, for
-instance. If the outlines of the object are
-indistinct, or if they are bordered with
-violet, blue, orange or red light, reject
-the glass, as it will never be worth anything.
-The frame of the glass should
-be rigid, or the tubes will become twisted
-and then you will see two objects in
-place of one. The more powerful a
-glass is the less field it possesses. While
-high power is desirable, it is well that
-a glass should have a large field. A
-poor glass is worse than none at all.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>That sterling seaman, Capt. S. T. S.
-Lecky, tells a capital story about a
-marine glass, which I commend to anybody
-about to purchase one. In the
-window of a shop he noticed a binocular
-with a tag on it, which asserted that the
-glass had rendered an "object" visible
-at the distance of ninety miles. This
-was attested by a letter to be seen
-within. The captain's curiosity was excited.
-On inquiry in the shop he found
-out that the "object" was none other
-than the peak of the Island of Tristan
-d'Acunha, in the Southern ocean, which
-is so lofty that it can be seen in clear
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_178'>178</span>weather by the naked eye at a distance
-of one hundred miles. Therefore I
-say let your motto be <i>caveat emptor</i>
-when you go cruising about in search of
-either a cheap marine telescope or
-binocular among marine store dealers or
-pawnshops. Remember that clearness
-of definition is more to be sought than
-high magnifying power, as in misty
-weather the glass with the last-named
-quality in a marked degree magnifies
-the haze as well as the object, and, of
-course, makes it still more blurred and
-indistinct—a defect on which it is unnecessary
-for me to further enlarge.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>It is hard to distinguish with a low-priced
-binocular on a thick or rainy
-night the color of a vessel's lights, a
-white one sometimes appearing with a
-green or reddish tinge, and a green one
-looking like a white one. This applies
-also to lightships and lighthouses, and
-should make you careful as to your selection
-of a glass.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Captain Lecky says the proper way to
-test a binocular for night use is not to
-stand at a shop door in broad daylight,
-trying how much the glass enlarges
-some distant clock-face, but to wait till
-nightfall and test it by looking up a dark
-street or passage, and if figures before
-only dimly visible to the naked eye are
-rendered tolerably clear by the aid of
-the glasses, you may rest assured you
-have hit on a suitable instrument. It
-is well to go in the first place to an
-optician, and not to a "shoptician"
-versed in cheap-jack methods.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_179'>179</span>
-<img src='images/i_175.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>LUNCHEON IN THE COCK-PIT</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_180'>180</span>Iron ballast should be coal-tarred,
-painted, or white-washed with hot lime.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Masts and spars should be scraped
-and sand-papered. If there are any
-cracks in them, they should be stopped
-with marine glue before scraping. Apply
-a coat of wood-filler, then a coat of
-spar composition. When hard, give a
-second coat. Never apply varnish when
-there is much moisture in the atmosphere.
-In the vicinity of New York,
-wait till the wind is northwest if you
-wish to secure the best and most brilliant
-results.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>If your boat is white, when repainting
-don't forget to mix a little blue
-with your white lead, raw linseed oil
-and dryers. This cerulean dash improves
-the look of the paint, and is far
-better than black, which produces a
-ghastly tint.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_176.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>SCOWING AN ANCHOR.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>When for any purpose it becomes
-necessary or desirable to anchor a small
-boat on ground known, or suspected, to
-be foul, it is advisable to scow the anchor.
-Unbend the cable from the ring;
-make the end fast round the crown
-shank and flukes with a clove hitch, and
-bring the end <i>a</i> back to <i>s</i>, and stop it
-round the cable with a piece of spunyarn;
-take the cable back to the shackle
-and stop it as at <i>b</i>. When the cable is
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_181'>181</span>hauled upon by the part <i>o</i>, the stop at
-<i>b</i> will part and the fluke of the anchor
-can be easily broken out and lifted. For
-larger vessels a trip-line is sometimes
-bent to the crown and buoyed instead
-of scowing the anchor.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A capital composition for painting the
-bottoms of boats up to the water-line is
-made as follows: Take one pound of
-red lead, four ounces of copper bronze
-powder, the same weights of arsenic,
-chrome yellow and paris blue, one pint
-of dryers, one pint of boiled oil and one
-pint of copal varnish. Mix thoroughly,
-strain and apply. If too thick add more
-varnish. It will dry a rich copper color.
-It is neither barnacle nor weed proof,
-but is as good as some of the more expensive
-paints which pretend to possess
-both these qualities. Before painting,
-scrub the wood well and smooth down
-with pumice stone. Let it thoroughly
-dry before you begin to use the brush.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A good black paint for the outside of
-boats is made thus: To six pounds of
-best black paint add one pound of dark
-blue paint and half a pint of dryers.
-Mix with equal quantities of raw and
-boiled linseed oil until of the proper
-consistency. Stir well. Strain carefully,
-and then add one pint of copal varnish.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>To stop cracks in a spar: When the
-spar is thoroughly dry run in marine
-glue. When the glue is hard scrape
-some of it out and stop the crevice with
-putty stained the same color as the spar.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Iron mould and other stains can be
-removed from a deck by a solution of one
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_182'>182</span>part of muriatic acid and three parts of
-water.</p>
-<h3 class='c013'>THE LEAD LINE.</h3>
-<p class='c014'>The hand lead weighs fourteen pounds.
-The line to which it is attached is twenty-five
-fathoms long, and is marked as follows:
-At two fathoms, leather with two
-ends; at three fathoms, leather with
-three ends; at five fathoms, white muslin;
-at seven fathoms, red bunting; at
-ten fathoms, leather with hole in it; at
-thirteen fathoms, blue serge; at fifteen
-fathoms, white muslin; at seventeen
-fathoms, red bunting; at twenty fathoms,
-strand with two knots in it. By
-the different feel of the materials used
-it is easy to distinguish the marks in the
-dark. In sounding when the boat is in
-motion, swing the lead round and heave
-it as far forward as you can. By filling
-the hollow at the base of the lead with
-grease or tallow, a sample of the bottom
-mud or sand adheres to it, which may be
-useful in verifying the position of the
-boat by comparing it with the chart on
-which the nature of the bottom is indicated.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The first fathom of the hand lead line
-for use in a boat of light draught may
-be marked off in feet in any legible
-manner satisfactory to the marker.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The marks on the deep sea lead line
-commence with two knots at twenty
-fathoms, another knot being added for
-every ten fathoms, and a single knot at
-each intermediate five.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A hand lead for use in a small craft
-need not be so heavy as fourteen pounds.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_183'>183</span>It may not be generally known that
-all watches are compasses if used according
-to the following instructions. Point
-the hour hand to the Sun, and the South
-is exactly half-way between the hour
-and the figure XII on the dial. For
-instance, suppose it is four o'clock;
-point the hand indicating four to the
-Sun, and II on the dial is South. Suppose
-again it is eight o'clock; point the
-hand indicating eight to the Sun, and
-the figure X on the dial is South. Some
-cranks carry a compass card in their
-watch case so that they may always
-determine without delay or trouble the
-direction of the wind whenever the Sun
-is visible.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_179.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_184'>184</span>
-<img src='images/i_180.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>Photo by J. S. Johnston.</span><br /><br /><span class='small'>"HALF RATERS."</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_185'>185</span>
-  <h2 class='c004'>XIV.<br /> <br />RULE OF THE ROAD AT SEA.</h2>
-</div>
-<p class='drop-capa0_4_0_5 c005'>The boat sailer must possess a
-knowledge of the rule of the road
-at sea, unless he wants his sport
-brought to an untimely end by collision.
-He should become thoroughly familiar
-with the International Steering and
-Sailing Rules, so that if he encounters
-steamships, fishing craft, pilot boats, etc.,
-he will be able so to maneuver his own
-vessel as to escape collision.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The prudent skipper of a little vessel
-should always give steamships and ferryboats
-a wide berth. Big steamships
-sometimes are slow to answer their
-helms, and often will not get out of the
-way of small craft, although compelled
-to by international law. Should your
-boat be run down by one of these monsters
-of the deep you, of course, have
-your remedy in a court, but you are apt
-to find litigation very expensive when
-suing a steamship company, and a suit
-often lingers for years until, having exhausted
-every process, it finds itself at
-last on the calendar of the Supreme
-Court of the United States.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>It is not advisable to attempt to cross
-the bows of a steamer unless you have
-plenty of room and you are a good judge
-of distances. Steam vessels go at a
-faster rate than they seem to, and the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_186'>186</span>momentum of their impact is very great.
-Instead of crossing a steamer's bow go
-about on the other tack, or haul your
-foresheet to windward till she has passed.
-Discretion is always the better part
-of valor. Not to monkey with ocean
-steamships or ferryboats is as valuable
-advice as that time-honored warning to
-boys not to fool with the buzz-saw.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Do not get "rattled," whatever you
-do, but keep your eyes "skinned" and
-your head clear.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Skippers of ferryboats often try to
-show off their smartness by steering as
-close as possible to small pleasure boats
-and then giving them the benefit of their
-wash, sometimes swamping their unfortunate
-victims. It is fun for the fellow
-in the ferryboat's pilot-house, but it
-is the reverse of pleasant to the man
-wallowing in the seething water. Therefore,
-do not court danger by approaching
-too near these unwieldy marine
-brutes, but if you are so luckless as to get
-into their wash handle your boat so that
-she shall not get into the trough of the
-waves, but take the sea on the bluff of
-the bow, where it will do the least harm.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Navigation by daylight in fine, clear
-weather is easy, but when it is dark and
-foggy special precautions must be taken
-or collision is inevitable. I do not propose
-to reprint in this little book the
-full text of the international regulations
-for preventing collisions at sea, but I
-have prepared an abstract, which will
-be sufficient for the practical purposes
-of an amateur sailor.</p>
-<div>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_187'>187</span>
-  <h3 class='c013'>LIGHTS.</h3>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'>Between sunset and sunrise the following
-lights shall be carried by a
-steamship when under way:</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>At the foremast head a bright white
-light, visible on a clear night at a distance
-of five miles, showing the light
-ten points on either side of the ship
-from right ahead to two points abaft
-the beam.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>On the starboard side a green light
-showing from right ahead to two points
-abaft the beam, visible at a distance of
-two miles.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>On the port side a red light similar in
-all respects, except color, to the green
-light.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>To prevent these green and red lights
-from being seen across the bow they
-must be fitted with inboard screens projecting
-at least three feet forward from
-the light.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Steamships towing other vessels shall
-carry two white masthead lights in addition
-to their side lights.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Sailing vessels when under way or
-being towed shall carry only the green
-and red lights as provided for steamships
-under way.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Small vessels that cannot carry fixed
-side lights in bad weather must have
-them on deck on their respective sides
-ready for instant exhibition on the approach
-of another vessel.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>All vessels at anchor shall show where
-it can best be seen, at a height not exceeding
-twenty feet above the hull, a
-white light in a globular lantern of eight
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_188'>188</span>inches in diameter, visible all round the
-horizon at a distance of at least a mile.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Pilot vessels shall only carry a white
-light at the masthead, visible all round
-the horizon, and shall exhibit a flare-up
-light every fifteen minutes.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Open boats are not required to carry
-fixed sidelights, but must, in default of
-such, be provided with a lantern, having
-a green slide on one side and a red slide
-on the other, which must be properly
-shown in time to prevent collision,
-taking care that the green light shall not
-be seen on the port side nor the red
-light on the starboard side.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Fishing and open boats, when at
-anchor or riding to their nets and stationary,
-shall exhibit a bright white
-light, and may, in addition, use a flare-up
-light if deemed expedient.</p>
-<h3 class='c013'>FOG SIGNALS.</h3>
-<p class='c014'>In fog, mist, or falling snow, whether
-by day or night, a steamship under way
-shall blow a prolonged blast of her
-steam whistle every two minutes, or
-oftener. A sailing vessel under way
-shall blow her foghorn (which must be
-sounded by a bellows or other mechanical
-device and not by mouth power) at
-intervals of not less than two minutes,
-when on the starboard tack one blast,
-when on the port tack two blasts in succession,
-and when with the wind abaft
-the beam three blasts in succession.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Vessels not under way shall ring the
-bell at intervals of not less than two
-minutes.</p>
-<div>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_189'>189</span>
-  <h3 class='c013'>STEERING AND SAILING RULES<br />FOR SAILING VESSELS.</h3>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'>A ship running free shall keep out of
-the way of a ship closehauled.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A ship closehauled on the port tack
-shall keep out of the way of a ship closehauled
-on the starboard tack.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>When both are running free with the
-wind on different sides, the ship which
-has the wind on the port side shall keep
-out of the way of the other.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>When both are running free with the
-wind on the same side, the ship which
-is to windward shall keep out of the way
-of the ship to leeward.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A ship which has the wind aft shall
-keep out of the way of the other ship.</p>
-<h3 class='c013'>FOR STEAM VESSELS.</h3>
-<p class='c014'>If two ships under steam are meeting
-end on, or nearly end on, so as to involve
-risk of collision, each shall alter
-her course to starboard so that each
-may pass on the port side of the other.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>If two ships under steam are crossing
-so as to involve risk of collision, the ship
-which has the other on her own starboard
-side shall keep out of the way of
-the other.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Steamships must, in cases where there
-is risk of collision, keep out of the way
-of sailing vessels.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A vessel, whether sail or steam, when
-overtaking another, must keep out of
-the way of the overtaken ship.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Where by the above rules one of two
-ships is to keep out of the way, the other
-shall keep her course.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_190'>190</span>The following rhymes should be committed
-to memory:</p>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>When both sidelights you see ahead,</div>
-      <div class='line'>Port your helm and show your red!</div>
-      <div class='line'>Green to green or red to red,</div>
-      <div class='line'>Perfect safety—go ahead!</div>
-    </div>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>If on the port tack you steer,</div>
-      <div class='line'>It is your duty to keep clear</div>
-      <div class='line'>Of every closehauled ship ahead,</div>
-      <div class='line'>No matter whether green or red.</div>
-    </div>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>But when upon your port is seen</div>
-      <div class='line'>A stranger's starboard light of green,</div>
-      <div class='line'>There's not so much for you to do,</div>
-      <div class='line'>For green to port keeps clear of you.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>A ship which is being overtaken by
-another shall show from her stern to
-such last-mentioned ship a white light
-or a flare-up light. This rule was only
-adopted in 1884, but I saw it practically
-exemplified in the ship <i>Rajah of Cochin</i>
-in the year 1874. The <i>Rajah</i> was running
-down the Southeast trades one
-pitch dark night in April, homeward
-bound; I was in charge of the deck.
-We had studdingsails set on both sides,
-on the mainmast and foremast. Suddenly
-out of the darkness astern there
-loomed up the sails on the foremast of
-a big ship whose jibboom seemed to be
-right over the <i>Rajah's</i> stern. She carried
-no side lights, her skipper being
-probably of an economical turn of mind.
-I took the lighted lamp out of the binnacle,
-and jumping on the wheel gratings
-waved it as high as I could, at the
-same time yelling with all my might. I
-could hear the man on the lookout
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_191'>191</span>aboard the pursuing vessel roar out, and
-then came a clatter and a rattle of ropes
-and a flapping of sails as with her helm
-hard to port the ship that was pursuing
-us luffed out across our stern. She
-snapped off a few stunsail booms, but
-that was better than running us down.
-Capt. Sedgwick, who was in command
-of the <i>Rajah</i>, was awakened by the noise
-and came up from below in his pajamas.
-He quickly realized what a close shave
-his ship had experienced.</p>
-<h3 class='c013'>BUOYS AND BEACONS.</h3>
-<p class='c014'>In approaching channels from seaward
-red buoys marked with even numbers
-will be found on the starboard side of
-the channel and must be left on the
-starboard side in passing in. Black
-buoys with odd numbers will be found
-on the port side of the channel and must
-be left on the port hand in passing in.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Buoys with red and black horizontal
-stripes will be found on obstructions
-with channel ways on either side of
-them, and may be left on either hand.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Buoys painted with black and white
-perpendicular stripes will be found in
-mid-channel, and must be passed close
-aboard to avoid danger.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>All other marks to buoys will be in
-addition to the foregoing and may be
-employed to mark particular spots, a
-description of which will be found in
-the printed Government lists.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Perches, with balls, cages, etc., will,
-when placed on buoys, be at turning
-points, the color and number indicating
-on what side they shall be passed.</p>
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_192'>192</span>
-  <h2 class='c004'>XV.<br /> <br />THE COMPASS.</h2>
-</div>
-<p class='drop-capa0_4__6 c005'>I have no space in this volume to
-write an exhaustive chapter on navigation.
-It is, however, an art easily
-acquired, and may be wholly self-taught.
-There are certain rudimentary rules for
-finding one's way at sea by dead reckoning,
-that everyone starting out on a
-cruise should master. The instruments
-needful are a compass, parallel rulers,
-dividers, patent log, lead line, aneroid
-barometer, clock, and the necessary
-charts of the sea which it is proposed
-to navigate.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>In a small cruiser a compass is generally
-carried in a portable binnacle.
-When steering by it take care that the
-lubber's point is in a direct line with
-the keel or stem and sternpost. For the
-benefit of the uninitiated, I will explain
-that the lubber's point is the black vertical
-line in the foreside of the compass
-bowl, by which the direction of the vessel's
-head is determined. A misplaced
-lubber's point is sure to cause grave
-errors in the course actually made. The
-compass should be as far removed as
-possible from ironwork of any kind. A
-spirit compass, as I have remarked
-elsewhere, is the only kind suitable for
-small craft. Those with cards of hard
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_193'>193</span>enamel, floating in undiluted alcohol,
-which renders freezing impossible, are
-the best. The amateur boat sailer should
-become familiar with the compass, be
-able to box it by both points and degrees,
-and to name its back bearings.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_189.jpg' alt='compass' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>The points of the compass are thirty-two
-in number, as follows:</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>North</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>North by East</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>North, North-East</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>North-East by N.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>North-East</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>North-East by E.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>East, North-East</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>East by North</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>East</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>East by South</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>East, South-East</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>South-East by E.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>South-East</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>South-East by S.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>South, South-E.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>South by East</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>South</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>South by West</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>South, South-W.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>South-West by S.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>South-West</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>South-West by W.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>West, South-W.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>West by South</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>West</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>West by North</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>West, North-West</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>North-West by W.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>North-West</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>North-West by W.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>North, North-W.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>North by West</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>North</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>These points are sub-divided into
-quarter points, and again into degrees.
-The table given on pages 142-143 shows
-the angles which every point and quarter
-point of the compass makes with the
-meridian:</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_194'>194</span>POINTS, ANGLES AND BACK BEARINGS OF THE COMPASS.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_190.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_191.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_196'>196</span>The mariner's compass does not, however,
-give the true direction of the various
-points of the horizon. The needle
-points to the magnetic North and not to
-the true North, the difference between
-them being called the variation of the
-compass, which differs widely in various
-parts of the world, being sometimes
-easterly and sometimes westerly, and
-constantly changing. The amount is
-generally marked on the charts. In
-New York the variation for 1894 was 8°
-26´ West, or three-quarters of a point to
-the West of the true North. Thus, to
-make good a true North course, the vessel
-would have to steer North three-quarters
-West. A rule easy to remember
-is that westerly variation is allowed to
-the left of the compass course, or bearing,
-and that easterly variation is allowed
-to the right of the compass course
-or bearing.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>To convert true courses and bearings
-into compass courses and bearings with
-variation westerly, allow it to the right
-of the true course or bearing, and with
-variation easterly allow it to the left of
-the true course or bearing.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Deviation is another error of the compass
-caused by local attraction, such as
-the ironwork and iron ballast in a boat,
-or the proximity of a marlinespike to the
-binnacle. In a wooden boat, if proper
-care is taken, there should be no appreciable
-deviation of the compass. Deviation
-can be discovered by swinging the
-boat as she lies at her moorings, having
-first obtained the true magnetic bearing
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_197'>197</span>of some distant object, such as a lighthouse
-or a church steeple. As the vessel's
-head comes to each point of the
-compass, a compass bearing is taken of
-the object, and the difference between
-that bearing and the true magnetic bearing
-is observed and noted, and afterward
-tabulated. It will often be found
-that the deviation differs not only in
-amount, but in name, for different
-directions of the ship's head, being
-easterly at certain points and westerly
-at others.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The rule is to allow westerly deviation
-to the left to get the correct magnetic
-course, and easterly deviation to
-the right to get the correct magnetic
-course.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>To find out the error of the compass
-in order to steer a true course, the <i>sum</i>
-of the deviation and the variation when
-both are of the same name, and their
-<i>difference</i> when they have different
-names, must be ascertained. For instance,
-deviation 20° West and variation
-25° West, would give an error of compass
-45° West, which should be applied to the
-left.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>If the deviation was 20° East and the
-variation 10° West, the difference between
-them would be 10° East, which
-compass error should be applied to the
-right to steer a true course.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>In order to find the compass course or
-course to steer, proceed as follows, the
-true course being North 40° East, the variation
-being 38° West and the deviation
-18° East:</p>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line in5'><span class='pageno' id='Page_198'>198</span>Variation,  38° W., being of contrary names, take their difference.</div>
-      <div class='line in5'>Deviation,  18° E.</div>
-      <div class='line in16'>------</div>
-      <div class='line in5'>Correction, 20°, apply to the right, being westerly.</div>
-    </div>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>True course    N.40° E.</div>
-      <div class='line in17'>------</div>
-      <div class='line'>Compass course N.60° E.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>Another example is given where the
-variation and deviation are both easterly
-and the true course is S., 75° West.</p>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line in8'>Variation, 24° W., being of same name.</div>
-      <div class='line in8'>Deviation, 16° W., add together.</div>
-      <div class='line in18'>------</div>
-      <div class='line in7'>Correction, 40°, apply to the left, being easterly.</div>
-    </div>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>True course,    S. 75° W.</div>
-      <div class='line in16'>------</div>
-      <div class='line'>Compass course, S. 35° W.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>A volume might be written on the
-mariner's compass. It is a fascinating
-study, but unfortunately my space is
-limited.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>There is another correction to the
-compass that the amateur should have
-cognizance of. It is called leeway, and
-is, in untechnical language, the drift
-that the ship makes sideways through
-the water because of the force of the
-wind or the impulsive heave of the sea.
-Some craft, because of deficiency in the
-element of lateral resistance, such as in
-the case of a shallow, "skimming-dish"
-sort of a boat, with the centerboard
-hoisted up, will go to leeward like a
-crab. Others of a different type, such
-as the "plank-on-edge" variety, with a
-lead line attached, will hang on to windward
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_199'>199</span>in a wonderful manner. It requires,
-therefore, a certain amount of
-judgment as well as of knowledge in
-this particular section of nautical lore
-to be able to estimate with any degree
-of approximate certainty the leeway a
-vessel may happen to make. It should
-not be forgotten that build has much
-to do with this, and that trim and
-draught of water are also two powerful
-elements in this connection. For instance,
-a boat with outside lead and a
-centerboard in a strong breeze and a
-lumpy sea, so long as the wind permitted
-her to carry a commanding spread
-of sail, might make no appreciable leeway,
-but, on the contrary, might "eat
-up" into the wind. But given the same
-boat without the lead and without the
-adventitious aid that the centerboard
-affords, she would be compelled to
-dowse her muslin at the first puff, and
-as a purely physical consequence she
-would retain no hold on the water and
-would drift off to leeward like an irresponsible
-she-crab.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Thus leeway must be estimated by
-experience. It is often a most disturbing
-quantity, especially when the weather
-is foggy and the channel in which
-you are steering is perplexing on account
-of rocks or shoals. I have already
-expatiated on the wisdom of
-anchoring in such a contingency as this
-whenever the elements will permit.
-But, of course, one is a slave of the
-winds and the waves, and "bringing-up"
-is not always possible. I should,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_200'>200</span>therefore, advise the amateur to carefully
-watch his boat and endeavor to
-find out approximately the amount of
-leeway she makes when the first reef is
-taken in by comparing the direction of
-the fore and aft line of the boat with
-that of her wake. This method may
-also be pursued with advantage under
-all conditions of wind and weather,
-and by this means a moderately correct
-and very useful table may be made.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The old navigators like the Drakes
-and the Frobishers had this matter arranged
-for them, so when they sailed
-forth on voyages of great emprise and
-portent they were guided by certain
-tabulated formula that gave them full
-and implicit directions for the allowance
-of leeway. Thus the skipper of a
-ship with topgallantsails furled was told
-to allow one point; when under double-reefed
-topsails, one point and a half;
-when under close-reefed topsails, two
-points; when the topsails are furled,
-three points and a half; when the fore-course
-is furled, four points; when under
-the mainsail only, five points; when
-under the balanced mizzen or mizzen
-staysail, six points; and when under
-bare poles, seven points.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>This antiquated method of computation
-answered very well, for those sterling
-and sturdy navigators of the olden
-times seemed to have had a rare faculty
-of achieving their adventurous purpose
-and of gaining, too, both fame and fortune.
-But the commander of a clipper
-ship, with whom I sailed as a youngster,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_201'>201</span>undertook to demonstrate to me the absurdity
-of any such hard-and-fast rule.
-We had carried away our three topgallant
-masts, off Cape Agulhas, while
-threshing hard against a westerly gale.
-They were whipped out of us like pipe-stems.
-It took all hands a whole day to
-clear away the wreck. Next day the
-weather moderated sufficiently for us to
-have carried every stitch of canvas could
-we have set it. There were a number
-of vessels beating round the Cape, and
-all took advantage of the cessation of
-the gale to spread all their flying kites
-to the breeze. Our ship, under three
-topsails, inner and outer jibs, foresail,
-mainsail, crossjack, spanker, foretopmast,
-maintopmast and mizzentopmast
-staysails, beat all the fleet. When it
-came on to blow again we were the first
-to reef, because some of our rigging had
-got badly strained in the squall that took
-our topgallantmasts away. Still we
-maintained our lead, although jogging
-along comfortably while our opponents
-were driving at it, hugging their topgallantsails
-and with lee rails under.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>"Now," said our captain, coming on
-the poop after he had worked up his
-dead reckoning at noontime, "you see
-all those ships dead to leeward—well
-they ought to be to windward of us
-unless all the books on navigation are
-wrong. I have entered in my traverse-table
-the courses we were supposed
-to have made good under the old rule,
-and have thus proved its falsity. The
-fact is the ships that were turned out in
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_202'>202</span>the days when these nautical axioms
-were first propounded were built by the
-mile and cut off in lengths to suit.
-They had no shape to speak of below
-the water-line, and perhaps the rule applied
-to each alike. Times are different
-now, and leeway must be determined by
-the model of the ship."</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The rule for reckoning leeway is as
-follows:</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Wind on starboard side, allow leeway
-to the left.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Wind on port side, allow leeway to the
-right.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Or you may thus define it:</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Vessel on starboard tack, allow leeway
-to the left.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Vessel on port tack, allow leeway to
-the right.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>In this connection it might be well to
-urge the young mariner against keeping
-his boat all a-shiver and bucking
-against a head sea, and all the while
-sagging off bodily to leeward. It is better
-far to keep the wake right astern
-and keep way on the vessel—unless, of
-course, the weather is too violent.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The direction and rate of tides and
-currents have also to be allowed for
-when correcting a compass course.
-Thus in crossing Long Island Sound
-from Larchmont to Oyster Bay in thick
-weather, the magnetic course as given
-in the Government chart would have to
-be rectified and allowance made for the
-condition of the tide, whether ebb or
-flood, or your boat might never reach
-her destination.</p>
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_203'>203</span>
-  <h2 class='c004'>XVI.<br /> <br />CHARTS.</h2>
-</div>
-<p class='drop-capa0_4_0_5 c005'>There are no better charted coasts
-in the world than those bounded
-by the North Atlantic and Pacific
-Oceans. The United States Navy
-has done and is doing magnificent hydrographic
-work. The charts issued by the
-Government are accurate, reliable, up-to-date
-and reasonable in price.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The top of a chart when spread out
-in front of you so that the reading part
-appears to you like the page of a book,
-and you can read it from left to right, is
-the North, the bottom is the South, the
-side on your right is the East, and the
-side on your left is the West. There
-are always compasses on a chart, either
-true or magnetic, by reference to which
-and with the aid of the parallel rulers
-the bearing of one point from another
-may easily be ascertained by the following
-method:</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Lay the edge of the rulers over the
-two places; then slide them (preserving
-the direction) till the edge of one ruler
-is on the center of the nearest compass;
-when this is done read off the course indicated
-by the direction of the ruler.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>To measure the distance between two
-places on the chart spread out the dividers
-till their points are over them, then
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_204'>204</span>apply to the graduated scale at the bottom
-of the chart, which will give you the
-required distance. This method, it should
-be remembered, is only accurate when
-applied to the large coasting charts.
-When measuring distances on general
-charts which extend across many degrees
-of latitude, the mean latitude of the two
-places must be measured from.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>There are certain signs and abbreviations
-used on charts which are easily
-comprehended, such as <i>hrd</i> for hard, <i>rky</i>
-for rocky, etc. Lighthouses and lightships
-are clearly marked, and shoals,
-rocks and other obstructions to navigation
-are plainly defined. All the marginal
-notes on the charts should be
-made familiar by the navigator. I need
-scarcely say that charts, instruments
-and books of sailing instructions should
-be kept dry. There are cylindrical tin
-boxes for charts which are quite cheap,
-and these I recommend.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_200.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>Fig. 6.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>The position of a vessel may be ascertained
-simply and accurately by cross-bearings.
-Suppose you are in a ship at
-<i>A</i> in Fig. 6. The point with the lighthouse
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_205'>205</span>on it bears correct magnetic N. by
-W., and the point with the tree on it E.
-by N. You lay the parallel rules over
-the compass on your chart at N. by W.,
-and work them to the lighthouse, preserving
-the direction. You then draw
-the line from the lighthouse to <i>a</i>. You
-then lay the parallel rules over the compass
-on your chart at E. by N., and work
-them in a similar way to the tree. Then
-draw the line from the tree to <i>a</i>. The
-spot where the two lines cut was the
-vessel's position on the chart when the
-bearings were first taken. The distance
-of the ship from both lighthouse and
-tree can be measured by taking in the
-dividers the distance between either
-and the ship, and referring to the scale
-on the chart.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>It should be remembered that when
-sailing along the land cross-bearings
-will always determine your position,
-always allowing the proper corrections
-on the compass. In taking cross-bearings,
-try to have a difference between
-the two objects of as nearly ninety degrees
-as possible.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The old-fashioned log-ship and log-line
-for determining the distance run
-by a vessel need have no place in the
-equipment of a small yacht. There are
-several patent self-registering logs
-which record the distance run, either
-on the taffrail or on dials on the log
-itself. Their performance is fairly
-satisfactory, but they should be kept
-well oiled, and should be often examined
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_206'>206</span>and tested—for instance, in a run
-between two objects whose distance
-apart is well known.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>By careful attention to the Lead, the
-Log and the Look-out, a boat may be
-navigated, by dead reckoning, with a
-certain amount of accuracy.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A nautical mile, or knot, is the same
-as a geographical mile. Its length is
-six thousand and eighty feet. A statute
-mile in the United States measures five
-thousand two hundred and eighty feet.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_202.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_207'>207</span>
-  <h2 class='c004'>XVII.<br /> <br />MARLINESPIKE SEAMANSHIP.<br /> <br />WITH INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING SPLICES<br />KNOTS AND BENDS.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_203.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>MARLINESPIKE.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='drop-capa0_4_0_5 c005'>The amateur
-yachtsman
-should be able
-to make all the
-splices and most of
-the knots in common use. This knowledge
-will come in quite handy when
-fitting out his craft in the spring, and
-will save him the expense of hiring a
-sailor to do the work. I have spent
-many happy hours in rigging a fifteen-ton
-cutter, doing all the work myself
-(except stepping the mast) with the aid
-of a boy.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A few fathoms of rope, a marlinespike,
-a knife, a small pot of grease, a ball of
-spun yarn, another of marline and one
-of roping twine, and you are equipped
-for work. Splicing ropes and making
-fancy knots may be made a quite pleasant
-way of spending a winter's evening.
-It keeps one out of mischief, and the art
-once learned is rarely forgotten. I think
-if you follow my directions and take
-heed of the diagrams that accompany
-them (which I have taken pains to
-make as clear as possible) you will have
-no difficulty in becoming quite expert
-in the use of a marlinespike.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id011'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_208'>208</span>
-<img src='images/i_204a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>The ends of all ropes,
-whether belonging to
-the running or standing
-rigging, must be whipped
-with tarred roping
-twine or they will unravel.
-Take the rope in your left hand
-and lap the twine round it very tight a
-dozen times, taking care that the end lies
-under the first turns so as to secure it.
-Then make a loop with the twine and continue
-the lapping for four turns round the
-rope and the end of the twine, as shown
-above. Haul taut and cut off the end.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id012'>
-<img src='images/i_204b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='sc'>Eye Splice</span>—Unlay
-the rope and
-lay the strands
-E, F, G at the
-proper distance
-upon the standing
-part, as
-shown at A. Now
-push the strand H through the strand
-next to it, as shown in B, having first
-opened it with a marlinespike. Strand I
-is then thrust over the part through
-which H was passed. Strand K is
-thrust through the third on the other
-side. Repeat the process with each
-strand, and then hammer the splice into
-shape with the butt of the marlinespike.
-Stretch and cut off the ends of the
-strands. If particular neatness is required,
-the strands, after having been
-passed through the standing part the
-first time, should be halved and passed
-again, and then still further tapered by
-being quartered before being passed
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_209'>209</span>for the third and last time. An eye
-splice is useful. Standing rigging should
-have eyes spliced in to go over the
-mast-head, and for dead-eyes to be
-turned in, etc.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_205a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>FIG. 1.</span><br /><br /><span class='small'>FIG. 2.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='sc'>Short Splice</span>—Unlay the ends of two
-ropes of the same size and bring their
-ends together, as shown in Fig. 1. Hold
-the rope D and the strands A, B and
-C in the left hand. Pass the strand
-E over A and under C of rope H and
-haul taut. Pass strand G over B and
-under A. Pass strand F over the
-strand next to it and under the second.
-Turn the rope round and treat
-the other side in the same way, when
-the splice will be like Fig. 2. The single
-tucking of the strands will not, however,
-be strong enough, and the process
-should be repeated on both sides, halving
-the strands for the sake of neatness.
-This splice is used only for rope that is
-not required to run through a block.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_205b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>Fig. 1.</span><br /><br /><span class='small'>Fig. 2.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='sc'>Long Splice</span>—Unlay the ends of the
-two ropes that are to be joined some
-two or three feet, according to the size
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_210'>210</span>of the rope. Place the two ends together,
-as shown in Fig. 1. Unlay strand
-C and lead it back to A; then take D
-and lay it up in the space left by C.
-Do this with the strands E and F on the
-opposite side. The rope will now look
-like Fig. 2. Give the two middle strands,
-G and H, a lick of tar if the rope is of
-hemp, and grease if of manilla, and
-knot them together with an overhand
-knot, taking care that the knot is so
-formed as to follow the lay of the
-rope. Then halve these strands and
-pass them over one strand and under
-two. Treat the remaining strands in
-the same way, after which stretch the
-rope well and cut off the ends of the
-strands. A long splice is the neatest
-way there is of putting two ends of a
-rope together. If well made it does
-not increase the diameter of the rope,
-and therefore renders through blocks
-as though it did not exist. If one
-strand of a rope is chafed through
-while the other two are sound, a new
-strand may be put in to replace it, and
-the ends may be finished off in the
-same way as in a long splice.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_206a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='sc'>Cut Splice</span>—A cut
-splice is made the
-same as an eye
-splice, only with
-two ropes instead of one.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_206b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='sc'>Overhand Knot</span>—It is
-used at the ends of ropes
-to prevent them from
-unreeving. There should always be
-one in the end of the mainsheet, which
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_211'>211</span>is difficult to reeve again in anything
-like a breeze.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id013'>
-<img src='images/i_207a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='sc'>Reef Knot</span>—It is always
-used to tie the reef points
-of a sail. First make an
-overhand knot and then
-pass the ends so that they take the same
-lay as the crossed parts of the overhand
-knot. If passed the other way, the knot
-will form what sailors call a granny,
-which will slip when it is subjected to
-a strain.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id014'>
-<img src='images/i_207b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='sc'>Bowline Knot</span>—Take the end
-(1)  of the rope in the right
-hand and the standing part
-(2)  in the left hand. Lay the
-end over the standing part
-and turn the left wrist so that
-the standing part forms a
-loop (4) enclosing the end.
-Next lead the end back of the standing
-part and above the loop, and bring the
-end down through the loop as shown.
-This is a very useful knot.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id015'>
-<img src='images/i_207c.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='sc'>Running Bowline</span>—It is made
-by passing the end of a rope
-round its standing part and
-forming a bowline as in
-Fig. 8.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id016'>
-<img src='images/i_207d.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='sc'>Bowline on a Bight</span>—To
-make it, double the rope and
-take the doubled end (1) in
-the right hand, the standing
-part (2) of the rope in the
-left hand. Lay the end over
-the standing part, and by
-turning the left wrist form
-a loop (3) having the end
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_212'>212</span>inside. Next pull up enough of the end
-(1) to dip under the bight (4), bringing
-the end towards the right and dipping
-it under the bight, then passing it up to
-the left over the loop and hauling taut.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id017'>
-<img src='images/i_208a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='sc'>Two Half Hitches</span>—Pass
-the end of the rope round
-the standing part and bring
-it up through the bight.
-This makes a half hitch. Repeat
-the process and haul
-taut. If the knot is to bear a great
-strain, seize the end back with spunyarn
-to the standing part.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_208b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='sc'>Timber Hitch</span>—Pass
-the end of a rope
-round the spar, then
-round the standing
-part <i>b</i>, then several times round its
-own part <i>c</i> against the lay of the rope.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_208c.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='sc'>Gaff Topsail Halyard
-Bend</span>—Pass two turns
-round the spar, then
-lead the end back
-round the standing
-part and underneath
-all the turns, bringing
-it round to its own part and back again
-over the two outer turns and underneath
-the inner turn.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id018'>
-<img src='images/i_208d.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='sc'>Blackwall Hitch</span>—It is the
-simplest method known of
-making fast the end of a rope
-to the hook of a tackle. The
-figure is self-explanatory, the
-underneath part or the rope
-being jammed hard and fast by the
-strain on the hook.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id019'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_213'>213</span>
-<img src='images/i_209a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='sc'>Common Bend</span>—Make a
-bight with the end of one
-rope, and pass the end of
-the other through the bight
-from beneath, and round
-both parts with the end
-under its own standing
-part. The greater the
-strain, the faster will this bend jam.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_209b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='sc'>Magnus Hitch</span>—Pass
-two round turns with
-the end of a rope over
-a spar, then take it before
-the standing part,
-pass it again under the
-spar and up through
-the bight.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_209c.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='sc'>Selvagee
-Strop</span>—It is
-made by driving
-two nails
-into a length of plank at a distance
-apart equal to the desired length of the
-strop. Make fast one end of a ball of
-spunyarn or knotted ropeyarns to one
-of the nails and pass it round the other,
-continuing the process until the strop
-is as thick as required. Marl it down
-with spunyarn and sew canvas or leather
-round it if intended for a block.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id020'>
-<img src='images/i_209d.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='sc'>Grommet Strop</span>—It is
-made of a single strand
-of rope. To make it, lay
-one end over the other
-at the size required, and
-with the long end follow the lay round
-until a ring is formed with three parts
-of the strand all round. Finish by dividing
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_214'>214</span>the ends, overhand knotting, and
-passing them over one strand and under
-the other exactly as in a long splice.
-To make a neat job, use a strand from
-rope that has been some time in use
-and is well stretched. The strand should
-be about a foot more than three times
-the length of the strop, to allow for the
-knotting. It may be wormed and covered
-with canvas or leather if intended
-for a block.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_210.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>Fig. 19.</span><br /><br /><span class='small'>Fig. 20.</span><br /><br /><span class='small'>Fig. 21.</span><br /><br /><span class='small'>Fig. 22.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>Figs. 19 and 20 show a Wall Knot.
-Unlay the end of a rope and with the
-strand A in Fig. 19 form a bight, hold it
-down at the side B, pass the end of
-the next strand C, round A, the end of
-strand D round C and through the bight
-of A. Haul taut and the knot is made
-as in Fig. 20. This can be crowned by
-taking strand in Fig. 21 and laying it
-over the top of the knot. Then lay B
-over A, and C over B and through the
-bight of A and haul taut. Fig. 22 shows
-a double wall and double crown, which
-is made by letting the ends follow their
-own parts round until all the parts
-appear double, first walling and then
-crowning.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id021'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_215'>215</span>
-<img src='images/i_211a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='sc'>Matthew Walker Knot</span>—Made
-by unlaying the end of
-a rope and taking the end A
-round the rope and through
-its own bight, the strand B
-underneath through the
-bight of A, and the strand
-C underneath through the bights of
-strands A and B, and hauling all the
-strands taut. This knot is used principally
-for the ends of lanyards. In
-making these knots a whipping of sailmaker's
-twine should be put round the
-rope where the knot is to be when
-formed.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_211b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>This illustration
-shows
-the process of
-worming a
-rope, which consists of winding spunyarn
-of suitable size into the space
-between the strands with the lay of
-the rope, so as to make the rope smooth
-for parcelling. This must be done with
-the rope on the stretch. A shows the
-spunyarn.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_211c.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>This illustration
-shows the process of
-parcelling and serving.
-After the
-worming is finished
-wrap narrow strips of canvas—tarred,
-if the rope is of hemp, and painted if it
-is of wire—round the rope with the lay,
-secure the parcelling to the rope by
-marling it with twine, the rope can then
-be served against the lay. Lay the
-serving mallet B with its groove on the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_216'>216</span>rope. Take a turn with the spunyarn
-round the rope and head of the mallet,
-round the side next you, and two turns
-on the other side and twist it round the
-handle. Get an assistant to pass the
-ball A round the rope while you heave
-round the mallet. The last half-dozen
-turns of the service must have the end
-of the spunyarn put through them and
-hauled taut to secure it.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_212.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_217'>217</span>
-  <h2 class='c004'>XVIII.<br /> <br />WEATHER "WRINKLES"</h2>
-</div>
-<p class='drop-capa0_4_0_5 c005'>The boat sailer or yachtsman should
-be able, from close observation of
-the barometer and the general
-appearance of the sky, to foretell
-the weather with a certain degree
-of accuracy. The aneroid barometer is
-peculiarly sensitive to all atmospheric
-changes, and is thus invaluable for
-meteorological forecasts. A regular
-code of phenomena has been formulated
-by meteorologists, from which I take
-the following:</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A rapid rise indicates unsettled
-weather.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A gradual rise indicates settled
-weather.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A rise with dry air and cold increasing
-in summer indicates wind from the
-northward, and if rain has fallen better
-weather may be expected.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A rise with moist air and a low temperature
-indicates a continuance of fine
-weather.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A rapid fall indicates stormy weather.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A rapid fall with westerly wind indicates
-stormy weather from northward.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A fall with northerly wind indicates
-storm with rain and hail in summer and
-snow in winter.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_218'>218</span>A fall with increased moisture in
-the air and increasing heat indicates
-southerly wind and rain.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A fall after very calm and warm
-weather indicates rain and squalls.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The barometer rises for a northerly
-wind, including from northwest by
-north to the eastward, for dry or less
-wet weather, for less wind, or for more
-than one of these changes, except on a
-few occasions when rain, hail or snow
-comes from the northward with strong
-wind.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The barometer falls for a southerly
-wind, including from southeast by south
-to the westward, for wet weather, for
-stronger wind, or for more than one of
-these changes, except on a few occasions,
-when moderate wind, with rain or
-snow, comes from the northward.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A fall, with a south wind, precedes
-rain.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A sudden and considerable fall, with
-the wind due west, presages a violent
-storm from the north or northwest, during
-which the glass will rise to its former
-height.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A steady and considerable fall of the
-barometer during an east wind indicates
-a shift of wind to the southward, unless
-a heavy fall of snow or rain immediately
-follows.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A falling barometer, with the wind at
-north, brings bad weather; in summer
-rain and gales; in spring snows and frosts.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>If, after a storm of wind and rain, the
-barometer remains steady at the point
-to which it had fallen, severe weather
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_219'>219</span>may follow without a change in the
-wind. But on the rising of the barometer
-a change of wind may be looked for.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The following rhymes are familiar to
-most sailors:</p>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>When the glass falls low,</div>
-      <div class='line'>Look out for a blow.</div>
-    </div>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>First rise after low,</div>
-      <div class='line'>Portends a stronger blow.</div>
-    </div>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>When the glass is high,</div>
-      <div class='line'>Let all your kites fly.</div>
-    </div>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>Long foretold—long last;</div>
-      <div class='line'>Short notice—soon past.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>The following notes may be relied on
-for forecasting the weather:</p>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>Red sky at sunset, fine weather.</div>
-    </div>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>Red sky in the morning, wind or rain, and</div>
-      <div class='line'>often both.</div>
-    </div>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>Gray sky in the morning, fine weather.</div>
-    </div>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>Hard, oily looking clouds, strong wind.</div>
-    </div>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>Yellowish green clouds, wind and rain.</div>
-    </div>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>Bright yellow sky at sunset, wind.</div>
-    </div>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>Pale yellow sky at sunset, rain.</div>
-    </div>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>Very clear atmosphere near the horizon is a</div>
-      <div class='line'>sign of more wind and often rain.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>Here follow some old sailors' jingles
-which I heard when a boy in the forecastle:</p>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>When rain comes before the wind,</div>
-      <div class='line'>Sheets and halyards you must mind;</div>
-      <div class='line'>When wind comes before the rain,</div>
-      <div class='line'>Hoist your topsails up again.</div>
-    </div>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>Evening red and morning gray</div>
-      <div class='line'>Are sure signs of a fine day;</div>
-      <div class='line'>But evening gray and morning red,</div>
-      <div class='line'>Makes a sailor shake his head.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_220'>220</span>Amateurs while on a cruise should
-frequently look at the barometer and
-take notes of its height and enter them
-in the log.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The action of the aneroid barometer
-depends on the effect produced by the
-pressure of the atmosphere on a circular
-metallic chamber partially exhausted
-of air and hermetically sealed. This
-kind of barometer is liable to changes
-on account of its mechanism getting out
-of order, and it should be often compared
-with a mercurial barometer,
-which from its cumbersomeness cannot
-be conveniently carried in a small craft.
-Aneroid barometers of excellent quality,
-and of about the size of an ordinary
-watch, are offered for sale at a reasonable
-price, and a cruise should not be
-undertaken without one.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A phosphorescent sea is a certain sign
-of continuance of fine weather.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>When porpoises come into shallow
-water and ascend the river stormy
-weather is near.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Sea birds fly far out to sea in fine
-weather, but if they fly inland bad
-weather may be expected.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A halo round the moon, especially if
-it appears distant and yet very distinct,
-indicates a gale of wind and probably
-rain.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>When the wind changes it usually
-shifts with the sun from left to right.
-Thus an East wind shifts to West by
-way of Southeast, South and Southwest,
-and a West wind shifts to East by way
-of Northwest, North and Northeast. If
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_221'>221</span>the wind shifts the opposite way it is
-said to "back," but this it rarely does
-except in unsettled weather.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The United States Signal Service has
-a local observer stationed at each of the
-principal ports. When the "information
-signal," which consists of a red
-pennant, is displayed, it indicates that
-information has been received from the
-central office of a storm covering a
-limited area, dangerous only for vessels
-about to sail to certain points. Ship-masters
-and others interested will be
-supplied with the necessary information
-on application.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A cautionary signal, which is a Yellow
-Flag with a white center, indicates that
-the winds expected are not so violent
-that well found and seaworthy vessels
-cannot encounter them without great
-danger. A cautionary flag hoisted alone
-signifies that the direction of the expected
-wind is doubtful.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_217.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='fss'>CAUTIONARY SIGNALS.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>A dangerous storm signal, which is a
-Red Square Flag with black center, is
-hoisted when the wind is over thirty-five
-miles an hour.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>At night a Red Light indicates Easterly
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_222'>222</span>winds, and a Red and White Light
-Westerly winds.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_218a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='fss'>STORM SIGNALS.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>Following are the weather signals,
-which explain themselves:</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_218b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='fss'>WEATHER.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>Beaufort's scale is used to measure
-the velocity of the wind. It is given
-below:</p>
-
-<table class='table2' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='26%' />
-<col width='26%' />
-<col width='47%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'><i>Hourly Velocity in Miles.</i></td>
-    <td class='c015'><i>Scale.</i></td>
-    <td class='c016'><i>State.</i></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>-</td>
-    <td class='c015'>0</td>
-    <td class='c016'>calm.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>1</td>
-    <td class='c015'>1</td>
-    <td class='c016'>light airs.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>2 to 3</td>
-    <td class='c015'>2</td>
-    <td class='c016'>light breezes.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>4 to 7</td>
-    <td class='c015'>3</td>
-    <td class='c016'>gentle breeze.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>9 to 15</td>
-    <td class='c015'>4</td>
-    <td class='c016'>moderate breeze.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>15 to 18</td>
-    <td class='c015'>5</td>
-    <td class='c016'>fresh breeze.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>19 to 22</td>
-    <td class='c015'>6</td>
-    <td class='c016'>strong breeze.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>23 to 28</td>
-    <td class='c015'>7</td>
-    <td class='c016'>moderate gale.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>28 to 40</td>
-    <td class='c015'>8</td>
-    <td class='c016'>fresh gale.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>40 to 48</td>
-    <td class='c015'>9</td>
-    <td class='c016'>strong gale.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>48 to 56</td>
-    <td class='c015'>10</td>
-    <td class='c016'>whole gale.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>57 to 80</td>
-    <td class='c015'>11</td>
-    <td class='c016'>storm.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>80 to 100</td>
-    <td class='c015'>12</td>
-    <td class='c016'>hurricane.</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_223'>223</span>
-  <h2 class='c004'>XIX.<br /> <br />SEA COOKERY FOR YACHTSMEN.</h2>
-</div>
-<p class='drop-capa0_3_0_5 c005'>Those who go a-sailing for pleasure
-in small craft, frequently
-suffer hardships, or at least inconvenience,
-in the way of meals,
-because of their lack of knowledge of
-the provisions to take with them, and of
-simple methods of preparing wholesome
-and appetizing dishes.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_219.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>Fig. 1. A Yachtsman's Stove.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>Sea cooking differs materially from
-shore cooking, inasmuch as the stove in
-a house is erected on a floor that is both
-stationary and stable. The yachtsman
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_224'>224</span>who has a cosy galley with a fixed stove
-that burn coal or coke or charcoal, and
-that draws well, has reason to bless
-his fortunate stars.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>There have now come into vogue
-several varieties of the blue-flame
-wickless cooking stove. In the accompanying
-illustration, Fig. 1, I have depicted
-a stove which I have found to
-suit. It is wickless and burns the ordinary
-kerosene oil. To suit sea conditions
-the stove is slung on gimbals
-like a ship's compass, so as to yield to
-every motion of the vessel. The railing
-round the top prevents pots and
-pans from sliding to leeward. Fig. 2
-shows the finest fry-pan ever invented
-for an oil stove, on which broiling is
-impracticable. It acts as a broiler or
-fryer at will. The raised bars prevent
-the steak or cutlet from being soddened
-with fat, the result being equal or nearly
-equal to a gridiron. If frying is required
-put the necessary quantity of oil,
-butter or fat in the pan. Let it come
-to a boil, and then immerse in it the
-article, fish, flesh, fowl, reptile, or vegetable
-that you wish to cook.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>With a stove having only one lid or
-burner the sea-cook might often have
-some difficulty in keeping three utensils
-on the boil at once. Luckily ingenuity
-has surmounted the obstacle, and
-Fig. 3 shows three stew-pans of small
-size that will fit over the burner of the
-stove shown in Fig. 1. They are in the
-market, but it took me a long time to
-find out where they are for sale. In one
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_225'>225</span>you may cook curry, in the second rice,
-while clam broth may simmer in the
-third. In good sooth a very cerberus of
-stew-pans!</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Some sort of a contrivance for storing
-ice so as to keep it solid as long as possible
-is indispensable. Such a device is
-shown in Fig. 4.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id022'>
-<img src='images/i_221.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>Fig. 2. The Ideal Fry-Pan.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>For sea picnics buy as many of the
-thin wooden plates (costing only a trifle)
-as you may require.
-These after being
-used may be thrown
-overboard. Take no
-crockery ware or
-china to sea in a
-small boat. Cups,
-saucers, plates and
-dishes can be obtained
-made of enameled
-steel. These are
-unbreakable and
-cleanly. Stew-pans,
-kettles, pitchers,
-coffee-pots and fry-pans
-are also made
-of enameled steel,
-and they cannot be
-surpassed. Cooks' furnishings depend
-on the size of the boat and the hands
-she carries. I suggest the following, but
-leave the sizes to the discretion of the
-purchaser who knows about how many
-mouths he has to feed: One kettle for
-boiling water for tea or coffee, one deep
-fry-pan, one iron pot with tight-fitting
-cover for boiling meat, fish or cooking
-chowder, one teapot, one coffee-pot,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_226'>226</span>a soup ladle, a long iron two-pronged
-fork (known aboard ship as the cook's
-tormentors), two stew-pans for cooking
-vegetables, one broiler (if the implement
-can be used), one cook's knife, one
-vegetable knife, one swab for washing
-pots, pans and plates, and dish towels
-for drying them, soap, cups, plates, dishes,
-knives, forks, spoons, glasses, <i>quant.
-suff.</i> Do not forget a galvanized iron
-bucket for the cook, a can opener and a
-corkscrew. Also matches in an airtight
-can or glass. Fuel in either fluid or
-solid shape should not be omitted.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>When we come to the question of the
-food supplies to be taken aboard, much
-will depend upon the individual. Hard
-tack, salt tack, flour, beans, corned beef,
-salt pork, bacon, hams, canned meats,
-sardines, canned fruits and vegetables,
-cornmeal, lard, butter, cheese, condensed
-milk, sweetened and unsweetened coffee,
-tea, cocoa, chocolate, pepper, salt, mustard,
-vinegar, poultry seasoning, sugar
-and rice are some of the staple comestibles
-that suggest themselves, but these
-may be added to or subtracted from
-according to circumstances.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>A ham is one of the most easily procured
-comestibles. Pick out a small
-one, not too fat. If you want it tough
-as leather, boil it furiously for a couple
-of hours, then haul it out of the pot and
-eat it. If you want a delicate, tender and
-juicy ham soak it in a bucket of fresh
-water for twelve hours. Then scrape
-it well and pop it into a big pot full of
-cold fresh water. Let it come slowly to
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_227'>227</span>the boil. As soon as the water reaches
-the boiling stage, regulate the heat so
-that a gentle simmering, the faintest
-possible ebullition is kept up for five or
-six hours, according to the size of the
-joint. Then take it out of the pot and
-skin it. The rind will come off as easily
-as an old shoe. Then return meat to the
-water in which it was boiled and let it
-remain until it is quite cold. Next dish
-it, drain it and put it in the ice box to
-harden. Cut in very thin slices with a
-sharp knife, and you will admit that
-cooked after this scientific formula ham
-is mighty fine eating.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_223.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>Fig. 3. A Nest of Stew-pans.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>Corned beef cooked after this same
-fashion will also be a success.  The
-secret is a simple one of chemistry.
-Hard boiling hardens the fibers and
-tears the meat to rags. Gentle simmering
-softens the meat while allowing it to
-retain its juices.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The navy bean at present in use,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_228'>228</span>though much may be said in its praise,
-is far inferior to the lima bean. This
-legume if substituted for the insignificant
-(by comparison only) little bean
-on which Boston breakfasts every Sabbath
-morn will be found so palatable
-that the lesser variety will never again
-be used. Procure a quart of lima beans.
-Pick out all that are shriveled or discolored.
-Soak the rest all night in plenty
-of cold fresh water and in the morning
-you will find them plump and tender.
-Wash them well and place them in a
-pot on the fire with a square piece of
-salt pork weighing three-quarters of a
-pound; simmer them gently till they are
-tender, but not till they reach the porridge
-stage. On the contrary, let each
-bean be separate like the soft and swelling
-grains of well-cooked rice. Strain
-through a colander, saving a pint of the
-water in which they were boiled. Pack
-in the bean pot. Bury the chunk of
-pork in the beans. Season the pint of
-water reserved as mentioned above, to
-your liking. Pour over the beans in the
-pot and put in the oven to bake. The
-flavoring of beans depends upon the
-taste of the cook.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Sirloin steaks are a good staple viand.
-Make the butcher cut them not less than
-two inches thick. If you cannot grill
-them heat your fry-pan almost red-hot.
-Put no fat in the pan. Place your steak
-cut into convenient chunks into the hot
-pan. Let one side sear for a minute or
-so to keep in the juices. Then turn meat
-over. It will be cooked sufficiently for
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_229'>229</span>most palates in five or six minutes.
-Place on a piping hot platter, spread
-some fresh butter on the steak, sprinkle
-with pepper, and pipe to grub. Chops
-may be cooked in the same way.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Meat may be roasted in an iron pot if
-the cook has no oven. Moderate heat,
-continuous care to prevent burning, and
-frequent basting are the three requisites
-of a successful pot roast.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>So far as beverages are concerned,
-useful hints in
-that direction are
-given in Fig. 5,
-which shows a
-picturesque and
-shipshape vessel
-to carry when
-a-cruising.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_225.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>Fig. 4. Ice Tub.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>There is no
-daintier dish than
-a fresh, fat lobster,
-generous
-and juicy, just
-hauled from the
-pot in which he
-was caught. Pick
-out a particularly
-lively specimen of medium size but
-heavy. The cock lobster may be distinguished
-from the hen by the narrowness
-of the tail, the upper two fins of
-which are stiff and hard, while the tail
-of the hen is broader and the fins soft.
-The male has the higher flavor; the
-flesh, too, is firmer and the color when
-boiled is a deeper red. The hen is well
-adapted for lobster <i>a la</i> Newburg, but
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_230'>230</span>for eating on the half-shell a male in
-prime condition is far preferable.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The secret of cooking lobsters is to
-plunge them into a pot of furiously
-boiling sea water, and to keep the water
-in a condition of fast ebullition for just
-twenty minutes. Fresh water to which
-salt is added will not do so well. Salt
-water fresh from the ocean is indispensable.
-It brings out the correct flavor
-and imparts an indefinable zest to the
-lobster. Hard-shell crabs may be boiled
-in the same way, but ten minutes will
-be ample time.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>All fresh vegetables are, in the opinion
-of the writer, improved in flavor by
-cooking them in sea water fresh from
-the ocean, not from a harbor contaminated
-by noxious influences from the
-shore. All vegetables should be immersed
-in boiling water and cooked till
-done. Potatoes will take about half an
-hour to boil, but cabbages, carrots and
-turnips much longer. I should not advise
-the cooking of the last-named three
-esculents aboard a small craft. Canned
-asparagus, French peas and string beans
-take little time to prepare and are excellent
-if a reliable brand is purchased.
-Open the can, drain off the liquid and
-throw it away. Wash the vegetables,
-strain the water off, place in a stew-pan
-with a lump of butter, and heat thoroughly.
-The liquid of canned vegetables
-is unfit for human food.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Hard clams or quahaugs are plentiful
-at any port during the boating season.
-The recuperative qualities of the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_231'>231</span>small variety served ice-cold on the
-half shell with a dash of Tabasco sauce
-and no other seasoning are beyond
-praise. Now while the little clam is
-excellent eating just as soon as opened
-from the shell, taking care to waste
-none of his precious juices, his elder
-brother also has inestimable gastronomic
-values.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The easiest and simplest method of
-preparing
-clam broth
-is to scrub
-the clams
-well and
-wash them
-in several
-waters. Put
-them in an
-iron pot,
-without any
-water or
-liquid. Let
-them remain
-on the
-fire for
-twenty minutes.
-Then
-strain the
-juice, into which put a little fresh butter,
-a small quantity of milk, and a dash
-of red pepper. Drink while hot.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_227.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>Fig. 5. A Traveling Companion.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>Never add water to clam broth, and
-never let it boil after the milk is
-added, as it will curdle nine times out
-of ten.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>To make clam soup, clean the clams
-as for broth. Place them in an iron
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_232'>232</span>pot on the stove. As soon as they open
-take them out of their shells and chop
-very fine. A hardwood bowl and a
-two-blade chopping knife are the best
-apparatus for this job. Strain the clam
-liquor, return to the pot, add minced
-onions to taste and the chopped clams;
-simmer gently for one hour, thicken to
-taste with cracker dust, season with
-sweet herbs and pepper; let boil fast
-for ten minutes, take off the stove and
-add some hot milk and a lump of fresh
-butter. Serve.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Clam chowder is an old sea dish
-whose popularity seems likely never to
-wane. It is a simple dish to prepare,
-although many cooks make a mystery
-of it. Cut half a pound of streaky salt
-pork into small cubes. Fry in an iron
-pot together with half a dozen medium-sized
-sliced onions until they are a light
-brown. Chop fifty hard-shell clams
-fine. Peel and slice thin a dozen large
-raw potatoes. Break up four sea biscuits
-and soak till soft in cold water or
-milk. Scald and peel and slice six ripe
-and juicy tomatoes. Put these ingredients
-into the pot in layers, pour over
-them the strained juice of the clams.
-Season with red and black pepper,
-sauces and herbs to taste. Cover an
-inch with hot fresh water and simmer
-for three hours. A pint of sound California
-claret added just before serving
-is an improvement. An old hen makes
-tip-top chowder cooked in the same
-fashion.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Fish chowder may be prepared in a
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_233'>233</span>similar way. Cod, haddock, sea bass
-and bluefish are good made into a
-chowder.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The soft-shell clam makes a delicate
-stew or broth. The tough parts should
-be rejected from the chopping bowl.
-Boiled for twenty minutes and eaten
-from the shell with a little butter and
-pepper they are also very appetizing.
-A big potful soon disappears.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>There is no excuse for the yachtsman
-neglecting to enjoy the delights of fish
-fresh from the sea. Fishing tackle
-should always be carried. Bluefish and
-mackerel may be caught by trolling; and
-if you have fisherman's luck, once in a
-blue moon a Spanish mackerel may fall
-to your lot. If so, that day must be
-marked by a white stone, for a Spanish
-mackerel transferred in about two
-shakes of a lamb's tail from the fish-hook
-to the fry-pan, or better still, if your
-arrangements permit, to the gridiron or
-broiler, is good enough for the gods to
-feed on. Two axioms should be borne
-in mind, namely, to fry in plenty of
-boiling fat or to plunge into boiling
-water. Never humiliate a fish by placing
-him in a cold fry-pan or into a
-cooking pot of cold water.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Before frying fish dip in well-beaten
-egg and then sprinkle with bread
-crumbs or cracker dust, dip in egg
-again, and then add more bread crumbs
-or cracker dust. This is for epicures.
-For ordinary seafarers if the fish is
-rolled in yellow cornmeal without the
-egg the result will be nearly the same.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_234'>234</span>Cut up large fish into suitable sizes, but
-fry small fish whole.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Soft-shell crabs should be cooked in
-boiling fat. When brown they are done.
-Ten minutes is usually enough to cook
-them thoroughly.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Always when you boil fish of any
-kind indigenous to salt water or fresh
-put them in boiling water either from
-the sea or fresh water well salted. A
-little vinegar added is good. A two-pound
-fish should cook sufficiently in
-fifteen or at most twenty minutes. Fish
-with white flesh take longer to boil
-than those with dark.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>An excellent sauce for boiled fish
-may be made thus: Put a piece of
-butter as big as an egg in a saucepan or
-a tomato can; heat till it bubbles, add
-a heaping tablespoonful of flour, stir till
-quite smooth; pour slowly into this,
-stirring continually, a pint of the water
-the fish was cooked in, and add two
-hard-boiled eggs chopped fine. This
-may be flavored with anchovy sauce or
-a few drops of Harvey or Worcestershire.
-Some prefer the addition of a
-little lemon juice or even vinegar.
-Every man to his taste!</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>When a very little boy I sailed in the
-<i>Derwent</i>, a small schooner engaged in
-carrying bottles from Sunderland to
-London. The bottles were taken in
-from the factory where they were
-made, stowed in the hold of the
-schooner and transported to a wharf at
-Wapping. Bottles are a clean kind of
-freight, and our skipper being a very
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_235'>235</span>particular kind of a man the <i>Derwent</i>
-was kept as bright as a new pin outside
-and inside, alow and aloft. On this
-dashing little vessel I was cook and
-cabin boy. There was no regular galley
-on deck, simply an iron cooking
-stove erected on the foreside of the
-mainmast; and on that in storm and
-calm I boiled and baked for a crew of
-four for more than a year—in fact till I
-quit the coasting trade and signed away
-foreign. My skipper took me under
-his special guidance. The grub had to
-be well cooked and the deck kept spotless
-or I used to suffer. Skipper and
-mate were epicures after a fashion, so I
-had to keep my weather eye open.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>My experience in merchant vessels
-and pleasure craft has fitted me to
-write with some small assumption of
-authority on the subject of sea cooking.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Some of my methods may seem queer
-and perhaps grotesque, but condemn
-them not till you have tested them in
-the crucible of experiment.</p>
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_236'>236</span>
-  <h2 class='c004'>XX.<br /> <br />NAUTICAL TERMS IN COMMON USE.</h2>
-</div>
-<p class='c012'>Aback—A sail's condition when the sheet is to windward and it drives the
-vessel astern.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Abaft—The position toward the stern
-of any object or point such as "abaft
-the mast" or "abaft the binnacle."</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Afore—The contrary of abaft.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Ahoy!—An interjection used in hailing
-a vessel, such as "<i>Vigilant</i> ahoy!"</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Athwart—Across the keel.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Atrip—When the anchor is broken
-out of the ground.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Avast—Stop, discontinue. As "avast
-hauling" (stop hauling).</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Balance reef—A diagonal reef in a
-fore-and-aft sail extending from throat
-to clew.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Batten down—Covering hatches with
-tarpaulins and securing them with
-battens.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Beam ends—A vessel is said to be on
-her beam ends when knocked down by
-a squall to an angle of about 45 degrees.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Belay—To make fast a rope or fall of
-a tackle.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Below—Greenhorns call it "downstairs"
-and seamen laugh at them.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Bight—A loop of a rope.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Bilge—The round in a vessel's timbers
-where they turn from her sides
-toward the keel.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_237'>237</span>Binnacle—A case in which the compass
-is contained.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Block and block—When the blocks
-of a tackle are hauled close together.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Bolt rope—The rope sewn round the
-edges of sails. It is made of the best
-hemp.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Bonnet—An extra piece of canvas
-laced to the foot of a jib or foresail,
-taken off when it blows hard.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Box the compass—To call over the
-points of the compass in correct order.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Break off—When a vessel sailing
-close-hauled is headed by the wind and
-is unable to lay the course she was
-steering.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Bring up—To anchor.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Broach to—To come to against wind
-and helm.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Capsize—To turn over.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Carvel built—Constructed with the
-planks flush edge to edge and the seams
-caulked and payed.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Caulking—Driving oakum into the
-seams of a vessel with a mallet and a
-blunt chisel called a caulking iron.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Clews—The lower corners of square
-sails; the lower after-corners of fore-and-aft
-sails.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Clinch—To fasten a rope by a half
-hitch and then seize the end back to the
-standing part.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Close-hauled—Hauled as close to the
-wind as the sails will permit without
-shaking their luffs. A cutter-rigged
-yacht with well-cut canvas should lie
-within four and a quarter points of the
-wind. Some modern racing craft have
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_238'>238</span>done half a point better than this.
-Square-rigged vessels cannot head
-better than five and a-half points of the
-wind.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Collar—An eye spliced in a shroud or
-stay to go over the masthead.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Comber—A big wave.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Companion—The entrance from the
-deck to the cabin below.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Compass bowl—The bowl in the binnacle
-that contains the compass.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Corinthian—A term in yachting possessing
-the same significance as amateur;
-the opposite of professional.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Counter—That part of a vessel which
-projects abaft the sternpost.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Covering board—The outside deck
-plank fitted over the timber heads. The
-same as planksheer.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Cracking on—Carrying a press of sail.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Crank—Not stiff under canvas; easily
-heeled or listed.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Cranze or Cranse—A metal band with
-eyes on it fitted to the end of a bowsprit
-or other spar.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Cringle—A metal thimble worked in
-the clews and leeches of sails.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Dandy—A cutter-rigged vessel with
-lug-mizzen set on a jigger-mast.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Davits—Iron cranes on vessels to
-which boats are hoisted.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Deadeye—A circular wooden block
-with three holes in it without sheaves,
-through which a lanyard is rove to set
-up standing rigging.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Dead wood—Solid wood worked on
-top of the keel forward and aft.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Depth of hold—The height between
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_239'>239</span>the keelson and the deck of a single-decked
-vessel.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Displacement—The quantity of water
-displaced by a vessel, which in weight
-is always equal to her own weight.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Dogvane—A light vane made of bunting
-or feathers to show the direction of
-the wind.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Dowse—To lower a sail suddenly.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Down-haul—A rope by which a sail is
-hauled down.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Draught of water—The depth of a
-vessel measured from the under side of
-the keel to the load water-line.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Earrings—Ropes for fastening the
-corners of the heads of sails to yards and
-for reefing.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Ease off—To slacken a rope handsomely.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Eyelet holes—Small holes worked in
-sails for lacings or lashings to be rove
-through.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Eyes of the rigging—Collars spliced
-in the ends of shrouds to go over the
-masthead and also over the deadeyes.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Fair leaders—Holes in planks, etc., for
-ropes to be rove through so that they
-lead fairly.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Fair wind—A wind that permits a vessel
-to steer her course without tacking.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Fall—The hauling part of the rope of
-a tackle.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>False keel—A timber bolted to the
-under side of the keel proper.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Fathom—A sea measure of six feet.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Fender—A species of buffer made of
-wood, rope or other material to hang
-over a vessel's side to prevent her from
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_240'>240</span>chafing against a dock, or another
-vessel.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Fid—An iron or wooden bar to keep
-bowsprits and topmasts in place; a
-conical wooden instrument used by riggers
-and sailmakers.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Fish, To—To strengthen a weak or
-repair a broken spar by lashing another
-spar or batten to it.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Flare—To project outwards; contrary
-to tumbling home.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Flat aft—When sheets are trimmed as
-close as possible for effective windward
-work.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Floors—The bottom timbers of a vessel.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Flowing sheet—The sheet eased off to
-a fair wind.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Flush decked—Having neither poop
-nor forecastle.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Foot—The lower edge of a sail.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Forereach—To sail faster through the
-water on a wind than another vessel.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Freeboard—That part of a ship's side
-above the water.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Full and by—To steer as close to the
-wind as possible, while at the same time
-keeping the sails full of wind.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Futtocks—The timbers which join
-and butt above the floors, called first,
-second and third futtocks.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Gammon iron—An iron hoop fitted
-to the side of the stem, or on top of
-the stem, to receive and hold the bowsprit.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Garboard—The strake of plank next
-above the keel, into which it is rabbeted
-and bolted.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_241'>241</span>Gripe, To—A vessel gripes when she
-has a tendency to come up in the
-wind and requires much weather helm.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Gudgeons—Metal straps with eyes
-secured to the stern post, into which
-the pintles of the rudder are fitted.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Gunwale—The timber fitted over the
-timber heads and fastened to the top
-strake.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Guys—Ropes used to steady a spar or
-other thing.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Gybe—To let a fore-and-aft sail shift
-from one side to the other when running
-before the wind. To let a vessel
-go so much off the wind as to bring the
-wind on the opposite quarter.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Half-mast high—When a flag is hoisted
-halfway up as a mark of respect to a
-person recently dead.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Halyards—Ropes for hoisting sails.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Handsomely—Steadily; carefully.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Handy billy—A watch tackle kept on
-deck for getting a pull on sheets or halyards.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Hanks—Rings or hooks for fastening
-the luffs of sails to stays.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Hard down—The order to put the
-tiller a-lee. Hard up, the order to put
-the tiller a-weather.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Heave to—To so trim a vessel's sails
-that she does not move ahead.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Heel rope—The rope by which a running
-bowsprit is hauled out or a topmast
-lowered.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Hoist—The length of the luff of a fore-and-aft
-sail.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Horns—The projections forming the
-jaws of gaffs or booms.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_242'>242</span>Hounds—The projections on a mast
-that support the lower cap and rigging.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>House—To lower a topmast down
-within the cap.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Inhaul—The rope used to haul sails
-inboard.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>In irons—The condition of a vessel
-head to wind and with way lost, unable
-to pay off on one tack or the other.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Irish pennants—Loose ropes flying in
-the breeze or dangling over the side.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Jackstay—A rod of iron, a wooden
-cleating, or a wire rope for sails or yards
-to travel on; also a wire rope on the
-main boom to which the foot of the
-sail is laced.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Jiggermast—The mizzenmast of a
-yawl or dandy.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Kentledge—Pig iron used as ballast.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Lanyards—Ropes rove through deadeyes
-by which shrouds or stays are set up.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Leeboard—An old-fashioned contrivance
-to check leeway, still in use on
-some Dutch vessels and English barges.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Load water-line—The line of flotation
-when a vessel is properly ballasted
-or laden.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Luff—To come closer to the wind.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Make fast—To belay a rope.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Masthead—That part of the mast
-above the hounds.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Mast hoops—The hoops to which the
-luffs of fore and aft sails are seized to
-secure the sails to the masts.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Miss stays, To—To fail in an attempt
-to tack.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Mousing—A yarn wound round a hook
-to prevent it from becoming unhooked.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_243'>243</span>Near—Very close to the wind.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Nip—To nip a vessel is to sail her too
-close to the wind.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>On a wind—Closehauled.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Outhaul—A rope or tackle by which
-a sail is hauled out on a spar.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Paddy's hurricane—A dead calm.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Painter—A rope spliced to a ring bolt
-in the bow of a boat to make fast by.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Pay—To pour hot pitch or marine
-glue into seams after they are caulked.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Pintles—The metal hooks by which
-rudders are attached to the gudgeons.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Pole mast—A mast without a topmast,
-but with a long masthead above
-the hounds.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Put about—To tack.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Raffee—A square or triangular sail set
-flying on the foretopmasts of schooners.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Rake—To incline forward or aft from
-the vertical, as raking mast, a raking
-sternpost, etc.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Reef band—A strip of canvas sewn
-across a sail, in which eyelet holes for
-the reef points are worked.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Reef pendant—A strong rope with a
-Matthew Walker knot in one end. It is
-passed up through a hole in the cleat
-on the boom, and then through the reef
-cringle in the sail and down through the
-hole in the cleat on the other side of the
-boom.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Reef points—Short lengths of rope in
-sails to tie up the part rolled up when
-reefing.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Reeve—To pass a rope through a
-block or a hole of any kind.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_244'>244</span>Roach—The curved part of the foot
-of a sail.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Rockered keel—A keel whose ends
-curve upward.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Running bowsprit—A bowsprit so
-fitted as to run in or out and reef.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Serve—To cover a rope with spunyarn.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Shake out a reef—To untie the reef
-points and set the sail.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Sheathing—The copper or other metal
-nailed on the bottom of a vessel.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Sheave—The grooved wheel in a block
-or in the sheave hole of a spar over
-which the rope passes.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Sheet—The rope by which the clew
-of a sail is secured.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Snotter—An eye strop used to support
-the heel of a sprit.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Spitfire jib—The smallest storm jib.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Taunt—Tall, high.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Taut—Tight.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Tie up—A lubber's synonym for moor.
-You tie up a dog. You moor a vessel.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Thimble—A heart shaped or circular
-ring with a groove outside for ropes to
-fit in. They are used for the eye splices
-in ropes, the straps of blocks and for the
-cringles in sails.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Thwarts—The transverse seats in
-boats.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Tumble home—When the sides of a
-vessel near the deck incline inward the
-opposite to flaring.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Tyers—Ropes that secure a mainsail
-when stowed.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Unbend—To cast loose a sail from
-stay, gaff, boom or yard.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_245'>245</span>Veer—To pay out chain.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Wear—To bring the wind on the other
-side of a vessel by turning her head from
-the wind. The reverse of tacking.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Weather gauge—The condition of a
-vessel that is to windward of another.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Weather helm—A vessel is said to
-carry weather helm when she has a tendency
-to fly up in the wind.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Weathering—If one vessel eats to
-windward of another, she is said to
-weather on her. Weathering an object
-is passing it on the windward side.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Whip, To—To bind the end of a rope
-with twine to prevent it from unlaying.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Yaw—A vessel yaws when her head
-flies from one direction to the other; as,
-for instance, when her helmsman is unable
-to keep her steady on her course.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Yawl—A cutter-rigged vessel with a
-mizzenmast stepped in her counter.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_241.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_246'>246</span>
-<img src='images/i_242.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>THE SLOOP YACHT.</span><br /><br /><i>Names of Spars, Rigging, Sails, Etc.</i><br /><br /> 1 Jib Topsail.<br /> 2 Club Topsail Sprit.<br /> 3 Topsail Club.<br /> 4 Club Topsail Guy.<br /> 5 Jib.<br /> 6 Club Topsail.<br /> 7 Mainsail.<br /> 8 Bowsprit.<br /> 9 Club Topsail Tack Line.<br />10 Mainsheet.<br />11 Foresail or Forestaysail Sheet.<br />12 Jib Topsail Sheet.<br />13 Topping Lift.<br />14 Gaff Topsail, Clewed Down.<br />15 Tack of Jib.<br />16 Tack of Jib Topsail.<br />17 Luff of Jib Topsail.<br />18 Head of Jib Topsail.<br />19 Jib Topsail Halyards.<br />20 Leach of Jib Topsail.<br />21 Main Gaff.<br />22 Main Boom.<br />23 Main Topmast.<br />24 Foot of Jib.<br />25 Leach of Jib.<br />26 Clew of Jib.<br />27 Reef Points.<br />28 Tack of Mainsail.<br />29 Clew of Mainsail.<br />30 Peak of Mainsail.<br />31 Throat of Mainsail.<br />32 Main Crosstrees.<br />33 Masthead Runner and Tackle.<br />34 Head of Club Topsail.<br />35 Clew of Club Topsail.<br />36 Tack of Club Topsail.<br />37 Topmast Shrouds.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_247'>247</span>
-<img src='images/i_243.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>THE CUTTER YACHT.</span><br /><br /><i>Names of Spars, Sails, Standing and Running Rigging, Etc.</i><br /><br />SPARS.<br /><br />1 Lowermast.<br />2 Topmast.<br />3 Bowsprit.<br />4 Main Boom.<br />5 Gaff.<br />6 Topsail Sprit.<br />7 Spinnaker Boom.<br />8 Tiller.<br /><br />RIGGING AND ROPES.<br /><br /> 9 Crosstrees.<br />10 Shrouds.<br />11 Topmast Shrouds.<br />12 Topping Lift.<br />13 Masthead Runner and Tackle.<br />14 Forestay.<br />15 Topmast Stay.<br />16 Bobstay.<br />17 Bobstay Fall.<br />18 Spinnaker Boom Topping Lift.<br />19 Spinnaker Boom Brace.<br />20 Topmast Backstay.<br />21 Reef Pennant.<br />22 Truck.<br />23 Ensign.<br />24 Channels.<br />25 Mainsheet.<br />26 Spinnaker Boom Guy.<br />27 Clew of Sprit Topsail.<br />28 Tack of Sprit Topsail.<br />29 Tack Line or Pendant.<br />30 Sprit Topsail Halyards.<br /><br />SAILS.<br /><br />A Jib.<br />B Sprit Topsail.<br />C Mainsail.<br />D Foresail.<br />E Jib Topsail.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_248'>248</span>
-  <h2 class='c004'>ADDENDA.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c003'>
-    <div>RECENT CHANGES IN SAIL PLAN AND RIG OF</div>
-    <div>MODERN CRAFT.</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='drop-capa0_4_0_6 c005'>Since the first edition of this book
-was printed, yacht designers have
-studied to reduce weight aloft.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>This has not infrequently resulted
-in fitting ironwork blocks, etc., far too
-flimsy to endure the strain of a stiff
-breeze. There is always a happy medium
-between spider-web rigging and rigging
-uselessly heavy and clumsy, and my advice
-therefore is not to go to extremes.
-In racing craft on the fresh-water lakes
-piano wire has been used for standing
-rigging, and because of its enormous
-strength and notable lightness has answered
-well enough. In salt water, however,
-it should be avoided because of its
-liability to corrosion.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The principal changes in rig of late
-years follow: The substitution of turnbuckles
-and rigging screws for the old-fashioned
-dead eyes and lanyards; the
-reduction of the length of the bowsprit
-because of the long overhang forward,
-which has done away with the reefing
-bowsprit on all modern craft; the invention
-of masthead shrouds, bridles on
-gaffs, and the throat halyard pennant.
-By means of the three devices mentioned,
-strains aloft are both minimized
-and equalized. Large vessels carry
-double masthead shrouds, and every
-racing yacht is fitted with single ones.
-Gaff bridles and throat halyard pennants
-are also considered to be well-nigh
-indispensable.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_249'>249</span>
-<img src='images/i_245.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>SAIL PLAN AND RIG OF A MODERN SCHOONER.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_250'>250</span>
-<img src='images/i_246.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p><span class='small'>RIG AND SAIL PLAN OF A MODERN YAWL.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_251'>251</span>In the matter of running rigging,
-flexible steel wire is now much used for
-throat and peak halyards. Its advantage
-is that there is little or no "give" to it.
-The rig of a modern 25-foot water-line
-sloop with a pole mast is as follows:
-Bobstay-rod of steel 3/4-inch in diameter,
-set up with a turnbuckle at the end of the
-bowsprit; shrouds, two each side, 1-1/8-inch
-steel wire; forestay set up to stem
-head, 1-1/4-inch steel wire; jib set flying,
-hoisted with 3/4-inch 8-stranded flexible
-steel-wire halyards, set up with a jig-purchase;
-runner-shrouds of 7/8-inch
-wire canvased over; main lifts 3/4-inch
-flexible steel wire, parcelled, sewed over
-with white codline and then covered
-with white canvas sewn on. The throat
-and peak halyards are of 3/4-inch flexible
-steel wire. The blocks are all strapped
-with grommets of flexible steel wire
-sewed and leathered.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Steel wire is now also used for the
-leech ropes of racing sails, and is employed
-largely in the lower canvas of all
-the big racing yachts. Flexible steel
-wire is nearly as pliable as new hemp
-rope of the same strength. The greater
-the diameter of the sheaves over which
-it passes the longer it will last. This wire
-cannot be belayed to a cleat. Therefore,
-Manila rope is spliced to the hauling end
-of the wire, which insures its remaining
-fast after once being belayed. This is a
-most difficult splice to make.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The accompanying illustrations show
-the sail plans and rigs of a modern
-schooner and a modern yawl. When
-compared with the sloop and cutter
-rigs on pages 211 and 212, it will be
-easily seen that many radical changes
-have been made.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_252'>252</span>It occurred to me in revising the book
-for this edition, that it might be wise to
-omit the directions for rigging a running
-bowsprit, bending a loose-footed
-mainsail, and some other devices which
-in the light of modern improvements
-might be deemed either archaic or obsolete.
-On second thoughts, however,
-I decided to let them stand as written.
-There is still a goodly fleet of "old-timers,"
-cutters and yawls with straight
-stems and reefing bowsprits—craft some
-of them half a century old or more, and
-sound as a gold dollar in spite of severe
-service. The deadeye and the lanyard,
-although being pushed hard by the
-turnbuckle, die slowly, and are yet to
-be found in brand new vessels of the
-twentieth century.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>To equalize and minimize strains on
-mainbooms, mainsheet bridles are now
-fitted. Overhangs are growing longer
-and longer and bowsprits shorter. The
-Larchmont one-design class of 1901 has
-a length on deck of 40 feet 7 inches,
-with a water-line length of 25 feet.
-The sail area is 1,103 feet, and the out
-side ballast weighs 6,100 pounds. The
-centerboard houses entirely below the
-cabin floor, the draught being 4 feet 6
-inches, and 8 feet with the board down.
-The aim of the designer is to combine
-racing and cruising qualities—a much-to-be-desired
-combination, never to be
-completely attained, I fear.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c003'>
-    <div>THE END.</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id003'>
-<img src='images/i_249.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c012'>POMMERY</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>"SEC" (A Very Dry Wine.)  "BRUT" (No Sweetening Whatever.)</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>The</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Standard for</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Champagne</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Quality.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>CHAMPAGNE</p>
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_253'>253</span>WHITE'S</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>YACHT AGENCY</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>EUGENE WHITE, <i>Proprietor</i></p>
-
-<p class='c007'>OFFICE <i>for</i> SELLING, CHARTERING <i>and</i>
-PURCHASING YACHTS <i>and</i> BOATS OF
-EVERY DESCRIPTION DESIGNS <i>and</i>
-ESTIMATES FURNISHED  <i>Terms Moderate</i></p>
-
-<p class='c007'>11 EAST BROADWAY</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>(<i>Chatham Square</i>) NEW YORK</p>
-<hr class='c017' />
-
-<div  class='figcenter id023'>
-<img src='images/i_250a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>Air Whistles</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>FOR YACHTS and LAUNCHES</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id024'>
-<img src='images/i_250b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>A powerful Air Whistle, shrill
-and far-reaching. Indispensable
-in fog or stormy night. Either
-fixed or portable. Specially adapted for small
-yachts. Prices from $9 00 upward.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id025'>
-<img src='images/i_250c.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>GLEASON-PETERS AIR PUMP CO.,</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Houston and Mercer Sts., NEW YORK CITY.</p>
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c001' />
-</div>
-<div>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_254'>254</span>
-  <h3 class='c013'>Established 1840.</h3>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>GEO. B. CARPENTER &amp; CO.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_251.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>Yacht Sailmakers and dealers in every yachting requisite. We have all
-the new fabrics for <b>racing sails</b>.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Send 6c in stamps for our up-to-date catalogue of yacht fittings and supplies,
-or 4c in stamps for catalogue of tents, etc.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Tents, Camp Furniture and Flags.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>202-208 South Water Street, CHICAGO.</p>
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c001' />
-</div>
-<div>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_255'>255</span>
-  <h3 class='c013'>SPAR COATING</h3>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id026'>
-<img src='images/i_252.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic002'>
-<p>PRESERVATIVE COATINGS<br />E.S.<br />1827<br />&amp; CO.<br />TRADE MARK.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>A PERFECT FINISH</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>FOR ALL WOODWORK, SPARS AND IRONWORK</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>EXPOSED TO EXCESSIVE CHANGES IN WEATHER AND TEMPERATURE.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>EDWARD SMITH &amp; CO.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>VARNISH MAKERS AND COLOR GRINDERS</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>45 BROADWAY, NEW YORK</p>
-<div>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_256'>256</span>
-  <h3 class='c000'>Boat Sailing<br /> <br />Fair Weather and Foul.</h3>
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c001'>
-    <div>Capt. A. J. Kenealy.</div>
-    <div class='c001'>Price 50 Cents.</div>
-    <div class='c001'>The Outing Publishing Co.,</div>
-    <div class='c003'>239-241 Fifth Ave.,</div>
-    <div class='c001'>New York.</div>
-    <div class='c001'>INTERNATIONAL NEWS CO.</div>
-    <div class='c001'>London.</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c002'>
-    <div>Transcriber's Notes.</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c007'>The original spelling and punctuation has been retained.</p>
-
-<p class='c007'>Variations in hyphenation and compound words have been
-preserved.</p>
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-<pre>
-
-
-
-
-
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