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Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5a86471 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #60438 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/60438) diff --git a/old/60438-0.txt b/old/60438-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 75ddc4a..0000000 --- a/old/60438-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9214 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Chile and Her People of To-day, by Nevin O. Winter - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Chile and Her People of To-day - -Author: Nevin O. Winter - -Release Date: October 6, 2019 [EBook #60438] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHILE AND HER PEOPLE OF TO-DAY *** - - - - -Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - -CHILE AND HER PEOPLE OF TO-DAY - - - - -Uniform with This Volume - - Cuba and Her People of To-day $3.00 - BY FORBES LINDSAY - - Panama and the Canal To-day. _New Revised Edition_ 3.00 - BY FORBES LINDSAY - - Chile and Her People of To-day 3.00 - BY NEVIN O. WINTER - - Argentina and Her People of To-day 3.00 - BY NEVIN O. WINTER - - Brazil and Her People of To-day 3.00 - BY NEVIN O. WINTER - - Guatemala and Her People of To-day 3.00 - BY NEVIN O. WINTER - - Mexico and Her People of To-day. _New Revised Edition_ 3.00 - BY NEVIN O. WINTER - - Bohemia and the Čechs 3.00 - BY WILL S. MONROE - - In Viking Land. Norway: Its Peoples, Its Fjords and Its Fjelds 3.00 - BY WILL S. MONROE - - Turkey and the Turks 3.00 - BY WILL S. MONROE - - Sicily, the Garden of the Mediterranean 3.00 - BY WILL S. MONROE - - In Wildest Africa 3.00 - BY PETER MACQUEEN - - L. C. PAGE & COMPANY - 53 Beacon Street, Boston, Mass. - - - - -[Illustration: A CHILEAN GIRL WITH THE _MANTA_. - -(_See page 90_)] - - - - - CHILE AND HER - PEOPLE OF - TO-DAY - - AN ACCOUNT OF THE - CUSTOMS, CHARACTERISTICS, AMUSEMENTS, - HISTORY AND ADVANCEMENT - OF THE CHILEANS, AND THE - DEVELOPMENT AND RESOURCES OF - THEIR COUNTRY - - BY - NEVIN O. WINTER - - Author of “Mexico and Her People of To-day,” - “Guatemala and Her People of To-day,” - “Brazil and Her People of To-day,” - “Argentina and Her People of - To-day” - - ILLUSTRATED FROM ORIGINAL AND SELECTED - PHOTOGRAPHS BY THE AUTHOR - - [Illustration] - - BOSTON - L. C. PAGE AND COMPANY - MDCCCCXII - - _Copyright, 1912_ - BY L. C. PAGE & COMPANY - (INCORPORATED) - - _All rights reserved_ - - First Impression, January, 1912 - - _Electrotyped and Printed by - THE COLONIAL PRESS - C. H. Simonds & Co., Boston, U.S.A._ - - - - -PREFACE - - -To the jealousy of Francisco Pizarro was due the discovery and conquest -of Chile. Reports having reached Pizarro that there were regions to the -south yet virgin, and teeming with wealth richer than that of Peru, he -sent Diego de Almagro, one of his lieutenants, with an expedition to -conquer these unknown lands. Almagro failed, and later he sent Pedro de -Valdivia with another expedition. There was another reason for sending -these expeditions, for Pizarro hoped that neither of these men would -return to Peru, since he feared their shrewdness and popularity. - -Valdivia succeeded in establishing a permanent settlement, but himself -fell a victim to the hardy tribesmen of the central valley of Chile, who -were far different from the soft and mild Incas enslaved by Pizarro. He -had found that it was no easy task he had undertaken, and the sturdy race -of Araucanians was still unconquered when the Spaniards were driven out -of the country by the generations that had grown up from the time of its -first settlement. - -The Chileans have ever been independent in thought and action, and they -have proved to be the best soldiers of South America. The temperate -climate, the mountainous character of the country and its isolation, -and the admixture of blood with the unconquerable Araucanians, who most -nearly resemble the North American redmen of any of the aborigines -of South America, have all contributed to the development of this -characteristic. - -The government is now as stable and hopeful as that of any of the South -American nations, and, because of its natural formation, Chile has -developed into the strongest maritime nation of that continent. Its fine -bays and harbours, its coal supplies and its long seacoast, undoubtedly -destine Chile to be the master of the southern seas in the ages yet to -come. Furthermore, its vast and fertile valleys, where every product of -the temperate climate grows, and where immense herds of cattle may be -fed, its mineral wealth and vast nitrate fields, undoubtedly destine it -to a greatness on land as well as on the sea. - -The history of Chile has always appealed to the writer, in common with -thousands of other people, and it has been a pleasure to trace the -development of the country from its incipiency to its present condition. -The same care has been exercised in the preparation of “Chile and Her -People of To-day” as in the other books of the series, which have been so -well received. Any repetitions that appear of expressions or ideas are -intentional and not the result of hasty or careless preparation. - -The author wishes to acknowledge his obligation to The Pan-American -Bulletin for two or three photographs which appear in this work, and also -to the Bureau under which it is issued for many courtesies received at -the hands of the Director and his associates. - - NEVIN O. WINTER. - - TOLEDO, OHIO, _January, 1912_. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - PREFACE v - - I. THE COUNTRY 1 - - II. THE WEST COAST 19 - - III. VALE OF PARADISE 46 - - IV. THE CITY OF SAINT JAMES 69 - - V. THE GRANARY OF THE REPUBLIC 92 - - VI. THE LAND OF THE FIRE 120 - - VII. THE BACKBONE OF THE CONTINENT 148 - - VIII. A LABORATORY OF NATURE 178 - - IX. THE PEOPLE 191 - - X. AN UNCONQUERABLE RACE 212 - - XI. EDUCATION AND THE ARTS 230 - - XII. THE DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORTATION 243 - - XIII. RELIGIOUS INFLUENCES 261 - - XIV. THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 280 - - XV. THE NITRATE WAR 315 - - XVI. CIVIL WAR AND ITS RESULTS 336 - - XVII. PRESENT CONDITIONS AND FUTURE POSSIBILITIES 360 - - APPENDICES 391 - - INDEX 405 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - PAGE - - A CHILEAN GIRL WITH THE _MANTA_ (_See page 90_) _Frontispiece_ - - MAP OF CHILE 2 - - THE ANDES FROM SANTA LUCIA 6 - - THE WEST COAST 20 - - A MILK BOY IN PERU 28 - - ROW BOATS CROWDING AROUND A STEAMER 33 - - THE HARBOUR OF ARICA 36 - - A STREET SCENE, ANTOFAGASTA 42 - - COQUIMBO, A TYPICAL WEST COAST TOWN 44 - - AN “ASCENSOR” IN VALPARAISO 47 - - A CHICKEN PEDDLER, VALPARAISO 57 - - A VENDER OF DONKEY’S MILK, VALPARAISO 58 - - AN ATTRACTIVE HOME, VIÑA DEL MAR 60 - - SANTA LUCIA 71 - - ALAMEDA DE LAS DELICIAS, SANTIAGO 72 - - DANCING LA CUECA, THE NATIONAL DANCE 75 - - A GROUP OF NEWSBOYS, SANTIAGO 81 - - A MARKET SCENE, SANTIAGO 82 - - THE OLDEST BUILDING IN SANTIAGO 89 - - A PLANTATION OWNER 97 - - DRAWING AN AMERICAN THRESHER 99 - - VIEW OF PUERTO MONTT 108 - - IN THE STRAITS OF MAGELLAN 122 - - A WRECK ON THE COAST OF CHILE 128 - - GENERAL VIEW OF PUNTA ARENAS 132 - - PORT FAMINE, IN THE STRAITS OF MAGELLAN 135 - - THE ACONCAGUA RIVER 149 - - LOOKING TOWARDS ACONCAGUA 151 - - THE SALTO DEL SOLDADO 154 - - REFUGE HOUSE ALONG THE OLD INCA TRAIL 157 - - THE CHRIST OF THE ANDES 161 - - THE SOLITUDE OF THE ANDES 163 - - LOADING NITRATE 186 - - A GROUP OF CHILEAN GIRLS 206 - - OX CARTS 223 - - THE ESCUELA NAVAL, VALPARAISO 233 - - THE HARBOUR, VALPARAISO 248 - - JUNCAL STATION 258 - - TRANSANDINO CHILENO RAILWAY, SHOWING ABT SYSTEM OF COGS 260 - - A CHILEAN PRIEST 268 - - JOSÉ DE SAN MARTIN 289 - - CONGRESS PALACE, SANTIAGO 305 - - DIGGING NITRATE 316 - - THE MILITARY BARRACKS, SANTIAGO 346 - - CHILEAN SOLDIERS 352 - - A MARKET SCENE, VALPARAISO 364 - - THE BATTLESHIP, “O’HIGGINS” 371 - - A TYPICAL COAST SCENE 377 - - THE CUSTOM HOUSE, VALPARAISO 388 - - - - -CHILE AND HER PEOPLE OF TO-DAY - - - - -CHAPTER I - -THE COUNTRY - - -The republic of Chile has one of the strangest configurations of any -country on the globe. It stretches over thirty-eight degrees of latitude, -thus giving it a coast line of twenty-six hundred and twenty-five miles -from its northern border to the most southerly point on the Fuegian -Archipelago. It is a long and narrow ribbon of land, at no place wider -than two hundred miles, and in places narrowing to sixty-five miles. It -has an average width of only ninety miles, while the length is fully -thirty times the average width. Placed on the western coast of North -America, in the corresponding latitude, this republic would extend from -Sitka, Alaska, to a point on the Pacific coast opposite the City of -Mexico. If the state of Texas should be stretched out into a narrow -strip of land two thousand and five hundred miles in length, it would -give a fair idea of the peculiar shape of Chile. It follows quite -closely the seventieth parallel of longitude, which would correspond -with that of Boston. This strange development has been due to the Andean -mountain range, which, with its lofty peaks and numberless spurs, forms -the eastern boundary throughout its entire length. For a long time the -boundary lines with its neighbours were in dispute, but these have all -been successfully adjusted. - -[Illustration] - -Within these boundaries there is naturally a wide divergence of climate. -In the north, at sea level, the vegetation is tropical, and it is -semi-tropical for several hundred miles south. If one goes inland the -mountains are soon encountered, and the line of perpetual snow is reached -at about fifteen thousand feet, but this line descends as you proceed -south. On the Fuegian Islands snow seldom disappears from sight, although -at sea level it may all thaw. The temperature everywhere varies according -to altitude and proximity to the sea. In the north it is milder than the -same latitude on the eastern coast, because of the Antarctic Current -which washes the shores, and at the south it is warmer than the same -latitude in North America. Within these extremes, from the regions which -are washed by the Antarctic seas to the banks of the Sama River, which -separates it from Peru, and between the shores where the Pacific breakers -roll and the Cordilleras of the Andes which mark the boundary with -Argentina, there are two hundred and ninety-one thousand, five hundred -square miles, and supporting a population of three and a quarter millions -of people, of many shades of colour. - -One-fourth or more of the territory of Chile is made up of islands. The -largest of these, of course, is Tierra del Fuego, of which a little more -than one-half is Chilean territory. The coast from Puerto Montt to the -southern limits of the continent is notched and indented with fiords and -inlets, and scores of islands have been formed, probably by volcanic -action. Few of these have claimed any attention, and, of all those lashed -by the waves of the Antarctic seas, Tierra del Fuego is the only one -that has received any development. The sheep man has taken possession of -portions of that island, and hundreds of thousands of sheep now graze on -its succulent grasses. The island of Chiloé, near Puerto Montt, is one -of the most important of the islands, and several small foreign colonies -have been located on its rich soil. Some of the islands are very remote -from the mainland. The most isolated one is Pascua, or Easter, island, -which is at a distance of more than two thousand miles from the coast. -It is almost in the centre of the Pacific Ocean. The San Felix and San -Ambrosio groups, and that of Juan Fernandez, the reputed home of Robinson -Crusoe, are also at a distance of several hundred miles from the shores -of the republic. - -From the northern boundary to Concepción, the coast line is generally -uniform and indentations are rare. There are only a few bays of any -considerable size, and only an occasional cape or promontory. From Chiloé -to Tierra del Fuego is a stretch of coast five hundred miles in length, -which a glance at the map will show is a perfect network of islands, -peninsulas and channels. This is the Chilean Patagonia. It provides -scenery as grandly picturesque as the famous fiords along the coast of -Norway, and greatly resembles that broken and rugged coast. The bays and -gulfs cut into the shores to the foothills of the Andean range. They -are of great depth. The Gulf of Las Peñas furnishes an entrance to this -labyrinth at the north, and the Straits of Magellan at the south. Some -of the passes are so narrow that they seem like gigantic splits in the -mountain ranges—grandly gloomy and narrow. Through these openings in the -rock the water rushes with terrific force owing to the action of the -tides. But, once within, the opening broadens out into little bays, where -the waters are as calm and serene as a mountain lake. These channels -are a vast Campo Santo, or God’s Acre, of wrecked vessels. Numerous as -the disasters have been the sight of a stranded boat is rare, for the -grave is usually hundreds of fathoms deep. In every case, however, the -wrecked vessel has given her name to the rock that brought disaster, and -the official charts are dotted with the names of rocks, which thus form -eternal headstones for the unfortunate vessels. One writer has given the -following account of these channels:— - -“If one can imagine the Hudson River bordered continuously by -verdure-covered mountains descending precipitously into the water, and -jutting out here and there in fantastic buttress-like headlands, one has -some idea of Messier Channel. But add to this a network of long, thin -cataracts threading their way thousands of feet down through gullies and -alleys from mountain crest to water edge. Far up the mountain sides they -are so distant as to seem motionless, like threads of silver beaten into -the crevices of the rocks; but near the water their motion can be both -seen and heard as they fall amid the rocks to reach the sea.” - -The southern portion of the republic terminates in two peninsulas, known -as King William and Brunswick, which are separated by the gulfs of Otway -and Skyring. The Straits of Magellan then separate the mainland from the -Fuegian Archipelago. This channel, which varies in width from one to -twenty-five miles, is three hundred and sixty-two miles in length from -Cape Pillar to Cape Virgenes, the latter being the eastern, or Atlantic, -terminus. It affords a safe passage for vessels, and is used almost -exclusively by steamers bound from one coast to the other. - -[Illustration: THE ANDES FROM SANTA LUCIA.] - -After forming the plateau of Bolivia, the Andes, the backbone of South -America, stretches down to the lower end of the continent. It is formed -by a succession of high mountains, with lofty peaks covered with the -eternal snows. At intervals passes are found which permit of access -from one side of the mountain to another. The highest point of this -mighty range is reached just opposite Valparaiso, Mt. Aconcagua, and -from there it descends until, at the Straits of Magellan, it reaches -sea level. It probably continues still farther, but its highest spurs -are engulfed beneath the ocean. The width also varies greatly, from -forty-five to one hundred miles. Along the Chilean border there are more -than fifty definite peaks exceeding thirty-three hundred feet in height, -and twenty-nine of more than ten thousand feet in altitude. Four are -above twenty thousand feet. Most of these were originally volcanoes, -but they are nearly all now extinct or quiescent. South of Aconcagua -is a succession of lofty volcanic peaks, such as San José de Maipu, -San Fernando, Tingueririca and others, all apparently extinct. Then -follow Nevado del Chillan, Antuco, Villarica and Osorno, all of which -occasionally emit vapour, and, lastly, the Tronador (thunderer) near the -southern extremity of the country. - -By reason of its peculiar shape easy access is given to all parts of the -republic, and the exploitation of its resources has been comparatively -easy. In no place are the mountains far distant, and short spurs of -railway connect the mineral deposits with the sea. Along the coast there -are no fewer than fifty-nine ports, between which regular communication -by steamer is carried on. Fourteen of these are ports of entry, in which -customs houses are located, and the others are minor ports, at which only -national coasting steamers stop. - -There are very many rivers in the country, but only a very few of them -are any aid to navigation. They are mostly short streams which are formed -by the melting snows of the Andes, and then rush onward toward the sea by -a more or less direct route. The principal rivers are all in the southern -half of the country. In the deserts of the northern section the waters -formed by melting snows are evaporated or are absorbed by the parched -soil long before they reach the sea. The Yelcho and Palena are the -largest rivers of Chile. The latter is the longest, for it cuts through a -pass in the Andes and runs back into Argentine territory for seventy-five -miles. Others are the Maullin, Calle-Calle, Bio-Bio, Bueno and Maule. -Some, such as the Bio-Bio and Maule, are navigable for short distances by -vessels of shallow draft. Their importance to commerce is insignificant, -however, when compared with the great rivers of the eastern coast. The -Bio-Bio, for instance, is only one hundred and sixty miles long. They -do furnish water for irrigation purposes, only a small portion of which -has as yet been developed. There are several lakes in Chile, of which -Llanquihue, Todos Santos, and Ranco are the most important. The two first -mentioned have steam navigation. - -There are many valleys of very fertile land which can be made among the -richest agricultural lands of the world. As a rule these valleys are -small and irrigated by streams flowing from the east to the west. The -great central valley, which runs in a southerly direction for several -hundred miles from Santiago, is one of the most remarkable features of -the country and the garden of the republic. This valley is almost six -hundred miles in length from north to south, but varies considerably in -width. Its average width for the entire length is probably thirty miles. -This is the granary of the country, and the source of its principal -food supply. All of the cereals grow to perfection in this climate -and on this soil. Wheat, barley, corn, rye and oats are cultivated in -large quantities. All of the vegetables and fruits that flourish in -the temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere also grow to large size. -Alfalfa makes a fine pasture. And yet even this fertile valley has only -been developed in part. Not more than one-fourth of the landed surface -of Chile is fitted for cultivation, but of this portion not more than -one-fourth has been touched by the agriculturist or ranchman. Hence -there are great possibilities of development yet unexploited in this -republic. Cattle and sheep are profitable and are increasing in number. -The waterfalls, also, give great possibilities of cheap power for -manufacturing purposes, and the future will probably find all of the -railroads operated by electric power, because of the cheapness with which -current can be produced. This result seems to be only the natural outcome -of existing conditions. - -Such a country, with such a long extent of sea coast, would ordinarily be -an almost impossible country to handle. It has, perhaps, been fortunate -that the coast is easily reached in all parts, from the inhospitable -deserts of the northern regions to the dense forests of the south. -No country of equal size in the world has such a marvellously varied -configuration. The humming-bird follows the fuchsia clear to the Straits -of Magellan, and the penguin has followed the fish almost as far as -Valparaiso. The government has done well in managing this ribbon-like -country. Coast service has been built up and a longitudinal railway -promises an interior development. Cross lines and transcontinental routes -will provide much needed facilities for the interchange of commerce. The -telegraph and telephone have linked together hitherto remote sections, -and a creditable postal service has been created. - -Chile is a republic, with the customary division into legislative, -executive and judicial branches. It is not a confederation of provinces, -as in Brazil and Argentina, but is a single state with one central -government. It is divided for governmental purposes into twenty-three -provinces and one territory. These are again divided into departments, -districts and municipalities. Congress is composed of a Senate and -Chamber of Deputies. The former is at present composed of thirty-two -members and the latter of ninety-four. Deputies are elected for a term -of three years by direct vote, in the proportion of one to every -thirty thousand inhabitants. Senators are elected for six years in the -proportion of one to every three deputies, and the terms of one-third -expire every two years. Members of the House of Deputies must have an -income of five hundred dollars a year, and a Senator must be thirty-six -years of age and is required to have an annual income four times that -sum. Congress sits from June 1 to September 1 each year, but an extra -session may be called at any time. A peculiar feature is that during -the recess of Congress a committee consisting of seven from each house -acts for that body, and is consulted by the President on all matters of -importance. - -The President is chosen by electors, who are elected by direct vote, for -a term of five years. He serves the state for a salary of about eleven -thousand dollars, including the allowance for expenses. He is ineligible -to serve two consecutive terms and may not leave the country during his -term of office, or for one year after its expiration, without the consent -of Congress. He has a cabinet of six secretaries, who are known as -Ministers of Interior, Foreign Affairs, Justice and Public Instruction, -Treasury, War and Marine, Industry and Public Works. The Minister of the -Interior is the Vice-President, and succeeds to the office of President -in the event of his death or disability. Elections are held on the 25th -of June every fifth year, and inauguration of the new President follows -on the succeeding 18th of September. The cabinet may be forced to resign -at any time by a vote of lack of confidence by Congress, to whom they are -directly responsible. In addition to the cabinet there is a Council of -State consisting of eleven members, six of whom are appointed by Congress -and five by the President, who assist that official in an advisory -capacity. Furthermore, when Congress adjourns, it appoints a standing -committee of seven from each house, which acts as the representative of -that body during vacation. The President must consult with it in certain -matters, and the committee may request him to call an extraordinary -session if, in their opinion, such a course is advisable. - -There is a national Supreme Court of seven members that sits at Santiago, -which is the final judicial authority. Courts of appeal consisting of -from five to twelve members also sit at Santiago, Valparaiso, Tacna, -Serena, Talca, Valdivia and Concepción. There are also a number of -minor courts which are located in the various provinces and departments. -Each province is governed by an _intendente_, who is appointed by the -President of the republic. The departments are governed by governors, who -are subordinate to the _intendentes_, and the districts by inspectors, -who are also appointed. The only popular element is the municipal -district, or commune, which is governed by a board composed of nine men, -who are elected by direct vote in each municipality. - -When the Spaniards reached Chile they found native races occupying it. -In the northern portions the tribes were under at least the nominal sway -of the Incas, although separated from them either by the inhospitable -Andes or dreary desert wastes. In the great central valley, however, -the land appeared a pleasant garden, and so rich that nowhere had -the Spaniards seen anything similar either for its fertility or the -wealth of its fruits and herds. “It is all an inhabited place and a -sown land or a gold-mine, rich in herds as that of Peru, with a fibre -drawn from the soil rich in food supplies sown by the Indians for their -subsistence”—so wrote the chroniclers. They lived in comfort and had a -certain civilization. Each _cacique_ had his own ranch house, the number -of doors indicating the number of his wives, of which some had as many as -fifteen. These people were the Araucanians, who proved to be a brave and -courageous race. The Spaniards immediately began their usual cruelties -and efforts to enslave these people, but succeeded only temporarily. The -natives soon rose in rebellion. Three hundred years of warfare decimated -their ranks, but did not subdue them, and when the Spanish rule ended -these people were as unconquered as when it began. Their history has been -written in blood, but it is the struggle of a heroic race, and it is not -dimmed by the excesses and cruelties that attached to the Spaniards in -their efforts to subjugate and enslave these valiant people. - -After he had conquered Peru, Pizarro sent an expedition south to explore -the country and take possession of it in the name of the King of Spain. -One of his lieutenants, Diego de Almagro, was placed in charge. He -crossed the great nitrate desert and reached as far as Copiapó, where -he was driven back by hostile Indians. He had reached a valley called -by the natives Tchili, which signified in their language beautiful, -and that name was given to the country. A few years later, in 1540, -another expedition was fitted out under Captain Pedro de Valdivia, -which was more successful. He marched as far as the present city of -Santiago, and founded a city, which has ever since remained the capital. -Although colonists came from Spain, little progress was made for a long -time because of the hostility of the Araucanian Indians. These attacks -continued until 1640, when a treaty was concluded with these indomitable -natives by which the Bio-Bio River was established as the boundary, and -both together were to resist the English and Dutch buccaneers, who had -begun to harass the coast. Early in the nineteenth century the spirit -of independence reached Chile, and insurrections against the Spanish -authorities broke out. - -On the 18th of September, 1810, the Spanish authorities were deposed and -a provisional government was set up. Troops were poured in by Spain, -and it was not until 1818, when the Spanish troops were defeated in the -battle of Maipu by the Argentine general, San Martin, that freedom from -the foreign yoke was secured. General Don Ambrosio O’Higgins, an Irish -patriot who had greatly distinguished himself in the war for freedom, -was chosen as the first President, and he introduced many reforms and -endeavoured to ameliorate the condition of the natives. The Jesuit -missionaries followed in the wake of the soldiers and began their work -of converting the natives. Since that time there has been considerable -internal struggle between rival political factions, and some foreign -troubles. There was a brief war with Spain, a frightful conflict with -the neighbouring republic of Peru, and disagreements with Bolivia and -Argentina. A few years ago war with the latter country seemed inevitable -over the international boundary, but wise counsels prevailed and the -matter was successfully arbitrated. At the present time peace prevails, -although there are continual mutterings in Peru, and that country only -needs a hot-headed leader to bring about another war with Chile over the -lost revenue from the nitrate fields. - -The Chileans are a brave and a courageous people. The natural boundaries -have no doubt aided in developing a national spirit and love of -independence. Truly no people in South America have fought so long and -so hard to achieve national independence. The Araucanian mixture has -brought virility and industry into the race—a far different element -than the Inca blood farther north. These Yankees of the South American -continent have accomplished much, and there is still greater promise for -the future. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -THE WEST COAST - - -Cruising along the west coast of South America is a delightful -experience. It is the perfection of ocean travel. One is always sure of -fine weather, for it neither rains nor blows, and the swell is seldom -strong enough to make even the susceptible person seasick. In defiance -of our idea of geography the sailors speak of going “up” the coast, when -bound towards the south. The boats along this coast are built for fair -weather and tropical seas. They have their cabins opening seaward, and -the decks reach down almost to the water’s edge. Some swing hammocks and -sleep on deck, and it is very comfortable. Such vessels would not be -adapted for the stormy Atlantic, and would not live long in a storm upon -the Caribbean Sea. Sailors say that the wind is never strong enough to -“ruffle the fur on a cat’s back,” and this immense stretch of sea might -be likened unto a great mill pond. It is this part of the ocean, between -the Isthmus and Peru, that suggested to the Spaniards the name of Pacific. - -Near the equator the days and nights are equal. The sun ceases doing duty -promptly at six, and reappears at the same hour the following morning. -There is no twilight, little gloaming, and darkness succeeds daylight -almost as soon as the big red ball disappears in the western sea. At -night beautiful phosphorescence may be seen. The water is so impregnated -with phosphorus, that each tiny wave is tipped with a light and the -vessel leaves a trail of fire. From above the Southern Cross looks down -upon the scene in complaisance. And thus the days pass in succession one -after the other. The temperature is not uncomfortable, as the Antarctic -Current tempers the tropical sun, and there is generally a southerly -or southwesterly wind that aids. It is a pleasanter ride, and subject -to fewer inconveniences than the ride along the eastern coast of the -continent. - -[Illustration: THE WEST COAST.] - -When the Stars and Stripes have faded from view at Balboa, and the jagged -backbone of the continent has disappeared into the mists on either -horizon, towards Nicaragua and Colombia, one feels that a new world has -been reached. The real South America has been entered, and, when the -good ship crosses the Line, about the third day out, home and the rest -of the world seem very far away. It is a long journey to Valparaiso, -Chile, if one takes a steamer that stops at all the intermediate -ports, as it lasts more than three weeks. There are swifter vessels, -however, that avoid Ecuador and make the journey in twelve days. The -slower vessels follow the coast line, and the passenger is given many a -view of the Andes, whose peaks are crowned with eternal snows but are -frequently wrapped in fleecy clouds. At Guayaquil, the westernmost city -of South America, it is even possible on occasions in clear weather -to see Chimborazo, eighty miles from the sea. Nowhere in the world is -there a greater assembly of lofty peaks than will be seen as the vessel -proceeds along the coast. The Spaniards called these “sierras,” because -their uneven summits resembled the teeth of a saw. Some of the peaks are -regular in outline, but more often they are irregular and even grotesque, -so that the imaginative minds of the natives have fancied resemblances -to works of nature and have given them corresponding names. Nowhere in -the world are there stranger freaks in geological formations, or more -startling contrasts. Near the coast run the foothills, which gradually -become higher and bolder until they end in the loftiest peaks. Back, and -beyond all, an occasional volcanic peak may be seen lifting itself in -solitary grandeur. - -At the mouth of the Guayas River, in Ecuador, there is a dense growth -of tropical vegetation. It seems to be a veritable hothouse of nature, -where plants and trees wage a desperate war for existence against the -vines, mosses and other parasites that attack them. This is the end of -such scenes, however, for days and days. It would be difficult to find a -more dreary aspect than the coast of South America from the boundary of -Ecuador almost to Valparaiso. From the water’s edge to the Andes chain -of mountains stretches a yellow and brown desert, unrelieved by a tinge -of green, except where irrigation has been employed. At midday all is -clear, but in the evening a purple haze covers the whole landscape. It -bears a close resemblance to parts of Arizona and New Mexico in general -characteristics. Cliffs three hundred to four hundred feet high, and -which are scooped out into fantastic shapes, often form the water’s -edge. The distant mountains look gloomy and forbidding. It very seldom -rains there, perhaps once in six or seven years is a fair average. In -other places a generation can almost grow up and pass away without an -experience with rain. When it does rain, however, the desertlike plains -and slopes immediately spring into life. Where for years there has been -nothing but drifting sands appear meadows of nutritious grasses, and -flowers and plants spring up in great confusion. Wherever the seeds -come from is a mystery, but every nook and corner is soon ablaze with -vegetation. - -The boats stop at many ports from Ecuador to Chile. These little towns -will be found nestling in little hollows at the foot of the hills, or -tacked on the hillside. Each one is walled away from the other, and -each is a gateway to a fertile valley or rich mining section. Sometimes -a narrow gauge railway runs back into the interior, but there are no -connections coastwise. The steamer furnishes the only communication -with the world beyond, and the arrival of the boat is an event of great -importance. Each town has its own specialty. At Guayaquil and Paita -many merchants will come aboard with Panama hats, and good-natured -bargaining will then be carried on with the passengers. Buying a hat is -a tedious matter. The seller does not expect more than about one-third -of the price he asks. If the passenger looks indifferent the native -will hunt him up and reduce his offer. “How much would the señor give?” -“Thirty soles! That would be robbery.” But the ship’s gong strikes and -the time of departure is at hand. “Here, señor, is your hat. _Muchas -gracias. Adios!_” The deal is concluded, and you have your hat at the -price you offered, if you are shrewd enough to see that a cheaper hat -was not substituted at the last minute. Deck traders board the vessel -and stay with it for days, doing a good business in almost everything -from vegetables and fruits to dry goods, and jewelry. Parrots, monkeys -and even mild-eyed ant-eaters are offered the passengers for pets. -Passengers join the boat at every stop, and, instead of hat boxes, as -American women would be burdened with, the women here all bring on board -their bird cages with their noisy occupants. Swarthy Spaniards and the -darker-hued natives join the boat, many of them dressed in gay attire, -and particularly wearing gaudy neckties and waistcoats. The boat always -anchors at some distance from the shore, while passengers and freight -are brought out either in lighters or row-boats. At some places a dozen -lighters may be filled with freight for the steamer. The ship’s crew -bring up from the hold scores of bales and boxes with labels familiar and -unfamiliar. International commerce becomes real—almost a thing of flesh -and blood. Each sling load brought up from the hold has its own tale to -tell, and everyone becomes commercialized. The crowing of roosters at -night, the bleating of sheep and bawling of the cattle remind you of a -country barnyard at times, for the boat carries its own live stock, which -are killed as the conditions of the larder demand. Thus it is that these -slow galleons float along the coast past Paita, Pacasmayo, Salaverry, -Pisco and the rest of the little ports. Five minutes after the ladder -would be lowered the deck would become a floating bazaar. - -Guayaquil is the port for the equatorial republic of Ecuador. Quite a -business is done there, for more than one-third of the world’s supply of -cacao beans, from which our chocolate is made, comes through this port. -It is generally infested with more or less fever, and most people prefer -to make their stay as short as possible. One of the curious things to -attract the traveller’s attention is to see the mules with their legs -encased in trousers. This is not due to any excessive modesty on the -part of the inhabitants, for children several years old may be seen -without as much clothing on. The purpose is to protect the legs of the -animals from the bite of the gadfly, which is very numerous here. It was -near Guayaquil that Pizarro landed with one hundred and eighty men to -conquer the empire of the Incas. The capital of Ecuador, Quito, lies in -a saucer-shaped cup at the foot of Mt. Pichincha, with many other lofty -peaks in sight. It perhaps retains more of the original characteristics -than any other city of South America. It vies with the City of Mexico the -distinction of being the oldest city of the Americas. For centuries prior -to the coming of the Spaniards it was the capital of one of the branches -of the Incas, and Atahualpa used to eat his meals off plates made of -solid gold. Hitherto accessible only over a long and difficult mountain -trail, which was impassable during half of the year, Quito can now be -reached by a railroad—thanks to American enterprise. No less than twenty -volcanoes are visible from the track, of which three are active, five -dormant and twelve are classed as extinct. - -Callao (pronounced Cal-ya-o) is the principal port of Peru. It is always -full of steamers and masts and has a general aspect of business. More -than a thousand vessels touch here every twelve months. Its history has -been exciting and there are many monuments to its heroes. Some warships -are generally floating in the harbour. Lima is distant but seven miles -from Callao, and it is a ride of only twenty minutes by an excellent -electric road of American construction throughout. To the hum of the -trolley one is hurried past irrigated fields, beautiful gardens and -villas, and Inca ruins many centuries old. As the boats remain at Callao -for a day the traveller is able to spend a few hours in the “City of the -Kings,” as Pizarro christened it. Lima is a wonderfully interesting city, -and its history is full of romance. It preserves in wood and stone the -spirit of old Spain as it was transplanted into the New World. Carved -balconies, which were patterned after their native Andalusia, still -overhang the narrow streets of the Peruvian capital. Up-to-date electric -cars whirl past old monastery walls where life has scarcely changed in -three centuries. The Limaños are an easy-going, pleasure-loving people, -among whom the strenuous life has few disciples. It has been the scene of -many revolutions, and the marks of street fighting are numerous. Churches -and ecclesiastical institutions abound on every hand, and ecclesiastics -are numerous on the streets. The cathedral, in which the sacristan will -show the alleged bones of Francisco Pizarro, is a fine specimen of -architecture—one of the best in the world. On another corner of the plaza -is the passageway from which the conspirators emerged on their way to -assassinate the conqueror. The building which was the headquarters of the -Inquisition in South America occupies still another site on the plaza. - -[Illustration: A MILK BOY IN PERU.] - -Pisco is the next port of importance, and it is situated near a rich -and fertile irrigated valley where sugar-cane grows abundantly. It is -the port also for the interior towns of Ayacucho and Huancavelica, -where numerous rich mines are found. Just a few miles out at sea are -the Chincha Islands, from which Peru obtained such a large revenue for -the guano found there. These deposits, once considered inexhaustible, -because in places they were eighty feet or more in depth, have been -almost exhausted. The great wealth received from them and nitrate has -been dissipated. - -At Mollendo, the last Peruvian port, there is a railway that runs to La -Paz, the capital of the inland republic of Bolivia. It is a surf-lashed -port where vessels are sometimes unable to land their passengers and -freight. In fact the landing is through a “sort of Niagara Gorge gateway -of rock, which gives to the mere landing some of the noise and a good -deal of the excitement of a rescue at sea.” It takes three days’ travel -to reach La Paz from Mollendo, as the train only runs by day. The first -stage of the trip, as far as Arequipa, is over an almost trackless -desert, where the wind piles the sand up in movable half-moon heaps. The -sand-storms of the centuries have covered everything with these whitish -particles, and the dusted peaks and hillocks stand out without relief -of any kind. The second day brings the traveller to Lake Titicaca, the -sacred lake of the Incas, which is crossed by boat, and a side trip -will take the traveller to Cuzco, the capital of the Inca confederacy. -Lake Titicaca is the highest and one of the most wonderful lakes in -the world. It is larger than all the lakes of Switzerland together, and -lies in a hollow two and one-half miles above the waters of the ocean. -Lying in a peaceful valley, in a scene of desolate grandeur, where the -trees are stunted and only a few of the hardiest plants survive, lies La -Paz. The City of Peace, its name indicates, but this city has been the -scene of turmoil and strife entirely foreign to its name ever since the -Spaniards invaded these solitudes. Bolivia is another Tibet—one of the -highest inhabited plateaus in the world, as well as one of the richest -mineral sections. - -In no part of the world, perhaps, is there such an abundance of life in -sea and air as along the coast of Peru. Soon after leaving Callao the -tedium of the voyage is relieved by the flight of millions upon millions -of birds. There are gulls, ducks, cormorants, divers of all kinds and -great pelicans with huge pouches under their bills. The sea is as -animated as the air, and schools of fish, innumerable in numbers, may be -seen darting through the water with their fins showing above its surface. -Danger besets them from above and from beneath. The divers poise on wing -every few minutes and then drop suddenly into the sea like a flash. For -a few seconds they disappear beneath the surface, and then reappear with -a fish in their bills. The lumbering and stately pelicans drop with a -mighty splash that sends up a dash of spray. These greedy birds continue -this foraging process until their pouches are so filled with fish that -they are unable to rise out of the water until the load is digested or -they disgorge themselves. The seals and sea lions keep themselves as busy -as the birds, and constantly display their sinuous and shiny bodies above -the surface, as they pursue the fish or come up to breathe. - -We passed by the famous guano islands just before nightfall. The air was -filled with birds, all of which were flying toward a great island that -lifted up its rocky surface above the blue of the sea. At some distance -above the sea were the smaller birds, which, at a distance, looked like -mere specks against the sky. A little lower were the pelicans flying in -single file, and in flocks of from twelve to thirty. They seemed to play -the game of “follow the leader,” for if the leader poised his wings or -lifted himself higher all did the same. Near the surface were divers, -called “pirates” in the local parlance, in flocks of a thousand or more. -They sailed along just above the surface of the water and continually -altered their formation. With the naked eye the number of birds was -myriad, but the telescope showed ten times as many. As far as one could -see there was the same multitude of birds, all heading for this one -island. The island itself was black with the birds already settled for -the night, but each new arrival seemed to find a resting place either on -the surface of the rock or in the caves underneath. For countless ages -these birds have occupied these sterile volcanic rocks as their resting -place, and have deposited the guano which has brought millions of dollars -of wealth into the Peruvian treasury. A glimpse of this remarkable bird -life shows how the guano has accumulated in such enormous quantities. - -[Illustration: ROW BOATS CROWDING AROUND A STEAMER.] - -The northern part of Chile contains the dreariest section of this forlorn -coast. There are no harbours, and a tremendous surf which rolls half way -around the world before it strikes a breakwater dashes into foam upon -these beaches. Several prosperous towns are located here as a result -of the workings of nature’s laboratories. To reach these ports it is -necessary to trust yourself to one of the boatmen, who crowd around the -ladder as soon as the vessel drops anchor. Judicious bargaining is always -advisable, and never pay the boatman until he has returned you safely to -your floating hotel. The boat is guided through the surf with amazing -skill, and it is very seldom that an accident occurs. They sometimes -crowd each other off, however, in their eagerness to get the best -position at the bottom of the ladder and secure the first passengers. But -all these men are good swimmers, and the only result is a good wetting -and much amusement for the steamer’s passengers who welcome any diversion. - -Arica is the first port of importance in Chile at the north. It is only a -day’s journey from Mollendo, the last Peruvian port. The Peruvian heaves -a sigh when he enters Arica, but there is some hope in it, for he trusts -to add this province to Peru’s possessions at some time in the future -again. But at Iquique the hope fades, for sovereignty is lost for ever. -Although not a large town, Arica has been the scene of several memorable -events. It was here that were built the boats which carried the troops -for the conquest of Chile. It was at that time a place of some importance -among the natives, and the valleys back of it were densely populated and -were cultivated by means of irrigation. Sir Francis Drake touched at this -place in 1579, and found a collection of Indian huts on the shore. It is -supposed to have been founded in 1250 by the Incas. It is like an oasis -in the desert to the traveller who has coasted along the shore for days -or weeks without seeing vegetation. At the present time it is famous -for its oranges. They are grown in the rich valleys that lie behind the -rather unattractive and forbidding hills next to the coast, and through -the opening in the flat-topped hills one is permitted to catch glimpses -of these valleys. Near the coast is a prehistoric cemetery filled with -dead bodies, which were embalmed with almost as great skill as the -mummies of Egypt. - -Arica is a pleasant little place of several thousand inhabitants. There -is a handsome little plaza which encloses a plot of shrubbery adorned -with morning-glories and purple vine trees. One of the striking features -is the brilliant colouring of the houses. There is also a rather imposing -parochial church which is painted in the gaudiest colours that I have -seen in any country; and it would be hard to duplicate it anywhere, even -in Spanish America, a land of rich colouring. It used to be a great -market for the skins of the vicuña, which are so beautiful. In late -years, however, the skins are becoming less plentiful and the prices -have jumped accordingly. The harbour is commodious and well sheltered. -Interesting glimpses of native life are afforded by the Indian women -coming to town. Some of them ride astride, being almost concealed by the -huge panniers containing their market produce. Others trudge along by the -side of the animals. - -From this city a highway runs into the interior of Peru and Bolivia, -which was constructed by the Incas a thousand years ago and has been -used ever since. To-day caravans of mules, donkeys and llamas may be -seen constantly passing up and down this ancient trail. They bring down -ore and take back mining supplies and miscellaneous merchandise. It is -known as the “camino real,” and is several hundred miles long. Near here -is supposed to be the underground outlet of Lakes Titicaca and Poopo. -One argument advanced in favour of this theory is that a certain kind of -fresh water fish that abounds in that lake is caught in considerable -numbers in the ocean near this town. It has been the scene of several -disastrous earthquakes. On August 13th, 1868, it was almost washed away, -and many of its inhabitants perished in a tidal wave which came without -warning and devastated the coast for a hundred miles. Two United States -men-of-war, which were in the harbour at that time, were lifted from -their anchorage by waves sixty feet high and carried inland a mile over -the roofs of the town. One of the vessels, the _Fredonia_, was dashed -against a ledge of rocks and entirely destroyed, while the other, the -_Wateree_, was left lying in the sand. Everyone on the former boat was -lost and about half of the latter. For many years the boat lying on the -sand was used as a boarding house for the railway employees. - -[Illustration: THE HARBOUR OF ARICA.] - -On June 7th, 1880, Arica was the scene of a furious battle and a terrible -massacre. At one end of the town, and directly on the sea front, -is a promontory, which rises six hundred feet above the sea almost -precipitously. On this rock, which is known as the Morro, the Peruvians -had erected a powerful battery to defend the harbour. The Chileans, -however, landed a force of four thousand men several miles below at -night. In the morning the Peruvians found themselves attacked in the -rear with no means of escape. As their guns were pointed to the sea they -were useless to defend against those back on the landward side. Although -short of small arms and ammunition, the Peruvians made a heroic defence -and engaged in a hand-to-hand contest that lasted for an hour. At the end -of that time the commander leaped over the precipice into the sea, and -his body was crushed to a pulp among the rocks. Several hundred of his -soldiers followed him, preferring to die that way to having their throats -cut by the Chileans. For months afterward their bodies could be seen -lying where they had lodged on the jutting rocks below. It is claimed -that seventeen hundred Peruvians were killed, as this was the total -strength of the garrison and no prisoners were taken. On a slab near the -slope of the rock is an inscription in whitewashed stone, “Viva Battalion -No. 4.” It was placed there by the victorious Chileans to commemorate the -heroism of the enemy. - -Arica is in the province of Tacna, which is the most northerly province -in the republic, and is about the size of New Jersey. Agriculture in -this province is very limited, and there has not been much of mineral -development. There are some veins of copper and lead, and some scattered -deposits of nitrate as well that have not been worked. A railroad from -Arica runs back to the city of Tacna, the capital, which is one of the -oldest railroads in South America. It is quite an important town, and is -situated in a valley made fertile by irrigation. A railroad is now being -built across the Cordilleras from this city to connect with the Bolivian -railways. When that is completed it is believed that this line will be -the best one, as it is the shortest, and every traveller is anxious to -escape as much of the dust in crossing the desert region as possible. -It is only a little over three hundred miles from Arica to La Paz. This -road will add to the importance of Arica, for it will be one of the main -arteries of commerce from Bolivia to the outside world, but it is not -likely to help Tacna any in its growth. - -The next province adjoining Tacna is Tarapacá, which is one of the -wealthiest sections in the Americas because of its nitrate deposits. It -contains the richest nitrate region in the world. From Arica the cliffs -rise up almost perpendicularly from the sea for the first day’s journey. -Pisagua, the first port as you travel “up” the coast, is a city of about -five thousand. This port does not differ much from a mining town in the -States. Although considerable shipping is done here, Pisagua fades in -importance beside its more important rivals. - -“We do not want rain in Iquique.” - -This statement was made to me by the manager of the nitrate trust, who -lives in that prosperous city of thirty thousand or more inhabitants, and -which is one hundred and eleven miles south of Arica. It was the first -time I had ever heard of a community that did not desire rainfall. Water -used to be brought by boat from more favoured regions, and was peddled -through the streets at so much a quart or gallon. At times it is said to -have sold as high as two dollars per gallon. A pipe line one hundred and -fifty miles long now supplies this necessary liquid to this city, and it -is sold by the metre instead of being put up in pint or quart bottles. - -A walk through this city on the edge of the sea, with bare, brown and -rugged hills for a background, showed not a blade of grass, except on -the public squares and in a few diminutive courtyards within the houses, -where the hand of man supplied the necessary water for growth. It is -little wonder that lawn-mowers are a drug on the market in Iquique. The -sun is fierce, and its unrelenting rays, absorbed and reflected by the -vast area of desert waste, inflame the air to almost furnace heat. The -streets are dusty and the fine particles get into your ears and nostrils, -and you can almost taste it on your tongue. Many of the houses have a -piazza on top, or a second roof, to break the force of the sun’s rays. -The Arturo Prat Square has been made quite attractive, and is ornamented -with a very creditable statue of that hero. Business around the shipping -quarters is always lively, as it is bound to be where such an enormous -export and import trade is carried on. In 1891, during the revolutionary -fighting between the Balmacedists and Congressists, the custom house was -the scene of a stubborn battle. The town was set on fire and confusion -and disorder reigned supreme. At the present time Iquique is an important -port and more than one thousand vessels enter it each year. - -The dreariness and unattractiveness of the surroundings is hard to -describe. Street cars with girls as conductors, good stores, the -telephone and other modern conveniences, and even comfortable clubs -do not make up for the lack of green vegetation. The groceries are -filled with condensed milk from England, sardines from France, sausages -from Germany, cheese from Holland, jellies and jam from Britain, and -macaroni from Italy. But fresh vegetables and meats are at a premium, -and unnatural tastes are developed. Many English live in Iquique. They -are great brandy drinkers, and show discrimination “in not exhausting -the wealth of the nitrate beds by taking too much soda in their brandy,” -as one writer says. Nevertheless the people are happy, for wealth lies -at their very doors and rain would cause great loss. By reason of this -Iquique has grown until it is second only to Valparaiso in commercial -importance. It has grown with a swiftness than can only be compared with -our own western towns. In the first days of the saltpetre era nothing -went slow and the town spread like magic. Much of the population is a -rough one and hard to govern, but the authorities have done well. The -battles that have been fought with fortune in Iquique and on this coast -have cost many lives and much privation. A few have acquired fortune, -but more have not even obtained a modest competence in return for the -deprivation and sacrifice endured. Whatever has been gained at the cost -of much labour and privation has been fully earned by some one—and -perhaps by one who did not reap the reward. - -[Illustration: A STREET SCENE, ANTOFAGASTA.] - -The province of Antofagasta joins that of Tarapacá on the south. -Tocopilla is the first port of importance, but Antofagasta, a little over -two hundred miles from Iquique, is the principal city. This province is -a desert in appearance similar to the other, and this city can boast no -advantages over its more northerly rival. Antofagasta is almost on the -Tropic of Capricorn, and is in about the same latitude as Rio de Janeiro, -on the Atlantic coast. It lies almost at the foot of some hills that are -quite high, and is a city of about twenty thousand. The dull-coloured -houses can scarcely be distinguished from the sombre hills at a distance. -The dust is anything but pleasant. A great deal of nitrate and some -copper are shipped from Antofagasta. There are several small wharves, but -everything has to be transferred to lighters. The harbour is a wretched -roadstead and, to get ashore, one has to brave a lashing surf. The pride -of the city is a little plaza, where considerable coaxing has caused a -little evidence of green from the grass and a few trees. A narrow gauge -railroad, two feet and six inches in width, runs from here to La Paz, and -a great deal of freight is transshipped to Bolivian towns. - -The province of Atacama comes next, which does not differ much in -physical characteristics from the three previously named. In some of the -valleys, where water can be secured for irrigation, a little agriculture -is attempted. There are also a number of minerals to be found, but not so -much as in Tarapacá and Antofagasta. Caldera, the principal port, is two -hundred and seven miles from Antofagasta, and has a well sheltered bay. -The oldest railroad in South America connects this port with Copiapó, the -capital of the province. This city is situated in a fertile valley on the -banks of a river of the same name. It is an old and quite important town, -and has a number of educational institutions. It will soon be connected -with Santiago by the longitudinal railway. - -The last of the northern provinces is that of Coquimbo. This province is -really at the end of the dry zone, and there are a number of rich valleys -where the land is fertile and agriculture flourishes. It is a mining -province as well, and a great deal of mineral wealth has been discovered. -Guayacan is a port, but the principal port is Coquimbo, which is only a -couple of hundred miles from Valparaiso. It has a population of probably -ten thousand. The city extends along the bay in an irregular manner for -some distance. The capital of the province is La Serena, and it is only -a few miles from Coquimbo. There is nothing especially in its favour, -although an attractive little city, but it is a relief from the dreary -places farther north which have been mentioned. - -[Illustration: COQUIMBO, A TYPICAL WEST COAST TOWN.] - -Every one going this way is bound for Valparaiso. The voyager, who has -journeyed twenty-six hundred miles along the Pacific coast, hails with -delight the beautiful half-moon bay in which that city is located. He -welcomes the splash of the anchor, which means a speedy transfer to the -shore and the comforts of a good hotel. Many disasters have been recorded -in this bay. In the winter terrific storms arise, and steamers oftentimes -lift their anchors and steam out into the open sea for safety. The -largest steamers are tossed about like eggshells, while the buoys bob -around like water-sprites. The enthusiastic Chilean loves to compare -it with the Bay of Naples. But it is not Naples. The waters are not so -blue, nor the skies as perfect, but it has a charm all its own. A row -boat or launch quickly transfers the traveller to the landing steps, and -courteous officials promptly pass the baggage. Then a short ride in a -rickety carriage, and the doors of the Royal Hotel hospitably open to -receive the guests. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -VALE OF PARADISE - - -Val-paraiso means the “Vale of Paradise,” and it is the name of both a -province and a city. The name is so incongruous on this unattractive -shore as to cause a smile, for the location of Valparaiso does not merit -any such appellation. It was so named after a little town in Spain, which -was the home of Juan de Saavedra, the man who captured the Indian village -located at this point in 1536. There is only a narrow strip of land -between the bay and the barren hills behind it, which, in places, rise -up to a thousand or fifteen hundred feet in height. At one place it is -wide enough for only two streets, which are very close together. At other -places this ledge creeps back farther, but nowhere does the gap between -sea and hills exceed half a mile, and a part of this has been reclaimed -from the sea. Through the centre of this level space runs Victoria -Street, which follows the coast line the entire length of the city and -is several miles in length. It is the main commercial street, and is -lined with business houses, public buildings and even private residences. - -[Illustration: AN “ASCENSOR” IN VALPARAISO.] - -It used to be that all of the city was built on this narrow strip of -land. Little by little, however, the city has crept up the side of the -hills, and the streets rise in terraces one above the other. On the edges -of the cliffs in many places the poorer classes have built for themselves -dwellings of the rudest kind from all sorts of debris. Some of these are -perched upon almost inaccessible rocks, and are propped up with wooden -supports. On the extreme upper part of the rock has been built the real -residence quarter, and many fine homes are found there. It is reached by -steep and winding roads, which tire the pedestrian not used to them; but -there are a dozen inclined elevators, or “ascensors,” as they are called -in Valparaiso, which carry the passenger to the upper heights for a very -small sum. Up the steep roadway the poor horses may be seen drawing their -loads, while the drivers beat them and vociferously berate them with -their tongues. - -From the heights one has a magnificent view of the bay, which is like -a half-moon, and is one of the prettiest bays in the world. It has a -northern exposure, however, and is subject to terrific storms in the -winter season, which lash the seas into a fury and the waves beat -upon the sea front with destructive force. It is still to all extents -and purposes an open roadstead, although plans have been drawn for a -breakwater to provide a sheltered harbour. The drawback has been that the -bay is very deep only a short distance from shore, and the problem of -building such a protection is a difficult one. The surface of the bay is -always dotted with vessels from almost every quarter of the globe. One -can at any time see the flags of a half dozen or more different nations -floating from the mastheads. Then there are hundreds of small lighters -which are used to carry the freight between vessel and shore, as no docks -have been constructed at which vessels can unload. In the far distance -may be seen, on a clear day, the backbone of the continent, the Andes, -with its serrated ridges and snowy summits glistening in the sunlight. -The hoary head of Aconcagua, the highest peak of the Cordilleras, can -easily be distinguished from the others by reason of its superior height. - -Next to San Francisco, Valparaiso is the most important port on the -eastern shores of the Pacific. This city of two hundred thousand has as -much commerce as the average town of double that size, as it is the port -for Santiago and the greater part of Chile. A business-like character -is impressed upon the entire city. Here live the men who design and -carry out the vast nitrate and mining enterprises of northern Chile, -and practically all business, except that of politics, is managed from -this city. The docks and warehouses are at all times busy places, and -are crowded with boxes and bales from almost every commercial nation. -Banditti-like _rotos_ drive carts and wagons filled with merchandise. -One of the first sights after being set down on the landing-stage is -the two-wheeled dray of Valparaiso. It is drawn by two or three wiry -and sweating horses, on the back of one of which rides the driver, who -lashes the horses unmercifully. The ridden horse is hitched by a trace -just outside the shafts, and he is trained to push at the shaft with his -shoulder, or pull at right angles when the occasion arises, and in every -way is as clever as any Texas bronco. One of these drays with the driver -lashing his team might well figure on the escutcheon of this city. - -The “U. S.” mark is less frequently seen in Valparaiso than that of -Hamburg or London, for the United States has not become such an exporting -country of manufactured products as those commercial nations of the older -world; nor is the Yankee in flesh and blood. The predominance of the -British is shown by the prevalence of the English language. Nearly every -one engaged in business has at least a slight acquaintance with that -tongue. One can not go far without crossing the path of some ruddy Briton -or voluble Irishman. Many of the best stores bear English names, and one -will see the same goods displayed as in New York or London. In fact it -is more predominantly English in appearance than any other city of South -America. There are cafés where they meet to drink their “half-and-half” -or other beverages, and there is a club where the _Times_, _Punch_, and -other favourites can be read. It is said that the foreign population -almost equals the native in numbers. Only a small part of this foreign -element is English, as there are many Italians, Germans and French, but -the English are the bankers and tradesmen, and have impressed their -characteristics more forcibly upon the city than the other nations. -There are amusements in plenty, for there are clubs, concerts and an -abundance of theatres to provide recreation as a relaxation from the -strenuous life. There are tennis grounds, football fields and a golf -course at Viña. There are many monuments over the city in the plazas and -on the new alameda, erected to the nation’s heroes, and one to William -Wheelwright, the American who did so much to aid Chile in developing her -transportation facilities. The naval school, which crowns one of the -hills, is one of the most attractive places in Valparaiso, and provides -one of the finest views of the bay and surrounding hills. - -“One of the great advantages of life in Valparaiso,” says Arthur Ruhl in -“The Other Americans,” “is the absence of a professional fire department. -The glorious privilege of fighting fires is appropriated by the _élite_, -who organize themselves into clubs, with much the same social functions -as the Seventh Regiment and Squadron A in New York, wear ponderous -helmets and march in procession in great style whenever they get a -chance. One comes upon these _bomberos_ practising in the evening, on -the Avenida, for instance, in store clothes and absent-mindedly puffing -cigarettes, getting a stream on an imaginary blaze. In any emergency they -perform much the same duties as our militia. - -“It is the delightful privilege of the _bombero_ to drop his work -whenever the alarm is given, dash from his office to the blaze, and -there man hose-lines, smash windows, chop down partitions, and indulge -to the fullest one of the keenest primordial emotions of man. Inasmuch -as buildings are seldom more than two or three stories in height and -built of masonry, there is comparatively little danger of a large -conflagration, and the average of one fire in four days is ‘just about -right,’ as one of my Valparaiso acquaintances explained, ‘to give a man -exercise.’ Their only unhappiness, he said, was that there were about -fifteen hundred firemen in town, and they were getting so expert that -what one could call a really ‘good’ fire was almost unknown.” - -Like its commercial rival, San Francisco, Valparaiso suffered from a -destructive earthquake in 1906. Slight quakes are quite common in this -city, but the inhabitants do not seem to fear them, and go along the -even tenor of their way as though such a thing as an earthquake was -unknown. In one year as many as thirty-five shocks have been recorded, -but the one mentioned above is the only one for a half century or more in -which any lives were lost. In fact Valparaiso has had its full share of -troubles and vicissitudes of all kinds. It was captured and sacked three -times by buccaneers, twice by the British and once by a Dutch pirate. It -has suffered severely from earthquake shocks on half a dozen different -occasions, was destroyed by fire in 1858, bombarded by the Spanish fleet -in 1866, and much property was destroyed in the Balmaceda revolution a -little later. Few cities in the New World have had a career so troubled -and diversified. - -The most disastrous experience in the history of Valparaiso occurred -in 1906. On the 16th of August of that year, only four months after -the destruction of San Francisco, the greater part of the city was -destroyed by an earthquake and the fire that followed. The day had been -unusually calm and pleasant. About eight o’clock in the evening the first -earthquake shock was felt, which was almost immediately followed by -others. The whole city seemed to swing backward and forwards; then came -a sudden jolt, and whole rows of buildings fell with a terrific crash. -The electric light wires snapped, and gas and water mains were broken. -The city was left in intense darkness, which was rendered all the more -horrible by the shrieks of the injured and terrified inhabitants. Fires -soon started which, fanned by a strong wind, soon became conflagrations. -Between the fires and earthquake a large proportion of the lower town was -completely destroyed, but the upper town was practically uninjured. Many -of the better-built business houses withstood the earth’s tremblings, and -the wind blew the flames in the opposite direction. - -The authorities acted promptly in the matter, so that patrols of troops -and armed citizens were soon on guard. The progress of the fire was -impeded by the use of dynamite. Appeals for help were sent to Santiago -and other cities, which were responded to as promptly as possible. There -was necessarily some delay, for telegraph lines and the railroads had -likewise suffered. The shocks continued for the two following days at -irregular intervals, which likewise interfered with the work of cleaning -up the city. A terrific downpour of rain also added to the confusion of -the first night, for the vivid flashes of lightning and the clanging of -the fire-bells made it a night not easily forgotten by the inhabitants. -The killed and injured numbered at least three thousand persons. But -fifty thousand or more were rendered homeless. Thousands of these were -camped on the barren hills above the city, and thousands more were cared -for by boats in the bay. - -Strangely enough no damage was done to the shipping in the bay. The -destruction was not confined to Valparaiso alone, but extended inland as -far as Los Andes, and many of the small inland cities near Valparaiso -suffered more or less damage. The property loss in Valparaiso has been -estimated at one hundred million dollars. Like San Francisco, however, a -new Valparaiso is arising which will be superior to the old. The greater -part of the destroyed district has been rebuilt in a better and more -enduring manner. The national government has advanced large sums of -money to the municipality, which, in turn, has given it under certain -conditions to those who suffered losses. To-day in the business section -of Valparaiso it would be almost impossible, after only five years, to -find evidence of this disastrous earthquake, but a little farther out its -handiwork can quickly be traced. - -There is a quaint side to life in Valparaiso. A visit to the market -reveals many things of interest. One will first be impressed by the fine -fruits of Chile, for nowhere in the world can one find more delicious -pears, peaches and plums. The marketers bring their produce in huge -two-wheeled carts drawn by the slow-moving ox. The stalls presided over -by men and women fill every available inch of space, until it is almost -impossible to force one’s way through. Everywhere are groups bargaining -over fruits, vegetables or household articles, for these people dearly -love a bargain. Many show by their faces a tinge of the Indian blood that -runs in their veins. - -[Illustration: A CHICKEN PEDDLER, VALPARAISO.] - -The peripatetic merchants, who carry supplies from door to door, come -to the market for their stock in trade. It is invariably carried on the -back of a donkey or mule, as it is difficult to draw a loaded wagon up -the steep ascents. Their quaint cries may be heard in almost any part -of the city during the morning hours. As a rule this merchant carries -only one article, or possibly two or three, if it is vegetables. The -chicken peddler has built little coops for his birds which take the place -of a saddle. It is interesting to watch him gesticulate and praise the -excellence of his fowls to the good housewife, or the servant who comes -out in answer to his warning cry. The scissors-grinder and dealers in -notions swell the list of perigrinating business men who make the streets -vocal with their calls. The milkman carries the milk in cans swung over -the back of his mule or donkey, or else drives the cows themselves from -door to door. - -“_Leche de las burras y vacas_,” meaning donkey’s and cow’s milk, was the -cry that reached my ears one morning in Valparaiso. On looking around I -saw a man leading two donkey mares and three cows through the streets. -Each donkey mare was closely followed by its pretty but comical little -colt. This is a custom imported from Spain and Italy, where goats are -also taken from door to door and oftentimes up three or four flights of -stairs to be milked. It might even be possible to find a milkman with -donkeys, cows and goats in his collection, so that a regular department -store variety of milk could be provided his customers. Add to these the -camel and reindeer, and you have the sources of the world’s milk supply. -Donkey’s milk is used a great deal for babies in South America, as it -is considered better for them than the milk of either cows or goats. -Milk delivered in this way does not need a sterilized label upon it, or -a certificate from the department of health. Furthermore, there is very -little danger of adulteration. The housekeeper reaps the benefit of this -style of milk delivery, but it must be a slow and costly method for the -dairyman. It is another evidence that primitiveness has not entirely -disappeared from Chile. - -[Illustration: A VENDER OF DONKEY’S MILK, VALPARAISO.] - -One other peculiar feature of life in Valparaiso is that the conductors -on all the street cars are women. This innovation was introduced in the -time of war with Peru, when men were hard to secure for that work. They -did the work so well that they have been employed continuously ever -since. It can not be said of them that they are especially attractive, or -even look very jaunty in their uniforms of blue surmounted by a sailor -hat. The fares are the cheapest I have ever found. The cars are all -double-decked. For two cents one can ride inside, and it costs only half -that rate to ride on the upper deck, which is a far better way to see -the city. The service is good, and there are more than twenty-five miles -of trolley in and about the city. The electric current for this as well -as lighting is generated by water power a few miles north of the city, -where a huge dam has been built across a stream. - -A night view of Valparaiso from the bay is delightful. The many electric -lamps in all parts of the city illuminate the otherwise dark shadows, and -are reflected in the waters near the shore. Here and there move streaks -of light in the lower town, as the electric cars dash along from one end -of the city to the other; similar lines of light move up and down in a -dozen places, as the “ascensors” carry their loads between the upper and -lower town. At such times Valparaiso looks like a city of enchantment, a -chosen bit from fairyland. - -A trolley line leads out to the aristocratic suburb of Viña del Mar, -where the rich people of Chile also have their summer residences. There -are some beautiful homes in this city, of splendid architecture and -surrounded by luxuriant foliage. In these villas the wearied and worried -man of business finds rest after business hours. For a few months in the -summer this resort is the centre of the social life of the republic, and -the hotel is so crowded that it is difficult to secure accommodation, -unless arranged for beforehand. There are delightful drives, when not -too dusty, and then there are tennis courts, golf links, polo grounds -and other places of recreation. A fine club building has been erected, -where the devotees of games of chance can find the alluring games that -their natures seem to crave. At Miramar is a small bathing resort, but it -is extremely dangerous, for just a short distance from shore the bottom -seems to drop to a great depth. It is used principally as a place for -promenades and dress show for the society folks, and every day a long -line of carriages wend their way out to that pleasant little bit of -beach. - -[Illustration: AN ATTRACTIVE HOME, VIÑA DEL MAR.] - -The great attraction of Viña, however, is the race course. Sunday is, -of course, the gala day, and the race course is crowded with lovers of -the sport. The people of Chile have passed the bull-fight period in -civilization, for the bull-fight and lottery have both been banished by -statutory enactment, and the horse races have taken their place. They vie -with the residents of Buenos Aires in their devotion to this sport. The -residents entertain house parties on that day and all attend the track. -They become very enthusiastic, and few who have the money neglect an -opportunity to stake it on the horses, for all are posted on the records -of the various animals listed in the races, and each one has his or her -favourite. - -The province of Valparaiso does not extend quite to the Cordilleras, -but it does reach out several hundred miles into the Pacific. Some four -hundred miles west of Valparaiso lies the island of Juan Fernandez, which -is generally known among English-speaking people as Robinson Crusoe’s -Island. - - “Poor old Robinson Crusoe! Poor old Robinson Crusoe! - They made him a coat of an old Nanny goat, - I wonder how they could do so!” - -Thus runs the old nursery rhyme with which all of us are familiar. There -are few reading people, young or old, who have not read that fascinating -tale of adventure, written by Daniel Defoe, which depicts the adventures -of Robinson Crusoe. And yet, perhaps, there are not so many who are -familiar with the location of the island which Defoe pretends to describe. - -The island of Juan Fernandez, generally known among Chileans as -Mas-a-Tierra, is a great mass of rock almost twelve miles long by seven -miles wide, a large part of which is as barren as a desert. One side, -however, where fruits grow and the wild sheep and goats find their -sustenance, is covered with a luxuriant vegetation. It is in a desolate -location, for it is away from the trade routes and there are few vessels -that pass that way. The fishing boats that ply between Valparaiso and -the island keep up communication with the mainland. The waters of the -Pacific teem with fish, and the fishermen have found the little bays -of this small island profitable waters for their trade. It is a great -lobster-fishing ground also, and the largest lobsters by far that I ever -have seen were caught at this island. - -Even to-day there are very few people who live on the island of Juan -Fernandez. Only about half of it is fertile, and access to it is so -difficult that it does not appeal to many. There is one settlement at San -Juan Bautista—St. John the Baptist—where the boats land, and one or two -other little groups of houses where a few colonists live. The attempt -that has been made by the Chilean Government to colonize it cannot be -called a success, for fewer people live there to-day than there did a -few years ago. - -Were it not for the story woven about the island few people would be -interested in it to-day. It was here among these barren hills, and in -the natural caves which abound on the island, that Alexander Selkirk -lived for four years and four months, more than two centuries ago. It -was here that he met and adopted a lone Indian, whom he named Friday, -because of the day he first found him. It is little wonder that existence -was lonesome, and it is even a greater wonder that he did not lose his -mind from lack of association with other human beings. At last his -watch fires attracted the attention of a passing schooner and the lone -wanderer was taken to England, where, for a time, he became quite a hero. -He was found, as the captain of the boat said, “clad in goat-skins and -was running about as though he were demented.” There is a rock on the -island which is called “Robinson Crusoe’s Lookout,” because it is said -to be the place where the signal fires were built. It is on a high hill -and commands a view of the sea for many miles. A large cave, which is as -large as the average parlour, is supposed to have been his home. In the -sides of this rock are rusty nails said to have been driven into it by -pirates who used to make the place their rendezvous. - -A marble tablet has been erected on the “Lookout.” This was placed there -by some English naval officers in 1868, for Selkirk himself was a naval -officer. Among other things this tablet says: - - IN MEMORY OF - ALEXANDER SELKIRK - MARINER. - A NATIVE OF LARGO, IN THE COUNTY OF FIFE, - SCOTLAND, WHO LIVED ON THIS ISLAND, - IN COMPLETE SOLITUDE, FOUR YEARS - AND FOUR MONTHS. - - HE WAS LANDED FROM THE “CINQUE PORTS” - GALLEY, 96 TONS, 18 GUNS, A. D., 1704, AND WAS TAKEN - OFF IN THE “DUKE,” PRIVATEER, 12TH FEBRUARY, 1709. - - HE DIED LIEUTENANT OF H. M. S. “WEYMOUTH,” A. D., - 1723, AGED 47 YEARS. - - THIS TABLET IS ERECTED NEAR SELKIRK’S LOOKOUT - BY COMMODORE POWELL AND THE OFFICERS - OF H. M. S. “TOPAZ” A. D., 1868. - -Although Defoe’s tale is not wholly true, and some of the descriptions -are incorrect, yet the story was suggested by the adventures of the -marooned mariner, and the terrors of loneliness, solitude and fear which -overwhelmed Robinson Crusoe were the same as those undergone by Alexander -Selkirk. - -Pascua, or Easter, Island is situated considerably farther out in the -ocean than Juan Fernandez, and farther north. It was so named by a -Dutch navigator, who landed on the island on Easter morning, in 1722. -He carried back with him to Amsterdam the first record of its strange -monuments. The greatest length of this island is eleven miles, and its -greatest breadth is four miles. Yet here on this little speck in the -ocean, an island no larger than Manhattan Island, where the sun is warm -both summer and winter, and the climate is enervating, at one time lived -a strange and marvellous people. None of the inhabitants of the island at -the time of its discovery knew anything about the monuments or the race -that built them. The traditions which were handed down from father to -son shed no light on that subject. Some claim that they were a race of -giants, evidently inspired by the gods whom they worshipped. Others claim -they were a race that antedated the flood. There is also a theory, based -on these monuments and those on other islands of the Polynesian Islands, -that this entire group were once a part of a continent now submerged. - -These people hauled mammoth stones from quarries that face the sea, -carved on them faces and cut with rude implements upon all the four -sides the story they wanted to tell. These stones were transported to -chosen sites and set up with engineering accuracy, until almost the whole -island became a gallery of monumental sculpture. Then came a new era; -the race of builders disappeared, and no one is now able to decipher -the hieroglyphics. In all there are over five hundred of these carved -statues, colossal heads and other samples of the art of these prehistoric -people. Except in a few cases the monuments face the sea, and to the -east, and they range in size from a mammoth monolith seventy feet in -height to a pigmy the size of a small boy. Some of them weigh several -tons and were transported from quarries distant as much as eight miles. -How this was done without the aid of mechanical devices is a mystery. - -Besides the statues there are several immense platforms constructed of -large cut stones piled together, as if they had been shaped to conform -to the plan of an architect, and all are set with true edges without -cement and plaster. These platforms are about thirty feet high, and from -two hundred to three hundred feet in length. After a fashion they look -like immense banquet tables or council platforms. Around or upon these -tables the prehistoric chiefs may have sat in stone seats and deliberated -or made plans to conquer enemies. - -On this island there are some peaks which rise as high as twelve hundred -feet above the surface of the sea, and there are walls of stone formed -from lava which for scores of centuries have lain there, and small lakes -formed in natural cups and bowls which were probably once the open mouths -of volcanoes. There are the remains of what was once a house of stone. -As the tumbled blocks now lie they mark out a structure one hundred feet -long, twenty feet wide, with walls five feet thick. Some of the slabs -are marked with geometrical figures and with representations of animals -and birds. These suggest a gigantic species, larger than any that exist -to-day. In fact all their representations of life suggest a heroic mould. -But the peculiar feature of this house is that the ceiling was not -more than five feet high, which would seem to render it unsuited for -a dwelling place. It might have been intended for a storehouse of some -sort. At the present time there are only a few hundred people living on -the island who are of the Sawaiori race, and resemble very strongly the -natives of Tahiti. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE CITY OF SAINT JAMES - - -“We will call this city Santiago (Saint James), for he has guided us -thus far,” said Pedro de Valdivia, as he staked out the level ground -surrounding a lofty rock into square blocks, one of which was given to -each of his followers. - -Few cities in the world have as fine a location as this City of Saint -James. It lies in the centre of a magnificent amphitheatre, about forty -miles long and perhaps eighteen miles wide, which is enclosed by a mighty -wall of mountains on all sides save one, half of which are covered with -perpetual snows. The Mapocho River, which flows through the city through -an artificial channel, escapes from the valley through the opening on -the south, which leads into the great central valley that forms the -real heart of the republic. The great amphitheatre in which Santiago -is situated is divided into large _haciendas_, on which are erected -magnificent mansions that resemble the ancient baronial homes of England. -In these the owners live and rule almost like lords of old. - -Santiago was founded as the first town in Chile. Valdivia erected a -stronghold on the rock, which he named Santa Lucia, and then set to work -to build the city at its base, which he had named after the patron saint -of Spain. The squares were laid out with the lines running east and west, -north and south. Each of his followers to whom was given a square for a -garden, was required to construct a house for his own use. Thus it will -be seen that Santiago is not a new city, nor has its growth been of the -mushroom variety. Founded in the sixteenth century, it preserves in wood -and stone, to a great extent, the spirit of old Spain transplanted to -the New World. The Spanish cavalier stalked in complete mail through the -streets of Santiago before the _Mayflower_ landed the pilgrims on the -shores of Massachusetts. The priests were chanting the solemn service of -the church here long before the English landed at Jamestown. Dust had -gathered on the volumes in the municipal library of this city centuries -preceding the building of the first little red school-house in the -United States. Before New York was even thought of, the drama of life was -being enacted daily in this beautiful valley after Castilian models. - -[Illustration: SANTA LUCIA.] - -But let us take a look at this ancient capital. At one side of the city -is El Cerro de Santa Lucia, a mass of volcanic rock almost as high as -the Washington Monument. It has a base of several acres, but gradually -narrows as it rises precipitously above all the buildings, until it -ends in the jagged piece of rock which crowns the summit. After the -fortress was removed it became the burial place of Jews, Protestants, -infidels and all who were forbidden burial in consecrated ground. When -these bones were finally removed they were dumped in a corner of one of -the Catholic cemeteries, and the church authorities erected a monument -with the inscription “exiles from both heaven and earth.” This freak -of nature, which geologists say was dropped by some wandering iceberg, -has been made into a delightful place, partly by private subscription -and partly at public expense. The summit is reached by several winding -roads and walks that are enclosed by walls in a most picturesque manner. -In the crevices of the rocks flowers, bushes and curious plants are -growing. Eucalyptus trees rise up, and gigantic ferns reach out so -that the hill seems a veritable garden in the air. At intervals are -kiosks for music or refreshments, and half way up is a theatre where -vaudeville entertainments are occasionally given for the entertainment -of the people. Terraces, fountains, winding walks and steps cut out of -the rock add to the beauties and comforts of Santa Lucia. On the summit -is a little chapel where the remains of Mr. Benjamine Vicuña Mackenna, -who planned this scheme and gave large sums towards its completion, lies -buried. On the way up one passes one wonderful rock formation after -another, delightful grottoes and cozy nooks, until at last all Santiago -is spread out before you like a panorama. - -[Illustration: ALAMEDA DE LAS DELICIAS, SANTIAGO.] - -Below is a vast expanse of flat roofs, out of which here and there rise -trees and a wealth of green. These are in the patios, or inside courts, -of the larger houses. Here and there rise the towers of the numerous -churches with which Santiago is provided. The many streets cross each -other in checkerboard fashion, thus dividing the city into square blocks. -At one side can be distinguished the Alameda de las Delicias, with its -double rows of great poplar trees, which furnish an arbour of dense -shade from one end of the city to the other, a distance of three miles, -and which leads out to the parks known as Quinta Normal and Cousiño. -This avenue, which was formerly the principal road leading into the -city, has been laid out as a broad highway more than three hundred feet -in width, with a promenade in the centre and a wide driveway on either -side. Fronting this Alameda are many very fine residences—the finest in -the city. Some of the houses are very large, containing fifty rooms or -more, and the furnishings are elaborate. The ceilings are very high, -which gives ample opportunity for decorative effect. One striking feature -is the absence of chimneys, for the Chileans are averse to artificial -heat. In the winter time it is nothing unusual for a guest to be received -by the host and his family wearing furs and heavy wraps. A few of the -newer houses have installed heating plants. With these homes the best -and most attractive part is usually hidden from the street. There are -several stands along the Alameda at which military bands discourse music -frequently. The promenade is broken by many statues of Chile’s heroes, -and others commemorating events important in Chilean history; and at -every few feet throughout its length are stone seats on which the people -rest. - -One of the finest private residences in South America is that belonging -to the Cousiño family, which was erected by the late Señora Isadora -Cousiño. It was designed by a famous French architect and will compare -favourably with those of New York. It is built of brick, stuccoed in the -usual manner to resemble stone, and is imposing. Its interior decorations -are elaborate, but rather the style one would expect in a public building -than in a private home. They are all French scenes, as the work was done -by French artists. It is still one of the show places, although the -señora has been dead for many years, and her descendants have more modest -taste. She was a remarkable woman, and her chief concern seemed to be to -expend her enormous income. Her extravagance was frequently the gossip -of Europe as well as her native land. Herself the richest woman in Chile -before marriage, she married the richest man, and all his wealth was -willed to her at his death. She had millions of dollars in herds, mines, -railroads, steamships, real estate, etc. Another magnificent château at -Lota was built by her, and the _estancia_ of Macul, an hour’s ride from -Santiago, was almost a principality in itself. The land stretched from -the environs of the city to the distant Cordilleras with their mantle of -snow. - -[Illustration: DANCING LA CUECA, THE NATIONAL DANCE.] - -Señora Cousiño did one good thing for Santiago; she presented to the city -beautiful Cousiño Park. It is a large park of several hundred acres, -which is the popular playground of the masses. It has cheap cafés, -merry-go-rounds and other amusements, and is the nearest approach to a -Coney Island that the capital affords. There are a number of stands for -dancing where, on a Sunday especially, one may see the Chilean national -dance, La Cueca, which is a sort of refined can-can. The couples pair -off with handkerchiefs in their hands, and dance face to face, while the -musicians sit on benches near-by and thrum guitars, pick mandolins, or -play other instruments. Each dancer waves his handkerchief in the air -with graceful gestures, and sways around in attitudes which are supposed -to show grace and suppleness. A race track has also been constructed in -the centre of the park, called the “Club Hippico,” where races are held -almost every Sunday afternoon and frequently on holidays. This is the -most popular amusement in Chile. Another park, the Quinta Normal, has -been provided for the people, and in it is quite an extensive zoological -garden. Among the many “strange” and “fierce” animals kept in cages are -several species of dogs and cats, which seem very much out of place in -such surroundings. A very interesting museum also occupies a pretty site -near the entrance. A botanical garden and experiment station is also -maintained here, and an exposition building in which agricultural fairs -are held each year. - -There are a number of very fine public buildings in Santiago. Perhaps the -finest is the Palace of Congress, which is a large building of modern -classical construction covering an entire square—not differing much from -many public buildings that one will find in the United States. I attended -a session of the Senate and the proceedings seemed very strange. The -members talked at random without even addressing the chair or rising -from their seats. In fact the proceedings were the most informal of any -legislative body I ever attended. Not infrequently, however, the sessions -are very stormy, and the reputation of the Spaniard for excitability is -well maintained. The National Library is almost opposite this building, -but is not an imposing building, although it contains an interesting -and valuable collection of books. La Moneda is the name given to the -residence of the President, and it also contains the offices of many of -the government departments. It is a large three-story building with quite -imposing surroundings. The President is generally attended by a military -guard during his drives around the city. Other buildings are the Palace -of Justice, in which the highest courts sit, the Army Building, and the -Intendency, or City Hall. - -At one place in Santiago a beautiful marble monument has been erected -on the site of a church that was burned in 1863. Church festivals have -always played an important part in the social life of the capital. At -the time of the Christmas festivities of that year a gorgeous _fête_ was -in progress in the Jesuits’ church, which was known as the Feast of the -Virgins. The interior was festooned and decorated everywhere with light -gauze, wreaths of paper flowers and other inflammable material. Candles -had been attached to these flimsy decorations. The church was crowded -with women while high mass was being celebrated by the bishop. Suddenly -the hangings caught fire, the burning candles fell among the crowd of -worshippers and everyone rushed for the doors. As usual, the doors opened -inward, and the crowds, jammed against them, made it impossible for -them to be opened. It is claimed that almost three thousand women and -girls lost their lives in this terrible holocaust. After the fire the -bodies were found packed in a solid mass against the doors. The church -was afterwards razed to the ground by order of the government, and this -monument erected on the site. Scarcely a leading family in Santiago -escaped bereavement, and the Feast of the Virgins has ever since been -celebrated with mourning in Chile. - -There are many worthy charitable institutions in Santiago. Some of -these are municipal institutions and others are church charities. Among -these are numerous hospitals for the care of the sick and unfortunate. -There is one very large orphan asylum, which cares for many hundreds -of unfortunate children—many of them of unknown parentage. The method -of reception of these unfortunate, and generally unwelcome, infants is -unique. In the rear wall is an opening with a wooden box in it which -swings in and out. The mother wishing to get rid of her baby places the -little mite in the box and swings it in. The automatic ringing of a bell -notifies the nuns inside and the baby is taken charge of by them. No -effort is ever made to find the mother, and she is thus enabled to rid -herself of her charge. Some moralists would criticize this practice, but -it is certainly better than infanticide, which is said to be an almost -unknown crime in Chile, where the ratio of illegitimate births is very -large. - -The Opera House is a municipal institution and is a very fine building. -During the season opera is given here several nights each week, and -generally by Italian companies. Not only is the building furnished free, -but a good subsidy is given the management each year in order to bring -good talent here. The seats and boxes are sold by subscription for the -season as a guaranty fund and are paid for in advance, although many sell -their seats occasionally if there is a demand for them. The audiences are -very interesting, for the people dress exceedingly well and are lavish -in their wearing of jewels. There is a large foyer in which the people -promenade between acts and there are refreshment rooms where all kinds -of refreshments are served. A special box is reserved for the President -of the republic and the _intendente_ of the city. There is also a -mourning box protected by screens, where those in mourning may watch the -performance without being themselves seen. - -The city of Santiago is a municipality within the province of the same -name. A little more democracy has been infused into the government than -used to prevail. The city is divided into ten sections or wards. Each of -these wards, called _circumscripciones_, elects three councillors, all -the members together constituting the municipal legislative body. They -must be citizens of at least five years’ residence in the city, must not -have any interest in national or municipal contracts, and must not hold -any other public office or commission. The three members from each ward -have certain local powers and duties principally in connection with the -elections. From its members the council elect three alcaldes, or mayors, -fixing the order of precedence among the three, also a secretary and -treasurer. The powers and jurisdiction of this body extends to the entire -government, subject only to the constitution and the organic act under -which the municipality is organized. The principal revenues are derived -from a personal tax levied for school purposes, a tax on liquors and -tobacco, a license for industries and professions, revenues derived from -city property and an annual grant from the national Congress. - -[Illustration: A GROUP OF NEWSBOYS, SANTIAGO.] - -It is in the market-places that one can best study the common people. -There are two markets in Santiago, both of them on the bank of the -Mapocho. At the newer one one will be sure to find some newsboys plying -their trade. “_La Union_” and “_El Mercurio_” are the cries of these busy -little newsboys, as they flit in and out among the marketers of Santiago. -They are barefooted ragamuffins, most of them, but they industriously -ply their trade. Their complexions are of different shades, for some of -the boys have Indian blood in their veins, which gives them a deeper -colouring. I posed two small boys for a picture, but before I could take -it a half dozen had crowded into it, making an interesting group. The -boys of South America, just like their counterparts in the United States, -want to take a part in everything that comes within their range of vision. - -It would be difficult to find a more interesting place in Santiago -than the old market, which will soon be abandoned. Around it will be -seen the huge, two-wheeled market carts in which the produce has been -brought. Many of these marketers have been on the road for two or three -days, bringing in the products of their fertile fields for the people in -the city. The meek-eyed oxen stand or recline while chewing their cud, -no doubt enjoying to the full the brief respite from their work. The -produce displayed in the market is good. The fruits of Chile are simply -delicious in flavour, and they are large in size. The pears and peaches -of California are not better than those grown here below the equator, and -yet they have been grown with very little care in their cultivation. - -One must bargain with or pay an exorbitant price to these market men and -women. If it is only a melon, or a dozen juicy pears, twice as much will -be asked as is expected. If you shake your head when a price is given, -the man or woman in charge of the stall will immediately ask, “What will -you give?” On the outside of the market building dozens of women will -be seen seated on the ground with a little pile of tomatoes, radishes, -potatoes or melons heaped up in front of them. The housewife or servant -will pass around among them making purchases and gradually filling up the -basket which she carries, or hires some boy to bear for her. - -[Illustration: A MARKET SCENE, SANTIAGO.] - -The poorer Chileans are a hard working people—the most industrious of -the South Americans. A walk through the sections of the city occupied by -them shows much grinding poverty. Across the Mapocho penury stretches on -all sides. The dwellings are low, with floors oftentimes below the street -level, and the interiors show unsanitary conditions and an entire lack of -the comforts of life, let alone the decencies. The improvement of such -surroundings should command immediate attention from the authorities. -The wages paid this class are not very large, so that they are compelled -to live in comparative poverty. They drink a great deal on Sundays and -holidays. Monday is a bad day to get anything done, for the peons must -have a few hours to recover from the previous day’s celebration. It -is a sort of a “_dias non_,” a day that is not. Holidays are greatly -desired, and it takes five of them to properly celebrate the “diaz y -ocho de Setiembre,” the 18th of September, the anniversary of Chilean -independence. _Fiestas_ are held in every park and plaza, and all the -banks and business houses close. Everybody, young and old, engages in the -festivities with zeal and enthusiasm. The poor people save up their money -for weeks and months in order to celebrate this occasion in the only -way that seems appropriate to them—that is, by carousing. Saturday is -beggars’ day, and every mendicant in the city is out with open palm. On -other days only the licensed beggars appear. Some beggars even come out -on horseback, for horses are remarkably cheap in Chile. - -Another good view may be had of the poorer classes on the occasion of a -church celebration, such as the festival of Corpus Christi. Both church -and state take a part in this _fiesta_. The troops appear in their finest -uniforms. The infantry are gorgeous in their blue and yellow, with -helmets surmounted with white plumes. The cavalry wear blue plumes and -the bands are adorned with red plumes. The religious procession consists -of the Procession of the Cross, which is composed of various societies, -the Dominicans, Franciscans, Augustinians and other orders. The parochial -clergy follow with the Archbishop in the lead. During the procession -hundreds of women and children, and some men, kneel in the streets. Some -men doff their hats, while others look on in seemingly idle curiosity -without any special attitude of reverence. - -The wealthier people take life easy. The real life is only for this -class. After breakfast, which is served from eleven to twelve o’clock, -comes the siesta. This meal is frequently an elaborate and formal -function if guests are present, and is more like a dinner. On the door -of many business houses one will see the sign “_cerrado de las 12 a 1½ -horas_,” which means that they are closed between these hours. Business -calls are usually made between two and four. At six o’clock every person -who owns or can hire a carriage goes out to Cousiño Park. Everyone -dresses in his best, the men wearing silk hats and frock suits, and -the women having on fashionable gowns and large hats. In the park the -carriages parade up and down the principal drives and the occupants -nod to their acquaintances. It is quite the correct thing for men -to make audible remarks about the personal appearance of ladies, if -they are complimentary. After about half an hour of this parade they -adjourn as by mutual consent to the Alameda, which is twice as wide as -Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, and the parade continues up one side -of the imposing avenue and down the other for another half hour. There -are all kinds of vehicles—drays, victorias, landaus, four-in-hands and -automobiles. The driving is superintended by mounted policemen, and -the scene is quite imposing, though rather stilted in the eyes of an -American. The parade then breaks up and all drive home to partake of the -dinner, which is the principal meal of the day. The politeness of the -Chileno is excessive. He will always give the lady the inner side of the -street, and would cheerfully step off the sidewalk in order to render -this courtesy. The man always extends the first greeting also to a lady -of his acquaintance. - -Club life is greatly enjoyed in Santiago, for the resident of that city -is very much of a night-hawk. The Club de la Union is the best club in -the country. It was my privilege to be entertained there a number of -times. The real life does not begin until rather late, and there is -always a representative crowd of men to be found there after ten o’clock, -and gambling is sure to be indulged in in some form. While the men are -at the club the women stay at home, or attend the theatre. - -When Italian opera is not being given, one-act comedies are the favourite -plays. Going to the theatre, however, usually means looking in for a -_zarzuela_ or two during the evening. Three or four of these one-act -pieces, or _zarzuelas_, are usually put on in an evening, and the house -is cleared after each performance. Those who dine late usually drop in -for the second turn, which begins about half-past nine; or one can catch -the last one, which does not begin until about eleven o’clock. Some -of these _zarzuelas_ are one-act musical plays, abridged from popular -operas, but most of them are melodrama or grotesque comedy. The audiences -are very alert and are quick to respond to appeals from the stage. - -“Oh, _Mamacita_, let us go around the plaza once more, for the band -has not yet quit playing,” plead the little girls and young ladies of -Santiago. On Tuesday, Thursday and Sunday evenings a band plays in the -Plaza de Armas, which is the centre of life and business in the Chilean -capital. Then occurs the _paseo_, or promenade, so common in Spanish -towns. It usually begins before the light has yet faded from the highest -peaks of the Andes, and while the newsboys are still calling out “_Las -Ultimas Noticias_.” The girls and young ladies, the boys and young men, -all come here on these evenings. The former are always accompanied by -their mothers, as the social customs are very strict and the girls do not -enjoy as much freedom as their cousins have in North America. The mothers -sit on the benches, while the younger women and girls walk around the -plaza in pairs and groups. The young men, among whom are many officers -in German uniforms and with clanking swords, walk around in the opposite -direction, and pass audible comments on the girls who pass. Their remarks -are irritating to an Anglo-Saxon who understands the Castilian lisp, but -the girls only laugh or smile, for they are quite accustomed to it. The -same attentions bestowed on young ladies on the average American street -would result in an interference by a man in blue uniform, and possibly a -gentle use of the “big stick.” The young men exchange a few words with -those with whom they are acquainted, but not for long, for mamma keeps -her vigilant eyes on them. The girls, even little tots, are finished -coquettes, and they aim to attract attention. This is one of the few -opportunities afforded to the young people to see each other. If a young -man observes a girl by whom he is attracted he will begin inquiries as to -who she is, and perhaps even his folks will aid him in his effort to make -the acquaintance of his inamorata. - -[Illustration: THE OLDEST BUILDING IN SANTIAGO.] - -Within almost a stone’s throw of the Plaza is all of Chile—those who -rule and those who own—the principal club, theatres, public buildings -and residences of diplomats. The chief business streets converge at this -plaza, and the leading business houses are near it. The great cathedral -and archbishop’s palace occupy one entire side, the post office and a -government building another side, and the portales, or corridors, under -which are many booths and stores, fill up the remaining two sides. The -stores around the plaza are small and like those of old Spain. This -is the oldest business section in Santiago and was in existence two -centuries before our own national capital. Some of the stores are like -holes in the wall, with goods stacked up in the doorway and even on the -street outside. They are far different from the larger and more modern -establishments near the corner of Ahumada and Huerfanos, a block away. -There one will find splendid stores where goods from all parts of the -world can be purchased. A fine large department store has recently been -opened up in the city, which is a great improvement over any of the old -establishments. The prices in the windows look very high, but an article -marked five dollars means only about one-fifth that amount in United -States currency. - -During the day many shoppers may be seen. The women trip along two by two -or roll up in their broughams, victorias or automobiles. In the morning -the women wear black gowns and the _mantas_, which are shawls folded into -a sort of bonnet which gives a very demure setting to the black-eyed, -oval, and, oftentimes, beautiful faces underneath. This is the dress worn -to the morning mass, and is not changed until after the breakfast hour. -One may sometimes see the roguish eyes of the wearer peering at him from -beneath this _manta_, even while the owner is fingering her beads and -uttering her prayers in the cathedral. Some one has described the _manta_ -as “that graceful euphemism which shields the poor and disarms the vain, -hides bad taste and clumsy waists, and wrapped about the head and nipped -in in some marvellous fashion at the nape of the neck, envelops all -femininity in gracefulness and mystery.” - -One’s visit is not complete without seeing a sunset from Santa Lucia. -Santiago is situated in a valley, surrounded by lofty mountains on every -side. At its back are the Cordilleras of the Andes, with their lofty -peaks which lift their eternal snows far up into the blue ethereal canopy -overhead. As the sun creeps slowly into the western sky it illumes the -red tile roof of the city and the many spires. Then its rays fall full -upon the snow-clad peaks, and long after the fiery ball has dropped -behind the lower range of mountains, which separate Santiago from the -sea, its rays continue to glisten upon the loftier peaks that form the -eastern horizon. Then, as darkness slowly falls over the landscape, the -electric lights of the city flash forth beneath you like visions in fairy -land. The whole scene, with its variations and transformations, is one -that will long linger in memory. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE GRANARY OF THE REPUBLIC - - -The heart of Chile lies in the great central valley which extends south -from Santiago, through Concepción and beyond, for a distance of almost -six hundred miles. It lies between the Andes and the less lofty range -of mountains that follows the coast line. This used to be Chile almost, -but the development of the nitrate industry to the north has made that -section of much greater importance than formerly. The climate in this -valley is delightful, neither too cold nor too wet, and its nearness to -the charms of the capital has made it an attractive dwelling place for -the Chilenos for several centuries. The climate is very similar to that -of California. The same crops and fruits are raised in both places, and -the conditions of farming are also very much the same. - -After leaving Santiago the railroad passes through numerous orchards -and extensive vineyards which grow around this proud city. Over the -fences of mud and stone trail the branches of peach trees, and along the -roads stretch eternal rows of solemn poplars and stiff clumps of the -eucalyptus. The waters of the Maipo ripple along near the track. There is -an appearance of enterprise and industry everywhere. Great carts drawn by -oxen, some of them with solid wheels like those of Pharaoh’s time, are -lined up at every station, as well as pack mules awaiting their burdens. -As a contrast a luxurious French or Italian automobile may be seen. Fine -_estancia_ buildings surrounded by vineyards loom up prominently along -the route, while, as a contrast, are the rude buildings inhabited by the -peons, which show absolutely no advance over centuries ago. There is the -same contrast in farming methods. Rude ploughs which merely scratch the -ground may be seen at work nearer to outfits which are strictly modern. - -The valley varies in its outline, for in places the surrounding mountains -press in and diminish its width. Numerous streams which have their origin -in the Andes cut across it, and their milky-white waters restlessly -rush onward to the sea. Among these are the Cachopoal, Maraquito, the -Bueno, the Maule and the Claro (clear), whose waters are more transparent -than the others. The altitude becomes lower and the temperature -correspondingly warmer. On the eastern side the lofty volcanoes of Maipo -and its companions are plainly in sight. Cattle may be seen grazing on -the rougher lands, while great fields of wheat and other grains grow -in the more tillable portions. At the stations farther down girls, who -show by the darkened complexion their admixture with the Indians, offer -baskets of all shapes and sizes, from one the size of a pea, to the -passengers as souvenirs. In this admixture the natives have conquered the -would-be conquerors. - -One of the most important places passed is Talca, which is one of the -largest cities of Chile. It has plenty of rainfall and is surrounded by -wheat farms. It has a very pretty plaza, and is ornamented with some -statuary brought from Peru at the time of the war with that country. -Two snow-clad volcanoes lift their hoary heads to the skies on the -eastern horizon, although at a considerable distance. It is situated at -a distance of about one hundred and fifty miles from the capital. The -streets are many of them lined with poplars, and magnolia trees lend -their fragrance. Vegetables and fruits grown here are of the finest, and -the inhabitants of Talca are able to live on the good things of life -after approved fashion. - -As old as is this valley, there is still much undeveloped land in it. -This land is partly covered with the bramble or other scrub growth. The -only trees to be seen for hundreds of miles are those that have been -planted. Some of the soil is very rich, while some is stony and hard -to cultivate. Where irrigation has been developed the soil responds -readily to the hand of the agriculturalist. The silt carried down from -the mountains by the streams acts as a fertilizer when deposited on -the surface of the valley. South of the Bio-Bio River no irrigation is -employed, or is necessary. The coast range gradually becomes lower until -it disappears. Evergreen trees take the place of the common forms of -deciduous trees. The Rio Itata is quite an important stream, but all -the rivers of this valley fade in importance by the side of the famous -Bio-Bio. Up to 1884 this river was the frontier boundary, all the land -beyond being under the sway of the Araucanian Indians, who were a sturdy -and independent tribe. Many battles have been fought near this stream -with the Indians, who resisted Spain and the succeeding republic for more -than three hundred years. The iron horse has now crossed it and opened up -the regions beyond, although all of the southern section has a much newer -appearance than that on the other side of the river. The newer towns -remind one very much of the frontier communities in the United States. -Many of them are settlements of Europeans, and some of them have had -hard struggles for existence. Onward the route leads through Victoria, -Temuco, and Valdivia to Puerto Montt, a port and the last town of any -importance until Punta Arenas is reached. It is also beyond what might be -termed the valley proper. Nearly all of this region is extremely fertile, -and contains some of the richest land in the republic. It only needs -irrigation in the north, and a clearing of the forests in the southern -portions, to make it blossom with wheat and other valuable grains for -the support of mankind. From the orange groves of Santiago to the apple -orchards of Temuco this valley ought to be one immense garden. - -[Illustration: A PLANTATION OWNER.] - -This great central valley is parcelled out among large landowners, many -of whom own almost princely estates. As agriculture has always been -the chief occupation of the Chilenos, fully one-half of the population -being engaged in it, these estates have been held in the same family for -generations in many instances. A farm of a thousand acres is small, and -there are many which number thirty or forty thousand acres. Upon the -product of these broad acres the owner lives in luxury almost like the -feudal lords of old. Hundreds of peons work on the _haciendas_, just as -their forefathers did before them, and they really form a small army of -retainers, who used to be ready to fight the battles of the _hacendado_ -at a moment’s call. Now they work for them for small wages, and are -always in debt. So long as they are indebted to the master they can be -compelled to remain and work it out. - -Irrigation has been considerably developed in some parts. Each -_hacendado_ is a subscriber to or shareholder in an irrigation canal. -These have been constructed at a great expense and are protected by very -strict laws. They consist of main canals starting well up among the -hills, and are pierced by many small outlets, called _regadores_. Each -of these has an outlet of a fixed number of litres per second. The fields -are traversed by parallel and intersecting smaller channels, and the -water is thus conducted from place to place. Movable dams of canvas stop -the flow into these intersecting channels, so that the amount flowing can -be regulated as the needs require. - -[Illustration: DRAWING AN AMERICAN THRESHER.] - -It is seldom that one will see fences of wire or boards, for most of -the estates are hemmed in with walls of stone. The absence of barns -on the landscape is a striking feature, and the only buildings of any -size are the low, rambling structures which form the residence of the -_hacendado_, his _administrador_, and other heads. These usually consist -of one-storied buildings, which are built around a central _patio_, -and have wide porches floored with brick. The _patios_ are laid out -in pretty little gardens, in which the palm is sure to have its part -in the attempt at ornamentation. Great avenues of lofty trees usually -run out in every direction along the roads or irrigation channels. The -most of the estates are fairly well kept, for the Chileans are quite -progressive agriculturalists. One will find on many of these great farms -the very latest of farming implements, including steam or gasoline -tractors for certain phases of the work. Especially is this true of their -harvesting machinery, which includes the latest North American patterns. -But in one respect there are some antiquated features, and that is in -transportation. If animal power is employed it is almost invariably oxen, -and not horses or mules. They plough the ground, haul the timber, and -behind them the thousands of bushels of grain produced in this valley are -conveyed to market. These animals are yoked by the horns, which seems a -very cruel way to treat these humble but faithful servants of man. It -looks to the onlooker as though every jar of the great carts must give -pain to the oxen, and oftentimes their eyes seem almost darting from -their heads. - -The vineyards of this valley cover thousands of acres, for the Chileans -drink wine as the Germans drink beer. A meal without the white or red -contents of a long-necked bottle would be incomplete. The vines are -dwarfed, and are planted in rows five or six feet apart. In many cases -they are trained upon wires, and the vineyards are not unlike those -in some parts of France. The abundance of a certain species of snail -is said to be one of the worst enemies of vitaculture. The Chilean -wines, both red and white, have quite a reputation, and the exports are -increasing each year. - -The abundance of dogs about these Chilean _haciendas_ impresses the -traveller. The Chilenos are very fond of these animals, and everybody -seems to keep many of them. Most of them are obliged to forage for a -living. They naturally become rather unsavoury scavengers under such -circumstances. It is not advisable to approach a farm, especially at -night, without being accompanied by some one connected with the place, -as the dogs seem to consider it their duty to protect the household from -intrusion. Furthermore, the people living there are free to fire at any -unauthorized person, because of the prevalence of petty thieving. - -Temuco is at a distance of a little less than five hundred miles from -Santiago. It is situated on the Cautin River, and is the capital of the -province of that name. Only thirty years old, this city already has a -population of twelve thousand, and covers about as much space as an -American town of the same size. Like an American town, also, its houses -are mostly of wood, a striking contrast to the older towns, farther down -the valley toward the capital. Although the temperature becomes quite -cold here at times the houses are built without chimneys, for the people -believe that fires are unhealthful. Churches, clubs and hotels have been -built, and there are saloons where almost pure alcohol is dished out to -the poor peons. - -Back into the wilderness from here and other places the government has -pushed short spurs of railroads in order to open it up. The government -locates the stations and lays out the lots, which are sold at low prices -to actual settlers. The lands round about are sold at auction in good -sized blocks of fifteen hundred acres or more. This land will bring from -one to twelve dollars per hectare (about two and a quarter acres). A farm -of two thousand acres of choice land could probably be secured for five -thousand dollars in United States currency. The sales are generally made -upon the basis of one-third cash, and the balance is distributed over a -period of years. The only provision exacted by the government is that -the purchaser must fence in his newly-acquired possessions, but this is -oftentimes a great expense. This land when heavily stocked with cattle -is said to yield very good returns. - -A few years ago every new immigrant was promised one hundred acres of -land, a team of oxen, a barrel of nails and enough boards to build -a small house. He was also advanced the money necessary for his -transportation. All of this had to be repaid, however, and the land alone -was the only actual gift. Under these terms many Germans were induced to -come to this land of promise. Many of these settlers have done well, and -some towns, such as Valdivia and Puerto Montt, are largely German cities. - -The first German settlers arrived about 1850, and they continued to -come in considerable numbers for the next decade. The first emigrants -arrived in the German barque _Hermann_, after a journey of one hundred -and twenty days from Hamburg. She brought seventy men, ten women and five -children. They had been lured by the promises of an immigration agent who -described the country as flowing with milk and honey. When they arrived -everything was in hopeless confusion, for titles were uncertain and the -country was an almost unbroken forest. The colonists began work under -these discouraging conditions and the face of the country soon showed -alteration. Puerto Montt was founded, and a good road built through the -trackless and swampy woodland to Lake Llanquihue. The influx of Germans -has continued even to this day, and many will be found who can speak no -other tongue than that of the Vaderland. - -On the journey from Santiago to Puerto Montt no less than a dozen -provinces are passed. Many of these are comparatively small, such as -O’Higgins, which is about the size of Delaware, to Llanquihue, which -corresponds with our own state of Indiana. Most of them run from the -Andes to the coast, but Arauco and Maule are purely coast provinces. The -names of the provinces in this section, and their order beginning with -the one adjoining the province of Santiago, are as follows:—O’Higgins, -Colchagua, Curico, Talca, Maule, Linares, Nuble, Concepción, Bio-Bio, -Arauco, Malleco, Cautin, Valdivia, and Llanquihue. - -Along the coast between Puerto Montt and Valparaiso are several ports of -more or less importance. Among these are Constitucion, situated at the -mouth of the River Talcahuano, and Coronel. The latter is the Newcastle -of Chile, for it is in the midst of many coal mines. Many of these mines -run out under the Pacific for long distances. The seams of coal are from -three to five feet thick. They are under a strata of slate and shale, -which is so compact as to be absolutely water-tight. It is a strange -experience to run out in these mines, which form a veritable catacomb -of corridors and chambers, and realize that perhaps at that very moment -some of the great ocean steamers are majestically sailing the blue waters -directly over you. I know of no similar mines except those of Whitehaven, -England, where the galleries run out several miles under the sea and seem -to be headed for the Isle of Man. - -Lota is also another mining town on this same bay, and is a town of -about fifteen thousand people. This city and Coronel are really twin -ports. Lota was founded by Matias Cousiño, who opened up the mines and -established smelter works in 1855. The company owns a large amount of -property and employs several thousand men. It furnishes huts, free -medical attendance, a church, schools and a hospital for its employees. -The sight of this town is the wonderful palace built by his widow, -which was constructed at a cost of many thousands of dollars. It is a -_château_ of white Italian marble, and stands in the centre of a French -landscape garden. There are ravines, fountains, statuary, arbours, -terraces, grottoes, artificial lakes and a small zoological exhibit on -the grounds. It blends French and English landscape gardening with some -original ideas. Few country homes in Europe can compare with it. It is -said that all the material was brought from France in the Señora Doña -Isadora Goyenecheo de Cousiño’s own ships, and the interior is adorned -with fine furniture and decorations by famous French artists. Cousiño -Park at Lota has become the pride of Chile. - -By far the most important town is Concepción, also in the coal district, -and which is known as the southern capital. It has had many serious -struggles with the Indians, gaunt famine and the still more terrible -earthquake. It is really a fine city of about fifty thousand inhabitants. -The last serious earthquake occurred in 1835, when nearly the whole town -was destroyed. It is situated on the banks of the Bio-Bio River, and -has for its port Talcahuano at the mouth of that river. Talcahuano has -a splendid harbour, and is better protected than Valparaiso, as it is -sheltered by the island of Quiriquina. Whaling ships now leave it for the -Antarctic seas and bring back considerable oil and whalebone. There is -a factory here for the manufacture and refining of whale oil. It is the -Chilean Annapolis, as it is the principal naval harbour, with arsenals -and dockyards, and is also the site of a naval school. It will eventually -be the Pacific terminus of a transcontinental railroad running to Bahia -Blanca, in Argentina. - -Concepción is the supply centre of Southern Chile, and does a large -wholesale business as well as some manufacturing on a small scale. -Quite a foreign colony is found there, and there are as good clubs and -hotels as in Valparaiso, its northern rival. It has forgotten all about -earthquakes and has risen above its former disasters. It is arranged very -much as other Chilean cities. There is an alameda bordered with poplars, -and there is a plaza. Lord Cochrane (pronounced Coch-rah-ne by the -Chileans), and Admiral O’Higgins are remembered in the nomenclature of -the streets. You can sit under municipal vines and fig-trees, or the pear -or cherry loaded with blossoms, if you happen to be there in September. -The markets are overflowing with fine vegetables, such as cauliflower, -lettuce, artichokes, carrots, radishes, potatoes, cabbage, etc., etc. -Indian faces are very numerous at the market and on the streets. Bands -play two or three nights in the week and the music is good. The flat -plain on which the town is situated is not especially beautiful, but -it gives unlimited opportunity for growth, and the Bio-Bio, especially -when at flood, is an impressive stream. The galvanized iron used so -extensively in construction does not add much to the beauty of the town. -As Southern Chile develops, Concepción becomes of greater and greater -importance, and it has a steady and healthy increase each year. - -Osorno is a thriving city a little ways inland on a branch of the Rio -Bueno, and was a place of considerable importance in the Spanish days. -Corral is at the mouth of the river that leads back to Valdivia, a dozen -miles inland. It has a trade of considerable importance with the other -ports, and is distant from Valparaiso almost five hundred miles. The -coast is not so densely wooded as farther south, and the tide is not more -than one-fourth as high on the average. Puerto Montt is a prosperous -and progressive little town situated on Reloncavi Bay. It has a well -protected harbour and enjoys a considerable trade in lumber, wheat and -leather. The lofty Andes are plainly visible on a clear day, especially -the volcano Cabulco, which is only twenty-two miles distant. A half -century ago this port had a commerce of considerable value and was even -then exporting food products, although its population did not much exceed -a couple of thousand. - -[Illustration: VIEW OF PUERTO MONTT. - -Courtesy of Bulletin of the Pan American Union.] - -There are innumerable islands, which lie close to the mainland, from -Puerto Montt to the Fuegian Archipelago. The largest of these is Chiloé, -which is a hundred miles long by from thirty to fifty miles in width. -It is generally considered to be one of the sloppiest islands in the -world, for that was the reputation the naturalist Darwin gave it, and his -opinion has been corroborated many times. Its length runs parallel to the -mainland, from which it is separated by a quite broad bay. The shores -are generally wild and rather inhospitable. If one lands any place, -excepting where a settler is located, the dense growth will be found -almost impenetrable, with all branches dripping with moisture, and only -an occasional sunbeam being able to push its way through the openings -in the evergreen shrubbery. Moss-covered bogs abound in which one may -sink to the waist in the mire. On this moist land everything grows with -wonderful rapidity that does not require a great amount of sunshine. -Moss, yards in length, and of great delicacy and beauty, hangs from the -branches, while ferns and polypodia scramble up the trunks. Beautifully -scalloped lichens, in brown and gold and lavender, decorate the fallen -trees wherever they can take hold, and fungi covers the larger trees. -Tough-fibred climbers of great length also decorate the trees. They are -oftentimes employed to tie up the fences instead of nails, and are also -used in weaving some of the beautiful baskets made by the natives. Brooms -made of it are likewise exported. This dense growth abounds everywhere, -with the exception of barren pampas which sometimes stretch for a quarter -of a mile or so. Cattle will sometimes wander into these thick meshes, -and no one but an Indian accustomed to the tangle can penetrate with -anything like facility in their efforts to find the recalcitrant animals. - -Several thousand Indians dwell on this large island. They have been -semi-civilized for two or three centuries. They seem to have been less -warlike than the Araucanians on the mainland. Their clothing is modelled -somewhat after that of the _rotos_, for nearly all sport a white cotton -or linen shirt, which is oftentimes worn under the gaily-coloured -indigo-dyed _poncho_. The shoes are generally simply made of a piece of -raw oxhide fastened to the feet with thongs of leather. Their houses -are the very simplest of contrivances. The family that starves does so -only through indifference. Land is cheap and nature productive. Most of -them live near the seacoast or rivers, where fish are very abundant, -and edible wild-fowl of many kinds, including ducks, geese and pigeons, -are easy to capture. The forests yield a number of wild fruits and -vegetables. Among the wild fruits may be mentioned strawberries of a -delicious flavour, and a species of myrtle which bears a palatable -berry. The fruit of the luma, or kow-chow, is very abundant, and is -used in making a fermented liquor much used by the natives. They have -remained as poor as when the Spaniards came, and the population has -actually decreased in the last century. This island, as well as others, -was a feudal holding and the tyranny of the proprietors and abuses of -the merchants account for that. Justice and humanity were frequently -unknown terms. Churches are not wanting, for at one place nineteen can be -counted on islands and mainland when the weather is clear. The church is -always an important and conspicuous building in every community. A few -colonists, German, French and British, have located on this island, and -have succeeded in carving a home out of the wilderness if sufficiently -industrious. Nevertheless many of them have endured great hardships. The -Chilean government brought them over but had neglected to provide the -necessary roads. - -Chiloé is the name of a province composed entirely of islands. -In addition to the large island just described, it includes the -archipelagoes of Chonos and Guaytecas, and embraces altogether no less -than a thousand islands. Many of them contain only a few inhabitants, -although the natural characteristics are similar to Chiloé itself. There -are several towns on Chiloé. One of them is Chacao, which, for two -hundred years, was the principal port. It was founded in 1567, but was -practically abandoned three hundred years later. Castro was the capital -until it was transferred to Ancud in 1834. These towns were plundered by -Dutch freebooters and also destroyed by earthquakes. Ancud is situated -pleasantly, but the bay seems to be filling up so that large vessels have -to anchor several miles out at sea. Lord Cochrane once attacked this town -and wrested it from the Spaniards. Living in this town is very cheap, for -the necessities of life can be purchased in the ample market at very low -prices. South of Ancud there is only one town of importance, Mellinca, -on the Guaytecas archipelago. With the exception of Punta Arenas it is -the most southerly settlement of any size in Chile. To-day it is much -less important than formerly, although still somewhat of a village with -probably less than a thousand population. The first establishment in -these towns is usually a distillery of aguardiente (brandy), and its -product is not a good friend of either native or settler. - -The life both in air and water is very abundant. The sea is most lavish -in life of all kinds, and can furnish an almost exhaustless supply of -food for those living farther north. The robalo is a Chilean fish of fine -flavour. The corbina, which is as large as a good-sized cod, is another -good species. The pege-ruge is a sort of smelt, and the herrings abound -in countless numbers. Oyster beds too are numerous. They are all natural -beds, however, but systematic farming might make them as good as those -along our own Atlantic coast. Other mussels and edible crabs of several -species abound. - -With such an abundance of sea life it is only natural that birds of the -fishing tribe should be plentiful. Huge pelicans, those dirty, unwieldy -birds, are attracted here by this abounding life. Cormorants are equally -numerous, as they are all along this coast. Penguins are also found -here. The grube, whose skin is in such demand, is also quite common. -The Antarctic goose is abundant, and the white gander on guard is a -rather beautiful black and white bird. He always occupies some prominent -rocky point, keeping watch and guard over his mate intent upon domestic -duties. Insect life is also very busy, and a red bee almost as large as -some humming-birds is especially characteristic of this region. It flies -rapidly and hovers around among the flowers almost like the humming-bird. - -Opposite Chiloé, on the mainland, is the Palena River, the largest river -in Chile. The excessive rains and melting snows from the lofty peaks, -which are plainly visible when the mists have cleared away, keep the -banks filled with water. Every cloud that sweeps in from the Pacific -comes down in rain as soon as it encounters the mountains. The slopes -are dotted with wood clear up to the snow-line. The woods here, as well -as elsewhere, are seemingly impenetrable. There are many flowering trees -which add their beauty to the scene. A tall cane from which the Indians -used to make spears grows in great confusion almost everywhere. It grows -in great stools like giant bunches of rushes. The genii of vegetation -takes possession of the riches of the ground. The beautiful green of -the Chilean pine predominates. The mouth of the river is a stretch of -delta. Of course it cannot compare with the streams on the Atlantic -coast, but it is a striking river. Dancing mountain streams join it here -and there—sometimes with a leap from the hills, thus forming numerous -cascades. These white streaks of the cascades are visible on the mountain -slopes in many places. The mists keep shifting and shimmering around -the various peaks,—now revealing and again hiding the silent glens or -gullies. The abundance of wooding oftentimes almost overcomes the -beholder with the helplessness of humanity in such a region. The north -winds which bring the rains are usually warm, while the south winds which -blow up from the Antarctic regions are dry and cold. These and the west -winds, which have such a stretch of sea to blow over, bring the worst -storms, for they are not impeded for thousands of miles. - -These facts lead one to speculate on the possibilities of timber -development in Chile. This republic probably contains almost as great -a proportion of wooded land as any country in the world. From the -Straits to Valdivia it is almost an unbroken forest. The trees are -sometimes almost covered with parasites. In places they are almost -matted together with the climbing bamboo, and at others they are covered -with soft cushions of the graceful liverworts and green mosses. In the -extreme southern part of the republic the trees become more stunted and -gnarled, and are not large enough to be of commercial value for lumber -purposes. This primeval forest probably extended along the coast as far -as Valparaiso, since that place was originally selected as a seaport -because the rich woods near at hand afforded material for shipbuilding. -Those forests have entirely disappeared. In the southern part of the -central valley they are being ruthlessly destroyed. It is simply cut -down and burned, while the republic as a whole imports hundreds of -thousands of dollars’ worth of timber products from other countries. It -is quite probable that an important lumber industry is still awaiting -development in Southern Chile. Much of it will certainly be valuable -for wood pulp if for nothing else, so that of the making of books and -periodicals there may still be no end. The dangerous nature of the coast -may make navigation perilous. The Pacific Ocean down there is not always -so pacific and peaceful as farther north. The change is felt soon after -leaving Valparaiso on the journey southward bound. - -Chilean Patagonia, which stretches along the Pacific coast for five -hundred miles, is little known, but it is a region of wild beauty. -It is a perfect labyrinth of channels and islands, to which there is -an entrance at each end, and one near the centre through the Gulf of -Trinidad. These entrances are through narrow channels which are difficult -to find, as they are so similar to other channels which lead into -_cul-de-sacs_. Powerful currents and cross-currents rush through these -contracted channels, so that vessels have to make them at full speed or -run the risk of being dashed helplessly upon the rocky barriers. Once -within the enclosure, however, the waters are calm even when the most -violent storms rage outside. Terrific rains which are veritable deluges -frequently fall, and impenetrable mists at times enshroud everything. The -barometer moves up and down by leaps and bounds. Suddenly a rift will -appear in the clouds, denoting the breaking of the storm, and the blue -sky and bright sun will be revealed. Then the scenery becomes glorious -in its radiant beauty—an amphitheatre of overhanging mountains with -glittering snow-dad crests against a sky of dazzling blue. Then all about -will be seen little islets, covered with trees and bushes of brilliant -green and flowers of many hues. - -In spite of the snow-clad mountains the temperature is usually not -extreme. The jungles will rival the Amazonian jungles. It is a perfect -compress of hollys, ferns, beeches, orchids, vines and countless thorny -bushes. It is indeed - - “The silent wilderness, - Where the soul need not repress - Its music, lest it should not find - An echo in another’s mind.” - -The surface is a spongy mass, and a foothold less than knee deep is rare. -This exuberant vegetation is caused by the excessive moisture which -is here precipitated. Flower-bearing bushes are numerous, and genuine -field daisies are as plentiful in places as on a New England meadow. -Cataracts are everywhere in sight and mark the mountain sides like long -white streaks. At times when the boat is near the shore their roar can be -heard. An occasional wreck may be sighted, but more of them lie unseen, -buried beneath countless fathoms of water, for the shore descends down -in an almost perpendicular line to fathomless depths. Few vessels thread -these narrows, but it is a sight never to be forgotten by one who has had -the privilege of making the trip. - -The future of this great undeveloped region remains to be seen. At -present there are no inhabitants, except occasionally a stray settlement -of Indians. Exploring itself is no child’s play, and there are still -tracts of untrodden forest, although the government has had numerous -surveying parties in the field. The boundary commission has done a great -deal in making this territory better understood. It differs widely from -the broad reaches of pampa of Argentine Patagonia, where rain is scant -and desert stretches are not uncommon. When development has taken place -it may far exceed in fertility and wealth the eastern slopes, and the -broad leagues of rich plain between the Andes and the Atlantic Ocean. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -THE LAND OF THE FIRE - - -“Tierra del Fuego,” meaning the land of the fire, exclaimed the followers -of Magellan, as they saw the wreaths of smoke ascending through the -frosty air. It was merely the signal fires of the Indians dwelling on one -of the islands of that remote southern archipelago, when they beheld the -strange white-winged vessels of Magellan sailing through the Straits, -since named after him. The name has clung to the group of islands during -the succeeding centuries, although thousands of white people have since -placed foot on them and the name is known to be a misnomer, for no -volcanic fires exist there. - -Beginning in Alaska, a chain of gigantic granite vertebrae extends clear -to Cape Horn. It clings close to the Pacific coast throughout the entire -distance, and ends in grandeur near the Antarctic Circle. Some say that -the lower end of this backbone of the American continents was shattered -by a convulsion, in which mighty masses of rock were thrown off into the -ocean, thus forming the numberless islands which lie at the southern -extremity of South America. The better theory, however, is that they were -formed by the submerging of the lower end of the Andes Mountains. When -the land sank the stormy water beat through the valleys and chiselled the -shores into incongruous shapes and labyrinths. - -Between the islands and the mainland are the Straits of Magellan. Some -of the finest scenery in the world is found in this intricate waterway, -especially in what is known as Smyth’s Channel, which separates Southern -Chile from the group of islands. Smyth’s Channel is very narrow, so that -most vessels take the broader Straits. The depth has never been fathomed. -There is a grandeur in the serrated peaks, and cliffs, snowy crests, -cascades and the glaciers under a brilliant sun and deep blue sky that is -simply overwhelming. Numerous mountain peaks reveal themselves, of which -Mt. Sarmiento is the noblest, and lifts its snowy head to a height of -over seven thousand feet. Its beauty is enhanced by numerous blue-tinted -glaciers, which descend to the waters of the sea like a multitude -of frozen Niagaras. Floating glaciers are common in the Straits, and -vessels, unequipped with ice-making machinery, often tie up to one while -the crew chop enough ice to fill the refrigerators. - -Few places on the earth’s surface within easy reach can compare with -the Straits of Magellan. This channel has become the great trade route -between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Few boats, except sailing -vessels, now take the longer route around Cape Horn, because of the -storms that lash the Antarctic seas into fury. For several hundred miles -the Straits furnish a succession of beautiful scenes; green shores -alternating with the eternal glaciers of the mountain peaks, blue waters -contrasting with the shimmering crystal of the floating icebergs. These -masses of ice are as imperishable as the glaciers of Greenland, and they -add a feature to the scenery that is not to be found elsewhere within -the ordinary course of steamers. It is a region of marvellous sunsets as -well as rugged scenery, when the weather is clear, but mist, snow or rain -often dim the view. - -[Illustration: IN THE STRAITS OF MAGELLAN.] - -The eastern entrance to the Straits lies between Cape Virgenes, on -the mainland, and Cape Espiritu, on the island, a distance of about -fourteen miles. For some distance the channel is wide, with the mainland -gently undulating and covered with grass. Then come the first narrows, -and afterwards the second narrows. These narrows are about two miles -in width, and there is generally a strong current through them. In the -spring the tides are thrown up to a height of fifty feet, and this is -the reason sailing vessels prefer the open waters around Cape Horn, even -though the seas are more tempestuous. When nearing Punta Arenas the -mountains become higher, and at times the way seems blocked by them. -Stunted bush and underbrush appear. After leaving Punta Arenas the shores -grow bolder and more picturesque. The snow-covered mountains and glaciers -resemble the Alaska coast or that of Northern Norway. The islands are as -numerous as in the St. Lawrence or Georgian Bay. - -Nodales Peak and Mt. Victoria lift their hoary heads on the mainland, -while Mt. Buckland and Mt. Sarmiento rise to a still greater height on -the islands. The latter beautiful and majestic peak is the noblest of -them all. Its snowy head rises to a height of seven thousand three -hundred feet, with a broad base and two distinct peaks. It is generally -more or less hidden by vapour. The three Evangelistas keep their lonely -vigil where straits and ocean join on the north. Cape Pillar, the -western end of the Straits, is two hundred and forty-five miles from -Cape Virgenes, but the steamer route is almost half as long again. Old -voyagers were wont to take eighty days in this passage when the weather -was a little unfavourable. The western end is the stormiest, and the -pilot books give it a very bad reputation. South of them the Antarctic -seas are seldom free from the storm king. The weather is nearly always -bad, and oftentimes worse. In one recent year it is said that eighty-two -sailing vessels and thirty-nine steamers were lost—a fearful toll claimed -by old Neptune. - -Fernando de Magelhaens, although of Portuguese birth, had entered the -Spanish service. In charge of a fleet of five small ships, the largest -of only one hundred and thirty tons, boarded and manned by a crew of -sixty-two men, he sailed from Seville on the 10th of August, 1519. -The voyage was an arduous one, and was beset not only with terrific -storms at sea but mutinies among the sailors that were scarcely less -terrifying. Only two of his vessels remained faithful, but he conquered -the mutiny with the loss of only one vessel. On the 21st of October, -1520, he entered the eastern entrance of the channel, and it was a month -later, after almost unheard-of difficulties, that he emerged into the -broad Pacific. Of the subsequent expeditions that attempted this route -the experiences were most unfortunate. In nearly every instance almost -one out of every three vessels was wrecked, some in one channel and some -in another, for there is a perfect labyrinth of channels around and -between the many islands. Some of the names indicate the experiences or -impressions of these early navigators. Fatal Bay, Port Famine, Famine -Reach, Escape Beach, Last Wreck Point, Dislocation Harbour, Thieves -Island, Useless Bay, Fury Islands, Breakneck Peninsula, Desolation -Harbour, Preservation Cove, and last, Hope Inlet, are a few of the names -that may be located on the map. In 1578, Sir Francis Drake, an English -explorer as well as freebooter, by accident found the route by the way -of Cape Horn. This great discovery stimulated navigation around South -America, for the Spaniards guarded the Straits route to the best of -their ability. The Spaniards described Drake as “a man of low condition, -but a skilful seaman and a valiant pirate.” - -The Fuegian Archipelago covers a goodly territory. The islands contain -as much land as Nebraska, and are several hundred miles long from east -to west. A perfect labyrinth of tortuous, wind-swept waterways separate -the hundreds of islands which form this group. They are not all a -desolate mass of ice and snow, however, but contain plains which are -covered with succulent grasses, and slopes which are thickly wooded. -The Chilean portion of these islands, and the mainland along the coast -beyond the fiftieth parallel of latitude, is included in the territory of -Magellanes, the largest territorial division in the republic. The largest -island, called Tierra del Fuego, land of the fire, is half as large as -Illinois. It is divided longitudinally between Chile and Argentina, by -far the largest portion belonging to the former nation, and the best part -of it too. - -Thirty years ago this entire island was roamed and hunted over by the -aborigines. The fact that the northern part consisted of open country, -with few ranges of hills, caused the white man to look upon it with -envious eyes, as it promised good pasturage for sheep. Then began a -warfare against the Indians which almost resulted in their extermination. -Thousands of sheep now quietly graze in the rich valleys and on the -verdant plains, and thrive very well indeed. Very little of the land -is cultivated, although probably susceptible of cultivation, but the -marketing of the products would be a difficult feature at the present -time, and the season is short. Its latitude is about that of Southern -Greenland, but the climate is probably milder, and its longitude is -approximately that of Eastern Massachusetts. In the summer the grass is -green, but in the winter the chilly winds change it to a rich brown. The -ground rats are a terrible nuisance to the farmer, as they burrow in the -fields so much that they destroy half the usefulness of a good meadow. -The mountain slopes are covered with a thick growth of trees, ferns and -mosses up to a height of a thousand feet or more, due to the great amount -of rainfall, but above that distance the growth is very stunted. It seems -strange to see green trees and green grasses amid snows and glaciers, but -such is the contrast offered by this “land of the fire.” The trees are -mostly evergreen, not very high, but very close together. A deep bed of -moss, into which a man may sink knee-deep, generally surrounds them, and -large ferns with leaves a yard long grow in places otherwise bare. Even -bright flowers make the sombre landscape seem almost gay when the sun -shines on a summer day. - -Desolation Island, on the Chilean side, is a bleak and barren island well -indicated by its name, while other names are Clarence, St. Inas, and -Navarin. There are many others, from islands twenty miles in length to -some so small that a good baseball pitcher could toss a stone clear over -them. Cape Horn is a monster rock which thrusts its jagged outline into -the Antarctic seas. It is a couple of hundred miles south of the Straits -of Magellan, and more than a thousand miles nearer the undiscovered -South Pole than the Cape of Good Hope. It is surrounded by waters that -are tossed by terrific storms which mariners fear. The hulks of wrecked -vessels can be seen on every hand as reminders of the terrible tribute -which has been here levied. Glaciers are always in sight, and masses of -ice hundreds of feet high are frequently seen, seeming to threaten the -venturesome mariner for invading those beautiful waters. - -[Illustration: A WRECK ON THE COAST OF CHILE.] - -A number of years ago a steamer was wrecked on these shores, but the -crew managed to save sufficient provisions to sustain all those rescued -for some time. While sinking shallow wells they discovered a strata of -black sand that sparkled with particles of gold. Their reports led to -great excitement over the discovery of gold on Tierra del Fuego. Although -adventurers had sailed through the Straits for centuries, looking for -the wealth that they might obtain either honestly or dishonestly, yet -the gold deposits remained undiscovered until 1867. Their covetous eyes -had gazed upon the gold-bearing shores, and they had even filled their -water-casks in the gold-bearing rivulets without seeing the wealth. In -the few years following a number of Argentine explorers visited that -region, and found the source of some of the gold. The gold was almost -exclusively found in free particles in a layer of black sand, which was -found under the surface sand. As soon as the report of their find reached -the settlements, a number of expeditions were fitted out and sent to -that region. The best payings were found right on the beach, which was -washed by the waves of the sea at a high tide and during storms. It was -also found that the tides brought in fresh gold-bearing sands from the -seas. The miners used to sit down and smoke their pipes until the storms -passed, and then dig up the black sand with the gold in it after the surf -had gone down. - -It all seemed to be pockets, so that where the gold would be found in -considerable quantities for a while, it would soon become so scarce that -mining it under the crude conditions prevailing became unprofitable. The -prospectors sailed in and out of the stormy and dangerous bays, and many -of them lost their lives. The hidden reefs and whirling tornadoes form -combinations that made navigation in the small catboats that were used -extremely perilous. Many, who were wrecked, were obliged to live upon -whatever wild food they could find for weeks, and others were killed -by the hostile Indians. The original stories said that nuggets as big -as kernels of corn were plentiful, but they were not true to fact. No -gold quartz veins were ever discovered, but in all the finds it was -simply particles mixed up with the black sand. Gold mining to-day is not -prosecuted in that region as much as it was a couple of decades ago, -although some gold is washed each year. If the whole story was known, it -would probably be found that there were more skeletons of dead miners -left on those inhospitable shores than records of wealth acquired in -Tierra del Fuego. Most of those who did find wealth got no farther than -Punta Arenas with it, for that city was to that region what San Francisco -was in the early days of California, and mining prospectors are the same -the world over. - -The first attempt to establish a settlement on the Straits of Magellan -was in the latter part of the sixteenth century. Pedro Sarmiento de -Gamboa was placed in command of this expedition. His instructions were -as follows: “For the honour and glory of God and of the Virgin Mary, -His Mother and Our Lady, whom you, Captain Pedro Sarmiento, are to take -for Advocate and Patron of the ships and crews under your orders for -this discovery and enterprise in the Straits of Magellan.” After several -narrow escapes from shipwreck the expedition landed, and established a -settlement not far from the present city of Punta Arenas. From the very -first misfortune seemed to follow the colonists, and the Indians soon -became hostile. At the end of the second winter the three hundred or -more colonists had dwindled to eighteen, who were finally rescued. They -had been obliged to live on berries, shell-fish, oysters, and such other -ocean life that they were able to catch. The Indians had driven the -guanaco and other wild game into the interior where the colonists could -not reach them. - -[Illustration: GENERAL VIEW OF PUNTA ARENAS.] - -The continent of South America extends much farther south than Africa. -The southernmost point is Cape Frowards, which is a dark mass of rock -five hundred feet high joined by a low neck of land to snow-clad -mountains. At almost the southernmost point of the mainland lies the -little city of Punta Arenas (Sandy Point). It is situated on the Straits -of Magellan, which is sheltered from the worst storms by the many -islands that lie between it and the Antarctic seas. Punta Arenas is the -southernmost city in the world, eight hundred miles farther south than -Cape Town. There is plenty of building space left in this city still, -but a few years ago, when the boom was on, the people had visions of a -southern Chicago. Fabulous prices were asked for building lots, and real -estate agents were almost as plentiful as the Indians. That time has -passed, and the town has dwindled in population. Its latitude is about -that of Labrador, but it is much more equable than that country and the -weather is not so severe as many imagine. It is so named because built -on a sandy beach that runs out into the Straits. It is now a city of -twelve thousand people, and they seem to be contented. It is a very mixed -population. You can hear Spanish, English, German, Italian, Russian and -even the Chinese mingled with the guttural tongues of the Indians. The -Scotch are probably the most thrifty of the inhabitants, and many of them -have lived there two or three generations. - -There are many rough characters in Punta Arenas, some even who have -drifted from the mining camps of our western states. It is said to be -bad policy to ask a man where he came from, or what his name was before -his arrival, as it might be an embarrassing subject. The loafing places -are the bars, where many brawls occur during the long winters. There are -probably as many saloons to the number of inhabitants as in any other -place on the globe, for nearly every other door seems to bear such a -sign. Much gambling is also done at these and in the clubs. There are -clubs, where the well-to-do gather and have their games just as they do -the world over. The principal club is the Cuerpo de Bomberos, which means -the Society of Firemen, and was organized as a volunteer fire department. -Most of the buildings are cheap one-story affairs, frequently being built -of the corrugated iron so common in this land. Punta Arenas is a free -port, and this fact has aided in its prosperity. All the vessels passing -through the Straits call there for supplies and coal, and this business, -together with the trade in whaling products, wool and furs, furnish -the inhabitants with employment. It is one of the great wool-exporting -ports of the world, having shipped more than sixteen million pounds of -that commodity in a single season, and four hundred thousand pelts. The -trade in furs is very large. One of the prettiest things sold here is an -ostrich robe made of the breasts of the young birds. - -[Illustration: PORT FAMINE, IN THE STRAITS OF MAGELLAN.] - -Punta Arenas is the business centre of the region extending from Port -Desire, on the Patagonian coast to Cape Horn, and from the Falkland -Islands on the east to the westernmost limits of Chile. The little -settlement that originally was established there was called La Colonia -de Magellanes. On the 21st of April, 1843, Chile first planted her -tri-coloured banner at a place near here, which was called Port Famine, -because of the disastrous end of the Sarmiento settlement, which had been -located there a couple of centuries previously. - -Chile had a double purpose in establishing this post. One was its desire -to hold the territory as a national possession, and the other was to -establish a penal colony which would be so far away from the capital that -the prisoners, even if they escaped, could not return. Several hundred -prisoners were generally confined there, who were kept in subjection -by a small company of soldiers. On two occasions the convicts rebelled -and took possession of this settlement. On one of these the governor -and many of the guards were killed and the mutineers boarded a ship -that chanced to be in the harbour, but they were overtaken by a Chilean -man-of-war and overcome. The men were hung, and it is said that a man -was seen hanging from every yard-arm of the war-ship. After the first -revolt a new settlement was established on the present site of Punta -Arenas, which was given the old name. The tongue of sand there, however, -the English-speaking people called Sandy Point, and thereafter the name -Punta Arenas, which means the same in Spanish, was given it; at least it -is entirely known by that name now. - -In 1877 the last revolt occurred, when the convicts revenged the -cruelties to which they had been subjected upon the commander of the -garrison and many of the soldiers. When a man-of-war appeared they fled -into the interior, where most of them died from starvation and hardships. -The establishment of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company was the cause -of the abandonment of this place as a penal colony. It proved to be a -convenient stopping place for the steamers to take on coal and supplies, -and this gave it a new life. Later came the discovery of gold, which -brought many to the settlement. Still later a Scotchman brought some -sheep from the Falkland Islands, and found that the region around Punta -Arenas and on the island opposite was well adapted for sheep raising. -Others took advantage of this experience, until the neighbourhood around -became noted for its sheep culture. Some day, if a freezing establishment -should be established here, Punta Arenas will become a still more -important place, and it is undoubtedly only a question of time until -such will be done. The town itself makes a poor foreground for the -magnificent setting of nature. It is laid out on the usual checkerboard -plan, with several streets running from the shores back up the hills. -It has a plaza and the streets are unpaved. The beach is sandy and the -streets are either filled with loose sand or mud. - -Across the Straits the green hills of Tierra del Fuego may be seen -rising, and over to the south the snow-capped peaks of Mt. Sarmiento and -its neighbours appear above the horizon. To the west are mountains which -are ever green and rise boldly up to the western edge, while to the north -the hills are generally bare. At one time it was thought that coal had -been discovered and the mine was opened up; some track was built and an -old locomotive brought down. It proved, however, to be only lignite, and -so the mine has been practically abandoned. - -A considerable trade has been developed in Indian curios and goods. -The Indians from the pampas and islands come here to sell their furs, -feathers, bows, hides, etc. Passengers passing through the Straits on the -various steamers usually lay in a supply of these goods, some of which -are genuine and others are prepared especially for such passengers. One -wonders at the number of palms and plants which are seen in this town -so far beyond all other settlements, for even wild flowers of certain -kinds seem to grow in great profusion, while ferns and lichens everywhere -delight the eye. - -South of Punta Arenas there is only one settlement of any importance, and -that is Ushuaia. This town is situated on the Argentine side of Tierra -del Fuego, and, small as it is, it is the capital of that territory. It -stands nearer to the South Pole than any other civilized village in the -world. The barriers created by nature are almost insurmountable. To the -south is the unknown Antarctic, to the north the impassable barrier of -snow-clad peaks, and in all other directions are the fathomless channels -separating it from the other islands. Established first as a mission -settlement, its site was selected as the capital of the territory. The -Argentine flag was first unfolded over the first building erected for -the use of officials in 1884. Shortly after that work upon prisons was -begun, and it became a still more important settlement. Here, in this -isolated quarter of the globe, guarded by a few score of armed men, are -confined several hundred men, many of whom are the very dregs of humanity -sent from Buenos Aires. These unfortunates work on the roads, dress stone -for new and stronger walls, or make the garments worn by themselves and -their fellow prisoners. Few attempt to escape and fewer still succeed, -for the loneliness and desolation alone would keep a prisoner where human -companionship may be found. - -Small and unimportant as this town is to-day, and wretched as it would -seem to many people, yet it has a full complement of officials with their -secretaries and servants. There is a complete list of judicial officers -and police officials, even though the police have no patrol to beat and -the court has no docket. About the only part of the official equipment -that has any work to do is the culinary department, for it takes a great -deal of cooking and preparation to provide food for every one there. -Out of a population of several hundred to-day, made up principally of -prisoners and officials, there are only a very few plain common citizens -who dwell there. - -Most of the buildings in Ushuaia are frame structures, which have been -erected near the bay that bears the same name as the town. It is situated -on Beagle Channel. The houses consist of plain unpainted wooden walls, -with a roof of corrugated iron. The governor’s palace itself is not much -better than the other buildings. A few of the buildings have little green -patches, enclosed with picket fences, in which they are able to grow a -few vegetables. For a location so far south the climate is not so bad as -one would expect, as the snowfall is not as great as in the same latitude -in northern regions. In the winter time the nights are very long and -the days short. The mountains just at the back of the town cut off the -sunlight when the sun is low, so that the town only receives about four -hours of daylight. It is certainly a cheerless sort of existence that the -people lead in this southern capital. There are still one or two missions -that are conducted by English missionaries on this coastland, but they -have had very little influence upon the natives. One of the missions -consists of quite a large ranch, where the minister in charge of the -mission lives and employs the natives to do his work. - -For several hundred miles north of Punta Arenas lies the formerly -unknown land of Patagonia—the land of the Pata-goas, the “big feet,” as -they were named by Magellan. One can see in that city almost any day -descendants of that race in the Tehuelche tribe of Indians who come -there to sell their furs and skins. Out upon the broad pampas away from -the town, the traveller will occasionally stumble upon the _toldos_ -(huts) of the Tehuelches. These are simply made huts of the skins of -the guanaco sewn loosely together at the edges, and supported squarely -upon awkward-looking props, or posts, forked at the top to admit the -ridge-poles. The skins are fastened to the earth by wooden pegs. The -Tehuelches are the native Indians of Patagonia—the so-called giants—and -are well built specimens of manhood. These Indians live almost as -their ancestors did hundreds of years ago. They are still nomads, and -exist entirely by the chase. They do not cultivate anything whatever, -but sometimes own a few cattle. In general they still dress in skins, -although some of them have purchased store clothes at the settlements. As -a rule they are mild mannered, when sober, and do not deserve the name of -being bloodthirsty savages. Their numbers have greatly decreased, since -the first discovery of Patagonia, through dissipation and disease, and -some have estimated that the total number yet remaining will not exceed a -few hundred. - -Only a few years ago the geographers labelled Patagonia “no man’s land.” -To-day millions of sheep graze over its fertile plains. It is as large as -several of our western states. It is a land of big distances and enormous -holdings. In the pasture section it is often a ride of three or four -days from one ranch to another. Most of these ranches are near the coast -or along the few rivers. As one travels into the interior a white face -becomes more and more rare; empty leagues surround you on every hand. -One accustomed to cities only would find it very lonely indeed on these -plains. One seems to stand alone with only the wind, the mirages and the -limitless distances, and the blue sky above for a canopy. The last land -to have been the habitation of the greater beasts of preceding ages, -according to geologists, Patagonia is one of the last to receive its -proper share of the human population. - -There are three races of Indians who inhabit these Fuegian islands, -the Yahgans, Alacaloofs and the Onas, all of whom are very low in -intelligence. They are commonly known under the general characterization -of the Firelanders. None of them are as far advanced as the Esquimaux, -who build warm igloos for their habitation. Even though the climate is -very cold the greater part of the year these aborigines formerly wore -very little clothing, but greased their bodies with fish oil that keeps -out the cold. In recent years, however, they have begun to wear warmer -garments, when such can be obtained. The Yahgans are very treacherous, -and many murders have been traced to them. They will mingle very little -with white people, but always hold themselves aloof. Their houses are of -the most primitive character, and are frequently little more than a rude -construction of thatch on a skeleton of sticks stuck in the ground. - -These Yahgans live almost entirely on sea food. They divide their time -between these rude huts and canoes, or dugouts made from the trunks of -trees, in which they paddle through the tortuous channels from one island -to another. Should a storm overtake the boat and it becomes necessary to -lighten it, the men show their instinct for self-preservation by throwing -the women and children overboard. They are not particular about food, -as to whether it is very fresh or not. There is frequently a dearth of -food, and then it is that they are driven to eat the flesh of a stranded -whale or of an animal found dead. Ground rats and the fishy-flavoured -penguin are included on their regular bill-of-fare. Their camping-places -can generally be located by the mounds of shells that accumulate. They -are as near to primitive savages as it would be possible to find on the -Americas. As usual among savage tribes, the women do the most of the -work, and assist in the hunting and fishing as well as prepare the meat -after it has once been caught. The Yahgans are short and muscular and -below medium height. Their lower limbs seem rather stunted, but above -the waist they are heavily built. Marriage is a matter of purchase and -sale, and wives are sometimes exchanged. The marriage ceremony consists -in painting the girl in a peculiar way, and then the husband takes her to -his hut or that of his parents. - -The Alacaloofs, or Alakalufs, occupy the western islands and are similar -in their habits to the Yahgans. Their canoes are made of strips of bark -or planks fastened together with vines and caulked with moss. Their huts -look like New England haycocks made of boughs and covered with skins or -bark strips. They frequently row out to meet passing steamers and beg for -food. They are not an attractive people. In colour they strongly resemble -the North American red men, but they are not much over five feet in -height. The only domesticated animal owned by them is the dog. With this -tribe, as well as the Yahgans, everything is held in common and it is no -crime to take of your neighbour’s fuel or food. - -The Onas are a hunting tribe and they are larger than either of the -other tribes. They occupy the prairie lands and open bush of Tierra del -Fuego. The men are active and athletic, and they are especially skilful -in stalking the guanaco of that island. They are expert in the use of -the rude bows and arrows which they make for themselves. The bows are -fashioned out of a native wood cut with shell knives, and the arrows -are made out of reeds armed with a flint or glass point. Horse meat is -a great delicacy with them. The struggle for existence has made these -people inexpressive in features and stoical in actions. A good fortune or -an ill fortune is met in much the same way. Their homes are generally -saucer-shaped hollows that have been scraped out, over which poles and -brush are piled and guanaco skins are used as doors. All the family lie -down together, and the dogs are included for warmth. They are nomads and -wander from one place to another in search of food. Fire is made with -bits of iron ore or flints and dry fungus. Some of this tribe are now -employed as servants by the white people, but most of them prefer the -wild life in the open. - -With all the hardships that seem to fall to the lot of these Indians who -live so far to the south, they seem to be fairly happy and are contented -with their surroundings. This is truly fortunate. People who live in the -temperate zones are inclined to think that they are the only truly happy -ones. By travel one’s view is broadened, and at last he realizes the -truth expressed by Oliver Goldsmith in the following lines:— - - “If countries we compare, - And estimate the blessings which they share, - Though patriots flatter, still shall wisdom find - An equal portion dealt to all mankind. - The shuddering tenant of the frigid zone - Boldly proclaims that happiest spot his own; - Extols the treasures of the stormy seas, - And his long nights of revelry and ease; - The naked negro, panting at the Line, - Boasts of his golden sands and palmy wine, - Basks in the glare, or strives the tepid wave. - And thanks his gods for all the good they gave.” - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -THE BACKBONE OF THE CONTINENT - - -The trip across the continent of South America is now made very -comfortably by train. The start is from the very pleasant station of the -State Railway of Valparaiso. For a number of miles the tracks run almost -along the water’s edge, and thus afford many beautiful views of the blue -bay of Valparaiso. The trains on this road are very comfortable, for the -Chilean State Railway is one of the very few railroads in South America -that provide Pullman cars for their patrons. After leaving Viña del Mar -the line soon abandons the bay, and threads its way through the coast -range of mountains. One gets many glimpses of the higher Andes through -the passes, and there are also green glens where advantage has been taken -of the running water for irrigation. Cacti become very abundant, and one -is reminded of the plateaus of Mexico, for these silent sentinels seem to -keep watch over the herds of sheep and goats that feed on the slopes. -Any one who has seen Southern Chile first will notice the difference as -soon as the train leaves Santiago. The progressive dryness of the climate -has a pronounced effect on the vegetation. The cacti are frequently from -twelve to fifteen feet in height, and their entire surface is covered -with stout, curved spines. - -[Illustration: THE ACONCAGUA RIVER.] - -After creeping along the shore and then through a valley, the railroad -soon joins the Aconcagua River, which leaps and foams along, thus -forming a series of diminutive cascades. In the winter time the change -in temperature is very marked as the upward climb continues. In places -the valley spreads out to quite generous proportions, and one will -see _haciendas_ that are well kept up and which show evidence of -careful cultivation. Contrast is afforded by the sight of oxen drawing -one-handled, wooden ploughs. How powerful must have been the Moorish -influence in Spain, for these ploughs are exact duplicates of the plough -of ancient Chaldea and Egypt, which was carried along the coast of -Barbary into Spain, and left there as a heritage to the Spaniards, who -introduced it into the New World. The general impression left with the -traveller over this route, between Valparaiso and Santiago, is one of -comparative barrenness and desolation. - -Viña del Mar, Limache and Quillota are three quite important towns that -are passed _en route_, the latter two of which have some important -manufacturing establishments. Llai Llai (pronounced Yi-yi) is about half -way, and this is the diverging point for the two routes. One leads to -the capital, and the other is the continuation of the transcontinental -railroad. Llai Llai is a pleasant little town of five or six thousand -inhabitants, and is situated about twenty-six hundred and twenty-five -feet above sea level. A number of fruit sellers are sure to be at the -station, and one who does not purchase a few of the delicious pears or -peaches, that are sold so reasonably, misses a great treat. They are -grown in a rich valley below which is a sort of agricultural Arcadia. - -The through cars are switched to another track, a different engine is -attached to them and the traveller is soon bound for Los Andes. The -journey does not differ greatly from that already described. The city -of San Felipe is the largest town passed and it is situated amidst well -cultivated fields. It is a city of about twelve thousand. Soon afterwards -the train reaches Santa Rosa de Los Andes, which marks a break in -the journey. Here it is necessary to change trains, and frequently to -stay over night. It is at the foothills of the Andes, and one can find -many pleasant little excursions into the foothills here, if he has -the inclination to tarry for a few days. The climate is good, and the -physical wants of the traveller are very well looked after at the hotel. -A few Americans will be found there, for the railroad is operated by that -nationality. - -[Illustration: LOOKING TOWARDS ACONCAGUA.] - -If it is the summer time one will find Los Andes a very pleasant little -place, with quite an abundance of vegetation around it. The altitude -is about twenty-six hundred feet, which gives it a delightful climate. -Fruits grow abundantly, and the fruit-canning industry has been -considerably developed. This is in the province of Aconcagua, which -contains some of the most notable elevations in the entire republic, -and, in fact, in the entire world. This province is about as large -as Connecticut and Rhode Island combined. In addition to the eastern -boundary of lofty peaks there are numerous low hills, between which lie -fertile valleys. Through the use of irrigation agriculture flourishes -in these valleys, and there is a considerable production of grains and -wine. There are also a number of silver and copper mines in the province. -San Felipe is the capital, and is distant about seventy-eight miles from -both Santiago and Valparaiso. - -“_Vamonos_,” says the conductor of the narrow gauge train, as it pulls -out of the station on its way to the limits of Chilean territory. One -will begin to take notice of his fellow-travellers. The passengers will -be found to be of many nationalities, and of many shades of colour, -for, since the railway journey is continuous, fewer people take the -much longer route via the Straits of Magellan. There will be Chilenos, -with big hats and _ponchos_, and Chilenas, whose faces are coated with -powder or paste. There will be priests in beaver hats and black gowns, -which reach to their feet. Soldiers in uniforms modelled after the -German army are quite likely to be companions as far as the border. -Americans, British, French, Germans, Italians and Argentinians—all of -these nationalities go to make up a potpourri of nations and national -characteristics. As the start is generally made in the morning, one sees -the stars disappear and the dawn break over the mountains. The gray -skies turn to a steel-blue, then to a rosy pink, until, at last, the -highest peaks are illuminated by the rays of the sun. One may leave Los -Andes clad in its summer plumage, with myriads of butterflies and moths -flitting about, but these characteristics soon disappear, for the upward -climb begins almost immediately. In the next thirty-five miles this rack -and pinion road climbs upward more than seven thousand feet. It is a much -steeper ascent than on the Argentine side, for it requires three times -the distance to reach the same level on that slope. - -The track follows the course of the Aconcagua River. This river is at no -time a great stream, yet the total volume of water carried down in its -swift-flowing current must be considerable. Many glimpses of the simple -natives, and their primitive means of conveyance, are afforded on the -ancient highway that threads the same valley. On the mountainside an -occasional mud hut may be seen around and over which climb creepers and -flowering vines. The scenery is beautiful and full of variations. Every -turn of the tortuous track reveals a new scene of beauty, and there are -few railway journeys in the world that will afford a greater variety of -views than this overland route to Buenos Aires. The mountains grow from -grand to grander, as if Ossa had been piled upon Pelion. When sunlight -and shadow play upon the rock the contrasts are dazzling and the senses -gladdened. There is a prodigality of colours such as even the Yosemite, -the Grand Cañon or the Dolomites do not surpass. Guardia Viega, the -“old guard,” is one of the stations, and is so named because it was for -two centuries a guard station on the Antiguo Camino, or ancient road -between the two republics. The vegetation becomes scanter as the altitude -increases, but, scant as it is, it is a pleasing change to the traveller -coming from the other direction. Juncal, which for several years was the -terminus, is passed. One of the most beautiful views afforded is that of -the narrow gorge, known as the Salto del Soldado, the Soldier’s Leap, -through which the tempestuous waters of the river foam and toss. There -is a tradition connected with this strange freak of nature of which the -Chileans are proud. During the war of independence it is said that a -Chilean pursued by the enemy, leaped across this chasm and saved his -life. Owing to the width it is an almost impossible tale to believe. - -[Illustration: THE SALTO DEL SOLDADO.] - -Just beyond Juncal is a beautiful little lake, which is as opalescent and -translucent as any of the lakes of Switzerland, and several thousand feet -higher. It is the Lago del Inca, the Lake of the Incas. Pure as crystal, -and clear as an unclouded sky, this little body of water rests tranquilly -amidst as harsh and severe a setting as one could well find. Masses of -rock seem poised on ledges ready to project themselves down into valleys -with destruction in their path. The mad gods who formed these eternal -peaks must have paused for a moment in their work in order to add this -one touch of real beauty to the landscape. - -Here one may also see the huge condors, flying at such heights that they -look no larger than a swallow. The glass will sometimes reveal others -that can scarcely be distinguished with the naked eye. They sail and -circle around in the rarefied air with scarcely a flap of the wing. In -the winter time the condor may be found near the coast, but in summer -they always return to the highest Andean peaks, where they rear their -young. The eggs are deposited in lofty clefts or caverns, where no form -of animal life exists that might destroy the young birds. A young condor -during the first year clings to the parent bird, for its body is too -big for its wings. This royal bird figures on the national escutcheon of -Chile as an emblem of strength and independence. The Indians surround it -with many legends, and some of them believe that the souls of the lost -enter the bodies of the condor and are thus poised between heaven and -earth, so as to see the glories of both and be able to enjoy neither, -like the doom of Tantalus. - -At last Caracoles, the name given to the little station at the Chilean -end of the international railroad, is reached, at an elevation of a -little more than ten thousand feet above sea level. The tunnel is just -about the same length as the altitude, for it is ten thousand three -hundred and eighty-five feet from entrance to exit. Near the centre of -this hole bored through the Andean rock the international boundary is -passed, and, when the train emerges at Las Cuevas, the other terminus, -the traveller catches his first glimpse of Argentina. It is a scene of -vast desolation that meets his gaze. It is a picture of solitude, with -nothing to relieve it in the way of vegetation. The vivid colourings of -the stratas of rock and the white summits of the many peaks in sight, -however, make it a scene of wild glory that uplifts the soul at the -majesty of nature. One stands aghast at the marvellous richness of -colouring that is revealed on every hand. - -[Illustration: REFUGE HOUSE ALONG THE OLD INCA TRAIL.] - -The traveller may be thankful that he has not been obliged to traverse -this pass in the winter time. Nothing can surpass these vast ridges -clad in their winter dress. White and cold, they form a veritable -valley of desolation. It is the cold of death, the white mantle of -annihilation—something that the brain can scarcely compass. The feeling -of solitude in the midst of the whiteness everywhere almost overwhelms -the traveller with despair. In places the snow is frequently as much as -fifteen feet in depth, deep enough to bury a horse and rider. Sudden -storms are likely to overtake the traveller, and he would be snowed in in -one of the _casuchas_. These are shelters that were built at intervals -along the pass for the protection of travellers. They are dome-shaped -structures which remind one of lime-kilns. They have a small door, but -no windows, and will accommodate as many as twenty people at a time. The -interior has a brick floor and is absolutely bare. Although protected -from the weather, woe be to the traveller obliged to spend a day or two -there with a group of _arrieros_, for filth is everywhere and the stench -is almost overpowering. - -Although fewer travellers ventured over this pass in the midst of winter, -the mail service continued uninterruptedly, and there was seldom a -day that some one did not attempt the crossing. A _capitas_, who was -generally a man with a little capital, would undertake to carry the -mails or other freight over the pass at a fixed price. He would then -engage his force of porters as cheaply as possible, agreeing to furnish -them with board and lodging so long as they remained with him. As time -was not specified in the mail contract, if a traveller came along the -_capitas_ would dump the mails and carry his baggage at an exorbitant -price. Everything was done up in packages weighing about sixty pounds. -Some of the porters would even undertake to carry two of these—a terrible -strain on a rough road. It is little wonder that this and unrestrained -dissipation usually gave these men a short life. Sometimes they slid -over a precipice, or were hurled to their doom by a falling stone. There -are many graves of those who met an untimely end along this route, and -it seems almost marvellous that they are not more numerous. After the -highest point was passed the porters would toboggan down the slopes, -seated on a sheepskin and guiding themselves with pointed staffs. In -this way the descent was quickly accomplished. The packages were simply -tumbled down, and oftentimes reached the bottom in a very dilapidated -condition. - -The Trasandino Argentino Railway threads its way out through the valley -of the Uspallata, and follows a small stream which gradually becomes -larger as little rivulets of melted snow join it. It soon becomes more of -a stream, and is given the name of Rio (river) Mendoza. At a distance of -less than a dozen miles the station called Puente del Inca is reached, -which is so named because of a natural bridge of stratified rock at -that place, which is very similar to the Natural Bridge of Virginia. -Underneath it bubble up boiling waters which are claimed to have great -medicinal value. It is said that the Incas in pre-Spanish times knew of -the value of these waters, and their chiefs came here to receive the -benefits of its curative waters. Near here one catches a glimpse of a -marvellous freak of nature, called the Cerro de los Penitentes, the -Ridge of the Penitents. The scattered rocky peaks and points standing -up through the sloping debris of the ascent, with their remarkable -imitations of toiling wayfarers, must have greatly impressed the Spanish -pioneers when they first came upon this scene. - -The route continues a picture of desolation, caused by volcanic upheavals -and the erosion of countless ages. The Mendoza River, coloured by the -various metals of the rocks over which it pours, tumbles along near the -railway as both follow one pass after another. Las Vacas, Uspallata, La -Invernada and other small stations are passed. About thirty miles before -Mendoza is reached a change begins, and poplar and larch trees, alfalfa -fields and the grape enliven the scene. Irrigation is utilized and the -melted snows cause the land to bloom with remarkable fertility. At last -the train runs into the creditable station of Mendoza, and the second -stage in the transcontinental journey is ended. - -[Illustration: THE CHRIST OF THE ANDES.] - -At Mendoza a change is made to the broad gauge trains of the Buenos -Aires and Pacific Railway, which will carry the traveller over the -remaining leagues of the journey. After leaving the irrigated lands of -this neighbourhood, another stretch of miserable scrub land is crossed -before the level pampas are entered. From there to Buenos Aires the -route is over as level land as is to be found on the earth’s surface. -Hour after hour the train rolls over these pampas, past small towns and -through great stretches of grain and alfalfa. At last, after about a day -and a half’s journey, the train enters the suburbs of Buenos Aires, and -finally, with a shrill shriek, rolls into the Retiro Station, which is -the end of the trip. - -Grand and wonderful as is the ride through and across the Andes by -railroad, the traveller has missed one of the most striking features of -these solitudes. Almost immediately over the tunnel, and nearly three -thousand feet higher, stands the famous statue, known as the Christ of -the Andes. This statue was erected in 1904 as a symbol of perpetual -peace between the two neighbouring nations. It was cast in bronze from -the cannon of the two nations, which had been purchased through fear of -impending war. Its location is on the new international boundary line -that had just been established by arbitration. Near it is a sign with the -words “CHILE” on one side, and “ARGENTINA” on the other side. - -The figure of Christ is twenty-six feet in height. In one hand it holds -the emblem of the cross, while the other is extended in a blessing, and -as if uttering the one magic word “Peace.” On one side is a tablet with -the inscription: “Sooner shall these mountains crumble into dust than the -people of Argentina and Chile break the peace to which they have pledged -themselves at the feet of Christ the Redeemer.” On another side is the -inscription: - - “He is our Peace - Who hath made both One.” - -The Cumbre, as this ridge is called, is the highest point on the old -trail. Travellers and baggage were transported over it by mule-back or in -carriages, if the almost springless vehicles could be called by such a -name, during the summer. It is a very zigzag trail up which the carriages -wound, where as many as twenty twists and turns can be counted. On the -downward trip the horses ran and jumped, until the timorous traveller -began to have visions of disaster. Accidents were rare, however, and -seldom was a vehicle overturned. Corners were turned on two wheels, -with only a few inches between the outside wheels and the edge of the -precipice. - - “The clouds have voices, and the rivers pour - Their floods in thunder down to ocean’s floor;— - The hills alone mysterious silence keep.” - -One of the most striking aspects which impress the traveller crossing -the Andes is the terribly bleak and desolate outlook that they present. -Blades of grass here and there, or perhaps a few stunted shrubs, are -the only signs of vegetation, for of trees there are none. There seems -to be no tree line, as in most mountains. A huge expanse of yellow sand -and stone spreads out everywhere with peaks rising up on every side in -clearly defined and rugged stratification, whose many-coloured hues are -almost bewildering to the eye. Great torrents flow down the middle of the -valleys, the water being of a dull brackish hue. The fording of these -streams is a very dangerous task for the explorer, as the torrents are -exceedingly rapid and full of deep, treacherous holes. - -[Illustration: THE SOLITUDE OF THE ANDES.] - -On either side rise high peaks, and the traveller is always interested in -knowing the names of these peaks. If he asks the average native which is -Aconcagua, or which Tupungato, he is likely to be misinformed. There is -to the inexperienced mountain traveller a disappointment when he finally -has one of these lofty peaks pointed out, and which he knows to be above -twenty thousand feet in height, because he has expected, perhaps, to see -an isolated peak rearing its snowy head to the sky for a distance of four -miles or more above the level on which he stands. The traveller forgets -that he himself is above the sea level almost half that distance, before -he gains a good clear view of the higher peak. It is well established -that Aconcagua is the loftiest peak of the Andes, but it is a little -uncertain whether Tupungato or the Mercedario is the second in height. - -Ten thousand miles of majestic mountains stretch from Alaska to Cape -Horn—the grandest range of mountains that can be found on the earth’s -surface. Throughout this series of connected mountains, from the wilds -of Alaska to those of Patagonia, and including the tropical plateaus -of Ecuador, there are many peaks that pierce the ethereal blue of the -skies. These are generally termed the Sierras, which is the Spanish word -for “saw,” and the name is applied to mountains because of the fancied -resemblance of their outlines to that of the carpenter’s tool. A dim -knowledge of the majesty of mountains is obtained from the smaller ranges -of North America, such as the Appalachian Mountains, but Mt. McKinley, -highest of North American mountains, must yield in majesty to a number of -peaks in the lofty Andean range of mountains. - -The lure of altitude seems to have caught at the spirit of man from early -times, and led him struggling up almost unscalable peaks. In recent years -the fascination of mountain climbing has become the romance of geography. -During the last half century daring explorers have conquered more -mountains, and gathered more geological data, than in all the previous -centuries. Many lives have been lost by devotees of this science, while -pitting skill and strength against nature and her secrets. It has not -been long since the elevations of the southern half of this continent -were an unknown land; some lofty peaks were unexplored and unnamed, and -only dim suggestions of their majesty and splendour had reached the -scientific world, but they now hold an interest second to none. The -loftiest peaks in the world, excepting only the Himalayas, are found -along the western coast of South America. They are in truth and reality -the mountain monarchs of the western world. In travelling along the west -coast of South America by steamer the serrated backbone of the continent -is ever in sight, but its hazy outlines are at such a distance that they -give but a dim idea of their real height from the steamer. - -It remained for European mountain climbers, men who received their -schooling in the Alps, to first conquer these lofty giants of nature. -Chimborazo (20,498 ft.), the “white watcher of the western seas,” was -the first to yield its topmost secrets to Edward Whymper, who fought his -way up the rugged snow-clad slopes to the very top. Next he conquered -Cotopaxi (19,615 ft.), and has given this volcano the following -recommendation: “Cotopaxi is an ideal volcano. It comports itself, -volcanically speaking, in a regular and well-behaved manner. It is not -one of the provoking sort—exploding in paroxysms and going to sleep -directly afterwards. It is in a state of perpetual activity, and has been -so ever since it had a place in history.” Could any volcano in the world -show a stronger recommendation? It is certainly an exemplary exponent of -the volcanic art. The explorer spent a night on the very edge of the -crater, peering into the cavernous recesses that belched forth fire and -smoke, and must have been under its hypnotic influence when inditing the -above. - -Going farther down the coast one reaches the mighty peaks of Peru and -Bolivia. An American woman, Miss Annie S. Peck, has scaled Mt. Huascaran -(22,051 ft.), and holds the unique record of having climbed higher than -any other woman. It was an achievement that deservedly brought her great -honour. Mt. Illimani (21,490 ft.) is the loftiest peak in Bolivia. It -means “bright condor,” according to the generally accepted derivation. -Its frozen crest was conquered by an Englishman, Sir Martin Conway, and -the Union Jack was planted on the very summit. This mountain, and its -neighbour, Mt. Sorata (21,490 ft.), were worshipped as gods by the Incas. -A band of superstitious natives, on learning his intention to invade the -sanctuary of their god, who dwelt on Illimani, made an attempt to murder -him, but did not succeed in finding the party. Their tradition asserts -that a great cross of gold was planted by the god on the summit, and they -were afraid these strangers would carry it away. At the foot of these -mountains lies Lake Titicaca, the sacred lake of the Incas. - -The hardships endured on these climbs are almost indescribable. The -intense cold and the rarefied air almost overcome the reserve vitality. -The weakening effect of diminished atmospheric pressure is so enervating -that exertion can only be made a few steps at a time. Headache, nausea -and blood running from the nose and ears are the more violent effects. -It is almost impossible to keep the feet from being frost-bitten, and -they have to be rubbed occasionally to restore circulation. Says Mr. -Conway: “I asked myself more than once whether the game was worth the -candle, for there was something so cold and unsympathetic about the -gloom and the ice and the bare rocks, that for a time it weighed like a -nightmare upon my spirits.” The exhaustion is so great that it is almost -impossible to enjoy the triumph of success. Speaking of this the same -explorer says: “The moment was one of satisfaction, in that our toil -ceased; but we had no sense of triumph, nor was there breath enough left -in any of us for an exclamation of joy in the hour of victory. Nothing -was said or done for several minutes; we just sat down and rested.” As -compensations, however, there are frequently magnificent cloud effects. -Out of the white sea of snow there mount, under the uplift of hot air -currents, great towers of cloud, which rise high into the air like the -smoke-discharge from a volcano. Huge caves and cloud avenues are formed, -wherein dark-blue shadows gather, with occasionally a high mountain top -peeping forth like the foundation stone of a gigantic cloud castle. Then -one’s vision is so broadened that he seems to stand on the very top of -the world itself. - -In “Argentina and Her People of To-day,” the writer has given an account -of an ascent of Aconcagua by Mr. E. A. Fitzgerald’s party, and in this -work some mention will be made of the conquest of Tupungato by the same -party. This mountain can be seen clearly outlined against the sky from -the Pass of the Cumbre, although it is distant fully thirty miles. The -route lies down through great masses of fallen rock, the stones being on -an average twice the size of a man’s head. The stones are hard and unworn -by the forces of nature, presenting a surface of sharp, jagged edges. It -is an extremely difficult pass to traverse because of these rocks and -danger of slipping, which in many cases would hurl the traveller many -hundreds of feet below. Sudden and violent storms also rage around this -mountain, which renders the work of climbing still more difficult and -dangerous. - -The distances, as in almost all mountain climbing, are very deceiving, -and what oftentimes seems to be but the work of an hour may require many -hours to accomplish. Terrific wind storms at times spring up, against -which it is almost impossible for a man to stand, and this also adds to -the dangers because of rocks which are sometimes hurled down the mountain -sides. As the altitude increases the rarity of the atmosphere and the -consequently intense cold render progress almost painful. It is necessary -for the mountain climber to stop every few minutes to rest, as the cold -and the wind and rare atmosphere all combine to exhaust the vitality. -Three times Mr. Fitzgerald’s party attempted the ascent of Tupungato, -and as many times were they compelled to abandon it. Bleeding at the -nose, frozen extremities and weakness of the heart attacked the various -members of the party, and compelled them to descend to lower altitudes. -A fourth attempt, however, was more successful. Each failure had taught -something, so that each effort was made under slightly better conditions -and with better equipment. - -Here is the description by Mr. Vines, as it appears in “The Highest -Andes:” “I was on the summit of Tupungato at last, and all my efforts and -disappointments were more than repaid. I stood on a great mound in shape -like a pyramid, with a blunted top some two yards wide rising several -hundred feet above the general surface of the dome. In the whole expanse -of sky around over ocean and land I could not discern a single cloud. -Only in the direction of the Pacific a haze hung over the mountains. In -the brilliant air the spectacle that lay before us was one of vast extent -and grandeur. Range upon range of mountains stretched away towards the -great plain of Santiago, forty miles to the west. Far away, beyond the -hills that almost seemed to lie at our feet, stretched the great waters -of the Pacific, a tract of blue ocean sparkling to the horizon, and -clearly visible, although the distance from Tupungato to the seacoast is -not less than one hundred and thirty miles. - -“The view from the top of Tupungato is in many ways even finer than that -obtained from Aconcagua. The expanse of ocean visible toward the west is -less vast, but there is ample compensation in the outlook over the great -unknown plain on the eastern side. The Pampas of Argentina stretch almost -without a break from our very feet to the South Atlantic Ocean. The Andes -seem to rise up from Santiago in ever ascending gradations, until at -last they culminate in the immense mass of Tupungato; behind, they fall -brokenly away; the mountains disappear; and a country almost fen-like in -its monotonous flatness succeeds. The only break on the Argentine side is -that of the Sierra de la Plata, not many more than twenty miles to the -northeast. On the Chilean side a score of dark peaks rear their heads, -a sinister array of precipitous impossibilities from which any climber -would turn away in despair. To the north and to the south the same great -barriers arise. Looking along this distinct and sharp edged chain to -the north and south it was hard to understand how any frontier question -between the republics could come about. - -“That Aconcagua was a high mountain we well knew. We had all suffered -from its height, but, when near at hand, it was quite impossible to -realize the vastness of its proportions. Not so from where we now stood -on a pinnacle sixty miles away. I had long known it was over four -thousand feet higher than any mountain within thirty miles of it, but -it looked ten thousand feet higher as it reared its immense head and -shoulders from amongst its brothers, like some huge rock projecting out -of the waves of the sea. It stood before me without rival, even the great -ridges of Juncal did not challenge it, although they were almost thirty -miles nearer. Behind Aconcagua, but almost forty miles farther, and too -far off for comparison, I could see the white slopes of Mercaderio.” - -The guanaco and llama are animals which are peculiar to the Andean -regions. The former is especially plentiful in Patagonia and the southern -Andean ranges, and many of them are found in Southern Chile. To the -natives it means food, garments and tents, so that it is hunted both for -its meat and skin. Without the guanaco the question of existence would be -a difficult one for those people to solve. The vicuña, which is found in -Northern Chile and Bolivia, is of the same family but smaller and more -beautiful. Its fur is very valuable and this animal is becoming scarce. -The alpaca is still smaller but flocks of this animal are maintained as -we herd sheep. The wool is almost as fine and soft as silk, and, after a -year’s growth, becomes almost a foot long. - -Of this animal family, which is closely allied to the camel, the most -important is the llama. To one who has never seen the llama, except in -a menagerie or “zoo,” its real usefulness is not apparent. Before the -arrival of the Spaniards on the west coast this gentle animal was the -only beast of burden known to the Inca races. Thousands upon thousands -of these American camels were used by the natives in transportation on -the plateaus and across the lofty mountains. Like the camel it can go -for days without food or drink. Even to-day, with the introduction of -the horse and mule, there are probably as many or more llamas in use -than when Pizarro first landed on the shores of South America. It is to -the Andean native what the reindeer is to the Lapp—milk and flesh for -food, skin for garments, hair for cloth, sinews for thread, etc. Some are -black, with pretty little white kids, while others are almost white and -have black little llamas following them. - -The llama is one of the proudest animals in the world. No matter where -you see this aristocrat of quadrupeds he holds his head high up in the -air, and looks out upon the earth as though he owned it. Unlike the -camel the llama never sulks, although sometimes stubborn. I have seen -camels grunt and groan as the loads were placed on their backs. They will -sometimes snap viciously at whoever passes near, and at other times tears -will flow down a camel’s cheeks like a baby’s, so it is said. The llama -always carries his burden with a proud air, scanning the landscape as -he goes, and pricking up his ears with interest at every new or strange -thing. He will carry a load of just so much, about one hundred pounds. If -a greater load is strapped on his back than he is accustomed to carry, -the llama will neither grunt nor groan, but he calmly kneels down and -will not move until the burden is lightened. - -The llamas are the most common burden-bearing animals in Bolivia and -on the high plateaus of Peru to-day. They will also be found in the -extreme northern part of Chile on the Andean slopes. They form the great -freight-carriers in that portion of the Andes, but cannot be worked -successfully at a lower altitude than two thousand feet. They are never -seen as near the coast as Lima, the Peruvian capital. One will see llama -trains every day in La Paz, or the other towns of Bolivia, and herds of -these animals feeding on the plains around Lake Titicaca are a common -sight. They are principally used in the carrying of ore from the mines to -the smelters or nearest railway station. These little animals, which are -said to have the head of a camel, the body of a sheep and the legs of a -deer, are only about four and one-half feet high and are really beautiful -creatures. They are gentle when well treated, and become very fond of -their masters. The Indians pet them and talk to them much as though they -were human beings. They sometimes dye the wool on the backs in different -colours, and tie bright-coloured ribbons through holes which they make -in the llamas’ ears. The wool of the llama is much coarser than that of -sheep, but one can see the Indian women spinning this wool into threads, -and then weaving it into cloth in many places. It can easily be used in -the coarse garments worn by these people. If offended the llama has a -curious habit of spitting on the offender, which is rather disagreeable, -as I know from experience. As the llama is a cud-chewing animal it seems -to have this material always ready for such occasions. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -A LABORATORY OF NATURE - - -The great desert of Tarapacá, which stretches along the coast of Chile -for hundreds of miles, has proven to be the most valuable of its entire -possessions. And yet it is as barren a desert as one could find on -the surface of the globe. Darwin thus describes a part of it that he -travelled over: “A complete and utter desert. The road was strewn with -the bones and dried skins of the many beasts of burden which had perished -on it from fatigue. Excepting the vulture which preys on the carcasses, I -saw neither bird, quadruped, reptile, nor insect. On the coast mountains -at the height of about two thousand feet, where during the season the -clouds generally hang, a very few cacti were growing in the clefts of the -rock, and the loose sand was strewn over with a lichen which grows quite -unattached. In some parts it was of sufficient quantity to tinge the -sand, as seen from a distance, of a pale yellowish colour.” It is this -dry climate that has made possible the existence of the great nitrate -deposits along this coast. Rainfall, even in moderate quantities, would -dissolve the nitrate. These deposits lie as a rule just within the coast -range of mountains. - -Many theories have been advanced as to the cause of this chemical -composition. The most ingenious one, perhaps, is that nitric acid is -formed by a flash of lightning passing through a moist atmosphere, and -electrical storms are very common in the Cordilleras. The other is that -this coast was originally submerged in the ocean, and was gradually -upheaved. This would leave a line of lagoons and marshes, in which -seaweed and other plants flourished. As the lagoons successively dried -up, the plants would be decomposed and nitric acid and iodine formed. -This, united in combination with the gypsum-yielding soda found there, -formed nitrate of soda. At any rate, Nature, by some mysterious process, -has formed a chemical combination which has been of inestimable value to -the world in general. - -This desert coast is not all productive of nitrate. Some sections are -valueless, and some produce other chemical products. One can take -a narrow-gauge train at Antofagasta and travel inland for hundreds -of miles across the Andes and into the plateaus of Bolivia, and the -entire distance is almost as void of green as the great Sahara Desert. -Occasionally there is a scrubby tree which looks forlorn in its -loneliness. There are salt plains which reach to the hills on either -side. In one place there is a great salt field that is estimated to cover -more than eighty thousand acres. This produces almost pure chloride of -sodium in crystallized form. The thickness of the salt layer is not -known, but some wells are as much as eighty feet deep and the bottom of -the deposit has not been reached. It is a good quality of salt. There are -borax lakes along the route, where enough borax can be secured to supply -the entire world. But it is from the beds of nitrate of soda that the -greatest wealth of this region is secured. To it is due the prosperity of -all the ports from Pisagua to Taltal. - -This chemical product, which we call Chilean saltpetre, and which is -locally known as _salitre_, is found over hundreds of square miles of -territory. The only visible boundaries between the different owners are -marked by white posts at the corners of the different properties. With -this exception there are no marks whatever on the landscape, and no signs -of life except the factories, known as _oficinas_, the numerous homes of -the employees made of corrugated iron, and the workmen who are engaged -in blasting and hauling away this mineral. The nitrate beds follow the -coast line at a distance of from fifteen to a hundred miles from the -sea, generally at an elevation of from four thousand to five thousand -feet, and in deposits which vary from one to four miles in width. They -reach from near Antofagasta to a point some distance north of Iquique. -In some places the deposits play out, but they reappear again a little -farther on. The fields that have been exploited look as though they had -been ploughed over by gigantic ploughs, for immense clods are scattered -here and there wherever the work has been carried on. On either side of -this strip there is simply a mass of sand and rock, which extends from -the sea to the topmost peaks of the Andes. There is, however, a wonderful -colouring on the slopes of the mountains, and one will see many tints of -violet, green, lemon and gray within the horizon. - -Nitrate of soda is seldom found pure, and the nitrate rock, called -_caliche_, will vary from ten to sixty per cent. of the pure mineral. In -some fields it is found on the top of the soil, and in others it is as -much as forty feet beneath the surface, with the strata of salt rock on -the top of it. It varies considerably in composition. Holes are dug or -drilled down through the _caliche_ until a bed of gravelly material is -reached, into which charges of dynamite or blasting powder are placed, -and the nitrate rock is thus loosened up. When first exposed the nitrate -is sometimes as soft as cheese, but it hardens on contact with the air. -The lumps thus broken are then dug out with picks or crowbars and hauled -in mule-carts to the _oficinas_. - -There are many of these mills throughout the nitrate fields, and they -are busy places. The lumps are first crushed, and are then lifted by -elevators and placed in huge tanks filled with sea water. These tanks are -encircled by coils of steam pipes, which heat the water that is poured in -with the rock to any desired temperature. Nitrate is soluble in water, -and this purifying process rests upon the fact of its greater solubility -in water heated to the boiling point, than the other salts with which it -is associated. When the water has become supersaturated in the boiling -tanks, the nitrate of soda in solution is drawn into shallow vats which -are exposed to the air. At this state it looks like pale maple molasses. -As it cools, the nitrate of soda crystallizes in the vats, together with -a little common salt and a small amount of other impurities, and the -sides become covered with white sparkling crystals like alabaster. These -crystals are then shovelled upon drying boards and exposed to the sun for -a time, after which they are graded and put into bags weighing a little -over a hundred pounds each. This product, which is ninety-six per cent. -chemically pure nitrate of soda, is then transported to the seacoast, -from whence it is shipped to Europe or the United States, the latter -country receiving about one-fifth of the whole. - -Another product of these nitrate beds is iodine, which remains in the -liquid after the removal of the nitrate. This liquid is poured into -smaller pans, and is chemically treated until the iodine is precipitated -in the form of a black powder. This is then heated in a retort which -changes it to a vapour, and it is again condensed into beautiful violet -crystals. The iodine is packed in small casks which are shipped with -bullion and other valuables, for each cask is worth several hundred -dollars. As the consumption of iodine is not very large the _oficinas_ -refine only a part of the iodine in order to keep up the price. - -More than two million tons of nitrate of soda were shipped from Chile -last year, which is the greatest amount that has ever been produced. -It has been found especially valuable for increasing the growth of the -sugar beets in Europe, as it seems to provide the soil with the essential -elements for their growth. The consumption in the United States is -increasing rapidly, and it is looked upon as the best fertilizer provided -by nature. According to horticultural authorities it has been found -especially efficacious in stimulating the growth of vegetables, such -as cabbages, onions, carrots, beets, etc., and for field crops of many -kinds. It is said that even the Incas of Peru were acquainted with its -value as a fertilizer. It is also extensively used in the manufacture -of gunpowders and other high explosives, which in itself makes a -considerable demand. - -The discovery of the value of nitrate as a fertilizer was by accident. -A poor Scotchman, who lived near where Iquique now stands, had a small -garden which he cultivated with great care. One day he noticed that a -part of his garden, which had been banked up with soil containing this -mysterious white substance, flourished much more than the rest. This -led to experiments and some of this soil was sent back to Scotland. The -success of the experiments that followed gradually led to the development -of the present industry, but the discoverer died as poor as he was born. -The first nitrate works were established at Noria in 1826. It was not -until after the war between Chile and Peru that the industry reached -great proportions. Then an Englishman by the name of North began its -development and soon afterwards became known as the “nitrate king.” -Other nitrate princes rose, and thrived like the bonanza mining kings -of Mexico and Peru in their best days. Englishmen became peers of that -country through the influence of colossal fortunes paved with saltpetre. -In its raw state the nitrate contains some properties injurious to plant -life, but these are removed. As this process requires the latest modern -machinery to do the work economically, the business has drifted into the -hands of big combinations of capital. - -As the government of Chile exacts an export tax on every sack of nitrate -of soda exported, the revenue from this source is enormous and pays more -than two-thirds of the expenses of that extravagant government. Chile -owns practically all the nitrate of soda in the world. Small quantities -have been found elsewhere, but in this region are the only deposits -that can be operated at a profit. Most of the nitrate fields at one -time belonged to Peru, but Chile appropriated them as indemnity, after -a disastrous war was waged between the two countries in 1880, in which -Chile was victorious. You can not meet a Peruvian anywhere to-day who -does not swear vengeance against Chile, for thus robbing his country of -her greatest source of wealth. - -[Illustration: LOADING NITRATE.] - -English capital has developed this great industry in Chile, and no less -than one hundred million dollars in British sovereigns have been invested -in these dreary wastes. Almost one hundred million dollars’ worth of this -_salitre_ has been exported in a single year. The ports are at all times -filled with vessels which have brought coal and merchandise, and are -awaiting a load of nitrate. It is seldom that the Stars and Stripes are -seen floating from a masthead, but it is a welcome sight to an American. -The profits for a few years were so great that an overdevelopment -followed, and the price greatly dropped. Then a trust agreement was, -arrived at limiting the output, but even that was not a success and the -production is again unlimited. The population of the nitrate district is -a cosmopolitan one, and represents almost every nation on the face of the -earth. It gives employment to many thousands of persons. A homesick and -stranded American is not an uncommon sight. - -It is estimated that at the present rate of mining the known fields of -nitrate of soda in Chile will be exhausted in fifty years, or less. -The official board of engineers has recently reported to the Chilean -government that there are in sight four and a half million quintals -(220.4 lbs.) of nitrate in the deposits of the country. A previous -estimate had fixed the visible quantity at less than half that amount. It -is doubtful whether either of those estimates is very reliable. At any -rate the government and owners of the _oficinas_ are pushing the sales -in every way, and exploiting the use and value of nitrate as though it -was inexhaustible. It is possible that similar deposits may be found on -the Sahara Desert, or some of our own desert lands where similar climatic -and atmospheric conditions exist. The value of nitrate lands in Chile has -risen rapidly in recent years, and nearly all the undeveloped fields are -now owned by the Chilean government, which auctions them off as the need -for money arises. - -The nitrate industry has very naturally overshadowed all other mining -enterprises in Chile, and especially in the northern section. And yet -there are many more mining industries even in that part of the republic. -The Spaniards cared for nothing but gold and silver and set thousands -of Indians at work in the mines at Tucapel, Valdivia, and Quillota. -The Malga Malga mines, near the latter town, and the Madre de Dios -(mother of God) mines, near Mariguina, were the best producers of the -yellow metal. The district around Taltal also produced gold and silver. -By the primitive processes of the Spaniards only a portion of the ore -was extracted. The refuse has since been refined, and even houses have -been torn down that had been constructed of the by-products of the old -amalgamation process. Some of this refuse contained as much as sixty -ounces of pure silver to the ton. The total production of silver and gold -to-day is not great when compared with the other gold-producing nations. -Among the best mines now being worked are the Caracoles silver mines, -which are inland from Antofagasta a little over one hundred miles, and -the Inca Caracoles mines, which are fifty miles further inland. The total -output of these mines during the years they have been worked reaches -big figures, but the balmiest days have passed. Some of the workings -have reached a depth of twenty-five hundred feet. The ores are generally -chlorides or iodides, with mixtures of sulphides, but pockets of almost -pure silver are occasionally found. - -Copper production is next in value after nitrate. There are smelting -plants at Caldera, Cerro Blanco, Jarilla, Antofagasta, and other places. -Central Chile is the copper country, although Lota is one of the greatest -producers. The surface oftentimes shows the green outcroppings of the -copper deposits. The superior attraction of the nitrate fields has at -times caused a scarcity of labour there so that the development has been -greatly hampered. Nevertheless the copper industry has been a fairly -profitable and steady one. The annual output ranges from thirty-five -thousand to forty thousand tons, but it is doubtless capable of -considerable further development, with the aid of more modern methods and -the installation of the latest machinery. - -Iron ore has been found in only small quantities. Chile has the best -coal mines in South America, which, in 1909, produced a little less -than a million tons, not quite half of the consumption. Coal was first -discovered at Lota more than a century ago, but the deposits were not -worked until a half-century later. The only mines now being worked are in -the provinces of Concepción and Arauco. As small veins have been found at -Punta Arenas, it may be that the seams of coal run all the way between -those points. It is rather an inferior quality of bituminous coal. More -than a million tons are imported yearly, of which a little more than -one-half comes from England and the balance from Australia. The shipping -rate is very low as the boats come after cargoes of nitrate and will -carry coal at a very cheap rate rather than be obliged to make the long -outward journey in ballast. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -THE PEOPLE - - -The people of Chile are descendants of Spaniards and native races. About -one-third of the entire population are pure white. The Spaniards who -came here were Basques and Aragonese—a hardy and industrious people who -made thrifty farmers and merchants. They are among the best class of -Spaniards, for they are much more energetic and have less of the Moorish -admixture than those from Southern Spain. These people were not a mere -army of occupation, but they set about developing the real resources of -the country. The native element too were probably the hardiest of any -of the native races of South America. Notwithstanding the difference -in numbers, the Creoles, the name given to the descendants of Spanish -immigrants, rule the country absolutely and own the most of the property. -In few countries have the landed aristocracy exercised such absolute -power as in this narrow and elongated republic. The half-breeds form the -labouring class of Chile, and one will find those two classes all over -the republic, with the lines between the two strongly marked. There is no -clearly defined, well-developed middle class. - -The Chileans delight to call themselves the “English of the Pacific,” -or the “Yankees of South America.” In neither case is the comparison a -perfect one, although they are probably the hardest working race on that -continent. The Chileno is very proud of the progress that his country has -made, and this pride sometimes carries him to peculiar extremes. It at -least causes the average Chileno to become more or less of a braggart. -He is inclined to take all the credit for this advancement to himself, -when, in fact, much of it has been due to the English and German elements -in the country. His ideals of life, however, are not German or English, -but rather French, with its love of polished surface and general dislike -for disagreeable truths. Peru has retained more of the old culture and -grace of the Spanish cavalier than Chile, but the latter is far more -robust. The climate of Chile is remarkably healthful, and it has produced -a vigorous race. This is a general truth, whether applied to the race -amalgamated with the virile Araucanian of the south, or to the mixture -with the more delicate and refined descendant of the Inca at the north. -The ordinary _roto_ is tough and wiry, and capable of prolonged fatigue -on the poorest and simplest of food. - -The creoles have inherited all the traditions of the original -_conquistadores_—love, sentiment and passion, and the habit of intrigue. -It is not uncommon to see in a family the natural children of one or -the other parent, generally of the father, living side by side with the -legitimate children. The percentage of illegitimacy is very large, as -shown by the government statistics, for they do not attempt to cover up -this flagrant fault. The café and club life of the cities appeals to the -Chileans, and they have acquired a love of alcoholic stimulants. The -light wines, with which most of the people of Spanish blood are content, -do not satisfy, but they must have the stronger alcoholic beverages. As a -result there is much drunkenness in Chile, more than in the neighbouring -republics. It is an unfortunate fact, but true, as all who have made a -study of the subject agree. The first establishment in a new community -is generally a factory for the production of _aguardiente_, brandy made -from sugar cane, wheat or some vegetable. Some of it is as bad and -ruinous to the health as it is cheap. - -Chile has perhaps suffered in recent years from too great prosperity. -Like the child born with a silver spoon in its mouth, this country -found itself with seemingly inexhaustible treasure within its borders. -Its training under the autocracy of Spain was not a good education in -representative and democratic government. Then came the wealth of the -nitrate fields, after a successful war with Peru. The government coffers -were filled to overflowing with practically no effort on the part of -the government, and little tax contributed by the average citizens. As -a result, the habit of office holding and the desire for sinecures have -been a bad thing for the country. The enormous revenue has been used -up, and there is little to show for much of it. In public offices the -officials are oftentimes almost tumbling over each other, and everything -is checked and counter checked over and over again. Positions are created -and no equipment for carrying out the work provided. So long as the -government does not complain the appointee does not, and many salaries -of that kind are paid year after year for services unrendered. I verily -believe that the official work of the government could be carried on with -less than one-half the force employed. But the members of Congress have -friends, or sons of friends, who must be provided for, and the government -revenues are thus subject to a constant drain. - -Politics is the most genteel occupation in Chile to-day, for the army, -navy and church, formerly so popular with the Spaniards, no longer -appeal to the Chileno of good and influential family. A government -appointment means easy or no work, fair pay, and less danger than martial -occupations, where the call to arms might come at any time. It is not -because of lack of courage, for no braver or more courageous people can -be found in South America than these same Chileans, who sit in the cafés -and drink their spirits or puff tobacco wrapped in thin paper. With the -Chilean a valiant spirit covers a multitude of sins. His greatest boast -is the courage of his race. He is willing to make almost any kind of a -personal sacrifice for his country, if the occasion demands, but to pay -taxes is a hardship. - -The Chileans resemble very much the Irish in some of their -characteristics. One of these is their love of fighting, and the Chileans -have made about the best soldiers of any of the South American people. -They have an intense spirit and patriotism, which has shown itself in -their wars and revolutions. In addition to the Spanish blood a large -percentage have more or less of the blood of the Araucanian Indians, -who were the most stubborn race to conquer of any that the Spaniards -encountered in South America. As soldiers the Chileans have no sense of -mercy, and this characteristic has shown itself in all of their wars. -They are impetuous, impulsive, passionate and generous, but have very -little self-control. Many of them fight simply for the love of fighting, -just as do many of the Irish, who seem to scrap simply for the sake of -scrapping. - -The Chileno as a rule has a fiery temper. He loves a fight. It is not -a fist fight that he will indulge in, but it must be a fight with -revolvers, or, better yet, with knives. The knife is an indispensable -equipment with the _roto_. It used to be said that as many lives were -lost in a Chilean fair as in a decent battle. It is a sad fact that -murders are extremely frequent, and scarcely a day passes in Santiago or -Valparaiso without some fatal affray. _Aguardiente_ may be placed at the -bottom of most of these, just as rum is the primary cause of most of the -murders in the United States. It inflames the naturally hot temper of -the race and brings out all the passions of envy, hatred and jealousy. -The death penalty is seldom inflicted, although sentence is frequently -imposed. The prisoners are kept in confinement, and their sentence -commuted from time to time. If the convicted one belongs to a family of -prominence, he will eventually be released; if of poorer origin, he may -be sent to some remote section of the country and set to work. Among the -_rotos_ there is a general contempt for death, which also adds to the -prevalence of murders, and sometimes of brigandage in the mountains. A -little judicious weeding out of some of these criminals would not be a -bad thing for the country. - -The _rotos_ constitute the masses in Chile. In the country the _roto_ -is a peon or inquilino,—an agriculturalist; in the city he is a -longshoreman—a roustabout. In all of them there is a race admixture with -the white race. Of the native races this mixture is not all Araucanian, -for there are at least ten distinct aboriginal tribes. This _roto_ is -not always an agreeable companion, for he is not generally so cleanly as -he might be. But he is not a hopeless element in society. His vices are -generally the result of a lack of restraining power of the passions. His -virtues are independence and industry. He is a prejudiced individual, and -persists in his prejudices. He is intensely patriotic, and has fought the -battles of his country—and always in the ranks. Neither in the army nor -in the navy has he been permitted to rise above this position. - -Peonage is the common form of labour on the large landed estates, -although it is somewhat more favourable to the labourer than in Mexico or -Peru. The labourer, or peon, is rented a small tract of land, including -a little hut, and is allowed to grow his own vegetables. He may also be -allowed to pasture a few animals. In return, he must work, or provide -labour, for the _hacendado_ as required. For this he is paid a certain -small wage. The landlord allows him credit for supplies at the store, -which is invariably a part of the establishment, at prices which mean a -good profit. As long as he is indebted to the owner, the peon must stay -on the place. If he is even in his account, he is at liberty to depart -wherever the notion takes him. - -The proprietor is a magistrate, and has power to put a man in irons if he -deems it necessary. As a rule the peons do not change employers often, -and it is seldom that one is compelled to leave. They are not ambitious, -and a living, permission to celebrate holidays, and, perhaps, get drunk -occasionally, constitutes their idea of happiness. So long as these -conditions exist the peon does not seek anything better, for, to his -mind, such a condition is ideal in itself. He has, - - “The sun, and moon and air, - And never a bit of the burthen of care; - And with all our caring, what more have we?” - -The landlord, on his part, is satisfied, for he has labour at hand at a -small cost, just as his fathers had before him. It is true that it takes -more labourers of this kind to accomplish a given amount of work, but the -total cost is still comparatively small. - -The _rotos_ in the city are not attractive individuals. Their appearance -is often hard and repellent, and the stranger is almost inclined to fear -them. They are restless, too, and serious labour disturbances have -occurred in the cities, for trade unionism has entered the social fabric -there. A few years ago a wild mob resulted from a strike against the -steamship companies, and it took to destroying property after the most -approved fashion. The offices of the Chilean companies were burned, but -foreign property was not disturbed, although the grievance was the same. -Santiago has also had a grievous experience with strikes. This was due to -a tax upon cattle imported from Argentina, which resulted in an advance -in meat prices. Rioting and the destruction of property were again the -forms it took. - -These instances show that a social question has been developed in Chile -as well as other countries. How much is due to socialistic propaganda, -it is difficult to estimate. It is probably only a protest against the -condition in which this class finds itself. The _roto_ holds a grievance -against the Church, also, because that organization possesses immense -wealth and pays no taxes. He feels that he does the real work, but is -always kept in an inferior station, a ball to be kicked and rolled around -at the will of the governing and military classes. It is no doubt true -that the _roto_ has many legitimate grievances, and the government will -eventually be compelled to recognize them. Thousands of _rotos_ have -emigrated across the Andes to Argentina, being drawn there by the higher -wages that can be secured. Whether the movement will become greater or -not, the future alone will reveal. - -The _rotos_ of Chile work hard when they work, but they are generally -improvident and do not think of saving money. The only occasion which -leads the average _roto_ to save any money is the prospect of a holiday -ahead, for which he will sometimes save a little surplus, in order that -he may have sufficient funds to celebrate the occasion in the way he -thinks it should be celebrated,—and that is by carousing. His idea is -that he must imbibe plenty of liquor in order to get the proper effect. -This is not universally true, for the savings banks of the country show -that thousands of those in the unskilled occupations have at least -small bank accounts. As wages are comparatively small, this indicates -considerable thrift. - -Drinking in Chile has become a curse. Monday is said by employers -of labour to be a very unsatisfactory day, because so many of their -employees have not yet recovered from the dissipation of the previous -day. This is likewise true after some national holiday, such as the -18th of September, for which occasion five days are set aside, as this -is the Chilean 4th of July. The better element of the Chileans have -long realized that the drunkenness incident to these celebrations is a -serious menace to the country, for, on the day following, the hospitals -are oftentimes filled with wounded. There are always several deaths by -violence, because every Chilean peon does not consider himself properly -dressed until he has a knife placed in his belt where it can be easily -reached. - -To correct the errors resulting from this excessive drinking, a society -has been formed in Chile, which has become quite prominent, and is called -La Liga Contra el Alcoholismo, which, literally translated, means an -organization against excessive alcoholism. It is not, as one might think, -a prohibition or total abstinence society, for such an organization -would be very unpopular among all classes of Chileans. Its object is -to restrain as much as possible, both by legislation and persuasion, -the appetite for liquor, and cultivate habits of moderation in its -indulgence. The courts have been asked to impose certain restriction upon -the sale of liquors, and employers of labour have been asked to change -the method of paying their help. - -“The women of Chile are as pious as the men are proud,” says a writer. -Nowhere will one find women more conscientious in the performance of -their religious duties. The morning mass is always crowded with women -and children in attendance upon these ceremonies. One is impressed by -the piety of the Chilenas when he sees the _penitentas_—as women who are -doing penance for some sin are called. Skirts of white flannel are worn -with the _manta_ by these women. They will be seen hovering around the -churches, where they will sometimes rest on their knees for hours before -the altar of some saint. They may be clustered around the confessional -awaiting absolution from the confessor. Some of these women have -committed sin, while others are simply carrying out a vow, in order to -perfect themselves and thus get nearer to heaven. They will go about the -street with downcast eyes and recognize no one—not even a friend. Among -these _penitentas_ one will find women of high social rank, as well as -young girls of wonderful beauty. Those who feel that this more simple -method will not atone for their sin, or raise them to a state of absolute -perfection, retire to a convent in the suburbs of the city, called the -Convent of the Penitentes. There they dress in sackcloth, feed on mouldy -bread, and scourge themselves with whips. These scenes are more common -during Lent, or at the end of the social season. It is said, however, -that the number of women doing penance is becoming less each year. It is -also a fact that one never sees a man humiliating himself and proclaiming -his wrong-doing in this public way. - -The women of Chile, the Chilenas, are of medium height and well formed. -The real slender type is the exception, and the average maiden is -well-rounded and plump. As the women grow older they run to adipose -tissue, and many of the matrons are decidedly fat. They look healthy, -and a vigorous body carries with it a corresponding appetite, and this, -together with little exercise, is responsible for the later development. -The type is quite uniform. Black hair, and dark, lustrous eyes are almost -universal. Dress is as much sought after by the Chileans as in any part -of the world. Paris creations are in demand by those who can afford -them, and the others purchase the best gowns that their means will permit. - -Etiquette is very carefully observed by the Chileans. There is an -etiquette for a man toward a woman, and one for a person of a lower rank -toward one better born. And all are scrupulously observed. A man must -always speak to a woman first. A girl of the better families could not -appear on the street alone without her mother, aunt or servant with her. -A little nurse girl, though of no earthly use, is a sufficient compliance -with the requirement of etiquette. Her best young man, instead of being a -protection, would be an occasion for the severest tongue-wagging. These -things are the inherited restraints upon the liberty of women which have -come down from a thousand years of custom. - -A young man and young woman have little opportunity to become acquainted -before marriage. In many instances the young people have very little to -say about the matter, supposed to be one of hearts, and are scarcely -consulted. About the only way he can learn anything about the disposition -of his intended is for a young man to bribe the servants and thus get -first-hand information. He can never see her except in the parlour, -surrounded by all the family, or at dances, where she is always under the -eye of her chaperon. In fact, during the whole of her maidenhood a girl -is closely watched, and is seldom permitted to be out of sight of her -mother’s vigilant eye. The girl naturally thinks that these restrictions -are unnecessary, but mamma thinks that they are essential, father -approves, and so the custom remains. The lover bears the name of _novio_, -and his sweetheart is _novia_. Neither dare pay any attention to another, -and for a _novio_ to dance with any other girl than his _novia_ would be -a direct offence, and probably cause a breaking of the engagement. - -Every girl looks forward to marriage as her sole career. The independence -of the American girl has not influenced her, and the suffragette -agitation has not reached Chile. Marriage is the beginning of freedom for -a woman, for up to that time she is practically kept in a cage, or is -tied by a string to some guardian. When the priest performs the wedding -ceremony, however, the shackles are broken. Nevertheless they make good -wives, for their tastes are domestic; and they make good mothers, to -whom children are welcome, and the more of them the better they are -satisfied. Musical clubs, literary clubs and missionary societies do -not exist to interfere with domestic duties. A houseful of servants are -usually kept to do the work, for each servant will only do the particular -duties for which he or she was hired. The groom often takes his bride to -his father’s house, and one will frequently find several families living -under the same roof in seeming peace and harmony. - -[Illustration: A GROUP OF CHILEAN GIRLS.] - -The colonies of Chile, such as Valdivia, Osorno and others around Lake -Llanquihue, are principally made up of Germans and Dutch. Most of these -were poor and ignorant when they came to their new homes, and some have -remained so. They have built up several prosperous communities, however, -and there they will be found, a quiet, peaceable and an intelligent -population. This frontier had quite a boom at one time, and thousands -were attracted here by the seductive literature sent out by the wily -agents stationed in Europe. Town after town sprang up. Men who had never -done a day’s work on a farm and ne’er-do-wells came over. Few of them had -any money. For several years there was much hardship. The government was -not always prompt in carrying out its pledges, for the officials could -not see why “to-morrow” would not do just as well. Some finally returned, -and others drifted into the larger cities. But many were very successful -and now have good farms to show as a reward for their industry. After the -war with Peru many of the disbanded soldiers were granted tracts of land -here. Considerable lawlessness followed, as they robbed the unresisting -Germans of their cattle and other animals. The outlaws being in league -with the officials, no redress could be secured, and the colonists -complained with good reason. These conditions have ended. The Teutons -have generally remained apart from the Chileans, and the percentage of -intermarriage has been small. Some have not even mastered the Spanish -tongue, and few take any part in the government. These two races may -become amalgamated eventually, and it would be a good thing for Chile to -receive into its fold this sturdy Teutonic blood. - -Of all the nationalities, other than Spanish, that have entered Chile, -the British is the most prominent and has been the most prosperous. It is -likewise the most numerous. Britons, such as the O’Higgins, Lord Cochrane -and Captain Prat, have helped to fight Chile’s battles, and their -financiers have advanced the money that has developed her resources. -Hence it is not surprising that one will find the characteristics of that -tight little island impressed upon the country, and, in many instances, -upon the people. English names are quite common among prominent Chilean -families, for they have become nationalized. Men who came there a -generation or two ago married the daughters of Chile, and the families -are essentially Chilean, although bearing English names. Many of these -English-Chilenos are very prominent. One man, who had been a member -of the Chilean Congress, told me that one-fourth of the members of -that body, at the time of his membership, had had English fathers or -grandfathers. The progress of Chile in many lines can be traced to this -influence. - -Valparaiso bears many British characteristics. A walk along the -principal business streets will show almost as many English signs as -those in Spanish. The English language will be heard on every corner. -The Anglo-Saxon face is a familiar sight. In the banking and shipping -quarters nearly everything is British, with a sprinkling of the Teuton. -At Iquique and Antofagasta it is still more marked, for the nitrate and -copper interests are almost entirely in the hands of English capital. -Each year scores of young men come out from the home land and accept -positions with the banks, railroads and manufacturing interests. Some of -them remain permanently, and others claim only a temporary domicile. Most -of them do not assimilate very readily with the Spaniard. There is both a -racial and religious antagonism. This wears away after a while with many, -for they are shut off from home ties and the restraints of society. - -Homes in the proper sense are not open to these aliens, and their -quarters are devoid of home comforts. Hence the young Englishmen seek -companionship where they are sure to be welcome. Always criticising -the loose morals of the Chileans, they generally do nothing to better -conditions, and oftentimes end by taking a part in the dissipation. -They frequent the bars and clubs and indulge in great quantities of -strong liquors. Shut off by social customs from the better homes, they -oftentimes unite themselves with the freer and easier strata of society. -As an English writer expresses himself of his own countrymen: “We have -done much to aid in developing the country along certain defined -lines; but we have done little or nothing to ingratiate ourselves with -the people, or to aid in raising the moral tone of those we affect to -despise. The English in Chile commonly remain like a bed of cabbages in -a Chilean flower-garden—self-satisfied and self-aggrandizing, usurping -all the nourishment they can obtain, and neither specially ornamental -nor specially interesting.” Chile has provided homes and, in many -instances, fortunes for the English, and they should return more to such -a hospitable mother than has been done heretofore. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -AN UNCONQUERABLE RACE - - -The most indomitable of the native races in the New World, with the -exception of the red men of North America, have been the Araucanians -of Chile. They are the proudest, richest and bravest of the Indians of -South America. At the time of the conquest this race occupied the greater -part of Chile, and had spread across the Andes into a part of Patagonia, -which country they shared with the Tehuelches, the so-called giants. For -three hundred years they waged a successful warfare against the Spanish -invaders, and the republic of Chile which later succeeded the Spanish -province. It was not until 1884 that they were finally conquered, and -submitted to the Chilean government after certain rights and privileges -were guaranteed to them. So long as the Chileans attempted to conquer -the Indians by brute force they failed, just as had the Spaniards before -them. It was not until some tact and judgment were used that any real -progress was made in the subjugation of these people. - -According to the early account the Araucanians were given to agriculture, -and the valleys south of the present city of Santiago teemed with an -industrious and energetic race. The Incas had spread their sovereignty -south of Santiago as far as the Maule River, and this probably accounted -in part for the agricultural development there. Some writers claim that -the Incas had enslaved the Araucanians and compelled them to do their -work. At any rate the Spaniards encountered little opposition in their -conquest before that river was reached. The fact is that these people -were really divided into three different tribes. The tribes that lived -along the coast were fishermen, those that lived on the higher lands -were hunters, while those who occupied the more fertile valleys were -agriculturists. It was estimated by some of the early writers that there -were at that time no less than a half million of these Indians. This -estimate is no doubt excessive, and half that number would be nearer the -truth. They knew not the use of any metals, excepting silver, which they -worked into various forms. Silver breastplates were worn by the wives of -the _caciques_, or chiefs, which told of the number of their children, as -large families were their boast. They also wore large crescent earrings -and great silver suns as breastpins, with hieroglyphics upon them which -told of a nature worship. Bracelets formed of a multiplicity of minute -silver beads were also fashioned very attractively, and in later years -silver stirrups were manufactured for the head men. Even to-day this race -is noted for its silver work. - -Down upon this stronghold of the Araucanians came Pedro de Valdivia, -in 1550, with two hundred horsemen and some other troops. This force -no doubt made an imposing appearance, as it marched along with their -coats of mail, helmets, swords and spears flashing in the sunlight. The -only firearms were clumsy arquebuses borne by the infantry, and fired -from a wooden support by the aid of a fuse only kept alight with great -difficulty. And yet the Spanish soldiers at that time were considered to -be the best in the world. They continually marched in order of battle, -preceded by an advanced guard and carrying their baggage in the centre. -From the time he reached the river Itata his march was a continuous -conflict, although he managed to get as far as the River Bio-Bio. - -How two hundred men were able to make this trip through a thickly -populated country can be explained by reason of the superior weapons -and armour of the Spaniards, as well as the fact that they used horses. -These animals at that time were unknown among the native races, and -inspired them with terror just as they did the Aztecs in Mexico. The -Indians had only wooden lances, arrows of the simplest manufacture, and -clubs; and yet they managed to stand against the Spaniards at times until -hundreds of them were slain. On one occasion the Spanish records say that -Valdivia was beset with twenty thousand Indians. As fast as one body -of the Indians was routed another took their place. Compact masses of -the Indians at times surrounded the Spaniards. The horses were clubbed, -and this together with the war-cries of the attacking force created a -terrible confusion. When the Indians were finally beaten off the ground -was literally covered with the dead bodies of their comrades. Every -Spaniard was wounded. This battle is known as that of Andalien. - -The cruelty of the Spaniards in this invasion was something terrible at -times. After the battle of Penco, where, according to the chroniclers, -forty thousand Indians attacked the invaders, Valdivia cut off the nose -and right hand of two hundred prisoners, and sent them back to terrorize -their comrades in this mutilated condition. They treated the natives with -absolute contempt, and endeavoured to reduce them to abject slavery. -Valdivia practically had no choice in the matter. Each soldier had to be -paid a grant of land, with a certain number of slaves. The soldiers were -of a fierce and intractable character, and it was almost impossible to -maintain any sort of discipline among them. Valdivia founded the city of -Imperial, fortified it and employed the natives in washing the gold found -in this district. He also established the city of Villa Rica, which means -the rich village, and was so named because of the wealth and fertility of -that valley, and another town that was named after himself. In fact he -endeavoured to establish a string of fortified outposts throughout that -entire section of the country. The Indians were parcelled out among the -conquerors, Valdivia retaining for himself about forty thousand. Although -at this time the Spanish population of the valley did not exceed one -thousand, yet they were able after a while to force the Indians to do -their work. The men were attended by a numerous retinue of servants -wherever they went, and even the women wanted to be followed by a large -concourse of slaves when they attended church. Rank and importance seemed -to be indicated by the number of menials. - -The end, however, was not long in coming. It was due to an Indian boy, -named Lautaro, who had been raised in the household of Valdivia himself, -that their freedom was finally obtained. He had learned to manage -horses, and to use the Spaniards’ weapons. Taking some of these animals, -he joined his people and stirred up a general insurrection. A public -assembly of the tribes was called, and Lautaro presented a definite plan -for a campaign against the enemy. When Valdivia arrived on the scene -to put this revolt down he found some of the towns already in ashes. -Lautaro, although only twenty-one years of age, had shown a genius for -war and was in command, and had already established some discipline -among his troops. Not a single Spaniard escaped in a battle, or series -of skirmishes, that was fought, although thousands of the Indians fell. -Contrary to the example set by the Spaniards Lautaro simply killed his -prisoners by beheading them without any preliminary torture.[1] Valdivia -himself was captured by the Indians. That general at once offered him two -hundred sheep for his release, and promised to withdraw all of his troops -from their territory. The Indian caciques, however, would not consent to -this, and, at a prearranged signal, one of the Indian soldiers struck -him on the head with a club and killed him. It is said that his body was -afterwards eaten by the assembled caciques, in order to give them heart -in the struggle against the Spaniards. This seems to have been a custom -among many primitive races. - -Thus was a struggle begun which lasted for three centuries. During this -time the Spaniards frequently penetrated the country of the Indians, and -were as many times driven back again. The number of horses owned by the -Indians soon increased, and they also secured many arms from the slain -Spaniards, so that by the latter part of the sixteenth century they were -in a better position to fight. In 1599 they were able to muster no less -than two thousand mounted troops. They had also developed herds of cattle -and sheep from original stock secured from the Spaniards. Plagues broke -out at different times, and these, together with the numbers lost in -battle, greatly decimated the natives. - -The death of Valdivia was the beginning of a heroic age for the Indians. -The whole country was soon in arms, and the Spaniards were ousted from -most of their settlements. Villagran, successor of Valdivia, was driven -out of the valley, but soon afterwards returned with reinforcements and -commenced a war of extermination. He employed bloodhounds as auxiliaries, -and these animals destroyed many Indians, especially women and children. -He destroyed the crops wherever possible, and this brought on starvation -and plague. He rebuilt some of the forts and established others, for he -was at the head of a splendidly appointed army of several thousand men -who had come there from Peru. - -At one time Villagran hung thirty caciques. One of the chiefs requested -that he be hanged on the highest tree, in order that his countrymen -might see him dying for his country. Another chief, who died a natural -death, asked that his body be burned, in order that he might arise to -the clouds and continue fighting the dead Spaniards who dwelt there. At -the same time he asked that a successor be chosen, in order that the war -might be continued against those below. In a later battle the Indians dug -pitfalls for the cavalry, and, when the horses stumbled into these, they -fell upon the riders and almost annihilated them. The Spanish leader cut -off the feet of many prisoners in order to terrify their compatriots. -Nevertheless, in spite of these cruelties and some successes on the part -of the invaders, the Indians were victorious, so that the Spaniards -were again obliged to withdraw. A severe earthquake, which occurred at -this time, also destroyed some of the town, as the shocks continued for -several months. - -In 1599 seven Spanish cities were destroyed by the Indians. The city -of Imperial was besieged for sixteen months, during which time the -greatest heroism was shown by both besieged and besiegers. The Indians -ingeniously diverted the river that supplied the town with water. It -finally succumbed and was destroyed. Another Spanish city held out -against the Indians for three years, until practically all those within -the fortifications were slain, starved to death or captured when seeking -food. In one year there were no less than twenty-four murderous Indian -raids. Thus after a conquest of half a century no permanent results -could be seen. The Indians had learned much from their oppressors and -were better fighters. They, as well as the Spaniards, had captured many -prisoners, and the Spanish women had been taken over as wives by the -caciques. As a result of this prolonged conflict the Spanish government -established the river Bio-Bio as the frontier line, which in itself was -quite a victory for the Indians. - -In 1641 the independence of Araucania was acknowledged. A few years -later, however, the treaty was broken by the Spaniards in their -slave-hunting expeditions. Another war of conquest was also begun. The -events of the preceding century were repeated in a number of instances, -until 1703, when the King of Spain ordered the raids into the Indian -country to cease. For a half century or more there was comparative -peace, although the Spaniards conducted some desultory raids against the -natives. - -During the war of independence some of these natives fought on the side -of Spain, and others were found on the side of the revolutionists. As -soon as independence was secured, however, the authorities began to use -the same methods towards these people that the Spaniards had, and thus -alienated whatever good will might have been felt by them. Several more -or less severe combats followed which really made it a local civil war. -It was not until Colonel Saavedra adapted a more conciliatory policy -that bloodshed ceased. The heroic age of the Araucanians had probably -passed away, and the later wars were not so fierce as those of former -years, for the vices of the Spaniards, especially a liking for brandy, -had fastened themselves upon many of them. Since 1884, the date of the -final agreement with the Araucanians, they have become more widely -scattered, but those who live in the southern provinces still follow the -old habits and customs of the early centuries. The people north of the -Bio-Bio River also had much Indian blood in their veins by this time, and -it is unquestionably true that the Chilean soldiers of to-day, who are -considered brave, owe very much of this valour to the Araucanians with -whom they have become intermixed. - -[Illustration: OX CARTS.] - -Many Araucanians may be seen in Temuco, Osorno, Puerto Montt and other -southern towns. They come there to trade. Some are on horseback, both -men and women riding astride, others come in clumsy ox-carts with their -wheat, corn or other produce. The women wear bright-coloured blankets, -which are so fastened at the shoulders that the arms are left bare. The -skirts are belted at the waist and fall about half way between the knee -and ankle, and they are generally barefooted as well as bareheaded. Those -who can afford it wear immense silver earrings and breast plates, and -fasten their garments with silver buckles. The men also wear blankets -and a _poncho_, which is a blanket with a hole in the centre through -which the head is thrust. Few wear hats, but a red handkerchief or a -band around the head answers for a head covering. Both sexes are fond of -bright colours. - -This race bears a very strong resemblance to the North American Indians. -They are somewhat lighter in colour, but they have the same high -cheek-bones and straight black hair, with little or no beard. Polygamy -is common among them, and it is no rare thing to find two or even three -women in the home of an Araucanian. They seem to get along fairly well -together, and each woman looks after her own brood of children. Between -them they look after the master of the house and assist him with his -crops. The houses are generally very simple structures, with low thatched -roofs, and one big door which can be closed up with skins. The floor is -usually the earth beaten down hard and covered with sheep skins. The -cooking and other household utensils are of the very crudest and simplest -design. Some of the Araucanians are very good farmers, and have even -progressed to the point where they have adopted American ploughs and -reapers. Many work on the _haciendas_ of the rich Chileans, and they are -said to make very good hands. The government allotted lands to these -people with a condition that it can not be sold, which was a very wise -provision. When an Araucanian acquires a liking for alcohol he would -trade his land, silver jewelry, his wife or anything else of value in -order to indulge his appetite for drink. When sober they are very clever -traders, and usually manage to secure full value for their goods. - -The Araucanians have never adopted the religion of the Spaniards as did -the Aztecs and Incas. It is true that there are some churches among them, -but the impress has not been very great. They still believe in their -old superstitions. The men purchase their wives and then go through the -farce of stealing them. The “medicine man,” who is oftentimes a woman, is -supposed to be able to ward off evil spirits and troubles of all kinds. -With these people the evil spirits are believed to be at the bottom of -sickness, bad crops and all other woes. They believe in a great father -who watches over them, and in a happy hunting ground somewhere in the -beyond to which all those departed go. - -One of the interesting characters met with along the Pacific coast of -South America is the calaguayas, or the Indian doctor. One will find him -everywhere, from Panama to the Araucanian country, carrying with him a -pack filled with dried herbs, cheap jewelry, handkerchiefs, ribbons, -mirrors and other notions, which he sells to the people. He may be met -with on the trains, the coast steamers or any other place, and generally -carries with him nothing but the suit he wears and a bright-coloured -_poncho_, which is thrown over his shoulders for additional warmth. He -may be seen sunning himself in the plaza of a town or tramping over -mountain trails. This man is both a trader and tinker, and his sources of -livelihood are many indeed. He can mend a clock, a tin pan, or a broken -piece of crockery. He can tell fortunes, interpret signs and omens, -or prepare love philters. He is a magician, and can do all sorts of -sleight-of-hand tricks. He is a conjurer; he helps people who have been -bewitched, and altogether has a reputation for superior wisdom, which he -applies on all possible occasions. - -The chief business, however, of this unique character is that of healing -the sick, whether man or beast, for he is equally successful as a -veterinary surgeon, or as a physician for the human race; and it is -really remarkable, as many white people testify, the knowledge he has -of certain climatic ills to which the people there are subject, and of -herbs which will relieve them. They claim to have herbs that will cure -everything to which humanity is subject. It is a fact that there is no -section of the globe to-day where so many modern drugs come from as the -northern half of South America, and it is quite probable that these -primitive doctors first discovered the medicinal value of many plants -that are now common pharmaceutical terms. Many stories are told among -miners and others, who have been obliged to live in the interior, where -regular physicians were not obtainable, of climatic fevers and other -illnesses which have been cured by these doctors. - -“I have herbs that will cure everything,” said the calaguayas to a doctor -who doubted his skill. As a proof he handed a leaf to the doubter and -asked him to smell it. As the man did so his nose began to bleed, and he -was unable to stop it. After a time the calaguayas handed him another -leaf, and told him to smell that. The hemorrhage immediately stopped. - -The botanical knowledge which they possess, for their medicines are all -herbs, has been handed down from generation to generation, from the time -of the ancient Incas. In fact their origin is supposed to date from that -ancient race, when the medical men had an official position at court and -in the cities. As it was a fixed law of the Incas that the son should -follow his father’s occupation, the knowledge of the father in the use of -herbs was passed by him to his son. The natives have much faith in the -skill of these doctors, so much so that if one of them pronounces a man -incurable, further effort to relieve the afflicted person is generally -abandoned. In fact with some of the tribes the sick are then exposed, in -order to hasten their death, so it is said. - -There is also said to be a sort of free-masonry among these doctors for -mutual protection, and they have built huts on some of the lonesome -trails, where the wandering medical man can seek shelter and make himself -as comfortable as possible. In these rude shelters the calaguayas is able -to take shelter for himself, if overtaken by storm, for he always carries -in his pack a little jerked beef, parched corn, beans, and some cocoa -leaves, the chewing of which relieves hunger to some extent and gives -strength for prolonged exertion. In these wild haunts they also collect -in secret their healing herbs, for they will never allow any one to -accompany them on such expeditions. It is impossible to get one of them -to tell of what his herbs consist, as they preserve the greatest secrecy -concerning all of them. - -The coming of the calaguayas is usually very welcome to the communities -that he visits, because he knows everybody; and travelling from one -village to another he carries news and personal messages, frequently, -between friends. He thus makes himself a travelling post-office as well -as a peripatetic newsmonger. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -EDUCATION AND THE ARTS - - -Modern Chile owes little to the mother country for its educational -system. With the exception of the establishment of a university at -Santiago, and one or two minor institutions, Spain almost entirely -neglected education in this province. The wealthy classes sent their -children to Europe for their education, and the poorer classes were given -a little instruction by the church. The Indians and peons were taught the -catechism and church doctrines in a desultory way. With that all attempt -at general intellectual development was ended. It is little wonder that -only a small proportion of the population were able to either read or -write, when the Spanish yoke was thrown off, or that even to-day, when -Chile has celebrated the centennial of her declaration of independence, -her educational system will not compare favourably with those found in -the Anglo-Saxon and Teutonic nations of the world. - -Education in Chile is absolutely free, though not compulsory. Within the -last few years the Chilean government has given considerable attention -to public instruction, and has been greatly extending the school system -all over the country. According to government reports there were, in -1907, twenty-two hundred and fifteen elementary schools, with forty-seven -hundred and twenty-nine teachers, and an attendance of one hundred and -seventy thousand eight hundred and twenty-seven pupils. This is only a -small percentage of those of school age, according to standards in the -United States. Besides these public schools there were more than one -hundred private schools for elementary instruction, which were subsidized -by the government. - -The school system is divided into primary, elementary, secondary and -the higher education. The secondary education, which corresponds to our -high school, is provided in the National Institute at Santiago, and at -lyceums located in various parts of the republic. One of these lyceums is -maintained in every province in the republic, no matter how small, and -in every city or town of any importance. In the same year, above cited, -thirty-nine of these institutions were for men and thirty for women, -having a total attendance of almost twelve thousand. For the higher -education there is a national university at Santiago, which is an old and -well-equipped institution, and fifteen normal schools located in various -parts of the republic. For technical instruction there are a number -of institutions located in different parts of the republic, which are -conducted by various societies. - -[Illustration: THE ESCUELA NAVAL, VALPARAISO.] - -For instruction in agriculture schools are maintained by the government -at Concepción, Santiago, Talca, San Fernando, Elqui and Salamanca. -These schools are all under the supervision of the National Society -of Agriculture, and the government contributes liberally toward their -maintenance. There is also a school conducted at Chillan for practical -agricultural instruction. A number of model farms are maintained by -the government, of which the principal one is the Quinta Normal in the -capital, and a number of experimental institutions for the cultivation -of vines, trees, etc., are also supported by the national government. -The agricultural schools, as well as those for the furtherance of -industries and mining, hold expositions from time to time, in which, the -products of the soil and factories are exhibited, as well as the latest -processes and appliances. To these exhibitions the government contributes -liberally, in order to acquaint the public with the latest scientific -development. The societies themselves are formed by a large number of -prominent Chileans, who devote considerable time and energy to the -development and improvement of these industries. - -Commercial schools have been established at Iquique, Antofagasta, -Valparaiso, Santiago, Concepción, Vallenar, Coquimbo, Talca and San -Carlos. A number of industrial schools are conducted under the direction -of the society for the improvement of industries, where technical -instruction is given to those preparing them for such occupations as -engineers, electricians, architects, plumbers, masons, etc. At Copiapó, -Santiago and La Serena, the government has established schools for the -practical instruction of mining engineers and mining in general. - -Military and naval education is given in ten different academies, -located in different parts of the republic. One of the best of these -is the Escuela Naval at Valparaiso, which is situated on a commanding -location overlooking the lower town and bay. As the navy of Chile -commands great consideration this branch of the educational system -receives considerable attention, and the cadets are put through a very -thorough course of instruction by able instructors. The University of -Santiago, as well as a university under the supervision of the Catholic -Church, gives instruction in law, political science, music, dentistry, -civil engineering, physics and mathematics. Then, in addition, there -is a National Conservatory of Music, a School of Fine Arts, a National -Observatory, an Institute for the Deaf and Dumb, and a School for the -Blind. - -A number of public libraries have been established in various cities, at -the head of which is the National Library at Santiago, which contains a -valuable collection of books and manuscripts. Next to this in importance -is the public library at Valparaiso. Several other cities have followed -the lead of these two and established free public libraries. Museums of -natural history and also of arts are maintained in Santiago. - -The newspaper in Chile is as much of an institution as it is in the -United States. In the cities of Valparaiso and Santiago one will find -the newspapers equipped with an energetic staff of reporters, who have, -what Americans would call, a good nose for news. Each one, like his -American counterpart, is trying to beat his competitor, and acquire at -least temporary notoriety and fame. - -_El Mercurio_ is the most noted newspaper of the country, and publishes -editions in Valparaiso, Santiago and Concepción. It ranks with _La -Prensa_, in Buenos Aires, and the _Jornal do Comercio_, in Rio de -Janeiro. In the two former cities _El Mercurio_ owns fine buildings, -which are superior in their equipments to the average newspaper office -in the United States. It has not only provided good quarters for its -editors, reporters, printers and other employees, but has dining-rooms, -private parlours, baths, bedrooms, assembly-rooms, and other features -which American newspaper plants are not equipped with. In these rooms -entertainments are given for the public, noted visitors to that country -are entertained, and many other features of more or less public interest -are provided for the people. The owner of _El Mercurio_ is Mr. Augustin -Edwards, who is a member of a famous banking family of Santiago, and has -occupied various official positions in the country. _El Mercurio_ was -founded in Valparaiso in 1827 and in Santiago in 1900. It has long been -one of the show things in Chile. The editorials in the editions are the -same, but the news columns differ considerably because of local interest. - -One will find the editors of these papers as well informed as the editors -of the leading newspapers in the United States, and their information -covers the whole world, perhaps better than the average American editor. -If there is any distinguished foreigner visiting the country the -reporters eagerly interview him, and the matter is displayed in headlines -which are quite similar to the land of yellow journalism. In fact, in -general make-up the Chilean newspapers more nearly resemble those of the -United States than the journals of any other country of South America. In -foreign news one will find two or three pages of cable dispatches in _El -Mercurio_, much more than is printed in papers published by newspapers -in cities of similar size in the United States. The _vida social_ -(society column) has much news concerning _las distinguidas señoras y -señoritas_. Interspersed with accounts of balls, parties, weddings, -visitors, etc., will be obituaries and notices of funerals. Echoes -of the get-rich-quick commercialism will be seen in the advertising -space, where columns of advertisements of banks, nitrate companies and -promotion companies appear. Rates of exchange, the movement of the stock -market and other items of commercial interest occupy a prominent place. -Sport is prominent, of which football is an integral part, having been -made popular by the British residents. The entries in the horse races, -together with the various riders and their weights, form a part of the -racing gossip, much as in English newspapers. In fact these cosmopolitan -publications provide much interesting reading for all who can read them. - -_Zig-Zag_ of Santiago, and _Sucesos_, of Valparaiso, are two illustrated -weeklies, which are really admirable and enterprising publications. -Each edition is practically a pictorial record of the week both at -home and abroad. There will be photographs of those prominent in the -social and political life, pictured scenes of the leading events of -the week, cartoons and news of the world depicted from the illustrated -publications of other countries. There is one English newspaper published -in Valparaiso. One feature, which is always displayed in the Chilean -newspaper, is an editorial on the foremost topic of the day. It is given -the leading position, every one reads it, and it is generally the topic -of conversation for the following day. These editorials are generally -well worth the reading, for they not only display knowledge but a -catholicity of treatment that speaks well for the Chilean. - -_La Union_ also publishes editions in Santiago and Valparaiso, and it -is a well edited and well conducted paper. Other newspapers of more or -less importance are _El Dia_, _La Lei_, _La Patria_, _El Chileno_, _La -Reforma_, _El Diario Popular_ and _Las Ultimas Noticias_, and others. -In all there are more than two hundred publications of all kinds. Every -one who can read at all generally reads about all the newspapers, so -that even though the reading class is not as large as with us, yet the -circulation of these newspapers is very creditable. Nevertheless one -wonders how they are all supported and manage to survive. - -Like all Spanish people the writers, though not numerous, are usually -voluminous. The number is not great because of the lack of readers and -library privileges. One Spanish writer says that the circle of readers -in each Spanish-American nation is in smaller numbers than in a single -street in London, a square in Paris, or a district in Italy. Such a -statement is not true of Chile, for Santiago, Valparaiso and Concepción -have large numbers of educated Chileans. But it is true that the writer -has a small circle as compared with the clientele of an American, English -or German author. Chilean writers have been the most prolific of any of -the countries on the Pacific coast of South America. The comparatively -stable rule for four decades was conducive to literary development. -The French influence in literature is more noted than any other, and -especially so in literature of the lighter vein. - -Before independence the chief subjects were history, religion and poetry, -and many of the writers were ecclesiastics. Since the establishment -of the republic fiction, philosophy and political economy have been -prominent, and lay writers have taken precedence over ecclesiastics. -Ramon Briceño and Venturo Marin are two well known writers of modern -philosophy and ethics. Other Chilean writers along similar lines were -Errázuriz, Casanova, Aracena Lopez, Arrasco, Albano and José Lara. -Andres Bello is a name that towers above all. Says Professor Currier: -“I regard him as one of the most extraordinary men that the Western -Hemisphere has produced. Entirely a self-made man, he explored almost -every field of human knowledge, and his numerous works testify to -his labours. Poet, philosopher, linguist, philologist, litterateur, -historian, educator and jurist, such was Bello. His civil code of Chile -places him among the world’s legislators. It is, perhaps, to be regretted -that in his earlier years his attention was so much divided among various -subjects that many of his labours remain unfinished. Few countries can -boast of a man so versatile and of such intellectual activity as Bello.” - -Journalism in Chile, like the other Spanish-American republics, is an -important profession. One of the greatest journalists Chile has produced -was Zorobabel Rodriguez, who exercised immense influence on public -thought for many years. His editorials were the ordinary topics at the -breakfast table, and were looked for by all parties from day to day. -Rodriguez was also a poet, novelist and all-round literary man. - -Chile has produced a number of historical writers. Among these might -be mentioned the brothers Miguel Luis and Gregorio Victor Amunategui, -Manuel Bilbao, Vicuña Mackenna and Diego Barrios Araña. Many have dropped -into poetry, for such a form of writing is popular and natural with the -Spanish race. The drama is also an important branch of Spanish literature -and Chile has produced her fair share of dramatists. The best known is -probably Carlos Walker Martinez, who succeeded in touching a sympathetic -and patriotic chord. A number of novels have also been written by Chilean -writers, but they are unknown among English readers. - -The artistic is a strong element in the Latin character. Foremost with -the Italians, perhaps, it also bears a vital relation to the Spaniard. -Any one who has visited any of the Latin-American countries has not -failed to observe this trait, for art has been well preserved in the -New World, wherever either Spaniards or Portuguese have held sway. In -Chile this art has not been tinged so much with Indian influences as -in Mexico. Here is found the transplanted art of the Spaniard with -very little modification. There are many fine churches, of which the -cathedral of Santiago is the most noted example. It is a fine specimen -of ecclesiastical architecture. Hospitals and other public buildings -are built with an eye to the artistic. Plazas are arranged with skill, -and fine statues abound all over the cities. Municipal theatres have -been built in several cities. The Municipal Theatre of Santiago is a -commodious building and of artistic design. Although it will not compare -with the Colon Theatre of Buenos Aires, or those in Rio de Janeiro or Sao -Paulo, Brazil, it is an artistic building. Through the aid of a subsidy -from the national treasury operatic talent is brought from Europe for at -least a few weeks each season. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -THE DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORTATION - - -Peace as well as war has its heroes. In the industrial development of -Chile there are two names of North Americans that deserve to stand side -by side with those of O’Higgins and Cochrane, heroes of the war of -independence. In Valparaiso will be found a monument to the memory of -William Wheelwright, who had the vision of a Franklin. Chance determined -the destiny of this remarkable man. Wrecked on the shores of the Rio -de la Plata, in 1823, the youthful Wheelwright saw the needs of this -great continent, and he determined to devote his energies towards the -development of harbours and transportation. He became a supercargo on a -vessel bound around Cape Horn, and in this way reached Valparaiso. At -first he was looked upon as a dreamer. American capitalists turned down -his scheme, and even the British did not welcome him at first. - -“If that insane Wheelwright calls here again,” said an English consul to -his servant, “do not admit him.” Nothing daunted, however, Wheelwright -went to London and succeeded in interesting some moneyed men in a scheme -for direct transportation between England and the west coast. The first -steamship traversed the Straits of Magellan under this concession and -reached a Chilean port in 1840. This was the beginning of the Pacific -Steam Navigation Company, which proved of inestimable benefit in the -upbuilding of Chile and Peru. It was not many years until this company -was operating vessels as far as Panama. - -The next vision of this master of industry was the problem of conquering -the Andes. Could they be penetrated? Could the seemingly insurmountable -difficulties be overcome? He planned a railroad from the port of Caldera -across the Andes. This port was opened and the railroad constructed as -far as Copiapó. This scheme got no farther, but it was only the beginning -of colossal schemes. He planned and built the railroad from Valparaiso -toward the capital as far as Llai Llai, but there it stopped because of -lack of funds. His struggles with the opposition to this line read like -some of the contests in the English Parliament over the first railroad -projects. Wheelwright then turned his attention to Argentina and built -the first railroad in that republic, a line from Rosario to Cordoba, a -distance of two hundred and forty-six miles. His last public work was a -short railroad running from Buenos Aires to Ensenada, in 1873. Although -he had further plans for public improvements his health failed, and he -sailed for London to seek medical advice, where he died that same year. -His remains are buried at Newburyport, Mass., the place of his birth, -where they lie amidst a long line of sturdy Puritan ancestors. - -In Catskill, New York, a boy was born on the 7th of July, 1811. His name -was Henry Meiggs. His history reads like romance, for he made and lost -several fortunes both on the Atlantic and the Pacific coasts. Elected as -treasurer of San Francisco County, California, he loaned public money to -friends who did not pay it back. He then fled as a defaulter to South -America. He first landed in Chile. The uncompleted railroad to the -capital, that had been begun by Wheelwright, first engaged the mental -activities of this remarkable man. For a decade the government had been -planning to extend this railroad “to-morrow.” Meiggs negotiated with the -government and finally secured the contract. With characteristic Yankee -ingenuity he succeeded in getting a clause inserted giving a premium for -each section completed within a specified time. He succeeded in building -each section in the shortest period and collected the maximum premium. -The result was that Meiggs realized a profit of more than a million -dollars, and made a great reputation for himself. Since that time the -Chilean government is very chary about such bonuses. - -Meiggs married a Chilean woman and built a magnificent residence in -Santiago. But his later enterprises were in Peru. He built the railroad -from Mollendo to Arequipa. His greatest undertaking, however, was the -famous Oroya Railroad over the Andes, the highest railroad in the world -and one of its wonders. Great gorges were surmounted, rushing streams -spanned with bridges where such work seemed impossible, tunnels bored -where men had to hang over precipices by means of ropes to secure a start -and other obstacles of nature were overcome. Before the completion of -the road Meiggs was compelled to use his own private fortune. But he -accomplished the task. One hears many tales of this eccentric man in -Chile and Peru. It stands to his credit that, although he lived in luxury -and spent money lavishly, he paid all his debts back in the land of his -birth in order to stand before the world as an honest man. - -The problem of connecting the widely separated sections of Chile with -easy and convenient means of transportation has been and is a serious -one. It was but natural, owing to the long extent of coast line, that the -first attention of the Chilean government was given to ocean navigation. -Furthermore, the Chileans have proven to be good navigators, and the -record of their steamships has been very good. There has been the further -advantage in developing this means of transportation in the fact that -no part of Chile is very far distant from the Pacific coast. This has -developed a large number of short railways, which run from the ports to -the mineral or agricultural districts of the interior. There are in all -sixteen ports open to international commerce, and forty-four inferior -ports which are used in the coast trade. The different character of the -northern, central and southern sections has created a demand for exchange -of products between those sections, which has made the coast trade of -great importance. - -The ports of Chile were opened to the commerce of all the world as soon -as the independent government was fully organized. It is a historic fact -that among the first vessels that arrived in Chile, after independence -had been achieved, was a frigate from New York, which brought one of the -first printing presses to South America and also some American printers, -who established the first Chilean periodical. At first Valparaiso claimed -nearly all of the tonnage, because of its nearness to the capital. At -that time, also, the Chilean seacoast was not more than half as long -as it is at the present time. Vessels soon began to operate under the -Chilean flag, although most of the first vessels were owned by foreign -capital. As early as 1834 there were no less than one hundred and -thirty-four national vessels, principally engaged in the coast trade. -When William Wheelwright organized the Pacific Steam Navigation Company -a new era in Chilean prosperity was begun. Two vessels, the _Chile_ and -_Peru_, both of them small boats, constituted the beginning of the fleet -which finally developed into the great company, which for many years -plied between the west coast and Europe. It has recently been absorbed by -another English company, the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company. - -[Illustration: THE HARBOUR, VALPARAISO.] - -This English company, as well as other companies, were subsidized by -the Chilean government, in order to get better coast service between -the various ports. This service was eventually extended to the city of -Panama. In 1870 the most powerful Chilean company was organized under the -name of the Compañia Sul Americana de Vapores, which soon became a very -active competitor of the English company. The number of its vessels was -continually added to, most of them being built by English shipbuilders, -until to-day this company has more than twenty boats. Many of these are -very comfortable steamers, of considerable capacity, and operate all the -way between Puerto Montt and Panama. In addition to this company, there -are a number of small companies, owned by Chilean capital, and other -steamers belonging to private individuals, or business houses which carry -on a coast trade more or less extensive. The Chilean company and the -English company, which for a long time were active rivals, have at last -entered into an operating agreement. By the terms of this agreement -the government subsidy is shared, and the two companies operate an -alternating service between Valparaiso and Panama. The laws of Chile -governing maritime transportation are very liberal, and the fees levied -at the various ports are exceedingly reasonable. It has been recognized -by Chile that the development of commercial relations with the various -countries of America depends, to a great extent, upon the existence of -regular and rapid lines of navigation which will transport products at -reasonable rates. - -The government has spent a great deal of money in recent years in -dredging the channels, placing buoys at the dangerous points and erecting -lighthouses along the coast, until to-day there are more than fifty -lighthouses which are regularly maintained by Chile. - -What will eventually prove to be the backbone of the Chilean railway -system is termed the Longitudinal Railway, work upon which is being -prosecuted actively by the government at various places. When completed -it is planned to have a continuous railway from Tacna, in the north, to -Puerto Montt, at the south, a distance of almost two thousand miles. It -has been found that wherever the railroad has been extended, development -has followed. This has been especially true of the great central valley -through which rails have been laid as far as Osorno, only seventy-eight -miles from Puerto Montt. This line has been constructed entirely by the -government. It is built of standard gauge width, and also upon the same -gauge for some distance north of Santiago. Through the north central -part of Chile the government roads have all been built upon the narrow -gauge plan, one metre in width, because the occasional transverse spurs -of the Andes, which run toward the coast, have made construction more -difficult, and it has been easier to make the necessary curves by using -that gauge, so that the line could be built as inexpensive as possible. -At the present time nearly all of the energies of the government are -being applied to the completion of this great project, which has already -cost it many millions of dollars. - -A little more than one-half of the railway mileage in Chile has been -built and is owned by the government itself. It has not been a profitable -enterprise, for it costs about ninety-five per cent. of the gross income -for operating expenses and maintenance. One reason for this, of course, -is that the government lines, many of them, have been built through -thinly-settled territory, and where traffic up to the present time has -been very light. Then, again, the charges upon these state railways are -entirely too small, for nowhere can one travel so cheaply as upon the -government railways of Chile. Then there is also the problem which a -government must always face, in operating a public utility enterprise, -that the officials, whose duty it is to look after the work, do not apply -to it the same careful attention to detail, do not get as much work out -of their employees as a private corporation, and are likely to take a -chance at some form of graft when the opportunity affords. The question -has been seriously considered by the government of placing the operation -of the principal lines in the hands of a private company; in fact, one -company has made a proposition to operate the road between Santiago and -Valparaiso, and take for its profit simply what it can save in the cost -of operation over the present cost. - -In the northern provinces there are a number of railways operating from -the coast up a greater or lesser distance inland. The oldest railway in -the republic, as well as in South America, runs from Caldera to Copiapó. -As heretofore mentioned, this great undertaking was due to William -Wheelwright. It was his plan to continue this railway over the Andes, -and it is said by engineers to present fewer difficulties than the one -finally chosen, which was partly on sentimental grounds. It is quite -possible that the dream of the American captain of industry may some day -come true as development continues. It was never extended further than -the first terminus, over which the first locomotive was run in 1851. -The first locomotive exported from the United States was used on this -railroad. A number of short branches have now been built connecting with -this main line, but rail connection with the Federal capital is still a -thing of “to-morrow.” - -The most northern railway runs from the port of Arica to Tacna, and is -only about forty miles in length. From Arica an international railroad -is being built across the Andes into Bolivia, in accordance with a -treaty entered into between the two countries. It will not pass through -Tacna, as an independent route has been selected which promised fewer -difficulties. It is only about one hundred and forty miles to the -Bolivian frontier by this route, and only a little greater distance from -there to La Paz. This will make the shortest and most direct route to the -Bolivian capital. The contract has been let for the entire work, but it -is proceeding very slowly. - -Proceeding along the coast the next railway centre is in the nitrate -district, where a number of short railways connect Iquique, Pisagua, -Tocapilla, Caleta Buena and other towns in that district, making up a -total of nearly four hundred miles. Antofagasta also has some short spurs -which run back into the mineral regions, and carry the ore down to that -port. The principal line at this place, however, is the international -railway which runs from Antofagasta to the Bolivian city of Oruro, and -there connects with a Bolivian railway which runs to the capital, La Paz. -This railway is constructed upon an extremely narrow gauge of thirty -inches. The Chilean section of the railway ends at Ollague, a distance -of two hundred and seventy-five miles. This railway was originally -built to aid in developing some of the rich mines in Potosi, Bolivia. -By the aid of a government subsidy, it was finally completed in 1892. -This is the largest private railway enterprise in Chile. It would be -difficult to imagine a more dreary route over which a railway could be -planned than the Chilean section of this railway. At first the question -of a water supply for the engines was a serious problem, as the water -which they were able to secure easily was so permeated with minerals -that it destroyed the boilers. The concession of supplying the city of -Antofagasta with water was finally conceded to the railway company, and, -with that monopoly as an aid, pipes were laid for a distance of more than -two hundred miles to supply the water tanks of the railway and the city -of Antofagasta. The freight hauled over this road is quite considerable, -since it is one of the two lines which at present reach from the coast to -the republic of Bolivia. Half or more of the freight, to and from that -inland republic, is shipped by this route, in addition to the product of -the mines of the famous Huanchaca Company. - -In the province of Coquimbo there are several short sections of railroad, -all of which were constructed by the government. In all these lines total -about two hundred miles. It will not be long until Coquimbo will be -connected with the main line by a longitudinal railway. In the northern -section of the country there are no less than fourteen different lines, -and at least three different gauges of track. - -The railways of the central valley from Santiago south form the most -extensive system in the republic. All of these railways, with the -exception of a very few branches, belong to the state, and they form -a single system which unites the principal sections of population -throughout that section. The main track follows the longitudinal valley -from north to south in a line which keeps to the same general direction -until it ends at Osorno. In its course this system crosses no less than a -dozen of the provinces of Chile. Construction has been fairly difficult, -and the expense of bridges has been unusually high. There are many long -and high bridges, such as those across the Maule, Maipo, Mallico, Laja -and Bio-Bio rivers. Most of them have been of French construction. From -Santiago to Llanquihue, there are a number of cross railways which run -from this main line to the ports, and also some that run inland toward -the Andes for a short distance. These were built by the government in its -efforts to open up the unpopulated sections. In the carboniferous zone -around the Bay of Arauco there are a number of branches which connect -the mines, the mining towns and the ports. It will not be long until the -railway will be extended to Puerto Montt, which will complete the present -plans of the government for southern extension. - -There are no less than half a dozen transandine railways which have been -planned, and for which concessions have been granted by the government of -Chile. Two have been completed, two more have had actual work done in the -way of construction and the other two are still visionary. One project, -which bodes very fair to reach completion, is a railroad that will have -for its terminal points the Chilean port of Talcahuano and Bahia Blanca, -Argentina. It will run through Monte Aguila and Cholguan, and cross -the Andes at Lake Laja. There it will connect with the Great Southern -Railway of Argentina, which has already been built from Bahia Blanca to -Neuquen, and which is now being extended from there to Chos Malal. The -Andes at this point are not nearly so high as farther north, so that -fewer difficulties will be encountered in the construction than on those -transandine railways which have already been built. It will necessitate -a tunnel about one mile in length only to pass the summit. Engineers -who have surveyed this route report it as very feasible and strongly -recommend it. It is several hundred miles south of both Valparaiso and -Buenos Aires, passes through an extremely rich agricultural country -and ought to be constructed before many years. It will be of distinct -advantage to both republics. - -Interest in railroad construction in Chile in recent years has centred in -the transandine railway via Juncal and Uspallata pass, the historic route -by which General San Martin led his conquering legions into that country. -Its completion in the spring of 1910 was a significant event, which was -duly celebrated by both Chile and Argentina. Just a half century had -passed since Wheelwright first suggested to English capitalists the -feasibility of a railroad across the Andes to connect the Atlantic with -the Pacific, when the first train passed through the two mile tunnel -that pierced the international barrier of rock at this point. Trains are -now running regularly, and the interruption caused by the winter snows -is at an end. This is the first line to connect the two oceans, and, -to the South Americans, it was as great an event as the opening of the -first transcontinental railroad in the United States. The distance from -Valparaiso to Buenos Aires is eight hundred and eighty-eight miles, and -the trip is made in thirty-eight hours. It is hoped by the officials, -however, to reduce the running time to twenty-nine hours in the course of -time. - -[Illustration: JUNCAL STATION.] - -The first practical steps in this undertaking were made by two -English-Chilean engineers, John and Matthew Clark. They obtained the -necessary concession from Argentina in 1872, and from Chile two years -later. The Chilean government guaranteed seven per cent. on a capital of -three millions of dollars. But this concession was unsatisfactory. In -1889 the actual work of construction was begun, but it was stopped after -less than twenty miles had been completed. The old concession having -lapsed a new one was granted in 1903 to the Transandine Construction -company on a five per cent. guarantee for twenty years. In 1906 the -road was opened to Juncal, and in 1909 to Caracoles, the mouth of the -Chilean end of the tunnel. The entire distance from Los Andes to the -tunnel is forty-eight miles. In that distance the altitude rises almost -eight thousand feet. The grade in places reaches eight per cent. There -are several miles of the Abt system of cogs. Tunnels and bridges are -numerous, and a number of avalanche sheds have been built. The Chilean -slopes of the Andes are much more abrupt than those on the Argentina -side, and the work of construction has been correspondingly more -difficult. It provides a grand scenic route for the jaded continental -traveller that furnishes scenery as grandly picturesque as anywhere else -in the world. - -One unfortunate feature is the differing width of track. It will be -necessary to reload freight three times in the journey across the -continent. From Valparaiso to Los Andes the gauge is standard. Between -Los Andes and Mendoza it is one metre, and from Mendoza to Buenos Aires -it is five feet eight inches. This may possibly be changed in the future, -but it will be many years. In the meantime much trouble and extra work -will be necessitated in freight traffic. To the passenger it means only a -little annoyance, but not much delay. - -[Illustration: TRANSANDINO CHILENO RAILWAY, SHOWING ABT SYSTEM OF COGS.] - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -RELIGIOUS INFLUENCES - - -In order to fully understand the anomalous position occupied by Church -and State in the Spanish-American republics, it will be well to go back -several centuries and study for a moment the development of the clerical -policy of Spain, and its relations with the Church of Rome. With the -discovery of the New World, the Church was placed in a position where -it felt called upon to do something which it was next to impossible to -undertake independently. It felt the responsibility of evangelizing -the heathen in the newly-discovered countries, and yet it appreciated -its inability to assume this burden, because it had not the means to -propagate religion amongst a hostile people, which could only be advanced -efficiently by means of a costly expedition. Hence it was necessary for -the Holy See to proceed to convert the inhabitants of the New World -through ecclesiastics, or other persons who followed the invading forces. - -In compliance with this view the Pope issued the famous bull of -Alexander VI, in 1493, which is in part as follows: “We give, concede -and assign them (lands in the New World) in perpetuity to you and the -Kings of Castile and of Leon, your heirs and successors: and we make, -constitute and depute you and your heirs and successors, the aforesaid, -lords of these lands, with free, full and absolute power, authority and -jurisdiction.”[2] This absolute power granted to Spain was not used -against the Church, as subsequent events showed, for the priests and -monks everywhere accompanied the soldiers, and conquests of the civil -power were invariably attended with at least the nominal conversion -of the natives to Christianity. This alliance placed in the absolute -power of the king of Spain the privilege to name the priests, or other -ecclesiastics, who might accompany the expeditions, and gave him -absolute power over their work. All causes of friction between bishops, -priests and other dignitaries were decided alone by the sovereign or -his representatives in the New World, although it might be regarded -entirely as a spiritual matter. Under the interpretation given to this -papal authority, the King of Spain had it within his power to define the -boundaries of the archbishoprics and bishoprics, and the Church was even -compelled to secure his consent for the erection of vicarages, churches, -monasteries, convents and other places for religious worship. - -One decree of the King of Spain, which is similar to many others, reads -as follows: “We wish and command that there shall not be created, -instituted, founded or conceded any cathedral or parochial church, -monastery, hospital, votive church, or any other pious or religious place -without our express command, or that of the person who shall have our -authority of commission for this purpose.” And again, “That there shall -not be instituted or established any archbishopric, dignitary, canonry, -prebend, benefice, curacy, or any other benefice or ecclesiastical or -religious office without our consent or presentation.” At another time it -was decreed: “If in effect, or by dissimulation, any person shall make -or begin to make any of these edifices without this prerequisite the -viceroys, audiencas or governors shall cause them to be demolished, and -everything reduced to its previous state without cause or delay.” For -the erection of the cathedral churches the royal treasury contributed -one-third. - -These privileges were at first jealously guarded by the royal -authorities. In maintaining the right of patronage the civil courts were -given jurisdiction instead of the ecclesiastical courts, which likewise -gave the civil authorities an advantage. There was in each bishopric, -however, an ecclesiastical court over whose decision appeal might be made -to the archbishop. The cases which might be brought before this court -were those which concerned tithes, patronages, marriages, legitimation, -funerals, donations to churches and such other pious matters. If a -case arose in which a layman brought action against a priest, this was -tried before an ecclesiastical church, but, if a priest brought action -against a layman, the cause was tried before a secular tribunal. The -Church likewise had a general council, which was composed of a number -of archbishops, cardinals and other high church officials. It was the -general aim of the Church to have the ecclesiastical division correspond -with the civil divisions of the territory, thus making the political -capitals also the seats of religious authorities, although there were -exceptions to this rule. One of these was in Chile, where, although the -captaincy-general of Chile was independent of the vice-royalty of Peru, -yet the Bishop of Santiago was subservient to the Archbishop of Lima. -Thus at every step in the administration of ecclesiastical affairs in -America, the authority and domination of the civil power was recognized. -In the first century of the colonial period the Archbishop of Lima was -the metropolitan for all of South America under Spanish rule, but this -was later divided. - -Wherever the Spaniards established themselves in America, they made -the natives serfs, and forced them to approximately unrequited labour. -Looking upon these natives as an inferior race, it soon became -unpopular among the Spaniards to perform any labour which might be -considered menial. This made the opportunities for profitable employment -comparatively scarce. The doors of the monasteries were always open, -however, and the life within the cloisters, although seemingly one -of self abnegation and denial, in reality offered opportunities for -intellectual development, for vague contemplation and day dreaming, and -also a chance to enjoy more of the things of the world than fell to the -lot of the average man outside of the cloistered walls. Furthermore, -the fact that the ecclesiastical offices were at the disposal of the -representatives of the Crown gave opportunities to those persons to -favour friends who wore the cloak of the Church, which they could not -do if the same persons were following secular pursuits, because of the -limited number of positions at their disposal in civil life. Hence it -was that the ranks of the ecclesiastics came to be recruited not so much -from those who were religiously inclined, as from those who sought ease, -indulgence in the appetites and passions, and were ambitious for power -and authority. - -A century after the beginning of Spanish rule, the missionaries on the -frontier had lost their enthusiasm to make converts, and thereafter -assisted in advancing the civilization of the natives very little. The -cupidity of those priests, who were not noted for their piety, was -excited by the opportunities which their position gave them. There were -numerous opportunities to charge fees and perquisites for the services -required of them, and they took full advantage of it. Furthermore, they -sold to the Indians various articles, such as rosaries and images, at -an enormous profit, and persuaded them to labour upon their buildings -and in their little settlements without compensation other than a bare -living. Likewise many persons who had acquired great wealth in the New -World, but had probably lived reckless and immoral lives, when nearing -the end of life were anxious to secure absolution for their sins, and as -short an experience as possible in the purgatory of the next world. The -representatives of the Church urged upon them the necessity of giving -all of their worldly goods into its keeping, in return for the desired -absolution. The mysticism with which the Church surrounded itself was -favourable to the securing of such a boon, and the monastic and convent -orders accordingly accumulated great wealth. - -Thus it was that the power of the Church in the later period of colonial -rule was greatly increased through the accumulation of wealth, and -through the access to its ranks of men who were influenced by political -and covetous, rather than pious principles. After a century or more from -the beginning of Spanish rule the church dignitaries were able to a -great extent to defy the civil authorities. As a natural consequence, the -civil authorities then sought the aid and influence of the ecclesiastics. -The evil effects of these various influences upon the Church can be -traced down even to the present time in Chile, as well as the other -countries in South America. Most of the political troubles have been -the result of friction between the conservatives, who were aided by the -Church, and the liberals, who were intent upon restricting the power of -that body. - -[Illustration: A CHILEAN PRIEST.] - -The wealth of the Catholic Church in Chile is still enormous, even after -a considerable portion of it has been taken by the government for public -uses. Many of the public school and college buildings were formerly the -property of the Jesuit or other monastic order. It is said that the -church property in Santiago alone is worth not less than one hundred -million dollars in gold. It owns some of the best business blocks, as -well as hundreds of houses, and great _haciendas_ upon which wine is -manufactured and other products raised. A great part of this wealth is -owned by the various orders established in the country. The Carmelite -nuns of Santiago are a very wealthy organization and possess an enormous -income. These nuns never allow their faces to be seen by men. The -monastic order, known as the Dominican Friars, is also a very wealthy -body. They dress in black hats and gowns, with white flannel undergowns -which reach clear to the feet. This gives them quite a strange appearance -to one not familiar with the sight of such costumes worn by religious -orders. - -The Catholic Church of the west coast of South America is less liberal -than on the east coast. The reason for this condition, probably, is that -it has been less influenced by outside causes, because of the comparative -isolation of the countries and remoteness from Europe. One will find -still less liberality as you proceed along the west coast from Chile -northward. In Chile, there is an element of tolerance towards other forms -of worship, at least on the part of the officials. Protestant churches -exist in nearly all of the towns of any size, and quite a number of -mission workers are busily engaged in spreading their doctrines. In -Peru, a few Protestant congregations exist. They are not allowed to -own churches, and their congregations are gathered together by printed -invitations, which is simply a means of evading the letter of the law -that is permitted by the authorities. In Ecuador, although the government -attempts to observe religious tolerance, yet the power of the priesthood -is so strong that Protestant workers outside of Quito and Guayaquil are -oftentimes exposed to danger of violence. - -“The religion of the republic of Chile is the Roman Apostolic Catholic -to the exclusion of any other.” These are the words of the Constitution -of Chile, which thus gives to the Roman Catholic Church the protection -and support of the government. Nevertheless religious freedom prevails -for, by an act of July 27, 1865, it was established that those who do -not profess the Roman Catholic religion are allowed to worship within -the enclosure of private buildings, and are permitted to establish and -maintain schools in the doctrine of their respective faiths. From a -religious standpoint the republic is divided into one archbishopric, -three bishoprics and two vicarages. The cathedral at Santiago is the -church of the archbishop, and a magnificent residence for his use stands -alongside of the church. The bishoprics are known as Serena, Concepción -and Ancud. Two ecclesiastical vicarages have been established at -Antofagasta and Tarapacá. - -The Catholic Church in Chile, however, is as different from the same -church in the United States as it is possible for two branches of the -same general head to be. There is no spirit of liberality, and no general -purpose to recognize religious freedom except as it is compelled by -law. The influx of foreigners has naturally modified things to some -extent, because many of those coming in have been members of Protestant -denominations, but the old condition of affairs has not yet been entirely -eradicated. - -It is the women who support the Church, and they are intense devotees of -its worship. The men are generally absolutely indifferent to religion in -any form. As a prominent Chilean gentleman told me, “we leave the women -attend to the religious duties.” This statement seemed to be borne out -by the facts, as a number of visits to different churches at the hour of -mass showed that not one out of perhaps fifteen or twenty present were -men. The others were entirely women, girls and small children. The power -of the priesthood over the women is very strong, and it is in this way -that they exert whatever influence they have, as the women will blindly -do anything that the priests advise them to do. - -This condition of affairs would be less reprehensible, if every member of -the priesthood was an intelligent and proper person. It is an unfortunate -fact, however, that many members of the priesthood come from the lower -strata of society, rather than from the higher. They are persons of -low intelligence, rather than men of high attainments. To this class -of priests is due many of the strange practices which one will find -in the churches, or see done in the name of the Church in the remote -districts. Some of the processions are so grotesque that they seem -almost ridiculous, and certainly would not have the direct approval of -the Pontiff. As one of the priests said: “The ignorant people of these -regions are fond of demonstrations in which they can participate, and -it does them more good to carry a banner and walk in a procession than -you can imagine. If the Church does not provide such amusements, the -politicians will do so, and it is very important that we keep our people -under our own control.” It is upon this theory, that the ignorant natives -demand these public processions, that they are permitted to exist. But -the fact that they also provide a considerable source of revenue probably -has something to do with their continuation as well. - -In the city of Santiago a festival is held each year, which is a fair -illustration of the origin of many of these local celebrations. On -the fifth of May, 1848, there occurred in that city a most disastrous -earthquake. It was learned that a woman in that city, who had been -disgusted with the refusal of her particular saint to answer her prayers, -tore the image from the altar, and, stripping it of its decorations, -threw it into the street. At that very moment the earthquake began. -As it happened, however, a priest who was hurrying away from danger -saw the image, picked it up and carried it into a neighbouring church, -where it was reverently placed upon an altar. At that very moment the -earthquake ceased, and so from that time to this the fifth of May is -a holiday, which is second in importance only to Independence Day. It -used to be that this image was taken from the altar on these occasions, -carried through the streets under a scarlet canopy, and was followed by -a procession which included the president of the republic, his cabinet, -members of congress, justices, archbishop, bishop and all of the other -prelates of the Church and thousands of people with bands of music and -regiments of soldiers. This saint became known as Saint Cinco de Mayo -(Saint Fifth of May), because the woman who threw it into the street -and her family were killed in the earthquake, and it was impossible to -ascertain what particular saint it was originally intended to represent. -In recent years, however, this celebration has lost much of its -importance, although the Church still recognizes it as a regular holiday -in its calendar. - -The high fees charged for the services of the Church have been much -criticized, and deservedly so. In most places not a single service will -be performed without the payment of the fee in advance. This is specially -to be condemned in the case of the fees that are charged for marriages. -Although a marriage to be legal in Chile must have a civil ceremony, -for which only a small charge is made, yet those who are devoted to the -Church consider the religious ceremony the essential one. As the priests -will not perform this ceremony without the regular fee being paid, which -amounts to several dollars, and the contracting parties do not consider -the civil ceremony as of any value, because they are so instructed -by the priesthood, the result is that neither ceremony is performed, -and an injustice is done to all parties concerned. Even in the higher -circles great confusion sometimes arises where the man, for instance, -considers the civil ceremony necessary, and the woman, under the advice -of her counsellor, is not willing to have it performed. The result has -been considerable confusion, and also has made the Church and civil -authorities unnecessarily opposed to each other in many instances. - -Many claim that South America is not a legitimate field for Protestant -missionary work. Their theory is that the country was at one time -evangelized by missionaries, and therefore should not be touched by other -missionary effort. The fact is that religious conditions in South America -savour much of the darkness of the Middle Ages. There is to-day an -unbelief and utter indifference to spiritual things among the men, which -is hard to realize until one has had actual contact with it. Whatever -effort can better these conditions, and thereby improve the morals of -the people, should be encouraged. The Roman Catholics pursue their -efforts among the strongest Protestant countries, and they should not be -criticized for so doing. If they can reach a class or element that has -not been touched by Protestant effort, they are thereby doing good for -that nation and the world in general. True religion and true Christianity -should be recognized and encouraged under whatever name it may be found. -It would be far better if the Catholic Church in Chile, and other South -American countries, would welcome the Protestant ministers, and join -hands with them in their efforts to raise the standards of living among -the people. - -One will find signs of the Protestant invasion of Chile from Arica, -in the extreme north, to Tierra del Fuego. The movement has generally -been accompanied by educational enterprise, of which there are several -splendid examples in Chile. One of these is the American College for -Girls, and the Instituto Ingles, an institution for boys, both of which -are in Santiago. The former, which is under the control and direction -of the Methodist Episcopal Church, has achieved more than a national -reputation in Chile, and many of the very best families send their girls -to that college for their education. It is recognized as giving the very -best education that can be obtained in the Republic, and the enrollment -has included the names of the children of presidents of the republic, -and many others in high authority. The same may be said of the latter -institution, which is under the control of the American Presbyterian -Church, and which is always crowded to its utmost capacity, with many -names upon the waiting list who cannot be accommodated. The patrons of -the two institutions understand that the schools are Protestant schools, -that the Bible is read and studied, that morning prayers are compulsory, -but beyond that the students are at liberty to attend any religious -services that may be desired by the parents. Outside of the regular -religious services, no effort is made to alienate the students from the -church in which they have been baptized. The Methodists also conduct -grammar schools at Concepción and Iquique, and schools of the primary -and lower grammar grades at other places. In all more than fifty day -schools are conducted by these two denominations. The work that has been -begun is a beneficial one in a moral way, and the results have been very -satisfactory to those engaged in the work. - -At the present time the American Presbyterian and the Methodist Episcopal -Churches are the only American denominations that are aggressively -doing missionary work in Chile. The former began their work in 1873, -and the latter in 1878. The Methodists have thirty missionaries and a -large number of native workers assisting them, and have established -fifty-eight stations. The Presbyterians have twenty-six missionaries, and -these workers, together with native helpers, are at work in sixty-five -different communities. Both in Valparaiso and Santiago there is a Union -Church, to which members of various Protestant bodies come for the -religious services, and both of these churches are doing a very effective -work. - -The Protestant Anglican Church was the first to begin any evangelistic -work in Chile. Its first mission was established more than sixty years -ago. They began work in the extreme south, and still have stations -on Tierra del Fuego for the Indians. They also have churches at -Santiago, Valparaiso, Iquique, Concepción and Punta Arenas for the -English-speaking people who live in those cities. - -The American and British Bible Societies have aggressively spread over -the country. The colporteurs of these societies have gone up and down -over the country, by train and coach, on foot and mule-back, with copies -of the Scriptures in various languages. These books are sold for a very -small sum, and, if the person is too poor to buy, they are freely given. -The work has not always been easy or pleasant, for such deep prejudice is -oftentimes encountered that insults and little indignities have followed. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE - - -The subjugation and colonization of Chile was due to two causes. Pedro -de Valdivia, who had distinguished himself in Peru, wanted an empire for -himself, and Francisco Pizarro was desirous of ridding himself of so -formidable a rival. Valdivia was therefore graciously permitted to march -into and conquer at his own expense the country south of Peru. After many -months of preparation Valdivia set out on his expedition with one hundred -and fifty Spaniards, provided with horses and arms, one thousand Indians, -mostly carriers, and a supply of cattle, pigs, poultry and seeds of many -European plants. Thus equipped this cavalier set out from Lima, and -marched across the deserts of Arequipa, Tacna, Tarapacá and Atacama. He -reached the central valley of Chile without the loss of a single Spaniard -through sickness or desertion—a remarkable record. - -The first few years were hard ones for these colonists. Santiago was -founded and made the capitol. The Indians were hostile, and dissensions -soon arose among Valdivia’s followers. Several small parties of -reinforcements arrived, but the Spaniards’ position was always precarious -because of the fierce Araucanians. After Valdivia’s death in 1551, -misfortune followed misfortune in the new colony. Garcia Hurlado de -Mendoza, one of the viceroys of Peru, succeeded him as governor. This -man was a mere youth with no experience, and his rule was fraught -with disaster. He established churches and monastic orders, provided -magnificent shows and spectacles, but did not materially improve the -condition of the colony. Then came Francisco and Pedro de Villagran and -a number of other governors,—some good and more of them bad. The colony -slowly increased in numbers, but constant war with the Indians prevented -it from growing rapidly. The coast was swept several times by Dutch and -English pirates. Earthquakes and plagues reaped their harvests from -the inhabitants. But wealth was increasing. Thus passed the sixteenth, -seventeenth and part of the eighteenth centuries. It would be impossible -within the limits of this volume to detail all events, but some of the -Indian wars are mentioned in another chapter.[3] The usual narrow-sighted -policy of Spain toward all her dependencies was followed, and the local -disaffection grew more acute each year. - -It was Voltaire who said that “cruelty leads to independence.” The -colonial system of Spain in South and Central America, of which the -writer has had occasion to treat before, was one of selfishness, cruelty -and tyranny. Only the merchants of Cadiz were allowed to sell goods to -the colonists, and the colonists were permitted to sell their products -only to the same traders, who managed to reap a profit, owing to the -monopoly granted them, of as much as three hundred per cent. Local human -rights were not recognized by the government of Spain. It was treason -for a man to assert his freedom, or to seek a free field for his labour. -The natives were compelled to labour for the conquerors without profit. -Imposing buildings were constructed, cities were encircled with massive -walls, great monasteries, churches, and convents rose on the hills, -all by the unrequited toil of generations of these impressed natives. -Education was denied, and the local government, including the church -officials, united in this system of repression and disregard of human -rights. - -There was, however, another element which entered into final -independence. For this we must hark back to Spain for a moment. Charles -IV had resigned his throne in favour of his son, Ferdinand VII. The -colonists accepted this change because of their loyalty to the heredity -in line of succession, which had to them a religious as well as political -significance. Charles IV afterwards regretted his abdication and appealed -to Napoleon, who was then in the height of his power, alleging that the -abdication had not been voluntary. Napoleon poured troops into Spain, -and it was not long until Ferdinand VII was compelled to yield. Napoleon -then placed his favourite brother, Joseph, upon the throne of Spain. -Joseph was a well-meaning monarch, a man of far more principle than -his brother, who, perhaps, would have done well by the colonists, had -he been permitted to work out their destinies. The colonists, however, -felt no loyalty toward him, and would not recognize his authority. When -Ferdinand VII was finally restored to the throne after the downfall of -Napoleon, he became a tyrant, and violently opposed all liberal ideas. -The despotism that Napoleon had overthrown was reestablished. These -mistaken moves on the part of Ferdinand, a period of a few years during -which the Crown had been opposed, and the free air of America all had -tended to induce a spirit of liberalism and opposition to monarchy in the -New World. It was not long before Chile was caught in the same whirl as -the rest of the Spanish-American provinces. - -The approach of the end of almost three centuries of the colonial system -in Chile does not speak well for Spain. Trade was still restricted. The -post-office was a monopoly that had been farmed out to a private person. -A mail vessel arrived at Montevideo from Spain once in two months, and -from there the mails were transported across the Andes. There was a post -once a month between Concepción and Santiago, and twice a week between -Santiago and Valparaiso. Most people used private couriers or travellers -for their despatches. The only manufactures were the making of brandy and -wine, drying beef and tanning hides. - -No city, except Santiago, had more than six thousand people, and -that city had perhaps thirty thousand. Horse racing, cock-fighting, -bull-fighting and cards were the only amusements. The buildings were -creditable, but the streets were dirty, unlighted, and unsanitary. People -who went abroad at night had their servants carry lanterns before them. -Vice and disorder was everywhere. Robbery, brawls and assassination were -frequent. Begging was an intolerable curse. Titles of nobility were -common, and had been purchased by many unworthy persons. Decorations of -membership in orders of nobility had been scattered broadcast. There -was not even a school for girls in Santiago. The majority of the people -still lived in the country in homes that were without conveniences. They -had little furniture, but all were provided with an oratorio in which -each wandering missionary was expected to celebrate mass. The Indians -were held in practical slavery, and the landlords administered justice -over their tenants. A sentimental attachment, and also fear that a bad -condition might be made worse, kept these poor humans from leaving. -Diseases often became epidemic through the unsanitary conditions, so that -thousands were at times swept away. Concepción lost a fourth of its -population one year through the ravages of smallpox. It is probable that -at the beginning of the nineteenth century the total population of Chile, -exclusive of the Araucanian Indians, did not exceed a half million. - -There are two men by the name of O’Higgins prominent in Chilean history. -The first, Ambrosio O’Higgins, was born in Ireland in 1730, of humble -parentage. His uncle, a Spanish priest, sent the youth to South America, -and he finally landed in Chile. He first became a trader and peddler, -and then an engineer. During this latter employment he built the -_casuchas_, as the rest houses in the Uspallata pass are called. He also -distinguished himself in fights with the Indians, so that he received -government recognition. Plain Ambrose became Don Ambrosio. Then the Irish -youth, once a ragged, barefooted urchin, became successively Marquis of -Osorno, governor of Chile, and, finally, Viceroy of Peru. He died at -the age of eighty, in Peru, while he was filling the latter office. His -administration was marked by indefatigable activity. It was not until he -was sixty-eight years of age that he became captain-general of Chile, -which position he held for eight years. He introduced a number of -agricultural reforms and set aside many of the abuses on the plantations. -He constructed a passable road between Valparaiso and the capitol, where -none had hitherto been built, as the Spaniards were content to ride on -mules and carry their goods the same way. He improved the road over -the Andes via the Uspallata pass, as trade by this route had greatly -increased. Altogether the things accomplished by this energetic Irishman -were remarkable; his efforts and talents worked a great deal of good for -Chile and Peru. Had all the governors and viceroys been men of similar -character history would probably read differently. - -The year 1810 was fraught with direful consequences for Spain. In that -year Hidalgo sounded the _grito_ of independence in Mexico, and the -memorable assembly met in Buenos Aires, which was the forerunner of a -successful revolution. The news of the latter event, which happened -on the 25th of May, soon reached Santiago and fanned the fires of -revolution. On the 18th of September three hundred and fifty electors met -in that city and elected a _junta_ to take charge of the government. A -quiet submission to the new order of things followed for a few months. -A Congress was elected and opened with solemn religious ceremonies and -many eloquent speeches. But jealousies soon arose over the personnel of -the government _junta_, and several years of conflict with Spain and -internal dissension followed. The leaders of the patriot forces were -Bernardo O’Higgins, of Irish descent, Lord Cochrane, an Englishman, and -San Martin, an Argentinian. The disturbing element was contributed in the -main by three brothers, named Carrera. Though leaders for a while these -brothers, of whom José Miguel Carrera was the ablest one, all met violent -deaths at the hands of their indignant countrymen. - -[Illustration: JOSÉ DE SAN MARTIN.] - -Bernardo O’Higgins was born in Chillan, Chile, in 1776, an illegitimate -son of Ambrosio O’Higgins. He was educated in England, where he -imbibed republican sentiments. He returned to Chile a few years before -his father’s death, and immediately identified himself with the -revolutionists. By the year 1813 he was at the head of their forces. -He proved to be a man of wonderful activity, although not of military -training. Troubles between the Carreras and O’Higgins were unfortunate -for the patriot cause, but the latter was in the right and the -jealousies of the former thwarted him at every turn. After several years -of possession of the capitol by the revolutionists the loyalist forces -under General Osorio recaptured Santiago, and O’Higgins was compelled -to flee. The general fled to Mendoza and there joined General San -Martin, who was greatly impressed by the Irishman. For several years the -destinies of these two men were linked and intertwined. - -José de San Martin was a noble character, and his life was actuated by -unselfish principles. There was, according to the best accounts, a moral -grandeur in his character, which places him in the rank of the world’s -great leaders and patriots. No doubt he had his faults, which may have -been serious enough, but his life was far above his contemporaries, -and he has given us a sample of self abnegation which is well worth -remembering. He gave his sword to the best interests of the human race, -and when he found that his presence might not serve the cause of humanity -in the nations he had liberated, he went into exile and poverty.[4] - -Here is a pen picture of San Martin written by one who interviewed him -at Lima: “On the 25th of June I had an interview with General San Martin -on board a little schooner anchored in Callao Roads. There was little -at first sight in his appearance to engage attention, but when he arose -and began to speak his great superiority over every other person I have -seen in South America was sufficiently apparent. He received us in a very -simple style on the deck of his vessel, dressed in a surtout coat and a -large fur cap, seated at a table made of a few loose planks laid along -the top of two empty casks. Upon this occasion his views and feelings -were decidedly stated. ‘The contest in Peru,’ said he ‘is not a war of -conquest and culture, but entirely of opinion. It is a war of new and -liberal principles against prejudices, bigotry and tyranny. I do not want -military recognition; I have no ambition to become conqueror of Peru; I -want solely to liberate the country from oppression.’” - -In 1822 San Martin decided that he wanted to meet Bolivar. A meeting -was arranged between the two to take place at Guayaquil, on the coast -of Ecuador. Bolivar had driven the Spaniards from Venezuela, Colombia -and Ecuador, but had not proceeded farther south. San Martin wished -to cooperate with him in the subjugation of Peru. Bolivar came to the -city with some fifteen hundred men, and entered the city under arches -of triumph. San Martin arrived by sea on a little vessel called the -Macedonia. He landed and passed through files of soldiers who had been -drawn up to do him honour. When the two heroes met they embraced, entered -the house arm in arm and were left alone. What actually occurred no one -knows, as neither of the principals ever revealed the conversation. It is -known, however, from subsequent events, that San Martin decided upon self -abnegation, which, he believed, would be best for the cause of liberty. A -great ball was given to the two heroes, which was preceded by a banquet. -Bolivar loved these festive occasions, but San Martin avoided them -whenever possible. - -After his return to Peru San Martin wrote to Bolivar as follows: “My -decision is irrevocable. I have convened the Congress of Peru; the day -after its meeting I shall leave for Chile, believing that my presence is -the only obstacle that keeps you from going to Peru with your army.” - -Upon his resigning his office San Martin delivered a speech, of which the -following is a part. “I have witnessed the declaration of independence -of the states of Chile and Peru. I hold in my possession the standard -which Pizarro brought to enslave the empire of the Incas. I have ceased -to be a public man. Thus I am more than rewarded for ten years spent -in revolution and warfare. My promises to the countries in which I -warred are fulfilled—to make them independent and leave to their will -the elections of the governments. The presence of a fortunate soldier, -however disinterested he may be, is dangerous to newly constituted -states. I am also disgusted with hearing that I wish to make myself -a sovereign. Nevertheless, I shall always be ready to make the last -sacrifice for the liberty of the country, but in the class of the -private individual, and no other. With respect to my public conduct, my -compatriots (as is generally the case) will be divided in their opinions. -Their children will pronounce the true verdict. Peruvians! I leave your -national representation established. If you impose implicit confidence in -it, you will triumph. If not, anarchy will swallow you up. May success -preside over your destinies, and may they be crowned with felicity and -peace!” - -There were at least five great battles that decided the liberty of South -America. One of the greatest of these was that of Maipo, or Maipu, which -was fought on Chilean soil. Although this battle lasted only a few -hours, it was the result of years of careful preparation by San Martin. -In 1814 San Martin, who was then in Buenos Aires, decided that the best -way to free Argentina was to drive the Spaniards from the West Coast, -as that was the principal seat of their power. He accordingly sought -the governorship of the province of Cuyo, which bordered on Chile, and -repaired there to begin his real preparation. The _junta_, that governed -Buenos Aires, gave him a small body of troops, which San Martin had -already drilled and made effective soldiers. To these were added Chilean -exiles, slaves who had been freed, and others whom he could gather at -Mendoza, in the foothills of the Andes, which was his capitol. For two -years he trained these men, gathered his artillery and ammunition and -made his preparation to cross the passes of the Andes. No detail had -been omitted by this careful organizer. To no one did he reveal his -plans until he was ready for the start, then his army, which numbered -about four thousand, was divided into two bodies, which proceeded through -different passes across the border into Chile. More than seven thousand -mules had been collected for the soldiers to ride, and every mule was -shod. Specially designed sledges had been constructed on which to carry -the guns. Jerked beef, parched corn and other supplies had been prepared -for food in large quantities. - -The lonely and desolate passes of the mountains suddenly disgorged a -well-equipped and disciplined army on Chilean soil. The royalist forces -were taken by surprise, although reports had from time to time reached -the commander. General Maroto concentrated his forces on the ridge of -Chacabuco, whose yellowish-brown hills are almost devoid of vegetation. -There was no definite road over this ridge, which consisted of an -intricate complexity of steep-sided little valleys, or barrancas. General -San Martin divided his forces, the command of one section being given to -O’Higgins. Both sections attacked the Spanish forces vigorously, and the -latter soon gave way through the very force of the onslaught. - -O’Higgins formed his infantry in a solid column, and with drums beating, -advanced against the enemy’s front. The men were greatly fatigued by -their march, and the sun was beating down fiercely. After a slight -repulse O’Higgins and his infantry made a bayonet charge. The shock was -terrible, and the Spanish lines first wavered and then broke and ran. -The defeat was decisive for the royalist forces. The Spaniards left -two-thirds of their number on the field of battle or in the hands of the -victors. The loss of San Martin was insignificant, for his casualties did -not exceed one hundred and fifty. The Spanish governor abandoned Santiago -that same night, and General San Martin and his army entered it two days -later, on the 14th of February, 1817, in triumph. - -When the army reached Santiago a popular assembly was convened. The -dictatorship was offered to San Martin, but he declined. O’Higgins was -then selected and accepted. The country, however, was in a deplorable -condition. The new dictator exiled a bishop and many priests, shut up -traitorous women in convents and began vigorous measures to preserve -order. But the war was not yet over. Several sanguinary engagements -followed. - -General Osorio landed with an army at Talcahuano and slowly proceeded -northward. San Martin and O’Higgins endeavoured to entice him as far -as the river Maule, after the country had been thoroughly devastated. -General Osorio made an unexpected night attack at Cancha-Rayada and -inflicted a terrible defeat on the patriotic forces. San Martin retreated -in good order, and took up his position along a ridge of low hills about -two miles from Santiago. Osorio established himself on a similar ridge. -Between the two forces was a plain about half a mile in width. On this -plain was fought the battle of Maipo on the 5th of April, 1818. - -The day was exquisitely beautiful, and the sky was clear and serene. San -Martin opened with a strong artillery fire from both his right and left -flank. He then ordered a general advance. The horse grenadiers, who had -accompanied him from Argentina, charged the Spanish lines furiously. -Other battalions charged the royalist right, which was made up of -veterans of the Peninsular wars. The Spanish cavalry were driven from the -field. San Martin brought his reserves into action and the Spaniards -began an orderly retreat. They withdrew to the buildings and walled -enclosures of a _hacienda_. These were soon broken down by the patriot -guns. The closing scenes were horrible. The infuriated patriots showed no -mercy, and the _patios_ and gardens were soon littered with the dead. The -result, after several hours of fierce fighting, was of a most decisive -character. The Spaniards’ loss was nearly three thousand. The remainder -were flying in every direction, with the enemy in close pursuit. Osorio -finally reached Talcahuano with only ten men, the remnant of the -original force of five thousand that entered the battle of Maipo. The -revolutionists’ loss was eight hundred killed and one thousand wounded. -Spain at last realized the strength of her opposition. - -The war for liberty now turns toward Peru. Soon after the decisive battle -of Maipo San Martin reverted to his original plan to invade Peru. The -_junta_ at Buenos Aires commanded him to return to Argentina and aid them -in that city. But he refused to be drawn into the local struggle between -the different factions that were seeking to obtain control of the -government. He began work on his new expedition with the same careful -and methodical plans to gather about him an effective army as he had at -Mendoza. The survivors of that army were loyal to their commander, and -they willingly volunteered for this new enterprise. Others were added, -and all were carefully drilled. Supplies and ammunition were gathered. It -was not until 1820, however, that San Martin was ready to embark for Peru -with an army of four thousand one hundred men. This force was conveyed to -the Peruvian coast by the Chilean navy under command of Lord Cochrane, -who played an important part in driving the Spaniards from this coast and -liberating Chile and Peru from their domination. - -The name of Lord Cochrane is an honoured one in Chile, and the visitor -will find numerous monuments and memorials to that British soldier of -fortune. Thomas Cochrane was the tenth Earl of Dundonald, and was born in -Armsfield, Scotland, on the 14th of December, 1775. He became a member of -the House of Commons, and was an officer in the royal navy. One writer -says of him: “He was, after the death of Nelson, the most notable naval -commander in that age of glory.” He had made a reputation for himself as -a daring officer during the Peninsular War. In 1814 he was accused of -spreading a report of the death of Napoleon, and was fined, and expelled -from the navy and Commons. He was also sentenced to a year in prison, -which he served. - -Angered and embittered by what he considered the unjust treatment of his -country, Lord Cochrane accepted a commission from the revolutionary party -of Chile to take charge of their little navy. He arrived in that country -on the 28th of November, 1818. For the construction and equipment of -this little fleet ladies had given their jewels, and even church plate -had been contributed. He arrived in time to cooperate with San Martin in -the movement that was then being formulated for the advance against the -Spaniards in Peru. Maipo had already been won. With four little vessels -conveying the transports Cochrane started for Callao and arrived there -safely. The Spanish gunboats were anchored under the protection of the -batteries on shore. A terrific fire was opened on the _O’Higgins_, which -was the flagship, as the other boats were not able to get within range -because of a calm. Cochrane’s enthusiasm was caught by the crew, and -they successfully withstood the onslaught of several hundred guns. The -_Esmeralda_, the best ship of the Spaniards, was captured by strategy. -Cochrane always led his men in person, and was ever in the midst of the -greatest danger. His courage and recklessness soon won for the doughty -admiral the name of “El Diablo.” He declared and maintained a blockade -of the entire Peruvian coast. He used fire-ships which scattered terror -amongst the enemy. His vigorous tactics made his name feared by the -Spaniards and Peruvians, so that the battle was half won before it was -begun. And yet his crews and officers would be generally considered -unsatisfactory, for they were composed for the most part of adventurers. -He captured Valdivia by a clever ruse, which was the strongest fortified -place on the Pacific coast. - -Cochrane had the misfortune of a bad temper, and quarrelled with nearly -every one in authority. He could not understand San Martin’s deliberation -in attacking Peru, so that these two men, both able and honest, could -not work together. He quarrelled with O’Higgins and others. He drove the -Spanish fleet off the Pacific waters from Guayaquil south. He cleared -the waters of pirates, and to him in great part was due the emancipation -of Chile and Peru—all of this in two and one-half years. Cochrane finally -left Chile and commanded the Brazilian navy from 1823-5, which position -he resigned because of charges of insubordination. He then went to Greece -and commanded their army for two years. Finally his good name was cleared -in England and he returned to his native country, and had achieved the -high rank of rear-admiral in the British navy when he died at the ripe -old age of eighty-five. - -The victory of Maipo, although won at great loss, forever settled the -Spanish power in Chile. Absolute independence from Spain was at once -proclaimed. O’Higgins managed to introduce a few reforms, but the country -was still lawless, disturbed and unsettled. Armed bands of robbers, -calling themselves royalists, attacked haciendas and villages, and -murdered travellers. The dictator did the best he could and introduced -many reforms in procedure. Even these improvements seemed to bring -discontent. He was always optimistic, which was not for the best. Some -men in whom he placed confidence betrayed it. The priests were insidious -in their preaching, as they favoured the royalty. The Indians were -incited to rebellion whenever possible. - -Traitors arose among the malcontents. Others were jealous of O’Higgins. -San Martin and Lord Cochrane were both appointed to head the opposition, -but each declined. One General Freire consented. An assembly was -convened, which the dictator attended. After a stormy scene O’Higgins -resigned his office rather than plunge the country into civil war. The -withdrawal of his firm but kindly hand was a great loss to Chile. He went -to Peru, where he died an exile at Lima in 1842. - -The long struggle with Spain had accustomed the Chileans to military -service, and the control of the country naturally fell into the hands of -the military element. Once the common danger disappeared, intrigue and -personal ambition ran riot and led to a condition of affairs bordering on -anarchy. Chile, however, never acquired the revolutionary habit to such -an extent as its neighbours, for there was a powerful landed aristocracy -whose interests lay in the cultivation of the soil, for which peace was -necessary. Anarchy lasted only for a few years, and then followed four -decades during which time four successive presidents ruled the country -for two terms of five years each. - -After the resignation of O’Higgins, in January, 1823, Congress offered -the dictatorship to General Freire, who was then marching against the -capital with a considerable force. A constitution was promulgated, but it -proved to be only so much waste paper, for Freire soon suspended it. He -quarrelled with the Church authorities, banished the Bishop of Santiago -and issued decrees confiscating ecclesiastical property. Congress was -dissolved. A new election was ordered, but only a few members were -chosen. Political confusion followed, but another Congress was elected -that limited the dictator’s powers. He maintained his position only by -the use of sheer force. - -In 1826 Freire succeeded in driving the Spaniards from the island of -Chiloé, which was their last stronghold. This victory temporarily -strengthened his prestige somewhat, although the liberals were daily -becoming stronger. A financial crisis was impending as the expenses -exceeded the revenues. Freire was temporarily replaced by Manuel -Blanco Encalada. But things became worse and Freire was recalled. -This restoration lasted only a few months when he resigned in favour -of General Pinto. Pinto succeeded for a while in suppressing the -disturbances, and endeavoured to introduce some reforms in the army -and finances. A new Congress wrestled with the constitutional problem. -Rivalries among the leaders were too much for him. It was too easy for -the aristocratic landlords to get up an army from among their peons, -or inquilinos. A whole series of presidents and dictators followed in -the next couple of years. Social as well as political anarchy reigned -supreme. Disorders were prevalent, robberies occurred daily and life was -unsafe. - -Order was gradually coming out of chaos, however, for peace began to -appear above the political horizon. With the battle of Lircay the -conservatives, under General Prieto and Bulnes, won a decisive victory -over the other elements. Freire fled and a horrible slaughter followed, -for the victors were merciless. Freire himself and his partisans were -banished to Peru, and his sympathizers removed from the army. - -[Illustration: CONGRESS PALACE, SANTIAGO.] - -At the election in 1831, General Don Joaquin Prieto was chosen chief -magistrate. Although he owed his elevation to the military power, the -new President did not attempt the role of dictator at first. He was -ably seconded by his chief cabinet officer, Señor Portales, one of the -ablest statesmen that Chile has produced. After two years of careful -preparation a new constitution was promulgated in 1833. Although it has -been amended from time to time to meet new conditions, just as has our -own constitution, this instrument has remained the fundamental law of the -land. It gave to Chile a strong and stable government. The foundation of -the government, under the franchise conditions, was the property-holding -class. Political power originated in an oligarchy which obtained control -of Congress. Although such a possibility was not designed in the -constitution, it gradually developed a government by dictators. This was -due to the turbulent character of the people. Extraordinary powers were -granted from time to time in order to suppress revolutionary outbreaks. -These powers included the right to suspend the constitutional guarantees, -to imprison and exile political suspects without trial, and to adopt -such other arbitrary measures as the executive might deem advisable. All -of these powers were invoked by President Prieto before the end of his -first term. - -As there was no constitutional inhibition against a second term Prieto -was reelected in 1836, and Portales retained his portfolio. All branches -of the government had been reformed over the former chaotic conditions, -and industrial progress had been rapid. The credit of the country was -good, and interest was paid promptly. Life in the new republic, however, -was not dull. It was sometimes necessary to put down disorders with a -firm hand. Opponents were banished without mercy. Peru seemed to have -favoured those who sought refuge on her soil, and war was declared -against that republic. Several battles were fought, and Chile captured -the entire Peruvian navy, consisting of three vessels. Portales was -killed, and a serious repulse finally compelled Prieto to make peace. -This caused trouble at home, and it gave Prieto’s enemies a chance to -denounce the war and its outcome. A new expedition was sent against -Peru under General Bulnes, and this expedition was successful. The -Bolivian-Peruvian dictator was overwhelmingly defeated, and this success -made Chile the dominant power on the Pacific Coast, a position which it -has retained ever since. - -At the election in 1841 General Manuel Bulnes was chosen president. He -was a very distinguished soldier. Owing to his training as a soldier, -President Bulnes had little idea of any method of administration other -than by force. His course toward political opponents was severe, and -all attempts to dispute his authority were crushed with an iron hand. -Nevertheless, during the ten years administration of Bulnes, prosperity -made great strides and Chile became a nation of influence and importance. -The growth of the customs revenues placed the government finances on a -sound footing. The President fostered education and other reforms. A more -liberal religious atmosphere began to grow up. Mines were discovered and -opened. The Liberals began to be more numerous, but Bulnes was outspoken -in his opposition to them. In spite of their opposition he succeeded in -selecting Manuel Montt as his own successor in 1851. - -The new President was a civilian and had been a member of the Supreme -Court, and many reforms were expected from him. More would probably have -been granted by him, for his standing was of the highest, had not a -serious disturbance broken out just a few days after his inauguration. -The headquarters of the revolutionists were at Concepción. Proceeding -toward the capital they won several small victories. The decisive -battle of Loncomilla followed, however, in which the government was -victorious, but not until five thousand Chileans had lost their lives -in this internecine warfare. Peace and general amnesty followed this -victory, and equilibrium was quickly established. Montt welcomed liberals -among his followers. A number of administrative reforms were adopted, -although the liberal program was strenuously opposed. New treaties with -the leading commercial nations were negotiated. Nevertheless the policy -of centralizing the entire government with the bureaucracy of Santiago -was followed up. Many leading liberals were exiled. During his second -term Montt attempted to grant a greater degree of political liberties, -but insurrections broke out in the north and south, and there was bloody -rioting in Valparaiso. This led to a renewal of drastic measures. Montt -finally came into open rupture with Congress, because it favoured the -return of his political enemies, among whom were some of the ablest -men in the republic. The clergy were angry because they were compelled -to submit their decisions to the civil tribunals. He became more and -more dictatorial in his methods. Newspapers were suppressed, meetings -dispersed, and agitators imprisoned. President Montt succeeded in putting -down the various insurrections. In spite of defeat on the field of battle -the liberals in fact won a victory, for their cause was forced on the -government. It was obliged to make some concessions in order to prevent -a renewal of the conflict. The government was in this condition when -Montt’s second term reached an end in 1861. - -José Joaquin Perez, a man of high personal prestige, was unanimously -chosen as Montt’s successor. From the very commencement of his -administration Chile began to enjoy a freedom unknown in the preceding -thirty years. Criticism of the government was encouraged, instead of -being treated as a crime to be punished by imprisonment or banishment. -The policy of President Perez was one of conciliation, in order to unite -the discordant elements. A law was at once passed granting amnesty to -political offenders. The extraordinary powers heretofore granted to -dictatorial presidents was not even asked for by Perez, nor did he -need it. Railroads were opened up, and colonists began to come in. -Fierce parliamentary struggles over certain reform measures followed in -Congress, and there were many changes of ministry. - -The only serious disturbance of the Perez administration was a brief -war with Spain, which occurred in 1864-5. The dispute was primarily -between Spain and Peru, but Chile took the part of the latter, for fear -that Spain might seek to reestablish her authority in South America. -As a result Valparaiso was blockaded by the Spaniards and bombarded. -Millions of dollars worth of property were destroyed in a few hours, -but the Chileans would not yield and grant the apology demanded. Public -feeling ran very high for a few months. Chile had only one war-ship, but -this boat captured a Spanish gunboat. This so humiliated the Spanish -commander, Admiral Pareja, that he suicided. Although the war did not -officially end for many years, nothing hostile was done by Spain after -the bombardment of Valparaiso. Perez was reelected as a matter of course -in 1866, and finished his second term. Pressure for amendments to the -constitution had become very strong, for the foreign influences were -becoming noticeable. A measure was passed forbidding a president to be -reelected to succeed himself, and this marks an important step in the -evolution of political ideals. A desperate effort was made to enfranchise -all who could read and write. This measure, although favoured by Perez, -was defeated, but the property qualification was greatly reduced. In -every way the two administrations of President Perez marked the beginning -of a new era in Chilean affairs. The rights of the people began to -receive greater consideration from politicians. - -The election of 1871 was hotly contested. The liberals were very -aggressive. The conservatives united with the moderates, and Federico -Errázuriz, an astute politician, was chosen. This election practically -marks the elimination of the conservatives as an important element for -several presidential terms. It was not long after this election until -more radical elements controlled Congress, and Errázuriz sided with the -liberals in their program of reforms. The great issue was the amenability -of the clergy to the civil law. The anti-clerical party forced through -this law, and made concessions to Protestant worship. The requirement of -obligatory teaching of the Catholic religion in the public schools was -greatly modified. The Archbishop promptly excommunicated all who voted -for these laws, and the breach between the liberals and clericals was -further widened. The administration of President Errázuriz was marked -by considerable internal improvement and the beginning of a greater -navy, which was soon to be very useful. Political reforms went forward -with increasing momentum, but not without the usual results. As soon as -the liberals had things in their power, the various factions into which -they were divided began to intrigue among themselves for congressional -majorities. Material prosperity had continued until the great world panic -of 1873. The government customs fell and financial troubles followed, but -the debt was successfully refunded. One of the most remarkable features -of this administration was that the same Prime Minister held his office -during the entire term of four years without interruption. - -The election of 1876 brought out several candidates. In former years the -retiring President had practically selected his successor. More liberal -ideas now prevailed, and the Chileans were called upon to decide for -themselves who should be their chief magistrate. There were three active -candidates, among whom was Señor Anibal Pinto, who was nominated by the -moderates and elected. President Pinto was a man of studious habits and -a strong advocate of peaceful measures. And yet this man of peace was -called upon to preside over the nation during one of its most severe -trials. Never did he falter, even when war became necessary, and never -did he waver in his determination to protect Chilean interests. - -The dispute with Argentina over the southern boundary had by this time -become acute. Public feeling in both republics had reached such a stage -that peace was threatened. A previous treaty had declared that the -boundary should be the same as in colonial times. This was hazy and -uncertain, because that section had been and still was uninhabited. No -one had ever been concerned about it. Chile had always claimed the Andes -to the east and Cape Horn to the south. Punta Arenas had been founded -thirty-five years previously without serious opposition from Argentina. -For years this controversy continued between the two countries, but -impending war with Peru hastened a treaty. The territorial limitations -were finally decided upon and Chile practically got all that she had -contended for. Chile obtained practical control of both ends of the -Straits, although the channel was declared neutral and neither nation can -erect any fortifications along it. - -A severe economic crisis, due to the depression in the mining industry, -also disturbed this administration, but this situation was met as well -as it could be. But all the troubles of President Pinto pale before the -sanguinary war conducted against the combined forces of Peru and Bolivia, -in which the lives of twenty thousand of his subjects were sacrificed. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -THE NITRATE WAR - - -The early Spaniards were very little interested in geography, and the -boundaries between the provinces were often very vaguely described. Since -the independence of the various provinces these boundary lines have been -the cause of many disputes, and, in many instances, have nearly plunged -neighbouring republics into bloody war. The most serious dispute still -unsettled is between Peru and Ecuador, which involves a large part of the -territory of the latter republic. - -The older readers will remember that, when they studied geography, -Bolivia had a stretch of sea coast along the desert of Atacama. For a -considerable time after independence was secured little attention was -paid to Atacama, since it was regarded as worthless for colonization. -Chile claimed sovereignty, and its jurisdiction was generally recognized. -The year 1840 brought a change. In that year the wealth of fertilizer -along that coast began to be exploited. Disputes soon arose between Chile -and Bolivia as to the boundary line. The various claims made by Bolivia -were inconsistent. War threatened, and diplomatic relations between the -two countries were broken off. The outbreak of hostilities between Spain -and Peru united the two countries against what they considered a common -enemy. A treaty was drawn up in 1866 by which the 24th degree of south -latitude was agreed upon as the actual boundary, although the Chileans -were allowed to continue their operations in the nitrate regions beyond -that line. Furthermore, Chile was to pay over to Bolivia half the customs -received between the 24th and 25th degrees, and Bolivia was to hand over -to Chile half the customs received between the 23rd and 24th degrees, -south latitude. It was also provided that neither party to the treaty -could alienate its rights to a foreign government. - -[Illustration: DIGGING NITRATE.] - -This treaty gave rise to continual disputes. Chile regarded this -settlement as a final solution of the dispute, but Bolivia refused or -neglected to live up to her part of the agreement. By a later treaty -Chile renounced her claims between these two degrees, with the agreement -on the part of Bolivia that the export duties on mineral products from -that zone should not be increased, and that Chilean industries and -citizens should not be subjected to higher taxes than then prevailed. -This treaty was to remain in force for twenty-five years. The capital -invested in that zone was almost exclusively Chilean, and the labourers -employed were also of that nationality. Peru had large interests in the -nitrate industry and began to intrigue with Bolivia, in order to prevent -a ruinous competition in the market. So long as Chilean enterprise was -left free this monopoly was impossible. As the interests of Peru and -Bolivia were opposed to those of Chile, these two republics, in 1872, -entered into a secret treaty of alliance. Like many state secrets this -one became public, and Chile began to prepare for a conflict, which -seemed impending, by purchasing ironclads and in other ways strengthening -her navy. - -In 1870 a revolution occurred in Bolivia, and a new government came -into power which refused to carry out the provisions of the last treaty -entered into with Chile. It, furthermore, at the alleged suggestion -of Peru, attempted to increase the taxes upon all nitrate exports, -in absolute violation of its treaty obligations. The manager of a -Chilean company was imprisoned, and the property was confiscated on his -refusal to pay the enhanced tax. Chile issued an ultimatum through her -diplomatic representative. Upon the refusal of the Bolivian government -to recede, Chile landed troops at Antofagasta and took possession of -that city. Bolivia declared war against Chile on the 1st of March, 1879, -and, because Peru refused to abrogate the secret treaty between it and -Bolivia, Chile declared war against Peru the following month. Most -writers lay the blame for the war entirely upon the aggressiveness and -covetousness of Chile, but a careful study of the situation shows great -moderation on the part of Chile for a long period of time. - -It was generally believed that the Peruvian navy was far superior to that -of Chile, but, as a matter of fact, they were pretty evenly matched. For -several years Chile had steadily strengthened her naval forces. Peru -had suffered from internal dissensions and corrupt administrations, and -was ill prepared for war. Bolivia was in still worse condition. At the -time of the outbreak of hostilities the only available arms were fifteen -hundred Remington rifles, and the stock of ammunition was small; the rest -of the army was equipped with old flint-lock muskets. The bulk of both -the Peruvian and Bolivian armies were Indians. The Chilean army was not -large at the time of the declaration of war, but its personnel, man for -man, was far superior to either of its adversaries. The Chileans were -likewise prompt and energetic in their preparations for war. The land -forces were increased, and both naval and army supplies were accumulated -at strategic points. Because of the long stretch of sea coast it was -inevitable that the navies of the two countries would bear the brunt of -the fighting, as subsequent events proved. - -The naval war was opened with the blockade of Iquique by the Chileans. -With Iquique as a rendezvous the Chilean navy visited various ports, and -inflicted serious damage to commercial interests. The aim was to deprive -Peru of her main source of revenue. Peru had an intrepid and doughty -admiral by the name of Grau, who commanded the Peruvian fleet, of which -the _Huascar_ was the flagship. While the main part of the Chilean navy -was away from Iquique, two Peruvian boats appeared in that harbour. The -_Huascar_ rammed and sank the _Esmeralda_, one of the best of the Chilean -ships, after four hours of heavy firing. It was at this fight that Arturo -Prat, who was in command of the _Esmeralda_, made a hero of himself by -leaping upon the deck of the _Huascar_. “Follow me,” said this brave -officer, as he boarded the _Huascar_, sword in hand. The ships, however, -separated so quickly that only one man was able to follow him. Prat -rushed along the deck of the ship as though he himself had captured it. -“Surrender, Captain,” said Admiral Grau, “we wish to save the life of a -hero.” Prat refused, and was soon cut down while still fighting with his -sword. The _Esmeralda_ sank with colours flying, and only fifty out of a -crew of two hundred were saved. Before the conflict ended, however, Peru -also lost one vessel, the _Independencia_, which ran upon the rocks while -pursuing the Chilean _Covadonga_. - -For four months Admiral Grau traversed the Pacific coast from Arica to -Valparaiso. He prevented the transport of the Chilean army northward. -Discontent grew rapidly. The Chileans decided that they could do nothing -until they rid themselves of this doughty seaman. Their navy was divided -into two squadrons, both of which began patrolling the coast. The -_Huascar_ was accompanied by the Bolivian _Union_. These two vessels -were cruising together near Antofagasta on October 8th, 1879. When the -mist, which had been thick, lifted, they made out three distinct clouds -of smoke toward the northeast. These were soon recognized as one of -the Chilean squadrons. Admiral Grau fled, but soon ran into the other -squadron approaching him from the direction in which he was fleeing. The -Admiral at once decided that the only thing to do was to close with the -_Cochrane_ before the other boats could come up, and steamed straight -for that boat. None of the shots of either boat were effective until -they were in close quarters, when a chance shot disabled the _Huascar’s_ -turret. Grau tried to ram the _Cochrane_, but the latter was too quick -for her. By this time the Chilean _Blanco_ had come up and added her -shots to those of her sister boat. A shot struck the conning-tower, in -which the Admiral was stationed, and blew that commander into atoms. A -little later the second officer, and then the next one in seniority, were -killed, which demoralized the Peruvian crew. One-third of the officers -and men had been either killed or wounded when the vessel was finally -surrendered. This fight is interesting not only because it was one of the -deciding events of the war, but it was the first fight between modern -ironclads. The entire engagement lasted but little over an hour. After -repairs the _Huascar_ was incorporated into the Chilean navy. - -The capture of the _Huascar_ gave the Chileans the absolute command of -the sea, and enabled them to land an army wherever they pleased along -the coast. Nor did the Chileans delay their onward march. A Chilean army -of ten thousand men, well-equipped, had been landed at Antofagasta, and -other regiments were in Valparaiso ready to embark as occasion arose. On -the 28th of October this army was embarked on fifteen transports convoyed -by four men-of-war. The destination was kept a profound secret, but a -few days later they steamed into the harbour of Pisagua. A small force -of Bolivians defended this port, but they were unable to prevent the -landing of the Chilean troops. A brief skirmish ensued but the Bolivians -were soon in retreat. The allied forces of Peruvians and Bolivians had an -army of some nineteen thousand men at Iquique. These men were marched -out to meet the invaders. The march of these forces across the desert -regions was difficult because of the lack of provisions, and especially -the scant supply of water, from which the troops greatly suffered in many -instances. The Chileans had established themselves at Dolores and San -Francisco, where there was an abundant supply of fresh water. - -The majority of the allied armies were Inca and Aymara Indians. They had -generally been recruited by force. Villages would be surrounded, and -all the men that could be caught were impressed into the ranks. They -were generally obedient and brave, and were capable of enduring hunger, -thirst and fatigue such as would have overwhelmed white troops. They were -unequalled in their capacity to make long marches with scant supplies of -food and water. In no other way could the Chileans have been withstood. -The wives of many accompanied them. These women are called _rabonas_, -and were regularly recognized. As soon as a halt was made these women -immediately busied themselves in preparing the food. After the battles -they ministered to the wounded. Callous to all danger hundreds of these -faithful helpmates met death on the field of carnage. - -The first battle occurred at San Francisco and Porvenir. The vanguard -of the allies was made up of Indians from the Lake Titicaca district. -They were led by the brave Colonel Espinar. As these forces led a charge -against the Chilean guns a bullet pierced his forehead, and he fell -mortally wounded. A cry of grief and horror fell from his countrymen and -their courage failed. Disputing every inch of ground they fell back to -the main body of troops. The battle so gallantly fought resulted in a -decisive victory for the Chileans. - -General Buendia, commander of the allied forces, retreated to the village -of Tarapacá, which was a collection of mud huts. It is situated in a -narrow but fertile valley not to exceed six hundred yards in width, -and he there awaited the attack which he knew was soon to follow. With -practically no cavalry and a dozen antiquated field-guns the prospect -was not alluring. The odds seemed hopeless. He was not kept long in -suspense. A force under Colonel Arteaga consisting of picked men, cavalry -and artillery soon appeared. The aim was the complete destruction of -the allied army. For this purpose the force had been divided into three -divisions. - -A mist hung over the little valley while the Peruvian army rested with -stacked arms. Suddenly a muleteer galloped up to the commander and -reported the enemy approaching. Then two others reported the other -divisions. It looked as though they were being surrounded and caught in a -trap. Then came the call to arms. The men responded and advanced up the -bluffs against a withering fire. The stoical Indians saw their leaders -fall, but they set their teeth and continued the advance. The Chileans at -last found their equals. The allied forces were embarrassed by a lack of -artillery, but fought desperately. Many were the deeds of heroism of that -day. After a few hours of fighting they captured some guns from the enemy -and used them to good advantage. The result of the battle was a decided -victory for the allies, their only real victory of the war on land. San -Francisco was atoned for, and the loss of the _Huascar_ avenged. The -total loss was twelve hundred men, about equally divided. The allies -nevertheless retreated across the desert to Tacna, as it was impossible -to maintain an army in the interior and they were not strong enough to -recapture Iquique. In this way General Buendia saved the flower of his -army. In several battles of this campaign several thousand troops were -lost on each side, but, as a result, the Chileans came into control of -all of the nitrate country. Several months later Tacna was captured, and, -with the battle of Arica, which has heretofore been described, all of -present-day Chile was in control of the victors. - -The disasters to the armies of the allies caused revolutions in both -Peru and Bolivia, and the President of each of those countries fled to -Europe. Armed revolts arose and fighting took place in the streets of -Lima. The position of Peru was desperate. With her navy destroyed Peru -could no longer defend herself against the aggressions of the enemy on -the sea. The Chileans blockaded Callao, and a marauding expedition under -Captain Lynch bombarded a number of coast towns. Captain Lynch had been -ordered to ravage the whole coast north of Callao, and he executed his -instructions to the letter, destroying government and private property -in every direction. Several Chilean boats were sunk in the harbour of -Callao through ingenious schemes of the Peruvians. On one occasion the -Chileans saw a boat loaded with fresh provisions. They began to transfer -these supplies to the _Loa_. As the last of the cargo was being hoisted -aboard, a terrific explosion occurred that sank the _Loa_. It was no -doubt due to an infernal machine that had been placed in the bottom. The -_Covadonga_ was destroyed by a similar explosion on a small boat captured -in the harbour by the Chileans. - -The United States offered its mediation in October, 1880, and -commissioners of the three countries met on board the corvette -_Lackawanna_ of the United States navy, in the harbour of Arica. The -first meeting took place on the 22nd of October, when the American -minister took the chair and announced the purpose of the convention. -He added that the American representatives would take no part in the -discussion, but would be glad to help with friendly suggestions. The -Chilean commissioners presented a memorandum of their demands, which -was in substance what was eventually granted, but the Peruvians refused -such hard terms, thinking that foreign intervention would save them. -Chile absolutely refused arbitration or a full war indemnity, and the -convention broke up without any progress having been made towards peace. - -The delay of a few months in the progress of the war had enraged the -volatile Chileans, and those in charge of the war finally decided that -it would be necessary to capture Lima. An expeditionary force of thirty -thousand men of all arms was organized, transports were purchased and -the resources of the country were taxed to the utmost to carry on this -expedition. The army was formed into three divisions, one of which, under -Captain Patrick Lynch, was ordered to land at Pisco. A second division -was instructed to disembark at Curayaco Bay, which was one hundred miles -nearer the capital than Pisco. The first division was ordered to march by -land northward to join the second division in the final attack upon the -capital. - -At Lima all was confusion as the news of the actual advance of the -Chileans towards the capital reached that city. “The City of the Kings,” -as Pizarro had named it, the wealthy and prosperous capital of modern -Peru, was now threatened with all the horrors of war. The population -of the city at that time has been estimated at one hundred thousand -souls, of whom at least fifteen thousand were foreigners. The inhabitants -were pleasure-loving, and there was a very large irresponsible element, -composed in part of negroes and Indians, that meant trouble in those -dark days. The flower of the Peruvian army had been destroyed. Thousands -rested on the deserts of Tarapacá, and the sand hills of Tacna and Arica. -Those seasoned troops that were in the city had become more or less -disorganized. A decree was issued ordering every male resident in Lima -between the ages of sixteen and sixty, of whatever trade, profession and -calling, to join the army. Gay and thoughtless youths, students, idlers -and the vicious were all brought together in the ranks under this order. -It is easy to make such decrees, but a decree does not make an army. It -takes months to create an efficient fighting force. However brave these -Peruvians might be, they were not trained in military service, and they -lacked the qualities of the seasoned soldiers of the Chilean army. From -three to six in the afternoon all business was suspended by Presidential -decree, and these drafted troops were drilled. The call to arms was made -by the tolling of the bell in the great cathedral. The artillery was -inferior, and it could not compete with the Krupp and Armstrong guns with -which the invaders were provided. - -Nicolas de Pierola, who was at the head of the army, with the title of -Supreme Chief, realized the danger, and strove in the best way possible -to prepare for it. At a meeting of all the generals and naval officers, -plans were evolved to protect the city. As soon as it became known that -the invading army had landed to the south of Lima the preparations were -devoted to protecting the city from that direction. As the time was short -it was not possible to prepare extensive fortifications. A chain of -sandhills, which ran through Chorrillos, about ten miles from the city to -the south, was chosen as the first line of defense. These hills formed -a sort of natural barrier, and breastworks were thrown up at various -places along them, and these newly-recruited and hastily-drilled troops -were stationed along this first line of defense, which was at least six -miles long. A second line of defense just outside Miraflores, and four -miles nearer the capital, was established, and thousands of these troops -were stationed there. The time was too short to create very formidable -fortifications. - -The first division of the Chilean army landed at Pisco on the 13th -of December, and immediately began its march overland. Villages and -plantations were destroyed along the route, and the record of Captain -Lynch is a rather cruel one. On the 25th a junction of the two divisions -was made at Curayaco. These two bodies proceeded to Lurin, a small -village lying in a beautiful little valley, and remained there about -three weeks, while making their final preparations for the capture of the -capital. This time was spent in reconnoitering and collecting provisions -for the final campaign. The Chilean army at this time consisted of an -effective force of twenty-six thousand men, with seventy long range field -guns, and a considerable body of cavalry. Most of these troops were -thoroughly disciplined men, who had had experience in previous campaigns. -They were under the command of General Baquedano, who had made a record -for himself in this war. - -The battle of Chorrillos began at dawn on the morning of the 13th of -January, 1881. The Peruvians were taken by surprise, but resisted -bravely. It was not long, however, until their right flank was driven -back, and then various other points of defense were carried at the point -of the bayonet. The Chilean cavalry completed the victory by pursuing and -cutting down fugitives in every direction, until the plains for several -miles were covered with the dead bodies of the Peruvians. The Peruvians -fell back in more or less disorder to the second line of defense, -which was only six miles distant from the city itself. An armistice -was arranged by the diplomatic corps at Lima on the 15th, in the hope -of preventing any more bloodshed and averting the horrors of a battle -just outside the capital. This was done at the request of the Peruvian -commander-in-chief, and the Chilean general agreed that it should last -until midnight of the 15th. Through some misunderstanding some shots -were exchanged, and each party believed that the other had violated its -agreement, so that the battle of Miraflores was fought on that date. -The defense of the Peruvians was brave, as they were fighting for their -homes and the city which all of them loved. The battle extended over the -entire line of the second defense, which was not less than four miles. -The battle began early in the afternoon, and a number of warships in the -harbour near there assisted in the assault by firing their long range -guns. The ammunition of the defenders ran low and the defense began to -weaken. The Chileans made a bayonet charge, and one breastwork after -another was captured. For almost four hours the defense was maintained, -but at the end of that time the Chileans were victors. The village of -Miraflores was burned; the pleasant country homes surrounding it were -sacked, the crops destroyed and the work of devastation was terrible. On -the 16th, Lima was surrendered to the Chilean general by the Municipal -Alcalde, and possession was to be given on the following day. The -intervening night was a night of terror, and, had it not been for the -voluntary service of the foreign colony, the whole city might have been -sacked by the disorderly elements in it. - -The Chilean commander entered Lima on the 16th and established himself in -the palace. He immediately took possession of the revenues, policed the -city, and endeavoured to restore peaceful conditions to such an extent -as they could be under a military government by a hated foe. A million -pesos a month was levied upon the citizens, and they were required to -meet it. The conduct of the Chileans was reprehensible in that they -became vandals. A great part of the valuable library, filled with almost -priceless volumes, was looted and some of it sold as junk on the streets. -Pictures and statues were removed and taken to Chile, where they may -still be seen. The Chileans, coming from the same stock and claiming -allegiance to the same church, did not seem to have any consideration for -a fallen foe. - -Before a treaty could be entered into it was necessary to have a -government established with which to treat. Several attempts were made, -but no one could be found who dared sign a treaty that would permanently -alienate a portion of the country. The Chileans refused to treat with -Pierola, so that he resigned. Calderon assumed the presidency, but -the congress refused him authority to alienate any territory. Admiral -Montero next attempted the seemingly impossible and failed. At length -General Iglesias called a convention of his compatriots in the northern -districts, and it was decided to adopt measures that would secure -the speedy retirement of the Chileans, no matter at what sacrifice. -He declared himself President, and his pretensions were supported -by the Chileans. A treaty was arranged with Chile, which was signed -provisionally on the 23rd of October, 1883, and is known as the Treaty of -Ancon. Five days later the Peruvian flag was again hoisted in Lima, and -the Chileans left the country. It was a number of years later before a -treaty of peace was arranged with Bolivia, although no further fighting -took place. - -It is quite possible that the last word has not yet been spoken in the -nitrate controversy between Chile and Peru. The feeling of Peruvians -toward their late foe is intensely bitter. They all look forward to -another day of war, and predict that Peru will retake from Chile all that -she has lost. If some ambitious leader should arise in Peru and secure -the presidency, another war might easily follow. At the present time -Peru’s finances would not warrant such a step. It is to be hoped that -both nations will seriously consider the ultimate consequences of war, -and make unnecessary the reference of mooted questions to the arbitrament -of the field of battle. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -CIVIL WAR AND ITS RESULTS - - -The successful conclusion of the war with Peru and Bolivia began a new -era in Chile. The control of the nitrate fields meant an immense revenue -for the government, and everyone wanted a chance to reap some profit. -Politics absorbed the public attention, and the holding of office became -the most popular occupation. Material prosperity followed. The Chileans -believed themselves invincible on land and sea. With outside troubles -settled for the time being internal dissensions arose, and the fight -between the clergy and the anti-clericals broke out with renewed energy. -The time seemed ripe for the settlement of disturbing questions arising -out of the union of church and state. - -A new presidential election became necessary soon after the capture of -Lima, and while the victorious troops were still in possession of that -city. Through the influence of President Pinto, Don Domingo Santa Maria -(which, in English, means Sunday Saint Mary) was chosen as his successor. -The opposition tried to centre on General Baquedano, the popular hero of -the recent war, but the prestige of the government was too powerful. He -was a liberal and had been banished for his opinions by President Montt. -The conservatives by this time were in a great minority. Santa Maria was -bitterly opposed to clerical influence in political affairs, and this led -to bitter opposition from that quarter. The President proclaimed that -the time had come for absolute liberty of conscience, civil marriage -and the secularization of the cemeteries. Heretofore the priests alone -had charge of the registers of births, deaths and marriages, were alone -able to perform marriages, and in the cemeteries only those baptized -into the Roman Catholic church were permitted interment in consecrated -ground. All other political questions were held in abeyance during this -controversy, and feeling became intense. The President was obliged to -use all his official prestige in order to secure a majority in Congress, -but he succeeded in passing a law requiring civil marriage, freeing the -cemeteries and establishing a special official for the registration of -births, deaths and marriages. These were, indeed, valuable reforms, and -reflect credit on the administration of Santa Maria. Serious disorders -resulted as the 1886 election approached, in which several persons lost -their lives. Several men had the presidential bee in their bonnets -and were backed by an active following. Nevertheless, in spite of all -opposition, Santa Maria’s chief cabinet officer, and the man who had been -most active in carrying out his program, Balmaceda, was chosen to succeed -his chief, through the active aid of the administration and its official -influence. - -Since the close of the war with Peru, the most noted name in Chilean -history is that of José Manuel Balmaceda. He was inaugurated President on -the 18th of September, 1886, and his term was destined to be marked by -stirring events. This man was, as a contemporary describes him, “about -fifty years of age, six feet in height, of spare build and broad sloping -forehead, with a good, humourous eye and wears generally on his face a -half-playful, half-cynical smile.” His opponents call him a tyrant, a -usurper and a dictator, but historians generally credit him with being a -man far ahead of his time. - -The first position of prominence held by Balmaceda, except as a member -of Congress, was in the cabinet of President Santa Maria. Educated for -the priesthood, he had been saved from that career by the opposition -of his father, and later he became one of the most radical opponents -of the Church, and one of the leaders in the fight for the separation -of Church and State, which had been carried on during the term of his -predecessor. He had been one of the most active and influential advocates -of the radical programs of the _reformistas_. At the time of Balmaceda’s -election the country was divided into no less than six different parties, -ranging from the fiercest radicals to the most conservative churchmen. -The civil marriage law, which had been inaugurated during the term of -Santa Maria, as well as some other anti-church legislation, had aroused -the opposition of all the clergy. The priests went so far as to refuse to -perform a religious ceremony for any one who had been married by civil -officers, and had even excommunicated the President and his cabinet -who supported that measure. The women, who were especially under the -domination of the priests, used all of their influence in opposition to -the new marriage law. Nevertheless, with all of this opposition, ladies’ -entreaties and priests’ absolution could not prevent the election of -Balmaceda, who was chosen by a coalition of the radical elements, even -though they were somewhat loosely cohered. - -Balmaceda took the reins of government at an exceedingly unfortunate -period. I have already had occasion to state the predominating influence -of Congress in the government, and the possibilities it gave for an -obstinate Congress to embarrass the President. It had become one of -the unwritten laws that the resignation of a ministry should follow an -adverse vote on any measure. In other words a ministry could only hold -office when it represented a majority in Congress. As no power was given -the President to dissolve that body when an adverse majority existed, so -that an appeal might be made to the country, the President was greatly -hampered. The last year of Santa Maria’s administration had brought about -a serious condition of affairs. Violent scenes were enacted in Congress -in the fight between the supporters of the President and his opponents. -The revenue and appropriation bills had expired, and a filibuster on the -part of the opposition had prevented new ones from being enacted. - -It was at this crisis that Balmaceda was inaugurated. He faced the -situation courageously, and proceeded to collect the taxes and pay the -expenses in accordance with the provisions of the expired law. This -situation was accepted by the country, for a prosperity had fallen -upon Chile such as the country had never known. In spite of reckless -expenditures the revenues from the nitrate fields, which had been taken -from Peru, mounted up so rapidly that the surplus soon reached immense -sums. Mining industries of all kinds were exceedingly flourishing. -Balmaceda, who was both clever and capable, as well as sincere, entered -upon a campaign to educate the people, and no less than fifteen hundred -public schools were established by him. Hospitals, health offices, fire -brigades and other progressive institutions were aided liberally. Many -public works, including railways and colonization schemes, were fostered, -salaries were raised, and the Araucanian Indians were admitted as -citizens of the republic. New election laws were passed, which had for -their purpose the development of real democratic government. - -Nevertheless beneath the outward prosperity a smouldering fire was -burning. The slogan of Balmaceda “Chile for the Chileans” aroused the -opposition of foreign interests. The reduction of ecclesiastical fees -and stipends, and the enforcement of the civil marriage law, kept the -opposition of the clergy alive. The jealousy of the old families, who -had heretofore been supreme in the government, to the new democratic -measures advocated by Balmaceda were aroused. Furthermore the election -of Balmaceda was really not by a party, but the result of a temporary -coalition of three discordant elements. By 1889 Balmaceda had succeeded -in arousing the enmity of practically all the parties. The progressive -elements had split into nationals, liberals, dissentient-liberals and -radicals. Continual changes in his cabinet followed, and one group was -substituted for another every few months. It had been the ambition of -Balmaceda to unite all the liberal elements into one party, but in this -he had signally failed. - -Balmaceda soon found himself without a majority in Congress, and with -no prospect of securing one. Heretofore a majority had sometimes been -acquired by the trading of votes among the different factions in exchange -for a share of patronage. Even this method no longer availed. The idea -gradually became prevalent that the President was plotting to build up -a strong personal following, in order to establish a dictatorship and -replace with it the power of Congress. Circumstances, as much as anything -else, practically forced Balmaceda into this position. He believed in -himself and his own motives, and the selfishness of the different liberal -groups irritated him. All of this turmoil was galling to a man of the -character of Balmaceda. Reformation of various evils was his aim, but he -found himself thwarted at every turn. He soon grasped the fact that if he -could control Congress, he could settle the vexed questions which, in his -opinion, retarded the development of his country. Furthermore, he gave a -wider interpretation to the constitution in relation to the powers of the -executive than did the legislative body. - -Congress finally refused to pass appropriation bills or vote supplies for -the army, and, in retaliation, Balmaceda dissolved Congress, which he -claimed he had a right to do under the constitution of 1833. In January, -1890, he appointed a cabinet composed exclusively of personal followers, -and these new ministers announced that they would hold office so long -as they were satisfactory to the President, regardless of Congress. -A definite rupture was inevitable, for the breach had become so wide -that temporizing was impossible. Balmaceda must either resign or assume -dictatorial powers. He chose the latter. - -The _Comision Conservada_, which safeguards the interests of Congress -when that body is not in session, demanded that that body be convoked. -Balmaceda ignored the request. A mass meeting in Santiago denounced the -President. The opposition finally became so bold that a _junta_ was -formed, of which Captain Jorge Montt, a naval officer, was the head. The -particular charges made by the revolutionists were that the President had -no right to maintain any military forces after the appropriations for its -support were exhausted. Balmaceda retaliated with a proclamation that he -would follow the precedent established when he came into office, would -collect taxes and maintain the public service by executive authority -until the assembling of the next Congress. He expressly disclaimed any -intention of establishing a dictatorship, but refused to allow Congress -to interfere with the executive functions of the government. As neither -party would recede actual war soon followed. - -Through the influence of Captain Montt the entire navy, with the -exception of a couple of torpedo boats, adhered to the revolutionists. -On the night of January 6th, 1891, the Vice-President of the Senate -and the President of the Chamber of Deputies embarked on the _Blanco -Encalada_ with Captain Montt, and the revolution was begun. A cargo of -war material designed for the government was captured and the naval -stores at Talcahuana seized. On the 10th a skirmish occurred between the -shore batteries at Valparaiso and some boats of the navy, and in this -engagement the first blood in this civil war was shed. From this time -events moved forward with great rapidity. The majority of the aristocracy -espoused the cause of the revolutionists, and this move had great -influence. Although several attempts were made to produce mutiny among -the troops they remained loyal to Balmaceda. - -The disaffection of the entire navy was both a surprise and -disappointment to Balmaceda, but he immediately placed the army on a war -footing and increased their pay. A reward of two years pay was offered -to the crew of any man-of-war if the vessel deserted the revolutionary -cause, but this inducement had no effect. Balmaceda placed the troops -in several parts of the country, where he thought they would be most -useful in defense. The natural conditions of Chile, however, hindered -him. As the revolutionists had control of the sea, it was impossible -for Balmaceda to relieve the small garrisons at Iquique, Antofagasta -and Pisagua, the nitrate ports. The revolutionists, after a few short -skirmishes, obtained possession of these places. Pisagua fell first, -and a couple of bloody battles were fought for its possession and then -recovery. The troops at Iquique were withdrawn to resist the land forces, -and marines were landed who captured it. - -[Illustration: THE MILITARY BARRACKS, SANTIAGO.] - -The congressionalists then established their headquarters at Iquique, -and took possession of the immense revenues derived from the export -of nitrate. With this cash they purchased the most modern arms and -equipments. Balmaceda, although having means, was unable to get -modern rifles, so that his troops were not so well armed as those of -the revolutionists. The two torpedo boats, which remained loyal to -the government succeeded in sinking the _Blanco Encalada_, and also -in doing other damage to the navy, but not enough to cripple its -effectiveness. Blockades of the ports cut off all of Balmaceda’s outside -supplies. Balmaceda attempted to purchase ironclads in Europe, but the -revolutionists outbid him and he was unable to build up a navy. The long -seacoast was also a disadvantage to him, since it was impossible for him -to transport his troops by water as the revolutionists could. It was not -many months until all the northern provinces were under the control of -the revolutionists, but no engagements had taken place in the central -or southern provinces. The revolutionists were encouraged by these -successes, and public opinion was undoubtedly changing because of the -high-handed and arbitrary methods of Balmaceda. Suspected persons were -arrested, and many of them executed without trial. The value of human -life seemed to sink into insignificance, and a reign almost of terror -followed. In one instance a guerilla band composed of young men, some of -whom were not more than sixteen years of age, and all belonging to the -best families in Santiago, were captured by the government force at a -farmhouse. Eight were shot at once and the others, after a court martial, -were sent back to the place where they were captured to be executed. -This led to a storm of execration against Balmaceda. Furthermore, he had -chosen Señor Claudio Vicuña as his successor, and the latter was declared -elected after a farcical contest in which no opposing candidate appeared. -The congressionalists decided to carry the war into the heart of the -enemy’s country, and a large army was embarked at the various northern -ports under their control. - -On the 18th of August, 1891, the revolutionary fleet of seventeen vessels -suddenly appeared at Valparaiso with the entire revolutionary army, -consisting of a little less than ten thousand men, aboard. This force -was to oppose an army of forty thousand government forces. The former, -however, were volunteers, while the latter was known to contain large -numbers of disaffected ones. Two days later these troops were landed at -Quinteros, not far from Valparaiso, and near the mouth of the Aconcagua -River. - -At this place the river flows through a flat valley, which is from six -hundred to eight hundred yards in width, and is bordered by lines of -hills from four hundred and fifty to six hundred feet in height. The -government forces numbering six thousand, three hundred and twenty-two -men, were located on the southern bank of the river at Concon, where -their line was about three miles in length. They were armed with old -rifles, while the troops of the revolutionists were provided with -Mannlicher rifles of the newest pattern. General Korner, who was in -charge of the congressists, did not hesitate before this formidable -position. He divided his forces into three parts. One forded the icy-cold -waters of the Aconcagua at Concon _bajo_ and attacked the flank of the -enemy. The second and third brigades engaged them from the opposite side -of the river, and then crossed the river higher up. The ships of the navy -also directed their fire against the Balmacedists. The battle was begun -on the morning of the 21st. The government troops ran short of ammunition -and began to give way. After four and one-half hours of fighting the -battle was won. Retreat soon turned into a rout, and the defeated forces -fled in every direction. The government loss was seventeen hundred killed -and wounded, and fifteen hundred men and all their artillery captured. -The revolutionists had only eight hundred and sixty-nine casualties. The -result was a decided victory for Balmaceda’s enemies. - -Of the Balmacedist troops only two thousand could be mustered after -this disaster. But thousands of other troops were hurried to Valparaiso -before railroad communication was severed. A slight repulse was given -the congressists near Viña del Mar. The army then took a wide detour in -order to attack Valparaiso from the southeast. The government forces -took possession of the heights at Placilla and awaited the expected -battle. Each army at this time exceeded nine thousand men and were evenly -balanced. But the government forces were disheartened, even though they -occupied an exceptionally strong position. Their cavalry seems also to -have been untrustworthy, for they gave no intelligence of this expected -move of the enemy. No less than four hundred cavalrymen actually deserted -and joined the other army. The country through which the congressists -marched was broken, full of small streams and marshes. Hundreds of weary -stragglers slept out under the trees. They reached Las Cadenas on the -27th and rested during that night. Early on the morning of the following -day they started for the Balmacedist position on the heights, and this -seems to have been the first knowledge that army had of the presence of -the foe. The revolutionists began the engagement with artillery fire. -The advance was stubbornly resisted, but a bayonet charge carried an -outpost. A hand-to-hand conflict ensued until the defenders finally threw -down their arms. Generals Alcerrica and Barbosa fought valiantly until -killed. A horrible slaughter followed and the troops of Balmaceda fled -in all directions. The casualties on both sides were heavy. Although the -fighting only lasted four hours the government loss in killed and wounded -was three thousand, three hundred and sixty-three, and the victors lost -eighteen hundred. That same night Valparaiso was occupied, and a night -of carousal and lawlessness and bloodshed ensued. Houses were set on -fire, and ruffians shot at the firemen as they attempted to put out the -flames. The soldiers and mob seem to have been entirely beyond control. -The next morning four or five hundred dead bodies were found on the -streets. - -[Illustration: CHILEAN SOLDIERS.] - -This battle was the deciding point of the civil war. When the news -reached Valparaiso, Balmaceda realized it was useless to continue the -struggle. He decided to resign and turn his office over to General -Baquedano, a friend of the revolutionists. He issued a proclamation -beseeching the citizens to preserve order during the crisis, in order to -prevent bloodshed and plunder. On the 29th he turned the office over to -General Baquedano in a short and dignified speech. That day being his -wife’s saint day, the President had invited in several of his friends to -dine. Notwithstanding the changed conditions Balmaceda did not recall the -invitations, but acted during the whole evening as a generous host. As -soon as his visitors had left, he walked over to the Argentine legation -and took shelter. For several days the revolutionists believed that he -had escaped the country and fled in disguise. No one suspected that -the defeated President was at the house of the Argentine Minister, Mr. -Uriburu, afterwards president of Argentina. On the 18th of September, -the day upon which his legal term as president expired, the country was -shocked to hear that Balmaceda had shot himself that morning at the home -of his friend. - -Balmaceda feared that his friends might be embarrassed by his presence, -and he furthermore believed that his own death would make easier the -position of those who had supported him during the trying times of the -civil war. It is quite probable, also, that his pride could not brook -the idea of a public trial and the humiliation necessarily attending it. -To die, also, was to pose in a sense as a martyr. “I could escape,” he -said in a letter to his brother, “but I would never run the risk of the -ridicule any disaster to such an attempt would entail, and which would -be the beginning of vexatious humiliation that I could not endure for -myself or my family.” It was, indeed, a tragic end, and was done in a -more or less tragical way, as he believed that he thus offered himself as -an expiatory sacrifice. He left a message for his friends, which might -be called his political testament, in which were these words: “Whenever -you and the friends remember me, believe me that my spirit, full of the -tenderest love, will be amongst you.” General Baquedano ruled the country -for three days until the revolutionary _junta_ reached Santiago, when -he relinquished his authority to them. A short time later at a special -election Jorge Montt was chosen as Balmaceda’s successor, although Vicuña -had previously been selected by the following of the deceased executive. -As was to be expected, after such a desperate struggle, Congress was -composed of members having a common political platform. It had been -decided that the executive should be advised by and rule in harmony with -the legislative majority. President Montt accepted the situation and -appointed a cabinet acceptable to the majority. - -Confidence was soon restored and business quickly adjusted itself. The -new President proved to be conservative and non-aggressive. The country -was in a bad financial condition, but the nitrate revenues were large. -The Balmacedists were gradually brought under amnesty laws, until -all were finally permitted to return to Chile. Having been a sailor -President Montt took steps to build up a stronger navy, in order to -be ready for impending trouble with Argentina. For two years the new -administration kept a majority, but a new election gave the Balmacedists -the balance of power amidst the warring factions. Montt soon began -to experience the same trouble as his predecessors. No party had a -majority, and by new combinations of factions the dominating groups -were changed. A new cabinet became necessary every few weeks, and no -definite policy or program was possible. On the whole this administration -was very satisfactory in view of the difficulties under which it -laboured. Agricultural and mining depression further embarrassed his -administration, but for these no government could be held responsible. -President Montt retired from office with the respect of all. - -At the election in 1896 Señor Federico Errázuriz, son of a former -president of the same name, was elected over his opponent by a majority -of one. The new congressional elections still further complicated -matters. The liberal groups became more divided than ever. Cabinet -crises grew even more frequent, and it was only when Congress was not -in session that a ministry could remain in power any length of time. -The result was an absolute confusion in legislation. The most serious -foreign question was the dispute with Argentina. Excitement in both -countries ran high. Warlike speeches were made, and the public mind was -unduly excited. Preparations were made for the mobilization of an army of -fifty thousand men, and a declaration of war was expected almost daily. -President Errázuriz finally took the matter upon himself and asked that -the matter be submitted to arbitration. Argentina at last consented. -The northern part was to be decided by the representative of the United -States in Argentina, Mr. W. I. Buchanan, and the southern section by -Queen Victoria, of England. If Errázuriz had done nothing else during his -term of office this one act places the whole country greatly in his debt. -President Errázuriz died just before his term of office ended, and the -duties of the office were filled by the Minister of the Interior, Señor -Zañartú, until the inauguration of his successor. - -Señor Jerman Riesco was chosen president for the term beginning November -18th, 1901. The same confusion continued during the greater part of his -term, so that much useful legislation was rendered impossible. It was not -possible for the executive to select a cabinet that would be responsive -to his will, but he was obliged to take one selected for him by the -legislative body. As President Balmaceda said: “Only in the organization -of a popular representative government with independent and responsible -powers, and easy means to make that responsibility effective, will there -be parties of a national character, derived from the will of the people -and ensuing harmony between the different powers of the state.” The -several presidents since Balmaceda have realized this condition, but the -serious lesson of the civil war has prevented any radical step being -taken by the occupant of that office. - -At the election in 1906, Pedro Montt, son of Manuel Montt, was elected -to the office of President of Chile. President Montt had served his -country in many ways, having been a member of Congress for a long time, -had held positions in several cabinets, and had also represented Chile -as minister to the United States. Owing to his dark complexion Montt was -once taken for a negro in Washington and refused admission to a hotel. -He proved to be a conservative and able president, who had at heart the -best interests of his country. On few occasions, however, did he have the -legislative body with him, and many of his good projects failed. He had -ability, tact and honesty of purpose, but met the same obstacles as his -predecessors. In July, 1910, President Montt visited the United States. -He spent a few days in this country while on his way to Europe to secure -medical attention, and was shown numerous official courtesies. He was -a spectator of the shooting of Mayor Gaynor on board a steamer in New -York harbour. Soon after reaching Europe President Montt was attacked by -heart failure, and died in Bremen, Germany, on the 16th day of August, -1910. Señor Elias Fernandez Albano, Minister of the Interior, assumed the -office of executive on the death of President Montt. In poor health at -the time Acting-President Albano survived less than one month after his -inauguration, and died on the 7th of September. - -On the 15th of November, 1910, Dr. Ramon Barros Luco was elected -President of Chile, and assumed office on the 23rd of December, 1910. -Dr. Luco was born in 1835, and has had a long and honourable career in -politics. He held the office of Minister of Finance and Minister of -the Interior under several different administrations. He has also been -President of the Senate, and has filled numerous other responsible -positions. He now has the opportunity to round out a long life, which has -already passed the scriptural limit, with the highest office in the gift -of his countrymen. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -PRESENT CONDITIONS AND FUTURE POSSIBILITIES - - -Nitrates have heretofore formed the chief wealth of Chile, and will -continue to do so for some time in the future. But agricultural and -industrial development will eventually overshadow all else—even the -saltpetre deposits. The great central valley will be the chief centre of -a permanent and growing population. In this region all kinds of farming, -fruit-growing and stock-raising, flourish. Temperate and semi-tropical -products grow, for the orange and the grape, the pear and the apple -are found side by side. It not only grows enough for home consumption, -but large quantities of grain are exported. The raising of live stock, -especially cattle and hogs, is continually on the increase. Agriculture -in this valley is susceptible of very great expansion. The proprietors -of the large _haciendas_ are satisfied with comparatively small returns -from their lands, and this fact retards the development through its lack -of encouragement to the small farmer. There is no doubt that small farms -would add greatly to the production of this fertile valley, because the -effectiveness of each acre would be increased. More than sixty thousand -acres are set out in grapes alone. The beet root has been introduced and -is said to grow very well. - -Then come the forest lands of the southern provinces, which must -certainly prove a source of great natural riches in the not distant -future. Tierra del Fuego promises great things in the way of -sheep-raising. Sheep grow an especially fine quality of silky wool there, -which brings a good price in the market. There are already several -million head of sheep in that district. - -Chile still has a wealth of undiscovered mineral treasures within her -boundaries. The labour, transportation and fuel problem have heretofore -been the drawbacks, as well as isolation from the world’s consumption. -In the northern part of the republic, at the coast ports, coal costs -almost ten dollars per ton, a price that does not stimulate its use. In -the interior it is still higher because of the cost of transportation. -The government has enacted very favourable mining laws. A discoverer -of a new claim is entitled to fifteen hectares, or about thirty-six -acres. An ordinary mining claim is only one-third as large. No person can -file more than one claim at a time in a district, but other names are -oftentimes substituted in order to group claims together. Development of -a claim is not compulsory, and the tax upon undeveloped claims is very -low, so that it is not a burdensome proposition to hold a claim as long -as the law allows. Many wildcat companies have been organized in Chile, -as elsewhere, and there has been much speculation in these stocks. It is -not difficult to interest the Latin people in any form of gambling or -speculation. - -Chile promises great development in manufacturing. In fact, Chile is more -likely to become a commercial nation than any republic of South America. -There are already more than eight thousand industrial establishments of -all kinds. Tanning of leather, making of shoes, refining of chemical -products, woollen and cotton mills, etc., are included in these. The -government policy has been one of protection and, in some instances, of -actual bounties. Sugar refineries have thus been built up which refine -the raw product imported from Peru. They now grind much of their own -wheat. Some of the railway equipment used on the national railroads is -made in the country. The roto seems to make a competent workman in the -factories. The coal mines and prevalence of water power almost everywhere -gives Chile a great advantage over her neighbour, Argentina, in the way -of manufacturing advantages. - -Although the operation of the national railways has been unprofitable, -and permeated with gross mismanagement and graft, yet the dogged -persistence with which the parallel iron rails have been spread over -the country has been most commendable. The longitudinal railway has -been pushed little by little each year, and sometimes at the expense of -national sacrifice. The first transandine railway is now an accomplished -fact, and another route now occupies national attention. After the -settlement of the boundary question with Argentina, the vast sums that -had been expended annually in preparing for war were diverted to internal -development. The beneficial results can easily be traced in both cities -and country. The fearful earthquake of 1906 caused a severe back-set, as -the government was obliged to step in and aid in the rebuilding of its -principal port, Valparaiso. - -[Illustration: A MARKET SCENE, VALPARAISO.] - -The government in Chile is rather different from that of most of the -Latin-American countries. In form it is like unto that of the United -States; in fact, it is a government of a few of the leading families. In -theory the President is the executive head; in practice, that official is -very much of a cipher. Absolute powers for the executive, that prevailed -for the first half century of the republic, have been abolished, and -Congress is now the real ruling power. Whether the country is ruled or -misruled the blame must be placed on that body, for its authority is -very broad. In it a small group of families, generally said to be one -hundred, always predominate. Among these will be some who have become -rich through banking or commercial development, but most of them are -landowners in families that have been prominent for generations. All -the honours and emoluments are kept within this small circle. To it may -be added the power of the Church, for that organization has been most -powerful in political matters. It has been in times past simply a part -of the political system. In recent years the government has insisted on -the right to name the Archbishop, and Rome has been practically forced to -concede this privilege. As a rule the influence of the Church has been in -favour of what might be termed the reactionary element. - -As has been stated elsewhere the President is assisted by a body of -advisors, the majority of whom are chosen by the parliamentary body. -This has led to frequent and oftentimes ridiculous ministerial crises. -These numerous cabinet changes embarrass an executive in whatever -policy he may be trying to develop. But he is helpless under the theory -of parliamentary government that has grown up. Whenever the President -proposes a certain cabinet, he is met by a counter proposition from -some group or other in the legislative bodies. Sometimes he may gain -a little temporary majority by a coalition or fusion of some of the -groups represented in Congress. Selfish interests or jealousies, -however, soon break the union. It is at times embarrassing to diplomatic -representatives, for no sooner have they completed negotiations with one -cabinet official than he is succeeded by another. No vice-president -is elected, the executive office, if vacated by death or resignation, -is filled temporarily by the Minister of the Interior, who is usually -a member either of the Senate or House of Deputies. The Congress will -then select a new executive. A change in this system, which would make -the executive more independent, and provision for a different succession -might work marvels. This was the trouble with that able and progressive -President, Balmaceda. To carry out his beneficial policies he defied -Congress, and a bloody civil war followed. - -Politics in Chile seem very much complicated and confused to an -American. Instead of two or three parties, the small voting population -of the country are divided into no less than seven or eight, with -other combinations under new names appearing every year or two. At -the present time one can distinguish the following: Conservadores, -Liberales, Radicales, Democratas, Balmacedistas, Montinos and -Liberales-Democraticos. Of these the most extreme are probably the -Radicales, who occupy about the same position in Chile that the -Socialists do in our own country. At least they contest for that position -with the Liberales, who claim to be the most radical of any of the -political parties in Chile. - -The Conservadores are the old church party, and are made up of the -wealthy land owners, and those who have grown rich in mines, railroads, -etc. This party was formerly the strongest political organization, and -ruled the country for a long period; but, within the last two decades, -it has greatly lost its grip, and the only way in which it cuts much -of a figure in the government is when it enters into combinations -occasionally with some of the stronger elements. The Democratas are made -up principally of the labouring classes, who loudly proclaim what they -will do for the downtrodden labouring man, and they are blamed for the -strikes and riots in recent years. The Liberales-Democratas are, as the -name indicates, in a midway position between the two parties after whom -they are named. - -The Balmacedistas are those who stand for the things that Balmaceda stood -for; that is, for an enlarged power in the executive. This party, it -seems to me, is bound to grow because every president is confronted with -the domination of the legislative body. The Montistos are made up of the -followers of the Montt family, who have been prominent in the country -since the downfall of Balmaceda. They include those who favour the rule -of the country by Congress. - -Politics are no doubt more or less corrupt in Chile, as in many other -countries. In this respect the country is neither unique nor original. If -one was to believe the statements made in opposition press, just as if -one was to believe all such statements made in the sensational “yellow” -press of our own country, you would think the entire government was -rotten from President down to the lower officials. Free speech and a free -press run riot in Chile. There is an inclination to make wild charges, -and editorial writers certainly say more than they actually mean. - -Elections are oftentimes almost farcical. Nominations for Congress are -made very much as with us. Candidates are named, and a campaign is -carried on by means of meetings, placards and newspapers. Manifestos -and appeals to voters are issued by the various candidates and their -supporters. The side that gets control of the election machinery, -however, is in a much better position than the one that merely has the -votes. They are then counted as the ones in charge desire, and this -method is considered proper and legitimate by all parties. Bi-partisan -boards and an Australian ballot system are unheard of and unthought—and, -furthermore, an undesired innovation. What is the use of having the -election machinery in your control and not using it for your candidate? -This is the average Chilean view of the subject, and the losers usually -acquiesce more or less good naturedly. In this respect the situation is -very similar in all the republics south of the Rio Grande River. - -In business deals the Chilean is about as honest and reliable as in other -countries. Many think the Chilenos are robbers and cut-throats. But it is -not so. Those engaged in business in the country give the Chileans a good -reputation for honesty. They are procrastinating and slow sometimes in -meeting obligations, but they do not attempt to avoid payment; and they -are always willing to pay current rates of interest on overdue accounts. -My personal experience in Latin countries in that respect has been good, -as I have never lost anything whatever from thieves or purloiners in -hotels, stations or elsewhere. Many instances of the honesty of hotel -servants, cab drivers and other workers are told by foreigners, who -have been in Chile. The lottery and bull-fight have both been abolished -in Chile, and this speaks well for another form of honour among the -Chilenos. The bull-fight has disappeared from a number of the republics, -but Chile stands alone in prohibiting the lottery which is one of the -curses of all her neighbours. The lottery-ticket vendor is usually one of -the first persons seen in a Latin-American country. - -Military service in Chile is compulsory. It is not a crushing burden, -however, for the regular army does not exceed fifteen thousand men. -This proves that military service is not enforced very strongly, as -that number would include only a small proportion of those subject to -duty each year. One year is supposed to be spent with the colours, -after which the conscript passes to the first reserve for nine years, -and is then included in the second reserve until he attains the age of -forty-five years. Any child born in Chile is subject to this service, so -that foreigners sometimes grumble. The instructors in the army are often -German officers, and the tactics are strictly Teutonic as well as the -costumes. In every way the German influence is noticeable. The personnel -of the army is good. The men are hardy, active and vigorous. Their -courage has been proved on the field of battle many times. The country is -divided into five military zones with headquarters at Santiago. - -[Illustration: THE BATTLESHIP “O’HIGGINS.”] - -Chile has always possessed a good navy. The naval fleet at the present -time is composed of forty vessels, among which are nine ironclads and -protected cruisers, five gunboats and torpedo cruisers, thirteen torpedo -boats, four destroyers, etc. The finest ship is the _Esmeralda_, which -is a boat of seven thousand and thirty tons and capable of a speed of -twenty-one knots. She carries two 8-inch and sixteen 6-inch guns. Then -come the _O’Higgins_, _Ministro Zentano_, _Chacabuco_, and _President -Errázuriz_—all of them protected cruisers. The _Capitan Prat_ is a -battleship of six thousand nine hundred and sixty-six tons and twelve -thousand horse-power and a nominal speed of eighteen and three-tenths -knots. This boat was built in 1890. The cruisers were mostly constructed -from 1896 to 1898 in British and Italian shipyards. Chile has recently -placed an order for a Dreadnaught of the latest design, which will still -further add to the efficiency of the Chilean navy. In this respect she is -following the lead of Brazil and Argentina. - -The United States could and should have a much greater proportion of -Chile’s trade. Too many manufacturers depend wholly on business houses -conducted by English or German merchants—men who naturally prefer the -goods made by their own countrymen. Others send representatives who -are illy adapted to deal with Chileans and other Latin Americans. An -American bank would work wonders in developing trade. It seems strange -that American capitalists hesitate about investing their money in such -an institution. Foreign banks established in South America have paid -good dividends. Among those in Chile are the Anglo-South American Bank, -Bank of London and the River Plate, German Transatlantique and the -Banco Italiano. The figures of exports and imports given below are in -themselves eloquent testimonials of the value of Chilean trade. Branch -houses in charge of hustling Americans, or agencies placed with American -importers should be the aim of every manufacturer who intends to push -the trade into Chile or any of the other republics of Latin America. -At the present time there are very few citizens of the United States -resident in Chile—probably less than five hundred in the entire republic. - -“Why do you not buy your steel work in the United States?” I asked of -a wealthy Chilean gentleman who was building a large modern block in -Santiago. - -“I wanted to do so,” he answered, “but your manufacturers would not grant -the terms that were gladly and voluntarily offered me in Europe. As a -result, I bought all my steel for this building, which will cost more -than a half million dollars gold, in Belgium. The only equipment for the -building made in the United States will be a half dozen elevators.” - -This simply illustrates one phase of the shortsightedness of our -manufacturers in dealing with South America. The field is a large one, -and a discriminating one as well. It is humiliating at times to an -American to travel throughout the length and breadth of South America, -and see the trade that legitimately belongs to us slipping away to -Europe, even when some of our own factories in that particular line are -idle because of lack of orders. There has been an awakening in the past -few years, but there must still be much progress before the American -business man catches up with the British and German in the pursuit of the -world’s trade. - -Chilean trade has reached very respectable figures in recent years. -The total exports for the year 1910 amounted to $115,792,811, of which -$98,234,035 were mineral exports. Of this nitrate comprised the greatest -item. Great Britain took nearly one-half the exports; the United States -purchased $24,680,278, slightly more than Germany, which was a decided -increase over the preceding year. The imports amounted to $108,627,188. -Great Britain sent almost one-third of this, Germany was second with -less than one-fourth, and the United States was third with goods valued -at $13,369,774, or about one-eighth of the whole. Next in order came -France, Argentina, Peru and India. Spain, the mother country, furnished -less than one per cent. of the whole. This shows a large per capita -importation, amounting to more than $30.00, which is exceeded only by -Argentina and Uruguay, and shows a trade well worth looking after. Of -the goods imported textiles were one-fourth of the whole. Mineral -products, including coal, oil products, etc., are a third, and machinery -constituted about eleven per cent. of the whole. Machinery and petroleum -products are the principal importations from the United States. - -The American firm of W. R. Grace & Co. occupy a prominent position in -the commercial world along the west coast of South America, where it is -the largest firm engaged in business. Its founder, Wm. R. Grace, was -born in Ireland, but came to Peru in his youth. After making a success -in business there he went to New York and established the head offices -of his company. He became a citizen of the United States, and assisted -the government on several occasions. Mr. Grace became very prominent in -that metropolis. He was twice elected mayor, and gave a very creditable -administration. Mr. Grace died in 1904. W. R. Grace & Co. took over the -Oroya Railroad in Peru and completed it. They recently constructed the -Chilean end of the Transandine Railway, and have been engaged in many -other important public works in Chile, Peru and Bolivia. The foundation -of the fortune of Grace & Co. was guano and nitrate, and a line of boats -are run between the west coast and New York, although flying the English -flag. Branch houses are established in the principal cities of Chile, and -an immense business is done in importation and exportation. The principal -offices are still maintained in New York, although one of the members of -the firm lives in London. - -Chile’s dependence upon the sea renders foreign trade an essential -element in her prosperity. She has a hardy seafaring population, and -thousands are employed in that occupation. She is probably destined to -have a much larger part in the coast carrying trade in the future. Next -to the national steamers, the British have the biggest share in the -carrying trade of Chile. - -[Illustration: A TYPICAL COAST SCENE.] - -The foreign debt of Chile is in the neighbourhood of $100,000,000, most -of which is held by the Rothschild interests. Much of this debt was -contracted during the period of military expansion. Great quantities -of paper money were issued by various administrations, and, as a -result, the peso dropped in value. The gold peso has a fixed value of -thirty-two cents in United States currency, and the paper peso is worth -about twenty-one cents. The gradual drop in value of the currency has -made railroad travel on the government lines and postage the cheapest -in South America. It has also prevented much internal development. At -the present time a number of cities are installing hydraulic electric -plants, which are very practical for this country. Several schemes -are under consideration for port developments, of which the work at -Valparaiso will be the most important. Concepción, Talcahuano and Corral, -Iquique and Antofagasta, will also come in for their share. Several -irrigation projects are now being constructed which will add almost two -hundred thousand acres of irrigated land suitable for agriculture. The -electrification of the state railroad between Valparaiso and Santiago -will also doubtless be one of the developments of the near future. - -The postal and telegraph systems of the republic are good. There are more -than one thousand post offices, and the amount of mail transported is -very large. Newspapers circulate absolutely free, and domestic postage is -lower than in the United States. Foreign letters only cost three cents -for postage. There are more than eighteen thousand miles of telegraph -wires stretched across the country. A wireless telegraph station has -been opened at Valparaiso with a radius of eight hundred miles, and -others will be opened very soon at other places, including the Straits -district, where the wild and undeveloped nature of the country makes the -stretching and maintenance of overhead wires difficult. - -Like all the South American republics Chile is greatly in need of -immigration. With such a variety of climate it could afford congenial -homes for people from almost any country. A few thousand of immigrants -come in each year, from three to five, but that number is paltry. Tens of -thousands could be assimilated if they were agriculturalists. Argentina, -with her broad level acres, is too near, and draws twice as many as all -the other republics of South America together. Wages are higher there, -too, and the Italians and Spaniards, who comprise the greater proportion -of those seeking new homes in South America, are drawn there. A few Boer -colonies were established in Chile after the war in the Transvaal, but -the total number was not large. - -One unfortunate condition in Chile is the unusually high death rate. This -has been placed as high as seventy per thousand, but this rate would -only be in exceptional instances. It is a fact, however, that the cities -of Santiago, Valparaiso and Concepción will frequently show a mortality -rate of fifty to the thousand of population. The average for the whole -republic is about thirty-five per thousand, which is nearly double the -death rate for countries in the temperate zone. As Chile is not in the -torrid zone, it is not subject to epidemics of yellow fever or other -tropical scourges. Foreigners who live there find the climate, especially -in the central part, not only delightful, but healthful, and very old -people are quite common. The reason for this condition of affairs is -the indifference to personal comforts and sanitation of the roto. This -leads to a frightful mortality among the children. Occasionally there are -severe epidemics of smallpox, and the measles has caused great ravages -among children. - -Statistics show that in some years, even with the large birth rate among -the lower classes, the births exceed the deaths by only a few thousands. -It is a condition that demands action by the state, for the government -is paternal in its character, and is depended on by the people to look -after these things. The sturdiness of the roto may be due to the law -of the survival of the fittest, for only those who possess a sound -constitution reach manhood. One who can survive the lack of comforts and -harsh conditions of life to which he is subjected, and reach manhood, is -at least robust if not cultured or refined. There is, indeed, much room -for improvement in the sanitary conditions of the cities in the sections -occupied by the poor, and some measures have been taken in recent years. -For the nation it would be a good economic policy, as the decrease in -the death rate would aid in giving the population so much needed for the -development of the country. - -Chile dates her independence from Spain from the 18th of September, 1810, -and last year was celebrated as her first centennial. On this day, in the -year 1910, was laid the corner stone of a great monument in commemoration -of that event. This was participated in by the President of Argentina -and other officials of that neighbouring republic. This was but natural, -for the soldiers of both countries fought and bled side by side at -Maipu, Chacabuco and other places. A notable historic parade, with the -costumes and military characteristics of that period, was a feature of -the celebration. It represented the march of the victorious patriot army -into Santiago after its evacuation by the Spaniards. The _granaderos_, a -military organization in Buenos Aires which wears the same uniform as in -the time of San Martin, came over from that city to take part. The parade -halted in front of the statue of San Martin and saluted that noble hero. -Solemn religious services and social events made up a day that will long -be notable in the Chilean capitol. Elaborate decorations had been erected -all over the city, and especially on the Alameda where the parades took -place. - -Almost the entire month of September was given up to the festivities -incident to this national centennial throughout the entire republic. -There was scarcely a town or village that did not have its local -_fiesta_. Horse races, theatrical performances, fireworks, torchlight -processions, etc., were all included in the list of events. A naval -review was held in Valparaiso, in which four ships of the United States -took part with those of Chile and other nations. An industrial Exposition -was held in Valparaiso, and an Exposition of Fine Arts in Santiago. The -death of President Montt and his successor, both within a month preceding -the beginning of the festivities, cast somewhat of a gloom upon the -occasion, but it could not mar the festal spirit in a very marked degree. - -The relations between Chile and the United States have, in a number of -instances, been considerably strained. As a result there was for many -years an existant prejudice against the _Yanqui_. The first occasion -arose during the war between Peru and Chile, when the United States -offered its mediation, which was resented by Chile because that country -desired to reap the spoils of war. Another instance happened during -the Balmaceda administration. During his term, and the struggles which -resulted between himself and Congress, the sympathies of the United -States were with the President. A minister sent to the United States by -the revolutionists, after they had established a _junta_ at Iquique, and -were in possession of the customs throughout northern Chile, was refused -recognition by President Harrison. The steamship _Itata_, belonging to -the Chilean line, which at that time ran as far as San Francisco, was -seized and held for some time because she was loaded with arms and -ammunition intended for the revolutionists. Although the vessel escaped -it was followed by a United States cruiser and overtaken at Iquique, -where the revolutionist _junta_ turned it over to the cruiser and it was -taken back to San Francisco. This kept the opponents of the government -out of much-needed supplies. - -Later arose what is known as the “Baltimore incident.” Admiral Schley, -in charge of that gun boat, had been sent to Chile to protect American -interests. He sailed freely in and out from one port to another, and -was charged by the revolutionists with giving information to the -government party of their movements. As the navy was all on the side of -the revolutionists, they claimed that only in this way could the other -party on land have secured certain information. Admiral Schley denied -the accusations, and all of these charges were afterwards proven to be -false. Near the close of that internecine struggle a number of sailors -and others from the _Baltimore_ had gone ashore at Valparaiso. While in -a rather disreputable saloon in that city an altercation arose between -some Chilean soldiers and the party of American marines. One of the -Chileans was knocked down, and a general fight resulted in which the -Yankees were assaulted with clubs, knives and revolvers. One American was -killed instantly, another died from his injuries a short time later, and -a score of others were more or less seriously injured. In the diplomatic -correspondence which followed, an indemnity was courteously demanded by -the United States, to which an almost insulting reply was made by Chile. -International trouble threatened for a while, but Chile made apologies -and paid the sum of $75,000 as compensation. The matter was then dropped, -but the anti-American feeling did not evaporate as quickly as the -war-cloud. - -Only a little over a year ago another controversy arose through the -demand made by the State Department of the United States for the -settlement of a claim which had been in dispute for many years. As a -result much anti-American comment appeared in the newspapers of Chile, as -though the United States was trying to enforce a rejected claim against a -weaker nation. The visit of President Montt to the United States, while -on his way to Europe to seek medical advice, only a few months afterward, -however, seems to presage that the government of Chile has buried all -difficulties and good will is again restored. It was not necessary for -President Montt to come this way, and he undoubtedly did it in a spirit -of amity and good will. - -A great many erroneously place strong reliance upon the favourable -effect of the Monroe Doctrine in South America. As a matter of fact the -Monroe Doctrine at no period has caused the sale of a dollar’s worth -of merchandise in those markets. It has, on the other hand, through -misinterpretation of its intended beneficence, caused ill feeling, and, -perhaps, prevented the sale of American goods in many instances. If the -United States adheres to this doctrine, the completion of the Panama -Canal will increase the responsibilities of the United States instead of -lessening them. We, of the great North American republic, know that the -action of the United States under this doctrine has always been intended -for the welfare of the other Americans. Those who should feel kindly -toward us, because of it, as a matter of fact rather resent its effect. -They feel able to fight their own battles without the aid of the powerful -republic on the North American continent. The visit of the United States -fleet a few years ago at the various ports of South America, and the -trip made by Elihu Root, then Secretary of State, did more to encourage -a kindly feeling toward the United States and to develop a Pan-American -spirit than anything the United States has ever done. It now needs only -a wise and diplomatic policy to strengthen and extend the good feeling -engendered by those events. - -Chile, like all the west coast republics, is becoming very much -interested in the Panama Canal, and the effect that its completion will -have upon the country. Unlike the North American, the South American -does not become impatient over the probable date of the completion of -the canal, for it does not make much difference to him whether it is -ten years or twenty-five years hence. The only question in his mind is -what may be the ultimate effect of the canal. It is, perhaps, of more -interest to a North American, because the North American is interested in -the possibilities of trade development with that coast. At the present -time there are perhaps 11,500,000 of people living in the republics -of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile, which have a foreign commerce, -including both exports and imports, in excess of $300,000,000. In -addition to this there is the trade with the Pacific coast of Colombia. -Then there is added to this the question of the probability of future -development of those countries, which are in themselves larger than any -European kingdoms, except Russia. The enthusiastic Chilean, for instance, -will tell you how many times larger is his country than Holland, and -estimates the immense population that his country could support at the -same density per mile as that little European kingdom. This, of course, -is absolutely impossible, because such large sections of the country are -untillable. Furthermore, there never has been as yet such rapid increases -in population in any of the west coast countries as the United States, -Canada, Argentina and Australia can show. Hence it is not well to think -of this section as being likely to have sudden growths of population, -but there will doubtless be a slow and steady increase in each of the -countries mentioned. - -One advantage that will accrue from the completion of the canal will -be better transportation between all the ports of the west coast and -New York. A direct line of steamers between Valparaiso, and possibly -ports farther south, to New York is sure to be established, for business -conditions will not only demand, but warrant such a line. By this route -the distance from New York to Valparaiso will be only fifty-one hundred -miles, including the stops at several intervening ports. When this -distance is compared with that from Valparaiso to Liverpool, by the way -of the Straits of Magellan, which is ninety-five hundred miles, it shows -that New York will be several thousand miles nearer to Valparaiso than -European ports by the same route, and the difference becomes greater as -you journey along the coast toward Panama. If British steamers should use -the Panama Canal it would still make New York nearer to all the ports -on the west coast by almost three thousand miles. As it is there are no -boats flying the American flag which visit Chilean or other west coast -ports, except an occasional tramp lumber schooner which comes down from -Seattle, or a boat which comes through the Straits of Magellan now and -then from New York for a load of nitrate. Much of the traffic is obliged -to go to Callao, Peru, and there be transferred to another steamer to be -taken to Panama; then it is shipped by rail across the Isthmus, and again -loaded on another steamer destined either for New York or New Orleans. - -[Illustration: THE CUSTOM HOUSE, VALPARAISO.] - -It does not require an especially sharp insight to see the advantage -from a commercial standpoint of a direct line between these ports and -New York. Furthermore, since the completion of the Transandine Railway, -and still more so when the other route farther south may be finished, -large sections of fertile Argentina will be nearer to the west coast -than to Buenos Aires or Bahia Blanca, on the Atlantic coast. This would -mean that shipments which are destined for the United States from those -sections would probably be made by the steamers using the west coast -route, and through the Panama Canal. Of course that would not be true of -grain products, for those shipments go to Europe, as the United States -has not yet become an importer of grain, with the exception of flax seed. -We do, however, take the greatest portion of wool, hides and certain -other products. It will tend, in the opinion of the writer, to not only -bring about closer commercial relations, but to develop a spirit of -Pan-Americanism, which will mean a great deal for the United States. -Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador have been much under the influence of American -business interests, and Chile has a natural inclination as well toward -the North Americans, but the diplomatic incidents heretofore mentioned -have made the Chileans a little bit suspicious of the policies of the -United States. This will, however, I believe, be entirely overcome within -a very short time. The people of Chile will then realize that the North -Americans are their best friends. - - -THE END. - - - - -FOOTNOTES - - -[1] This statement is disputed by some authorities. - -[2] South America on the Eve of Emancipation, by Bernard Moses. - -[3] An unconquerable race. - -[4] See Argentina and Her People of To-day. - - - - -APPENDICES - - -I - -AREA AND POPULATION - -The population of Chile is not large when its possibilities are -considered. It is very unevenly distributed. The number of persons to the -square mile is less than one-half the proportion in the United States. -The pure white population are undoubtedly in the minority. The following -table shows the names of provinces, with their area and population -according to government census of 1907: - - ---------------------+---------+----------+------------- - Province | Area |Population| Capital - ---------------------+---------+----------+------------- - Aconcagua | 5,410 | 128,486 | San Felipe - Antofagasta | 46,830 | 123,323 | Antofagasta - Arauco | 2,055 | 61,538 | Lebu - Atacama | 30,430 | 63,968 | Copiapó - Bio-Bio | 4,720 | 97,968 | Los Angeles - Cautin | 6,150 | 139,553 | Temuco - Chiloé | 8,600 | 88,619 | Ancud - Colchagua | 3,870 | 158,160 | San Fernando - Concepción | 3,545 | 216,994 | Concepción - Coquimbo | 13,465 | 175,021 | Le Serena - Curico | 2,900 | 107,090 | Curico - Linares | 3,875 | 109,363 | Linares - Llanquihue | 38,575 | 105,043 | Puerto Montt - Malleco | 3,100 | 113,775 | Angol - Maule | 2,425 | 110,462 | Cauquenes - Nuble | 3,460 | 166,239 | Chillan - O’Higgins | 2,050 | 92,278 | Rancagua - Santiago | 5,720 | 516,870 | Santiago - Tacna | 9,615 | 28,748 | Tacna - Talca | 3,750 | 131,958 | Talca - Tarapacá | 18,400 | 110,036 | Iquique - Valdivia | 8,400 | 119,277 | Valdivia - Valparaiso | 1,935 | 281,385 | Valparaiso - Magellanes Territory | 64,040 | 17,143 | Punta Arenas - ---------------------+---------+----------+------------- - -The following table shows the population according to the several -censuses taken:— - - ---------------+---------- - Census of 1835 | 1,010,332 - ” ” 1843 | 1,083,801 - ” ” 1854 | 1,439,120 - ” ” 1865 | 1,819,223 - ” ” 1875 | 2,075,971 - ” ” 1885 | 2,527,320 - ” ” 1895 | 2,712,145 - ” ” 1907 | 3,248,224 - ---------------+---------- - - -II - -MOUNTAINS AND VOLCANOES - -The Coast, or Maritime range of mountains in Chile does not present, -like the Andean range, a continuous chain, but is broken by valleys and -small plains, as well as by rivers in their course to the ocean. The -slopes of this range are generally formed by a succession of hills, -frequently covered with vegetation, but which rarely exceed six thousand -feet in height. In places cross ridges connect this range with its -loftier neighbouring range, where the two systems seem to merge into one. -The three highest peaks in the Maritime range are Cerro de Limon Verde -(11,380 ft.), Cerro de Agua Amarga (10,550 ft.) and Cerro de la Campana -de Quillota (9,325 ft.) - -The Andean range of mountains is a succession of high mountains with -lofty peaks covered with the everlasting snows. At intervals passes are -formed in this cordillera, which permit access from one side to the -other. The lowest of these is that of Perez Rosales (3,230 ft.) in -Southern Chile, and the highest is Agua Negra (15,715 ft.). The highest -point of the Andes is Mount Aconcagua, and from there to the south the -altitude gradually decreases until it reaches sea level at the Straits of -Magellan. - -The following table gives the names and height of the principal peaks of -this range of lofty mountains according to the best estimates. - - ------------------------------------+---------+--------- - Names |Latitude | Altitude - | | Feet - ------------------------------------+---------+--------- - Pico del Aconcagua | 32° 41´ | 23,080 - Cerro del Mercedario | 31° 59´ | 22,300 - Cerro Tupungato | 33° 25´ | 22,015 - Volcán de San José | 33° 41´ | 20,000 - Cerro Juncal | 33° 10´ | 19,500 - Cerro El Cobre | 28° 28´ | 18,320 - Cerro Peña Negra | 28° 11´ | 18,300 - Volcán de Maipo | 33° 59´ | 17,665 - Altura sin nombre | 27° 50´ | 17,100 - Llullaillaco | 24° 15´ | 17,060 - Cerro del Plomo | 33° 14´ | 16,750 - Cerro Doña Ana | 29° 37´ | 15,315 - Volcán de Tinguiririca | 34° 50´ | 14,700 - Cerro del Viento | 30° 45´ | 14,050 - Cerro del Campanario | 35° 57´ | 13,120 - Cerro Colorado | 35° 18´ | 12,975 - Descabezado del Maule | 35° 36´ | 12,755 - Cerro del Azufre o Copiapó | 31° 16´ | 12,000 - Volcán de Peteroa o Planchón | 35° 13´ | 11,925 - Volcán de Villarica or Quetripillan | 39° 14´ | 11,810 - Volcán de La Yegua | 36° 00´ | 11,342 - Nevado de Longavi | 36° 14´ | 10,522 - Volcán de Nevado de Chillan | 36° 47´ | 9,725 - Volcán de Antuco | 37° 23´ | 9,060 - Corcovado | 43° 10´ | 7,380 - Monte Sarmiento (Tierra del Fuego) | 54° 10´ | 6,890 - Yanteles | 43° 30´ | 6,625 - ------------------------------------+---------+--------- - - -III - -SUGGESTIONS FOR TRAVELLERS - -The completion of the Panama Canal, which is promised by 1914, will make -the access to the west coast of South America much more convenient. -Without doubt there will be established at that time a direct line of -steamers from New York to Valparaiso, which will touch at a number of -intermediate ports between Panama and that city. At the present time it -is necessary to take a steamer from New York, or New Orleans, to Colon, a -journey of six or seven days, cross the isthmus by train, and then embark -on another steamer from Panama to Valparaiso. Two lines of steamers, the -Pacific Steam Navigation Company (recently absorbed by the Royal Mail -Steam Packet Company) and the Compañia Sud Americana de Vapores, render -this service, but sometimes it is necessary to transship at Callao, Peru. -There is also a Peruvian line of fast steamers to Callao. The quickest -service between Panama and Valparaiso is twelve days, and, if one takes -the slower coast steamers, the time is longer by several days. The trip -is, however, a very interesting one and full of scenic beauty, as well -as novelty. It gives the traveller an opportunity to get a glimpse of -Jamaica, and to see the great work of Uncle Sam on the isthmus, which -is undoubtedly the most stupendous undertaking ever attempted by man. -Furthermore, it would be difficult to find smoother seas over which to -sail. - -From Guayaquil, Ecuador, the traveller is enabled to visit Quito, the -capital of this equatorial republic, which is situated at an elevation of -about 10,000 feet, and almost on the equatorial line. One can visit Lima, -capital of Peru, and one of the most interesting cities in South America, -and can also visit La Paz, capital of Bolivia, and the highest capital -in the world. By taking the transcontinental line across South America -to Buenos Aires, and returning to New York by the east coast route, one -is enabled to visit the leading republics of South America, and thus -gain an adequate idea of the entire continent. There is a very good -line of steamers from Buenos Aires to New York, stopping at Montevideo, -Uruguay, Santos, Rio de Janeiro and Bahia, Brazil, and Barbados Island; -or, if time is not urgent, the traveller can return via Europe at only a -slightly increased cost. The cost of such a trip from New York back to -New York, including all necessary expenses at sea, except gratuities, -is about five hundred dollars. This does not cover any of the expenses -on land. The trip around the southern end of the continent through the -Straits of Magellan is most interesting, and the scenery is magnificent. -The cost, however, is more, and the time involved is ten days greater. - -The language of Chile is Spanish, but, in the cities and towns, there -is very little difficulty for one not familiar with that language to -get along without much embarrassment. Comfortable hotels will be found -in Valparaiso, Santiago and many other cities. The prices are rather -higher than for similar accommodations in the United States. The rates -are generally inclusive, and provide coffee and rolls in the morning, -which are generally served in the bedroom, and two substantial meals -which are very similar in their menu. The railroad equipment of the -Chilean railroads is generally quite good, and one will find the only -real Pullman cars in South America. Chair cars will be found on some of -the State Railway trains, and sleepers also in the long journeys. The -railroad fare is exceedingly cheap, and one wonders how the service can -be provided at such a low cost. - -The money of Chile is arranged on the same system as our own, the -standard being the peso, which is divided into one hundred centavos and -has a value of about twenty-one cents, but the rate of exchange varies -somewhat from day to day. Exchange is always based on the value of the -English sovereign. The money is nearly all paper and very little gold -will be found in circulation. The price of most articles of wear is -rather high, because of the import duties. One will notice in travelling -on the English steamers that the barber carries a very large stock of -goods, and at each of the ports many people call on him and purchase -various articles, because his prices are so much lower than those on -shore. English book stores will be found in the cities, where books and -magazines can be purchased. The tariff for cab charges in all the cities -is very low and the equipment poor, but the traveller should be sure -to inform himself of the legitimate charges, or he will pay for his -experience. The cab driver of Chile is very much like his counterpart the -world over. Street car fares are very cheap also. - -The traveller must always remember that the seasons south of the equator -are reversed, and that summer time in that part of the world is the -winter season in the northern climates. As one goes south the temperature -becomes cooler, being just the reverse of conditions in northern -latitudes. The temperature also changes with the altitude, and this fact -must be borne in mind when arrangements are being made for the clothing -to be taken on the trip. Each thousand feet of elevation makes a very -perceptible change in the temperature. - - -IV - -BIBLIOGRAPHY - - ALCOCK, FREDERICK: Trade and travel in South America. London, - 1903. - - AKERS, CHARLES E.: History of South America. London, 1904. - - BOYD, R. NELSON: Sketches of Chile and the Chileans. London, - 1881. - - BUTTERWORTH, HEZEKIAH: South America, a popular illustrated - history. New York, 1898. - - CARPENTER, FRANK G.: South America, social, industrial, and - political. Akron, Ohio, 1900. - - CHILD, THEODORE: The Spanish American Republics. New York, 1891. - - CHILE: a handbook. Washington, 1909. - - CLARK, FRANCIS E.: The continent of opportunity. New York, 1907. - - CONWAY, Sir MARTIN: Aconcagua and Tierra del Fuego. London, - 1902. - - CROMMELIN, MARY: Over the Andes from the Argentine to Chile and - Peru. New York, 1896. - - CURTIS, WILLIAM ELEROY: Between the Andes and the ocean. - Chicago, 1900. - - DARWIN, CHARLES: Voyage of the “Beagle.” London, 1845. - - DAWSON, THOMAS C.: The South American Republics. New York, 1904. - - Economical and social progress of the republic of Chile. - Valparaiso, 1906. - - ELLIOTT, G. F. SCOTT: Chile, its history and development. - London, 1909. - - FITZGERALD, E. A.: The Highest Andes. London, 1899. - - HANCOCK, ANSON URIEL: A history of Chile. Chicago, 1893. - - HERVEY, MAURICE N.: Dark days in Chile; an account of the - revolution of 1891. London, 1892. - - JONES, A. D.: History of South America. London, 1899. - - KEANE, A. H.: Central and South America. London, 1901. - - MARTIN, PERCY F.: Through five republics of South America. - London, 1905. - - MARKHAM, CLEMENTS R.: The war between Peru and Chile. London, - 1883. - - MITRE, BARTOLOMÉ: History of San Martin. London, 1893. - - MOSES, BERNARD: South America on the eve of emancipation. New - York, 1908. - - OSBORN, CHASE S.: Andean Land. 2 Vols. Chicago, 1909. - - PEPPER, CHARLES M.: Panama to Patagonia. Chicago, 1907. - - RUHL, ARTHUR: The other Americans. New York, 1908. - - RUSSELL, WILLIAM HOWARD: A visit to Chile and the nitrate - fields. London, 1890. - - SMITH, WILLIAM ANDERSON: Temperate Chile. London, 1889. - - SPEARS, JOHN R.: The gold diggings of Cape Horn. New York, 1895. - - United States, Hydrographic office: The West Coast of South - America. Washington, 1890. - - VINCENT, FRANK R.: Round and about South America. New York, - 1890. - - WIBORG, FRANK: A commercial traveller in South America. New - York, 1905. - - WRIGHT, MARIE ROBINSON: The Republic of Chile. Philadelphia, - 1905. - - - - -INDEX - - - Aconcagua, Mt., 7, 48, 149, 164, 169. - - Aconcagua, province of, 15. - - Aconcagua River, 153. - - Agriculture, 10, 93, 98, 213, 360; - school of, 232. - - Aguardiente, 112, 194. - - Alacaloofs, 142-4. - - Albano, Elias Fernandez, 358. - - Almagro, Diego de, 15. - - Alpaca, the, 174. - - Altitude, the lure of, 165. - - Americans, 187. - - Ancients, 65. - - Ancon, Treaty of, 335. - - Ancud, 111. - - Andes, the, 6, 21, 121, 156-173. - - Anglican Church, 278. - - Antarctic Circle, 120. - - Antarctic Sea, 3, 122. - - Antofagasta, 42, 180, 254, 255; - capture of by Chile, 318; - by revolutionists, 346. - - Araucanians, the, 15, 96, 196, 212 _et seq._, 278, 281, 341. - - Arauco, 190. - - Architecture, 241. - - Area, 1, 393. - - Arequipa, 29. - - Argentina, 17, 138, 156, 159-161, 201; - dispute with, 313, 356. - - Arica, 33-38, 253, 326, 327. - - Aristocracy, 85. - - Army, 370. - - Arrieros, 158. - - Arteaga, Colonel, 324. - - Artistic element, 241. - - Ascensors, 47. - - Atacama, desert of, 315. - - Australia, 190. - - Aymara Indians, 323. - - - Bahia Blanca, 106, 257. - - Balboa, 20. - - Balmaceda, José Manuel, 338 _et seq._, 357; - death of, 353. - - Balmacedists, 40. - - Baltimore incident, 383. - - Banking, 209, 372. - - Baquedano, General, 331, 337, 352. - - Bargaining, 33, 82. - - Bautista, San Juan, 62. - - Beagle Channel, 140. - - Bible societies, 279. - - Bibliography, 402. - - Bio-Bio River, 8, 95, 105, 215. - - Birds, 30, 113. - - Boer colonies, 378. - - Bolivar, 290-2. - - Bolivia, 6, 17, 30, 35, 253, 315; - war with, 314 _et seq._ - - Bomberos, 51, 134. - - Borax, 180. - - Brandy, 112. - - Bravery, 17. - - Brunswick, peninsula of, 6. - - Buendia, General, 324. - - Buenos Aires, 139, 161, 242, 259, 297. - - Buenos Aires and Pacific Railway, 160. - - Bulnes, General, 204, 307. - - - Cabinet, the, 12. - - Cacti, 148. - - Cadiz, 282. - - Calaguayas, 225-9. - - Caldera, 43, 189. - - Caleta Buena, 254. - - California, 245. - - Callao, 27, 290, 326, 397. - - Calle-Calle River, 8. - - Capricorn, Tropic of, 42. - - Caracoles, 156, 189, 259. - - Castro, 111. - - Casuchas, 157, 286. - - Cattle, 360. - - Cautin River, 100. - - Centennial, first, 380. - - Chacabuco, battle of, 294. - - Chacao, 111. - - Charities, 78, 234. - - Characteristics, 194. - - Charles IV., 283. - - Chiloé, 3, 108-111, 303. - - Chimborazo, Mt., 166. - - Christ of the Andes, 161. - - Chimneys, absence of, 73. - - Chincha Islands, 28. - - Chillan, 232. - - Chorrillos, battle of, 330-332. - - Church, the, 84, 261 _et seq._, 311, 337, 364; - wealth of, 268. - - Clark, John and Matthew, 259. - - Climate, 2, 122, 149, 192. - - Clubs, 86. - - Coal, 190, 257. - - Cochrane, Lord, 106, 112, 208, 298-301. - - Colleges, 276. - - Colombia, 290. - - Comision Conservada, 344. - - Commerce, 50, 372-5, 387. - - Concepción, 4, 92, 105-6, 190, 286, 308. - - Condors, 155. - - Conductors, women, 58. - - Congress, 11, 209, 365-7; - power of, 305, 340, 343, 356. - - Congress, Palace of, 76. - - Constitucion, city of, 103. - - Constitution, 270. - - Convents, 268. - - Conway, Sir Martin, 167, 168. - - Copiapó, 15, 43, 244, 253. - - Copper, 189. - - Coquimbo, 4; - province of, 255. - - Cordilleras, the, 91. - - Cordoba, 245. - - Corral, 107. - - Corruption, 368. - - Corso, the, 85. - - Cotopaxi, Mt., 166. - - Council of State, the, 13. - - Courts, 13. - - Courting, 205. - - Cousiño family, 74, 104. - - Cousiño Park, 73, 75. - - Creoles, 193. - - Crimes, 197, 285. - - Cross, Southern, 20. - - Cruelty, 348. - - Cruelties of Spaniards, 216. - - Crusoe, Robinson, 61. - - Cueca, La, 75. - - Cumbre, El, 162. - - Customs, 87, 144, 205. - - Cuyo, province of, 293. - - Cuzco, 29. - - - Darwin, Charles, 108, 178. - - Debt, foreign, 376. - - Deputies, chamber of, 345. - - Desert, 32-40; - the nitrate, 178 _et seq._ - - Desolation Island, 128. - - Development, 377. - - Disasters, ocean, 36. - - Doctor, Indian, 225-229. - - Dogs, 100. - - Dominican Friars, 269. - - Drake, Sir Francis, 34, 125. - - Drunkenness, 193, 199, 201. - - - Earthquake, 52, 273, 363. - - Easter Island, 4, 65. - - Ecuador, 22, 164, 270, 290. - - Education, 230 _et seq._, 341. - - Elections, 13, 368. - - Encalada Manuel Blanco, 303. - - England, Church of, 278. - - English, 50, 186, 192, 208-9. - - Equator, 20. - - Errázuriz, Federico, Sr., 311-2. - - Errázuriz, Federico, 355-6. - - Espinar, Colonel, 324. - - Espiritu, Cafe, 123. - - Exchange, 400. - - Exports, 374, 387. - - - Falkland Islands, 134. - - Famine, Port, 135. - - Farms, 101. - - Ferdinand VII, 283. - - Fertilizers, 184. - - Fiestas, 83, 273. - - Fire department, 51. - - Fire, Land of the, 120 _et seq._ - - Firemen, 134. - - Firelanders, 143-8. - - Fish, 30, 112. - - Fitzgerald, E. A., 169-171. - - Forests, 114, 361. - - Freire, General, 302-3. - - French, 50. - - Frowards, Cape, 132. - - Fruits, 95, 110. - - Fuegian Archipelago, 108, 120 _et seq._, 126. - - Fuego, Tierra del, 2, 3. - - - Gambling, 362. - - Germans, 50, 102, 192, 207, 370. - - Glaciers, 128. - - Gold, 129, 188. - - Governors, 14. - - Government, 11, 364. - - Grace, W. R., & Co., 375. - - Graft, 252. - - Grapes, 361. - - Grau, Admiral, 320-2. - - Great Southern Railway, 257. - - Grube, 113. - - Guanaco, 132, 145, 173. - - Guano, 28. - - Guayaquil, 21, 25, 290, 398. - - Guayacan, 44. - - Guaytecas Islands, 111. - - - Haciendas, 69, 97, 149, 224. - - Health, 378. - - Hidalgo, 287. - - Himalayas, the, 165. - - History, 14-18, 124-5, 212 _et seq._, 280 _et seq._ - - Historians, 240. - - Honesty, 369. - - Horn, Cape, 120-8. - - Huascaran, Mt., 167. - - - Iglesias, General, 334. - - Illimani, Mt., 167. - - Immigrants, 102, 378. - - Imperial, 216. - - Imports, 374, 387. - - Incas, 35, 168, 213, 227. - - Incas, Bridge of the, 159. - - Incas, Lake of the, 155. - - Independence, 16, 287, 380. - - Indians, 15, 94, 109, 137, 141-6, 176, 212 _et seq._; - endurance of, 323. - - Inquilinos, 97, 197. - - Insects, 113. - - Intemperance, 83. - - Intendentes, 14. - - Iodine, 183. - - Iquique, 39-42, 254, 277; - capture of by Chile, 319; - by revolutionists, 346. - - Irrigation, 95, 97, 151, 377. - - Iron, 190. - - Islands, 4. - - Italians, 50. - - Itata River, 95, 214. - - - Jamaica, 398. - - Jesuits, 17. - - Journalism, 240. - - Juan Fernandez Islands, 4, 61. - - Juncal, 155, 258. - - Jungles, 117. - - - King William, peninsula of, 6. - - Korner, General, 349. - - - La Paz, 29, 38, 43, 76, 254, 398. - - La Serena, 44. - - Lago del Inca, 155. - - Laja, Lake, 257. - - Language, 399. - - Las Cadenas, 351. - - Las Cuevas, 156. - - Las Peñas, Gulf of, 5. - - Lautaro, the Indian hero, 217. - - Libraries, 77, 234. - - Lima, Archbishop of, 265. - - Lima, 27, 398; - capture of by Chile, 328-334. - - Limache, 150. - - Literature, 234-240. - - Llai Llai, 150, 244. - - Llama, the, 173-7. - - Llanquihue, 256. - - Llanquihue, Lake, 207. - - Lobsters, 62. - - Longitudinal Railway, 250. - - Los Angeles, 150-1, 260. - - Lota, 104, 189. - - Luco, Ramon Barros, 358. - - Lynch, Captain, 326, 328. - - - Mackenna, Benjamine V., 72. - - Magellan, Ferdinand de, 120, 124. - - Magellan, Straits of, 6, 11, 120 _et seq._, 244. - - Mail service, 158, 284. - - Maipo, battle of, 293, 296. - - Maipo River, 93. - - Malga Malga, 188. - - Mellinca, 112. - - Manta, the, 90. - - Manufacturing, 362. - - Mapocho River, 69. - - Maritime laws, 250. - - Markets, 56, 81, 107. - - Mariguina, 188. - - Marriage, 144, 206, 274. - - Mas-a-Tierra, island of, 62. - - Maule River, 213. - - McKinley, Mt., 165. - - Meiggs, Henry, 245-6. - - Mendoza, 160, 260, 293. - - Mendoza, Garcia, 281. - - Mendoza River, 159. - - Merchants, peripatetic, 56. - - Mercedario, Mt., 164, 173. - - Methodist Episcopal Church, 276-8. - - Military, 370. - - Milk selling, 57. - - Minerals, 188, 361. - - Mines, 254. - - Mining Claim, 362. - - Miramar, 60. - - Miraflores, battle of, 330-3. - - Missions, 138. - - Mollendo, 29. - - Monasteries, 265. - - Money, 90, 376, 400. - - Monroe Doctrine, 385. - - Montt, Jorge, 344, 345, 354-5. - - Montt, Manuel, 307-9. - - Montt, Pedro, 357, 384. - - Montevideo, 284. - - Mortality, 378. - - Mountains, 21, 395-6. - - Music, 234. - - Museums, 234. - - - Napoleon, 283. - - Napoleon, Joseph, 283. - - Navigation, 116, 247-9. - - Navy, 371; - revolt of, 345. - - Newsboys, 81. - - Newspapers, 234-7. - - Nitrate of soda, 38-42, 178 _et seq._, 360. - - Novelists, 239. - - - Officials, 194. - - Oficinas, 184. - - O’Higgins, Bernardo, 288. - - O’Higgins, General Don Ambrosio, 16, 286, 294 _et seq._ - - Ollague, 254. - - Onas, the, 142-7. - - Opera, 79. - - Oroya Railroad, 246. - - Orphanage, 78. - - Oruro, 254. - - Osorno, 107, 223, 251. - - Osorio, General, 296. - - Oysters, 113. - - - Pacific Steam Navigation Company, 136, 244, 248, 397. - - Paita, 23. - - Palena River, 113. - - Panama, 225. - - Panama Canal, 386-390, 397. - - Parasites, 115. - - Pareja, Admiral, 310. - - Parties, political, 339, 347, 366. - - Paseo, the, 87. - - Pascua Island, 4, 65. - - Patagonia, 4, 116, 141, 173. - - Peck, Annie S., 167. - - Pelicans, 31, 113. - - Peonage, 198, 282. - - Peons, 97, 197. - - People, 83, 191 _et seq._ - - Penco, battle of, 216. - - Penguins, 144. - - Penitents, Ridge of the, 159. - - Penitentas, 203. - - Perez, José Joaquin, 309-311. - - Peru, 17, 185, 186, 269, 290, 297; - war with, 36, 314 _et seq._ - - Pierola, Nicolas de, 330. - - Pillar, Cape, 6, 124. - - Pinto, Anibal, 304, 313, 336. - - Pisagua, 39, 180. - - Pisco, 28, 328, 331. - - Pizarro, 15, 26, 280. - - Placilla, battle of, 350-2. - - Politeness, 86. - - Politics, 195, 364. - - Polygamy, 223. - - Poncho, 223. - - Poopo, Lake, 35. - - Pope, the, 262. - - Population, 393-4. - - Ports, 8, 247. - - Portales, 305-6. - - Porvenir, battle of, 324. - - Postal service, 377. - - Post-office, 284. - - Poverty, 83. - - Prat, Arturo, 40, 209, 320. - - Presbyterian Church, 277-8. - - Press, the, 234-8, 368. - - Priests, 266. - - Prieto, General, 304-6. - - Prisons, 135, 138. - - Protestantism, 271, 275-9. - - Provinces, 103, 393-4. - - Puente del Inca, 159. - - Puerto Montt, 3, 96, 103, 107, 223, 250, 257. - - Punta Arenas, 96, 123, 131-8, 190, 278, 313. - - - Quillota, 150, 188. - - Quinta Normal, 73, 76, 232. - - Quinteros, battle of, 349. - - Quito, 26, 398. - - - Races, 60, 75. - - Railways, 11, 101, 148 _et seq._, 243 _et seq._, 363. - - Rain, lack of, 23. - - Religion, 203, 225, 261 _et seq._ - - Revolution, 16, 287, 344 _et seq._ - - Riesco, Jerman, 356-7. - - Rio de Janeiro, 42, 242. - - Rivers, 8. - - Robinson Crusoe, island of, 4. - - Rodriguez, Zorobabel, 240. - - Rosario, 245. - - Rotos, 49, 83, 110, 196-201, 363. - - - Saavedra, Juan de, 46, 222. - - Salitre, 180 _et seq._ - - Saltpetre, 180 _et seq._ - - Salto del Soldado, 154. - - San Felipe, 152. - - San Francisco, California, 49. - - San Francisco, battle of, 323. - - San Martin, José de, 258, 289 _et seq._, 381. - - Santa Lucia, rock of, 70, 91. - - Santa Maria, Domingo, 337-8. - - Santiago, 16, 43, 69 _et seq._, 200, 270, 273, 281, 284, 295. - - Sarmiento, Mt., 121, 123, 137. - - Schley, Admiral, 383. - - School, Naval, 233. - - Schools, 51, 231, 233. - - Sea lions, 31. - - Selkirk, Alexander, 63. - - Serfdom, 265. - - Sheep, 3, 127, 136, 361. - - Shopping, 89, 376. - - Sierras, the, 21, 164. - - Silver, 188. - - Soldier’s Leap, 154. - - Sorata, Mt., 167. - - Spain, King of, 262. - - Spain, 17; - war with, 310. - - Spaniards, 14, 191, 214. - - Sports, 237. - - Statues, curious, 66. - - Strikes, 200. - - - Tacna, 37, 250, 253, 365. - - Talca, 94. - - Talcahuano, 105, 257, 296, 345. - - Taltal, 180, 188. - - Tarapacá, desert of, 38, 178, 329. - - Tchili, 15. - - Tehuelches, 141, 212. - - Telegraph, 377. - - Temperature, 117. - - Temuco, 96, 100, 223. - - Theatres, 79, 87, 242. - - Tierra del Fuego, 120 _et seq._, 276. - - Timber, 114. - - Titicaca, Lake, 29, 35, 168, 176. - - Todos Santos, Lake, 9. - - Trade, possibilities, 389. - - Transandino Chileno Railway, 258-260. - - Transandino Argentino Railway, 159. - - Travel, 307-400. - - Travellers, fellow, 24. - - Travelling, 152. - - Trinidad, Gulf of, 116. - - Tucapel, 188. - - Tupungato, Mt., 164, 170. - - - United States, 36, 50, 327, 373, 381-5. - - Universities, 232. - - Ushuaia, 138-140. - - Uspallata pass, 159, 258, 286. - - - Valley, great central, 9, 92 _et seq._, 256, 360. - - Valdivia, city of, 96, 107, 188, 300. - - Valdivia, Pedro de, 16, 69, 214, 216-8, 280. - - Valparaiso, 7, 21, 46-59, 148, 209, 233, 310, 348; - capture of, 351. - - Vandalism, 334. - - Vicuña, 35. - - Vicuña, Señor, 35, 348, 354. - - Villagran, 219. - - Villagran, the, 281. - - Viña del Mar, 59, 148, 350. - - Vineyards, 99. - - Virgenes, Cape, 6, 123, 124. - - Virgins, Feast of the, 77. - - Volcanoes, 7, 67, 94, 395-6. - - - War, the nitrate, 315 _et seq._ - - Waterfalls, 10, 118. - - Water power, 363. - - Wheelwright, William, 243-5, 253, 258. - - Whymper, Edward, 166. - - Wine, 99. - - Women, 58, 90, 203-7, 271-339. - - Wool, 134, 361. - - Wrecks, 5. - - - Yahgans, the, 142-4. - - Yanqui, the, 382. - - - Zañartú, Señor, 356. - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Chile and Her People of To-day, by Nevin O. 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Winter - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Chile and Her People of To-day - -Author: Nevin O. Winter - -Release Date: October 6, 2019 [EBook #60438] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHILE AND HER PEOPLE OF TO-DAY *** - - - - -Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></span></p> - -<p class="titlepage larger">CHILE AND HER PEOPLE OF TO-DAY</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="500" height="750" alt="" /> -</div> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[ii]</a></span></p> - -<div class="bbox"> - -<p class="center">Uniform with This Volume</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 50px;"> -<img src="images/deco.jpg" width="50" height="25" alt="" /> -</div> - -<table summary="Books and their prices"> - <tr> - <td>Cuba and Her People of To-day</td> - <td class="tdpg">$3.00</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub"><span class="smcap">By Forbes Lindsay</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Panama and the Canal To-day. <i>New Revised Edition</i></td> - <td class="tdpg">3.00</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub"><span class="smcap">By Forbes Lindsay</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chile and Her People of To-day</td> - <td class="tdpg">3.00</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub"><span class="smcap">By Nevin O. Winter</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Argentina and Her People of To-day</td> - <td class="tdpg">3.00</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub"><span class="smcap">By Nevin O. Winter</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Brazil and Her People of To-day</td> - <td class="tdpg">3.00</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub"><span class="smcap">By Nevin O. Winter</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Guatemala and Her People of To-day</td> - <td class="tdpg">3.00</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub"><span class="smcap">By Nevin O. Winter</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mexico and Her People of To-day. <i>New Revised Edition</i></td> - <td class="tdpg">3.00</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub"><span class="smcap">By Nevin O. Winter</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bohemia and the Čechs</td> - <td class="tdpg">3.00</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub"><span class="smcap">By Will S. Monroe</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>In Viking Land. Norway: Its Peoples, Its Fjords and Its Fjelds</td> - <td class="tdpg">3.00</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub"><span class="smcap">By Will S. Monroe</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Turkey and the Turks</td> - <td class="tdpg">3.00</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub"><span class="smcap">By Will S. Monroe</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sicily, the Garden of the Mediterranean</td> - <td class="tdpg">3.00</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub"><span class="smcap">By Will S. Monroe</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>In Wildest Africa</td> - <td class="tdpg">3.00</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub"><span class="smcap">By Peter MacQueen</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 50px;"> -<img src="images/deco.jpg" width="50" height="25" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center">L. C. PAGE & COMPANY<br /> -53 Beacon Street, Boston, Mass.</p> - -</div> - -<hr /> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;" id="illus1"> -<img src="images/illus1.jpg" width="420" height="650" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A CHILEAN GIRL WITH THE <i>MANTA</i>.</p> -<p class="caption">(<a href="#Page_90"><i>See page 90</i></a>)</p> -</div> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> - -<img src="images/titlepage.jpg" width="500" height="800" alt="" /> - -<p class="titlepage larger red">CHILE AND HER<br /> -PEOPLE OF<br /> -TO-DAY</p> - -<p class="center"><span class="smaller">AN ACCOUNT OF THE</span><br /> -CUSTOMS, CHARACTERISTICS, AMUSEMENTS,<br /> -HISTORY AND ADVANCEMENT<br /> -OF THE CHILEANS, AND THE<br /> -DEVELOPMENT AND RESOURCES OF<br /> -THEIR COUNTRY</p> - -<p class="titlepage"><span class="smaller">BY</span><br /> -<span class="red">NEVIN O. WINTER</span></p> - -<p class="center smaller">Author of “Mexico and Her People of To-day,”<br /> -“Guatemala and Her People of To-day,”<br /> -“Brazil and Her People of To-day,”<br /> -“Argentina and Her People of<br /> -To-day”</p> - -<p class="titlepage smaller">ILLUSTRATED FROM ORIGINAL AND SELECTED<br /> -PHOTOGRAPHS BY THE AUTHOR</p> - -<div class="figcenter titlepage" style="width: 100px;"> -<img src="images/spe-labor-levis.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="titlepage">BOSTON<br /> -L. C. PAGE AND COMPANY<br /> -MDCCCCXII</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span></p> - -<p class="titlepage smaller"><i>Copyright, 1912</i><br /> -<span class="smcap">By L. C. Page & Company</span><br /> -(INCORPORATED)</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><i>All rights reserved</i></p> - -<p class="titlepage smaller">First Impression, January, 1912</p> - -<p class="titlepage smaller"><i>Electrotyped and Printed by<br /> -THE COLONIAL PRESS<br /> -C. H. Simonds & Co., Boston, U.S.A.</i></p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2> - -<p>To the jealousy of Francisco Pizarro was -due the discovery and conquest of Chile. Reports -having reached Pizarro that there were -regions to the south yet virgin, and teeming -with wealth richer than that of Peru, he sent -Diego de Almagro, one of his lieutenants, with -an expedition to conquer these unknown lands. -Almagro failed, and later he sent Pedro de -Valdivia with another expedition. There was -another reason for sending these expeditions, -for Pizarro hoped that neither of these men -would return to Peru, since he feared their -shrewdness and popularity.</p> - -<p>Valdivia succeeded in establishing a permanent -settlement, but himself fell a victim to -the hardy tribesmen of the central valley of -Chile, who were far different from the soft and -mild Incas enslaved by Pizarro. He had found -that it was no easy task he had undertaken, -and the sturdy race of Araucanians was still<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span> -unconquered when the Spaniards were driven -out of the country by the generations that had -grown up from the time of its first settlement.</p> - -<p>The Chileans have ever been independent in -thought and action, and they have proved to -be the best soldiers of South America. The -temperate climate, the mountainous character -of the country and its isolation, and the admixture -of blood with the unconquerable Araucanians, -who most nearly resemble the North -American redmen of any of the aborigines of -South America, have all contributed to the development -of this characteristic.</p> - -<p>The government is now as stable and hopeful -as that of any of the South American nations, -and, because of its natural formation, Chile has -developed into the strongest maritime nation -of that continent. Its fine bays and harbours, -its coal supplies and its long seacoast, undoubtedly -destine Chile to be the master of the -southern seas in the ages yet to come. Furthermore, -its vast and fertile valleys, where -every product of the temperate climate grows, -and where immense herds of cattle may be fed, -its mineral wealth and vast nitrate fields, undoubtedly -destine it to a greatness on land as -well as on the sea.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p> - -<p>The history of Chile has always appealed to -the writer, in common with thousands of other -people, and it has been a pleasure to trace the -development of the country from its incipiency -to its present condition. The same care has -been exercised in the preparation of “Chile -and Her People of To-day” as in the other -books of the series, which have been so well -received. Any repetitions that appear of expressions -or ideas are intentional and not the -result of hasty or careless preparation.</p> - -<p>The author wishes to acknowledge his obligation -to The Pan-American Bulletin for two -or three photographs which appear in this -work, and also to the Bureau under which it -is issued for many courtesies received at the -hands of the Director and his associates.</p> - -<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Nevin O. Winter.</span></p> - -<p class="smaller"><span class="smcap">Toledo, Ohio</span>, <i>January, 1912</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span></p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p> - -<h2>CONTENTS</h2> - -<table summary="Contents"> - <tr> - <td class="tdr smaller">CHAPTER</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdpg smaller">PAGE</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td><span class="smcap">Preface</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#PREFACE">v</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">I.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">The Country</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">1</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">II.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">The West Coast</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">19</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">III.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">Vale of Paradise</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">46</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">IV.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">The City of Saint James</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">69</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">V.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">The Granary of the Republic</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">92</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VI.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">The Land of the Fire</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">120</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VII.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">The Backbone of the Continent</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">148</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VIII.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">A Laboratory of Nature</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">178</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">IX.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">The People</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">191</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">X.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">An Unconquerable Race</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">212</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XI.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">Education and the Arts</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">230</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XII.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">The Development of Transportation</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">243</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XIII.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">Religious Influences</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">261</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XIV.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">The Struggle for Independence</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">280</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XV.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">The Nitrate War</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">315</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XVI.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">Civil War and Its Results</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">336</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XVII.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">Present Conditions and Future Possibilities</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">360</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td><span class="smcap">Appendices</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#APPENDICES">391</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td><span class="smcap">Index</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#INDEX">405</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span></p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span></p> - -<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> - -<table summary="List of illustrations"> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdpg smaller">PAGE</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">A Chilean Girl with the <i>Manta</i></span> (<a href="#Page_90"><i>See page 90</i></a>)</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus1"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Map of Chile</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus2">2</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">The Andes from Santa Lucia</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus3">6</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">The West Coast</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus4">20</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">A Milk Boy in Peru</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus5">28</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Row Boats Crowding around a Steamer</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus6">33</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">The Harbour of Arica</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus7">36</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">A Street Scene, Antofagasta</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus8">42</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Coquimbo, a Typical West Coast Town</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus9">44</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">An “Ascensor” in Valparaiso</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus10">47</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">A Chicken Peddler, Valparaiso</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus11">57</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">A Vender of Donkey’s Milk, Valparaiso</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus12">58</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">An Attractive Home, Viña del Mar</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus13">60</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Santa Lucia</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus14">71</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Alameda de las Delicias, Santiago</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus15">72</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Dancing La Cueca, the National Dance</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus16">75</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">A Group of Newsboys, Santiago</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus17">81</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">A Market Scene, Santiago</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus18">82</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">The Oldest Building in Santiago</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus19">89</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">A Plantation Owner</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus20">97</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Drawing an American Thresher</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus21">99</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">View of Puerto Montt</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus22">108</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">In the Straits of Magellan</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus23">122</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">A Wreck on the Coast of Chile</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus24">128</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">General View of Punta Arenas</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus25">132</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span><span class="smcap">Port Famine, in the Straits of Magellan</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus26">135</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">The Aconcagua River</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus27">149</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Looking towards Aconcagua</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus28">151</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">The Salto del Soldado</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus29">154</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Refuge House along the Old Inca Trail</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus30">157</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">The Christ of the Andes</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus31">161</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">The Solitude of the Andes</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus32">163</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Loading Nitrate</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus33">186</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">A Group of Chilean Girls</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus34">206</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Ox Carts</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus35">223</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">The Escuela Naval, Valparaiso</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus36">233</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">The Harbour, Valparaiso</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus37">248</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Juncal Station</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus38">258</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Transandino Chileno Railway, Showing Abt System Of Cogs</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus39">260</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">A Chilean Priest</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus40">268</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">José de San Martin</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus41">289</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Congress Palace, Santiago</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus42">305</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Digging Nitrate</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus43">316</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">The Military Barracks, Santiago</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus44">346</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Chilean Soldiers</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus45">352</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">A Market Scene, Valparaiso</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus46">364</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">The Battleship, “O’Higgins”</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus47">371</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">A Typical Coast Scene</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus48">377</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">The Custom House, Valparaiso</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus49">388</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> - -<h1>CHILE AND HER PEOPLE OF TO-DAY</h1> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE COUNTRY</span></h2> - -<p>The republic of Chile has one of the strangest -configurations of any country on the globe. -It stretches over thirty-eight degrees of latitude, -thus giving it a coast line of twenty-six -hundred and twenty-five miles from its northern -border to the most southerly point on the -Fuegian Archipelago. It is a long and narrow -ribbon of land, at no place wider than two hundred -miles, and in places narrowing to sixty-five -miles. It has an average width of only -ninety miles, while the length is fully thirty -times the average width. Placed on the western -coast of North America, in the corresponding -latitude, this republic would extend from -Sitka, Alaska, to a point on the Pacific coast -opposite the City of Mexico. If the state of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> -Texas should be stretched out into a narrow -strip of land two thousand and five hundred -miles in length, it would give a fair idea of -the peculiar shape of Chile. It follows quite -closely the seventieth parallel of longitude, -which would correspond with that of Boston. -This strange development has been due to the -Andean mountain range, which, with its lofty -peaks and numberless spurs, forms the eastern -boundary throughout its entire length. For a -long time the boundary lines with its neighbours -were in dispute, but these have all been -successfully adjusted.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;" id="illus2"> -<a href="images/map.jpg"><img src="images/illus2.jpg" width="100" height="475" alt="" /></a> -<p class="caption"><b>Transcriber’s Note:</b> The map is clickable for -a larger version, if the device you’re reading this on supports that.</p> -</div> - -<p>Within these boundaries there is naturally a -wide divergence of climate. In the north, at -sea level, the vegetation is tropical, and it is -semi-tropical for several hundred miles south. -If one goes inland the mountains are soon -encountered, and the line of perpetual snow is -reached at about fifteen thousand feet, but this -line descends as you proceed south. On the -Fuegian Islands snow seldom disappears from -sight, although at sea level it may all thaw. -The temperature everywhere varies according -to altitude and proximity to the sea. In the -north it is milder than the same latitude on the -eastern coast, because of the Antarctic Current<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> -which washes the shores, and at the south it is -warmer than the same latitude in North America. -Within these extremes, from the regions -which are washed by the Antarctic seas to the -banks of the Sama River, which separates it -from Peru, and between the shores where the -Pacific breakers roll and the Cordilleras of the -Andes which mark the boundary with Argentina, -there are two hundred and ninety-one -thousand, five hundred square miles, and supporting -a population of three and a quarter -millions of people, of many shades of colour.</p> - -<p>One-fourth or more of the territory of Chile -is made up of islands. The largest of these, -of course, is Tierra del Fuego, of which a little -more than one-half is Chilean territory. The -coast from Puerto Montt to the southern limits -of the continent is notched and indented with -fiords and inlets, and scores of islands have -been formed, probably by volcanic action. -Few of these have claimed any attention, and, -of all those lashed by the waves of the Antarctic -seas, Tierra del Fuego is the only one that -has received any development. The sheep man -has taken possession of portions of that island, -and hundreds of thousands of sheep now graze -on its succulent grasses. The island of Chiloé,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> -near Puerto Montt, is one of the most important -of the islands, and several small foreign -colonies have been located on its rich soil. -Some of the islands are very remote from the -mainland. The most isolated one is Pascua, -or Easter, island, which is at a distance of -more than two thousand miles from the coast. -It is almost in the centre of the Pacific Ocean. -The San Felix and San Ambrosio groups, and -that of Juan Fernandez, the reputed home of -Robinson Crusoe, are also at a distance of several -hundred miles from the shores of the republic.</p> - -<p>From the northern boundary to Concepción, -the coast line is generally uniform and indentations -are rare. There are only a few bays -of any considerable size, and only an occasional -cape or promontory. From Chiloé to Tierra -del Fuego is a stretch of coast five hundred -miles in length, which a glance at the map will -show is a perfect network of islands, peninsulas -and channels. This is the Chilean Patagonia. -It provides scenery as grandly picturesque -as the famous fiords along the coast of -Norway, and greatly resembles that broken -and rugged coast. The bays and gulfs cut -into the shores to the foothills of the Andean<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> -range. They are of great depth. The Gulf of -Las Peñas furnishes an entrance to this labyrinth -at the north, and the Straits of Magellan -at the south. Some of the passes are so narrow -that they seem like gigantic splits in the -mountain ranges—grandly gloomy and narrow. -Through these openings in the rock the -water rushes with terrific force owing to the -action of the tides. But, once within, the opening -broadens out into little bays, where the -waters are as calm and serene as a mountain -lake. These channels are a vast Campo Santo, -or God’s Acre, of wrecked vessels. Numerous -as the disasters have been the sight of a -stranded boat is rare, for the grave is usually -hundreds of fathoms deep. In every case, however, -the wrecked vessel has given her name to -the rock that brought disaster, and the official -charts are dotted with the names of rocks, -which thus form eternal headstones for the -unfortunate vessels. One writer has given the -following account of these channels:—</p> - -<p>“If one can imagine the Hudson River -bordered continuously by verdure-covered -mountains descending precipitously into the -water, and jutting out here and there in fantastic -buttress-like headlands, one has some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> -idea of Messier Channel. But add to this a -network of long, thin cataracts threading their -way thousands of feet down through gullies -and alleys from mountain crest to water edge. -Far up the mountain sides they are so distant -as to seem motionless, like threads of silver -beaten into the crevices of the rocks; but near -the water their motion can be both seen and -heard as they fall amid the rocks to reach the -sea.”</p> - -<p>The southern portion of the republic terminates -in two peninsulas, known as King William -and Brunswick, which are separated by -the gulfs of Otway and Skyring. The Straits -of Magellan then separate the mainland from -the Fuegian Archipelago. This channel, which -varies in width from one to twenty-five miles, -is three hundred and sixty-two miles in length -from Cape Pillar to Cape Virgenes, the latter -being the eastern, or Atlantic, terminus. It -affords a safe passage for vessels, and is used -almost exclusively by steamers bound from one -coast to the other.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus3"> -<img src="images/illus3.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">THE ANDES FROM SANTA LUCIA.</p> -</div> - -<p>After forming the plateau of Bolivia, the -Andes, the backbone of South America, -stretches down to the lower end of the continent. -It is formed by a succession of high<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> -mountains, with lofty peaks covered with the -eternal snows. At intervals passes are found -which permit of access from one side of the -mountain to another. The highest point of this -mighty range is reached just opposite Valparaiso, -Mt. Aconcagua, and from there it descends -until, at the Straits of Magellan, it -reaches sea level. It probably continues still -farther, but its highest spurs are engulfed beneath -the ocean. The width also varies -greatly, from forty-five to one hundred miles. -Along the Chilean border there are more than -fifty definite peaks exceeding thirty-three hundred -feet in height, and twenty-nine of more -than ten thousand feet in altitude. Four are -above twenty thousand feet. Most of these -were originally volcanoes, but they are nearly -all now extinct or quiescent. South of Aconcagua -is a succession of lofty volcanic peaks, -such as San José de Maipu, San Fernando, -Tingueririca and others, all apparently extinct. -Then follow Nevado del Chillan, Antuco, Villarica -and Osorno, all of which occasionally -emit vapour, and, lastly, the Tronador (thunderer) -near the southern extremity of the country.</p> - -<p>By reason of its peculiar shape easy access<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> -is given to all parts of the republic, and the -exploitation of its resources has been comparatively -easy. In no place are the mountains -far distant, and short spurs of railway connect -the mineral deposits with the sea. Along the -coast there are no fewer than fifty-nine ports, -between which regular communication by -steamer is carried on. Fourteen of these are -ports of entry, in which customs houses are -located, and the others are minor ports, at -which only national coasting steamers stop.</p> - -<p>There are very many rivers in the country, -but only a very few of them are any aid to -navigation. They are mostly short streams -which are formed by the melting snows of the -Andes, and then rush onward toward the sea -by a more or less direct route. The principal -rivers are all in the southern half of the country. -In the deserts of the northern section the -waters formed by melting snows are evaporated -or are absorbed by the parched soil long -before they reach the sea. The Yelcho and -Palena are the largest rivers of Chile. The -latter is the longest, for it cuts through a pass -in the Andes and runs back into Argentine territory -for seventy-five miles. Others are the -Maullin, Calle-Calle, Bio-Bio, Bueno and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> -Maule. Some, such as the Bio-Bio and Maule, -are navigable for short distances by vessels of -shallow draft. Their importance to commerce -is insignificant, however, when compared with -the great rivers of the eastern coast. The Bio-Bio, -for instance, is only one hundred and sixty -miles long. They do furnish water for irrigation -purposes, only a small portion of which -has as yet been developed. There are several -lakes in Chile, of which Llanquihue, Todos -Santos, and Ranco are the most important. -The two first mentioned have steam navigation.</p> - -<p>There are many valleys of very fertile land -which can be made among the richest agricultural -lands of the world. As a rule these valleys -are small and irrigated by streams flowing -from the east to the west. The great central -valley, which runs in a southerly direction for -several hundred miles from Santiago, is one -of the most remarkable features of the country -and the garden of the republic. This valley -is almost six hundred miles in length from -north to south, but varies considerably in -width. Its average width for the entire length -is probably thirty miles. This is the granary -of the country, and the source of its principal -food supply. All of the cereals grow to perfection<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> -in this climate and on this soil. Wheat, -barley, corn, rye and oats are cultivated in -large quantities. All of the vegetables and -fruits that flourish in the temperate zone of the -Northern Hemisphere also grow to large size. -Alfalfa makes a fine pasture. And yet even -this fertile valley has only been developed in -part. Not more than one-fourth of the landed -surface of Chile is fitted for cultivation, but -of this portion not more than one-fourth has -been touched by the agriculturist or ranchman. -Hence there are great possibilities of development -yet unexploited in this republic. Cattle -and sheep are profitable and are increasing in -number. The waterfalls, also, give great possibilities -of cheap power for manufacturing -purposes, and the future will probably find all -of the railroads operated by electric power, -because of the cheapness with which current -can be produced. This result seems to be only -the natural outcome of existing conditions.</p> - -<p>Such a country, with such a long extent of -sea coast, would ordinarily be an almost impossible -country to handle. It has, perhaps, been -fortunate that the coast is easily reached in -all parts, from the inhospitable deserts of the -northern regions to the dense forests of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> -south. No country of equal size in the world -has such a marvellously varied configuration. -The humming-bird follows the fuchsia clear to -the Straits of Magellan, and the penguin has -followed the fish almost as far as Valparaiso. -The government has done well in managing -this ribbon-like country. Coast service has -been built up and a longitudinal railway promises -an interior development. Cross lines and -transcontinental routes will provide much -needed facilities for the interchange of commerce. -The telegraph and telephone have -linked together hitherto remote sections, and -a creditable postal service has been created.</p> - -<p>Chile is a republic, with the customary division -into legislative, executive and judicial -branches. It is not a confederation of provinces, -as in Brazil and Argentina, but is a -single state with one central government. It -is divided for governmental purposes into -twenty-three provinces and one territory. -These are again divided into departments, districts -and municipalities. Congress is composed -of a Senate and Chamber of Deputies. -The former is at present composed of thirty-two -members and the latter of ninety-four. -Deputies are elected for a term of three years<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> -by direct vote, in the proportion of one to every -thirty thousand inhabitants. Senators are -elected for six years in the proportion of one -to every three deputies, and the terms of one-third -expire every two years. Members of the -House of Deputies must have an income of -five hundred dollars a year, and a Senator -must be thirty-six years of age and is required -to have an annual income four times that sum. -Congress sits from June 1 to September 1 -each year, but an extra session may be called -at any time. A peculiar feature is that during -the recess of Congress a committee consisting -of seven from each house acts for that -body, and is consulted by the President on all -matters of importance.</p> - -<p>The President is chosen by electors, who are -elected by direct vote, for a term of five years. -He serves the state for a salary of about eleven -thousand dollars, including the allowance for -expenses. He is ineligible to serve two consecutive -terms and may not leave the country -during his term of office, or for one year after -its expiration, without the consent of Congress. -He has a cabinet of six secretaries, who are -known as Ministers of Interior, Foreign Affairs, -Justice and Public Instruction, Treasury,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> -War and Marine, Industry and Public -Works. The Minister of the Interior is the -Vice-President, and succeeds to the office of -President in the event of his death or disability. -Elections are held on the 25th of June -every fifth year, and inauguration of the new -President follows on the succeeding 18th of -September. The cabinet may be forced to resign -at any time by a vote of lack of confidence -by Congress, to whom they are directly -responsible. In addition to the cabinet there -is a Council of State consisting of eleven members, -six of whom are appointed by Congress -and five by the President, who assist that official -in an advisory capacity. Furthermore, -when Congress adjourns, it appoints a standing -committee of seven from each house, which -acts as the representative of that body during -vacation. The President must consult with it -in certain matters, and the committee may request -him to call an extraordinary session if, -in their opinion, such a course is advisable.</p> - -<p>There is a national Supreme Court of seven -members that sits at Santiago, which is the -final judicial authority. Courts of appeal consisting -of from five to twelve members also sit -at Santiago, Valparaiso, Tacna, Serena, Talca,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> -Valdivia and Concepción. There are also a -number of minor courts which are located in -the various provinces and departments. Each -province is governed by an <i>intendente</i>, who is -appointed by the President of the republic. -The departments are governed by governors, -who are subordinate to the <i>intendentes</i>, and -the districts by inspectors, who are also appointed. -The only popular element is the municipal -district, or commune, which is governed -by a board composed of nine men, who are -elected by direct vote in each municipality.</p> - -<p>When the Spaniards reached Chile they -found native races occupying it. In the northern -portions the tribes were under at least the -nominal sway of the Incas, although separated -from them either by the inhospitable Andes or -dreary desert wastes. In the great central -valley, however, the land appeared a pleasant -garden, and so rich that nowhere had the Spaniards -seen anything similar either for its fertility -or the wealth of its fruits and herds. -“It is all an inhabited place and a sown land -or a gold-mine, rich in herds as that of Peru, -with a fibre drawn from the soil rich in food -supplies sown by the Indians for their subsistence”—so -wrote the chroniclers. They lived<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> -in comfort and had a certain civilization. Each -<i>cacique</i> had his own ranch house, the number -of doors indicating the number of his wives, -of which some had as many as fifteen. These -people were the Araucanians, who proved to -be a brave and courageous race. The Spaniards -immediately began their usual cruelties -and efforts to enslave these people, but succeeded -only temporarily. The natives soon -rose in rebellion. Three hundred years of warfare -decimated their ranks, but did not subdue -them, and when the Spanish rule ended these -people were as unconquered as when it began. -Their history has been written in blood, but -it is the struggle of a heroic race, and it is not -dimmed by the excesses and cruelties that attached -to the Spaniards in their efforts to subjugate -and enslave these valiant people.</p> - -<p>After he had conquered Peru, Pizarro sent -an expedition south to explore the country and -take possession of it in the name of the King -of Spain. One of his lieutenants, Diego de -Almagro, was placed in charge. He crossed -the great nitrate desert and reached as far as -Copiapó, where he was driven back by hostile -Indians. He had reached a valley called by the -natives Tchili, which signified in their language<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> -beautiful, and that name was given to the country. -A few years later, in 1540, another expedition -was fitted out under Captain Pedro de -Valdivia, which was more successful. He -marched as far as the present city of Santiago, -and founded a city, which has ever since remained -the capital. Although colonists came -from Spain, little progress was made for a -long time because of the hostility of the Araucanian -Indians. These attacks continued until -1640, when a treaty was concluded with these -indomitable natives by which the Bio-Bio River -was established as the boundary, and both together -were to resist the English and Dutch -buccaneers, who had begun to harass the coast. -Early in the nineteenth century the spirit of -independence reached Chile, and insurrections -against the Spanish authorities broke out.</p> - -<p>On the 18th of September, 1810, the Spanish -authorities were deposed and a provisional -government was set up. Troops were poured -in by Spain, and it was not until 1818, when -the Spanish troops were defeated in the battle -of Maipu by the Argentine general, San Martin, -that freedom from the foreign yoke was -secured. General Don Ambrosio O’Higgins, -an Irish patriot who had greatly distinguished<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> -himself in the war for freedom, was chosen as -the first President, and he introduced many -reforms and endeavoured to ameliorate the -condition of the natives. The Jesuit missionaries -followed in the wake of the soldiers and -began their work of converting the natives. -Since that time there has been considerable -internal struggle between rival political factions, -and some foreign troubles. There was a -brief war with Spain, a frightful conflict with -the neighbouring republic of Peru, and disagreements -with Bolivia and Argentina. A few -years ago war with the latter country seemed -inevitable over the international boundary, but -wise counsels prevailed and the matter was -successfully arbitrated. At the present time -peace prevails, although there are continual -mutterings in Peru, and that country only -needs a hot-headed leader to bring about another -war with Chile over the lost revenue -from the nitrate fields.</p> - -<p>The Chileans are a brave and a courageous -people. The natural boundaries have no doubt -aided in developing a national spirit and love -of independence. Truly no people in South -America have fought so long and so hard to -achieve national independence. The Araucanian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> -mixture has brought virility and industry -into the race—a far different element than -the Inca blood farther north. These Yankees -of the South American continent have accomplished -much, and there is still greater promise -for the future.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE WEST COAST</span></h2> - -<p>Cruising along the west coast of South -America is a delightful experience. It is the -perfection of ocean travel. One is always sure -of fine weather, for it neither rains nor blows, -and the swell is seldom strong enough to make -even the susceptible person seasick. In defiance -of our idea of geography the sailors speak -of going “up” the coast, when bound towards -the south. The boats along this coast are built -for fair weather and tropical seas. They have -their cabins opening seaward, and the decks -reach down almost to the water’s edge. Some -swing hammocks and sleep on deck, and it is -very comfortable. Such vessels would not be -adapted for the stormy Atlantic, and would -not live long in a storm upon the Caribbean -Sea. Sailors say that the wind is never strong -enough to “ruffle the fur on a cat’s back,” and -this immense stretch of sea might be likened -unto a great mill pond. It is this part of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> -ocean, between the Isthmus and Peru, that suggested -to the Spaniards the name of Pacific.</p> - -<p>Near the equator the days and nights are -equal. The sun ceases doing duty promptly -at six, and reappears at the same hour the following -morning. There is no twilight, little -gloaming, and darkness succeeds daylight almost -as soon as the big red ball disappears in -the western sea. At night beautiful phosphorescence -may be seen. The water is so impregnated -with phosphorus, that each tiny wave is -tipped with a light and the vessel leaves a trail -of fire. From above the Southern Cross looks -down upon the scene in complaisance. And -thus the days pass in succession one after the -other. The temperature is not uncomfortable, -as the Antarctic Current tempers the tropical -sun, and there is generally a southerly or -southwesterly wind that aids. It is a pleasanter -ride, and subject to fewer inconveniences -than the ride along the eastern coast of the -continent.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus4"> -<img src="images/illus4.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">THE WEST COAST.</p> -</div> - -<p>When the Stars and Stripes have faded from -view at Balboa, and the jagged backbone of -the continent has disappeared into the mists -on either horizon, towards Nicaragua and Colombia, -one feels that a new world has been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> -reached. The real South America has been -entered, and, when the good ship crosses the -Line, about the third day out, home and the -rest of the world seem very far away. It is -a long journey to Valparaiso, Chile, if one -takes a steamer that stops at all the intermediate -ports, as it lasts more than three weeks. -There are swifter vessels, however, that avoid -Ecuador and make the journey in twelve days. -The slower vessels follow the coast line, and -the passenger is given many a view of the -Andes, whose peaks are crowned with eternal -snows but are frequently wrapped in fleecy -clouds. At Guayaquil, the westernmost city of -South America, it is even possible on occasions -in clear weather to see Chimborazo, eighty -miles from the sea. Nowhere in the world is -there a greater assembly of lofty peaks than -will be seen as the vessel proceeds along the -coast. The Spaniards called these “sierras,” -because their uneven summits resembled the -teeth of a saw. Some of the peaks are regular -in outline, but more often they are irregular -and even grotesque, so that the imaginative -minds of the natives have fancied resemblances -to works of nature and have given them corresponding -names. Nowhere in the world are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> -there stranger freaks in geological formations, -or more startling contrasts. Near the coast -run the foothills, which gradually become -higher and bolder until they end in the loftiest -peaks. Back, and beyond all, an occasional -volcanic peak may be seen lifting itself in solitary -grandeur.</p> - -<p>At the mouth of the Guayas River, in Ecuador, -there is a dense growth of tropical vegetation. -It seems to be a veritable hothouse of -nature, where plants and trees wage a desperate -war for existence against the vines, mosses -and other parasites that attack them. This is -the end of such scenes, however, for days and -days. It would be difficult to find a more -dreary aspect than the coast of South America -from the boundary of Ecuador almost to -Valparaiso. From the water’s edge to the -Andes chain of mountains stretches a yellow -and brown desert, unrelieved by a tinge of -green, except where irrigation has been employed. -At midday all is clear, but in the -evening a purple haze covers the whole landscape. -It bears a close resemblance to parts -of Arizona and New Mexico in general characteristics. -Cliffs three hundred to four hundred -feet high, and which are scooped out into<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> -fantastic shapes, often form the water’s edge. -The distant mountains look gloomy and forbidding. -It very seldom rains there, perhaps -once in six or seven years is a fair average. -In other places a generation can almost grow -up and pass away without an experience with -rain. When it does rain, however, the desertlike -plains and slopes immediately spring into -life. Where for years there has been nothing -but drifting sands appear meadows of nutritious -grasses, and flowers and plants spring up -in great confusion. Wherever the seeds come -from is a mystery, but every nook and corner -is soon ablaze with vegetation.</p> - -<p>The boats stop at many ports from Ecuador -to Chile. These little towns will be found -nestling in little hollows at the foot of the hills, -or tacked on the hillside. Each one is walled -away from the other, and each is a gateway -to a fertile valley or rich mining section. -Sometimes a narrow gauge railway runs back -into the interior, but there are no connections -coastwise. The steamer furnishes the only -communication with the world beyond, and the -arrival of the boat is an event of great importance. -Each town has its own specialty. -At Guayaquil and Paita many merchants will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> -come aboard with Panama hats, and good-natured -bargaining will then be carried on with -the passengers. Buying a hat is a tedious matter. -The seller does not expect more than -about one-third of the price he asks. If the -passenger looks indifferent the native will hunt -him up and reduce his offer. “How much -would the señor give?” “Thirty soles! That -would be robbery.” But the ship’s gong -strikes and the time of departure is at hand. -“Here, señor, is your hat. <i>Muchas gracias. -Adios!</i>” The deal is concluded, and you have -your hat at the price you offered, if you are -shrewd enough to see that a cheaper hat was -not substituted at the last minute. Deck traders -board the vessel and stay with it for days, -doing a good business in almost everything -from vegetables and fruits to dry goods, and -jewelry. Parrots, monkeys and even mild-eyed -ant-eaters are offered the passengers for pets. -Passengers join the boat at every stop, and, -instead of hat boxes, as American women -would be burdened with, the women here all -bring on board their bird cages with their -noisy occupants. Swarthy Spaniards and the -darker-hued natives join the boat, many of -them dressed in gay attire, and particularly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> -wearing gaudy neckties and waistcoats. The -boat always anchors at some distance from the -shore, while passengers and freight are brought -out either in lighters or row-boats. At some -places a dozen lighters may be filled with -freight for the steamer. The ship’s crew bring -up from the hold scores of bales and boxes -with labels familiar and unfamiliar. International -commerce becomes real—almost a -thing of flesh and blood. Each sling load -brought up from the hold has its own tale to -tell, and everyone becomes commercialized. -The crowing of roosters at night, the bleating -of sheep and bawling of the cattle remind you -of a country barnyard at times, for the boat -carries its own live stock, which are killed as -the conditions of the larder demand. Thus it -is that these slow galleons float along the coast -past Paita, Pacasmayo, Salaverry, Pisco and -the rest of the little ports. Five minutes after -the ladder would be lowered the deck would -become a floating bazaar.</p> - -<p>Guayaquil is the port for the equatorial republic -of Ecuador. Quite a business is done -there, for more than one-third of the world’s -supply of cacao beans, from which our chocolate -is made, comes through this port. It is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> -generally infested with more or less fever, and -most people prefer to make their stay as short -as possible. One of the curious things to attract -the traveller’s attention is to see the -mules with their legs encased in trousers. This -is not due to any excessive modesty on the part -of the inhabitants, for children several years -old may be seen without as much clothing on. -The purpose is to protect the legs of the animals -from the bite of the gadfly, which is very -numerous here. It was near Guayaquil that -Pizarro landed with one hundred and eighty -men to conquer the empire of the Incas. The -capital of Ecuador, Quito, lies in a saucer-shaped -cup at the foot of Mt. Pichincha, with -many other lofty peaks in sight. It perhaps -retains more of the original characteristics -than any other city of South America. It vies -with the City of Mexico the distinction of being -the oldest city of the Americas. For centuries -prior to the coming of the Spaniards it was the -capital of one of the branches of the Incas, and -Atahualpa used to eat his meals off plates -made of solid gold. Hitherto accessible only -over a long and difficult mountain trail, which -was impassable during half of the year, Quito -can now be reached by a railroad—thanks to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> -American enterprise. No less than twenty volcanoes -are visible from the track, of which -three are active, five dormant and twelve are -classed as extinct.</p> - -<p>Callao (pronounced Cal-ya-o) is the principal -port of Peru. It is always full of steamers -and masts and has a general aspect of business. -More than a thousand vessels touch here every -twelve months. Its history has been exciting -and there are many monuments to its heroes. -Some warships are generally floating in the -harbour. Lima is distant but seven miles from -Callao, and it is a ride of only twenty minutes -by an excellent electric road of American construction -throughout. To the hum of the trolley -one is hurried past irrigated fields, beautiful -gardens and villas, and Inca ruins many -centuries old. As the boats remain at Callao -for a day the traveller is able to spend a few -hours in the “City of the Kings,” as Pizarro -christened it. Lima is a wonderfully interesting -city, and its history is full of romance. It -preserves in wood and stone the spirit of old -Spain as it was transplanted into the New -World. Carved balconies, which were patterned -after their native Andalusia, still overhang -the narrow streets of the Peruvian capital.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> -Up-to-date electric cars whirl past old monastery -walls where life has scarcely changed in -three centuries. The Limaños are an easy-going, -pleasure-loving people, among whom the -strenuous life has few disciples. It has been -the scene of many revolutions, and the marks -of street fighting are numerous. Churches and -ecclesiastical institutions abound on every -hand, and ecclesiastics are numerous on the -streets. The cathedral, in which the sacristan -will show the alleged bones of Francisco Pizarro, -is a fine specimen of architecture—one -of the best in the world. On another corner -of the plaza is the passageway from which the -conspirators emerged on their way to assassinate -the conqueror. The building which was -the headquarters of the Inquisition in South -America occupies still another site on the -plaza.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus5"> -<img src="images/illus5.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A MILK BOY IN PERU.</p> -</div> - -<p>Pisco is the next port of importance, and -it is situated near a rich and fertile irrigated -valley where sugar-cane grows abundantly. It -is the port also for the interior towns of Ayacucho -and Huancavelica, where numerous rich -mines are found. Just a few miles out at sea -are the Chincha Islands, from which Peru obtained -such a large revenue for the guano<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> -found there. These deposits, once considered -inexhaustible, because in places they were -eighty feet or more in depth, have been almost -exhausted. The great wealth received from -them and nitrate has been dissipated.</p> - -<p>At Mollendo, the last Peruvian port, there is -a railway that runs to La Paz, the capital of -the inland republic of Bolivia. It is a surf-lashed -port where vessels are sometimes unable -to land their passengers and freight. In -fact the landing is through a “sort of Niagara -Gorge gateway of rock, which gives to the mere -landing some of the noise and a good deal of -the excitement of a rescue at sea.” It takes -three days’ travel to reach La Paz from Mollendo, -as the train only runs by day. The first -stage of the trip, as far as Arequipa, is over -an almost trackless desert, where the wind -piles the sand up in movable half-moon heaps. -The sand-storms of the centuries have covered -everything with these whitish particles, and -the dusted peaks and hillocks stand out without -relief of any kind. The second day brings -the traveller to Lake Titicaca, the sacred lake -of the Incas, which is crossed by boat, and a -side trip will take the traveller to Cuzco, the -capital of the Inca confederacy. Lake Titicaca<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> -is the highest and one of the most wonderful -lakes in the world. It is larger than all the -lakes of Switzerland together, and lies in a -hollow two and one-half miles above the waters -of the ocean. Lying in a peaceful valley, in -a scene of desolate grandeur, where the trees -are stunted and only a few of the hardiest -plants survive, lies La Paz. The City of Peace, -its name indicates, but this city has been the -scene of turmoil and strife entirely foreign to -its name ever since the Spaniards invaded -these solitudes. Bolivia is another Tibet—one -of the highest inhabited plateaus in the -world, as well as one of the richest mineral -sections.</p> - -<p>In no part of the world, perhaps, is there -such an abundance of life in sea and air as -along the coast of Peru. Soon after leaving -Callao the tedium of the voyage is relieved by -the flight of millions upon millions of birds. -There are gulls, ducks, cormorants, divers of -all kinds and great pelicans with huge pouches -under their bills. The sea is as animated as -the air, and schools of fish, innumerable in -numbers, may be seen darting through the -water with their fins showing above its surface. -Danger besets them from above and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> -from beneath. The divers poise on wing every -few minutes and then drop suddenly into the -sea like a flash. For a few seconds they disappear -beneath the surface, and then reappear -with a fish in their bills. The lumbering and -stately pelicans drop with a mighty splash that -sends up a dash of spray. These greedy birds -continue this foraging process until their -pouches are so filled with fish that they are -unable to rise out of the water until the load -is digested or they disgorge themselves. The -seals and sea lions keep themselves as busy as -the birds, and constantly display their sinuous -and shiny bodies above the surface, as they -pursue the fish or come up to breathe.</p> - -<p>We passed by the famous guano islands just -before nightfall. The air was filled with birds, -all of which were flying toward a great island -that lifted up its rocky surface above the blue -of the sea. At some distance above the sea -were the smaller birds, which, at a distance, -looked like mere specks against the sky. A -little lower were the pelicans flying in single -file, and in flocks of from twelve to thirty. -They seemed to play the game of “follow the -leader,” for if the leader poised his wings or -lifted himself higher all did the same. Near<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> -the surface were divers, called “pirates” in -the local parlance, in flocks of a thousand or -more. They sailed along just above the surface -of the water and continually altered their -formation. With the naked eye the number of -birds was myriad, but the telescope showed -ten times as many. As far as one could see -there was the same multitude of birds, all heading -for this one island. The island itself was -black with the birds already settled for the -night, but each new arrival seemed to find a -resting place either on the surface of the rock -or in the caves underneath. For countless -ages these birds have occupied these sterile -volcanic rocks as their resting place, and have -deposited the guano which has brought millions -of dollars of wealth into the Peruvian -treasury. A glimpse of this remarkable bird -life shows how the guano has accumulated in -such enormous quantities.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus6"> -<img src="images/illus6.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">ROW BOATS CROWDING AROUND A STEAMER.</p> -</div> - -<p>The northern part of Chile contains the -dreariest section of this forlorn coast. There -are no harbours, and a tremendous surf which -rolls half way around the world before it -strikes a breakwater dashes into foam upon -these beaches. Several prosperous towns are -located here as a result of the workings of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> -nature’s laboratories. To reach these ports it -is necessary to trust yourself to one of the -boatmen, who crowd around the ladder as soon -as the vessel drops anchor. Judicious bargaining -is always advisable, and never pay the -boatman until he has returned you safely to -your floating hotel. The boat is guided -through the surf with amazing skill, and it is -very seldom that an accident occurs. They -sometimes crowd each other off, however, in -their eagerness to get the best position at the -bottom of the ladder and secure the first passengers. -But all these men are good swimmers, -and the only result is a good wetting and -much amusement for the steamer’s passengers -who welcome any diversion.</p> - -<p>Arica is the first port of importance in Chile -at the north. It is only a day’s journey from -Mollendo, the last Peruvian port. The Peruvian -heaves a sigh when he enters Arica, but -there is some hope in it, for he trusts to add -this province to Peru’s possessions at some -time in the future again. But at Iquique the -hope fades, for sovereignty is lost for ever. -Although not a large town, Arica has been the -scene of several memorable events. It was -here that were built the boats which carried<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> -the troops for the conquest of Chile. It was -at that time a place of some importance among -the natives, and the valleys back of it were -densely populated and were cultivated by -means of irrigation. Sir Francis Drake -touched at this place in 1579, and found a collection -of Indian huts on the shore. It is supposed -to have been founded in 1250 by the -Incas. It is like an oasis in the desert to the -traveller who has coasted along the shore for -days or weeks without seeing vegetation. At -the present time it is famous for its oranges. -They are grown in the rich valleys that lie -behind the rather unattractive and forbidding -hills next to the coast, and through the opening -in the flat-topped hills one is permitted to catch -glimpses of these valleys. Near the coast is -a prehistoric cemetery filled with dead bodies, -which were embalmed with almost as great -skill as the mummies of Egypt.</p> - -<p>Arica is a pleasant little place of several -thousand inhabitants. There is a handsome -little plaza which encloses a plot of shrubbery -adorned with morning-glories and purple vine -trees. One of the striking features is the brilliant -colouring of the houses. There is also a -rather imposing parochial church which is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> -painted in the gaudiest colours that I have seen -in any country; and it would be hard to duplicate -it anywhere, even in Spanish America, a -land of rich colouring. It used to be a great -market for the skins of the vicuña, which are -so beautiful. In late years, however, the skins -are becoming less plentiful and the prices have -jumped accordingly. The harbour is commodious -and well sheltered. Interesting glimpses -of native life are afforded by the Indian women -coming to town. Some of them ride astride, -being almost concealed by the huge panniers -containing their market produce. Others -trudge along by the side of the animals.</p> - -<p>From this city a highway runs into the interior -of Peru and Bolivia, which was constructed -by the Incas a thousand years ago and -has been used ever since. To-day caravans of -mules, donkeys and llamas may be seen constantly -passing up and down this ancient trail. -They bring down ore and take back mining -supplies and miscellaneous merchandise. It is -known as the “camino real,” and is several -hundred miles long. Near here is supposed to -be the underground outlet of Lakes Titicaca -and Poopo. One argument advanced in favour -of this theory is that a certain kind of fresh<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> -water fish that abounds in that lake is caught -in considerable numbers in the ocean near this -town. It has been the scene of several disastrous -earthquakes. On August 13th, 1868, it -was almost washed away, and many of its inhabitants -perished in a tidal wave which came -without warning and devastated the coast for -a hundred miles. Two United States men-of-war, -which were in the harbour at that time, -were lifted from their anchorage by waves -sixty feet high and carried inland a mile over -the roofs of the town. One of the vessels, the -<i>Fredonia</i>, was dashed against a ledge of rocks -and entirely destroyed, while the other, the -<i>Wateree</i>, was left lying in the sand. Everyone -on the former boat was lost and about half -of the latter. For many years the boat lying -on the sand was used as a boarding house for -the railway employees.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus7"> -<img src="images/illus7.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">THE HARBOUR OF ARICA.</p> -</div> - -<p>On June 7th, 1880, Arica was the scene of -a furious battle and a terrible massacre. At -one end of the town, and directly on the sea -front, is a promontory, which rises six hundred -feet above the sea almost precipitously. On -this rock, which is known as the Morro, the -Peruvians had erected a powerful battery to -defend the harbour. The Chileans, however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> -landed a force of four thousand men several -miles below at night. In the morning the Peruvians -found themselves attacked in the rear -with no means of escape. As their guns were -pointed to the sea they were useless to defend -against those back on the landward side. Although -short of small arms and ammunition, -the Peruvians made a heroic defence and engaged -in a hand-to-hand contest that lasted for -an hour. At the end of that time the commander -leaped over the precipice into the sea, -and his body was crushed to a pulp among the -rocks. Several hundred of his soldiers followed -him, preferring to die that way to having -their throats cut by the Chileans. For -months afterward their bodies could be seen -lying where they had lodged on the jutting -rocks below. It is claimed that seventeen hundred -Peruvians were killed, as this was the -total strength of the garrison and no prisoners -were taken. On a slab near the slope of the -rock is an inscription in whitewashed stone, -“Viva Battalion No. 4.” It was placed there -by the victorious Chileans to commemorate the -heroism of the enemy.</p> - -<p>Arica is in the province of Tacna, which is -the most northerly province in the republic,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> -and is about the size of New Jersey. Agriculture -in this province is very limited, and -there has not been much of mineral development. -There are some veins of copper and -lead, and some scattered deposits of nitrate as -well that have not been worked. A railroad -from Arica runs back to the city of Tacna, the -capital, which is one of the oldest railroads in -South America. It is quite an important town, -and is situated in a valley made fertile by irrigation. -A railroad is now being built across the -Cordilleras from this city to connect with the -Bolivian railways. When that is completed it -is believed that this line will be the best one, -as it is the shortest, and every traveller is -anxious to escape as much of the dust in crossing -the desert region as possible. It is only -a little over three hundred miles from Arica -to La Paz. This road will add to the importance -of Arica, for it will be one of the main -arteries of commerce from Bolivia to the outside -world, but it is not likely to help Tacna -any in its growth.</p> - -<p>The next province adjoining Tacna is Tarapacá, -which is one of the wealthiest sections -in the Americas because of its nitrate deposits. -It contains the richest nitrate region in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> -world. From Arica the cliffs rise up almost -perpendicularly from the sea for the first day’s -journey. Pisagua, the first port as you travel -“up” the coast, is a city of about five thousand. -This port does not differ much from a -mining town in the States. Although considerable -shipping is done here, Pisagua fades in -importance beside its more important rivals.</p> - -<p>“We do not want rain in Iquique.”</p> - -<p>This statement was made to me by the manager -of the nitrate trust, who lives in that prosperous -city of thirty thousand or more inhabitants, -and which is one hundred and eleven -miles south of Arica. It was the first time I -had ever heard of a community that did not -desire rainfall. Water used to be brought -by boat from more favoured regions, and was -peddled through the streets at so much a quart -or gallon. At times it is said to have sold as -high as two dollars per gallon. A pipe line one -hundred and fifty miles long now supplies this -necessary liquid to this city, and it is sold by -the metre instead of being put up in pint or -quart bottles.</p> - -<p>A walk through this city on the edge of the -sea, with bare, brown and rugged hills for a -background, showed not a blade of grass, except<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> -on the public squares and in a few diminutive -courtyards within the houses, where the -hand of man supplied the necessary water for -growth. It is little wonder that lawn-mowers -are a drug on the market in Iquique. The -sun is fierce, and its unrelenting rays, absorbed -and reflected by the vast area of desert waste, -inflame the air to almost furnace heat. The -streets are dusty and the fine particles get into -your ears and nostrils, and you can almost -taste it on your tongue. Many of the houses -have a piazza on top, or a second roof, to break -the force of the sun’s rays. The Arturo Prat -Square has been made quite attractive, and is -ornamented with a very creditable statue of -that hero. Business around the shipping quarters -is always lively, as it is bound to be where -such an enormous export and import trade is -carried on. In 1891, during the revolutionary -fighting between the Balmacedists and Congressists, -the custom house was the scene of a -stubborn battle. The town was set on fire and -confusion and disorder reigned supreme. At -the present time Iquique is an important port -and more than one thousand vessels enter it -each year.</p> - -<p>The dreariness and unattractiveness of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> -surroundings is hard to describe. Street cars -with girls as conductors, good stores, the telephone -and other modern conveniences, and -even comfortable clubs do not make up for the -lack of green vegetation. The groceries are -filled with condensed milk from England, sardines -from France, sausages from Germany, -cheese from Holland, jellies and jam from -Britain, and macaroni from Italy. But fresh -vegetables and meats are at a premium, and -unnatural tastes are developed. Many English -live in Iquique. They are great brandy -drinkers, and show discrimination “in not exhausting -the wealth of the nitrate beds by -taking too much soda in their brandy,” as one -writer says. Nevertheless the people are -happy, for wealth lies at their very doors and -rain would cause great loss. By reason of this -Iquique has grown until it is second only to -Valparaiso in commercial importance. It has -grown with a swiftness than can only be compared -with our own western towns. In the -first days of the saltpetre era nothing went -slow and the town spread like magic. Much of -the population is a rough one and hard to -govern, but the authorities have done well. -The battles that have been fought with fortune<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> -in Iquique and on this coast have cost -many lives and much privation. A few have -acquired fortune, but more have not even obtained -a modest competence in return for the -deprivation and sacrifice endured. Whatever -has been gained at the cost of much labour and -privation has been fully earned by some one—and -perhaps by one who did not reap the -reward.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus8"> -<img src="images/illus8.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A STREET SCENE, ANTOFAGASTA.</p> -</div> - -<p>The province of Antofagasta joins that of -Tarapacá on the south. Tocopilla is the first -port of importance, but Antofagasta, a little -over two hundred miles from Iquique, is the -principal city. This province is a desert in -appearance similar to the other, and this city -can boast no advantages over its more northerly -rival. Antofagasta is almost on the -Tropic of Capricorn, and is in about the same -latitude as Rio de Janeiro, on the Atlantic -coast. It lies almost at the foot of some hills -that are quite high, and is a city of about -twenty thousand. The dull-coloured houses -can scarcely be distinguished from the sombre -hills at a distance. The dust is anything but -pleasant. A great deal of nitrate and some -copper are shipped from Antofagasta. There -are several small wharves, but everything has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> -to be transferred to lighters. The harbour is -a wretched roadstead and, to get ashore, one -has to brave a lashing surf. The pride of the -city is a little plaza, where considerable coaxing -has caused a little evidence of green from -the grass and a few trees. A narrow gauge -railroad, two feet and six inches in width, runs -from here to La Paz, and a great deal of -freight is transshipped to Bolivian towns.</p> - -<p>The province of Atacama comes next, which -does not differ much in physical characteristics -from the three previously named. In some of -the valleys, where water can be secured for -irrigation, a little agriculture is attempted. -There are also a number of minerals to be -found, but not so much as in Tarapacá and -Antofagasta. Caldera, the principal port, is -two hundred and seven miles from Antofagasta, -and has a well sheltered bay. The oldest -railroad in South America connects this -port with Copiapó, the capital of the province. -This city is situated in a fertile valley on the -banks of a river of the same name. It is an -old and quite important town, and has a number -of educational institutions. It will soon be -connected with Santiago by the longitudinal -railway.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span></p> - -<p>The last of the northern provinces is that -of Coquimbo. This province is really at the -end of the dry zone, and there are a number -of rich valleys where the land is fertile and -agriculture flourishes. It is a mining province -as well, and a great deal of mineral wealth has -been discovered. Guayacan is a port, but the -principal port is Coquimbo, which is only a -couple of hundred miles from Valparaiso. It -has a population of probably ten thousand. The -city extends along the bay in an irregular manner -for some distance. The capital of the -province is La Serena, and it is only a few -miles from Coquimbo. There is nothing especially -in its favour, although an attractive little -city, but it is a relief from the dreary places -farther north which have been mentioned.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus9"> -<img src="images/illus9.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">COQUIMBO, A TYPICAL WEST COAST TOWN.</p> -</div> - -<p>Every one going this way is bound for Valparaiso. -The voyager, who has journeyed -twenty-six hundred miles along the Pacific -coast, hails with delight the beautiful half-moon -bay in which that city is located. He -welcomes the splash of the anchor, which -means a speedy transfer to the shore and the -comforts of a good hotel. Many disasters have -been recorded in this bay. In the winter terrific -storms arise, and steamers oftentimes lift<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> -their anchors and steam out into the open sea -for safety. The largest steamers are tossed -about like eggshells, while the buoys bob -around like water-sprites. The enthusiastic -Chilean loves to compare it with the Bay of -Naples. But it is not Naples. The waters are -not so blue, nor the skies as perfect, but it has -a charm all its own. A row boat or launch -quickly transfers the traveller to the landing -steps, and courteous officials promptly pass the -baggage. Then a short ride in a rickety carriage, -and the doors of the Royal Hotel hospitably -open to receive the guests.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III<br /> -<span class="smaller">VALE OF PARADISE</span></h2> - -<p>Val-paraiso means the “Vale of Paradise,” -and it is the name of both a province and a -city. The name is so incongruous on this unattractive -shore as to cause a smile, for the location -of Valparaiso does not merit any such -appellation. It was so named after a little -town in Spain, which was the home of Juan -de Saavedra, the man who captured the Indian -village located at this point in 1536. There is -only a narrow strip of land between the bay -and the barren hills behind it, which, in places, -rise up to a thousand or fifteen hundred feet -in height. At one place it is wide enough for -only two streets, which are very close together. -At other places this ledge creeps back farther, -but nowhere does the gap between sea and hills -exceed half a mile, and a part of this has been -reclaimed from the sea. Through the centre -of this level space runs Victoria Street, which -follows the coast line the entire length of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> -city and is several miles in length. It is the -main commercial street, and is lined with business -houses, public buildings and even private -residences.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus10"> -<img src="images/illus10.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">AN “ASCENSOR” IN VALPARAISO.</p> -</div> - -<p>It used to be that all of the city was built -on this narrow strip of land. Little by little, -however, the city has crept up the side of the -hills, and the streets rise in terraces one above -the other. On the edges of the cliffs in many -places the poorer classes have built for themselves -dwellings of the rudest kind from all -sorts of debris. Some of these are perched -upon almost inaccessible rocks, and are -propped up with wooden supports. On the -extreme upper part of the rock has been built -the real residence quarter, and many fine -homes are found there. It is reached by steep -and winding roads, which tire the pedestrian -not used to them; but there are a dozen inclined -elevators, or “ascensors,” as they are -called in Valparaiso, which carry the passenger -to the upper heights for a very small sum. -Up the steep roadway the poor horses may be -seen drawing their loads, while the drivers -beat them and vociferously berate them with -their tongues.</p> - -<p>From the heights one has a magnificent view<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> -of the bay, which is like a half-moon, and is one -of the prettiest bays in the world. It has a -northern exposure, however, and is subject to -terrific storms in the winter season, which lash -the seas into a fury and the waves beat upon -the sea front with destructive force. It is still -to all extents and purposes an open roadstead, -although plans have been drawn for a breakwater -to provide a sheltered harbour. The -drawback has been that the bay is very deep -only a short distance from shore, and the problem -of building such a protection is a difficult -one. The surface of the bay is always dotted -with vessels from almost every quarter of the -globe. One can at any time see the flags of -a half dozen or more different nations floating -from the mastheads. Then there are hundreds -of small lighters which are used to carry the -freight between vessel and shore, as no docks -have been constructed at which vessels can unload. -In the far distance may be seen, on a -clear day, the backbone of the continent, the -Andes, with its serrated ridges and snowy -summits glistening in the sunlight. The hoary -head of Aconcagua, the highest peak of the -Cordilleras, can easily be distinguished from -the others by reason of its superior height.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span></p> - -<p>Next to San Francisco, Valparaiso is the -most important port on the eastern shores of -the Pacific. This city of two hundred thousand -has as much commerce as the average -town of double that size, as it is the port for -Santiago and the greater part of Chile. A -business-like character is impressed upon the -entire city. Here live the men who design and -carry out the vast nitrate and mining enterprises -of northern Chile, and practically all -business, except that of politics, is managed -from this city. The docks and warehouses are -at all times busy places, and are crowded with -boxes and bales from almost every commercial -nation. Banditti-like <i>rotos</i> drive carts and -wagons filled with merchandise. One of the -first sights after being set down on the landing-stage -is the two-wheeled dray of Valparaiso. -It is drawn by two or three wiry and sweating -horses, on the back of one of which rides the -driver, who lashes the horses unmercifully. -The ridden horse is hitched by a trace just -outside the shafts, and he is trained to push -at the shaft with his shoulder, or pull at right -angles when the occasion arises, and in every -way is as clever as any Texas bronco. One -of these drays with the driver lashing his team<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> -might well figure on the escutcheon of this -city.</p> - -<p>The “U. S.” mark is less frequently seen in -Valparaiso than that of Hamburg or London, -for the United States has not become such an -exporting country of manufactured products -as those commercial nations of the older world; -nor is the Yankee in flesh and blood. The predominance -of the British is shown by the prevalence -of the English language. Nearly every -one engaged in business has at least a slight -acquaintance with that tongue. One can not -go far without crossing the path of some ruddy -Briton or voluble Irishman. Many of the best -stores bear English names, and one will see the -same goods displayed as in New York or London. -In fact it is more predominantly English -in appearance than any other city of South -America. There are cafés where they meet -to drink their “half-and-half” or other beverages, -and there is a club where the <i>Times</i>, -<i>Punch</i>, and other favourites can be read. It -is said that the foreign population almost -equals the native in numbers. Only a small -part of this foreign element is English, as there -are many Italians, Germans and French, but -the English are the bankers and tradesmen,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> -and have impressed their characteristics more -forcibly upon the city than the other nations. -There are amusements in plenty, for there are -clubs, concerts and an abundance of theatres -to provide recreation as a relaxation from the -strenuous life. There are tennis grounds, football -fields and a golf course at Viña. There -are many monuments over the city in the -plazas and on the new alameda, erected to the -nation’s heroes, and one to William Wheelwright, -the American who did so much to aid -Chile in developing her transportation facilities. -The naval school, which crowns one of -the hills, is one of the most attractive places -in Valparaiso, and provides one of the finest -views of the bay and surrounding hills.</p> - -<p>“One of the great advantages of life in Valparaiso,” -says Arthur Ruhl in “The Other -Americans,” “is the absence of a professional -fire department. The glorious privilege of -fighting fires is appropriated by the <i>élite</i>, who -organize themselves into clubs, with much the -same social functions as the Seventh Regiment -and Squadron A in New York, wear ponderous -helmets and march in procession in great style -whenever they get a chance. One comes upon -these <i>bomberos</i> practising in the evening, on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> -the Avenida, for instance, in store clothes and -absent-mindedly puffing cigarettes, getting a -stream on an imaginary blaze. In any emergency -they perform much the same duties as -our militia.</p> - -<p>“It is the delightful privilege of the <i>bombero</i> -to drop his work whenever the alarm is -given, dash from his office to the blaze, and -there man hose-lines, smash windows, chop -down partitions, and indulge to the fullest one -of the keenest primordial emotions of man. Inasmuch -as buildings are seldom more than two -or three stories in height and built of masonry, -there is comparatively little danger of a large -conflagration, and the average of one fire in -four days is ‘just about right,’ as one of my -Valparaiso acquaintances explained, ‘to give -a man exercise.’ Their only unhappiness, he -said, was that there were about fifteen hundred -firemen in town, and they were getting so expert -that what one could call a really ‘good’ -fire was almost unknown.”</p> - -<p>Like its commercial rival, San Francisco, -Valparaiso suffered from a destructive earthquake -in 1906. Slight quakes are quite common -in this city, but the inhabitants do not -seem to fear them, and go along the even tenor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> -of their way as though such a thing as an -earthquake was unknown. In one year as -many as thirty-five shocks have been recorded, -but the one mentioned above is the only one -for a half century or more in which any lives -were lost. In fact Valparaiso has had its full -share of troubles and vicissitudes of all kinds. -It was captured and sacked three times by buccaneers, -twice by the British and once by a -Dutch pirate. It has suffered severely from -earthquake shocks on half a dozen different -occasions, was destroyed by fire in 1858, bombarded -by the Spanish fleet in 1866, and much -property was destroyed in the Balmaceda revolution -a little later. Few cities in the New -World have had a career so troubled and diversified.</p> - -<p>The most disastrous experience in the history -of Valparaiso occurred in 1906. On the -16th of August of that year, only four months -after the destruction of San Francisco, the -greater part of the city was destroyed by an -earthquake and the fire that followed. The day -had been unusually calm and pleasant. About -eight o’clock in the evening the first earthquake -shock was felt, which was almost immediately -followed by others. The whole city<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> -seemed to swing backward and forwards; then -came a sudden jolt, and whole rows of buildings -fell with a terrific crash. The electric -light wires snapped, and gas and water mains -were broken. The city was left in intense darkness, -which was rendered all the more horrible -by the shrieks of the injured and terrified inhabitants. -Fires soon started which, fanned -by a strong wind, soon became conflagrations. -Between the fires and earthquake a large proportion -of the lower town was completely destroyed, -but the upper town was practically -uninjured. Many of the better-built business -houses withstood the earth’s tremblings, and -the wind blew the flames in the opposite direction.</p> - -<p>The authorities acted promptly in the matter, -so that patrols of troops and armed citizens -were soon on guard. The progress of the -fire was impeded by the use of dynamite. Appeals -for help were sent to Santiago and other -cities, which were responded to as promptly -as possible. There was necessarily some delay, -for telegraph lines and the railroads had likewise -suffered. The shocks continued for the -two following days at irregular intervals, -which likewise interfered with the work of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> -cleaning up the city. A terrific downpour of -rain also added to the confusion of the first -night, for the vivid flashes of lightning and the -clanging of the fire-bells made it a night -not easily forgotten by the inhabitants. The -killed and injured numbered at least three -thousand persons. But fifty thousand or more -were rendered homeless. Thousands of these -were camped on the barren hills above the city, -and thousands more were cared for by boats -in the bay.</p> - -<p>Strangely enough no damage was done to the -shipping in the bay. The destruction was not -confined to Valparaiso alone, but extended inland -as far as Los Andes, and many of the small -inland cities near Valparaiso suffered more or -less damage. The property loss in Valparaiso -has been estimated at one hundred million -dollars. Like San Francisco, however, a new -Valparaiso is arising which will be superior -to the old. The greater part of the destroyed -district has been rebuilt in a better and more -enduring manner. The national government -has advanced large sums of money to the municipality, -which, in turn, has given it under -certain conditions to those who suffered losses. -To-day in the business section of Valparaiso<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> -it would be almost impossible, after only five -years, to find evidence of this disastrous earthquake, -but a little farther out its handiwork -can quickly be traced.</p> - -<p>There is a quaint side to life in Valparaiso. -A visit to the market reveals many things of -interest. One will first be impressed by the -fine fruits of Chile, for nowhere in the world -can one find more delicious pears, peaches and -plums. The marketers bring their produce in -huge two-wheeled carts drawn by the slow-moving -ox. The stalls presided over by men -and women fill every available inch of space, -until it is almost impossible to force one’s way -through. Everywhere are groups bargaining -over fruits, vegetables or household articles, -for these people dearly love a bargain. Many -show by their faces a tinge of the Indian blood -that runs in their veins.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus11"> -<img src="images/illus11.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A CHICKEN PEDDLER, VALPARAISO.</p> -</div> - -<p>The peripatetic merchants, who carry supplies -from door to door, come to the market for -their stock in trade. It is invariably carried -on the back of a donkey or mule, as it is difficult -to draw a loaded wagon up the steep ascents. -Their quaint cries may be heard in -almost any part of the city during the morning -hours. As a rule this merchant carries only<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> -one article, or possibly two or three, if it is -vegetables. The chicken peddler has built little -coops for his birds which take the place of -a saddle. It is interesting to watch him gesticulate -and praise the excellence of his fowls -to the good housewife, or the servant who -comes out in answer to his warning cry. The -scissors-grinder and dealers in notions swell -the list of perigrinating business men who -make the streets vocal with their calls. The -milkman carries the milk in cans swung over -the back of his mule or donkey, or else drives -the cows themselves from door to door.</p> - -<p>“<i>Leche de las burras y vacas</i>,” meaning -donkey’s and cow’s milk, was the cry that -reached my ears one morning in Valparaiso. -On looking around I saw a man leading two -donkey mares and three cows through the -streets. Each donkey mare was closely followed -by its pretty but comical little colt. This -is a custom imported from Spain and Italy, -where goats are also taken from door to door -and oftentimes up three or four flights of stairs -to be milked. It might even be possible to find -a milkman with donkeys, cows and goats in -his collection, so that a regular department -store variety of milk could be provided his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> -customers. Add to these the camel and reindeer, -and you have the sources of the world’s -milk supply. Donkey’s milk is used a great -deal for babies in South America, as it is considered -better for them than the milk of either -cows or goats. Milk delivered in this way does -not need a sterilized label upon it, or a certificate -from the department of health. Furthermore, -there is very little danger of adulteration. -The housekeeper reaps the benefit of this -style of milk delivery, but it must be a slow -and costly method for the dairyman. It is -another evidence that primitiveness has not -entirely disappeared from Chile.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus12"> -<img src="images/illus12.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A VENDER OF DONKEY’S MILK, VALPARAISO.</p> -</div> - -<p>One other peculiar feature of life in Valparaiso -is that the conductors on all the street -cars are women. This innovation was introduced -in the time of war with Peru, when men -were hard to secure for that work. They did -the work so well that they have been employed -continuously ever since. It can not be said -of them that they are especially attractive, or -even look very jaunty in their uniforms of blue -surmounted by a sailor hat. The fares are the -cheapest I have ever found. The cars are all -double-decked. For two cents one can ride -inside, and it costs only half that rate to ride<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> -on the upper deck, which is a far better way -to see the city. The service is good, and there -are more than twenty-five miles of trolley in -and about the city. The electric current for -this as well as lighting is generated by water -power a few miles north of the city, where a -huge dam has been built across a stream.</p> - -<p>A night view of Valparaiso from the bay is -delightful. The many electric lamps in all -parts of the city illuminate the otherwise dark -shadows, and are reflected in the waters near -the shore. Here and there move streaks of -light in the lower town, as the electric cars -dash along from one end of the city to the -other; similar lines of light move up and down -in a dozen places, as the “ascensors” carry -their loads between the upper and lower town. -At such times Valparaiso looks like a city of -enchantment, a chosen bit from fairyland.</p> - -<p>A trolley line leads out to the aristocratic -suburb of Viña del Mar, where the rich people -of Chile also have their summer residences. -There are some beautiful homes in this city, -of splendid architecture and surrounded by -luxuriant foliage. In these villas the wearied -and worried man of business finds rest after -business hours. For a few months in the summer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> -this resort is the centre of the social life -of the republic, and the hotel is so crowded that -it is difficult to secure accommodation, unless -arranged for beforehand. There are delightful -drives, when not too dusty, and then there -are tennis courts, golf links, polo grounds and -other places of recreation. A fine club building -has been erected, where the devotees of games -of chance can find the alluring games that their -natures seem to crave. At Miramar is a small -bathing resort, but it is extremely dangerous, -for just a short distance from shore the bottom -seems to drop to a great depth. It is used -principally as a place for promenades and -dress show for the society folks, and every day -a long line of carriages wend their way out to -that pleasant little bit of beach.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus13"> -<img src="images/illus13.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">AN ATTRACTIVE HOME, VIÑA DEL MAR.</p> -</div> - -<p>The great attraction of Viña, however, is the -race course. Sunday is, of course, the gala -day, and the race course is crowded with lovers -of the sport. The people of Chile have passed -the bull-fight period in civilization, for the bull-fight -and lottery have both been banished by -statutory enactment, and the horse races have -taken their place. They vie with the residents -of Buenos Aires in their devotion to this sport. -The residents entertain house parties on that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> -day and all attend the track. They become -very enthusiastic, and few who have the money -neglect an opportunity to stake it on the horses, -for all are posted on the records of the various -animals listed in the races, and each one has -his or her favourite.</p> - -<p>The province of Valparaiso does not extend -quite to the Cordilleras, but it does reach out -several hundred miles into the Pacific. Some -four hundred miles west of Valparaiso lies the -island of Juan Fernandez, which is generally -known among English-speaking people as Robinson -Crusoe’s Island.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse">“Poor old Robinson Crusoe! Poor old Robinson Crusoe!</div> -<div class="verse">They made him a coat of an old Nanny goat,</div> -<div class="verse">I wonder how they could do so!”</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Thus runs the old nursery rhyme with which -all of us are familiar. There are few reading -people, young or old, who have not read that -fascinating tale of adventure, written by Daniel -Defoe, which depicts the adventures of Robinson -Crusoe. And yet, perhaps, there are -not so many who are familiar with the location -of the island which Defoe pretends to -describe.</p> - -<p>The island of Juan Fernandez, generally<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> -known among Chileans as Mas-a-Tierra, is a -great mass of rock almost twelve miles long -by seven miles wide, a large part of which is -as barren as a desert. One side, however, -where fruits grow and the wild sheep and goats -find their sustenance, is covered with a luxuriant -vegetation. It is in a desolate location, -for it is away from the trade routes and there -are few vessels that pass that way. The fishing -boats that ply between Valparaiso and the -island keep up communication with the mainland. -The waters of the Pacific teem with fish, -and the fishermen have found the little bays of -this small island profitable waters for their -trade. It is a great lobster-fishing ground also, -and the largest lobsters by far that I ever have -seen were caught at this island.</p> - -<p>Even to-day there are very few people who -live on the island of Juan Fernandez. Only -about half of it is fertile, and access to it is -so difficult that it does not appeal to many. -There is one settlement at San Juan Bautista—St. -John the Baptist—where the boats -land, and one or two other little groups of -houses where a few colonists live. The attempt -that has been made by the Chilean Government -to colonize it cannot be called a success,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> -for fewer people live there to-day than -there did a few years ago.</p> - -<p>Were it not for the story woven about the -island few people would be interested in it -to-day. It was here among these barren hills, -and in the natural caves which abound on the -island, that Alexander Selkirk lived for four -years and four months, more than two centuries -ago. It was here that he met and adopted -a lone Indian, whom he named Friday, because -of the day he first found him. It is little wonder -that existence was lonesome, and it is even -a greater wonder that he did not lose his mind -from lack of association with other human -beings. At last his watch fires attracted the -attention of a passing schooner and the lone -wanderer was taken to England, where, for a -time, he became quite a hero. He was found, -as the captain of the boat said, “clad in goat-skins -and was running about as though he were -demented.” There is a rock on the island -which is called “Robinson Crusoe’s Lookout,” -because it is said to be the place where the -signal fires were built. It is on a high hill and -commands a view of the sea for many miles. -A large cave, which is as large as the average -parlour, is supposed to have been his home. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> -the sides of this rock are rusty nails said to -have been driven into it by pirates who used -to make the place their rendezvous.</p> - -<p>A marble tablet has been erected on the -“Lookout.” This was placed there by some -English naval officers in 1868, for Selkirk himself -was a naval officer. Among other things -this tablet says:</p> - -<p class="center smcapuc">IN MEMORY OF<br /> -<span class="larger">ALEXANDER SELKIRK</span><br /> -MARINER.<br /> -A NATIVE OF LARGO, IN THE COUNTY OF FIFE,<br /> -SCOTLAND, WHO LIVED ON THIS ISLAND,<br /> -IN COMPLETE SOLITUDE, FOUR YEARS<br /> -AND FOUR MONTHS.</p> - -<p class="center smcapuc">HE WAS LANDED FROM THE “CINQUE PORTS”<br /> -GALLEY, 96 TONS, 18 GUNS, A. D., 1704, AND WAS TAKEN<br /> -OFF IN THE “DUKE,” PRIVATEER, 12TH FEBRUARY, 1709.</p> - -<p class="center smcapuc">HE DIED LIEUTENANT OF H. M. S. “WEYMOUTH,” <span class="smcapuc">A. D.</span>,<br /> -1723, AGED 47 YEARS.</p> - -<p class="center smcapuc">THIS TABLET IS ERECTED NEAR SELKIRK’S LOOKOUT<br /> -BY COMMODORE POWELL AND THE OFFICERS<br /> -OF H. M. S. “TOPAZ” A. D., 1868.</p> - -<p>Although Defoe’s tale is not wholly true, -and some of the descriptions are incorrect, yet -the story was suggested by the adventures of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> -the marooned mariner, and the terrors of loneliness, -solitude and fear which overwhelmed -Robinson Crusoe were the same as those undergone -by Alexander Selkirk.</p> - -<p>Pascua, or Easter, Island is situated considerably -farther out in the ocean than Juan Fernandez, -and farther north. It was so named -by a Dutch navigator, who landed on the island -on Easter morning, in 1722. He carried back -with him to Amsterdam the first record of -its strange monuments. The greatest length -of this island is eleven miles, and its greatest -breadth is four miles. Yet here on this little -speck in the ocean, an island no larger than -Manhattan Island, where the sun is warm both -summer and winter, and the climate is enervating, -at one time lived a strange and marvellous -people. None of the inhabitants of the -island at the time of its discovery knew anything -about the monuments or the race that -built them. The traditions which were handed -down from father to son shed no light on that -subject. Some claim that they were a race of -giants, evidently inspired by the gods whom -they worshipped. Others claim they were a -race that antedated the flood. There is also -a theory, based on these monuments and those<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> -on other islands of the Polynesian Islands, that -this entire group were once a part of a continent -now submerged.</p> - -<p>These people hauled mammoth stones from -quarries that face the sea, carved on them -faces and cut with rude implements upon all -the four sides the story they wanted to tell. -These stones were transported to chosen sites -and set up with engineering accuracy, until -almost the whole island became a gallery of -monumental sculpture. Then came a new era; -the race of builders disappeared, and no one -is now able to decipher the hieroglyphics. In -all there are over five hundred of these carved -statues, colossal heads and other samples of -the art of these prehistoric people. Except in -a few cases the monuments face the sea, and -to the east, and they range in size from a mammoth -monolith seventy feet in height to a -pigmy the size of a small boy. Some of them -weigh several tons and were transported from -quarries distant as much as eight miles. How -this was done without the aid of mechanical -devices is a mystery.</p> - -<p>Besides the statues there are several immense -platforms constructed of large cut -stones piled together, as if they had been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> -shaped to conform to the plan of an architect, -and all are set with true edges without cement -and plaster. These platforms are about thirty -feet high, and from two hundred to three hundred -feet in length. After a fashion they look -like immense banquet tables or council platforms. -Around or upon these tables the prehistoric -chiefs may have sat in stone seats and -deliberated or made plans to conquer enemies.</p> - -<p>On this island there are some peaks which -rise as high as twelve hundred feet above the -surface of the sea, and there are walls of stone -formed from lava which for scores of centuries -have lain there, and small lakes formed in -natural cups and bowls which were probably -once the open mouths of volcanoes. There are -the remains of what was once a house of stone. -As the tumbled blocks now lie they mark out -a structure one hundred feet long, twenty feet -wide, with walls five feet thick. Some of the -slabs are marked with geometrical figures and -with representations of animals and birds. -These suggest a gigantic species, larger than -any that exist to-day. In fact all their representations -of life suggest a heroic mould. -But the peculiar feature of this house is that -the ceiling was not more than five feet high,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> -which would seem to render it unsuited for a -dwelling place. It might have been intended -for a storehouse of some sort. At the present -time there are only a few hundred people living -on the island who are of the Sawaiori race, -and resemble very strongly the natives of -Tahiti.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE CITY OF SAINT JAMES</span></h2> - -<p>“We will call this city Santiago (Saint -James), for he has guided us thus far,” said -Pedro de Valdivia, as he staked out the level -ground surrounding a lofty rock into square -blocks, one of which was given to each of his -followers.</p> - -<p>Few cities in the world have as fine a location -as this City of Saint James. It lies in -the centre of a magnificent amphitheatre, about -forty miles long and perhaps eighteen miles -wide, which is enclosed by a mighty wall of -mountains on all sides save one, half of which -are covered with perpetual snows. The Mapocho -River, which flows through the city -through an artificial channel, escapes from the -valley through the opening on the south, which -leads into the great central valley that forms -the real heart of the republic. The great -amphitheatre in which Santiago is situated is -divided into large <i>haciendas</i>, on which are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> -erected magnificent mansions that resemble -the ancient baronial homes of England. In -these the owners live and rule almost like lords -of old.</p> - -<p>Santiago was founded as the first town in -Chile. Valdivia erected a stronghold on the -rock, which he named Santa Lucia, and then -set to work to build the city at its base, which -he had named after the patron saint of Spain. -The squares were laid out with the lines running -east and west, north and south. Each of -his followers to whom was given a square for a -garden, was required to construct a house for -his own use. Thus it will be seen that Santiago -is not a new city, nor has its growth been -of the mushroom variety. Founded in the sixteenth -century, it preserves in wood and stone, -to a great extent, the spirit of old Spain transplanted -to the New World. The Spanish cavalier -stalked in complete mail through the -streets of Santiago before the <i>Mayflower</i> -landed the pilgrims on the shores of Massachusetts. -The priests were chanting the solemn -service of the church here long before the -English landed at Jamestown. Dust had gathered -on the volumes in the municipal library -of this city centuries preceding the building of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> -the first little red school-house in the United -States. Before New York was even thought -of, the drama of life was being enacted daily -in this beautiful valley after Castilian models.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus14"> -<img src="images/illus14.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">SANTA LUCIA.</p> -</div> - -<p>But let us take a look at this ancient capital. -At one side of the city is El Cerro de Santa -Lucia, a mass of volcanic rock almost as high -as the Washington Monument. It has a base of -several acres, but gradually narrows as it rises -precipitously above all the buildings, until it -ends in the jagged piece of rock which crowns -the summit. After the fortress was removed -it became the burial place of Jews, Protestants, -infidels and all who were forbidden burial in -consecrated ground. When these bones were -finally removed they were dumped in a corner -of one of the Catholic cemeteries, and the -church authorities erected a monument with -the inscription “exiles from both heaven and -earth.” This freak of nature, which geologists -say was dropped by some wandering iceberg, -has been made into a delightful place, partly -by private subscription and partly at public -expense. The summit is reached by several -winding roads and walks that are enclosed by -walls in a most picturesque manner. In the -crevices of the rocks flowers, bushes and curious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> -plants are growing. Eucalyptus trees rise -up, and gigantic ferns reach out so that the -hill seems a veritable garden in the air. At -intervals are kiosks for music or refreshments, -and half way up is a theatre where vaudeville -entertainments are occasionally given for the -entertainment of the people. Terraces, fountains, -winding walks and steps cut out of the -rock add to the beauties and comforts of Santa -Lucia. On the summit is a little chapel where -the remains of Mr. Benjamine Vicuña Mackenna, -who planned this scheme and gave large -sums towards its completion, lies buried. On -the way up one passes one wonderful rock formation -after another, delightful grottoes and -cozy nooks, until at last all Santiago is spread -out before you like a panorama.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus15"> -<img src="images/illus15.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">ALAMEDA DE LAS DELICIAS, SANTIAGO.</p> -</div> - -<p>Below is a vast expanse of flat roofs, out of -which here and there rise trees and a wealth -of green. These are in the patios, or inside -courts, of the larger houses. Here and there -rise the towers of the numerous churches with -which Santiago is provided. The many streets -cross each other in checkerboard fashion, thus -dividing the city into square blocks. At one -side can be distinguished the Alameda de las -Delicias, with its double rows of great poplar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> -trees, which furnish an arbour of dense shade -from one end of the city to the other, a distance -of three miles, and which leads out to -the parks known as Quinta Normal and Cousiño. -This avenue, which was formerly the -principal road leading into the city, has been -laid out as a broad highway more than three -hundred feet in width, with a promenade in -the centre and a wide driveway on either side. -Fronting this Alameda are many very fine -residences—the finest in the city. Some of -the houses are very large, containing fifty -rooms or more, and the furnishings are elaborate. -The ceilings are very high, which gives -ample opportunity for decorative effect. One -striking feature is the absence of chimneys, for -the Chileans are averse to artificial heat. In -the winter time it is nothing unusual for a -guest to be received by the host and his family -wearing furs and heavy wraps. A few of the -newer houses have installed heating plants. -With these homes the best and most attractive -part is usually hidden from the street. There -are several stands along the Alameda at which -military bands discourse music frequently. -The promenade is broken by many statues of -Chile’s heroes, and others commemorating<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> -events important in Chilean history; and at -every few feet throughout its length are stone -seats on which the people rest.</p> - -<p>One of the finest private residences in South -America is that belonging to the Cousiño family, -which was erected by the late Señora Isadora -Cousiño. It was designed by a famous -French architect and will compare favourably -with those of New York. It is built of brick, -stuccoed in the usual manner to resemble stone, -and is imposing. Its interior decorations are -elaborate, but rather the style one would expect -in a public building than in a private -home. They are all French scenes, as the work -was done by French artists. It is still one of -the show places, although the señora has been -dead for many years, and her descendants have -more modest taste. She was a remarkable -woman, and her chief concern seemed to be to -expend her enormous income. Her extravagance -was frequently the gossip of Europe as -well as her native land. Herself the richest -woman in Chile before marriage, she married -the richest man, and all his wealth was willed -to her at his death. She had millions of dollars -in herds, mines, railroads, steamships, real -estate, etc. Another magnificent château at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> -Lota was built by her, and the <i>estancia</i> of -Macul, an hour’s ride from Santiago, was -almost a principality in itself. The land -stretched from the environs of the city to the -distant Cordilleras with their mantle of snow.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus16"> -<img src="images/illus16.jpg" width="650" height="360" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">DANCING LA CUECA, THE NATIONAL DANCE.</p> -</div> - -<p>Señora Cousiño did one good thing for Santiago; -she presented to the city beautiful Cousiño -Park. It is a large park of several hundred -acres, which is the popular playground of -the masses. It has cheap cafés, merry-go-rounds -and other amusements, and is the nearest -approach to a Coney Island that the capital -affords. There are a number of stands for -dancing where, on a Sunday especially, one -may see the Chilean national dance, La Cueca, -which is a sort of refined can-can. The couples -pair off with handkerchiefs in their hands, and -dance face to face, while the musicians sit on -benches near-by and thrum guitars, pick mandolins, -or play other instruments. Each -dancer waves his handkerchief in the air with -graceful gestures, and sways around in attitudes -which are supposed to show grace and -suppleness. A race track has also been constructed -in the centre of the park, called the -“Club Hippico,” where races are held almost -every Sunday afternoon and frequently on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> -holidays. This is the most popular amusement -in Chile. Another park, the Quinta Normal, -has been provided for the people, and in it is -quite an extensive zoological garden. Among -the many “strange” and “fierce” animals -kept in cages are several species of dogs and -cats, which seem very much out of place in such -surroundings. A very interesting museum -also occupies a pretty site near the entrance. -A botanical garden and experiment station is -also maintained here, and an exposition building -in which agricultural fairs are held each -year.</p> - -<p>There are a number of very fine public -buildings in Santiago. Perhaps the finest is -the Palace of Congress, which is a large building -of modern classical construction covering -an entire square—not differing much from -many public buildings that one will find in the -United States. I attended a session of the -Senate and the proceedings seemed very -strange. The members talked at random without -even addressing the chair or rising from -their seats. In fact the proceedings were the -most informal of any legislative body I ever -attended. Not infrequently, however, the sessions -are very stormy, and the reputation of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> -the Spaniard for excitability is well maintained. -The National Library is almost opposite -this building, but is not an imposing building, -although it contains an interesting and -valuable collection of books. La Moneda is the -name given to the residence of the President, -and it also contains the offices of many of the -government departments. It is a large three-story -building with quite imposing surroundings. -The President is generally attended by -a military guard during his drives around the -city. Other buildings are the Palace of Justice, -in which the highest courts sit, the Army -Building, and the Intendency, or City Hall.</p> - -<p>At one place in Santiago a beautiful marble -monument has been erected on the site of a -church that was burned in 1863. Church festivals -have always played an important part in -the social life of the capital. At the time of the -Christmas festivities of that year a gorgeous -<i>fête</i> was in progress in the Jesuits’ church, -which was known as the Feast of the Virgins. -The interior was festooned and decorated -everywhere with light gauze, wreaths of paper -flowers and other inflammable material. Candles -had been attached to these flimsy decorations. -The church was crowded with women<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> -while high mass was being celebrated by the -bishop. Suddenly the hangings caught fire, the -burning candles fell among the crowd of worshippers -and everyone rushed for the doors. -As usual, the doors opened inward, and the -crowds, jammed against them, made it impossible -for them to be opened. It is claimed that -almost three thousand women and girls lost -their lives in this terrible holocaust. After the -fire the bodies were found packed in a solid -mass against the doors. The church was afterwards -razed to the ground by order of the government, -and this monument erected on the site. -Scarcely a leading family in Santiago escaped -bereavement, and the Feast of the Virgins has -ever since been celebrated with mourning in -Chile.</p> - -<p>There are many worthy charitable institutions -in Santiago. Some of these are municipal -institutions and others are church charities. -Among these are numerous hospitals for -the care of the sick and unfortunate. There -is one very large orphan asylum, which cares -for many hundreds of unfortunate children—many -of them of unknown parentage. The -method of reception of these unfortunate, and -generally unwelcome, infants is unique. In the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> -rear wall is an opening with a wooden box in -it which swings in and out. The mother wishing -to get rid of her baby places the little mite -in the box and swings it in. The automatic -ringing of a bell notifies the nuns inside and -the baby is taken charge of by them. No effort -is ever made to find the mother, and she is thus -enabled to rid herself of her charge. Some -moralists would criticize this practice, but it is -certainly better than infanticide, which is said -to be an almost unknown crime in Chile, where -the ratio of illegitimate births is very large.</p> - -<p>The Opera House is a municipal institution -and is a very fine building. During the season -opera is given here several nights each week, -and generally by Italian companies. Not only -is the building furnished free, but a good subsidy -is given the management each year in -order to bring good talent here. The seats and -boxes are sold by subscription for the season -as a guaranty fund and are paid for in advance, -although many sell their seats occasionally -if there is a demand for them. The audiences -are very interesting, for the people dress -exceedingly well and are lavish in their wearing -of jewels. There is a large foyer in which -the people promenade between acts and there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> -are refreshment rooms where all kinds of refreshments -are served. A special box is reserved -for the President of the republic and -the <i>intendente</i> of the city. There is also a -mourning box protected by screens, where those -in mourning may watch the performance without -being themselves seen.</p> - -<p>The city of Santiago is a municipality within -the province of the same name. A little more -democracy has been infused into the government -than used to prevail. The city is divided -into ten sections or wards. Each of these -wards, called <i>circumscripciones</i>, elects three -councillors, all the members together constituting -the municipal legislative body. They -must be citizens of at least five years’ residence -in the city, must not have any interest in national -or municipal contracts, and must not -hold any other public office or commission. -The three members from each ward have certain -local powers and duties principally in connection -with the elections. From its members -the council elect three alcaldes, or mayors, fixing -the order of precedence among the three, -also a secretary and treasurer. The powers -and jurisdiction of this body extends to the -entire government, subject only to the constitution<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> -and the organic act under which the -municipality is organized. The principal revenues -are derived from a personal tax levied -for school purposes, a tax on liquors and tobacco, -a license for industries and professions, -revenues derived from city property and an -annual grant from the national Congress.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus17"> -<img src="images/illus17.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A GROUP OF NEWSBOYS, SANTIAGO.</p> -</div> - -<p>It is in the market-places that one can best -study the common people. There are two -markets in Santiago, both of them on the bank -of the Mapocho. At the newer one one will -be sure to find some newsboys plying their -trade. “<i>La Union</i>” and “<i>El Mercurio</i>” are -the cries of these busy little newsboys, as they -flit in and out among the marketers of Santiago. -They are barefooted ragamuffins, most of -them, but they industriously ply their trade. -Their complexions are of different shades, for -some of the boys have Indian blood in their -veins, which gives them a deeper colouring. I -posed two small boys for a picture, but before -I could take it a half dozen had crowded into -it, making an interesting group. The boys of -South America, just like their counterparts in -the United States, want to take a part in everything -that comes within their range of vision.</p> - -<p>It would be difficult to find a more interesting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> -place in Santiago than the old market, -which will soon be abandoned. Around it will -be seen the huge, two-wheeled market carts in -which the produce has been brought. Many of -these marketers have been on the road for two -or three days, bringing in the products of their -fertile fields for the people in the city. The -meek-eyed oxen stand or recline while chewing -their cud, no doubt enjoying to the full the -brief respite from their work. The produce -displayed in the market is good. The fruits -of Chile are simply delicious in flavour, and -they are large in size. The pears and peaches -of California are not better than those grown -here below the equator, and yet they have been -grown with very little care in their cultivation.</p> - -<p>One must bargain with or pay an exorbitant -price to these market men and women. If it -is only a melon, or a dozen juicy pears, twice -as much will be asked as is expected. If you -shake your head when a price is given, the man -or woman in charge of the stall will immediately -ask, “What will you give?” On the -outside of the market building dozens of -women will be seen seated on the ground with -a little pile of tomatoes, radishes, potatoes or -melons heaped up in front of them. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> -housewife or servant will pass around among -them making purchases and gradually filling -up the basket which she carries, or hires some -boy to bear for her.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus18"> -<img src="images/illus18.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A MARKET SCENE, SANTIAGO.</p> -</div> - -<p>The poorer Chileans are a hard working -people—the most industrious of the South -Americans. A walk through the sections of -the city occupied by them shows much grinding -poverty. Across the Mapocho penury -stretches on all sides. The dwellings are low, -with floors oftentimes below the street level, -and the interiors show unsanitary conditions -and an entire lack of the comforts of life, let -alone the decencies. The improvement of such -surroundings should command immediate attention -from the authorities. The wages paid -this class are not very large, so that they are -compelled to live in comparative poverty. -They drink a great deal on Sundays and holidays. -Monday is a bad day to get anything -done, for the peons must have a few hours to -recover from the previous day’s celebration. -It is a sort of a “<i>dias non</i>,” a day that is not. -Holidays are greatly desired, and it takes five -of them to properly celebrate the “diaz y ocho -de Setiembre,” the 18th of September, the anniversary -of Chilean independence. <i>Fiestas</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> -are held in every park and plaza, and all the -banks and business houses close. Everybody, -young and old, engages in the festivities with -zeal and enthusiasm. The poor people save -up their money for weeks and months in order -to celebrate this occasion in the only way that -seems appropriate to them—that is, by carousing. -Saturday is beggars’ day, and every -mendicant in the city is out with open palm. -On other days only the licensed beggars appear. -Some beggars even come out on horseback, -for horses are remarkably cheap in -Chile.</p> - -<p>Another good view may be had of the poorer -classes on the occasion of a church celebration, -such as the festival of Corpus Christi. Both -church and state take a part in this <i>fiesta</i>. -The troops appear in their finest uniforms. -The infantry are gorgeous in their blue and -yellow, with helmets surmounted with white -plumes. The cavalry wear blue plumes and -the bands are adorned with red plumes. The -religious procession consists of the Procession -of the Cross, which is composed of various -societies, the Dominicans, Franciscans, Augustinians -and other orders. The parochial clergy -follow with the Archbishop in the lead. During<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> -the procession hundreds of women and children, -and some men, kneel in the streets. Some -men doff their hats, while others look on in -seemingly idle curiosity without any special -attitude of reverence.</p> - -<p>The wealthier people take life easy. The -real life is only for this class. After breakfast, -which is served from eleven to twelve o’clock, -comes the siesta. This meal is frequently an -elaborate and formal function if guests are -present, and is more like a dinner. On the door -of many business houses one will see the sign -“<i>cerrado de las 12 a 1½ horas</i>,” which means -that they are closed between these hours. -Business calls are usually made between two -and four. At six o’clock every person who -owns or can hire a carriage goes out to Cousiño -Park. Everyone dresses in his best, the -men wearing silk hats and frock suits, and the -women having on fashionable gowns and large -hats. In the park the carriages parade up and -down the principal drives and the occupants -nod to their acquaintances. It is quite the correct -thing for men to make audible remarks -about the personal appearance of ladies, if they -are complimentary. After about half an hour -of this parade they adjourn as by mutual consent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> -to the Alameda, which is twice as wide -as Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, and -the parade continues up one side of the imposing -avenue and down the other for another -half hour. There are all kinds of vehicles—drays, -victorias, landaus, four-in-hands and automobiles. -The driving is superintended by -mounted policemen, and the scene is quite imposing, -though rather stilted in the eyes of an -American. The parade then breaks up and all -drive home to partake of the dinner, which is -the principal meal of the day. The politeness -of the Chileno is excessive. He will always -give the lady the inner side of the street, and -would cheerfully step off the sidewalk in order -to render this courtesy. The man always extends -the first greeting also to a lady of his -acquaintance.</p> - -<p>Club life is greatly enjoyed in Santiago, for -the resident of that city is very much of a -night-hawk. The Club de la Union is the best -club in the country. It was my privilege to -be entertained there a number of times. The -real life does not begin until rather late, and -there is always a representative crowd of men -to be found there after ten o’clock, and gambling -is sure to be indulged in in some form.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> -While the men are at the club the women stay -at home, or attend the theatre.</p> - -<p>When Italian opera is not being given, one-act -comedies are the favourite plays. Going -to the theatre, however, usually means looking -in for a <i>zarzuela</i> or two during the evening. -Three or four of these one-act pieces, or <i>zarzuelas</i>, -are usually put on in an evening, and -the house is cleared after each performance. -Those who dine late usually drop in for the -second turn, which begins about half-past nine; -or one can catch the last one, which does not -begin until about eleven o’clock. Some of -these <i>zarzuelas</i> are one-act musical plays, -abridged from popular operas, but most of -them are melodrama or grotesque comedy. -The audiences are very alert and are quick to -respond to appeals from the stage.</p> - -<p>“Oh, <i>Mamacita</i>, let us go around the plaza -once more, for the band has not yet quit playing,” -plead the little girls and young ladies -of Santiago. On Tuesday, Thursday and Sunday -evenings a band plays in the Plaza de -Armas, which is the centre of life and business -in the Chilean capital. Then occurs the <i>paseo</i>, -or promenade, so common in Spanish towns. -It usually begins before the light has yet faded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> -from the highest peaks of the Andes, and while -the newsboys are still calling out “<i>Las Ultimas -Noticias</i>.” The girls and young ladies, -the boys and young men, all come here on these -evenings. The former are always accompanied -by their mothers, as the social customs are -very strict and the girls do not enjoy as much -freedom as their cousins have in North America. -The mothers sit on the benches, while -the younger women and girls walk around the -plaza in pairs and groups. The young men, -among whom are many officers in German uniforms -and with clanking swords, walk around -in the opposite direction, and pass audible comments -on the girls who pass. Their remarks -are irritating to an Anglo-Saxon who understands -the Castilian lisp, but the girls only -laugh or smile, for they are quite accustomed -to it. The same attentions bestowed on young -ladies on the average American street would -result in an interference by a man in blue uniform, -and possibly a gentle use of the “big -stick.” The young men exchange a few words -with those with whom they are acquainted, but -not for long, for mamma keeps her vigilant -eyes on them. The girls, even little tots, are -finished coquettes, and they aim to attract attention.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> -This is one of the few opportunities -afforded to the young people to see each other. -If a young man observes a girl by whom he is -attracted he will begin inquiries as to who she -is, and perhaps even his folks will aid him in -his effort to make the acquaintance of his inamorata.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus19"> -<img src="images/illus19.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">THE OLDEST BUILDING IN SANTIAGO.</p> -</div> - -<p>Within almost a stone’s throw of the Plaza -is all of Chile—those who rule and those who -own—the principal club, theatres, public -buildings and residences of diplomats. The -chief business streets converge at this plaza, -and the leading business houses are near it. -The great cathedral and archbishop’s palace -occupy one entire side, the post office and a -government building another side, and the portales, -or corridors, under which are many -booths and stores, fill up the remaining two -sides. The stores around the plaza are small -and like those of old Spain. This is the oldest -business section in Santiago and was in existence -two centuries before our own national -capital. Some of the stores are like holes in -the wall, with goods stacked up in the doorway -and even on the street outside. They are far -different from the larger and more modern -establishments near the corner of Ahumada<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> -and Huerfanos, a block away. There one will -find splendid stores where goods from all parts -of the world can be purchased. A fine large -department store has recently been opened up -in the city, which is a great improvement over -any of the old establishments. The prices in -the windows look very high, but an article -marked five dollars means only about one-fifth -that amount in United States currency.</p> - -<p>During the day many shoppers may be seen. -The women trip along two by two or roll up -in their broughams, victorias or automobiles. -In the morning the women wear black gowns -and the <i>mantas</i>, which are shawls folded into -a sort of bonnet which gives a very demure -setting to the black-eyed, oval, and, oftentimes, -beautiful faces underneath. This is the dress -worn to the morning mass, and is not changed -until after the breakfast hour. One may sometimes -see the roguish eyes of the wearer peering -at him from beneath this <i>manta</i>, even while -the owner is fingering her beads and uttering -her prayers in the cathedral. Some one has -described the <i>manta</i> as “that graceful euphemism -which shields the poor and disarms -the vain, hides bad taste and clumsy waists, -and wrapped about the head and nipped in in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> -some marvellous fashion at the nape of the -neck, envelops all femininity in gracefulness -and mystery.”</p> - -<p>One’s visit is not complete without seeing a -sunset from Santa Lucia. Santiago is situated -in a valley, surrounded by lofty mountains on -every side. At its back are the Cordilleras of -the Andes, with their lofty peaks which lift -their eternal snows far up into the blue ethereal -canopy overhead. As the sun creeps -slowly into the western sky it illumes the red -tile roof of the city and the many spires. Then -its rays fall full upon the snow-clad peaks, and -long after the fiery ball has dropped behind the -lower range of mountains, which separate -Santiago from the sea, its rays continue to -glisten upon the loftier peaks that form the -eastern horizon. Then, as darkness slowly -falls over the landscape, the electric lights of -the city flash forth beneath you like visions in -fairy land. The whole scene, with its variations -and transformations, is one that will long -linger in memory.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE GRANARY OF THE REPUBLIC</span></h2> - -<p>The heart of Chile lies in the great central -valley which extends south from Santiago, -through Concepción and beyond, for a distance -of almost six hundred miles. It lies between -the Andes and the less lofty range of -mountains that follows the coast line. This -used to be Chile almost, but the development -of the nitrate industry to the north has made -that section of much greater importance than -formerly. The climate in this valley is delightful, -neither too cold nor too wet, and its -nearness to the charms of the capital has made -it an attractive dwelling place for the Chilenos -for several centuries. The climate is very similar -to that of California. The same crops and -fruits are raised in both places, and the conditions -of farming are also very much the -same.</p> - -<p>After leaving Santiago the railroad passes -through numerous orchards and extensive<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> -vineyards which grow around this proud city. -Over the fences of mud and stone trail the -branches of peach trees, and along the roads -stretch eternal rows of solemn poplars and -stiff clumps of the eucalyptus. The waters of -the Maipo ripple along near the track. There -is an appearance of enterprise and industry -everywhere. Great carts drawn by oxen, some -of them with solid wheels like those of Pharaoh’s -time, are lined up at every station, as -well as pack mules awaiting their burdens. As -a contrast a luxurious French or Italian automobile -may be seen. Fine <i>estancia</i> buildings -surrounded by vineyards loom up prominently -along the route, while, as a contrast, are the -rude buildings inhabited by the peons, which -show absolutely no advance over centuries ago. -There is the same contrast in farming methods. -Rude ploughs which merely scratch the ground -may be seen at work nearer to outfits which are -strictly modern.</p> - -<p>The valley varies in its outline, for in places -the surrounding mountains press in and diminish -its width. Numerous streams which have -their origin in the Andes cut across it, and -their milky-white waters restlessly rush onward -to the sea. Among these are the Cachopoal,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> -Maraquito, the Bueno, the Maule and the -Claro (clear), whose waters are more transparent -than the others. The altitude becomes -lower and the temperature correspondingly -warmer. On the eastern side the lofty volcanoes -of Maipo and its companions are plainly -in sight. Cattle may be seen grazing on the -rougher lands, while great fields of wheat and -other grains grow in the more tillable portions. -At the stations farther down girls, who -show by the darkened complexion their admixture -with the Indians, offer baskets of all -shapes and sizes, from one the size of a pea, -to the passengers as souvenirs. In this admixture -the natives have conquered the would-be -conquerors.</p> - -<p>One of the most important places passed -is Talca, which is one of the largest cities of -Chile. It has plenty of rainfall and is surrounded -by wheat farms. It has a very pretty -plaza, and is ornamented with some statuary -brought from Peru at the time of the war with -that country. Two snow-clad volcanoes lift -their hoary heads to the skies on the eastern -horizon, although at a considerable distance. -It is situated at a distance of about one hundred -and fifty miles from the capital. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> -streets are many of them lined with poplars, -and magnolia trees lend their fragrance. Vegetables -and fruits grown here are of the finest, -and the inhabitants of Talca are able to live -on the good things of life after approved fashion.</p> - -<p>As old as is this valley, there is still much -undeveloped land in it. This land is partly -covered with the bramble or other scrub -growth. The only trees to be seen for hundreds -of miles are those that have been -planted. Some of the soil is very rich, while -some is stony and hard to cultivate. Where -irrigation has been developed the soil responds -readily to the hand of the agriculturalist. The -silt carried down from the mountains by the -streams acts as a fertilizer when deposited on -the surface of the valley. South of the Bio-Bio -River no irrigation is employed, or is necessary. -The coast range gradually becomes -lower until it disappears. Evergreen trees -take the place of the common forms of deciduous -trees. The Rio Itata is quite an important -stream, but all the rivers of this valley -fade in importance by the side of the famous -Bio-Bio. Up to 1884 this river was the frontier -boundary, all the land beyond being under<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> -the sway of the Araucanian Indians, who were -a sturdy and independent tribe. Many battles -have been fought near this stream with the -Indians, who resisted Spain and the succeeding -republic for more than three hundred -years. The iron horse has now crossed it and -opened up the regions beyond, although all of -the southern section has a much newer appearance -than that on the other side of the river. -The newer towns remind one very much of the -frontier communities in the United States. -Many of them are settlements of Europeans, -and some of them have had hard struggles for -existence. Onward the route leads through -Victoria, Temuco, and Valdivia to Puerto -Montt, a port and the last town of any importance -until Punta Arenas is reached. It is -also beyond what might be termed the valley -proper. Nearly all of this region is extremely -fertile, and contains some of the richest land -in the republic. It only needs irrigation in the -north, and a clearing of the forests in the -southern portions, to make it blossom with -wheat and other valuable grains for the support -of mankind. From the orange groves of -Santiago to the apple orchards of Temuco this -valley ought to be one immense garden.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus20"> -<img src="images/illus20.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A PLANTATION OWNER.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span></p> - -<p>This great central valley is parcelled out -among large landowners, many of whom own -almost princely estates. As agriculture has -always been the chief occupation of the Chilenos, -fully one-half of the population being engaged -in it, these estates have been held in the -same family for generations in many instances. -A farm of a thousand acres is small, and there -are many which number thirty or forty thousand -acres. Upon the product of these broad -acres the owner lives in luxury almost like the -feudal lords of old. Hundreds of peons work -on the <i>haciendas</i>, just as their forefathers did -before them, and they really form a small army -of retainers, who used to be ready to fight the -battles of the <i>hacendado</i> at a moment’s call. -Now they work for them for small wages, and -are always in debt. So long as they are indebted -to the master they can be compelled -to remain and work it out.</p> - -<p>Irrigation has been considerably developed -in some parts. Each <i>hacendado</i> is a subscriber -to or shareholder in an irrigation canal. These -have been constructed at a great expense and -are protected by very strict laws. They consist -of main canals starting well up among the -hills, and are pierced by many small outlets,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> -called <i>regadores</i>. Each of these has an outlet -of a fixed number of litres per second. The -fields are traversed by parallel and intersecting -smaller channels, and the water is thus conducted -from place to place. Movable dams of -canvas stop the flow into these intersecting -channels, so that the amount flowing can be -regulated as the needs require.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus21"> -<img src="images/illus21.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">DRAWING AN AMERICAN THRESHER.</p> -</div> - -<p>It is seldom that one will see fences of wire -or boards, for most of the estates are hemmed -in with walls of stone. The absence of barns -on the landscape is a striking feature, and the -only buildings of any size are the low, rambling -structures which form the residence of the -<i>hacendado</i>, his <i>administrador</i>, and other heads. -These usually consist of one-storied buildings, -which are built around a central <i>patio</i>, and -have wide porches floored with brick. The -<i>patios</i> are laid out in pretty little gardens, in -which the palm is sure to have its part in the -attempt at ornamentation. Great avenues of -lofty trees usually run out in every direction -along the roads or irrigation channels. The -most of the estates are fairly well kept, for -the Chileans are quite progressive agriculturalists. -One will find on many of these great -farms the very latest of farming implements,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> -including steam or gasoline tractors for certain -phases of the work. Especially is this -true of their harvesting machinery, which includes -the latest North American patterns. -But in one respect there are some antiquated -features, and that is in transportation. If animal -power is employed it is almost invariably -oxen, and not horses or mules. They plough -the ground, haul the timber, and behind them -the thousands of bushels of grain produced in -this valley are conveyed to market. These -animals are yoked by the horns, which seems -a very cruel way to treat these humble but -faithful servants of man. It looks to the onlooker -as though every jar of the great carts -must give pain to the oxen, and oftentimes -their eyes seem almost darting from their -heads.</p> - -<p>The vineyards of this valley cover thousands -of acres, for the Chileans drink wine as the -Germans drink beer. A meal without the white -or red contents of a long-necked bottle would -be incomplete. The vines are dwarfed, and are -planted in rows five or six feet apart. In many -cases they are trained upon wires, and the -vineyards are not unlike those in some parts -of France. The abundance of a certain species<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> -of snail is said to be one of the worst enemies -of vitaculture. The Chilean wines, both red -and white, have quite a reputation, and the -exports are increasing each year.</p> - -<p>The abundance of dogs about these Chilean -<i>haciendas</i> impresses the traveller. The Chilenos -are very fond of these animals, and everybody -seems to keep many of them. Most of -them are obliged to forage for a living. They -naturally become rather unsavoury scavengers -under such circumstances. It is not advisable -to approach a farm, especially at night, without -being accompanied by some one connected -with the place, as the dogs seem to consider -it their duty to protect the household from -intrusion. Furthermore, the people living -there are free to fire at any unauthorized person, -because of the prevalence of petty thieving.</p> - -<p>Temuco is at a distance of a little less than -five hundred miles from Santiago. It is situated -on the Cautin River, and is the capital -of the province of that name. Only thirty -years old, this city already has a population -of twelve thousand, and covers about as much -space as an American town of the same size. -Like an American town, also, its houses are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> -mostly of wood, a striking contrast to the older -towns, farther down the valley toward the capital. -Although the temperature becomes quite -cold here at times the houses are built without -chimneys, for the people believe that fires are -unhealthful. Churches, clubs and hotels have -been built, and there are saloons where almost -pure alcohol is dished out to the poor -peons.</p> - -<p>Back into the wilderness from here and other -places the government has pushed short spurs -of railroads in order to open it up. The government -locates the stations and lays out the -lots, which are sold at low prices to actual settlers. -The lands round about are sold at auction -in good sized blocks of fifteen hundred -acres or more. This land will bring from one -to twelve dollars per hectare (about two and -a quarter acres). A farm of two thousand -acres of choice land could probably be secured -for five thousand dollars in United States currency. -The sales are generally made upon the -basis of one-third cash, and the balance is distributed -over a period of years. The only provision -exacted by the government is that the -purchaser must fence in his newly-acquired -possessions, but this is oftentimes a great expense.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> -This land when heavily stocked with -cattle is said to yield very good returns.</p> - -<p>A few years ago every new immigrant was -promised one hundred acres of land, a team -of oxen, a barrel of nails and enough boards -to build a small house. He was also advanced -the money necessary for his transportation. -All of this had to be repaid, however, and the -land alone was the only actual gift. Under -these terms many Germans were induced to -come to this land of promise. Many of these -settlers have done well, and some towns, such -as Valdivia and Puerto Montt, are largely German -cities.</p> - -<p>The first German settlers arrived about -1850, and they continued to come in considerable -numbers for the next decade. The first -emigrants arrived in the German barque <i>Hermann</i>, -after a journey of one hundred and -twenty days from Hamburg. She brought -seventy men, ten women and five children. -They had been lured by the promises of an -immigration agent who described the country -as flowing with milk and honey. When they -arrived everything was in hopeless confusion, -for titles were uncertain and the country was -an almost unbroken forest. The colonists<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> -began work under these discouraging conditions -and the face of the country soon showed -alteration. Puerto Montt was founded, and a -good road built through the trackless and -swampy woodland to Lake Llanquihue. The -influx of Germans has continued even to this -day, and many will be found who can speak no -other tongue than that of the Vaderland.</p> - -<p>On the journey from Santiago to Puerto -Montt no less than a dozen provinces are -passed. Many of these are comparatively -small, such as O’Higgins, which is about the -size of Delaware, to Llanquihue, which corresponds -with our own state of Indiana. Most -of them run from the Andes to the coast, but -Arauco and Maule are purely coast provinces. -The names of the provinces in this section, and -their order beginning with the one adjoining -the province of Santiago, are as follows:—O’Higgins, -Colchagua, Curico, Talca, Maule, -Linares, Nuble, Concepción, Bio-Bio, Arauco, -Malleco, Cautin, Valdivia, and Llanquihue.</p> - -<p>Along the coast between Puerto Montt and -Valparaiso are several ports of more or less -importance. Among these are Constitucion, -situated at the mouth of the River Talcahuano, -and Coronel. The latter is the Newcastle of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> -Chile, for it is in the midst of many coal mines. -Many of these mines run out under the Pacific -for long distances. The seams of coal are from -three to five feet thick. They are under a -strata of slate and shale, which is so compact -as to be absolutely water-tight. It is a strange -experience to run out in these mines, which -form a veritable catacomb of corridors and -chambers, and realize that perhaps at that very -moment some of the great ocean steamers are -majestically sailing the blue waters directly -over you. I know of no similar mines except -those of Whitehaven, England, where the galleries -run out several miles under the sea and -seem to be headed for the Isle of Man.</p> - -<p>Lota is also another mining town on this -same bay, and is a town of about fifteen thousand -people. This city and Coronel are really -twin ports. Lota was founded by Matias Cousiño, -who opened up the mines and established -smelter works in 1855. The company owns a -large amount of property and employs several -thousand men. It furnishes huts, free medical -attendance, a church, schools and a hospital for -its employees. The sight of this town is the -wonderful palace built by his widow, which -was constructed at a cost of many thousands<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> -of dollars. It is a <i>château</i> of white Italian -marble, and stands in the centre of a French -landscape garden. There are ravines, fountains, -statuary, arbours, terraces, grottoes, artificial -lakes and a small zoological exhibit on -the grounds. It blends French and English -landscape gardening with some original ideas. -Few country homes in Europe can compare -with it. It is said that all the material was -brought from France in the Señora Doña Isadora -Goyenecheo de Cousiño’s own ships, and -the interior is adorned with fine furniture and -decorations by famous French artists. Cousiño -Park at Lota has become the pride of -Chile.</p> - -<p>By far the most important town is Concepción, -also in the coal district, and which is -known as the southern capital. It has had -many serious struggles with the Indians, gaunt -famine and the still more terrible earthquake. -It is really a fine city of about fifty thousand -inhabitants. The last serious earthquake occurred -in 1835, when nearly the whole town -was destroyed. It is situated on the banks of -the Bio-Bio River, and has for its port Talcahuano -at the mouth of that river. Talcahuano -has a splendid harbour, and is better protected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> -than Valparaiso, as it is sheltered by the island -of Quiriquina. Whaling ships now leave it for -the Antarctic seas and bring back considerable -oil and whalebone. There is a factory here for -the manufacture and refining of whale oil. It -is the Chilean Annapolis, as it is the principal -naval harbour, with arsenals and dockyards, -and is also the site of a naval school. It will -eventually be the Pacific terminus of a transcontinental -railroad running to Bahia Blanca, -in Argentina.</p> - -<p>Concepción is the supply centre of Southern -Chile, and does a large wholesale business as -well as some manufacturing on a small scale. -Quite a foreign colony is found there, and there -are as good clubs and hotels as in Valparaiso, -its northern rival. It has forgotten all about -earthquakes and has risen above its former disasters. -It is arranged very much as other -Chilean cities. There is an alameda bordered -with poplars, and there is a plaza. Lord Cochrane -(pronounced Coch-rah-ne by the Chileans), -and Admiral O’Higgins are remembered -in the nomenclature of the streets. You can -sit under municipal vines and fig-trees, or the -pear or cherry loaded with blossoms, if you -happen to be there in September. The markets<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> -are overflowing with fine vegetables, such as -cauliflower, lettuce, artichokes, carrots, radishes, -potatoes, cabbage, etc., etc. Indian faces -are very numerous at the market and on the -streets. Bands play two or three nights in the -week and the music is good. The flat plain on -which the town is situated is not especially -beautiful, but it gives unlimited opportunity -for growth, and the Bio-Bio, especially when -at flood, is an impressive stream. The galvanized -iron used so extensively in construction -does not add much to the beauty of the town. -As Southern Chile develops, Concepción becomes -of greater and greater importance, and -it has a steady and healthy increase each year.</p> - -<p>Osorno is a thriving city a little ways inland -on a branch of the Rio Bueno, and was a place -of considerable importance in the Spanish -days. Corral is at the mouth of the river that -leads back to Valdivia, a dozen miles inland. -It has a trade of considerable importance with -the other ports, and is distant from Valparaiso -almost five hundred miles. The coast is not so -densely wooded as farther south, and the tide -is not more than one-fourth as high on the -average. Puerto Montt is a prosperous and -progressive little town situated on Reloncavi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> -Bay. It has a well protected harbour and enjoys -a considerable trade in lumber, wheat and -leather. The lofty Andes are plainly visible -on a clear day, especially the volcano Cabulco, -which is only twenty-two miles distant. A half -century ago this port had a commerce of considerable -value and was even then exporting -food products, although its population did not -much exceed a couple of thousand.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus22"> -<img src="images/illus22.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">VIEW OF PUERTO MONTT.</p> -<p class="caption">Courtesy of Bulletin of the Pan American Union.</p> -</div> - -<p>There are innumerable islands, which lie -close to the mainland, from Puerto Montt to -the Fuegian Archipelago. The largest of these -is Chiloé, which is a hundred miles long by -from thirty to fifty miles in width. It is generally -considered to be one of the sloppiest -islands in the world, for that was the reputation -the naturalist Darwin gave it, and his -opinion has been corroborated many times. Its -length runs parallel to the mainland, from -which it is separated by a quite broad bay. -The shores are generally wild and rather inhospitable. -If one lands any place, excepting -where a settler is located, the dense growth -will be found almost impenetrable, with all -branches dripping with moisture, and only an -occasional sunbeam being able to push its way -through the openings in the evergreen shrubbery.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> -Moss-covered bogs abound in which one -may sink to the waist in the mire. On this -moist land everything grows with wonderful -rapidity that does not require a great amount -of sunshine. Moss, yards in length, and of -great delicacy and beauty, hangs from the -branches, while ferns and polypodia scramble -up the trunks. Beautifully scalloped lichens, -in brown and gold and lavender, decorate the -fallen trees wherever they can take hold, and -fungi covers the larger trees. Tough-fibred -climbers of great length also decorate the trees. -They are oftentimes employed to tie up the -fences instead of nails, and are also used in -weaving some of the beautiful baskets made -by the natives. Brooms made of it are likewise -exported. This dense growth abounds -everywhere, with the exception of barren pampas -which sometimes stretch for a quarter of -a mile or so. Cattle will sometimes wander -into these thick meshes, and no one but an Indian -accustomed to the tangle can penetrate -with anything like facility in their efforts to -find the recalcitrant animals.</p> - -<p>Several thousand Indians dwell on this large -island. They have been semi-civilized for two -or three centuries. They seem to have been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> -less warlike than the Araucanians on the mainland. -Their clothing is modelled somewhat -after that of the <i>rotos</i>, for nearly all sport a -white cotton or linen shirt, which is oftentimes -worn under the gaily-coloured indigo-dyed -<i>poncho</i>. The shoes are generally simply made -of a piece of raw oxhide fastened to the feet -with thongs of leather. Their houses are the -very simplest of contrivances. The family that -starves does so only through indifference. -Land is cheap and nature productive. Most -of them live near the seacoast or rivers, where -fish are very abundant, and edible wild-fowl of -many kinds, including ducks, geese and pigeons, -are easy to capture. The forests yield a -number of wild fruits and vegetables. Among -the wild fruits may be mentioned strawberries -of a delicious flavour, and a species of myrtle -which bears a palatable berry. The fruit of -the luma, or kow-chow, is very abundant, and -is used in making a fermented liquor much -used by the natives. They have remained as -poor as when the Spaniards came, and the population -has actually decreased in the last century. -This island, as well as others, was a -feudal holding and the tyranny of the proprietors -and abuses of the merchants account for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> -that. Justice and humanity were frequently -unknown terms. Churches are not wanting, -for at one place nineteen can be counted on -islands and mainland when the weather is -clear. The church is always an important and -conspicuous building in every community. A -few colonists, German, French and British, -have located on this island, and have succeeded -in carving a home out of the wilderness if sufficiently -industrious. Nevertheless many of -them have endured great hardships. The -Chilean government brought them over but had -neglected to provide the necessary roads.</p> - -<p>Chiloé is the name of a province composed -entirely of islands. In addition to the large -island just described, it includes the archipelagoes -of Chonos and Guaytecas, and embraces -altogether no less than a thousand islands. -Many of them contain only a few inhabitants, -although the natural characteristics are similar -to Chiloé itself. There are several towns -on Chiloé. One of them is Chacao, which, for -two hundred years, was the principal port. It -was founded in 1567, but was practically abandoned -three hundred years later. Castro was -the capital until it was transferred to Ancud -in 1834. These towns were plundered by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> -Dutch freebooters and also destroyed by earthquakes. -Ancud is situated pleasantly, but the -bay seems to be filling up so that large vessels -have to anchor several miles out at sea. Lord -Cochrane once attacked this town and wrested -it from the Spaniards. Living in this town is -very cheap, for the necessities of life can be -purchased in the ample market at very low -prices. South of Ancud there is only one town -of importance, Mellinca, on the Guaytecas archipelago. -With the exception of Punta Arenas -it is the most southerly settlement of any -size in Chile. To-day it is much less important -than formerly, although still somewhat of a -village with probably less than a thousand population. -The first establishment in these towns -is usually a distillery of aguardiente (brandy), -and its product is not a good friend of either -native or settler.</p> - -<p>The life both in air and water is very abundant. -The sea is most lavish in life of all kinds, -and can furnish an almost exhaustless supply -of food for those living farther north. The -robalo is a Chilean fish of fine flavour. The -corbina, which is as large as a good-sized cod, -is another good species. The pege-ruge is a -sort of smelt, and the herrings abound in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> -countless numbers. Oyster beds too are numerous. -They are all natural beds, however, -but systematic farming might make them as -good as those along our own Atlantic coast. -Other mussels and edible crabs of several -species abound.</p> - -<p>With such an abundance of sea life it is -only natural that birds of the fishing tribe -should be plentiful. Huge pelicans, those dirty, -unwieldy birds, are attracted here by this -abounding life. Cormorants are equally numerous, -as they are all along this coast. Penguins -are also found here. The grube, whose -skin is in such demand, is also quite common. -The Antarctic goose is abundant, and the white -gander on guard is a rather beautiful black -and white bird. He always occupies some -prominent rocky point, keeping watch and -guard over his mate intent upon domestic duties. -Insect life is also very busy, and a red -bee almost as large as some humming-birds is -especially characteristic of this region. It flies -rapidly and hovers around among the flowers -almost like the humming-bird.</p> - -<p>Opposite Chiloé, on the mainland, is the -Palena River, the largest river in Chile. The -excessive rains and melting snows from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> -lofty peaks, which are plainly visible when the -mists have cleared away, keep the banks filled -with water. Every cloud that sweeps in from -the Pacific comes down in rain as soon as it -encounters the mountains. The slopes are -dotted with wood clear up to the snow-line. -The woods here, as well as elsewhere, are seemingly -impenetrable. There are many flowering -trees which add their beauty to the scene. A -tall cane from which the Indians used to make -spears grows in great confusion almost everywhere. -It grows in great stools like giant -bunches of rushes. The genii of vegetation -takes possession of the riches of the ground. -The beautiful green of the Chilean pine predominates. -The mouth of the river is a stretch -of delta. Of course it cannot compare with the -streams on the Atlantic coast, but it is a striking -river. Dancing mountain streams join -it here and there—sometimes with a leap from -the hills, thus forming numerous cascades. -These white streaks of the cascades are visible -on the mountain slopes in many places. The -mists keep shifting and shimmering around -the various peaks,—now revealing and again -hiding the silent glens or gullies. The abundance -of wooding oftentimes almost overcomes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> -the beholder with the helplessness of humanity -in such a region. The north winds which bring -the rains are usually warm, while the south -winds which blow up from the Antarctic regions -are dry and cold. These and the west -winds, which have such a stretch of sea to blow -over, bring the worst storms, for they are not -impeded for thousands of miles.</p> - -<p>These facts lead one to speculate on the possibilities -of timber development in Chile. This -republic probably contains almost as great a -proportion of wooded land as any country in -the world. From the Straits to Valdivia it is -almost an unbroken forest. The trees are -sometimes almost covered with parasites. In -places they are almost matted together with -the climbing bamboo, and at others they are -covered with soft cushions of the graceful liverworts -and green mosses. In the extreme -southern part of the republic the trees become -more stunted and gnarled, and are not large -enough to be of commercial value for lumber -purposes. This primeval forest probably extended -along the coast as far as Valparaiso, -since that place was originally selected as a -seaport because the rich woods near at hand -afforded material for shipbuilding. Those forests<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> -have entirely disappeared. In the southern -part of the central valley they are being -ruthlessly destroyed. It is simply cut down -and burned, while the republic as a whole imports -hundreds of thousands of dollars’ worth -of timber products from other countries. It is -quite probable that an important lumber industry -is still awaiting development in Southern -Chile. Much of it will certainly be valuable -for wood pulp if for nothing else, so that of -the making of books and periodicals there may -still be no end. The dangerous nature of the -coast may make navigation perilous. The -Pacific Ocean down there is not always so -pacific and peaceful as farther north. The -change is felt soon after leaving Valparaiso -on the journey southward bound.</p> - -<p>Chilean Patagonia, which stretches along the -Pacific coast for five hundred miles, is little -known, but it is a region of wild beauty. It -is a perfect labyrinth of channels and islands, -to which there is an entrance at each end, and -one near the centre through the Gulf of Trinidad. -These entrances are through narrow -channels which are difficult to find, as they are -so similar to other channels which lead into -<i>cul-de-sacs</i>. Powerful currents and cross-currents<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> -rush through these contracted channels, -so that vessels have to make them at full speed -or run the risk of being dashed helplessly upon -the rocky barriers. Once within the enclosure, -however, the waters are calm even when the -most violent storms rage outside. Terrific -rains which are veritable deluges frequently -fall, and impenetrable mists at times enshroud -everything. The barometer moves up and -down by leaps and bounds. Suddenly a rift -will appear in the clouds, denoting the breaking -of the storm, and the blue sky and bright -sun will be revealed. Then the scenery becomes -glorious in its radiant beauty—an amphitheatre -of overhanging mountains with glittering -snow-dad crests against a sky of dazzling -blue. Then all about will be seen little -islets, covered with trees and bushes of brilliant -green and flowers of many hues.</p> - -<p>In spite of the snow-clad mountains the temperature -is usually not extreme. The jungles -will rival the Amazonian jungles. It is a perfect -compress of hollys, ferns, beeches, orchids, -vines and countless thorny bushes. It is indeed</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse indent3">“The silent wilderness,</div> -<div class="verse">Where the soul need not repress</div> -<div class="verse">Its music, lest it should not find</div> -<div class="verse">An echo in another’s mind.”</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span></p> - -<p>The surface is a spongy mass, and a foothold -less than knee deep is rare. This exuberant -vegetation is caused by the excessive moisture -which is here precipitated. Flower-bearing -bushes are numerous, and genuine field daisies -are as plentiful in places as on a New England -meadow. Cataracts are everywhere in sight -and mark the mountain sides like long white -streaks. At times when the boat is near the -shore their roar can be heard. An occasional -wreck may be sighted, but more of them lie -unseen, buried beneath countless fathoms of -water, for the shore descends down in an almost -perpendicular line to fathomless depths. -Few vessels thread these narrows, but it is a -sight never to be forgotten by one who has had -the privilege of making the trip.</p> - -<p>The future of this great undeveloped region -remains to be seen. At present there are no -inhabitants, except occasionally a stray settlement -of Indians. Exploring itself is no child’s -play, and there are still tracts of untrodden -forest, although the government has had numerous -surveying parties in the field. The -boundary commission has done a great deal in -making this territory better understood. It -differs widely from the broad reaches of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> -pampa of Argentine Patagonia, where rain is -scant and desert stretches are not uncommon. -When development has taken place it may far -exceed in fertility and wealth the eastern -slopes, and the broad leagues of rich plain -between the Andes and the Atlantic Ocean.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE LAND OF THE FIRE</span></h2> - -<p>“Tierra del Fuego,” meaning the land of -the fire, exclaimed the followers of Magellan, -as they saw the wreaths of smoke ascending -through the frosty air. It was merely the signal -fires of the Indians dwelling on one of the -islands of that remote southern archipelago, -when they beheld the strange white-winged -vessels of Magellan sailing through the Straits, -since named after him. The name has clung -to the group of islands during the succeeding -centuries, although thousands of white people -have since placed foot on them and the name -is known to be a misnomer, for no volcanic -fires exist there.</p> - -<p>Beginning in Alaska, a chain of gigantic -granite vertebrae extends clear to Cape Horn. -It clings close to the Pacific coast throughout -the entire distance, and ends in grandeur near -the Antarctic Circle. Some say that the lower -end of this backbone of the American continents<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> -was shattered by a convulsion, in which -mighty masses of rock were thrown off into -the ocean, thus forming the numberless islands -which lie at the southern extremity of South -America. The better theory, however, is that -they were formed by the submerging of the -lower end of the Andes Mountains. When the -land sank the stormy water beat through the -valleys and chiselled the shores into incongruous -shapes and labyrinths.</p> - -<p>Between the islands and the mainland are -the Straits of Magellan. Some of the finest -scenery in the world is found in this intricate -waterway, especially in what is known as -Smyth’s Channel, which separates Southern -Chile from the group of islands. Smyth’s Channel -is very narrow, so that most vessels take -the broader Straits. The depth has never been -fathomed. There is a grandeur in the serrated -peaks, and cliffs, snowy crests, cascades and -the glaciers under a brilliant sun and deep -blue sky that is simply overwhelming. Numerous -mountain peaks reveal themselves, of -which Mt. Sarmiento is the noblest, and lifts -its snowy head to a height of over seven -thousand feet. Its beauty is enhanced by numerous -blue-tinted glaciers, which descend to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> -the waters of the sea like a multitude of frozen -Niagaras. Floating glaciers are common in -the Straits, and vessels, unequipped with ice-making -machinery, often tie up to one while -the crew chop enough ice to fill the refrigerators.</p> - -<p>Few places on the earth’s surface within -easy reach can compare with the Straits of -Magellan. This channel has become the great -trade route between the Atlantic and Pacific -Oceans. Few boats, except sailing vessels, now -take the longer route around Cape Horn, because -of the storms that lash the Antarctic seas -into fury. For several hundred miles the -Straits furnish a succession of beautiful -scenes; green shores alternating with the eternal -glaciers of the mountain peaks, blue waters -contrasting with the shimmering crystal of the -floating icebergs. These masses of ice are as -imperishable as the glaciers of Greenland, and -they add a feature to the scenery that is not -to be found elsewhere within the ordinary -course of steamers. It is a region of marvellous -sunsets as well as rugged scenery, when -the weather is clear, but mist, snow or rain -often dim the view.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;" id="illus23"> -<img src="images/illus23.jpg" width="420" height="650" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">IN THE STRAITS OF MAGELLAN.</p> -</div> - -<p>The eastern entrance to the Straits lies between<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> -Cape Virgenes, on the mainland, and -Cape Espiritu, on the island, a distance of -about fourteen miles. For some distance the -channel is wide, with the mainland gently undulating -and covered with grass. Then come -the first narrows, and afterwards the second -narrows. These narrows are about two miles -in width, and there is generally a strong current -through them. In the spring the tides are -thrown up to a height of fifty feet, and this is -the reason sailing vessels prefer the open -waters around Cape Horn, even though the -seas are more tempestuous. When nearing -Punta Arenas the mountains become higher, -and at times the way seems blocked by them. -Stunted bush and underbrush appear. After -leaving Punta Arenas the shores grow bolder -and more picturesque. The snow-covered -mountains and glaciers resemble the Alaska -coast or that of Northern Norway. The islands -are as numerous as in the St. Lawrence -or Georgian Bay.</p> - -<p>Nodales Peak and Mt. Victoria lift their -hoary heads on the mainland, while Mt. Buckland -and Mt. Sarmiento rise to a still greater -height on the islands. The latter beautiful and -majestic peak is the noblest of them all. Its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> -snowy head rises to a height of seven thousand -three hundred feet, with a broad base and two -distinct peaks. It is generally more or less -hidden by vapour. The three Evangelistas -keep their lonely vigil where straits and ocean -join on the north. Cape Pillar, the western -end of the Straits, is two hundred and forty-five -miles from Cape Virgenes, but the steamer -route is almost half as long again. Old voyagers -were wont to take eighty days in this -passage when the weather was a little unfavourable. -The western end is the stormiest, -and the pilot books give it a very bad reputation. -South of them the Antarctic seas are -seldom free from the storm king. The weather -is nearly always bad, and oftentimes worse. -In one recent year it is said that eighty-two -sailing vessels and thirty-nine steamers were -lost—a fearful toll claimed by old Neptune.</p> - -<p>Fernando de Magelhaens, although of Portuguese -birth, had entered the Spanish service. -In charge of a fleet of five small ships, the -largest of only one hundred and thirty tons, -boarded and manned by a crew of sixty-two -men, he sailed from Seville on the 10th of -August, 1519. The voyage was an arduous one, -and was beset not only with terrific storms at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> -sea but mutinies among the sailors that were -scarcely less terrifying. Only two of his vessels -remained faithful, but he conquered the -mutiny with the loss of only one vessel. On -the 21st of October, 1520, he entered the eastern -entrance of the channel, and it was a month -later, after almost unheard-of difficulties, that -he emerged into the broad Pacific. Of the subsequent -expeditions that attempted this route -the experiences were most unfortunate. In -nearly every instance almost one out of every -three vessels was wrecked, some in one channel -and some in another, for there is a perfect labyrinth -of channels around and between the -many islands. Some of the names indicate the -experiences or impressions of these early navigators. -Fatal Bay, Port Famine, Famine -Reach, Escape Beach, Last Wreck Point, Dislocation -Harbour, Thieves Island, Useless Bay, -Fury Islands, Breakneck Peninsula, Desolation -Harbour, Preservation Cove, and last, Hope -Inlet, are a few of the names that may be located -on the map. In 1578, Sir Francis Drake, -an English explorer as well as freebooter, by -accident found the route by the way of Cape -Horn. This great discovery stimulated navigation -around South America, for the Spaniards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> -guarded the Straits route to the best of -their ability. The Spaniards described Drake -as “a man of low condition, but a skilful seaman -and a valiant pirate.”</p> - -<p>The Fuegian Archipelago covers a goodly -territory. The islands contain as much land -as Nebraska, and are several hundred miles -long from east to west. A perfect labyrinth of -tortuous, wind-swept waterways separate the -hundreds of islands which form this group. -They are not all a desolate mass of ice and -snow, however, but contain plains which are -covered with succulent grasses, and slopes -which are thickly wooded. The Chilean portion -of these islands, and the mainland along -the coast beyond the fiftieth parallel of latitude, -is included in the territory of Magellanes, -the largest territorial division in the -republic. The largest island, called Tierra del -Fuego, land of the fire, is half as large as Illinois. -It is divided longitudinally between -Chile and Argentina, by far the largest portion -belonging to the former nation, and the best -part of it too.</p> - -<p>Thirty years ago this entire island was -roamed and hunted over by the aborigines. -The fact that the northern part consisted of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> -open country, with few ranges of hills, caused -the white man to look upon it with envious -eyes, as it promised good pasturage for sheep. -Then began a warfare against the Indians -which almost resulted in their extermination. -Thousands of sheep now quietly graze in the -rich valleys and on the verdant plains, and -thrive very well indeed. Very little of the land -is cultivated, although probably susceptible of -cultivation, but the marketing of the products -would be a difficult feature at the present time, -and the season is short. Its latitude is about -that of Southern Greenland, but the climate is -probably milder, and its longitude is approximately -that of Eastern Massachusetts. In the -summer the grass is green, but in the winter -the chilly winds change it to a rich brown. The -ground rats are a terrible nuisance to the -farmer, as they burrow in the fields so much -that they destroy half the usefulness of a good -meadow. The mountain slopes are covered -with a thick growth of trees, ferns and mosses -up to a height of a thousand feet or more, due -to the great amount of rainfall, but above that -distance the growth is very stunted. It seems -strange to see green trees and green grasses -amid snows and glaciers, but such is the contrast<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> -offered by this “land of the fire.” The -trees are mostly evergreen, not very high, but -very close together. A deep bed of moss, into -which a man may sink knee-deep, generally -surrounds them, and large ferns with leaves -a yard long grow in places otherwise bare. -Even bright flowers make the sombre landscape -seem almost gay when the sun shines on -a summer day.</p> - -<p>Desolation Island, on the Chilean side, is a -bleak and barren island well indicated by its -name, while other names are Clarence, St. Inas, -and Navarin. There are many others, from -islands twenty miles in length to some so small -that a good baseball pitcher could toss a stone -clear over them. Cape Horn is a monster rock -which thrusts its jagged outline into the Antarctic -seas. It is a couple of hundred miles -south of the Straits of Magellan, and more -than a thousand miles nearer the undiscovered -South Pole than the Cape of Good Hope. It -is surrounded by waters that are tossed by -terrific storms which mariners fear. The hulks -of wrecked vessels can be seen on every hand -as reminders of the terrible tribute which has -been here levied. Glaciers are always in sight, -and masses of ice hundreds of feet high are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> -frequently seen, seeming to threaten the venturesome -mariner for invading those beautiful -waters.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus24"> -<img src="images/illus24.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A WRECK ON THE COAST OF CHILE.</p> -</div> - -<p>A number of years ago a steamer was -wrecked on these shores, but the crew managed -to save sufficient provisions to sustain all those -rescued for some time. While sinking shallow -wells they discovered a strata of black sand -that sparkled with particles of gold. Their -reports led to great excitement over the discovery -of gold on Tierra del Fuego. Although -adventurers had sailed through the Straits for -centuries, looking for the wealth that they -might obtain either honestly or dishonestly, yet -the gold deposits remained undiscovered until -1867. Their covetous eyes had gazed upon the -gold-bearing shores, and they had even filled -their water-casks in the gold-bearing rivulets -without seeing the wealth. In the few years -following a number of Argentine explorers visited -that region, and found the source of some -of the gold. The gold was almost exclusively -found in free particles in a layer of black sand, -which was found under the surface sand. As -soon as the report of their find reached the -settlements, a number of expeditions were fitted -out and sent to that region. The best payings<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> -were found right on the beach, which was -washed by the waves of the sea at a high tide -and during storms. It was also found that the -tides brought in fresh gold-bearing sands from -the seas. The miners used to sit down and -smoke their pipes until the storms passed, and -then dig up the black sand with the gold in it -after the surf had gone down.</p> - -<p>It all seemed to be pockets, so that where the -gold would be found in considerable quantities -for a while, it would soon become so scarce that -mining it under the crude conditions prevailing -became unprofitable. The prospectors -sailed in and out of the stormy and dangerous -bays, and many of them lost their lives. The -hidden reefs and whirling tornadoes form combinations -that made navigation in the small -catboats that were used extremely perilous. -Many, who were wrecked, were obliged to live -upon whatever wild food they could find for -weeks, and others were killed by the hostile -Indians. The original stories said that nuggets -as big as kernels of corn were plentiful, -but they were not true to fact. No gold quartz -veins were ever discovered, but in all the finds -it was simply particles mixed up with the black -sand. Gold mining to-day is not prosecuted in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> -that region as much as it was a couple of decades -ago, although some gold is washed each -year. If the whole story was known, it would -probably be found that there were more skeletons -of dead miners left on those inhospitable -shores than records of wealth acquired in Tierra -del Fuego. Most of those who did find -wealth got no farther than Punta Arenas with -it, for that city was to that region what San -Francisco was in the early days of California, -and mining prospectors are the same the world -over.</p> - -<p>The first attempt to establish a settlement -on the Straits of Magellan was in the latter -part of the sixteenth century. Pedro Sarmiento -de Gamboa was placed in command of -this expedition. His instructions were as follows: -“For the honour and glory of God and -of the Virgin Mary, His Mother and Our Lady, -whom you, Captain Pedro Sarmiento, are to -take for Advocate and Patron of the ships and -crews under your orders for this discovery and -enterprise in the Straits of Magellan.” After -several narrow escapes from shipwreck the expedition -landed, and established a settlement -not far from the present city of Punta Arenas. -From the very first misfortune seemed to follow<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> -the colonists, and the Indians soon became -hostile. At the end of the second winter the -three hundred or more colonists had dwindled -to eighteen, who were finally rescued. They had -been obliged to live on berries, shell-fish, oysters, -and such other ocean life that they were -able to catch. The Indians had driven the -guanaco and other wild game into the interior -where the colonists could not reach them.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus25"> -<img src="images/illus25.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">GENERAL VIEW OF PUNTA ARENAS.</p> -</div> - -<p>The continent of South America extends -much farther south than Africa. The southernmost -point is Cape Frowards, which is a -dark mass of rock five hundred feet high joined -by a low neck of land to snow-clad mountains. -At almost the southernmost point of the mainland -lies the little city of Punta Arenas (Sandy -Point). It is situated on the Straits of Magellan, -which is sheltered from the worst -storms by the many islands that lie between -it and the Antarctic seas. Punta Arenas is the -southernmost city in the world, eight hundred -miles farther south than Cape Town. There -is plenty of building space left in this city still, -but a few years ago, when the boom was on, -the people had visions of a southern Chicago. -Fabulous prices were asked for building lots, -and real estate agents were almost as plentiful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> -as the Indians. That time has passed, and the -town has dwindled in population. Its latitude -is about that of Labrador, but it is much more -equable than that country and the weather is -not so severe as many imagine. It is so named -because built on a sandy beach that runs out -into the Straits. It is now a city of twelve -thousand people, and they seem to be contented. -It is a very mixed population. You -can hear Spanish, English, German, Italian, -Russian and even the Chinese mingled with -the guttural tongues of the Indians. The -Scotch are probably the most thrifty of the -inhabitants, and many of them have lived there -two or three generations.</p> - -<p>There are many rough characters in Punta -Arenas, some even who have drifted from the -mining camps of our western states. It is said -to be bad policy to ask a man where he came -from, or what his name was before his arrival, -as it might be an embarrassing subject. The -loafing places are the bars, where many brawls -occur during the long winters. There are -probably as many saloons to the number of -inhabitants as in any other place on the globe, -for nearly every other door seems to bear such -a sign. Much gambling is also done at these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> -and in the clubs. There are clubs, where -the well-to-do gather and have their games just -as they do the world over. The principal club -is the Cuerpo de Bomberos, which means the -Society of Firemen, and was organized as a -volunteer fire department. Most of the buildings -are cheap one-story affairs, frequently -being built of the corrugated iron so common -in this land. Punta Arenas is a free port, and -this fact has aided in its prosperity. All the -vessels passing through the Straits call there -for supplies and coal, and this business, together -with the trade in whaling products, wool -and furs, furnish the inhabitants with employment. -It is one of the great wool-exporting -ports of the world, having shipped more than -sixteen million pounds of that commodity in a -single season, and four hundred thousand pelts. -The trade in furs is very large. One of the -prettiest things sold here is an ostrich robe -made of the breasts of the young birds.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus26"> -<img src="images/illus26.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">PORT FAMINE, IN THE STRAITS OF MAGELLAN.</p> -</div> - -<p>Punta Arenas is the business centre of the -region extending from Port Desire, on the -Patagonian coast to Cape Horn, and from the -Falkland Islands on the east to the westernmost -limits of Chile. The little settlement that -originally was established there was called La<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> -Colonia de Magellanes. On the 21st of April, -1843, Chile first planted her tri-coloured banner -at a place near here, which was called Port -Famine, because of the disastrous end of the -Sarmiento settlement, which had been located -there a couple of centuries previously.</p> - -<p>Chile had a double purpose in establishing -this post. One was its desire to hold the territory -as a national possession, and the other -was to establish a penal colony which would -be so far away from the capital that the prisoners, -even if they escaped, could not return. -Several hundred prisoners were generally confined -there, who were kept in subjection by a -small company of soldiers. On two occasions -the convicts rebelled and took possession of -this settlement. On one of these the governor -and many of the guards were killed and the -mutineers boarded a ship that chanced to be -in the harbour, but they were overtaken by a -Chilean man-of-war and overcome. The men -were hung, and it is said that a man was seen -hanging from every yard-arm of the war-ship. -After the first revolt a new settlement was -established on the present site of Punta Arenas, -which was given the old name. The tongue -of sand there, however, the English-speaking<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> -people called Sandy Point, and thereafter the -name Punta Arenas, which means the same in -Spanish, was given it; at least it is entirely -known by that name now.</p> - -<p>In 1877 the last revolt occurred, when the -convicts revenged the cruelties to which they -had been subjected upon the commander of the -garrison and many of the soldiers. When a -man-of-war appeared they fled into the interior, -where most of them died from starvation -and hardships. The establishment of the Pacific -Steam Navigation Company was the cause -of the abandonment of this place as a penal -colony. It proved to be a convenient stopping -place for the steamers to take on coal and supplies, -and this gave it a new life. Later came -the discovery of gold, which brought many -to the settlement. Still later a Scotchman -brought some sheep from the Falkland Islands, -and found that the region around Punta Arenas -and on the island opposite was well adapted -for sheep raising. Others took advantage -of this experience, until the neighbourhood -around became noted for its sheep culture. -Some day, if a freezing establishment should -be established here, Punta Arenas will become -a still more important place, and it is undoubtedly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> -only a question of time until such will be -done. The town itself makes a poor foreground -for the magnificent setting of nature. -It is laid out on the usual checkerboard plan, -with several streets running from the shores -back up the hills. It has a plaza and the streets -are unpaved. The beach is sandy and the -streets are either filled with loose sand or mud.</p> - -<p>Across the Straits the green hills of Tierra -del Fuego may be seen rising, and over to the -south the snow-capped peaks of Mt. Sarmiento -and its neighbours appear above the horizon. -To the west are mountains which are ever -green and rise boldly up to the western edge, -while to the north the hills are generally bare. -At one time it was thought that coal had been -discovered and the mine was opened up; some -track was built and an old locomotive brought -down. It proved, however, to be only lignite, -and so the mine has been practically abandoned.</p> - -<p>A considerable trade has been developed in -Indian curios and goods. The Indians from -the pampas and islands come here to sell their -furs, feathers, bows, hides, etc. Passengers -passing through the Straits on the various -steamers usually lay in a supply of these goods,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> -some of which are genuine and others are prepared -especially for such passengers. One -wonders at the number of palms and plants -which are seen in this town so far beyond all -other settlements, for even wild flowers of certain -kinds seem to grow in great profusion, -while ferns and lichens everywhere delight the -eye.</p> - -<p>South of Punta Arenas there is only one settlement -of any importance, and that is Ushuaia. -This town is situated on the Argentine -side of Tierra del Fuego, and, small as it is, -it is the capital of that territory. It stands -nearer to the South Pole than any other civilized -village in the world. The barriers created -by nature are almost insurmountable. To -the south is the unknown Antarctic, to the -north the impassable barrier of snow-clad -peaks, and in all other directions are the fathomless -channels separating it from the other -islands. Established first as a mission settlement, -its site was selected as the capital of the -territory. The Argentine flag was first unfolded -over the first building erected for the -use of officials in 1884. Shortly after that work -upon prisons was begun, and it became a still -more important settlement. Here, in this isolated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> -quarter of the globe, guarded by a few -score of armed men, are confined several hundred -men, many of whom are the very dregs of -humanity sent from Buenos Aires. These unfortunates -work on the roads, dress stone for -new and stronger walls, or make the garments -worn by themselves and their fellow prisoners. -Few attempt to escape and fewer still succeed, -for the loneliness and desolation alone would -keep a prisoner where human companionship -may be found.</p> - -<p>Small and unimportant as this town is to-day, -and wretched as it would seem to many -people, yet it has a full complement of officials -with their secretaries and servants. There is -a complete list of judicial officers and police -officials, even though the police have no patrol -to beat and the court has no docket. About -the only part of the official equipment that has -any work to do is the culinary department, for -it takes a great deal of cooking and preparation -to provide food for every one there. Out -of a population of several hundred to-day, -made up principally of prisoners and officials, -there are only a very few plain common citizens -who dwell there.</p> - -<p>Most of the buildings in Ushuaia are frame<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> -structures, which have been erected near the -bay that bears the same name as the town. It -is situated on Beagle Channel. The houses -consist of plain unpainted wooden walls, with -a roof of corrugated iron. The governor’s -palace itself is not much better than the other -buildings. A few of the buildings have little -green patches, enclosed with picket fences, in -which they are able to grow a few vegetables. -For a location so far south the climate is not -so bad as one would expect, as the snowfall is -not as great as in the same latitude in northern -regions. In the winter time the nights are -very long and the days short. The mountains -just at the back of the town cut off the sunlight -when the sun is low, so that the town only receives -about four hours of daylight. It is certainly -a cheerless sort of existence that the -people lead in this southern capital. There are -still one or two missions that are conducted by -English missionaries on this coastland, but -they have had very little influence upon the -natives. One of the missions consists of quite -a large ranch, where the minister in charge of -the mission lives and employs the natives to do -his work.</p> - -<p>For several hundred miles north of Punta<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> -Arenas lies the formerly unknown land of Patagonia—the -land of the Pata-goas, the “big -feet,” as they were named by Magellan. One -can see in that city almost any day descendants -of that race in the Tehuelche tribe of Indians -who come there to sell their furs and skins. -Out upon the broad pampas away from the -town, the traveller will occasionally stumble -upon the <i>toldos</i> (huts) of the Tehuelches. -These are simply made huts of the skins of -the guanaco sewn loosely together at the edges, -and supported squarely upon awkward-looking -props, or posts, forked at the top to admit the -ridge-poles. The skins are fastened to the -earth by wooden pegs. The Tehuelches are the -native Indians of Patagonia—the so-called -giants—and are well built specimens of manhood. -These Indians live almost as their ancestors -did hundreds of years ago. They are -still nomads, and exist entirely by the chase. -They do not cultivate anything whatever, but -sometimes own a few cattle. In general they -still dress in skins, although some of them have -purchased store clothes at the settlements. As -a rule they are mild mannered, when sober, -and do not deserve the name of being bloodthirsty -savages. Their numbers have greatly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> -decreased, since the first discovery of Patagonia, -through dissipation and disease, and -some have estimated that the total number yet -remaining will not exceed a few hundred.</p> - -<p>Only a few years ago the geographers labelled -Patagonia “no man’s land.” To-day -millions of sheep graze over its fertile plains. -It is as large as several of our western states. -It is a land of big distances and enormous holdings. -In the pasture section it is often a ride -of three or four days from one ranch to another. -Most of these ranches are near the -coast or along the few rivers. As one travels -into the interior a white face becomes more -and more rare; empty leagues surround you -on every hand. One accustomed to cities only -would find it very lonely indeed on these plains. -One seems to stand alone with only the wind, -the mirages and the limitless distances, and -the blue sky above for a canopy. The last land -to have been the habitation of the greater -beasts of preceding ages, according to geologists, -Patagonia is one of the last to receive its -proper share of the human population.</p> - -<p>There are three races of Indians who inhabit -these Fuegian islands, the Yahgans, Alacaloofs -and the Onas, all of whom are very low<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> -in intelligence. They are commonly known -under the general characterization of the Firelanders. -None of them are as far advanced -as the Esquimaux, who build warm igloos for -their habitation. Even though the climate is -very cold the greater part of the year these -aborigines formerly wore very little clothing, -but greased their bodies with fish oil that keeps -out the cold. In recent years, however, they -have begun to wear warmer garments, when -such can be obtained. The Yahgans are very -treacherous, and many murders have been -traced to them. They will mingle very little -with white people, but always hold themselves -aloof. Their houses are of the most primitive -character, and are frequently little more than -a rude construction of thatch on a skeleton of -sticks stuck in the ground.</p> - -<p>These Yahgans live almost entirely on sea -food. They divide their time between these -rude huts and canoes, or dugouts made from -the trunks of trees, in which they paddle -through the tortuous channels from one island -to another. Should a storm overtake the boat -and it becomes necessary to lighten it, the men -show their instinct for self-preservation by -throwing the women and children overboard.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> -They are not particular about food, as to -whether it is very fresh or not. There is frequently -a dearth of food, and then it is that they -are driven to eat the flesh of a stranded whale -or of an animal found dead. Ground rats and -the fishy-flavoured penguin are included on -their regular bill-of-fare. Their camping-places -can generally be located by the mounds -of shells that accumulate. They are as near -to primitive savages as it would be possible -to find on the Americas. As usual among savage -tribes, the women do the most of the work, -and assist in the hunting and fishing as well -as prepare the meat after it has once been -caught. The Yahgans are short and muscular -and below medium height. Their lower limbs -seem rather stunted, but above the waist they -are heavily built. Marriage is a matter of -purchase and sale, and wives are sometimes -exchanged. The marriage ceremony consists -in painting the girl in a peculiar way, and then -the husband takes her to his hut or that of his -parents.</p> - -<p>The Alacaloofs, or Alakalufs, occupy the -western islands and are similar in their habits -to the Yahgans. Their canoes are made of -strips of bark or planks fastened together with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> -vines and caulked with moss. Their huts look -like New England haycocks made of boughs -and covered with skins or bark strips. They -frequently row out to meet passing steamers -and beg for food. They are not an attractive -people. In colour they strongly resemble the -North American red men, but they are not -much over five feet in height. The only domesticated -animal owned by them is the dog. -With this tribe, as well as the Yahgans, everything -is held in common and it is no crime to -take of your neighbour’s fuel or food.</p> - -<p>The Onas are a hunting tribe and they are -larger than either of the other tribes. They -occupy the prairie lands and open bush of -Tierra del Fuego. The men are active and -athletic, and they are especially skilful in -stalking the guanaco of that island. They are -expert in the use of the rude bows and arrows -which they make for themselves. The bows -are fashioned out of a native wood cut with -shell knives, and the arrows are made out of -reeds armed with a flint or glass point. Horse -meat is a great delicacy with them. The struggle -for existence has made these people inexpressive -in features and stoical in actions. A -good fortune or an ill fortune is met in much<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> -the same way. Their homes are generally -saucer-shaped hollows that have been scraped -out, over which poles and brush are piled and -guanaco skins are used as doors. All the family -lie down together, and the dogs are included -for warmth. They are nomads and wander -from one place to another in search of food. -Fire is made with bits of iron ore or flints and -dry fungus. Some of this tribe are now employed -as servants by the white people, but -most of them prefer the wild life in the open.</p> - -<p>With all the hardships that seem to fall to -the lot of these Indians who live so far to the -south, they seem to be fairly happy and are -contented with their surroundings. This is -truly fortunate. People who live in the temperate -zones are inclined to think that they are -the only truly happy ones. By travel one’s -view is broadened, and at last he realizes the -truth expressed by Oliver Goldsmith in the -following lines:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse indent5">“If countries we compare,</div> -<div class="verse">And estimate the blessings which they share,</div> -<div class="verse">Though patriots flatter, still shall wisdom find</div> -<div class="verse">An equal portion dealt to all mankind.</div> -<div class="verse">The shuddering tenant of the frigid zone</div> -<div class="verse">Boldly proclaims that happiest spot his own;</div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> -<div class="verse">Extols the treasures of the stormy seas,</div> -<div class="verse">And his long nights of revelry and ease;</div> -<div class="verse">The naked negro, panting at the Line,</div> -<div class="verse">Boasts of his golden sands and palmy wine,</div> -<div class="verse">Basks in the glare, or strives the tepid wave.</div> -<div class="verse">And thanks his gods for all the good they gave.”</div> -</div> -</div> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE BACKBONE OF THE CONTINENT</span></h2> - -<p>The trip across the continent of South -America is now made very comfortably by -train. The start is from the very pleasant station -of the State Railway of Valparaiso. For -a number of miles the tracks run almost along -the water’s edge, and thus afford many beautiful -views of the blue bay of Valparaiso. The -trains on this road are very comfortable, for -the Chilean State Railway is one of the very -few railroads in South America that provide -Pullman cars for their patrons. After leaving -Viña del Mar the line soon abandons the bay, -and threads its way through the coast range -of mountains. One gets many glimpses of the -higher Andes through the passes, and there -are also green glens where advantage has been -taken of the running water for irrigation. -Cacti become very abundant, and one is reminded -of the plateaus of Mexico, for these -silent sentinels seem to keep watch over the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> -herds of sheep and goats that feed on the -slopes. Any one who has seen Southern Chile -first will notice the difference as soon as the -train leaves Santiago. The progressive dryness -of the climate has a pronounced effect on -the vegetation. The cacti are frequently from -twelve to fifteen feet in height, and their entire -surface is covered with stout, curved spines.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus27"> -<img src="images/illus27.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">THE ACONCAGUA RIVER.</p> -</div> - -<p>After creeping along the shore and then -through a valley, the railroad soon joins the -Aconcagua River, which leaps and foams along, -thus forming a series of diminutive cascades. -In the winter time the change in temperature -is very marked as the upward climb continues. -In places the valley spreads out to quite generous -proportions, and one will see <i>haciendas</i> -that are well kept up and which show evidence -of careful cultivation. Contrast is afforded by -the sight of oxen drawing one-handled, wooden -ploughs. How powerful must have been the -Moorish influence in Spain, for these ploughs -are exact duplicates of the plough of ancient -Chaldea and Egypt, which was carried along -the coast of Barbary into Spain, and left there -as a heritage to the Spaniards, who introduced -it into the New World. The general impression -left with the traveller over this route, between<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> -Valparaiso and Santiago, is one of comparative -barrenness and desolation.</p> - -<p>Viña del Mar, Limache and Quillota are -three quite important towns that are passed -<i>en route</i>, the latter two of which have some important -manufacturing establishments. Llai -Llai (pronounced Yi-yi) is about half way, -and this is the diverging point for the two -routes. One leads to the capital, and the other -is the continuation of the transcontinental railroad. -Llai Llai is a pleasant little town of -five or six thousand inhabitants, and is situated -about twenty-six hundred and twenty-five feet -above sea level. A number of fruit sellers are -sure to be at the station, and one who does -not purchase a few of the delicious pears or -peaches, that are sold so reasonably, misses a -great treat. They are grown in a rich valley -below which is a sort of agricultural Arcadia.</p> - -<p>The through cars are switched to another -track, a different engine is attached to them -and the traveller is soon bound for Los Andes. -The journey does not differ greatly from that -already described. The city of San Felipe is -the largest town passed and it is situated -amidst well cultivated fields. It is a city of -about twelve thousand. Soon afterwards the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> -train reaches Santa Rosa de Los Andes, which -marks a break in the journey. Here it is necessary -to change trains, and frequently to stay -over night. It is at the foothills of the Andes, -and one can find many pleasant little excursions -into the foothills here, if he has the inclination -to tarry for a few days. The climate -is good, and the physical wants of the traveller -are very well looked after at the hotel. A few -Americans will be found there, for the railroad -is operated by that nationality.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus28"> -<img src="images/illus28.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">LOOKING TOWARDS ACONCAGUA.</p> -</div> - -<p>If it is the summer time one will find Los -Andes a very pleasant little place, with quite -an abundance of vegetation around it. The -altitude is about twenty-six hundred feet, -which gives it a delightful climate. Fruits -grow abundantly, and the fruit-canning industry -has been considerably developed. This is -in the province of Aconcagua, which contains -some of the most notable elevations in the -entire republic, and, in fact, in the entire world. -This province is about as large as Connecticut -and Rhode Island combined. In addition to -the eastern boundary of lofty peaks there are -numerous low hills, between which lie fertile -valleys. Through the use of irrigation agriculture -flourishes in these valleys, and there is a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> -considerable production of grains and wine. -There are also a number of silver and copper -mines in the province. San Felipe is the capital, -and is distant about seventy-eight miles -from both Santiago and Valparaiso.</p> - -<p>“<i>Vamonos</i>,” says the conductor of the narrow -gauge train, as it pulls out of the station -on its way to the limits of Chilean territory. -One will begin to take notice of his fellow-travellers. -The passengers will be found to -be of many nationalities, and of many shades -of colour, for, since the railway journey is continuous, -fewer people take the much longer -route via the Straits of Magellan. There will -be Chilenos, with big hats and <i>ponchos</i>, and -Chilenas, whose faces are coated with powder -or paste. There will be priests in beaver hats -and black gowns, which reach to their feet. -Soldiers in uniforms modelled after the German -army are quite likely to be companions as -far as the border. Americans, British, French, -Germans, Italians and Argentinians—all of -these nationalities go to make up a potpourri -of nations and national characteristics. As the -start is generally made in the morning, one -sees the stars disappear and the dawn break -over the mountains. The gray skies turn to a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> -steel-blue, then to a rosy pink, until, at last, -the highest peaks are illuminated by the rays -of the sun. One may leave Los Andes clad in -its summer plumage, with myriads of butterflies -and moths flitting about, but these characteristics -soon disappear, for the upward -climb begins almost immediately. In the next -thirty-five miles this rack and pinion road -climbs upward more than seven thousand feet. -It is a much steeper ascent than on the Argentine -side, for it requires three times the distance -to reach the same level on that slope.</p> - -<p>The track follows the course of the Aconcagua -River. This river is at no time a great -stream, yet the total volume of water carried -down in its swift-flowing current must be considerable. -Many glimpses of the simple natives, -and their primitive means of conveyance, -are afforded on the ancient highway that -threads the same valley. On the mountainside -an occasional mud hut may be seen around and -over which climb creepers and flowering vines. -The scenery is beautiful and full of variations. -Every turn of the tortuous track reveals a new -scene of beauty, and there are few railway -journeys in the world that will afford a greater -variety of views than this overland route to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> -Buenos Aires. The mountains grow from -grand to grander, as if Ossa had been piled -upon Pelion. When sunlight and shadow play -upon the rock the contrasts are dazzling and -the senses gladdened. There is a prodigality -of colours such as even the Yosemite, the -Grand Cañon or the Dolomites do not surpass. -Guardia Viega, the “old guard,” is one of the -stations, and is so named because it was for -two centuries a guard station on the Antiguo -Camino, or ancient road between the two republics. -The vegetation becomes scanter as -the altitude increases, but, scant as it is, it is -a pleasing change to the traveller coming from -the other direction. Juncal, which for several -years was the terminus, is passed. One of the -most beautiful views afforded is that of the -narrow gorge, known as the Salto del Soldado, -the Soldier’s Leap, through which the tempestuous -waters of the river foam and toss. -There is a tradition connected with this strange -freak of nature of which the Chileans are -proud. During the war of independence it is -said that a Chilean pursued by the enemy, -leaped across this chasm and saved his life. -Owing to the width it is an almost impossible -tale to believe.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;" id="illus29"> -<img src="images/illus29.jpg" width="420" height="650" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">THE SALTO DEL SOLDADO.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span></p> - -<p>Just beyond Juncal is a beautiful little lake, -which is as opalescent and translucent as any -of the lakes of Switzerland, and several thousand -feet higher. It is the Lago del Inca, the -Lake of the Incas. Pure as crystal, and clear -as an unclouded sky, this little body of water -rests tranquilly amidst as harsh and severe a -setting as one could well find. Masses of rock -seem poised on ledges ready to project themselves -down into valleys with destruction in -their path. The mad gods who formed these -eternal peaks must have paused for a moment -in their work in order to add this one touch of -real beauty to the landscape.</p> - -<p>Here one may also see the huge condors, -flying at such heights that they look no larger -than a swallow. The glass will sometimes reveal -others that can scarcely be distinguished -with the naked eye. They sail and circle -around in the rarefied air with scarcely a flap -of the wing. In the winter time the condor -may be found near the coast, but in summer -they always return to the highest Andean -peaks, where they rear their young. The eggs -are deposited in lofty clefts or caverns, where -no form of animal life exists that might destroy -the young birds. A young condor during<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> -the first year clings to the parent bird, for its -body is too big for its wings. This royal bird -figures on the national escutcheon of Chile as -an emblem of strength and independence. The -Indians surround it with many legends, and -some of them believe that the souls of the lost -enter the bodies of the condor and are thus -poised between heaven and earth, so as to see -the glories of both and be able to enjoy neither, -like the doom of Tantalus.</p> - -<p>At last Caracoles, the name given to the little -station at the Chilean end of the international -railroad, is reached, at an elevation of -a little more than ten thousand feet above sea -level. The tunnel is just about the same length -as the altitude, for it is ten thousand three hundred -and eighty-five feet from entrance to exit. -Near the centre of this hole bored through the -Andean rock the international boundary is -passed, and, when the train emerges at Las -Cuevas, the other terminus, the traveller -catches his first glimpse of Argentina. It is -a scene of vast desolation that meets his gaze. -It is a picture of solitude, with nothing to relieve -it in the way of vegetation. The vivid -colourings of the stratas of rock and the white -summits of the many peaks in sight, however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> -make it a scene of wild glory that uplifts the -soul at the majesty of nature. One stands -aghast at the marvellous richness of colouring -that is revealed on every hand.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus30"> -<img src="images/illus30.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">REFUGE HOUSE ALONG THE OLD INCA TRAIL.</p> -</div> - -<p>The traveller may be thankful that he has -not been obliged to traverse this pass in the -winter time. Nothing can surpass these vast -ridges clad in their winter dress. White and -cold, they form a veritable valley of desolation. -It is the cold of death, the white mantle of -annihilation—something that the brain can -scarcely compass. The feeling of solitude in -the midst of the whiteness everywhere almost -overwhelms the traveller with despair. In -places the snow is frequently as much as fifteen -feet in depth, deep enough to bury a horse -and rider. Sudden storms are likely to overtake -the traveller, and he would be snowed in -in one of the <i>casuchas</i>. These are shelters that -were built at intervals along the pass for the -protection of travellers. They are dome-shaped -structures which remind one of lime-kilns. -They have a small door, but no windows, -and will accommodate as many as twenty -people at a time. The interior has a brick floor -and is absolutely bare. Although protected -from the weather, woe be to the traveller<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> -obliged to spend a day or two there with a -group of <i>arrieros</i>, for filth is everywhere and -the stench is almost overpowering.</p> - -<p>Although fewer travellers ventured over this -pass in the midst of winter, the mail service -continued uninterruptedly, and there was seldom -a day that some one did not attempt the -crossing. A <i>capitas</i>, who was generally a man -with a little capital, would undertake to carry -the mails or other freight over the pass at a -fixed price. He would then engage his force -of porters as cheaply as possible, agreeing to -furnish them with board and lodging so long -as they remained with him. As time was not -specified in the mail contract, if a traveller -came along the <i>capitas</i> would dump the mails -and carry his baggage at an exorbitant price. -Everything was done up in packages weighing -about sixty pounds. Some of the porters -would even undertake to carry two of these—a -terrible strain on a rough road. It is little -wonder that this and unrestrained dissipation -usually gave these men a short life. Sometimes -they slid over a precipice, or were hurled to -their doom by a falling stone. There are many -graves of those who met an untimely end along -this route, and it seems almost marvellous that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> -they are not more numerous. After the highest -point was passed the porters would toboggan -down the slopes, seated on a sheepskin and -guiding themselves with pointed staffs. In -this way the descent was quickly accomplished. -The packages were simply tumbled down, and -oftentimes reached the bottom in a very dilapidated -condition.</p> - -<p>The Trasandino Argentino Railway threads -its way out through the valley of the Uspallata, -and follows a small stream which gradually -becomes larger as little rivulets of melted snow -join it. It soon becomes more of a stream, and -is given the name of Rio (river) Mendoza. At -a distance of less than a dozen miles the station -called Puente del Inca is reached, which is so -named because of a natural bridge of stratified -rock at that place, which is very similar to the -Natural Bridge of Virginia. Underneath it -bubble up boiling waters which are claimed to -have great medicinal value. It is said that the -Incas in pre-Spanish times knew of the value -of these waters, and their chiefs came here to -receive the benefits of its curative waters. -Near here one catches a glimpse of a marvellous -freak of nature, called the Cerro de los -Penitentes, the Ridge of the Penitents. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> -scattered rocky peaks and points standing up -through the sloping debris of the ascent, with -their remarkable imitations of toiling wayfarers, -must have greatly impressed the Spanish -pioneers when they first came upon this -scene.</p> - -<p>The route continues a picture of desolation, -caused by volcanic upheavals and the erosion -of countless ages. The Mendoza River, coloured -by the various metals of the rocks over -which it pours, tumbles along near the railway -as both follow one pass after another. Las -Vacas, Uspallata, La Invernada and other -small stations are passed. About thirty miles -before Mendoza is reached a change begins, -and poplar and larch trees, alfalfa fields and -the grape enliven the scene. Irrigation is utilized -and the melted snows cause the land to -bloom with remarkable fertility. At last the -train runs into the creditable station of Mendoza, -and the second stage in the transcontinental -journey is ended.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;" id="illus31"> -<img src="images/illus31.jpg" width="420" height="650" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">THE CHRIST OF THE ANDES.</p> -</div> - -<p>At Mendoza a change is made to the broad -gauge trains of the Buenos Aires and Pacific -Railway, which will carry the traveller over the -remaining leagues of the journey. After leaving -the irrigated lands of this neighbourhood,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> -another stretch of miserable scrub land is -crossed before the level pampas are entered. -From there to Buenos Aires the route is over -as level land as is to be found on the earth’s -surface. Hour after hour the train rolls over -these pampas, past small towns and through -great stretches of grain and alfalfa. At last, -after about a day and a half’s journey, the -train enters the suburbs of Buenos Aires, and -finally, with a shrill shriek, rolls into the Retiro -Station, which is the end of the trip.</p> - -<p>Grand and wonderful as is the ride through -and across the Andes by railroad, the traveller -has missed one of the most striking features of -these solitudes. Almost immediately over the -tunnel, and nearly three thousand feet higher, -stands the famous statue, known as the Christ -of the Andes. This statue was erected in 1904 -as a symbol of perpetual peace between the -two neighbouring nations. It was cast in -bronze from the cannon of the two nations, -which had been purchased through fear of -impending war. Its location is on the new -international boundary line that had just been -established by arbitration. Near it is a sign -with the words “CHILE” on one side, and -“ARGENTINA” on the other side.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span></p> - -<p>The figure of Christ is twenty-six feet in -height. In one hand it holds the emblem of the -cross, while the other is extended in a blessing, -and as if uttering the one magic word -“Peace.” On one side is a tablet with the -inscription: “Sooner shall these mountains -crumble into dust than the people of Argentina -and Chile break the peace to which they have -pledged themselves at the feet of Christ the -Redeemer.” On another side is the inscription:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse">“He is our Peace</div> -<div class="verse">Who hath made both One.”</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The Cumbre, as this ridge is called, is the -highest point on the old trail. Travellers and -baggage were transported over it by mule-back -or in carriages, if the almost springless vehicles -could be called by such a name, during the -summer. It is a very zigzag trail up which -the carriages wound, where as many as twenty -twists and turns can be counted. On the downward -trip the horses ran and jumped, until the -timorous traveller began to have visions of -disaster. Accidents were rare, however, and -seldom was a vehicle overturned. Corners -were turned on two wheels, with only a few<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> -inches between the outside wheels and the edge -of the precipice.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse">“The clouds have voices, and the rivers pour</div> -<div class="verse">Their floods in thunder down to ocean’s floor;—</div> -<div class="verse">The hills alone mysterious silence keep.”</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>One of the most striking aspects which impress -the traveller crossing the Andes is the -terribly bleak and desolate outlook that they -present. Blades of grass here and there, or -perhaps a few stunted shrubs, are the only -signs of vegetation, for of trees there are none. -There seems to be no tree line, as in most -mountains. A huge expanse of yellow sand -and stone spreads out everywhere with peaks -rising up on every side in clearly defined and -rugged stratification, whose many-coloured -hues are almost bewildering to the eye. Great -torrents flow down the middle of the valleys, -the water being of a dull brackish hue. The -fording of these streams is a very dangerous -task for the explorer, as the torrents are exceedingly -rapid and full of deep, treacherous -holes.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus32"> -<img src="images/illus32.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">THE SOLITUDE OF THE ANDES.</p> -</div> - -<p>On either side rise high peaks, and the traveller -is always interested in knowing the names -of these peaks. If he asks the average native<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> -which is Aconcagua, or which Tupungato, he -is likely to be misinformed. There is to the -inexperienced mountain traveller a disappointment -when he finally has one of these lofty -peaks pointed out, and which he knows to be -above twenty thousand feet in height, because -he has expected, perhaps, to see an isolated -peak rearing its snowy head to the sky for a -distance of four miles or more above the level -on which he stands. The traveller forgets that -he himself is above the sea level almost half -that distance, before he gains a good clear view -of the higher peak. It is well established that -Aconcagua is the loftiest peak of the Andes, -but it is a little uncertain whether Tupungato -or the Mercedario is the second in height.</p> - -<p>Ten thousand miles of majestic mountains -stretch from Alaska to Cape Horn—the -grandest range of mountains that can be found -on the earth’s surface. Throughout this series -of connected mountains, from the wilds of -Alaska to those of Patagonia, and including -the tropical plateaus of Ecuador, there are -many peaks that pierce the ethereal blue of -the skies. These are generally termed the -Sierras, which is the Spanish word for “saw,” -and the name is applied to mountains because<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> -of the fancied resemblance of their outlines to -that of the carpenter’s tool. A dim knowledge -of the majesty of mountains is obtained from -the smaller ranges of North America, such as -the Appalachian Mountains, but Mt. McKinley, -highest of North American mountains, must -yield in majesty to a number of peaks in the -lofty Andean range of mountains.</p> - -<p>The lure of altitude seems to have caught -at the spirit of man from early times, and -led him struggling up almost unscalable peaks. -In recent years the fascination of mountain -climbing has become the romance of geography. -During the last half century daring explorers -have conquered more mountains, and -gathered more geological data, than in all the -previous centuries. Many lives have been lost -by devotees of this science, while pitting skill -and strength against nature and her secrets. -It has not been long since the elevations of the -southern half of this continent were an unknown -land; some lofty peaks were unexplored -and unnamed, and only dim suggestions of -their majesty and splendour had reached the -scientific world, but they now hold an interest -second to none. The loftiest peaks in the -world, excepting only the Himalayas, are found<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> -along the western coast of South America. -They are in truth and reality the mountain -monarchs of the western world. In travelling -along the west coast of South America by -steamer the serrated backbone of the continent -is ever in sight, but its hazy outlines are at -such a distance that they give but a dim idea -of their real height from the steamer.</p> - -<p>It remained for European mountain climbers, -men who received their schooling in the -Alps, to first conquer these lofty giants of nature. -Chimborazo (20,498 ft.), the “white -watcher of the western seas,” was the first to -yield its topmost secrets to Edward Whymper, -who fought his way up the rugged snow-clad -slopes to the very top. Next he conquered Cotopaxi -(19,615 ft.), and has given this volcano -the following recommendation: “Cotopaxi is -an ideal volcano. It comports itself, volcanically -speaking, in a regular and well-behaved -manner. It is not one of the provoking sort—exploding -in paroxysms and going to sleep directly -afterwards. It is in a state of perpetual -activity, and has been so ever since it had a -place in history.” Could any volcano in the -world show a stronger recommendation? It is -certainly an exemplary exponent of the volcanic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> -art. The explorer spent a night on the -very edge of the crater, peering into the cavernous -recesses that belched forth fire and -smoke, and must have been under its hypnotic -influence when inditing the above.</p> - -<p>Going farther down the coast one reaches -the mighty peaks of Peru and Bolivia. An -American woman, Miss Annie S. Peck, has -scaled Mt. Huascaran (22,051 ft.), and holds the -unique record of having climbed higher than -any other woman. It was an achievement that -deservedly brought her great honour. Mt. -Illimani (21,490 ft.) is the loftiest peak in -Bolivia. It means “bright condor,” according -to the generally accepted derivation. Its -frozen crest was conquered by an Englishman, -Sir Martin Conway, and the Union Jack was -planted on the very summit. This mountain, -and its neighbour, Mt. Sorata (21,490 ft.), were -worshipped as gods by the Incas. A band of -superstitious natives, on learning his intention -to invade the sanctuary of their god, who dwelt -on Illimani, made an attempt to murder him, -but did not succeed in finding the party. Their -tradition asserts that a great cross of gold was -planted by the god on the summit, and they -were afraid these strangers would carry it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> -away. At the foot of these mountains lies Lake -Titicaca, the sacred lake of the Incas.</p> - -<p>The hardships endured on these climbs are -almost indescribable. The intense cold and the -rarefied air almost overcome the reserve vitality. -The weakening effect of diminished atmospheric -pressure is so enervating that exertion -can only be made a few steps at a time. -Headache, nausea and blood running from the -nose and ears are the more violent effects. It -is almost impossible to keep the feet from -being frost-bitten, and they have to be rubbed -occasionally to restore circulation. Says Mr. -Conway: “I asked myself more than once -whether the game was worth the candle, for -there was something so cold and unsympathetic -about the gloom and the ice and the bare -rocks, that for a time it weighed like a nightmare -upon my spirits.” The exhaustion is so -great that it is almost impossible to enjoy the -triumph of success. Speaking of this the same -explorer says: “The moment was one of satisfaction, -in that our toil ceased; but we had -no sense of triumph, nor was there breath -enough left in any of us for an exclamation of -joy in the hour of victory. Nothing was said -or done for several minutes; we just sat down<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> -and rested.” As compensations, however, -there are frequently magnificent cloud effects. -Out of the white sea of snow there mount, -under the uplift of hot air currents, great towers -of cloud, which rise high into the air like -the smoke-discharge from a volcano. Huge -caves and cloud avenues are formed, wherein -dark-blue shadows gather, with occasionally a -high mountain top peeping forth like the foundation -stone of a gigantic cloud castle. Then -one’s vision is so broadened that he seems to -stand on the very top of the world itself.</p> - -<p>In “Argentina and Her People of To-day,” -the writer has given an account of an ascent -of Aconcagua by Mr. E. A. Fitzgerald’s party, -and in this work some mention will be made of -the conquest of Tupungato by the same party. -This mountain can be seen clearly outlined -against the sky from the Pass of the Cumbre, -although it is distant fully thirty miles. The -route lies down through great masses of fallen -rock, the stones being on an average twice the -size of a man’s head. The stones are hard and -unworn by the forces of nature, presenting a -surface of sharp, jagged edges. It is an extremely -difficult pass to traverse because of -these rocks and danger of slipping, which in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> -many cases would hurl the traveller many hundreds -of feet below. Sudden and violent -storms also rage around this mountain, which -renders the work of climbing still more difficult -and dangerous.</p> - -<p>The distances, as in almost all mountain -climbing, are very deceiving, and what oftentimes -seems to be but the work of an hour may -require many hours to accomplish. Terrific -wind storms at times spring up, against which -it is almost impossible for a man to stand, and -this also adds to the dangers because of rocks -which are sometimes hurled down the mountain -sides. As the altitude increases the rarity of -the atmosphere and the consequently intense -cold render progress almost painful. It is necessary -for the mountain climber to stop every -few minutes to rest, as the cold and the wind -and rare atmosphere all combine to exhaust -the vitality. Three times Mr. Fitzgerald’s -party attempted the ascent of Tupungato, and -as many times were they compelled to abandon -it. Bleeding at the nose, frozen extremities -and weakness of the heart attacked the various -members of the party, and compelled them to -descend to lower altitudes. A fourth attempt, -however, was more successful. Each failure<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> -had taught something, so that each effort was -made under slightly better conditions and with -better equipment.</p> - -<p>Here is the description by Mr. Vines, as it -appears in “The Highest Andes:” “I was on -the summit of Tupungato at last, and all my -efforts and disappointments were more than -repaid. I stood on a great mound in shape like -a pyramid, with a blunted top some two yards -wide rising several hundred feet above the general -surface of the dome. In the whole expanse -of sky around over ocean and land I could not -discern a single cloud. Only in the direction -of the Pacific a haze hung over the mountains. -In the brilliant air the spectacle that lay before -us was one of vast extent and grandeur. -Range upon range of mountains stretched -away towards the great plain of Santiago, -forty miles to the west. Far away, beyond the -hills that almost seemed to lie at our feet, -stretched the great waters of the Pacific, a -tract of blue ocean sparkling to the horizon, -and clearly visible, although the distance from -Tupungato to the seacoast is not less than -one hundred and thirty miles.</p> - -<p>“The view from the top of Tupungato is in -many ways even finer than that obtained from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> -Aconcagua. The expanse of ocean visible -toward the west is less vast, but there is ample -compensation in the outlook over the great -unknown plain on the eastern side. The Pampas -of Argentina stretch almost without a -break from our very feet to the South Atlantic -Ocean. The Andes seem to rise up from -Santiago in ever ascending gradations, until -at last they culminate in the immense mass of -Tupungato; behind, they fall brokenly away; -the mountains disappear; and a country almost -fen-like in its monotonous flatness succeeds. -The only break on the Argentine side -is that of the Sierra de la Plata, not many -more than twenty miles to the northeast. On -the Chilean side a score of dark peaks rear -their heads, a sinister array of precipitous impossibilities -from which any climber would -turn away in despair. To the north and to the -south the same great barriers arise. Looking -along this distinct and sharp edged chain to -the north and south it was hard to understand -how any frontier question between the republics -could come about.</p> - -<p>“That Aconcagua was a high mountain we -well knew. We had all suffered from its -height, but, when near at hand, it was quite<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> -impossible to realize the vastness of its proportions. -Not so from where we now stood on -a pinnacle sixty miles away. I had long known -it was over four thousand feet higher than any -mountain within thirty miles of it, but it looked -ten thousand feet higher as it reared its immense -head and shoulders from amongst its -brothers, like some huge rock projecting out -of the waves of the sea. It stood before me -without rival, even the great ridges of Juncal -did not challenge it, although they were almost -thirty miles nearer. Behind Aconcagua, but -almost forty miles farther, and too far off for -comparison, I could see the white slopes of -Mercaderio.”</p> - -<p>The guanaco and llama are animals which -are peculiar to the Andean regions. The -former is especially plentiful in Patagonia and -the southern Andean ranges, and many of them -are found in Southern Chile. To the natives -it means food, garments and tents, so that it is -hunted both for its meat and skin. Without -the guanaco the question of existence would -be a difficult one for those people to solve. The -vicuña, which is found in Northern Chile and -Bolivia, is of the same family but smaller and -more beautiful. Its fur is very valuable and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> -this animal is becoming scarce. The alpaca is -still smaller but flocks of this animal are maintained -as we herd sheep. The wool is almost -as fine and soft as silk, and, after a year’s -growth, becomes almost a foot long.</p> - -<p>Of this animal family, which is closely allied -to the camel, the most important is the llama. -To one who has never seen the llama, except -in a menagerie or “zoo,” its real usefulness -is not apparent. Before the arrival of the -Spaniards on the west coast this gentle animal -was the only beast of burden known to the Inca -races. Thousands upon thousands of these -American camels were used by the natives in -transportation on the plateaus and across the -lofty mountains. Like the camel it can go for -days without food or drink. Even to-day, with -the introduction of the horse and mule, there -are probably as many or more llamas in use -than when Pizarro first landed on the shores -of South America. It is to the Andean native -what the reindeer is to the Lapp—milk and -flesh for food, skin for garments, hair for cloth, -sinews for thread, etc. Some are black, with -pretty little white kids, while others are almost -white and have black little llamas following -them.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span></p> - -<p>The llama is one of the proudest animals in -the world. No matter where you see this aristocrat -of quadrupeds he holds his head high -up in the air, and looks out upon the earth as -though he owned it. Unlike the camel the -llama never sulks, although sometimes stubborn. -I have seen camels grunt and groan as -the loads were placed on their backs. They -will sometimes snap viciously at whoever -passes near, and at other times tears will flow -down a camel’s cheeks like a baby’s, so it is -said. The llama always carries his burden with -a proud air, scanning the landscape as he goes, -and pricking up his ears with interest at every -new or strange thing. He will carry a load of -just so much, about one hundred pounds. If -a greater load is strapped on his back than he -is accustomed to carry, the llama will neither -grunt nor groan, but he calmly kneels down -and will not move until the burden is lightened.</p> - -<p>The llamas are the most common burden-bearing -animals in Bolivia and on the high -plateaus of Peru to-day. They will also be -found in the extreme northern part of Chile -on the Andean slopes. They form the great -freight-carriers in that portion of the Andes,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> -but cannot be worked successfully at a lower altitude -than two thousand feet. They are never -seen as near the coast as Lima, the Peruvian -capital. One will see llama trains every day -in La Paz, or the other towns of Bolivia, and -herds of these animals feeding on the plains -around Lake Titicaca are a common sight. -They are principally used in the carrying of -ore from the mines to the smelters or nearest -railway station. These little animals, which -are said to have the head of a camel, the body -of a sheep and the legs of a deer, are only -about four and one-half feet high and are -really beautiful creatures. They are gentle -when well treated, and become very fond of -their masters. The Indians pet them and talk -to them much as though they were human -beings. They sometimes dye the wool on the -backs in different colours, and tie bright-coloured -ribbons through holes which they make -in the llamas’ ears. The wool of the llama is -much coarser than that of sheep, but one can -see the Indian women spinning this wool into -threads, and then weaving it into cloth in many -places. It can easily be used in the coarse garments -worn by these people. If offended the -llama has a curious habit of spitting on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> -offender, which is rather disagreeable, as I -know from experience. As the llama is a cud-chewing -animal it seems to have this material -always ready for such occasions.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII<br /> -<span class="smaller">A LABORATORY OF NATURE</span></h2> - -<p>The great desert of Tarapacá, which -stretches along the coast of Chile for hundreds -of miles, has proven to be the most valuable -of its entire possessions. And yet it is as barren -a desert as one could find on the surface -of the globe. Darwin thus describes a part of -it that he travelled over: “A complete and -utter desert. The road was strewn with the -bones and dried skins of the many beasts of -burden which had perished on it from fatigue. -Excepting the vulture which preys on the carcasses, -I saw neither bird, quadruped, reptile, -nor insect. On the coast mountains at the -height of about two thousand feet, where during -the season the clouds generally hang, a -very few cacti were growing in the clefts of -the rock, and the loose sand was strewn over -with a lichen which grows quite unattached. -In some parts it was of sufficient quantity to -tinge the sand, as seen from a distance, of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> -pale yellowish colour.” It is this dry climate -that has made possible the existence of the -great nitrate deposits along this coast. Rainfall, -even in moderate quantities, would dissolve -the nitrate. These deposits lie as a rule -just within the coast range of mountains.</p> - -<p>Many theories have been advanced as to the -cause of this chemical composition. The most -ingenious one, perhaps, is that nitric acid is -formed by a flash of lightning passing through -a moist atmosphere, and electrical storms are -very common in the Cordilleras. The other -is that this coast was originally submerged in -the ocean, and was gradually upheaved. This -would leave a line of lagoons and marshes, in -which seaweed and other plants flourished. -As the lagoons successively dried up, the -plants would be decomposed and nitric acid -and iodine formed. This, united in combination -with the gypsum-yielding soda found -there, formed nitrate of soda. At any rate, -Nature, by some mysterious process, has -formed a chemical combination which has been -of inestimable value to the world in general.</p> - -<p>This desert coast is not all productive of -nitrate. Some sections are valueless, and some -produce other chemical products. One can<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> -take a narrow-gauge train at Antofagasta and -travel inland for hundreds of miles across the -Andes and into the plateaus of Bolivia, and -the entire distance is almost as void of green -as the great Sahara Desert. Occasionally there -is a scrubby tree which looks forlorn in its -loneliness. There are salt plains which reach -to the hills on either side. In one place there -is a great salt field that is estimated to cover -more than eighty thousand acres. This produces -almost pure chloride of sodium in crystallized -form. The thickness of the salt layer -is not known, but some wells are as much as -eighty feet deep and the bottom of the deposit -has not been reached. It is a good quality of -salt. There are borax lakes along the route, -where enough borax can be secured to supply -the entire world. But it is from the beds of -nitrate of soda that the greatest wealth of this -region is secured. To it is due the prosperity -of all the ports from Pisagua to Taltal.</p> - -<p>This chemical product, which we call Chilean -saltpetre, and which is locally known as -<i>salitre</i>, is found over hundreds of square -miles of territory. The only visible boundaries -between the different owners are marked -by white posts at the corners of the different<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> -properties. With this exception there are no -marks whatever on the landscape, and no -signs of life except the factories, known as -<i>oficinas</i>, the numerous homes of the employees -made of corrugated iron, and the -workmen who are engaged in blasting and -hauling away this mineral. The nitrate beds -follow the coast line at a distance of from -fifteen to a hundred miles from the sea, generally -at an elevation of from four thousand -to five thousand feet, and in deposits which -vary from one to four miles in width. They -reach from near Antofagasta to a point some -distance north of Iquique. In some places the -deposits play out, but they reappear again a -little farther on. The fields that have been -exploited look as though they had been -ploughed over by gigantic ploughs, for immense -clods are scattered here and there wherever -the work has been carried on. On either side -of this strip there is simply a mass of sand -and rock, which extends from the sea to the -topmost peaks of the Andes. There is, however, -a wonderful colouring on the slopes of -the mountains, and one will see many tints of -violet, green, lemon and gray within the horizon.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span></p> - -<p>Nitrate of soda is seldom found pure, and -the nitrate rock, called <i>caliche</i>, will vary from -ten to sixty per cent. of the pure mineral. In -some fields it is found on the top of the soil, -and in others it is as much as forty feet -beneath the surface, with the strata of salt -rock on the top of it. It varies considerably -in composition. Holes are dug or drilled -down through the <i>caliche</i> until a bed of gravelly -material is reached, into which charges -of dynamite or blasting powder are placed, -and the nitrate rock is thus loosened up. -When first exposed the nitrate is sometimes -as soft as cheese, but it hardens on contact -with the air. The lumps thus broken are then -dug out with picks or crowbars and hauled -in mule-carts to the <i>oficinas</i>.</p> - -<p>There are many of these mills throughout -the nitrate fields, and they are busy places. -The lumps are first crushed, and are then -lifted by elevators and placed in huge tanks -filled with sea water. These tanks are encircled -by coils of steam pipes, which heat the -water that is poured in with the rock to any -desired temperature. Nitrate is soluble in -water, and this purifying process rests upon -the fact of its greater solubility in water<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> -heated to the boiling point, than the other salts -with which it is associated. When the water -has become supersaturated in the boiling -tanks, the nitrate of soda in solution is drawn -into shallow vats which are exposed to the air. -At this state it looks like pale maple molasses. -As it cools, the nitrate of soda crystallizes in -the vats, together with a little common salt and -a small amount of other impurities, and the -sides become covered with white sparkling -crystals like alabaster. These crystals are -then shovelled upon drying boards and exposed -to the sun for a time, after which they -are graded and put into bags weighing a little -over a hundred pounds each. This product, -which is ninety-six per cent. chemically pure -nitrate of soda, is then transported to the seacoast, -from whence it is shipped to Europe or -the United States, the latter country receiving -about one-fifth of the whole.</p> - -<p>Another product of these nitrate beds is -iodine, which remains in the liquid after the -removal of the nitrate. This liquid is poured -into smaller pans, and is chemically treated -until the iodine is precipitated in the form of -a black powder. This is then heated in a retort -which changes it to a vapour, and it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> -again condensed into beautiful violet crystals. -The iodine is packed in small casks which are -shipped with bullion and other valuables, for -each cask is worth several hundred dollars. -As the consumption of iodine is not very large -the <i>oficinas</i> refine only a part of the iodine in -order to keep up the price.</p> - -<p>More than two million tons of nitrate of -soda were shipped from Chile last year, which -is the greatest amount that has ever been produced. -It has been found especially valuable -for increasing the growth of the sugar beets -in Europe, as it seems to provide the soil with -the essential elements for their growth. The -consumption in the United States is increasing -rapidly, and it is looked upon as the best fertilizer -provided by nature. According to horticultural -authorities it has been found especially -efficacious in stimulating the growth of -vegetables, such as cabbages, onions, carrots, -beets, etc., and for field crops of many kinds. -It is said that even the Incas of Peru were -acquainted with its value as a fertilizer. It -is also extensively used in the manufacture of -gunpowders and other high explosives, which -in itself makes a considerable demand.</p> - -<p>The discovery of the value of nitrate as a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> -fertilizer was by accident. A poor Scotchman, -who lived near where Iquique now stands, had -a small garden which he cultivated with great -care. One day he noticed that a part of his -garden, which had been banked up with soil -containing this mysterious white substance, -flourished much more than the rest. This led -to experiments and some of this soil was sent -back to Scotland. The success of the experiments -that followed gradually led to the development -of the present industry, but the discoverer -died as poor as he was born. The first -nitrate works were established at Noria in -1826. It was not until after the war between -Chile and Peru that the industry reached great -proportions. Then an Englishman by the -name of North began its development and soon -afterwards became known as the “nitrate -king.” Other nitrate princes rose, and thrived -like the bonanza mining kings of Mexico and -Peru in their best days. Englishmen became -peers of that country through the influence of -colossal fortunes paved with saltpetre. In its -raw state the nitrate contains some properties -injurious to plant life, but these are removed. -As this process requires the latest modern machinery -to do the work economically, the business<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> -has drifted into the hands of big combinations -of capital.</p> - -<p>As the government of Chile exacts an export -tax on every sack of nitrate of soda exported, -the revenue from this source is enormous and -pays more than two-thirds of the expenses of -that extravagant government. Chile owns -practically all the nitrate of soda in the world. -Small quantities have been found elsewhere, -but in this region are the only deposits that -can be operated at a profit. Most of the nitrate -fields at one time belonged to Peru, but -Chile appropriated them as indemnity, after -a disastrous war was waged between the two -countries in 1880, in which Chile was victorious. -You can not meet a Peruvian anywhere -to-day who does not swear vengeance against -Chile, for thus robbing his country of her -greatest source of wealth.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus33"> -<img src="images/illus33.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">LOADING NITRATE.</p> -</div> - -<p>English capital has developed this great -industry in Chile, and no less than one hundred -million dollars in British sovereigns have been -invested in these dreary wastes. Almost one -hundred million dollars’ worth of this <i>salitre</i> -has been exported in a single year. The ports -are at all times filled with vessels which have -brought coal and merchandise, and are awaiting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> -a load of nitrate. It is seldom that the -Stars and Stripes are seen floating from a -masthead, but it is a welcome sight to an American. -The profits for a few years were so -great that an overdevelopment followed, and -the price greatly dropped. Then a trust agreement -was, arrived at limiting the output, but -even that was not a success and the production -is again unlimited. The population of the -nitrate district is a cosmopolitan one, and represents -almost every nation on the face of the -earth. It gives employment to many thousands -of persons. A homesick and stranded -American is not an uncommon sight.</p> - -<p>It is estimated that at the present rate of -mining the known fields of nitrate of soda in -Chile will be exhausted in fifty years, or less. -The official board of engineers has recently -reported to the Chilean government that there -are in sight four and a half million quintals -(220.4 lbs.) of nitrate in the deposits of the -country. A previous estimate had fixed the -visible quantity at less than half that amount. -It is doubtful whether either of those estimates -is very reliable. At any rate the government -and owners of the <i>oficinas</i> are pushing the -sales in every way, and exploiting the use and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> -value of nitrate as though it was inexhaustible. -It is possible that similar deposits may be -found on the Sahara Desert, or some of our -own desert lands where similar climatic and -atmospheric conditions exist. The value of -nitrate lands in Chile has risen rapidly in recent -years, and nearly all the undeveloped -fields are now owned by the Chilean government, -which auctions them off as the need for -money arises.</p> - -<p>The nitrate industry has very naturally overshadowed -all other mining enterprises in Chile, -and especially in the northern section. And -yet there are many more mining industries -even in that part of the republic. The Spaniards -cared for nothing but gold and silver and -set thousands of Indians at work in the mines -at Tucapel, Valdivia, and Quillota. The Malga -Malga mines, near the latter town, and the -Madre de Dios (mother of God) mines, near -Mariguina, were the best producers of the yellow -metal. The district around Taltal also -produced gold and silver. By the primitive -processes of the Spaniards only a portion of -the ore was extracted. The refuse has since -been refined, and even houses have been torn -down that had been constructed of the by-products<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> -of the old amalgamation process. -Some of this refuse contained as much as sixty -ounces of pure silver to the ton. The total production -of silver and gold to-day is not great -when compared with the other gold-producing -nations. Among the best mines now being -worked are the Caracoles silver mines, which -are inland from Antofagasta a little over one -hundred miles, and the Inca Caracoles mines, -which are fifty miles further inland. The total -output of these mines during the years they -have been worked reaches big figures, but the -balmiest days have passed. Some of the workings -have reached a depth of twenty-five hundred -feet. The ores are generally chlorides or -iodides, with mixtures of sulphides, but pockets -of almost pure silver are occasionally found.</p> - -<p>Copper production is next in value after -nitrate. There are smelting plants at Caldera, -Cerro Blanco, Jarilla, Antofagasta, and other -places. Central Chile is the copper country, -although Lota is one of the greatest producers. -The surface oftentimes shows the green outcroppings -of the copper deposits. The superior -attraction of the nitrate fields has at times -caused a scarcity of labour there so that the -development has been greatly hampered. Nevertheless<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> -the copper industry has been a fairly -profitable and steady one. The annual output -ranges from thirty-five thousand to forty thousand -tons, but it is doubtless capable of considerable -further development, with the aid of -more modern methods and the installation of -the latest machinery.</p> - -<p>Iron ore has been found in only small quantities. -Chile has the best coal mines in South -America, which, in 1909, produced a little less -than a million tons, not quite half of the consumption. -Coal was first discovered at Lota -more than a century ago, but the deposits were -not worked until a half-century later. The only -mines now being worked are in the provinces -of Concepción and Arauco. As small veins -have been found at Punta Arenas, it may be -that the seams of coal run all the way between -those points. It is rather an inferior -quality of bituminous coal. More than a million -tons are imported yearly, of which a little -more than one-half comes from England and -the balance from Australia. The shipping rate -is very low as the boats come after cargoes of -nitrate and will carry coal at a very cheap rate -rather than be obliged to make the long outward -journey in ballast.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE PEOPLE</span></h2> - -<p>The people of Chile are descendants of -Spaniards and native races. About one-third -of the entire population are pure white. The -Spaniards who came here were Basques and -Aragonese—a hardy and industrious people -who made thrifty farmers and merchants. -They are among the best class of Spaniards, -for they are much more energetic and have -less of the Moorish admixture than those from -Southern Spain. These people were not a -mere army of occupation, but they set about -developing the real resources of the country. -The native element too were probably the -hardiest of any of the native races of South -America. Notwithstanding the difference in -numbers, the Creoles, the name given to the -descendants of Spanish immigrants, rule the -country absolutely and own the most of the -property. In few countries have the landed -aristocracy exercised such absolute power as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> -in this narrow and elongated republic. The -half-breeds form the labouring class of Chile, -and one will find those two classes all over the -republic, with the lines between the two -strongly marked. There is no clearly defined, -well-developed middle class.</p> - -<p>The Chileans delight to call themselves the -“English of the Pacific,” or the “Yankees -of South America.” In neither case is the -comparison a perfect one, although they are -probably the hardest working race on that continent. -The Chileno is very proud of the progress -that his country has made, and this pride -sometimes carries him to peculiar extremes. -It at least causes the average Chileno to become -more or less of a braggart. He is inclined -to take all the credit for this advancement -to himself, when, in fact, much of it has -been due to the English and German elements -in the country. His ideals of life, however, are -not German or English, but rather French, -with its love of polished surface and general -dislike for disagreeable truths. Peru has retained -more of the old culture and grace of the -Spanish cavalier than Chile, but the latter is -far more robust. The climate of Chile is remarkably -healthful, and it has produced a vigorous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> -race. This is a general truth, whether -applied to the race amalgamated with the virile -Araucanian of the south, or to the mixture -with the more delicate and refined descendant -of the Inca at the north. The ordinary <i>roto</i> -is tough and wiry, and capable of prolonged -fatigue on the poorest and simplest of food.</p> - -<p>The creoles have inherited all the traditions -of the original <i>conquistadores</i>—love, sentiment -and passion, and the habit of intrigue. It -is not uncommon to see in a family the natural -children of one or the other parent, generally of -the father, living side by side with the legitimate -children. The percentage of illegitimacy -is very large, as shown by the government statistics, -for they do not attempt to cover up this -flagrant fault. The café and club life of the -cities appeals to the Chileans, and they have -acquired a love of alcoholic stimulants. The -light wines, with which most of the people of -Spanish blood are content, do not satisfy, but -they must have the stronger alcoholic beverages. -As a result there is much drunkenness -in Chile, more than in the neighbouring republics. -It is an unfortunate fact, but true, as all -who have made a study of the subject agree. -The first establishment in a new community<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> -is generally a factory for the production of -<i>aguardiente</i>, brandy made from sugar cane, -wheat or some vegetable. Some of it is as bad -and ruinous to the health as it is cheap.</p> - -<p>Chile has perhaps suffered in recent years -from too great prosperity. Like the child born -with a silver spoon in its mouth, this country -found itself with seemingly inexhaustible treasure -within its borders. Its training under the -autocracy of Spain was not a good education -in representative and democratic government. -Then came the wealth of the nitrate fields, -after a successful war with Peru. The government -coffers were filled to overflowing with -practically no effort on the part of the government, -and little tax contributed by the average -citizens. As a result, the habit of office holding -and the desire for sinecures have been a bad -thing for the country. The enormous revenue -has been used up, and there is little to show -for much of it. In public offices the officials are -oftentimes almost tumbling over each other, -and everything is checked and counter checked -over and over again. Positions are created -and no equipment for carrying out the work -provided. So long as the government does not -complain the appointee does not, and many salaries<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> -of that kind are paid year after year for -services unrendered. I verily believe that the -official work of the government could be carried -on with less than one-half the force employed. -But the members of Congress have -friends, or sons of friends, who must be provided -for, and the government revenues are -thus subject to a constant drain.</p> - -<p>Politics is the most genteel occupation in -Chile to-day, for the army, navy and church, -formerly so popular with the Spaniards, no -longer appeal to the Chileno of good and influential -family. A government appointment -means easy or no work, fair pay, and less danger -than martial occupations, where the call -to arms might come at any time. It is not because -of lack of courage, for no braver or more -courageous people can be found in South America -than these same Chileans, who sit in the -cafés and drink their spirits or puff tobacco -wrapped in thin paper. With the Chilean a -valiant spirit covers a multitude of sins. His -greatest boast is the courage of his race. He -is willing to make almost any kind of a personal -sacrifice for his country, if the occasion -demands, but to pay taxes is a hardship.</p> - -<p>The Chileans resemble very much the Irish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> -in some of their characteristics. One of these -is their love of fighting, and the Chileans have -made about the best soldiers of any of the -South American people. They have an intense -spirit and patriotism, which has shown itself -in their wars and revolutions. In addition to -the Spanish blood a large percentage have -more or less of the blood of the Araucanian -Indians, who were the most stubborn race to -conquer of any that the Spaniards encountered -in South America. As soldiers the Chileans -have no sense of mercy, and this characteristic -has shown itself in all of their wars. They are -impetuous, impulsive, passionate and generous, -but have very little self-control. Many of them -fight simply for the love of fighting, just as do -many of the Irish, who seem to scrap simply -for the sake of scrapping.</p> - -<p>The Chileno as a rule has a fiery temper. -He loves a fight. It is not a fist fight that he -will indulge in, but it must be a fight with revolvers, -or, better yet, with knives. The knife -is an indispensable equipment with the <i>roto</i>. -It used to be said that as many lives were lost -in a Chilean fair as in a decent battle. It is -a sad fact that murders are extremely frequent, -and scarcely a day passes in Santiago or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> -Valparaiso without some fatal affray. <i>Aguardiente</i> -may be placed at the bottom of most of -these, just as rum is the primary cause of most -of the murders in the United States. It inflames -the naturally hot temper of the race and -brings out all the passions of envy, hatred and -jealousy. The death penalty is seldom inflicted, -although sentence is frequently imposed. -The prisoners are kept in confinement, -and their sentence commuted from time to time. -If the convicted one belongs to a family of -prominence, he will eventually be released; if -of poorer origin, he may be sent to some remote -section of the country and set to work. Among -the <i>rotos</i> there is a general contempt for death, -which also adds to the prevalence of murders, -and sometimes of brigandage in the mountains. -A little judicious weeding out of some of these -criminals would not be a bad thing for the -country.</p> - -<p>The <i>rotos</i> constitute the masses in Chile. In -the country the <i>roto</i> is a peon or inquilino,—an -agriculturalist; in the city he is a longshoreman—a -roustabout. In all of them there -is a race admixture with the white race. Of -the native races this mixture is not all Araucanian, -for there are at least ten distinct aboriginal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> -tribes. This <i>roto</i> is not always an -agreeable companion, for he is not generally -so cleanly as he might be. But he is not a hopeless -element in society. His vices are generally -the result of a lack of restraining power of the -passions. His virtues are independence and -industry. He is a prejudiced individual, and -persists in his prejudices. He is intensely -patriotic, and has fought the battles of his -country—and always in the ranks. Neither -in the army nor in the navy has he been permitted -to rise above this position.</p> - -<p>Peonage is the common form of labour on -the large landed estates, although it is somewhat -more favourable to the labourer than in -Mexico or Peru. The labourer, or peon, is -rented a small tract of land, including a little -hut, and is allowed to grow his own vegetables. -He may also be allowed to pasture a few animals. -In return, he must work, or provide -labour, for the <i>hacendado</i> as required. For -this he is paid a certain small wage. The landlord -allows him credit for supplies at the store, -which is invariably a part of the establishment, -at prices which mean a good profit. As long as -he is indebted to the owner, the peon must stay -on the place. If he is even in his account, he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> -is at liberty to depart wherever the notion -takes him.</p> - -<p>The proprietor is a magistrate, and has -power to put a man in irons if he deems it -necessary. As a rule the peons do not change -employers often, and it is seldom that one is -compelled to leave. They are not ambitious, -and a living, permission to celebrate holidays, -and, perhaps, get drunk occasionally, constitutes -their idea of happiness. So long as these -conditions exist the peon does not seek anything -better, for, to his mind, such a condition -is ideal in itself. He has,</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse indent3">“The sun, and moon and air,</div> -<div class="verse">And never a bit of the burthen of care;</div> -<div class="verse">And with all our caring, what more have we?”</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="noindent">The landlord, on his part, is satisfied, for he -has labour at hand at a small cost, just as his -fathers had before him. It is true that it takes -more labourers of this kind to accomplish a -given amount of work, but the total cost is still -comparatively small.</p> - -<p>The <i>rotos</i> in the city are not attractive individuals. -Their appearance is often hard and -repellent, and the stranger is almost inclined to -fear them. They are restless, too, and serious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> -labour disturbances have occurred in the cities, -for trade unionism has entered the social fabric -there. A few years ago a wild mob resulted -from a strike against the steamship companies, -and it took to destroying property after the -most approved fashion. The offices of the Chilean -companies were burned, but foreign property -was not disturbed, although the grievance -was the same. Santiago has also had a grievous -experience with strikes. This was due to -a tax upon cattle imported from Argentina, -which resulted in an advance in meat prices. -Rioting and the destruction of property were -again the forms it took.</p> - -<p>These instances show that a social question -has been developed in Chile as well as -other countries. How much is due to socialistic -propaganda, it is difficult to estimate. It -is probably only a protest against the condition -in which this class finds itself. The <i>roto</i> -holds a grievance against the Church, also, -because that organization possesses immense -wealth and pays no taxes. He feels that he -does the real work, but is always kept in an -inferior station, a ball to be kicked and rolled -around at the will of the governing and military -classes. It is no doubt true that the <i>roto</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> -has many legitimate grievances, and the government -will eventually be compelled to recognize -them. Thousands of <i>rotos</i> have emigrated -across the Andes to Argentina, being -drawn there by the higher wages that can be -secured. Whether the movement will become -greater or not, the future alone will reveal.</p> - -<p>The <i>rotos</i> of Chile work hard when they -work, but they are generally improvident and -do not think of saving money. The only occasion -which leads the average <i>roto</i> to save any -money is the prospect of a holiday ahead, for -which he will sometimes save a little surplus, -in order that he may have sufficient funds to -celebrate the occasion in the way he thinks it -should be celebrated,—and that is by carousing. -His idea is that he must imbibe plenty -of liquor in order to get the proper effect. -This is not universally true, for the savings -banks of the country show that thousands of -those in the unskilled occupations have at least -small bank accounts. As wages are comparatively -small, this indicates considerable thrift.</p> - -<p>Drinking in Chile has become a curse. Monday -is said by employers of labour to be a very -unsatisfactory day, because so many of their -employees have not yet recovered from the dissipation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> -of the previous day. This is likewise -true after some national holiday, such as the -18th of September, for which occasion five -days are set aside, as this is the Chilean 4th -of July. The better element of the Chileans -have long realized that the drunkenness incident -to these celebrations is a serious menace -to the country, for, on the day following, the -hospitals are oftentimes filled with wounded. -There are always several deaths by violence, -because every Chilean peon does not consider -himself properly dressed until he has a knife -placed in his belt where it can be easily reached.</p> - -<p>To correct the errors resulting from this excessive -drinking, a society has been formed in -Chile, which has become quite prominent, and -is called La Liga Contra el Alcoholismo, which, -literally translated, means an organization -against excessive alcoholism. It is not, as one -might think, a prohibition or total abstinence -society, for such an organization would be very -unpopular among all classes of Chileans. Its -object is to restrain as much as possible, both -by legislation and persuasion, the appetite for -liquor, and cultivate habits of moderation in -its indulgence. The courts have been asked to -impose certain restriction upon the sale of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> -liquors, and employers of labour have been -asked to change the method of paying their -help.</p> - -<p>“The women of Chile are as pious as the -men are proud,” says a writer. Nowhere will -one find women more conscientious in the performance -of their religious duties. The morning -mass is always crowded with women and -children in attendance upon these ceremonies. -One is impressed by the piety of the Chilenas -when he sees the <i>penitentas</i>—as women who -are doing penance for some sin are called. -Skirts of white flannel are worn with the <i>manta</i> -by these women. They will be seen hovering -around the churches, where they will sometimes -rest on their knees for hours before the -altar of some saint. They may be clustered -around the confessional awaiting absolution -from the confessor. Some of these women -have committed sin, while others are simply -carrying out a vow, in order to perfect themselves -and thus get nearer to heaven. They -will go about the street with downcast eyes and -recognize no one—not even a friend. Among -these <i>penitentas</i> one will find women of high -social rank, as well as young girls of wonderful -beauty. Those who feel that this more simple<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> -method will not atone for their sin, or raise -them to a state of absolute perfection, retire -to a convent in the suburbs of the city, called -the Convent of the Penitentes. There they -dress in sackcloth, feed on mouldy bread, and -scourge themselves with whips. These scenes -are more common during Lent, or at the end -of the social season. It is said, however, that -the number of women doing penance is becoming -less each year. It is also a fact that one -never sees a man humiliating himself and -proclaiming his wrong-doing in this public -way.</p> - -<p>The women of Chile, the Chilenas, are of -medium height and well formed. The real -slender type is the exception, and the average -maiden is well-rounded and plump. As the -women grow older they run to adipose tissue, -and many of the matrons are decidedly fat. -They look healthy, and a vigorous body carries -with it a corresponding appetite, and this, together -with little exercise, is responsible for the -later development. The type is quite uniform. -Black hair, and dark, lustrous eyes are almost -universal. Dress is as much sought after by -the Chileans as in any part of the world. Paris -creations are in demand by those who can<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> -afford them, and the others purchase the best -gowns that their means will permit.</p> - -<p>Etiquette is very carefully observed by the -Chileans. There is an etiquette for a man -toward a woman, and one for a person of a -lower rank toward one better born. And all -are scrupulously observed. A man must always -speak to a woman first. A girl of the -better families could not appear on the street -alone without her mother, aunt or servant with -her. A little nurse girl, though of no earthly -use, is a sufficient compliance with the requirement -of etiquette. Her best young man, instead -of being a protection, would be an occasion -for the severest tongue-wagging. These -things are the inherited restraints upon the -liberty of women which have come down from -a thousand years of custom.</p> - -<p>A young man and young woman have little -opportunity to become acquainted before marriage. -In many instances the young people -have very little to say about the matter, supposed -to be one of hearts, and are scarcely consulted. -About the only way he can learn anything -about the disposition of his intended is -for a young man to bribe the servants and thus -get first-hand information. He can never see<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> -her except in the parlour, surrounded by all -the family, or at dances, where she is always -under the eye of her chaperon. In fact, during -the whole of her maidenhood a girl is closely -watched, and is seldom permitted to be out of -sight of her mother’s vigilant eye. The girl -naturally thinks that these restrictions are unnecessary, -but mamma thinks that they are -essential, father approves, and so the custom -remains. The lover bears the name of <i>novio</i>, -and his sweetheart is <i>novia</i>. Neither dare pay -any attention to another, and for a <i>novio</i> to -dance with any other girl than his <i>novia</i> would -be a direct offence, and probably cause a breaking -of the engagement.</p> - -<p>Every girl looks forward to marriage as her -sole career. The independence of the American -girl has not influenced her, and the suffragette -agitation has not reached Chile. Marriage -is the beginning of freedom for a woman, -for up to that time she is practically kept in -a cage, or is tied by a string to some guardian. -When the priest performs the wedding ceremony, -however, the shackles are broken. Nevertheless -they make good wives, for their tastes -are domestic; and they make good mothers, -to whom children are welcome, and the more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> -of them the better they are satisfied. Musical -clubs, literary clubs and missionary societies -do not exist to interfere with domestic duties. -A houseful of servants are usually kept to do -the work, for each servant will only do the particular -duties for which he or she was hired. -The groom often takes his bride to his father’s -house, and one will frequently find several -families living under the same roof in -seeming peace and harmony.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus34"> -<img src="images/illus34.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A GROUP OF CHILEAN GIRLS.</p> -</div> - -<p>The colonies of Chile, such as Valdivia, -Osorno and others around Lake Llanquihue, -are principally made up of Germans and Dutch. -Most of these were poor and ignorant when -they came to their new homes, and some have -remained so. They have built up several prosperous -communities, however, and there they -will be found, a quiet, peaceable and an intelligent -population. This frontier had quite a -boom at one time, and thousands were attracted -here by the seductive literature sent -out by the wily agents stationed in Europe. -Town after town sprang up. Men who had -never done a day’s work on a farm and ne’er-do-wells -came over. Few of them had any -money. For several years there was much -hardship. The government was not always<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> -prompt in carrying out its pledges, for the -officials could not see why “to-morrow” would -not do just as well. Some finally returned, and -others drifted into the larger cities. But many -were very successful and now have good farms -to show as a reward for their industry. After -the war with Peru many of the disbanded soldiers -were granted tracts of land here. Considerable -lawlessness followed, as they robbed -the unresisting Germans of their cattle and -other animals. The outlaws being in league -with the officials, no redress could be secured, -and the colonists complained with good reason. -These conditions have ended. The Teutons -have generally remained apart from the Chileans, -and the percentage of intermarriage has -been small. Some have not even mastered the -Spanish tongue, and few take any part in the -government. These two races may become -amalgamated eventually, and it would be a -good thing for Chile to receive into its fold this -sturdy Teutonic blood.</p> - -<p>Of all the nationalities, other than Spanish, -that have entered Chile, the British is the most -prominent and has been the most prosperous. -It is likewise the most numerous. Britons, -such as the O’Higgins, Lord Cochrane and Captain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> -Prat, have helped to fight Chile’s battles, -and their financiers have advanced the money -that has developed her resources. Hence it is -not surprising that one will find the characteristics -of that tight little island impressed upon -the country, and, in many instances, upon the -people. English names are quite common -among prominent Chilean families, for they -have become nationalized. Men who came -there a generation or two ago married the -daughters of Chile, and the families are essentially -Chilean, although bearing English names. -Many of these English-Chilenos are very prominent. -One man, who had been a member of -the Chilean Congress, told me that one-fourth -of the members of that body, at the time of his -membership, had had English fathers or grandfathers. -The progress of Chile in many lines -can be traced to this influence.</p> - -<p>Valparaiso bears many British characteristics. -A walk along the principal business -streets will show almost as many English signs -as those in Spanish. The English language -will be heard on every corner. The Anglo-Saxon -face is a familiar sight. In the banking -and shipping quarters nearly everything is -British, with a sprinkling of the Teuton. At<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> -Iquique and Antofagasta it is still more -marked, for the nitrate and copper interests -are almost entirely in the hands of English -capital. Each year scores of young men come -out from the home land and accept positions -with the banks, railroads and manufacturing -interests. Some of them remain permanently, -and others claim only a temporary domicile. -Most of them do not assimilate very readily -with the Spaniard. There is both a racial and -religious antagonism. This wears away after -a while with many, for they are shut off from -home ties and the restraints of society.</p> - -<p>Homes in the proper sense are not open to -these aliens, and their quarters are devoid of -home comforts. Hence the young Englishmen -seek companionship where they are sure to be -welcome. Always criticising the loose morals -of the Chileans, they generally do nothing to -better conditions, and oftentimes end by taking -a part in the dissipation. They frequent the -bars and clubs and indulge in great quantities -of strong liquors. Shut off by social customs -from the better homes, they oftentimes unite -themselves with the freer and easier strata of -society. As an English writer expresses himself -of his own countrymen: “We have done<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> -much to aid in developing the country along -certain defined lines; but we have done little -or nothing to ingratiate ourselves with the people, -or to aid in raising the moral tone of those -we affect to despise. The English in Chile -commonly remain like a bed of cabbages in a -Chilean flower-garden—self-satisfied and self-aggrandizing, -usurping all the nourishment -they can obtain, and neither specially ornamental -nor specially interesting.” Chile has -provided homes and, in many instances, fortunes -for the English, and they should return -more to such a hospitable mother than has been -done heretofore.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X<br /> -<span class="smaller">AN UNCONQUERABLE RACE</span></h2> - -<p>The most indomitable of the native races in -the New World, with the exception of the red -men of North America, have been the Araucanians -of Chile. They are the proudest, richest -and bravest of the Indians of South America. -At the time of the conquest this race occupied -the greater part of Chile, and had spread -across the Andes into a part of Patagonia, -which country they shared with the Tehuelches, -the so-called giants. For three hundred years -they waged a successful warfare against the -Spanish invaders, and the republic of Chile -which later succeeded the Spanish province. -It was not until 1884 that they were finally -conquered, and submitted to the Chilean government -after certain rights and privileges -were guaranteed to them. So long as the Chileans -attempted to conquer the Indians by brute -force they failed, just as had the Spaniards -before them. It was not until some tact and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> -judgment were used that any real progress -was made in the subjugation of these people.</p> - -<p>According to the early account the Araucanians -were given to agriculture, and the valleys -south of the present city of Santiago teemed -with an industrious and energetic race. The -Incas had spread their sovereignty south of -Santiago as far as the Maule River, and this -probably accounted in part for the agricultural -development there. Some writers claim that -the Incas had enslaved the Araucanians and -compelled them to do their work. At any rate -the Spaniards encountered little opposition in -their conquest before that river was reached. -The fact is that these people were really divided -into three different tribes. The tribes -that lived along the coast were fishermen, those -that lived on the higher lands were hunters, -while those who occupied the more fertile valleys -were agriculturists. It was estimated by -some of the early writers that there were at -that time no less than a half million of these -Indians. This estimate is no doubt excessive, -and half that number would be nearer the -truth. They knew not the use of any metals, -excepting silver, which they worked into various -forms. Silver breastplates were worn by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> -the wives of the <i>caciques</i>, or chiefs, which told -of the number of their children, as large families -were their boast. They also wore large -crescent earrings and great silver suns as -breastpins, with hieroglyphics upon them which -told of a nature worship. Bracelets formed of -a multiplicity of minute silver beads were also -fashioned very attractively, and in later years -silver stirrups were manufactured for the head -men. Even to-day this race is noted for its -silver work.</p> - -<p>Down upon this stronghold of the Araucanians -came Pedro de Valdivia, in 1550, with -two hundred horsemen and some other troops. -This force no doubt made an imposing appearance, -as it marched along with their coats of -mail, helmets, swords and spears flashing in -the sunlight. The only firearms were clumsy -arquebuses borne by the infantry, and fired -from a wooden support by the aid of a fuse -only kept alight with great difficulty. And yet -the Spanish soldiers at that time were considered -to be the best in the world. They continually -marched in order of battle, preceded by -an advanced guard and carrying their baggage -in the centre. From the time he reached the -river Itata his march was a continuous conflict,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> -although he managed to get as far as the River -Bio-Bio.</p> - -<p>How two hundred men were able to make -this trip through a thickly populated country -can be explained by reason of the superior -weapons and armour of the Spaniards, as well -as the fact that they used horses. These animals -at that time were unknown among the -native races, and inspired them with terror -just as they did the Aztecs in Mexico. The -Indians had only wooden lances, arrows of the -simplest manufacture, and clubs; and yet they -managed to stand against the Spaniards at -times until hundreds of them were slain. On -one occasion the Spanish records say that Valdivia -was beset with twenty thousand Indians. -As fast as one body of the Indians was routed -another took their place. Compact masses of -the Indians at times surrounded the Spaniards. -The horses were clubbed, and this together -with the war-cries of the attacking force created -a terrible confusion. When the Indians -were finally beaten off the ground was literally -covered with the dead bodies of their comrades. -Every Spaniard was wounded. This battle is -known as that of Andalien.</p> - -<p>The cruelty of the Spaniards in this invasion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> -was something terrible at times. After the -battle of Penco, where, according to the chroniclers, -forty thousand Indians attacked the invaders, -Valdivia cut off the nose and right -hand of two hundred prisoners, and sent them -back to terrorize their comrades in this mutilated -condition. They treated the natives with -absolute contempt, and endeavoured to reduce -them to abject slavery. Valdivia practically -had no choice in the matter. Each soldier had -to be paid a grant of land, with a certain number -of slaves. The soldiers were of a fierce and -intractable character, and it was almost impossible -to maintain any sort of discipline among -them. Valdivia founded the city of Imperial, -fortified it and employed the natives in washing -the gold found in this district. He also -established the city of Villa Rica, which means -the rich village, and was so named because of -the wealth and fertility of that valley, and -another town that was named after himself. -In fact he endeavoured to establish a string of -fortified outposts throughout that entire section -of the country. The Indians were parcelled -out among the conquerors, Valdivia retaining -for himself about forty thousand. Although -at this time the Spanish population of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> -the valley did not exceed one thousand, yet -they were able after a while to force the Indians -to do their work. The men were attended -by a numerous retinue of servants wherever -they went, and even the women wanted to be -followed by a large concourse of slaves when -they attended church. Rank and importance -seemed to be indicated by the number of -menials.</p> - -<p>The end, however, was not long in coming. -It was due to an Indian boy, named Lautaro, -who had been raised in the household of Valdivia -himself, that their freedom was finally -obtained. He had learned to manage horses, -and to use the Spaniards’ weapons. Taking -some of these animals, he joined his people and -stirred up a general insurrection. A public -assembly of the tribes was called, and Lautaro -presented a definite plan for a campaign -against the enemy. When Valdivia arrived -on the scene to put this revolt down he found -some of the towns already in ashes. Lautaro, -although only twenty-one years of age, had -shown a genius for war and was in command, -and had already established some discipline -among his troops. Not a single Spaniard escaped -in a battle, or series of skirmishes, that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> -was fought, although thousands of the Indians -fell. Contrary to the example set by the Spaniards -Lautaro simply killed his prisoners by -beheading them without any preliminary torture.<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> -Valdivia himself was captured by the -Indians. That general at once offered him two -hundred sheep for his release, and promised to -withdraw all of his troops from their territory. -The Indian caciques, however, would not consent -to this, and, at a prearranged signal, one -of the Indian soldiers struck him on the head -with a club and killed him. It is said that his -body was afterwards eaten by the assembled -caciques, in order to give them heart in the -struggle against the Spaniards. This seems to -have been a custom among many primitive -races.</p> - -<p>Thus was a struggle begun which lasted for -three centuries. During this time the Spaniards -frequently penetrated the country of the -Indians, and were as many times driven back -again. The number of horses owned by the -Indians soon increased, and they also secured -many arms from the slain Spaniards, so that -by the latter part of the sixteenth century they -were in a better position to fight. In 1599 they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> -were able to muster no less than two thousand -mounted troops. They had also developed -herds of cattle and sheep from original stock -secured from the Spaniards. Plagues broke -out at different times, and these, together with -the numbers lost in battle, greatly decimated -the natives.</p> - -<p>The death of Valdivia was the beginning of -a heroic age for the Indians. The whole country -was soon in arms, and the Spaniards were -ousted from most of their settlements. Villagran, -successor of Valdivia, was driven out of -the valley, but soon afterwards returned with -reinforcements and commenced a war of extermination. -He employed bloodhounds as auxiliaries, -and these animals destroyed many Indians, -especially women and children. He destroyed -the crops wherever possible, and this -brought on starvation and plague. He rebuilt -some of the forts and established others, for -he was at the head of a splendidly appointed -army of several thousand men who had come -there from Peru.</p> - -<p>At one time Villagran hung thirty caciques. -One of the chiefs requested that he be hanged -on the highest tree, in order that his countrymen -might see him dying for his country. Another<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> -chief, who died a natural death, asked -that his body be burned, in order that he might -arise to the clouds and continue fighting the -dead Spaniards who dwelt there. At the same -time he asked that a successor be chosen, in -order that the war might be continued against -those below. In a later battle the Indians dug -pitfalls for the cavalry, and, when the horses -stumbled into these, they fell upon the riders -and almost annihilated them. The Spanish -leader cut off the feet of many prisoners in -order to terrify their compatriots. Nevertheless, -in spite of these cruelties and some successes -on the part of the invaders, the Indians -were victorious, so that the Spaniards -were again obliged to withdraw. A severe -earthquake, which occurred at this time, also -destroyed some of the town, as the shocks continued -for several months.</p> - -<p>In 1599 seven Spanish cities were destroyed -by the Indians. The city of Imperial was besieged -for sixteen months, during which time -the greatest heroism was shown by both besieged -and besiegers. The Indians ingeniously -diverted the river that supplied the town with -water. It finally succumbed and was destroyed. -Another Spanish city held out against the Indians<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> -for three years, until practically all those -within the fortifications were slain, starved to -death or captured when seeking food. In one -year there were no less than twenty-four murderous -Indian raids. Thus after a conquest of -half a century no permanent results could be -seen. The Indians had learned much from -their oppressors and were better fighters. -They, as well as the Spaniards, had captured -many prisoners, and the Spanish women had -been taken over as wives by the caciques. As -a result of this prolonged conflict the Spanish -government established the river Bio-Bio as -the frontier line, which in itself was quite a -victory for the Indians.</p> - -<p>In 1641 the independence of Araucania was -acknowledged. A few years later, however, -the treaty was broken by the Spaniards in their -slave-hunting expeditions. Another war of -conquest was also begun. The events of the -preceding century were repeated in a number -of instances, until 1703, when the King of -Spain ordered the raids into the Indian country -to cease. For a half century or more there -was comparative peace, although the Spaniards -conducted some desultory raids against -the natives.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span></p> - -<p>During the war of independence some of -these natives fought on the side of Spain, and -others were found on the side of the revolutionists. -As soon as independence was secured, -however, the authorities began to use -the same methods towards these people that -the Spaniards had, and thus alienated whatever -good will might have been felt by them. -Several more or less severe combats followed -which really made it a local civil war. It was -not until Colonel Saavedra adapted a more -conciliatory policy that bloodshed ceased. The -heroic age of the Araucanians had probably -passed away, and the later wars were not so -fierce as those of former years, for the vices -of the Spaniards, especially a liking for brandy, -had fastened themselves upon many of them. -Since 1884, the date of the final agreement with -the Araucanians, they have become more widely -scattered, but those who live in the southern -provinces still follow the old habits and customs -of the early centuries. The people north -of the Bio-Bio River also had much Indian -blood in their veins by this time, and it is -unquestionably true that the Chilean soldiers -of to-day, who are considered brave, -owe very much of this valour to the Araucanians<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> -with whom they have become intermixed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus35"> -<img src="images/illus35.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">OX CARTS.</p> -</div> - -<p>Many Araucanians may be seen in Temuco, -Osorno, Puerto Montt and other southern -towns. They come there to trade. Some are -on horseback, both men and women riding -astride, others come in clumsy ox-carts with -their wheat, corn or other produce. The -women wear bright-coloured blankets, which -are so fastened at the shoulders that the arms -are left bare. The skirts are belted at the -waist and fall about half way between the knee -and ankle, and they are generally barefooted -as well as bareheaded. Those who can afford -it wear immense silver earrings and breast -plates, and fasten their garments with silver -buckles. The men also wear blankets and a -<i>poncho</i>, which is a blanket with a hole in the -centre through which the head is thrust. Few -wear hats, but a red handkerchief or a band -around the head answers for a head covering. -Both sexes are fond of bright colours.</p> - -<p>This race bears a very strong resemblance -to the North American Indians. They are -somewhat lighter in colour, but they have the -same high cheek-bones and straight black hair, -with little or no beard. Polygamy is common<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> -among them, and it is no rare thing to find -two or even three women in the home of an -Araucanian. They seem to get along fairly -well together, and each woman looks after her -own brood of children. Between them they -look after the master of the house and assist -him with his crops. The houses are generally -very simple structures, with low thatched -roofs, and one big door which can be closed up -with skins. The floor is usually the earth -beaten down hard and covered with sheep -skins. The cooking and other household utensils -are of the very crudest and simplest design. -Some of the Araucanians are very good -farmers, and have even progressed to the point -where they have adopted American ploughs and -reapers. Many work on the <i>haciendas</i> of the -rich Chileans, and they are said to make very -good hands. The government allotted lands to -these people with a condition that it can not -be sold, which was a very wise provision. -When an Araucanian acquires a liking for alcohol -he would trade his land, silver jewelry, his -wife or anything else of value in order to indulge -his appetite for drink. When sober they -are very clever traders, and usually manage -to secure full value for their goods.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span></p> - -<p>The Araucanians have never adopted the religion -of the Spaniards as did the Aztecs and -Incas. It is true that there are some churches -among them, but the impress has not been very -great. They still believe in their old superstitions. -The men purchase their wives and then -go through the farce of stealing them. The -“medicine man,” who is oftentimes a woman, -is supposed to be able to ward off evil spirits -and troubles of all kinds. With these people -the evil spirits are believed to be at the bottom -of sickness, bad crops and all other woes. They -believe in a great father who watches over -them, and in a happy hunting ground somewhere -in the beyond to which all those departed -go.</p> - -<p>One of the interesting characters met with -along the Pacific coast of South America is the -calaguayas, or the Indian doctor. One will -find him everywhere, from Panama to the -Araucanian country, carrying with him a pack -filled with dried herbs, cheap jewelry, handkerchiefs, -ribbons, mirrors and other notions, -which he sells to the people. He may be met -with on the trains, the coast steamers or any -other place, and generally carries with him -nothing but the suit he wears and a bright-coloured<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> -<i>poncho</i>, which is thrown over his -shoulders for additional warmth. He may be -seen sunning himself in the plaza of a town or -tramping over mountain trails. This man is -both a trader and tinker, and his sources of -livelihood are many indeed. He can mend a -clock, a tin pan, or a broken piece of crockery. -He can tell fortunes, interpret signs and omens, -or prepare love philters. He is a magician, and -can do all sorts of sleight-of-hand tricks. He -is a conjurer; he helps people who have been -bewitched, and altogether has a reputation for -superior wisdom, which he applies on all possible -occasions.</p> - -<p>The chief business, however, of this unique -character is that of healing the sick, whether -man or beast, for he is equally successful as -a veterinary surgeon, or as a physician for the -human race; and it is really remarkable, as -many white people testify, the knowledge he -has of certain climatic ills to which the people -there are subject, and of herbs which will relieve -them. They claim to have herbs that will -cure everything to which humanity is subject. -It is a fact that there is no section of the globe -to-day where so many modern drugs come -from as the northern half of South America,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> -and it is quite probable that these primitive -doctors first discovered the medicinal value of -many plants that are now common pharmaceutical -terms. Many stories are told among -miners and others, who have been obliged to -live in the interior, where regular physicians -were not obtainable, of climatic fevers and -other illnesses which have been cured by these -doctors.</p> - -<p>“I have herbs that will cure everything,” -said the calaguayas to a doctor who doubted -his skill. As a proof he handed a leaf to the -doubter and asked him to smell it. As the man -did so his nose began to bleed, and he was -unable to stop it. After a time the calaguayas -handed him another leaf, and told him to smell -that. The hemorrhage immediately stopped.</p> - -<p>The botanical knowledge which they possess, -for their medicines are all herbs, has been -handed down from generation to generation, -from the time of the ancient Incas. In fact -their origin is supposed to date from that ancient -race, when the medical men had an official -position at court and in the cities. As it was a -fixed law of the Incas that the son should follow -his father’s occupation, the knowledge of -the father in the use of herbs was passed by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> -him to his son. The natives have much faith -in the skill of these doctors, so much so that -if one of them pronounces a man incurable, further -effort to relieve the afflicted person is generally -abandoned. In fact with some of the -tribes the sick are then exposed, in order to -hasten their death, so it is said.</p> - -<p>There is also said to be a sort of free-masonry -among these doctors for mutual protection, -and they have built huts on some of the -lonesome trails, where the wandering medical -man can seek shelter and make himself as comfortable -as possible. In these rude shelters the -calaguayas is able to take shelter for himself, -if overtaken by storm, for he always carries -in his pack a little jerked beef, parched -corn, beans, and some cocoa leaves, the chewing -of which relieves hunger to some extent -and gives strength for prolonged exertion. In -these wild haunts they also collect in secret -their healing herbs, for they will never allow -any one to accompany them on such expeditions. -It is impossible to get one of them to -tell of what his herbs consist, as they preserve -the greatest secrecy concerning all of them.</p> - -<p>The coming of the calaguayas is usually very -welcome to the communities that he visits, because<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> -he knows everybody; and travelling from -one village to another he carries news and personal -messages, frequently, between friends. -He thus makes himself a travelling post-office -as well as a peripatetic newsmonger.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI<br /> -<span class="smaller">EDUCATION AND THE ARTS</span></h2> - -<p>Modern Chile owes little to the mother country -for its educational system. With the exception -of the establishment of a university -at Santiago, and one or two minor institutions, -Spain almost entirely neglected education in -this province. The wealthy classes sent their -children to Europe for their education, and the -poorer classes were given a little instruction by -the church. The Indians and peons were -taught the catechism and church doctrines in -a desultory way. With that all attempt at general -intellectual development was ended. It is -little wonder that only a small proportion of -the population were able to either read or write, -when the Spanish yoke was thrown off, or that -even to-day, when Chile has celebrated the centennial -of her declaration of independence, her -educational system will not compare favourably -with those found in the Anglo-Saxon and -Teutonic nations of the world.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span></p> - -<p>Education in Chile is absolutely free, though -not compulsory. Within the last few years the -Chilean government has given considerable attention -to public instruction, and has been -greatly extending the school system all over the -country. According to government reports -there were, in 1907, twenty-two hundred and -fifteen elementary schools, with forty-seven -hundred and twenty-nine teachers, and an attendance -of one hundred and seventy thousand -eight hundred and twenty-seven pupils. This -is only a small percentage of those of school -age, according to standards in the United -States. Besides these public schools there -were more than one hundred private schools -for elementary instruction, which were subsidized -by the government.</p> - -<p>The school system is divided into primary, -elementary, secondary and the higher education. -The secondary education, which corresponds -to our high school, is provided in the -National Institute at Santiago, and at lyceums -located in various parts of the republic. One -of these lyceums is maintained in every province -in the republic, no matter how small, and -in every city or town of any importance. -In the same year, above cited, thirty-nine of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> -these institutions were for men and thirty for -women, having a total attendance of almost -twelve thousand. For the higher education -there is a national university at Santiago, -which is an old and well-equipped institution, -and fifteen normal schools located in various -parts of the republic. For technical instruction -there are a number of institutions located -in different parts of the republic, which are -conducted by various societies.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus36"> -<img src="images/illus36.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">THE ESCUELA NAVAL, VALPARAISO.</p> -</div> - -<p>For instruction in agriculture schools are -maintained by the government at Concepción, -Santiago, Talca, San Fernando, Elqui and Salamanca. -These schools are all under the supervision -of the National Society of Agriculture, -and the government contributes liberally toward -their maintenance. There is also a school conducted -at Chillan for practical agricultural instruction. -A number of model farms are maintained -by the government, of which the principal -one is the Quinta Normal in the capital, -and a number of experimental institutions for -the cultivation of vines, trees, etc., are also supported -by the national government. The agricultural -schools, as well as those for the furtherance -of industries and mining, hold expositions -from time to time, in which, the products<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> -of the soil and factories are exhibited, as well -as the latest processes and appliances. To -these exhibitions the government contributes -liberally, in order to acquaint the public with -the latest scientific development. The societies -themselves are formed by a large number -of prominent Chileans, who devote considerable -time and energy to the development and improvement -of these industries.</p> - -<p>Commercial schools have been established at -Iquique, Antofagasta, Valparaiso, Santiago, -Concepción, Vallenar, Coquimbo, Talca and -San Carlos. A number of industrial schools -are conducted under the direction of the society -for the improvement of industries, where -technical instruction is given to those preparing -them for such occupations as engineers, -electricians, architects, plumbers, masons, etc. -At Copiapó, Santiago and La Serena, the government -has established schools for the practical -instruction of mining engineers and mining -in general.</p> - -<p>Military and naval education is given in ten -different academies, located in different parts -of the republic. One of the best of these is -the Escuela Naval at Valparaiso, which is situated -on a commanding location overlooking<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> -the lower town and bay. As the navy of Chile -commands great consideration this branch of -the educational system receives considerable -attention, and the cadets are put through a -very thorough course of instruction by able -instructors. The University of Santiago, as -well as a university under the supervision of -the Catholic Church, gives instruction in law, -political science, music, dentistry, civil engineering, -physics and mathematics. Then, in -addition, there is a National Conservatory of -Music, a School of Fine Arts, a National Observatory, -an Institute for the Deaf and Dumb, -and a School for the Blind.</p> - -<p>A number of public libraries have been established -in various cities, at the head of which -is the National Library at Santiago, which contains -a valuable collection of books and manuscripts. -Next to this in importance is the public -library at Valparaiso. Several other cities -have followed the lead of these two and established -free public libraries. Museums of natural -history and also of arts are maintained in -Santiago.</p> - -<p>The newspaper in Chile is as much of an -institution as it is in the United States. In the -cities of Valparaiso and Santiago one will find<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> -the newspapers equipped with an energetic -staff of reporters, who have, what Americans -would call, a good nose for news. Each one, -like his American counterpart, is trying to beat -his competitor, and acquire at least temporary -notoriety and fame.</p> - -<p><i>El Mercurio</i> is the most noted newspaper of -the country, and publishes editions in Valparaiso, -Santiago and Concepción. It ranks with -<i>La Prensa</i>, in Buenos Aires, and the <i>Jornal do -Comercio</i>, in Rio de Janeiro. In the two -former cities <i>El Mercurio</i> owns fine buildings, -which are superior in their equipments to the -average newspaper office in the United States. -It has not only provided good quarters for its -editors, reporters, printers and other employees, -but has dining-rooms, private parlours, -baths, bedrooms, assembly-rooms, and other -features which American newspaper plants are -not equipped with. In these rooms entertainments -are given for the public, noted visitors -to that country are entertained, and many -other features of more or less public interest -are provided for the people. The owner of <i>El -Mercurio</i> is Mr. Augustin Edwards, who is a -member of a famous banking family of Santiago, -and has occupied various official positions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> -in the country. <i>El Mercurio</i> was founded in -Valparaiso in 1827 and in Santiago in 1900. It -has long been one of the show things in Chile. -The editorials in the editions are the same, but -the news columns differ considerably because -of local interest.</p> - -<p>One will find the editors of these papers as -well informed as the editors of the leading -newspapers in the United States, and their -information covers the whole world, perhaps -better than the average American editor. If -there is any distinguished foreigner visiting -the country the reporters eagerly interview -him, and the matter is displayed in headlines -which are quite similar to the land of yellow -journalism. In fact, in general make-up the -Chilean newspapers more nearly resemble -those of the United States than the journals -of any other country of South America. In -foreign news one will find two or three pages -of cable dispatches in <i>El Mercurio</i>, much more -than is printed in papers published by newspapers -in cities of similar size in the United -States. The <i>vida social</i> (society column) has -much news concerning <i>las distinguidas señoras -y señoritas</i>. Interspersed with accounts of -balls, parties, weddings, visitors, etc., will be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> -obituaries and notices of funerals. Echoes of -the get-rich-quick commercialism will be seen -in the advertising space, where columns of -advertisements of banks, nitrate companies and -promotion companies appear. Rates of exchange, -the movement of the stock market and -other items of commercial interest occupy a -prominent place. Sport is prominent, of which -football is an integral part, having been made -popular by the British residents. The entries -in the horse races, together with the various -riders and their weights, form a part of the -racing gossip, much as in English newspapers. -In fact these cosmopolitan publications provide -much interesting reading for all who can read -them.</p> - -<p><i>Zig-Zag</i> of Santiago, and <i>Sucesos</i>, of Valparaiso, -are two illustrated weeklies, which are -really admirable and enterprising publications. -Each edition is practically a pictorial record -of the week both at home and abroad. There -will be photographs of those prominent in the -social and political life, pictured scenes of the -leading events of the week, cartoons and news -of the world depicted from the illustrated publications -of other countries. There is one English -newspaper published in Valparaiso. One<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> -feature, which is always displayed in the Chilean -newspaper, is an editorial on the foremost -topic of the day. It is given the leading position, -every one reads it, and it is generally the -topic of conversation for the following day. -These editorials are generally well worth the -reading, for they not only display knowledge -but a catholicity of treatment that speaks well -for the Chilean.</p> - -<p><i>La Union</i> also publishes editions in Santiago -and Valparaiso, and it is a well edited and well -conducted paper. Other newspapers of more -or less importance are <i>El Dia</i>, <i>La Lei</i>, <i>La Patria</i>, -<i>El Chileno</i>, <i>La Reforma</i>, <i>El Diario Popular</i> -and <i>Las Ultimas Noticias</i>, and others. In -all there are more than two hundred publications -of all kinds. Every one who can read at -all generally reads about all the newspapers, -so that even though the reading class is not -as large as with us, yet the circulation of these -newspapers is very creditable. Nevertheless -one wonders how they are all supported and -manage to survive.</p> - -<p>Like all Spanish people the writers, though -not numerous, are usually voluminous. The -number is not great because of the lack of readers -and library privileges. One Spanish writer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> -says that the circle of readers in each Spanish-American -nation is in smaller numbers than in -a single street in London, a square in Paris, -or a district in Italy. Such a statement is not -true of Chile, for Santiago, Valparaiso and -Concepción have large numbers of educated -Chileans. But it is true that the writer has a -small circle as compared with the clientele of -an American, English or German author. Chilean -writers have been the most prolific of any -of the countries on the Pacific coast of South -America. The comparatively stable rule for -four decades was conducive to literary development. -The French influence in literature is -more noted than any other, and especially so -in literature of the lighter vein.</p> - -<p>Before independence the chief subjects were -history, religion and poetry, and many of the -writers were ecclesiastics. Since the establishment -of the republic fiction, philosophy and -political economy have been prominent, and -lay writers have taken precedence over ecclesiastics. -Ramon Briceño and Venturo Marin are -two well known writers of modern philosophy -and ethics. Other Chilean writers along similar -lines were Errázuriz, Casanova, Aracena -Lopez, Arrasco, Albano and José Lara. Andres<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> -Bello is a name that towers above all. -Says Professor Currier: “I regard him as -one of the most extraordinary men that the -Western Hemisphere has produced. Entirely -a self-made man, he explored almost every -field of human knowledge, and his numerous -works testify to his labours. Poet, philosopher, -linguist, philologist, litterateur, historian, educator -and jurist, such was Bello. His civil code -of Chile places him among the world’s legislators. -It is, perhaps, to be regretted that in -his earlier years his attention was so much -divided among various subjects that many of -his labours remain unfinished. Few countries -can boast of a man so versatile and of such -intellectual activity as Bello.”</p> - -<p>Journalism in Chile, like the other Spanish-American -republics, is an important profession. -One of the greatest journalists Chile has -produced was Zorobabel Rodriguez, who exercised -immense influence on public thought for -many years. His editorials were the ordinary -topics at the breakfast table, and were looked -for by all parties from day to day. Rodriguez -was also a poet, novelist and all-round literary -man.</p> - -<p>Chile has produced a number of historical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> -writers. Among these might be mentioned the -brothers Miguel Luis and Gregorio Victor -Amunategui, Manuel Bilbao, Vicuña Mackenna -and Diego Barrios Araña. Many have dropped -into poetry, for such a form of writing is popular -and natural with the Spanish race. The -drama is also an important branch of Spanish -literature and Chile has produced her fair -share of dramatists. The best known is probably -Carlos Walker Martinez, who succeeded -in touching a sympathetic and patriotic chord. -A number of novels have also been written by -Chilean writers, but they are unknown among -English readers.</p> - -<p>The artistic is a strong element in the Latin -character. Foremost with the Italians, perhaps, -it also bears a vital relation to the Spaniard. -Any one who has visited any of the -Latin-American countries has not failed to observe -this trait, for art has been well preserved -in the New World, wherever either Spaniards -or Portuguese have held sway. In Chile this -art has not been tinged so much with Indian -influences as in Mexico. Here is found the -transplanted art of the Spaniard with very little -modification. There are many fine churches, -of which the cathedral of Santiago is the most<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> -noted example. It is a fine specimen of ecclesiastical -architecture. Hospitals and other public -buildings are built with an eye to the artistic. -Plazas are arranged with skill, and fine -statues abound all over the cities. Municipal -theatres have been built in several cities. The -Municipal Theatre of Santiago is a commodious -building and of artistic design. Although -it will not compare with the Colon Theatre of -Buenos Aires, or those in Rio de Janeiro or -Sao Paulo, Brazil, it is an artistic building. -Through the aid of a subsidy from the national -treasury operatic talent is brought from Europe -for at least a few weeks each season.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORTATION</span></h2> - -<p>Peace as well as war has its heroes. In the -industrial development of Chile there are two -names of North Americans that deserve to -stand side by side with those of O’Higgins and -Cochrane, heroes of the war of independence. -In Valparaiso will be found a monument to the -memory of William Wheelwright, who had the -vision of a Franklin. Chance determined the -destiny of this remarkable man. Wrecked on -the shores of the Rio de la Plata, in 1823, the -youthful Wheelwright saw the needs of this -great continent, and he determined to devote -his energies towards the development of harbours -and transportation. He became a supercargo -on a vessel bound around Cape Horn, -and in this way reached Valparaiso. At first -he was looked upon as a dreamer. American -capitalists turned down his scheme, and even -the British did not welcome him at first.</p> - -<p>“If that insane Wheelwright calls here<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> -again,” said an English consul to his servant, -“do not admit him.” Nothing daunted, however, -Wheelwright went to London and succeeded -in interesting some moneyed men in a -scheme for direct transportation between England -and the west coast. The first steamship -traversed the Straits of Magellan under this -concession and reached a Chilean port in 1840. -This was the beginning of the Pacific Steam -Navigation Company, which proved of inestimable -benefit in the upbuilding of Chile and -Peru. It was not many years until this company -was operating vessels as far as Panama.</p> - -<p>The next vision of this master of industry -was the problem of conquering the Andes. -Could they be penetrated? Could the seemingly -insurmountable difficulties be overcome? -He planned a railroad from the port of Caldera -across the Andes. This port was opened -and the railroad constructed as far as Copiapó. -This scheme got no farther, but it was only the -beginning of colossal schemes. He planned -and built the railroad from Valparaiso toward -the capital as far as Llai Llai, but there it -stopped because of lack of funds. His struggles -with the opposition to this line read like -some of the contests in the English Parliament<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> -over the first railroad projects. Wheelwright -then turned his attention to Argentina and -built the first railroad in that republic, a line -from Rosario to Cordoba, a distance of two -hundred and forty-six miles. His last public -work was a short railroad running from -Buenos Aires to Ensenada, in 1873. Although -he had further plans for public improvements -his health failed, and he sailed for London to -seek medical advice, where he died that same -year. His remains are buried at Newburyport, -Mass., the place of his birth, where they lie -amidst a long line of sturdy Puritan ancestors.</p> - -<p>In Catskill, New York, a boy was born on the -7th of July, 1811. His name was Henry -Meiggs. His history reads like romance, for -he made and lost several fortunes both on the -Atlantic and the Pacific coasts. Elected as -treasurer of San Francisco County, California, -he loaned public money to friends who did not -pay it back. He then fled as a defaulter to -South America. He first landed in Chile. The -uncompleted railroad to the capital, that had -been begun by Wheelwright, first engaged the -mental activities of this remarkable man. For -a decade the government had been planning to -extend this railroad “to-morrow.” Meiggs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> -negotiated with the government and finally -secured the contract. With characteristic Yankee -ingenuity he succeeded in getting a clause -inserted giving a premium for each section -completed within a specified time. He succeeded -in building each section in the shortest -period and collected the maximum premium. -The result was that Meiggs realized a profit of -more than a million dollars, and made a great -reputation for himself. Since that time the -Chilean government is very chary about such -bonuses.</p> - -<p>Meiggs married a Chilean woman and built -a magnificent residence in Santiago. But his -later enterprises were in Peru. He built the -railroad from Mollendo to Arequipa. His -greatest undertaking, however, was the famous -Oroya Railroad over the Andes, the highest -railroad in the world and one of its wonders. -Great gorges were surmounted, rushing streams -spanned with bridges where such work seemed -impossible, tunnels bored where men had to -hang over precipices by means of ropes to -secure a start and other obstacles of nature -were overcome. Before the completion of the -road Meiggs was compelled to use his own private -fortune. But he accomplished the task.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> -One hears many tales of this eccentric man in -Chile and Peru. It stands to his credit that, -although he lived in luxury and spent money -lavishly, he paid all his debts back in the land -of his birth in order to stand before the world -as an honest man.</p> - -<p>The problem of connecting the widely separated -sections of Chile with easy and convenient -means of transportation has been and -is a serious one. It was but natural, owing to -the long extent of coast line, that the first attention -of the Chilean government was given -to ocean navigation. Furthermore, the Chileans -have proven to be good navigators, and -the record of their steamships has been very -good. There has been the further advantage -in developing this means of transportation in -the fact that no part of Chile is very far distant -from the Pacific coast. This has developed -a large number of short railways, which -run from the ports to the mineral or agricultural -districts of the interior. There are in all -sixteen ports open to international commerce, -and forty-four inferior ports which are used -in the coast trade. The different character of -the northern, central and southern sections -has created a demand for exchange of products<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> -between those sections, which has made the -coast trade of great importance.</p> - -<p>The ports of Chile were opened to the commerce -of all the world as soon as the independent -government was fully organized. It is a -historic fact that among the first vessels that -arrived in Chile, after independence had been -achieved, was a frigate from New York, which -brought one of the first printing presses to -South America and also some American printers, -who established the first Chilean periodical. -At first Valparaiso claimed nearly all of -the tonnage, because of its nearness to the capital. -At that time, also, the Chilean seacoast -was not more than half as long as it is at the -present time. Vessels soon began to operate -under the Chilean flag, although most of the -first vessels were owned by foreign capital. As -early as 1834 there were no less than one hundred -and thirty-four national vessels, principally -engaged in the coast trade. When William -Wheelwright organized the Pacific Steam -Navigation Company a new era in Chilean -prosperity was begun. Two vessels, the <i>Chile</i> -and <i>Peru</i>, both of them small boats, constituted -the beginning of the fleet which finally developed -into the great company, which for many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> -years plied between the west coast and Europe. -It has recently been absorbed by another English -company, the Royal Mail Steam Packet -Company.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus37"> -<img src="images/illus37.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">THE HARBOUR, VALPARAISO.</p> -</div> - -<p>This English company, as well as other companies, -were subsidized by the Chilean government, -in order to get better coast service between -the various ports. This service was -eventually extended to the city of Panama. In -1870 the most powerful Chilean company was -organized under the name of the Compañia -Sul Americana de Vapores, which soon became -a very active competitor of the English company. -The number of its vessels was continually -added to, most of them being built by -English shipbuilders, until to-day this company -has more than twenty boats. Many of -these are very comfortable steamers, of considerable -capacity, and operate all the way between -Puerto Montt and Panama. In addition -to this company, there are a number of small -companies, owned by Chilean capital, and other -steamers belonging to private individuals, or -business houses which carry on a coast trade -more or less extensive. The Chilean company -and the English company, which for a long -time were active rivals, have at last entered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> -into an operating agreement. By the terms of -this agreement the government subsidy is -shared, and the two companies operate an alternating -service between Valparaiso and Panama. -The laws of Chile governing maritime -transportation are very liberal, and the fees -levied at the various ports are exceedingly reasonable. -It has been recognized by Chile that -the development of commercial relations with -the various countries of America depends, to -a great extent, upon the existence of regular -and rapid lines of navigation which will transport -products at reasonable rates.</p> - -<p>The government has spent a great deal of -money in recent years in dredging the channels, -placing buoys at the dangerous points and -erecting lighthouses along the coast, until to-day -there are more than fifty lighthouses which -are regularly maintained by Chile.</p> - -<p>What will eventually prove to be the backbone -of the Chilean railway system is termed -the Longitudinal Railway, work upon which is -being prosecuted actively by the government at -various places. When completed it is planned -to have a continuous railway from Tacna, in -the north, to Puerto Montt, at the south, a distance -of almost two thousand miles. It has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> -been found that wherever the railroad has been -extended, development has followed. This has -been especially true of the great central valley -through which rails have been laid as far as -Osorno, only seventy-eight miles from Puerto -Montt. This line has been constructed entirely -by the government. It is built of standard -gauge width, and also upon the same gauge for -some distance north of Santiago. Through the -north central part of Chile the government -roads have all been built upon the narrow -gauge plan, one metre in width, because the -occasional transverse spurs of the Andes, -which run toward the coast, have made construction -more difficult, and it has been easier -to make the necessary curves by using that -gauge, so that the line could be built as inexpensive -as possible. At the present time nearly -all of the energies of the government are being -applied to the completion of this great project, -which has already cost it many millions of -dollars.</p> - -<p>A little more than one-half of the railway -mileage in Chile has been built and is owned -by the government itself. It has not been a -profitable enterprise, for it costs about ninety-five -per cent. of the gross income for operating<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span> -expenses and maintenance. One reason for -this, of course, is that the government lines, -many of them, have been built through thinly-settled -territory, and where traffic up to the -present time has been very light. Then, again, -the charges upon these state railways are entirely -too small, for nowhere can one travel so -cheaply as upon the government railways of -Chile. Then there is also the problem which a -government must always face, in operating -a public utility enterprise, that the officials, -whose duty it is to look after the work, do not -apply to it the same careful attention to detail, -do not get as much work out of their employees -as a private corporation, and are likely to take -a chance at some form of graft when the -opportunity affords. The question has been -seriously considered by the government of placing -the operation of the principal lines in the -hands of a private company; in fact, one company -has made a proposition to operate the road -between Santiago and Valparaiso, and take for -its profit simply what it can save in the cost -of operation over the present cost.</p> - -<p>In the northern provinces there are a number -of railways operating from the coast up a -greater or lesser distance inland. The oldest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span> -railway in the republic, as well as in South -America, runs from Caldera to Copiapó. As -heretofore mentioned, this great undertaking -was due to William Wheelwright. It was his -plan to continue this railway over the Andes, -and it is said by engineers to present fewer -difficulties than the one finally chosen, which -was partly on sentimental grounds. It is quite -possible that the dream of the American captain -of industry may some day come true as development -continues. It was never extended -further than the first terminus, over which the -first locomotive was run in 1851. The first locomotive -exported from the United States was -used on this railroad. A number of short -branches have now been built connecting with -this main line, but rail connection with the -Federal capital is still a thing of “to-morrow.”</p> - -<p>The most northern railway runs from the -port of Arica to Tacna, and is only about forty -miles in length. From Arica an international -railroad is being built across the Andes into -Bolivia, in accordance with a treaty entered into -between the two countries. It will not pass -through Tacna, as an independent route has -been selected which promised fewer difficulties. -It is only about one hundred and forty miles to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span> -the Bolivian frontier by this route, and only a -little greater distance from there to La Paz. -This will make the shortest and most direct -route to the Bolivian capital. The contract has -been let for the entire work, but it is proceeding -very slowly.</p> - -<p>Proceeding along the coast the next railway -centre is in the nitrate district, where a number -of short railways connect Iquique, Pisagua, -Tocapilla, Caleta Buena and other towns in that -district, making up a total of nearly four -hundred miles. Antofagasta also has some -short spurs which run back into the mineral -regions, and carry the ore down to that port. -The principal line at this place, however, -is the international railway which runs from -Antofagasta to the Bolivian city of Oruro, and -there connects with a Bolivian railway which -runs to the capital, La Paz. This railway is -constructed upon an extremely narrow gauge -of thirty inches. The Chilean section of the -railway ends at Ollague, a distance of two -hundred and seventy-five miles. This railway -was originally built to aid in developing some -of the rich mines in Potosi, Bolivia. By the aid -of a government subsidy, it was finally completed -in 1892. This is the largest private railway<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span> -enterprise in Chile. It would be difficult -to imagine a more dreary route over which a -railway could be planned than the Chilean -section of this railway. At first the question of -a water supply for the engines was a serious -problem, as the water which they were able to -secure easily was so permeated with minerals -that it destroyed the boilers. The concession -of supplying the city of Antofagasta with -water was finally conceded to the railway -company, and, with that monopoly as an -aid, pipes were laid for a distance of more -than two hundred miles to supply the water -tanks of the railway and the city of -Antofagasta. The freight hauled over this road -is quite considerable, since it is one of the two -lines which at present reach from the coast to -the republic of Bolivia. Half or more of the -freight, to and from that inland republic, is -shipped by this route, in addition to the product -of the mines of the famous Huanchaca Company.</p> - -<p>In the province of Coquimbo there are several -short sections of railroad, all of which were -constructed by the government. In all these -lines total about two hundred miles. It will not -be long until Coquimbo will be connected with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span> -the main line by a longitudinal railway. In -the northern section of the country there are -no less than fourteen different lines, and at -least three different gauges of track.</p> - -<p>The railways of the central valley from -Santiago south form the most extensive system -in the republic. All of these railways, with the -exception of a very few branches, belong to the -state, and they form a single system which -unites the principal sections of population -throughout that section. The main track follows -the longitudinal valley from north to south in -a line which keeps to the same general direction -until it ends at Osorno. In its course this system -crosses no less than a dozen of the provinces -of Chile. Construction has been fairly -difficult, and the expense of bridges has been -unusually high. There are many long and high -bridges, such as those across the Maule, Maipo, -Mallico, Laja and Bio-Bio rivers. Most of them -have been of French construction. From -Santiago to Llanquihue, there are a number of -cross railways which run from this main line -to the ports, and also some that run inland -toward the Andes for a short distance. These -were built by the government in its efforts to -open up the unpopulated sections. In the carboniferous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span> -zone around the Bay of Arauco there -are a number of branches which connect the -mines, the mining towns and the ports. It will -not be long until the railway will be extended -to Puerto Montt, which will complete the -present plans of the government for southern -extension.</p> - -<p>There are no less than half a dozen transandine -railways which have been planned, and -for which concessions have been granted by the -government of Chile. Two have been completed, -two more have had actual work done -in the way of construction and the other two -are still visionary. One project, which bodes -very fair to reach completion, is a railroad that -will have for its terminal points the Chilean -port of Talcahuano and Bahia Blanca, Argentina. -It will run through Monte Aguila and -Cholguan, and cross the Andes at Lake Laja. -There it will connect with the Great Southern -Railway of Argentina, which has already been -built from Bahia Blanca to Neuquen, and which -is now being extended from there to Chos -Malal. The Andes at this point are not nearly -so high as farther north, so that fewer difficulties -will be encountered in the construction -than on those transandine railways which have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span> -already been built. It will necessitate a tunnel -about one mile in length only to pass the summit. -Engineers who have surveyed this route -report it as very feasible and strongly recommend -it. It is several hundred miles south of -both Valparaiso and Buenos Aires, passes -through an extremely rich agricultural country -and ought to be constructed before many years. -It will be of distinct advantage to both republics.</p> - -<p>Interest in railroad construction in Chile in -recent years has centred in the transandine -railway via Juncal and Uspallata pass, the -historic route by which General San Martin -led his conquering legions into that country. -Its completion in the spring of 1910 was a -significant event, which was duly celebrated -by both Chile and Argentina. Just a half -century had passed since Wheelwright first -suggested to English capitalists the feasibility -of a railroad across the Andes to connect the -Atlantic with the Pacific, when the first train -passed through the two mile tunnel that pierced -the international barrier of rock at this point. -Trains are now running regularly, and the -interruption caused by the winter snows is at -an end. This is the first line to connect the two<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span> -oceans, and, to the South Americans, it was -as great an event as the opening of the first -transcontinental railroad in the United States. -The distance from Valparaiso to Buenos Aires -is eight hundred and eighty-eight miles, and -the trip is made in thirty-eight hours. It is -hoped by the officials, however, to reduce the -running time to twenty-nine hours in the course -of time.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus38"> -<img src="images/illus38.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">JUNCAL STATION.</p> -</div> - -<p>The first practical steps in this undertaking -were made by two English-Chilean engineers, -John and Matthew Clark. They obtained the -necessary concession from Argentina in 1872, -and from Chile two years later. The Chilean -government guaranteed seven per cent. on a -capital of three millions of dollars. But this -concession was unsatisfactory. In 1889 the -actual work of construction was begun, but it -was stopped after less than twenty miles had -been completed. The old concession having -lapsed a new one was granted in 1903 to the -Transandine Construction company on a five -per cent. guarantee for twenty years. In 1906 -the road was opened to Juncal, and in 1909 to -Caracoles, the mouth of the Chilean end of the -tunnel. The entire distance from Los Andes to -the tunnel is forty-eight miles. In that distance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span> -the altitude rises almost eight thousand feet. -The grade in places reaches eight per cent. -There are several miles of the Abt system of -cogs. Tunnels and bridges are numerous, and -a number of avalanche sheds have been built. -The Chilean slopes of the Andes are much more -abrupt than those on the Argentina side, and -the work of construction has been correspondingly -more difficult. It provides a grand -scenic route for the jaded continental traveller -that furnishes scenery as grandly picturesque -as anywhere else in the world.</p> - -<p>One unfortunate feature is the differing -width of track. It will be necessary to reload -freight three times in the journey across the -continent. From Valparaiso to Los Andes the -gauge is standard. Between Los Andes and -Mendoza it is one metre, and from Mendoza to -Buenos Aires it is five feet eight inches. This -may possibly be changed in the future, but it -will be many years. In the meantime much -trouble and extra work will be necessitated in -freight traffic. To the passenger it means only -a little annoyance, but not much delay.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;" id="illus39"> -<img src="images/illus39.jpg" width="420" height="650" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">TRANSANDINO CHILENO RAILWAY, SHOWING ABT SYSTEM OF COGS.</p> -</div> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII<br /> -<span class="smaller">RELIGIOUS INFLUENCES</span></h2> - -<p>In order to fully understand the anomalous -position occupied by Church and State in the -Spanish-American republics, it will be well to -go back several centuries and study for a -moment the development of the clerical policy -of Spain, and its relations with the Church of -Rome. With the discovery of the New World, -the Church was placed in a position where it -felt called upon to do something which it was -next to impossible to undertake independently. -It felt the responsibility of evangelizing the -heathen in the newly-discovered countries, and -yet it appreciated its inability to assume this -burden, because it had not the means to -propagate religion amongst a hostile people, -which could only be advanced efficiently by -means of a costly expedition. Hence it was necessary -for the Holy See to proceed to convert -the inhabitants of the New World through -ecclesiastics, or other persons who followed the -invading forces.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span></p> - -<p>In compliance with this view the Pope issued -the famous bull of Alexander VI, in 1493, -which is in part as follows: “We give, concede -and assign them (lands in the New World) -in perpetuity to you and the Kings of Castile -and of Leon, your heirs and successors: and -we make, constitute and depute you and your -heirs and successors, the aforesaid, lords of -these lands, with free, full and absolute power, -authority and jurisdiction.”<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> This absolute -power granted to Spain was not used against -the Church, as subsequent events showed, for -the priests and monks everywhere accompanied -the soldiers, and conquests of the civil power -were invariably attended with at least the -nominal conversion of the natives to Christianity. -This alliance placed in the absolute power -of the king of Spain the privilege to name the -priests, or other ecclesiastics, who might accompany -the expeditions, and gave him absolute -power over their work. All causes of friction -between bishops, priests and other dignitaries -were decided alone by the sovereign or his -representatives in the New World, although it -might be regarded entirely as a spiritual matter.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span> -Under the interpretation given to this papal -authority, the King of Spain had it within his -power to define the boundaries of the archbishoprics -and bishoprics, and the Church was -even compelled to secure his consent for the -erection of vicarages, churches, monasteries, -convents and other places for religious worship.</p> - -<p>One decree of the King of Spain, which is -similar to many others, reads as follows: “We -wish and command that there shall not be -created, instituted, founded or conceded any -cathedral or parochial church, monastery, hospital, -votive church, or any other pious or -religious place without our express command, -or that of the person who shall have our authority -of commission for this purpose.” And -again, “That there shall not be instituted or -established any archbishopric, dignitary, canonry, -prebend, benefice, curacy, or any other -benefice or ecclesiastical or religious office without -our consent or presentation.” At another -time it was decreed: “If in effect, or by dissimulation, -any person shall make or begin to -make any of these edifices without this prerequisite -the viceroys, audiencas or governors -shall cause them to be demolished, and everything<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span> -reduced to its previous state without -cause or delay.” For the erection of the -cathedral churches the royal treasury contributed -one-third.</p> - -<p>These privileges were at first jealously -guarded by the royal authorities. In maintaining -the right of patronage the civil courts were -given jurisdiction instead of the ecclesiastical -courts, which likewise gave the civil authorities -an advantage. There was in each bishopric, -however, an ecclesiastical court over whose -decision appeal might be made to the archbishop. -The cases which might be brought before -this court were those which concerned -tithes, patronages, marriages, legitimation, funerals, -donations to churches and such other -pious matters. If a case arose in which a layman -brought action against a priest, this was -tried before an ecclesiastical church, but, if a -priest brought action against a layman, the -cause was tried before a secular tribunal. The -Church likewise had a general council, which -was composed of a number of archbishops, -cardinals and other high church officials. It -was the general aim of the Church to have the -ecclesiastical division correspond with the civil -divisions of the territory, thus making the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span> -political capitals also the seats of religious -authorities, although there were exceptions to -this rule. One of these was in Chile, where, -although the captaincy-general of Chile was independent -of the vice-royalty of Peru, yet the -Bishop of Santiago was subservient to the -Archbishop of Lima. Thus at every step -in the administration of ecclesiastical affairs in -America, the authority and domination of the -civil power was recognized. In the first century -of the colonial period the Archbishop of -Lima was the metropolitan for all of South -America under Spanish rule, but this was later -divided.</p> - -<p>Wherever the Spaniards established themselves -in America, they made the natives serfs, -and forced them to approximately unrequited -labour. Looking upon these natives as an inferior -race, it soon became unpopular among -the Spaniards to perform any labour which -might be considered menial. This made the -opportunities for profitable employment comparatively -scarce. The doors of the monasteries -were always open, however, and the life -within the cloisters, although seemingly one of -self abnegation and denial, in reality offered -opportunities for intellectual development, for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span> -vague contemplation and day dreaming, and -also a chance to enjoy more of the things of -the world than fell to the lot of the average -man outside of the cloistered walls. Furthermore, -the fact that the ecclesiastical offices were -at the disposal of the representatives of the -Crown gave opportunities to those persons to -favour friends who wore the cloak of the -Church, which they could not do if the same -persons were following secular pursuits, because -of the limited number of positions at their -disposal in civil life. Hence it was that the -ranks of the ecclesiastics came to be recruited -not so much from those who were religiously -inclined, as from those who sought ease, indulgence -in the appetites and passions, and -were ambitious for power and authority.</p> - -<p>A century after the beginning of Spanish -rule, the missionaries on the frontier had lost -their enthusiasm to make converts, and thereafter -assisted in advancing the civilization of -the natives very little. The cupidity of those -priests, who were not noted for their piety, was -excited by the opportunities which their position -gave them. There were numerous opportunities -to charge fees and perquisites for the -services required of them, and they took full<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span> -advantage of it. Furthermore, they sold to -the Indians various articles, such as rosaries -and images, at an enormous profit, and persuaded -them to labour upon their buildings and -in their little settlements without compensation -other than a bare living. Likewise many persons -who had acquired great wealth in the New -World, but had probably lived reckless and -immoral lives, when nearing the end of -life were anxious to secure absolution for their -sins, and as short an experience as possible in -the purgatory of the next world. The representatives -of the Church urged upon them the -necessity of giving all of their worldly goods -into its keeping, in return for the desired absolution. -The mysticism with which the Church -surrounded itself was favourable to the securing -of such a boon, and the monastic and convent -orders accordingly accumulated great -wealth.</p> - -<p>Thus it was that the power of the Church -in the later period of colonial rule was greatly -increased through the accumulation of wealth, -and through the access to its ranks of men -who were influenced by political and covetous, -rather than pious principles. After a century -or more from the beginning of Spanish rule<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span> -the church dignitaries were able to a great extent -to defy the civil authorities. As a natural -consequence, the civil authorities then sought -the aid and influence of the ecclesiastics. The -evil effects of these various influences upon the -Church can be traced down even to the present -time in Chile, as well as the other countries -in South America. Most of the political -troubles have been the result of friction between -the conservatives, who were aided by -the Church, and the liberals, who were intent -upon restricting the power of that body.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus40"> -<img src="images/illus40.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A CHILEAN PRIEST.</p> -</div> - -<p>The wealth of the Catholic Church in Chile -is still enormous, even after a considerable -portion of it has been taken by the government -for public uses. Many of the public school -and college buildings were formerly the property -of the Jesuit or other monastic order. It -is said that the church property in Santiago -alone is worth not less than one hundred -million dollars in gold. It owns some of the -best business blocks, as well as hundreds of -houses, and great <i>haciendas</i> upon which wine -is manufactured and other products raised. -A great part of this wealth is owned by the -various orders established in the country. The -Carmelite nuns of Santiago are a very wealthy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span> -organization and possess an enormous income. -These nuns never allow their faces to be seen -by men. The monastic order, known as the -Dominican Friars, is also a very wealthy body. -They dress in black hats and gowns, with -white flannel undergowns which reach clear to -the feet. This gives them quite a strange -appearance to one not familiar with the sight -of such costumes worn by religious orders.</p> - -<p>The Catholic Church of the west coast of -South America is less liberal than on the east -coast. The reason for this condition, probably, -is that it has been less influenced by outside -causes, because of the comparative isolation -of the countries and remoteness from Europe. -One will find still less liberality as you proceed -along the west coast from Chile northward. -In Chile, there is an element of tolerance -towards other forms of worship, at least on -the part of the officials. Protestant churches -exist in nearly all of the towns of any size, and -quite a number of mission workers are busily -engaged in spreading their doctrines. In Peru, -a few Protestant congregations exist. They -are not allowed to own churches, and their -congregations are gathered together by printed -invitations, which is simply a means of evading<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span> -the letter of the law that is permitted by the -authorities. In Ecuador, although the government -attempts to observe religious tolerance, -yet the power of the priesthood is so strong -that Protestant workers outside of Quito and -Guayaquil are oftentimes exposed to danger -of violence.</p> - -<p>“The religion of the republic of Chile is -the Roman Apostolic Catholic to the exclusion -of any other.” These are the words of the -Constitution of Chile, which thus gives to the -Roman Catholic Church the protection and -support of the government. Nevertheless -religious freedom prevails for, by an act of -July 27, 1865, it was established that those who -do not profess the Roman Catholic religion -are allowed to worship within the enclosure -of private buildings, and are permitted to -establish and maintain schools in the doctrine -of their respective faiths. From a religious -standpoint the republic is divided into one -archbishopric, three bishoprics and two vicarages. -The cathedral at Santiago is the church -of the archbishop, and a magnificent residence -for his use stands alongside of the church. -The bishoprics are known as Serena, Concepción -and Ancud. Two ecclesiastical vicarages<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span> -have been established at Antofagasta and -Tarapacá.</p> - -<p>The Catholic Church in Chile, however, is -as different from the same church in the United -States as it is possible for two branches of -the same general head to be. There is no spirit -of liberality, and no general purpose to recognize -religious freedom except as it is compelled -by law. The influx of foreigners has naturally -modified things to some extent, because many -of those coming in have been members of -Protestant denominations, but the old condition -of affairs has not yet been entirely eradicated.</p> - -<p>It is the women who support the Church, -and they are intense devotees of its worship. -The men are generally absolutely indifferent -to religion in any form. As a prominent -Chilean gentleman told me, “we leave the -women attend to the religious duties.” This -statement seemed to be borne out by the facts, -as a number of visits to different churches at -the hour of mass showed that not one out of -perhaps fifteen or twenty present were men. -The others were entirely women, girls and -small children. The power of the priesthood -over the women is very strong, and it is in -this way that they exert whatever influence<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span> -they have, as the women will blindly do anything -that the priests advise them to do.</p> - -<p>This condition of affairs would be less -reprehensible, if every member of the priesthood -was an intelligent and proper person. It -is an unfortunate fact, however, that many -members of the priesthood come from the lower -strata of society, rather than from the higher. -They are persons of low intelligence, rather -than men of high attainments. To this class -of priests is due many of the strange practices -which one will find in the churches, or see done -in the name of the Church in the remote districts. -Some of the processions are so grotesque -that they seem almost ridiculous, and -certainly would not have the direct approval -of the Pontiff. As one of the priests said: -“The ignorant people of these regions are fond -of demonstrations in which they can participate, -and it does them more good to carry a -banner and walk in a procession than you can -imagine. If the Church does not provide such -amusements, the politicians will do so, and it -is very important that we keep our people -under our own control.” It is upon this theory, -that the ignorant natives demand these public -processions, that they are permitted to exist.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span> -But the fact that they also provide a considerable -source of revenue probably has -something to do with their continuation as -well.</p> - -<p>In the city of Santiago a festival is held each -year, which is a fair illustration of the origin -of many of these local celebrations. On the -fifth of May, 1848, there occurred in that city -a most disastrous earthquake. It was learned -that a woman in that city, who had been disgusted -with the refusal of her particular saint -to answer her prayers, tore the image from the -altar, and, stripping it of its decorations, -threw it into the street. At that very moment -the earthquake began. As it happened, however, -a priest who was hurrying away from -danger saw the image, picked it up and carried -it into a neighbouring church, where it was -reverently placed upon an altar. At that very -moment the earthquake ceased, and so from -that time to this the fifth of May is a holiday, -which is second in importance only to Independence -Day. It used to be that this image -was taken from the altar on these occasions, -carried through the streets under a scarlet -canopy, and was followed by a procession which -included the president of the republic, his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span> -cabinet, members of congress, justices, archbishop, -bishop and all of the other prelates -of the Church and thousands of people with -bands of music and regiments of soldiers. -This saint became known as Saint Cinco de -Mayo (Saint Fifth of May), because the woman -who threw it into the street and her family -were killed in the earthquake, and it was impossible -to ascertain what particular saint it -was originally intended to represent. In recent -years, however, this celebration has lost -much of its importance, although the Church -still recognizes it as a regular holiday in its -calendar.</p> - -<p>The high fees charged for the services of -the Church have been much criticized, and deservedly -so. In most places not a single service -will be performed without the payment of the -fee in advance. This is specially to be condemned -in the case of the fees that are charged -for marriages. Although a marriage to be -legal in Chile must have a civil ceremony, for -which only a small charge is made, yet those -who are devoted to the Church consider the -religious ceremony the essential one. As the -priests will not perform this ceremony without -the regular fee being paid, which amounts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span> -to several dollars, and the contracting parties -do not consider the civil ceremony as of any -value, because they are so instructed by the -priesthood, the result is that neither ceremony -is performed, and an injustice is done to all -parties concerned. Even in the higher circles -great confusion sometimes arises where the -man, for instance, considers the civil ceremony -necessary, and the woman, under the advice -of her counsellor, is not willing to have it performed. -The result has been considerable confusion, -and also has made the Church and civil -authorities unnecessarily opposed to each other -in many instances.</p> - -<p>Many claim that South America is not a -legitimate field for Protestant missionary work. -Their theory is that the country was at one -time evangelized by missionaries, and therefore -should not be touched by other missionary -effort. The fact is that religious conditions in -South America savour much of the darkness of -the Middle Ages. There is to-day an unbelief -and utter indifference to spiritual things among -the men, which is hard to realize until one has -had actual contact with it. Whatever effort -can better these conditions, and thereby improve -the morals of the people, should be encouraged.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span> -The Roman Catholics pursue their -efforts among the strongest Protestant countries, -and they should not be criticized for so -doing. If they can reach a class or element -that has not been touched by Protestant effort, -they are thereby doing good for that nation -and the world in general. True religion and -true Christianity should be recognized and encouraged -under whatever name it may be -found. It would be far better if the Catholic -Church in Chile, and other South American -countries, would welcome the Protestant ministers, -and join hands with them in their efforts -to raise the standards of living among the -people.</p> - -<p>One will find signs of the Protestant invasion -of Chile from Arica, in the extreme north, to -Tierra del Fuego. The movement has generally -been accompanied by educational enterprise, -of which there are several splendid -examples in Chile. One of these is the -American College for Girls, and the Instituto -Ingles, an institution for boys, both of which -are in Santiago. The former, which is under -the control and direction of the Methodist -Episcopal Church, has achieved more than a -national reputation in Chile, and many of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span> -very best families send their girls to that college -for their education. It is recognized as -giving the very best education that can be obtained -in the Republic, and the enrollment has -included the names of the children of presidents -of the republic, and many others in high -authority. The same may be said of the latter -institution, which is under the control of the -American Presbyterian Church, and which is -always crowded to its utmost capacity, with -many names upon the waiting list who cannot -be accommodated. The patrons of the two -institutions understand that the schools are -Protestant schools, that the Bible is read and -studied, that morning prayers are compulsory, -but beyond that the students are at liberty to -attend any religious services that may be -desired by the parents. Outside of the regular -religious services, no effort is made to alienate -the students from the church in which they -have been baptized. The Methodists also conduct -grammar schools at Concepción and -Iquique, and schools of the primary and lower -grammar grades at other places. In all more -than fifty day schools are conducted by these -two denominations. The work that has been -begun is a beneficial one in a moral way, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span> -the results have been very satisfactory to those -engaged in the work.</p> - -<p>At the present time the American Presbyterian -and the Methodist Episcopal Churches -are the only American denominations that are -aggressively doing missionary work in Chile. -The former began their work in 1873, and the -latter in 1878. The Methodists have thirty -missionaries and a large number of native -workers assisting them, and have established -fifty-eight stations. The Presbyterians have -twenty-six missionaries, and these workers, -together with native helpers, are at work in -sixty-five different communities. Both in -Valparaiso and Santiago there is a Union -Church, to which members of various Protestant -bodies come for the religious services, -and both of these churches are doing a very -effective work.</p> - -<p>The Protestant Anglican Church was the -first to begin any evangelistic work in Chile. -Its first mission was established more than -sixty years ago. They began work in the extreme -south, and still have stations on Tierra -del Fuego for the Indians. They also have -churches at Santiago, Valparaiso, Iquique, -Concepción and Punta Arenas for the English-speaking<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span> -people who live in those cities.</p> - -<p>The American and British Bible Societies -have aggressively spread over the country. The -colporteurs of these societies have gone up and -down over the country, by train and coach, on -foot and mule-back, with copies of the Scriptures -in various languages. These books are -sold for a very small sum, and, if the person -is too poor to buy, they are freely given. The -work has not always been easy or pleasant, -for such deep prejudice is oftentimes encountered -that insults and little indignities have -followed.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE</span></h2> - -<p>The subjugation and colonization of Chile -was due to two causes. Pedro de Valdivia, -who had distinguished himself in Peru, wanted -an empire for himself, and Francisco Pizarro -was desirous of ridding himself of so formidable -a rival. Valdivia was therefore graciously -permitted to march into and conquer at his -own expense the country south of Peru. After -many months of preparation Valdivia set out -on his expedition with one hundred and fifty -Spaniards, provided with horses and arms, -one thousand Indians, mostly carriers, and a -supply of cattle, pigs, poultry and seeds of -many European plants. Thus equipped this -cavalier set out from Lima, and marched across -the deserts of Arequipa, Tacna, Tarapacá and -Atacama. He reached the central valley of -Chile without the loss of a single Spaniard -through sickness or desertion—a remarkable -record.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span></p> - -<p>The first few years were hard ones for these -colonists. Santiago was founded and made the -capitol. The Indians were hostile, and dissensions -soon arose among Valdivia’s followers. -Several small parties of reinforcements -arrived, but the Spaniards’ position -was always precarious because of the fierce -Araucanians. After Valdivia’s death in 1551, -misfortune followed misfortune in the new -colony. Garcia Hurlado de Mendoza, one of -the viceroys of Peru, succeeded him as governor. -This man was a mere youth with no -experience, and his rule was fraught with -disaster. He established churches and monastic -orders, provided magnificent shows and spectacles, -but did not materially improve the condition -of the colony. Then came Francisco and -Pedro de Villagran and a number of other -governors,—some good and more of them bad. -The colony slowly increased in numbers, but -constant war with the Indians prevented it from -growing rapidly. The coast was swept several -times by Dutch and English pirates. Earthquakes -and plagues reaped their harvests from -the inhabitants. But wealth was increasing. -Thus passed the sixteenth, seventeenth and -part of the eighteenth centuries. It would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span> -be impossible within the limits of this volume -to detail all events, but some of the Indian -wars are mentioned in another chapter.<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> The -usual narrow-sighted policy of Spain toward -all her dependencies was followed, and the local -disaffection grew more acute each year.</p> - -<p>It was Voltaire who said that “cruelty leads -to independence.” The colonial system of -Spain in South and Central America, of which -the writer has had occasion to treat before, -was one of selfishness, cruelty and tyranny. -Only the merchants of Cadiz were allowed to -sell goods to the colonists, and the colonists -were permitted to sell their products only to -the same traders, who managed to reap a profit, -owing to the monopoly granted them, of as -much as three hundred per cent. Local human -rights were not recognized by the government -of Spain. It was treason for a man to assert -his freedom, or to seek a free field for his -labour. The natives were compelled to labour -for the conquerors without profit. Imposing -buildings were constructed, cities were encircled -with massive walls, great monasteries, -churches, and convents rose on the hills, all -by the unrequited toil of generations of these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span> -impressed natives. Education was denied, and -the local government, including the church -officials, united in this system of repression -and disregard of human rights.</p> - -<p>There was, however, another element which -entered into final independence. For this we -must hark back to Spain for a moment. Charles -IV had resigned his throne in favour of his -son, Ferdinand VII. The colonists accepted -this change because of their loyalty to the -heredity in line of succession, which had to -them a religious as well as political significance. -Charles IV afterwards regretted his abdication -and appealed to Napoleon, who was then -in the height of his power, alleging that the -abdication had not been voluntary. Napoleon -poured troops into Spain, and it was not long -until Ferdinand VII was compelled to yield. -Napoleon then placed his favourite brother, -Joseph, upon the throne of Spain. Joseph was -a well-meaning monarch, a man of far more -principle than his brother, who, perhaps, would -have done well by the colonists, had he been -permitted to work out their destinies. The -colonists, however, felt no loyalty toward him, -and would not recognize his authority. When -Ferdinand VII was finally restored to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span> -throne after the downfall of Napoleon, he became -a tyrant, and violently opposed all -liberal ideas. The despotism that Napoleon -had overthrown was reestablished. These mistaken -moves on the part of Ferdinand, a period -of a few years during which the Crown had -been opposed, and the free air of America all -had tended to induce a spirit of liberalism and -opposition to monarchy in the New World. -It was not long before Chile was caught in -the same whirl as the rest of the Spanish-American -provinces.</p> - -<p>The approach of the end of almost three -centuries of the colonial system in Chile does -not speak well for Spain. Trade was still -restricted. The post-office was a monopoly that -had been farmed out to a private person. A -mail vessel arrived at Montevideo from Spain -once in two months, and from there the mails -were transported across the Andes. There was -a post once a month between Concepción and -Santiago, and twice a week between Santiago -and Valparaiso. Most people used private couriers -or travellers for their despatches. The -only manufactures were the making of brandy -and wine, drying beef and tanning hides.</p> - -<p>No city, except Santiago, had more than six<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span> -thousand people, and that city had perhaps -thirty thousand. Horse racing, cock-fighting, -bull-fighting and cards were the only amusements. -The buildings were creditable, but the -streets were dirty, unlighted, and unsanitary. -People who went abroad at night had their -servants carry lanterns before them. Vice and -disorder was everywhere. Robbery, brawls -and assassination were frequent. Begging -was an intolerable curse. Titles of nobility -were common, and had been purchased by -many unworthy persons. Decorations of -membership in orders of nobility had been -scattered broadcast. There was not even a -school for girls in Santiago. The majority of -the people still lived in the country in homes -that were without conveniences. They had little -furniture, but all were provided with an oratorio -in which each wandering missionary was -expected to celebrate mass. The Indians were -held in practical slavery, and the landlords -administered justice over their tenants. A -sentimental attachment, and also fear that a -bad condition might be made worse, kept these -poor humans from leaving. Diseases often became -epidemic through the unsanitary conditions, -so that thousands were at times swept<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span> -away. Concepción lost a fourth of its population -one year through the ravages of smallpox. -It is probable that at the beginning of the nineteenth -century the total population of Chile, -exclusive of the Araucanian Indians, did not -exceed a half million.</p> - -<p>There are two men by the name of O’Higgins -prominent in Chilean history. The first, -Ambrosio O’Higgins, was born in Ireland in -1730, of humble parentage. His uncle, a -Spanish priest, sent the youth to South -America, and he finally landed in Chile. He -first became a trader and peddler, and then -an engineer. During this latter employment -he built the <i>casuchas</i>, as the rest houses in the -Uspallata pass are called. He also distinguished -himself in fights with the Indians, so -that he received government recognition. Plain -Ambrose became Don Ambrosio. Then the -Irish youth, once a ragged, barefooted urchin, -became successively Marquis of Osorno, governor -of Chile, and, finally, Viceroy of Peru. -He died at the age of eighty, in Peru, while he -was filling the latter office. His administration -was marked by indefatigable activity. It was -not until he was sixty-eight years of age that -he became captain-general of Chile, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span> -position he held for eight years. He introduced -a number of agricultural reforms and set aside -many of the abuses on the plantations. He -constructed a passable road between Valparaiso -and the capitol, where none had hitherto been -built, as the Spaniards were content to ride -on mules and carry their goods the same way. -He improved the road over the Andes via the -Uspallata pass, as trade by this route had -greatly increased. Altogether the things accomplished -by this energetic Irishman were -remarkable; his efforts and talents worked a -great deal of good for Chile and Peru. Had -all the governors and viceroys been men of -similar character history would probably read -differently.</p> - -<p>The year 1810 was fraught with direful consequences -for Spain. In that year Hidalgo -sounded the <i>grito</i> of independence in Mexico, -and the memorable assembly met in Buenos -Aires, which was the forerunner of a successful -revolution. The news of the latter event, -which happened on the 25th of May, soon -reached Santiago and fanned the fires of revolution. -On the 18th of September three hundred -and fifty electors met in that city and -elected a <i>junta</i> to take charge of the government.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span> -A quiet submission to the new order of -things followed for a few months. A Congress -was elected and opened with solemn religious -ceremonies and many eloquent speeches. But -jealousies soon arose over the personnel of -the government <i>junta</i>, and several years of conflict -with Spain and internal dissension followed. -The leaders of the patriot forces were -Bernardo O’Higgins, of Irish descent, Lord -Cochrane, an Englishman, and San Martin, an -Argentinian. The disturbing element was contributed -in the main by three brothers, named -Carrera. Though leaders for a while these -brothers, of whom José Miguel Carrera was -the ablest one, all met violent deaths at the -hands of their indignant countrymen.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;" id="illus41"> -<img src="images/illus41.jpg" width="420" height="650" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">JOSÉ DE SAN MARTIN.</p> -</div> - -<p>Bernardo O’Higgins was born in Chillan, -Chile, in 1776, an illegitimate son of Ambrosio -O’Higgins. He was educated in England, -where he imbibed republican sentiments. He -returned to Chile a few years before his -father’s death, and immediately identified himself -with the revolutionists. By the year 1813 -he was at the head of their forces. He proved -to be a man of wonderful activity, although -not of military training. Troubles between the -Carreras and O’Higgins were unfortunate for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span> -the patriot cause, but the latter was in the -right and the jealousies of the former thwarted -him at every turn. After several years of -possession of the capitol by the revolutionists -the loyalist forces under General Osorio recaptured -Santiago, and O’Higgins was compelled -to flee. The general fled to Mendoza and -there joined General San Martin, who was -greatly impressed by the Irishman. For several -years the destinies of these two men were -linked and intertwined.</p> - -<p>José de San Martin was a noble character, -and his life was actuated by unselfish principles. -There was, according to the best accounts, a -moral grandeur in his character, which places -him in the rank of the world’s great leaders -and patriots. No doubt he had his faults, which -may have been serious enough, but his life was -far above his contemporaries, and he has -given us a sample of self abnegation which is -well worth remembering. He gave his sword -to the best interests of the human race, and -when he found that his presence might not serve -the cause of humanity in the nations he had -liberated, he went into exile and poverty.<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> - -<p>Here is a pen picture of San Martin written<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span> -by one who interviewed him at Lima: “On -the 25th of June I had an interview with -General San Martin on board a little schooner -anchored in Callao Roads. There was little -at first sight in his appearance to engage attention, -but when he arose and began to speak -his great superiority over every other person -I have seen in South America was sufficiently -apparent. He received us in a very simple -style on the deck of his vessel, dressed in a -surtout coat and a large fur cap, seated at a -table made of a few loose planks laid along -the top of two empty casks. Upon this occasion -his views and feelings were decidedly stated. -‘The contest in Peru,’ said he ‘is not a war -of conquest and culture, but entirely of opinion. -It is a war of new and liberal principles against -prejudices, bigotry and tyranny. I do not -want military recognition; I have no ambition -to become conqueror of Peru; I want -solely to liberate the country from oppression.’”</p> - -<p>In 1822 San Martin decided that he wanted -to meet Bolivar. A meeting was arranged between -the two to take place at Guayaquil, on -the coast of Ecuador. Bolivar had driven the -Spaniards from Venezuela, Colombia and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span> -Ecuador, but had not proceeded farther south. -San Martin wished to cooperate with him in -the subjugation of Peru. Bolivar came to the -city with some fifteen hundred men, and entered -the city under arches of triumph. San Martin -arrived by sea on a little vessel called the -Macedonia. He landed and passed through -files of soldiers who had been drawn up to -do him honour. When the two heroes met -they embraced, entered the house arm in arm -and were left alone. What actually occurred -no one knows, as neither of the principals ever -revealed the conversation. It is known, however, -from subsequent events, that San Martin -decided upon self abnegation, which, he believed, -would be best for the cause of liberty. -A great ball was given to the two heroes, which -was preceded by a banquet. Bolivar loved -these festive occasions, but San Martin avoided -them whenever possible.</p> - -<p>After his return to Peru San Martin wrote -to Bolivar as follows: “My decision is irrevocable. -I have convened the Congress of -Peru; the day after its meeting I shall leave -for Chile, believing that my presence is the -only obstacle that keeps you from going to Peru -with your army.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span></p> - -<p>Upon his resigning his office San Martin -delivered a speech, of which the following is -a part. “I have witnessed the declaration of -independence of the states of Chile and Peru. -I hold in my possession the standard which -Pizarro brought to enslave the empire of the -Incas. I have ceased to be a public man. Thus -I am more than rewarded for ten years spent -in revolution and warfare. My promises to the -countries in which I warred are fulfilled—to -make them independent and leave to their -will the elections of the governments. The -presence of a fortunate soldier, however disinterested -he may be, is dangerous to newly -constituted states. I am also disgusted with -hearing that I wish to make myself a sovereign. -Nevertheless, I shall always be ready to make -the last sacrifice for the liberty of the country, -but in the class of the private individual, and -no other. With respect to my public conduct, -my compatriots (as is generally the case) will -be divided in their opinions. Their children -will pronounce the true verdict. Peruvians! -I leave your national representation established. -If you impose implicit confidence in -it, you will triumph. If not, anarchy will -swallow you up. May success preside over<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span> -your destinies, and may they be crowned with -felicity and peace!”</p> - -<p>There were at least five great battles that -decided the liberty of South America. One -of the greatest of these was that of Maipo, -or Maipu, which was fought on Chilean soil. -Although this battle lasted only a few hours, -it was the result of years of careful preparation -by San Martin. In 1814 San Martin, who was -then in Buenos Aires, decided that the best -way to free Argentina was to drive the -Spaniards from the West Coast, as that was -the principal seat of their power. He accordingly -sought the governorship of the province -of Cuyo, which bordered on Chile, and repaired -there to begin his real preparation. The <i>junta</i>, -that governed Buenos Aires, gave him a small -body of troops, which San Martin had already -drilled and made effective soldiers. To these -were added Chilean exiles, slaves who had been -freed, and others whom he could gather at -Mendoza, in the foothills of the Andes, which -was his capitol. For two years he trained -these men, gathered his artillery and ammunition -and made his preparation to cross the -passes of the Andes. No detail had been -omitted by this careful organizer. To no one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span> -did he reveal his plans until he was ready for -the start, then his army, which numbered about -four thousand, was divided into two bodies, -which proceeded through different passes -across the border into Chile. More than seven -thousand mules had been collected for the -soldiers to ride, and every mule was shod. -Specially designed sledges had been constructed -on which to carry the guns. Jerked beef, -parched corn and other supplies had been prepared -for food in large quantities.</p> - -<p>The lonely and desolate passes of the mountains -suddenly disgorged a well-equipped and -disciplined army on Chilean soil. The royalist -forces were taken by surprise, although reports -had from time to time reached the commander. -General Maroto concentrated his forces on the -ridge of Chacabuco, whose yellowish-brown -hills are almost devoid of vegetation. There -was no definite road over this ridge, which consisted -of an intricate complexity of steep-sided -little valleys, or barrancas. General San -Martin divided his forces, the command of one -section being given to O’Higgins. Both sections -attacked the Spanish forces vigorously, and the -latter soon gave way through the very force -of the onslaught.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span></p> - -<p>O’Higgins formed his infantry in a solid -column, and with drums beating, advanced -against the enemy’s front. The men were -greatly fatigued by their march, and the sun -was beating down fiercely. After a slight repulse -O’Higgins and his infantry made a bayonet -charge. The shock was terrible, and the -Spanish lines first wavered and then broke and -ran. The defeat was decisive for the royalist -forces. The Spaniards left two-thirds of their -number on the field of battle or in the hands -of the victors. The loss of San Martin was -insignificant, for his casualties did not exceed -one hundred and fifty. The Spanish governor -abandoned Santiago that same night, and -General San Martin and his army entered it -two days later, on the 14th of February, 1817, -in triumph.</p> - -<p>When the army reached Santiago a popular -assembly was convened. The dictatorship was -offered to San Martin, but he declined. -O’Higgins was then selected and accepted. -The country, however, was in a deplorable -condition. The new dictator exiled a bishop -and many priests, shut up traitorous women -in convents and began vigorous measures to -preserve order. But the war was not yet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span> -over. Several sanguinary engagements followed.</p> - -<p>General Osorio landed with an army at -Talcahuano and slowly proceeded northward. -San Martin and O’Higgins endeavoured to entice -him as far as the river Maule, after the -country had been thoroughly devastated. General -Osorio made an unexpected night attack at -Cancha-Rayada and inflicted a terrible defeat -on the patriotic forces. San Martin retreated -in good order, and took up his position along -a ridge of low hills about two miles from -Santiago. Osorio established himself on a -similar ridge. Between the two forces was a -plain about half a mile in width. On this -plain was fought the battle of Maipo on the -5th of April, 1818.</p> - -<p>The day was exquisitely beautiful, and the -sky was clear and serene. San Martin opened -with a strong artillery fire from both his right -and left flank. He then ordered a general advance. -The horse grenadiers, who had accompanied -him from Argentina, charged the -Spanish lines furiously. Other battalions -charged the royalist right, which was made up -of veterans of the Peninsular wars. The -Spanish cavalry were driven from the field. San<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span> -Martin brought his reserves into action and -the Spaniards began an orderly retreat. They -withdrew to the buildings and walled enclosures -of a <i>hacienda</i>. These were soon broken down -by the patriot guns. The closing scenes were -horrible. The infuriated patriots showed no -mercy, and the <i>patios</i> and gardens were soon -littered with the dead. The result, after several -hours of fierce fighting, was of a most -decisive character. The Spaniards’ loss was -nearly three thousand. The remainder were -flying in every direction, with the enemy in close -pursuit. Osorio finally reached Talcahuano -with only ten men, the remnant of the original -force of five thousand that entered the battle -of Maipo. The revolutionists’ loss was eight -hundred killed and one thousand wounded. -Spain at last realized the strength of her -opposition.</p> - -<p>The war for liberty now turns toward Peru. -Soon after the decisive battle of Maipo San -Martin reverted to his original plan to invade -Peru. The <i>junta</i> at Buenos Aires commanded -him to return to Argentina and aid them in -that city. But he refused to be drawn into -the local struggle between the different factions -that were seeking to obtain control of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span> -government. He began work on his new expedition -with the same careful and methodical -plans to gather about him an effective army -as he had at Mendoza. The survivors of that -army were loyal to their commander, and they -willingly volunteered for this new enterprise. -Others were added, and all were carefully -drilled. Supplies and ammunition were -gathered. It was not until 1820, however, that -San Martin was ready to embark for Peru with -an army of four thousand one hundred men. -This force was conveyed to the Peruvian -coast by the Chilean navy under command of -Lord Cochrane, who played an important part -in driving the Spaniards from this coast and -liberating Chile and Peru from their domination.</p> - -<p>The name of Lord Cochrane is an honoured -one in Chile, and the visitor will find numerous -monuments and memorials to that British -soldier of fortune. Thomas Cochrane was the -tenth Earl of Dundonald, and was born in -Armsfield, Scotland, on the 14th of December, -1775. He became a member of the House -of Commons, and was an officer in the royal -navy. One writer says of him: “He was, -after the death of Nelson, the most notable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span> -naval commander in that age of glory.” He -had made a reputation for himself as a daring -officer during the Peninsular War. In 1814 -he was accused of spreading a report of the -death of Napoleon, and was fined, and expelled -from the navy and Commons. He was also -sentenced to a year in prison, which he served.</p> - -<p>Angered and embittered by what he considered -the unjust treatment of his country, -Lord Cochrane accepted a commission from -the revolutionary party of Chile to take charge -of their little navy. He arrived in that country -on the 28th of November, 1818. For the construction -and equipment of this little fleet -ladies had given their jewels, and even church -plate had been contributed. He arrived in time -to cooperate with San Martin in the movement -that was then being formulated for the advance -against the Spaniards in Peru. Maipo -had already been won. With four little vessels -conveying the transports Cochrane started for -Callao and arrived there safely. The Spanish -gunboats were anchored under the protection -of the batteries on shore. A terrific fire was -opened on the <i>O’Higgins</i>, which was the flagship, -as the other boats were not able to -get within range because of a calm. Cochrane’s<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span> -enthusiasm was caught by the crew, and they -successfully withstood the onslaught of several -hundred guns. The <i>Esmeralda</i>, the best ship -of the Spaniards, was captured by strategy. -Cochrane always led his men in person, and -was ever in the midst of the greatest danger. -His courage and recklessness soon won for the -doughty admiral the name of “El Diablo.” He -declared and maintained a blockade of the entire -Peruvian coast. He used fire-ships which -scattered terror amongst the enemy. His -vigorous tactics made his name feared by the -Spaniards and Peruvians, so that the battle -was half won before it was begun. And yet -his crews and officers would be generally considered -unsatisfactory, for they were composed -for the most part of adventurers. He captured -Valdivia by a clever ruse, which was the -strongest fortified place on the Pacific coast.</p> - -<p>Cochrane had the misfortune of a bad temper, -and quarrelled with nearly every one in -authority. He could not understand San -Martin’s deliberation in attacking Peru, so that -these two men, both able and honest, could not -work together. He quarrelled with O’Higgins -and others. He drove the Spanish fleet off -the Pacific waters from Guayaquil south. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span> -cleared the waters of pirates, and to him in -great part was due the emancipation of Chile -and Peru—all of this in two and one-half -years. Cochrane finally left Chile and commanded -the Brazilian navy from 1823-5, which -position he resigned because of charges of insubordination. -He then went to Greece and -commanded their army for two years. Finally -his good name was cleared in England and he -returned to his native country, and had achieved -the high rank of rear-admiral in the British -navy when he died at the ripe old age of -eighty-five.</p> - -<p>The victory of Maipo, although won at great -loss, forever settled the Spanish power in Chile. -Absolute independence from Spain was at once -proclaimed. O’Higgins managed to introduce -a few reforms, but the country was still lawless, -disturbed and unsettled. Armed bands of -robbers, calling themselves royalists, attacked -haciendas and villages, and murdered travellers. -The dictator did the best he could and -introduced many reforms in procedure. Even -these improvements seemed to bring discontent. -He was always optimistic, which was not -for the best. Some men in whom he placed -confidence betrayed it. The priests were insidious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span> -in their preaching, as they favoured the -royalty. The Indians were incited to rebellion -whenever possible.</p> - -<p>Traitors arose among the malcontents. Others -were jealous of O’Higgins. San Martin -and Lord Cochrane were both appointed to -head the opposition, but each declined. One -General Freire consented. An assembly was -convened, which the dictator attended. After -a stormy scene O’Higgins resigned his office -rather than plunge the country into civil war. -The withdrawal of his firm but kindly hand -was a great loss to Chile. He went to Peru, -where he died an exile at Lima in 1842.</p> - -<p>The long struggle with Spain had accustomed -the Chileans to military service, and the -control of the country naturally fell into the -hands of the military element. Once the common -danger disappeared, intrigue and personal -ambition ran riot and led to a condition of -affairs bordering on anarchy. Chile, however, -never acquired the revolutionary habit to such -an extent as its neighbours, for there was a -powerful landed aristocracy whose interests -lay in the cultivation of the soil, for which -peace was necessary. Anarchy lasted only for -a few years, and then followed four decades<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span> -during which time four successive presidents -ruled the country for two terms of five years -each.</p> - -<p>After the resignation of O’Higgins, in January, -1823, Congress offered the dictatorship -to General Freire, who was then marching -against the capital with a considerable force. -A constitution was promulgated, but it proved -to be only so much waste paper, for Freire -soon suspended it. He quarrelled with the -Church authorities, banished the Bishop of -Santiago and issued decrees confiscating ecclesiastical -property. Congress was dissolved. A -new election was ordered, but only a few members -were chosen. Political confusion followed, -but another Congress was elected that limited -the dictator’s powers. He maintained his position -only by the use of sheer force.</p> - -<p>In 1826 Freire succeeded in driving the -Spaniards from the island of Chiloé, which was -their last stronghold. This victory temporarily -strengthened his prestige somewhat, -although the liberals were daily becoming -stronger. A financial crisis was impending as -the expenses exceeded the revenues. Freire -was temporarily replaced by Manuel Blanco -Encalada. But things became worse and Freire<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span> -was recalled. This restoration lasted only a -few months when he resigned in favour of General -Pinto. Pinto succeeded for a while in -suppressing the disturbances, and endeavoured -to introduce some reforms in the army and -finances. A new Congress wrestled with the -constitutional problem. Rivalries among the -leaders were too much for him. It was too -easy for the aristocratic landlords to get up an -army from among their peons, or inquilinos. -A whole series of presidents and dictators followed -in the next couple of years. Social as -well as political anarchy reigned supreme. -Disorders were prevalent, robberies occurred -daily and life was unsafe.</p> - -<p>Order was gradually coming out of chaos, -however, for peace began to appear above the -political horizon. With the battle of Lircay -the conservatives, under General Prieto and -Bulnes, won a decisive victory over the other -elements. Freire fled and a horrible slaughter -followed, for the victors were merciless. Freire -himself and his partisans were banished to -Peru, and his sympathizers removed from the -army.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus42"> -<img src="images/illus42.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CONGRESS PALACE, SANTIAGO.</p> -</div> - -<p>At the election in 1831, General Don Joaquin -Prieto was chosen chief magistrate. Although<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span> -he owed his elevation to the military power, -the new President did not attempt the role of -dictator at first. He was ably seconded by his -chief cabinet officer, Señor Portales, one of the -ablest statesmen that Chile has produced. -After two years of careful preparation a -new constitution was promulgated in 1833. -Although it has been amended from time to -time to meet new conditions, just as has our -own constitution, this instrument has remained -the fundamental law of the land. It gave to -Chile a strong and stable government. The -foundation of the government, under the franchise -conditions, was the property-holding -class. Political power originated in an oligarchy -which obtained control of Congress. -Although such a possibility was not designed -in the constitution, it gradually developed a -government by dictators. This was due to the -turbulent character of the people. Extraordinary -powers were granted from time to time -in order to suppress revolutionary outbreaks. -These powers included the right to suspend -the constitutional guarantees, to imprison and -exile political suspects without trial, and to -adopt such other arbitrary measures as the -executive might deem advisable. All of these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span> -powers were invoked by President Prieto before -the end of his first term.</p> - -<p>As there was no constitutional inhibition -against a second term Prieto was reelected in -1836, and Portales retained his portfolio. All -branches of the government had been reformed -over the former chaotic conditions, and industrial -progress had been rapid. The credit of -the country was good, and interest was paid -promptly. Life in the new republic, however, -was not dull. It was sometimes necessary to -put down disorders with a firm hand. Opponents -were banished without mercy. Peru -seemed to have favoured those who sought -refuge on her soil, and war was declared -against that republic. Several battles were -fought, and Chile captured the entire Peruvian -navy, consisting of three vessels. Portales was -killed, and a serious repulse finally compelled -Prieto to make peace. This caused trouble at -home, and it gave Prieto’s enemies a chance to -denounce the war and its outcome. A new expedition -was sent against Peru under General -Bulnes, and this expedition was successful. -The Bolivian-Peruvian dictator was overwhelmingly -defeated, and this success made -Chile the dominant power on the Pacific<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span> -Coast, a position which it has retained ever -since.</p> - -<p>At the election in 1841 General Manuel -Bulnes was chosen president. He was a very -distinguished soldier. Owing to his training -as a soldier, President Bulnes had little idea -of any method of administration other than by -force. His course toward political opponents -was severe, and all attempts to dispute his -authority were crushed with an iron hand. -Nevertheless, during the ten years administration -of Bulnes, prosperity made great strides -and Chile became a nation of influence and -importance. The growth of the customs revenues -placed the government finances on a -sound footing. The President fostered education -and other reforms. A more liberal religious -atmosphere began to grow up. Mines -were discovered and opened. The Liberals -began to be more numerous, but Bulnes was -outspoken in his opposition to them. In spite -of their opposition he succeeded in selecting -Manuel Montt as his own successor in 1851.</p> - -<p>The new President was a civilian and had -been a member of the Supreme Court, and -many reforms were expected from him. More -would probably have been granted by him, for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span> -his standing was of the highest, had not a -serious disturbance broken out just a few days -after his inauguration. The headquarters of -the revolutionists were at Concepción. Proceeding -toward the capital they won several -small victories. The decisive battle of Loncomilla -followed, however, in which the government -was victorious, but not until five thousand -Chileans had lost their lives in this internecine -warfare. Peace and general amnesty followed -this victory, and equilibrium was quickly established. -Montt welcomed liberals among his -followers. A number of administrative reforms -were adopted, although the liberal program -was strenuously opposed. New treaties with -the leading commercial nations were negotiated. -Nevertheless the policy of centralizing -the entire government with the bureaucracy of -Santiago was followed up. Many leading liberals -were exiled. During his second term -Montt attempted to grant a greater degree of -political liberties, but insurrections broke out -in the north and south, and there was bloody -rioting in Valparaiso. This led to a renewal -of drastic measures. Montt finally came into -open rupture with Congress, because it favoured -the return of his political enemies,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span> -among whom were some of the ablest men in -the republic. The clergy were angry because -they were compelled to submit their decisions to -the civil tribunals. He became more and more -dictatorial in his methods. Newspapers were -suppressed, meetings dispersed, and agitators -imprisoned. President Montt succeeded in -putting down the various insurrections. In -spite of defeat on the field of battle the liberals -in fact won a victory, for their cause was forced -on the government. It was obliged to make -some concessions in order to prevent a renewal -of the conflict. The government was in this -condition when Montt’s second term reached -an end in 1861.</p> - -<p>José Joaquin Perez, a man of high personal -prestige, was unanimously chosen as Montt’s -successor. From the very commencement of -his administration Chile began to enjoy a freedom -unknown in the preceding thirty years. -Criticism of the government was encouraged, -instead of being treated as a crime to be punished -by imprisonment or banishment. The -policy of President Perez was one of conciliation, -in order to unite the discordant elements. -A law was at once passed granting amnesty to -political offenders. The extraordinary powers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span> -heretofore granted to dictatorial presidents -was not even asked for by Perez, nor did he -need it. Railroads were opened up, and colonists -began to come in. Fierce parliamentary -struggles over certain reform measures followed -in Congress, and there were many -changes of ministry.</p> - -<p>The only serious disturbance of the Perez -administration was a brief war with Spain, -which occurred in 1864-5. The dispute was -primarily between Spain and Peru, but Chile -took the part of the latter, for fear that Spain -might seek to reestablish her authority in -South America. As a result Valparaiso was -blockaded by the Spaniards and bombarded. -Millions of dollars worth of property were -destroyed in a few hours, but the Chileans -would not yield and grant the apology demanded. -Public feeling ran very high for a -few months. Chile had only one war-ship, but -this boat captured a Spanish gunboat. This so -humiliated the Spanish commander, Admiral -Pareja, that he suicided. Although the war -did not officially end for many years, nothing -hostile was done by Spain after the bombardment -of Valparaiso. Perez was reelected as a -matter of course in 1866, and finished his second<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span> -term. Pressure for amendments to the -constitution had become very strong, for the -foreign influences were becoming noticeable. -A measure was passed forbidding a president -to be reelected to succeed himself, and this -marks an important step in the evolution of -political ideals. A desperate effort was made -to enfranchise all who could read and write. -This measure, although favoured by Perez, was -defeated, but the property qualification was -greatly reduced. In every way the two administrations -of President Perez marked the beginning -of a new era in Chilean affairs. The -rights of the people began to receive greater -consideration from politicians.</p> - -<p>The election of 1871 was hotly contested. -The liberals were very aggressive. The conservatives -united with the moderates, and -Federico Errázuriz, an astute politician, was -chosen. This election practically marks the -elimination of the conservatives as an important -element for several presidential terms. -It was not long after this election until more -radical elements controlled Congress, and -Errázuriz sided with the liberals in their program -of reforms. The great issue was the -amenability of the clergy to the civil law. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span> -anti-clerical party forced through this law, and -made concessions to Protestant worship. The -requirement of obligatory teaching of the Catholic -religion in the public schools was greatly -modified. The Archbishop promptly excommunicated -all who voted for these laws, and the -breach between the liberals and clericals was -further widened. The administration of President -Errázuriz was marked by considerable -internal improvement and the beginning of a -greater navy, which was soon to be very useful. -Political reforms went forward with increasing -momentum, but not without the usual results. -As soon as the liberals had things in their -power, the various factions into which they -were divided began to intrigue among themselves -for congressional majorities. Material -prosperity had continued until the great world -panic of 1873. The government customs fell -and financial troubles followed, but the debt -was successfully refunded. One of the most -remarkable features of this administration was -that the same Prime Minister held his office -during the entire term of four years without -interruption.</p> - -<p>The election of 1876 brought out several -candidates. In former years the retiring President<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span> -had practically selected his successor. -More liberal ideas now prevailed, and the Chileans -were called upon to decide for themselves -who should be their chief magistrate. There -were three active candidates, among whom was -Señor Anibal Pinto, who was nominated by the -moderates and elected. President Pinto was a -man of studious habits and a strong advocate -of peaceful measures. And yet this man of -peace was called upon to preside over the -nation during one of its most severe trials. -Never did he falter, even when war became -necessary, and never did he waver in his determination -to protect Chilean interests.</p> - -<p>The dispute with Argentina over the southern -boundary had by this time become acute. -Public feeling in both republics had reached -such a stage that peace was threatened. A -previous treaty had declared that the boundary -should be the same as in colonial times. This -was hazy and uncertain, because that section -had been and still was uninhabited. No one -had ever been concerned about it. Chile had -always claimed the Andes to the east and Cape -Horn to the south. Punta Arenas had been -founded thirty-five years previously without -serious opposition from Argentina. For years<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span> -this controversy continued between the two -countries, but impending war with Peru hastened -a treaty. The territorial limitations -were finally decided upon and Chile practically -got all that she had contended for. Chile obtained -practical control of both ends of the -Straits, although the channel was declared -neutral and neither nation can erect any fortifications -along it.</p> - -<p>A severe economic crisis, due to the depression -in the mining industry, also disturbed this -administration, but this situation was met as -well as it could be. But all the troubles of -President Pinto pale before the sanguinary war -conducted against the combined forces of Peru -and Bolivia, in which the lives of twenty thousand -of his subjects were sacrificed.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE NITRATE WAR</span></h2> - -<p>The early Spaniards were very little interested -in geography, and the boundaries between -the provinces were often very vaguely -described. Since the independence of the -various provinces these boundary lines have -been the cause of many disputes, and, in many -instances, have nearly plunged neighbouring -republics into bloody war. The most serious -dispute still unsettled is between Peru and -Ecuador, which involves a large part of the -territory of the latter republic.</p> - -<p>The older readers will remember that, when -they studied geography, Bolivia had a stretch -of sea coast along the desert of Atacama. For -a considerable time after independence was -secured little attention was paid to Atacama, -since it was regarded as worthless for colonization. -Chile claimed sovereignty, and its -jurisdiction was generally recognized. The -year 1840 brought a change. In that year<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span> -the wealth of fertilizer along that coast began -to be exploited. Disputes soon arose -between Chile and Bolivia as to the boundary -line. The various claims made by Bolivia -were inconsistent. War threatened, and diplomatic -relations between the two countries -were broken off. The outbreak of hostilities -between Spain and Peru united the two -countries against what they considered a common -enemy. A treaty was drawn up in 1866 by -which the 24th degree of south latitude was -agreed upon as the actual boundary, although -the Chileans were allowed to continue their -operations in the nitrate regions beyond that -line. Furthermore, Chile was to pay over to -Bolivia half the customs received between the -24th and 25th degrees, and Bolivia was to hand -over to Chile half the customs received between -the 23rd and 24th degrees, south latitude. It -was also provided that neither party to the -treaty could alienate its rights to a foreign -government.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus43"> -<img src="images/illus43.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">DIGGING NITRATE.</p> -</div> - -<p>This treaty gave rise to continual disputes. -Chile regarded this settlement as a final solution -of the dispute, but Bolivia refused or -neglected to live up to her part of the agreement. -By a later treaty Chile renounced her<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span> -claims between these two degrees, with the -agreement on the part of Bolivia that the export -duties on mineral products from that zone -should not be increased, and that Chilean industries -and citizens should not be subjected -to higher taxes than then prevailed. This -treaty was to remain in force for twenty-five -years. The capital invested in that zone was -almost exclusively Chilean, and the labourers -employed were also of that nationality. Peru -had large interests in the nitrate industry and -began to intrigue with Bolivia, in order to prevent -a ruinous competition in the market. So -long as Chilean enterprise was left free this -monopoly was impossible. As the interests of -Peru and Bolivia were opposed to those of -Chile, these two republics, in 1872, entered into -a secret treaty of alliance. Like many state -secrets this one became public, and Chile began -to prepare for a conflict, which seemed impending, -by purchasing ironclads and in other -ways strengthening her navy.</p> - -<p>In 1870 a revolution occurred in Bolivia, and -a new government came into power which refused -to carry out the provisions of the last -treaty entered into with Chile. It, furthermore, -at the alleged suggestion of Peru, attempted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span> -to increase the taxes upon all nitrate -exports, in absolute violation of its treaty -obligations. The manager of a Chilean company -was imprisoned, and the property was -confiscated on his refusal to pay the enhanced -tax. Chile issued an ultimatum through her -diplomatic representative. Upon the refusal -of the Bolivian government to recede, Chile -landed troops at Antofagasta and took possession -of that city. Bolivia declared war against -Chile on the 1st of March, 1879, and, because -Peru refused to abrogate the secret treaty -between it and Bolivia, Chile declared war -against Peru the following month. Most writers -lay the blame for the war entirely upon the -aggressiveness and covetousness of Chile, but -a careful study of the situation shows great -moderation on the part of Chile for a long -period of time.</p> - -<p>It was generally believed that the Peruvian -navy was far superior to that of Chile, but, -as a matter of fact, they were pretty evenly -matched. For several years Chile had steadily -strengthened her naval forces. Peru had -suffered from internal dissensions and corrupt -administrations, and was ill prepared for war. -Bolivia was in still worse condition. At the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span> -time of the outbreak of hostilities the only -available arms were fifteen hundred Remington -rifles, and the stock of ammunition was small; -the rest of the army was equipped with old -flint-lock muskets. The bulk of both the Peruvian -and Bolivian armies were Indians. The -Chilean army was not large at the time of the -declaration of war, but its personnel, man for -man, was far superior to either of its adversaries. -The Chileans were likewise prompt -and energetic in their preparations for war. -The land forces were increased, and both naval -and army supplies were accumulated at strategic -points. Because of the long stretch of sea -coast it was inevitable that the navies of the -two countries would bear the brunt of the -fighting, as subsequent events proved.</p> - -<p>The naval war was opened with the blockade -of Iquique by the Chileans. With Iquique as -a rendezvous the Chilean navy visited various -ports, and inflicted serious damage to commercial -interests. The aim was to deprive -Peru of her main source of revenue. Peru had -an intrepid and doughty admiral by the name -of Grau, who commanded the Peruvian fleet, -of which the <i>Huascar</i> was the flagship. While -the main part of the Chilean navy was away<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span> -from Iquique, two Peruvian boats appeared in -that harbour. The <i>Huascar</i> rammed and sank -the <i>Esmeralda</i>, one of the best of the Chilean -ships, after four hours of heavy firing. It -was at this fight that Arturo Prat, who was in -command of the <i>Esmeralda</i>, made a hero of -himself by leaping upon the deck of the -<i>Huascar</i>. “Follow me,” said this brave -officer, as he boarded the <i>Huascar</i>, sword in -hand. The ships, however, separated so -quickly that only one man was able to follow -him. Prat rushed along the deck of the ship -as though he himself had captured it. “Surrender, -Captain,” said Admiral Grau, “we -wish to save the life of a hero.” Prat refused, -and was soon cut down while still fighting with -his sword. The <i>Esmeralda</i> sank with colours -flying, and only fifty out of a crew of two -hundred were saved. Before the conflict ended, -however, Peru also lost one vessel, the <i>Independencia</i>, -which ran upon the rocks while -pursuing the Chilean <i>Covadonga</i>.</p> - -<p>For four months Admiral Grau traversed -the Pacific coast from Arica to Valparaiso. -He prevented the transport of the Chilean -army northward. Discontent grew rapidly. -The Chileans decided that they could do nothing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span> -until they rid themselves of this doughty -seaman. Their navy was divided into two -squadrons, both of which began patrolling the -coast. The <i>Huascar</i> was accompanied by the -Bolivian <i>Union</i>. These two vessels were cruising -together near Antofagasta on October 8th, -1879. When the mist, which had been thick, -lifted, they made out three distinct clouds of -smoke toward the northeast. These were soon -recognized as one of the Chilean squadrons. -Admiral Grau fled, but soon ran into the other -squadron approaching him from the direction -in which he was fleeing. The Admiral at once -decided that the only thing to do was to close -with the <i>Cochrane</i> before the other boats could -come up, and steamed straight for that boat. -None of the shots of either boat were effective -until they were in close quarters, when a chance -shot disabled the <i>Huascar’s</i> turret. Grau tried -to ram the <i>Cochrane</i>, but the latter was too -quick for her. By this time the Chilean <i>Blanco</i> -had come up and added her shots to those of -her sister boat. A shot struck the conning-tower, -in which the Admiral was stationed, and -blew that commander into atoms. A little later -the second officer, and then the next one in -seniority, were killed, which demoralized the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span> -Peruvian crew. One-third of the officers and -men had been either killed or wounded when -the vessel was finally surrendered. This fight -is interesting not only because it was one of -the deciding events of the war, but it was the -first fight between modern ironclads. The -entire engagement lasted but little over an -hour. After repairs the <i>Huascar</i> was incorporated -into the Chilean navy.</p> - -<p>The capture of the <i>Huascar</i> gave the Chileans -the absolute command of the sea, and -enabled them to land an army wherever they -pleased along the coast. Nor did the Chileans -delay their onward march. A Chilean army -of ten thousand men, well-equipped, had been -landed at Antofagasta, and other regiments -were in Valparaiso ready to embark as occasion -arose. On the 28th of October this army -was embarked on fifteen transports convoyed -by four men-of-war. The destination was kept -a profound secret, but a few days later they -steamed into the harbour of Pisagua. A small -force of Bolivians defended this port, but they -were unable to prevent the landing of the Chilean -troops. A brief skirmish ensued but the -Bolivians were soon in retreat. The allied -forces of Peruvians and Bolivians had an army<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span> -of some nineteen thousand men at Iquique. -These men were marched out to meet the invaders. -The march of these forces across the -desert regions was difficult because of the lack -of provisions, and especially the scant supply -of water, from which the troops greatly suffered -in many instances. The Chileans had -established themselves at Dolores and San -Francisco, where there was an abundant supply -of fresh water.</p> - -<p>The majority of the allied armies were Inca -and Aymara Indians. They had generally been -recruited by force. Villages would be surrounded, -and all the men that could be caught -were impressed into the ranks. They were -generally obedient and brave, and were capable -of enduring hunger, thirst and fatigue such -as would have overwhelmed white troops. -They were unequalled in their capacity to make -long marches with scant supplies of food and -water. In no other way could the Chileans -have been withstood. The wives of many -accompanied them. These women are called -<i>rabonas</i>, and were regularly recognized. As -soon as a halt was made these women immediately -busied themselves in preparing the food. -After the battles they ministered to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span> -wounded. Callous to all danger hundreds of -these faithful helpmates met death on the field -of carnage.</p> - -<p>The first battle occurred at San Francisco -and Porvenir. The vanguard of the allies was -made up of Indians from the Lake Titicaca -district. They were led by the brave Colonel -Espinar. As these forces led a charge against -the Chilean guns a bullet pierced his forehead, -and he fell mortally wounded. A cry of grief -and horror fell from his countrymen and their -courage failed. Disputing every inch of ground -they fell back to the main body of troops. The -battle so gallantly fought resulted in a decisive -victory for the Chileans.</p> - -<p>General Buendia, commander of the allied -forces, retreated to the village of Tarapacá, -which was a collection of mud huts. It is situated -in a narrow but fertile valley not to exceed -six hundred yards in width, and he there -awaited the attack which he knew was soon to -follow. With practically no cavalry and a -dozen antiquated field-guns the prospect was -not alluring. The odds seemed hopeless. He -was not kept long in suspense. A force under -Colonel Arteaga consisting of picked men, -cavalry and artillery soon appeared. The aim<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span> -was the complete destruction of the allied -army. For this purpose the force had been -divided into three divisions.</p> - -<p>A mist hung over the little valley while the -Peruvian army rested with stacked arms. Suddenly -a muleteer galloped up to the commander -and reported the enemy approaching. Then -two others reported the other divisions. It -looked as though they were being surrounded -and caught in a trap. Then came the call to -arms. The men responded and advanced up -the bluffs against a withering fire. The stoical -Indians saw their leaders fall, but they set -their teeth and continued the advance. The -Chileans at last found their equals. The allied -forces were embarrassed by a lack of artillery, -but fought desperately. Many were the deeds -of heroism of that day. After a few hours of -fighting they captured some guns from the -enemy and used them to good advantage. The -result of the battle was a decided victory for -the allies, their only real victory of the war -on land. San Francisco was atoned for, and -the loss of the <i>Huascar</i> avenged. The total -loss was twelve hundred men, about equally -divided. The allies nevertheless retreated -across the desert to Tacna, as it was impossible<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span> -to maintain an army in the interior and -they were not strong enough to recapture -Iquique. In this way General Buendia saved -the flower of his army. In several battles of -this campaign several thousand troops were -lost on each side, but, as a result, the Chileans -came into control of all of the nitrate country. -Several months later Tacna was captured, and, -with the battle of Arica, which has heretofore -been described, all of present-day Chile was in -control of the victors.</p> - -<p>The disasters to the armies of the allies -caused revolutions in both Peru and Bolivia, -and the President of each of those countries -fled to Europe. Armed revolts arose and -fighting took place in the streets of Lima. -The position of Peru was desperate. With her -navy destroyed Peru could no longer defend -herself against the aggressions of the enemy -on the sea. The Chileans blockaded Callao, -and a marauding expedition under Captain -Lynch bombarded a number of coast towns. -Captain Lynch had been ordered to ravage the -whole coast north of Callao, and he executed -his instructions to the letter, destroying government -and private property in every direction. -Several Chilean boats were sunk in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span> -harbour of Callao through ingenious schemes -of the Peruvians. On one occasion the Chileans -saw a boat loaded with fresh provisions. They -began to transfer these supplies to the <i>Loa</i>. -As the last of the cargo was being hoisted -aboard, a terrific explosion occurred that sank -the <i>Loa</i>. It was no doubt due to an infernal -machine that had been placed in the bottom. -The <i>Covadonga</i> was destroyed by a similar explosion -on a small boat captured in the harbour -by the Chileans.</p> - -<p>The United States offered its mediation in -October, 1880, and commissioners of the -three countries met on board the corvette -<i>Lackawanna</i> of the United States navy, in the -harbour of Arica. The first meeting took place -on the 22nd of October, when the American -minister took the chair and announced the purpose -of the convention. He added that the -American representatives would take no part -in the discussion, but would be glad to help -with friendly suggestions. The Chilean commissioners -presented a memorandum of their -demands, which was in substance what was -eventually granted, but the Peruvians refused -such hard terms, thinking that foreign intervention -would save them. Chile absolutely refused<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span> -arbitration or a full war indemnity, and -the convention broke up without any progress -having been made towards peace.</p> - -<p>The delay of a few months in the progress -of the war had enraged the volatile Chileans, -and those in charge of the war finally decided -that it would be necessary to capture Lima. -An expeditionary force of thirty thousand -men of all arms was organized, transports -were purchased and the resources of the country -were taxed to the utmost to carry on this -expedition. The army was formed into three -divisions, one of which, under Captain Patrick -Lynch, was ordered to land at Pisco. A second -division was instructed to disembark at Curayaco -Bay, which was one hundred miles nearer -the capital than Pisco. The first division was -ordered to march by land northward to join -the second division in the final attack upon -the capital.</p> - -<p>At Lima all was confusion as the news of -the actual advance of the Chileans towards the -capital reached that city. “The City of the -Kings,” as Pizarro had named it, the wealthy -and prosperous capital of modern Peru, was -now threatened with all the horrors of war. -The population of the city at that time has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span> -been estimated at one hundred thousand souls, -of whom at least fifteen thousand were foreigners. -The inhabitants were pleasure-loving, -and there was a very large irresponsible element, -composed in part of negroes and Indians, -that meant trouble in those dark days. The -flower of the Peruvian army had been destroyed. -Thousands rested on the deserts of -Tarapacá, and the sand hills of Tacna and -Arica. Those seasoned troops that were in -the city had become more or less disorganized. -A decree was issued ordering every male resident -in Lima between the ages of sixteen and -sixty, of whatever trade, profession and calling, -to join the army. Gay and thoughtless -youths, students, idlers and the vicious were -all brought together in the ranks under this -order. It is easy to make such decrees, but -a decree does not make an army. It takes -months to create an efficient fighting force. -However brave these Peruvians might be, they -were not trained in military service, and they -lacked the qualities of the seasoned soldiers of -the Chilean army. From three to six in the -afternoon all business was suspended by Presidential -decree, and these drafted troops were -drilled. The call to arms was made by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span> -tolling of the bell in the great cathedral. The -artillery was inferior, and it could not compete -with the Krupp and Armstrong guns with -which the invaders were provided.</p> - -<p>Nicolas de Pierola, who was at the head of -the army, with the title of Supreme Chief, -realized the danger, and strove in the best way -possible to prepare for it. At a meeting of -all the generals and naval officers, plans were -evolved to protect the city. As soon as it -became known that the invading army had -landed to the south of Lima the preparations -were devoted to protecting the city from that -direction. As the time was short it was not -possible to prepare extensive fortifications. A -chain of sandhills, which ran through Chorrillos, -about ten miles from the city to the -south, was chosen as the first line of defense. -These hills formed a sort of natural barrier, -and breastworks were thrown up at various -places along them, and these newly-recruited -and hastily-drilled troops were stationed along -this first line of defense, which was at least -six miles long. A second line of defense just -outside Miraflores, and four miles nearer the -capital, was established, and thousands of these -troops were stationed there. The time was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span> -too short to create very formidable fortifications.</p> - -<p>The first division of the Chilean army landed -at Pisco on the 13th of December, and immediately -began its march overland. Villages -and plantations were destroyed along the route, -and the record of Captain Lynch is a rather -cruel one. On the 25th a junction of the two -divisions was made at Curayaco. These two -bodies proceeded to Lurin, a small village lying -in a beautiful little valley, and remained there -about three weeks, while making their final -preparations for the capture of the capital. -This time was spent in reconnoitering and collecting -provisions for the final campaign. The -Chilean army at this time consisted of an -effective force of twenty-six thousand men, -with seventy long range field guns, and a considerable -body of cavalry. Most of these -troops were thoroughly disciplined men, who -had had experience in previous campaigns. -They were under the command of General -Baquedano, who had made a record for himself -in this war.</p> - -<p>The battle of Chorrillos began at dawn on -the morning of the 13th of January, 1881. -The Peruvians were taken by surprise, but resisted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span> -bravely. It was not long, however, until -their right flank was driven back, and then -various other points of defense were carried -at the point of the bayonet. The Chilean cavalry -completed the victory by pursuing and -cutting down fugitives in every direction, until -the plains for several miles were covered with -the dead bodies of the Peruvians. The Peruvians -fell back in more or less disorder to the -second line of defense, which was only six -miles distant from the city itself. An armistice -was arranged by the diplomatic corps at -Lima on the 15th, in the hope of preventing -any more bloodshed and averting the horrors -of a battle just outside the capital. This was -done at the request of the Peruvian commander-in-chief, -and the Chilean general agreed -that it should last until midnight of the 15th. -Through some misunderstanding some shots -were exchanged, and each party believed that -the other had violated its agreement, so that -the battle of Miraflores was fought on that -date. The defense of the Peruvians was brave, -as they were fighting for their homes and the -city which all of them loved. The battle extended -over the entire line of the second defense, -which was not less than four miles.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span> -The battle began early in the afternoon, and -a number of warships in the harbour near there -assisted in the assault by firing their long -range guns. The ammunition of the defenders -ran low and the defense began to weaken. -The Chileans made a bayonet charge, and one -breastwork after another was captured. For -almost four hours the defense was maintained, -but at the end of that time the Chileans were -victors. The village of Miraflores was burned; -the pleasant country homes surrounding it -were sacked, the crops destroyed and the work -of devastation was terrible. On the 16th, Lima -was surrendered to the Chilean general by the -Municipal Alcalde, and possession was to be -given on the following day. The intervening -night was a night of terror, and, had it not -been for the voluntary service of the foreign -colony, the whole city might have been sacked -by the disorderly elements in it.</p> - -<p>The Chilean commander entered Lima on the -16th and established himself in the palace. He -immediately took possession of the revenues, -policed the city, and endeavoured to restore -peaceful conditions to such an extent as they -could be under a military government by a -hated foe. A million pesos a month was levied<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span> -upon the citizens, and they were required to -meet it. The conduct of the Chileans was reprehensible -in that they became vandals. A -great part of the valuable library, filled with -almost priceless volumes, was looted and some -of it sold as junk on the streets. Pictures and -statues were removed and taken to Chile, where -they may still be seen. The Chileans, coming -from the same stock and claiming allegiance to -the same church, did not seem to have any consideration -for a fallen foe.</p> - -<p>Before a treaty could be entered into it was -necessary to have a government established -with which to treat. Several attempts were -made, but no one could be found who dared -sign a treaty that would permanently alienate -a portion of the country. The Chileans refused -to treat with Pierola, so that he resigned. -Calderon assumed the presidency, but the congress -refused him authority to alienate any -territory. Admiral Montero next attempted -the seemingly impossible and failed. At length -General Iglesias called a convention of his -compatriots in the northern districts, and it -was decided to adopt measures that would -secure the speedy retirement of the Chileans, -no matter at what sacrifice. He declared himself<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span> -President, and his pretensions were supported -by the Chileans. A treaty was arranged -with Chile, which was signed provisionally -on the 23rd of October, 1883, and is -known as the Treaty of Ancon. Five days -later the Peruvian flag was again hoisted in -Lima, and the Chileans left the country. It -was a number of years later before a treaty -of peace was arranged with Bolivia, although -no further fighting took place.</p> - -<p>It is quite possible that the last word has -not yet been spoken in the nitrate controversy -between Chile and Peru. The feeling of Peruvians -toward their late foe is intensely bitter. -They all look forward to another day of war, -and predict that Peru will retake from Chile -all that she has lost. If some ambitious leader -should arise in Peru and secure the presidency, -another war might easily follow. At the present -time Peru’s finances would not warrant -such a step. It is to be hoped that both nations -will seriously consider the ultimate consequences -of war, and make unnecessary the -reference of mooted questions to the arbitrament -of the field of battle.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI<br /> -<span class="smaller">CIVIL WAR AND ITS RESULTS</span></h2> - -<p>The successful conclusion of the war with -Peru and Bolivia began a new era in Chile. -The control of the nitrate fields meant an immense -revenue for the government, and everyone -wanted a chance to reap some profit. -Politics absorbed the public attention, and the -holding of office became the most popular occupation. -Material prosperity followed. The -Chileans believed themselves invincible on land -and sea. With outside troubles settled for the -time being internal dissensions arose, and the -fight between the clergy and the anti-clericals -broke out with renewed energy. The time -seemed ripe for the settlement of disturbing -questions arising out of the union of church -and state.</p> - -<p>A new presidential election became necessary -soon after the capture of Lima, and while the -victorious troops were still in possession of -that city. Through the influence of President<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span> -Pinto, Don Domingo Santa Maria (which, in -English, means Sunday Saint Mary) was -chosen as his successor. The opposition tried -to centre on General Baquedano, the popular -hero of the recent war, but the prestige of the -government was too powerful. He was a liberal -and had been banished for his opinions -by President Montt. The conservatives by -this time were in a great minority. Santa -Maria was bitterly opposed to clerical influence -in political affairs, and this led to bitter opposition -from that quarter. The President proclaimed -that the time had come for absolute -liberty of conscience, civil marriage and the -secularization of the cemeteries. Heretofore -the priests alone had charge of the registers -of births, deaths and marriages, were alone -able to perform marriages, and in the cemeteries -only those baptized into the Roman -Catholic church were permitted interment in -consecrated ground. All other political questions -were held in abeyance during this controversy, -and feeling became intense. The -President was obliged to use all his official -prestige in order to secure a majority in Congress, -but he succeeded in passing a law requiring -civil marriage, freeing the cemeteries<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span> -and establishing a special official for the registration -of births, deaths and marriages. -These were, indeed, valuable reforms, and -reflect credit on the administration of Santa -Maria. Serious disorders resulted as the 1886 -election approached, in which several persons -lost their lives. Several men had the presidential -bee in their bonnets and were backed -by an active following. Nevertheless, in spite -of all opposition, Santa Maria’s chief cabinet -officer, and the man who had been most active -in carrying out his program, Balmaceda, was -chosen to succeed his chief, through the active -aid of the administration and its official influence.</p> - -<p>Since the close of the war with Peru, the -most noted name in Chilean history is that of -José Manuel Balmaceda. He was inaugurated -President on the 18th of September, 1886, and -his term was destined to be marked by stirring -events. This man was, as a contemporary -describes him, “about fifty years of age, six -feet in height, of spare build and broad sloping -forehead, with a good, humourous eye and -wears generally on his face a half-playful, half-cynical -smile.” His opponents call him a -tyrant, a usurper and a dictator, but historians<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span> -generally credit him with being a man far -ahead of his time.</p> - -<p>The first position of prominence held by -Balmaceda, except as a member of Congress, -was in the cabinet of President Santa Maria. -Educated for the priesthood, he had been saved -from that career by the opposition of his -father, and later he became one of the most -radical opponents of the Church, and one of -the leaders in the fight for the separation of -Church and State, which had been carried on -during the term of his predecessor. He had -been one of the most active and influential -advocates of the radical programs of the -<i>reformistas</i>. At the time of Balmaceda’s election -the country was divided into no less than -six different parties, ranging from the fiercest -radicals to the most conservative churchmen. -The civil marriage law, which had been inaugurated -during the term of Santa Maria, as -well as some other anti-church legislation, had -aroused the opposition of all the clergy. The -priests went so far as to refuse to perform -a religious ceremony for any one who had -been married by civil officers, and had even -excommunicated the President and his cabinet -who supported that measure. The women, who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span> -were especially under the domination of the -priests, used all of their influence in opposition -to the new marriage law. Nevertheless, with -all of this opposition, ladies’ entreaties and -priests’ absolution could not prevent the election -of Balmaceda, who was chosen by a coalition -of the radical elements, even though they -were somewhat loosely cohered.</p> - -<p>Balmaceda took the reins of government at -an exceedingly unfortunate period. I have -already had occasion to state the predominating -influence of Congress in the government, -and the possibilities it gave for an obstinate -Congress to embarrass the President. It had -become one of the unwritten laws that the -resignation of a ministry should follow an -adverse vote on any measure. In other words -a ministry could only hold office when it represented -a majority in Congress. As no power -was given the President to dissolve that body -when an adverse majority existed, so that an -appeal might be made to the country, the -President was greatly hampered. The last -year of Santa Maria’s administration had -brought about a serious condition of affairs. -Violent scenes were enacted in Congress in the -fight between the supporters of the President<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span> -and his opponents. The revenue and appropriation -bills had expired, and a filibuster on -the part of the opposition had prevented new -ones from being enacted.</p> - -<p>It was at this crisis that Balmaceda was -inaugurated. He faced the situation courageously, -and proceeded to collect the taxes and -pay the expenses in accordance with the provisions -of the expired law. This situation was -accepted by the country, for a prosperity had -fallen upon Chile such as the country had never -known. In spite of reckless expenditures the -revenues from the nitrate fields, which had -been taken from Peru, mounted up so rapidly -that the surplus soon reached immense sums. -Mining industries of all kinds were exceedingly -flourishing. Balmaceda, who was both clever -and capable, as well as sincere, entered upon -a campaign to educate the people, and no less -than fifteen hundred public schools were established -by him. Hospitals, health offices, fire -brigades and other progressive institutions -were aided liberally. Many public works, including -railways and colonization schemes, -were fostered, salaries were raised, and the -Araucanian Indians were admitted as citizens -of the republic. New election laws were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span> -passed, which had for their purpose the development -of real democratic government.</p> - -<p>Nevertheless beneath the outward prosperity -a smouldering fire was burning. The slogan -of Balmaceda “Chile for the Chileans” -aroused the opposition of foreign interests. -The reduction of ecclesiastical fees and stipends, -and the enforcement of the civil marriage -law, kept the opposition of the clergy -alive. The jealousy of the old families, who -had heretofore been supreme in the government, -to the new democratic measures advocated -by Balmaceda were aroused. Furthermore -the election of Balmaceda was really not -by a party, but the result of a temporary coalition -of three discordant elements. By 1889 -Balmaceda had succeeded in arousing the -enmity of practically all the parties. The progressive -elements had split into nationals, -liberals, dissentient-liberals and radicals. Continual -changes in his cabinet followed, and one -group was substituted for another every -few months. It had been the ambition of -Balmaceda to unite all the liberal elements -into one party, but in this he had signally -failed.</p> - -<p>Balmaceda soon found himself without a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span> -majority in Congress, and with no prospect of -securing one. Heretofore a majority had sometimes -been acquired by the trading of votes -among the different factions in exchange for -a share of patronage. Even this method no -longer availed. The idea gradually became -prevalent that the President was plotting to -build up a strong personal following, in order -to establish a dictatorship and replace with it -the power of Congress. Circumstances, as -much as anything else, practically forced -Balmaceda into this position. He believed in -himself and his own motives, and the selfishness -of the different liberal groups irritated -him. All of this turmoil was galling to a man -of the character of Balmaceda. Reformation -of various evils was his aim, but he found himself -thwarted at every turn. He soon grasped -the fact that if he could control Congress, he -could settle the vexed questions which, in his -opinion, retarded the development of his country. -Furthermore, he gave a wider interpretation -to the constitution in relation to the powers -of the executive than did the legislative body.</p> - -<p>Congress finally refused to pass appropriation -bills or vote supplies for the army, and, -in retaliation, Balmaceda dissolved Congress,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[344]</a></span> -which he claimed he had a right to do under -the constitution of 1833. In January, 1890, he -appointed a cabinet composed exclusively of -personal followers, and these new ministers -announced that they would hold office so long -as they were satisfactory to the President, regardless -of Congress. A definite rupture was -inevitable, for the breach had become so wide -that temporizing was impossible. Balmaceda -must either resign or assume dictatorial powers. -He chose the latter.</p> - -<p>The <i>Comision Conservada</i>, which safeguards -the interests of Congress when that body is -not in session, demanded that that body be -convoked. Balmaceda ignored the request. A -mass meeting in Santiago denounced the President. -The opposition finally became so bold -that a <i>junta</i> was formed, of which Captain -Jorge Montt, a naval officer, was the head. -The particular charges made by the revolutionists -were that the President had no right -to maintain any military forces after the -appropriations for its support were exhausted. -Balmaceda retaliated with a proclamation that -he would follow the precedent established when -he came into office, would collect taxes and -maintain the public service by executive authority<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345]</a></span> -until the assembling of the next Congress. -He expressly disclaimed any intention of establishing -a dictatorship, but refused to allow -Congress to interfere with the executive functions -of the government. As neither party -would recede actual war soon followed.</p> - -<p>Through the influence of Captain Montt -the entire navy, with the exception of a couple -of torpedo boats, adhered to the revolutionists. -On the night of January 6th, 1891, the Vice-President -of the Senate and the President of -the Chamber of Deputies embarked on the -<i>Blanco Encalada</i> with Captain Montt, and the -revolution was begun. A cargo of war material -designed for the government was captured -and the naval stores at Talcahuana -seized. On the 10th a skirmish occurred between -the shore batteries at Valparaiso and -some boats of the navy, and in this engagement -the first blood in this civil war was shed. -From this time events moved forward with -great rapidity. The majority of the aristocracy -espoused the cause of the revolutionists, and -this move had great influence. Although several -attempts were made to produce mutiny -among the troops they remained loyal to -Balmaceda.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346]</a></span></p> - -<p>The disaffection of the entire navy was both -a surprise and disappointment to Balmaceda, -but he immediately placed the army on a war -footing and increased their pay. A reward -of two years pay was offered to the crew of -any man-of-war if the vessel deserted the -revolutionary cause, but this inducement had -no effect. Balmaceda placed the troops in several -parts of the country, where he thought -they would be most useful in defense. The -natural conditions of Chile, however, hindered -him. As the revolutionists had control of the -sea, it was impossible for Balmaceda to relieve -the small garrisons at Iquique, Antofagasta -and Pisagua, the nitrate ports. The revolutionists, -after a few short skirmishes, obtained -possession of these places. Pisagua fell first, -and a couple of bloody battles were fought for -its possession and then recovery. The troops -at Iquique were withdrawn to resist the land -forces, and marines were landed who captured -it.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus44"> -<img src="images/illus44.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">THE MILITARY BARRACKS, SANTIAGO.</p> -</div> - -<p>The congressionalists then established their -headquarters at Iquique, and took possession -of the immense revenues derived from the -export of nitrate. With this cash they purchased -the most modern arms and equipments.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347]</a></span> -Balmaceda, although having means, was unable -to get modern rifles, so that his troops were -not so well armed as those of the revolutionists. -The two torpedo boats, which remained loyal -to the government succeeded in sinking the -<i>Blanco Encalada</i>, and also in doing other damage -to the navy, but not enough to cripple -its effectiveness. Blockades of the ports cut -off all of Balmaceda’s outside supplies. Balmaceda -attempted to purchase ironclads in -Europe, but the revolutionists outbid him and -he was unable to build up a navy. The long -seacoast was also a disadvantage to him, since -it was impossible for him to transport his -troops by water as the revolutionists could. -It was not many months until all the northern -provinces were under the control of the revolutionists, -but no engagements had taken place -in the central or southern provinces. The -revolutionists were encouraged by these successes, -and public opinion was undoubtedly -changing because of the high-handed and arbitrary -methods of Balmaceda. Suspected persons -were arrested, and many of them executed -without trial. The value of human life seemed -to sink into insignificance, and a reign almost of -terror followed. In one instance a guerilla<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348]</a></span> -band composed of young men, some of whom -were not more than sixteen years of age, and -all belonging to the best families in Santiago, -were captured by the government force at -a farmhouse. Eight were shot at once and -the others, after a court martial, were sent -back to the place where they were captured -to be executed. This led to a storm of execration -against Balmaceda. Furthermore, he had -chosen Señor Claudio Vicuña as his successor, -and the latter was declared elected after a -farcical contest in which no opposing candidate -appeared. The congressionalists decided to -carry the war into the heart of the enemy’s -country, and a large army was embarked at -the various northern ports under their control.</p> - -<p>On the 18th of August, 1891, the revolutionary -fleet of seventeen vessels suddenly appeared -at Valparaiso with the entire revolutionary -army, consisting of a little less than -ten thousand men, aboard. This force was to -oppose an army of forty thousand government -forces. The former, however, were volunteers, -while the latter was known to contain large -numbers of disaffected ones. Two days later -these troops were landed at Quinteros, not far<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[349]</a></span> -from Valparaiso, and near the mouth of the -Aconcagua River.</p> - -<p>At this place the river flows through a flat -valley, which is from six hundred to eight -hundred yards in width, and is bordered by -lines of hills from four hundred and fifty to -six hundred feet in height. The government -forces numbering six thousand, three hundred -and twenty-two men, were located on the southern -bank of the river at Concon, where their -line was about three miles in length. They were -armed with old rifles, while the troops of the -revolutionists were provided with Mannlicher -rifles of the newest pattern. General Korner, -who was in charge of the congressists, did -not hesitate before this formidable position. -He divided his forces into three parts. One -forded the icy-cold waters of the Aconcagua at -Concon <i>bajo</i> and attacked the flank of the -enemy. The second and third brigades engaged -them from the opposite side of the river, -and then crossed the river higher up. The -ships of the navy also directed their fire -against the Balmacedists. The battle was begun -on the morning of the 21st. The government -troops ran short of ammunition and began -to give way. After four and one-half<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[350]</a></span> -hours of fighting the battle was won. Retreat -soon turned into a rout, and the defeated -forces fled in every direction. The government -loss was seventeen hundred killed and -wounded, and fifteen hundred men and all their -artillery captured. The revolutionists had only -eight hundred and sixty-nine casualties. The -result was a decided victory for Balmaceda’s -enemies.</p> - -<p>Of the Balmacedist troops only two thousand -could be mustered after this disaster. But -thousands of other troops were hurried to -Valparaiso before railroad communication was -severed. A slight repulse was given the congressists -near Viña del Mar. The army then -took a wide detour in order to attack Valparaiso -from the southeast. The government -forces took possession of the heights at Placilla -and awaited the expected battle. Each army at -this time exceeded nine thousand men and were -evenly balanced. But the government forces -were disheartened, even though they occupied -an exceptionally strong position. Their cavalry -seems also to have been untrustworthy, -for they gave no intelligence of this expected -move of the enemy. No less than four hundred -cavalrymen actually deserted and joined the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[351]</a></span> -other army. The country through which the -congressists marched was broken, full of small -streams and marshes. Hundreds of weary -stragglers slept out under the trees. They -reached Las Cadenas on the 27th and rested -during that night. Early on the morning of -the following day they started for the Balmacedist -position on the heights, and this -seems to have been the first knowledge that -army had of the presence of the foe. The -revolutionists began the engagement with artillery -fire. The advance was stubbornly resisted, -but a bayonet charge carried an outpost. A -hand-to-hand conflict ensued until the defenders -finally threw down their arms. Generals Alcerrica -and Barbosa fought valiantly until killed. -A horrible slaughter followed and the troops -of Balmaceda fled in all directions. The casualties -on both sides were heavy. Although the -fighting only lasted four hours the government -loss in killed and wounded was three thousand, -three hundred and sixty-three, and the victors -lost eighteen hundred. That same night Valparaiso -was occupied, and a night of carousal -and lawlessness and bloodshed ensued. Houses -were set on fire, and ruffians shot at the firemen -as they attempted to put out the flames.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[352]</a></span> -The soldiers and mob seem to have been entirely -beyond control. The next morning four -or five hundred dead bodies were found on -the streets.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus45"> -<img src="images/illus45.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CHILEAN SOLDIERS.</p> -</div> - -<p>This battle was the deciding point of the -civil war. When the news reached Valparaiso, -Balmaceda realized it was useless to continue -the struggle. He decided to resign and turn -his office over to General Baquedano, a friend -of the revolutionists. He issued a proclamation -beseeching the citizens to preserve order -during the crisis, in order to prevent bloodshed -and plunder. On the 29th he turned the -office over to General Baquedano in a short -and dignified speech. That day being his -wife’s saint day, the President had invited in -several of his friends to dine. Notwithstanding -the changed conditions Balmaceda did not -recall the invitations, but acted during the -whole evening as a generous host. As soon -as his visitors had left, he walked over to the -Argentine legation and took shelter. For several -days the revolutionists believed that he -had escaped the country and fled in disguise. -No one suspected that the defeated President -was at the house of the Argentine Minister, -Mr. Uriburu, afterwards president of Argentina.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[353]</a></span> -On the 18th of September, the day upon -which his legal term as president expired, the -country was shocked to hear that Balmaceda -had shot himself that morning at the home of -his friend.</p> - -<p>Balmaceda feared that his friends might be -embarrassed by his presence, and he furthermore -believed that his own death would make -easier the position of those who had supported -him during the trying times of the civil war. -It is quite probable, also, that his pride could -not brook the idea of a public trial and the -humiliation necessarily attending it. To die, -also, was to pose in a sense as a martyr. “I -could escape,” he said in a letter to his brother, -“but I would never run the risk of the ridicule -any disaster to such an attempt would entail, -and which would be the beginning of vexatious -humiliation that I could not endure for myself -or my family.” It was, indeed, a tragic -end, and was done in a more or less tragical -way, as he believed that he thus offered himself -as an expiatory sacrifice. He left a message -for his friends, which might be called his -political testament, in which were these words: -“Whenever you and the friends remember -me, believe me that my spirit, full of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[354]</a></span> -tenderest love, will be amongst you.” General -Baquedano ruled the country for three days -until the revolutionary <i>junta</i> reached Santiago, -when he relinquished his authority to them. A -short time later at a special election Jorge -Montt was chosen as Balmaceda’s successor, -although Vicuña had previously been selected -by the following of the deceased executive. As -was to be expected, after such a desperate -struggle, Congress was composed of members -having a common political platform. It had -been decided that the executive should be advised -by and rule in harmony with the legislative -majority. President Montt accepted the -situation and appointed a cabinet acceptable -to the majority.</p> - -<p>Confidence was soon restored and business -quickly adjusted itself. The new President -proved to be conservative and non-aggressive. -The country was in a bad financial condition, -but the nitrate revenues were large. The -Balmacedists were gradually brought under -amnesty laws, until all were finally permitted -to return to Chile. Having been a sailor -President Montt took steps to build up a -stronger navy, in order to be ready for impending -trouble with Argentina. For two<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[355]</a></span> -years the new administration kept a majority, -but a new election gave the Balmacedists the -balance of power amidst the warring factions. -Montt soon began to experience the same -trouble as his predecessors. No party had a -majority, and by new combinations of factions -the dominating groups were changed. A new -cabinet became necessary every few weeks, and -no definite policy or program was possible. -On the whole this administration was very -satisfactory in view of the difficulties under -which it laboured. Agricultural and mining -depression further embarrassed his administration, -but for these no government could be -held responsible. President Montt retired from -office with the respect of all.</p> - -<p>At the election in 1896 Señor Federico -Errázuriz, son of a former president of the -same name, was elected over his opponent by -a majority of one. The new congressional -elections still further complicated matters. The -liberal groups became more divided than ever. -Cabinet crises grew even more frequent, and -it was only when Congress was not in session -that a ministry could remain in power any -length of time. The result was an absolute -confusion in legislation. The most serious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[356]</a></span> -foreign question was the dispute with Argentina. -Excitement in both countries ran high. -Warlike speeches were made, and the public -mind was unduly excited. Preparations were -made for the mobilization of an army of fifty -thousand men, and a declaration of war was -expected almost daily. President Errázuriz -finally took the matter upon himself and -asked that the matter be submitted to arbitration. -Argentina at last consented. The -northern part was to be decided by the -representative of the United States in Argentina, -Mr. W. I. Buchanan, and the southern -section by Queen Victoria, of England. If -Errázuriz had done nothing else during his -term of office this one act places the whole country -greatly in his debt. President Errázuriz -died just before his term of office ended, and -the duties of the office were filled by the Minister -of the Interior, Señor Zañartú, until the -inauguration of his successor.</p> - -<p>Señor Jerman Riesco was chosen president -for the term beginning November 18th, 1901. -The same confusion continued during the -greater part of his term, so that much useful -legislation was rendered impossible. It was -not possible for the executive to select a cabinet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[357]</a></span> -that would be responsive to his will, but he -was obliged to take one selected for him by the -legislative body. As President Balmaceda -said: “Only in the organization of a popular -representative government with independent -and responsible powers, and easy means to -make that responsibility effective, will there be -parties of a national character, derived from -the will of the people and ensuing harmony -between the different powers of the state.” -The several presidents since Balmaceda have -realized this condition, but the serious lesson -of the civil war has prevented any radical step -being taken by the occupant of that office.</p> - -<p>At the election in 1906, Pedro Montt, son -of Manuel Montt, was elected to the office of -President of Chile. President Montt had served -his country in many ways, having been a member -of Congress for a long time, had held positions -in several cabinets, and had also represented -Chile as minister to the United States. -Owing to his dark complexion Montt was once -taken for a negro in Washington and refused -admission to a hotel. He proved to be a conservative -and able president, who had at heart -the best interests of his country. On few -occasions, however, did he have the legislative<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[358]</a></span> -body with him, and many of his good projects -failed. He had ability, tact and honesty of -purpose, but met the same obstacles as his -predecessors. In July, 1910, President Montt -visited the United States. He spent a few -days in this country while on his way to Europe -to secure medical attention, and was shown -numerous official courtesies. He was a spectator -of the shooting of Mayor Gaynor on -board a steamer in New York harbour. Soon -after reaching Europe President Montt was -attacked by heart failure, and died in Bremen, -Germany, on the 16th day of August, 1910. -Señor Elias Fernandez Albano, Minister of the -Interior, assumed the office of executive on the -death of President Montt. In poor health at -the time Acting-President Albano survived less -than one month after his inauguration, and -died on the 7th of September.</p> - -<p>On the 15th of November, 1910, Dr. Ramon -Barros Luco was elected President of Chile, -and assumed office on the 23rd of December, -1910. Dr. Luco was born in 1835, and has -had a long and honourable career in politics. -He held the office of Minister of Finance and -Minister of the Interior under several different -administrations. He has also been President<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[359]</a></span> -of the Senate, and has filled numerous other -responsible positions. He now has the opportunity -to round out a long life, which has already -passed the scriptural limit, with the -highest office in the gift of his countrymen.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[360]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII<br /> -<span class="smaller">PRESENT CONDITIONS AND FUTURE POSSIBILITIES</span></h2> - -<p>Nitrates have heretofore formed the chief -wealth of Chile, and will continue to do so -for some time in the future. But agricultural -and industrial development will eventually -overshadow all else—even the saltpetre deposits. -The great central valley will be the -chief centre of a permanent and growing -population. In this region all kinds of farming, -fruit-growing and stock-raising, flourish. -Temperate and semi-tropical products grow, -for the orange and the grape, the pear and the -apple are found side by side. It not only -grows enough for home consumption, but large -quantities of grain are exported. The raising -of live stock, especially cattle and hogs, is continually -on the increase. Agriculture in this -valley is susceptible of very great expansion. -The proprietors of the large <i>haciendas</i> are -satisfied with comparatively small returns -from their lands, and this fact retards the development<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[361]</a></span> -through its lack of encouragement -to the small farmer. There is no doubt that -small farms would add greatly to the production -of this fertile valley, because the effectiveness -of each acre would be increased. More -than sixty thousand acres are set out in grapes -alone. The beet root has been introduced and -is said to grow very well.</p> - -<p>Then come the forest lands of the southern -provinces, which must certainly prove a source -of great natural riches in the not distant future. -Tierra del Fuego promises great things -in the way of sheep-raising. Sheep grow an -especially fine quality of silky wool there, -which brings a good price in the market. There -are already several million head of sheep in -that district.</p> - -<p>Chile still has a wealth of undiscovered -mineral treasures within her boundaries. The -labour, transportation and fuel problem have -heretofore been the drawbacks, as well as -isolation from the world’s consumption. In -the northern part of the republic, at the coast -ports, coal costs almost ten dollars per ton, -a price that does not stimulate its use. In the -interior it is still higher because of the cost -of transportation. The government has enacted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[362]</a></span> -very favourable mining laws. A discoverer -of a new claim is entitled to fifteen -hectares, or about thirty-six acres. An ordinary -mining claim is only one-third as large. -No person can file more than one claim at a -time in a district, but other names are oftentimes -substituted in order to group claims together. -Development of a claim is not compulsory, -and the tax upon undeveloped claims -is very low, so that it is not a burdensome -proposition to hold a claim as long as the law -allows. Many wildcat companies have been -organized in Chile, as elsewhere, and there has -been much speculation in these stocks. It is -not difficult to interest the Latin people in any -form of gambling or speculation.</p> - -<p>Chile promises great development in manufacturing. -In fact, Chile is more likely to become -a commercial nation than any republic -of South America. There are already more -than eight thousand industrial establishments -of all kinds. Tanning of leather, making of -shoes, refining of chemical products, woollen -and cotton mills, etc., are included in these. -The government policy has been one of protection -and, in some instances, of actual bounties. -Sugar refineries have thus been built up<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[363]</a></span> -which refine the raw product imported from -Peru. They now grind much of their own -wheat. Some of the railway equipment used -on the national railroads is made in the country. -The roto seems to make a competent workman -in the factories. The coal mines and -prevalence of water power almost everywhere -gives Chile a great advantage over her neighbour, -Argentina, in the way of manufacturing -advantages.</p> - -<p>Although the operation of the national railways -has been unprofitable, and permeated -with gross mismanagement and graft, yet the -dogged persistence with which the parallel -iron rails have been spread over the country -has been most commendable. The longitudinal -railway has been pushed little by little each -year, and sometimes at the expense of national -sacrifice. The first transandine railway is now -an accomplished fact, and another route now -occupies national attention. After the settlement -of the boundary question with Argentina, -the vast sums that had been expended annually -in preparing for war were diverted to internal -development. The beneficial results can easily -be traced in both cities and country. The fearful -earthquake of 1906 caused a severe back-set,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[364]</a></span> -as the government was obliged to step in -and aid in the rebuilding of its principal port, -Valparaiso.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus46"> -<img src="images/illus46.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A MARKET SCENE, VALPARAISO.</p> -</div> - -<p>The government in Chile is rather different -from that of most of the Latin-American -countries. In form it is like unto that of the -United States; in fact, it is a government of -a few of the leading families. In theory the -President is the executive head; in practice, -that official is very much of a cipher. Absolute -powers for the executive, that prevailed -for the first half century of the republic, have -been abolished, and Congress is now the real -ruling power. Whether the country is ruled -or misruled the blame must be placed on that -body, for its authority is very broad. In it -a small group of families, generally said to be -one hundred, always predominate. Among -these will be some who have become rich -through banking or commercial development, -but most of them are landowners in families -that have been prominent for generations. -All the honours and emoluments are kept within -this small circle. To it may be added the -power of the Church, for that organization has -been most powerful in political matters. It -has been in times past simply a part of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[365]</a></span> -political system. In recent years the government -has insisted on the right to name the -Archbishop, and Rome has been practically -forced to concede this privilege. As a rule the -influence of the Church has been in favour of -what might be termed the reactionary element.</p> - -<p>As has been stated elsewhere the President -is assisted by a body of advisors, the majority -of whom are chosen by the parliamentary -body. This has led to frequent and oftentimes -ridiculous ministerial crises. These numerous -cabinet changes embarrass an executive -in whatever policy he may be trying to -develop. But he is helpless under the theory -of parliamentary government that has grown -up. Whenever the President proposes a certain -cabinet, he is met by a counter proposition -from some group or other in the legislative -bodies. Sometimes he may gain a little -temporary majority by a coalition or fusion -of some of the groups represented in Congress. -Selfish interests or jealousies, however, soon -break the union. It is at times embarrassing -to diplomatic representatives, for no sooner -have they completed negotiations with one -cabinet official than he is succeeded by another.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[366]</a></span> -No vice-president is elected, the executive -office, if vacated by death or resignation, is -filled temporarily by the Minister of the Interior, -who is usually a member either of the -Senate or House of Deputies. The Congress -will then select a new executive. A change in -this system, which would make the executive -more independent, and provision for a different -succession might work marvels. This was -the trouble with that able and progressive -President, Balmaceda. To carry out his beneficial -policies he defied Congress, and a bloody -civil war followed.</p> - -<p>Politics in Chile seem very much complicated -and confused to an American. Instead of two -or three parties, the small voting population -of the country are divided into no less than -seven or eight, with other combinations under -new names appearing every year or two. At -the present time one can distinguish the following: -Conservadores, Liberales, Radicales, -Democratas, Balmacedistas, Montinos and -Liberales-Democraticos. Of these the most -extreme are probably the Radicales, who -occupy about the same position in Chile that -the Socialists do in our own country. At least -they contest for that position with the Liberales,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[367]</a></span> -who claim to be the most radical of -any of the political parties in Chile.</p> - -<p>The Conservadores are the old church party, -and are made up of the wealthy land owners, -and those who have grown rich in mines, -railroads, etc. This party was formerly the -strongest political organization, and ruled the -country for a long period; but, within the last -two decades, it has greatly lost its grip, and -the only way in which it cuts much of a figure -in the government is when it enters into combinations -occasionally with some of the -stronger elements. The Democratas are made -up principally of the labouring classes, who -loudly proclaim what they will do for the downtrodden -labouring man, and they are blamed -for the strikes and riots in recent years. The -Liberales-Democratas are, as the name indicates, -in a midway position between the two -parties after whom they are named.</p> - -<p>The Balmacedistas are those who stand for -the things that Balmaceda stood for; that is, -for an enlarged power in the executive. This -party, it seems to me, is bound to grow because -every president is confronted with the -domination of the legislative body. The Montistos -are made up of the followers of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[368]</a></span> -Montt family, who have been prominent in the -country since the downfall of Balmaceda. -They include those who favour the rule of the -country by Congress.</p> - -<p>Politics are no doubt more or less corrupt -in Chile, as in many other countries. In this -respect the country is neither unique nor -original. If one was to believe the statements -made in opposition press, just as if one was -to believe all such statements made in the sensational -“yellow” press of our own country, -you would think the entire government was -rotten from President down to the lower officials. -Free speech and a free press run riot -in Chile. There is an inclination to make wild -charges, and editorial writers certainly say -more than they actually mean.</p> - -<p>Elections are oftentimes almost farcical. -Nominations for Congress are made very much -as with us. Candidates are named, and a -campaign is carried on by means of meetings, -placards and newspapers. Manifestos and -appeals to voters are issued by the various -candidates and their supporters. The side -that gets control of the election machinery, -however, is in a much better position than the -one that merely has the votes. They are then<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[369]</a></span> -counted as the ones in charge desire, and this -method is considered proper and legitimate by -all parties. Bi-partisan boards and an Australian -ballot system are unheard of and unthought—and, -furthermore, an undesired -innovation. What is the use of having the -election machinery in your control and not -using it for your candidate? This is the -average Chilean view of the subject, and the -losers usually acquiesce more or less good -naturedly. In this respect the situation is very -similar in all the republics south of the Rio -Grande River.</p> - -<p>In business deals the Chilean is about as -honest and reliable as in other countries. -Many think the Chilenos are robbers and cut-throats. -But it is not so. Those engaged in -business in the country give the Chileans a -good reputation for honesty. They are procrastinating -and slow sometimes in meeting -obligations, but they do not attempt to avoid -payment; and they are always willing to pay -current rates of interest on overdue accounts. -My personal experience in Latin countries in -that respect has been good, as I have never -lost anything whatever from thieves or purloiners -in hotels, stations or elsewhere. Many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[370]</a></span> -instances of the honesty of hotel servants, cab -drivers and other workers are told by foreigners, -who have been in Chile. The lottery -and bull-fight have both been abolished in -Chile, and this speaks well for another form -of honour among the Chilenos. The bull-fight -has disappeared from a number of the republics, -but Chile stands alone in prohibiting the -lottery which is one of the curses of all her -neighbours. The lottery-ticket vendor is usually -one of the first persons seen in a Latin-American -country.</p> - -<p>Military service in Chile is compulsory. It -is not a crushing burden, however, for the -regular army does not exceed fifteen thousand -men. This proves that military service is not -enforced very strongly, as that number would -include only a small proportion of those subject -to duty each year. One year is supposed -to be spent with the colours, after which the -conscript passes to the first reserve for nine -years, and is then included in the second reserve -until he attains the age of forty-five -years. Any child born in Chile is subject to -this service, so that foreigners sometimes -grumble. The instructors in the army are -often German officers, and the tactics are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[371]</a></span> -strictly Teutonic as well as the costumes. In -every way the German influence is noticeable. -The personnel of the army is good. The men -are hardy, active and vigorous. Their courage -has been proved on the field of battle -many times. The country is divided into five -military zones with headquarters at Santiago.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus47"> -<img src="images/illus47.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">THE BATTLESHIP “O’HIGGINS.”</p> -</div> - -<p>Chile has always possessed a good navy. -The naval fleet at the present time is composed -of forty vessels, among which are nine -ironclads and protected cruisers, five gunboats -and torpedo cruisers, thirteen torpedo boats, -four destroyers, etc. The finest ship is the -<i>Esmeralda</i>, which is a boat of seven thousand -and thirty tons and capable of a speed of -twenty-one knots. She carries two 8-inch and -sixteen 6-inch guns. Then come the <i>O’Higgins</i>, -<i>Ministro Zentano</i>, <i>Chacabuco</i>, and <i>President -Errázuriz</i>—all of them protected cruisers. -The <i>Capitan Prat</i> is a battleship of six thousand -nine hundred and sixty-six tons and -twelve thousand horse-power and a nominal -speed of eighteen and three-tenths knots. -This boat was built in 1890. The cruisers -were mostly constructed from 1896 to 1898 in -British and Italian shipyards. Chile has recently -placed an order for a Dreadnaught of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[372]</a></span> -the latest design, which will still further add -to the efficiency of the Chilean navy. In this -respect she is following the lead of Brazil and -Argentina.</p> - -<p>The United States could and should have a -much greater proportion of Chile’s trade. -Too many manufacturers depend wholly on -business houses conducted by English or German -merchants—men who naturally prefer -the goods made by their own countrymen. -Others send representatives who are illy -adapted to deal with Chileans and other Latin -Americans. An American bank would work -wonders in developing trade. It seems strange -that American capitalists hesitate about investing -their money in such an institution. Foreign -banks established in South America have -paid good dividends. Among those in Chile are -the Anglo-South American Bank, Bank of -London and the River Plate, German Transatlantique -and the Banco Italiano. The figures -of exports and imports given below are in -themselves eloquent testimonials of the value -of Chilean trade. Branch houses in charge of -hustling Americans, or agencies placed with -American importers should be the aim of -every manufacturer who intends to push the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[373]</a></span> -trade into Chile or any of the other republics -of Latin America. At the present time there -are very few citizens of the United States resident -in Chile—probably less than five hundred -in the entire republic.</p> - -<p>“Why do you not buy your steel work in -the United States?” I asked of a wealthy -Chilean gentleman who was building a large -modern block in Santiago.</p> - -<p>“I wanted to do so,” he answered, “but -your manufacturers would not grant the terms -that were gladly and voluntarily offered me -in Europe. As a result, I bought all my steel -for this building, which will cost more than -a half million dollars gold, in Belgium. The -only equipment for the building made in the -United States will be a half dozen elevators.”</p> - -<p>This simply illustrates one phase of the -shortsightedness of our manufacturers in dealing -with South America. The field is a large -one, and a discriminating one as well. It is -humiliating at times to an American to travel -throughout the length and breadth of South -America, and see the trade that legitimately -belongs to us slipping away to Europe, even -when some of our own factories in that particular -line are idle because of lack of orders.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[374]</a></span> -There has been an awakening in the past few -years, but there must still be much progress -before the American business man catches up -with the British and German in the pursuit of -the world’s trade.</p> - -<p>Chilean trade has reached very respectable -figures in recent years. The total exports for -the year 1910 amounted to $115,792,811, of -which $98,234,035 were mineral exports. Of -this nitrate comprised the greatest item. -Great Britain took nearly one-half the exports; -the United States purchased $24,680,278, -slightly more than Germany, which was a decided -increase over the preceding year. The -imports amounted to $108,627,188. Great Britain -sent almost one-third of this, Germany -was second with less than one-fourth, and the -United States was third with goods valued at -$13,369,774, or about one-eighth of the whole. -Next in order came France, Argentina, Peru -and India. Spain, the mother country, furnished -less than one per cent. of the whole. -This shows a large per capita importation, -amounting to more than $30.00, which is exceeded -only by Argentina and Uruguay, and -shows a trade well worth looking after. Of -the goods imported textiles were one-fourth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[375]</a></span> -of the whole. Mineral products, including coal, -oil products, etc., are a third, and machinery -constituted about eleven per cent. of the whole. -Machinery and petroleum products are the -principal importations from the United States.</p> - -<p>The American firm of W. R. Grace & Co. -occupy a prominent position in the commercial -world along the west coast of South America, -where it is the largest firm engaged in business. -Its founder, Wm. R. Grace, was born -in Ireland, but came to Peru in his youth. -After making a success in business there he -went to New York and established the head -offices of his company. He became a citizen -of the United States, and assisted the government -on several occasions. Mr. Grace became -very prominent in that metropolis. He was -twice elected mayor, and gave a very creditable -administration. Mr. Grace died in 1904. W. -R. Grace & Co. took over the Oroya Railroad -in Peru and completed it. They recently constructed -the Chilean end of the Transandine -Railway, and have been engaged in many other -important public works in Chile, Peru and -Bolivia. The foundation of the fortune of -Grace & Co. was guano and nitrate, and a line -of boats are run between the west coast and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[376]</a></span> -New York, although flying the English flag. -Branch houses are established in the principal -cities of Chile, and an immense business is -done in importation and exportation. The -principal offices are still maintained in New -York, although one of the members of the firm -lives in London.</p> - -<p>Chile’s dependence upon the sea renders -foreign trade an essential element in her prosperity. -She has a hardy seafaring population, -and thousands are employed in that occupation. -She is probably destined to have a much -larger part in the coast carrying trade in the -future. Next to the national steamers, the -British have the biggest share in the carrying -trade of Chile.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus48"> -<img src="images/illus48.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A TYPICAL COAST SCENE.</p> -</div> - -<p>The foreign debt of Chile is in the neighbourhood -of $100,000,000, most of which is held -by the Rothschild interests. Much of this debt -was contracted during the period of military -expansion. Great quantities of paper money -were issued by various administrations, and, -as a result, the peso dropped in value. The -gold peso has a fixed value of thirty-two cents -in United States currency, and the paper peso -is worth about twenty-one cents. The gradual -drop in value of the currency has made railroad<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[377]</a></span> -travel on the government lines and -postage the cheapest in South America. It has -also prevented much internal development. -At the present time a number of cities are -installing hydraulic electric plants, which are -very practical for this country. Several -schemes are under consideration for port developments, -of which the work at Valparaiso -will be the most important. Concepción, Talcahuano -and Corral, Iquique and Antofagasta, -will also come in for their share. Several irrigation -projects are now being constructed -which will add almost two hundred thousand -acres of irrigated land suitable for agriculture. -The electrification of the state railroad -between Valparaiso and Santiago will also -doubtless be one of the developments of the -near future.</p> - -<p>The postal and telegraph systems of the -republic are good. There are more than one -thousand post offices, and the amount of mail -transported is very large. Newspapers circulate -absolutely free, and domestic postage is -lower than in the United States. Foreign -letters only cost three cents for postage. -There are more than eighteen thousand miles -of telegraph wires stretched across the country.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[378]</a></span> -A wireless telegraph station has been -opened at Valparaiso with a radius of eight -hundred miles, and others will be opened very -soon at other places, including the Straits district, -where the wild and undeveloped nature -of the country makes the stretching and maintenance -of overhead wires difficult.</p> - -<p>Like all the South American republics Chile -is greatly in need of immigration. With such -a variety of climate it could afford congenial -homes for people from almost any country. -A few thousand of immigrants come in each -year, from three to five, but that number is -paltry. Tens of thousands could be assimilated -if they were agriculturalists. Argentina, -with her broad level acres, is too near, and -draws twice as many as all the other republics -of South America together. Wages are higher -there, too, and the Italians and Spaniards, -who comprise the greater proportion of those -seeking new homes in South America, are -drawn there. A few Boer colonies were established -in Chile after the war in the Transvaal, -but the total number was not large.</p> - -<p>One unfortunate condition in Chile is the -unusually high death rate. This has been -placed as high as seventy per thousand, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[379]</a></span> -this rate would only be in exceptional instances. -It is a fact, however, that the cities -of Santiago, Valparaiso and Concepción will -frequently show a mortality rate of fifty to -the thousand of population. The average for -the whole republic is about thirty-five per -thousand, which is nearly double the death rate -for countries in the temperate zone. As Chile -is not in the torrid zone, it is not subject -to epidemics of yellow fever or other tropical -scourges. Foreigners who live there find the -climate, especially in the central part, not only -delightful, but healthful, and very old people -are quite common. The reason for this condition -of affairs is the indifference to personal -comforts and sanitation of the roto. This -leads to a frightful mortality among the children. -Occasionally there are severe epidemics -of smallpox, and the measles has caused great -ravages among children.</p> - -<p>Statistics show that in some years, even with -the large birth rate among the lower classes, -the births exceed the deaths by only a few -thousands. It is a condition that demands -action by the state, for the government is -paternal in its character, and is depended on -by the people to look after these things. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[380]</a></span> -sturdiness of the roto may be due to the law -of the survival of the fittest, for only those -who possess a sound constitution reach manhood. -One who can survive the lack of comforts -and harsh conditions of life to which he -is subjected, and reach manhood, is at least -robust if not cultured or refined. There is, -indeed, much room for improvement in the -sanitary conditions of the cities in the sections -occupied by the poor, and some measures have -been taken in recent years. For the nation -it would be a good economic policy, as the decrease -in the death rate would aid in giving -the population so much needed for the development -of the country.</p> - -<p>Chile dates her independence from Spain -from the 18th of September, 1810, and last -year was celebrated as her first centennial. -On this day, in the year 1910, was laid the -corner stone of a great monument in commemoration -of that event. This was participated -in by the President of Argentina and other -officials of that neighbouring republic. This -was but natural, for the soldiers of both countries -fought and bled side by side at Maipu, -Chacabuco and other places. A notable historic -parade, with the costumes and military<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[381]</a></span> -characteristics of that period, was a feature of -the celebration. It represented the march of -the victorious patriot army into Santiago after -its evacuation by the Spaniards. The <i>granaderos</i>, -a military organization in Buenos -Aires which wears the same uniform as in the -time of San Martin, came over from that city -to take part. The parade halted in front of -the statue of San Martin and saluted that -noble hero. Solemn religious services and -social events made up a day that will long -be notable in the Chilean capitol. Elaborate -decorations had been erected all over the city, -and especially on the Alameda where the parades -took place.</p> - -<p>Almost the entire month of September was -given up to the festivities incident to this -national centennial throughout the entire republic. -There was scarcely a town or village -that did not have its local <i>fiesta</i>. Horse races, -theatrical performances, fireworks, torchlight -processions, etc., were all included in the list -of events. A naval review was held in Valparaiso, -in which four ships of the United -States took part with those of Chile and other -nations. An industrial Exposition was held in -Valparaiso, and an Exposition of Fine Arts in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[382]</a></span> -Santiago. The death of President Montt and -his successor, both within a month preceding -the beginning of the festivities, cast somewhat -of a gloom upon the occasion, but it could not -mar the festal spirit in a very marked degree.</p> - -<p>The relations between Chile and the United -States have, in a number of instances, been -considerably strained. As a result there was -for many years an existant prejudice against -the <i>Yanqui</i>. The first occasion arose during -the war between Peru and Chile, when the -United States offered its mediation, which -was resented by Chile because that country -desired to reap the spoils of war. Another -instance happened during the Balmaceda administration. -During his term, and the struggles -which resulted between himself and Congress, -the sympathies of the United States -were with the President. A minister sent to -the United States by the revolutionists, after -they had established a <i>junta</i> at Iquique, and -were in possession of the customs throughout -northern Chile, was refused recognition by -President Harrison. The steamship <i>Itata</i>, belonging -to the Chilean line, which at that time -ran as far as San Francisco, was seized and -held for some time because she was loaded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[383]</a></span> -with arms and ammunition intended for the -revolutionists. Although the vessel escaped it -was followed by a United States cruiser and -overtaken at Iquique, where the revolutionist -<i>junta</i> turned it over to the cruiser and it was -taken back to San Francisco. This kept the -opponents of the government out of much-needed -supplies.</p> - -<p>Later arose what is known as the “Baltimore -incident.” Admiral Schley, in charge of -that gun boat, had been sent to Chile to protect -American interests. He sailed freely in -and out from one port to another, and was -charged by the revolutionists with giving information -to the government party of their -movements. As the navy was all on the side -of the revolutionists, they claimed that only -in this way could the other party on land have -secured certain information. Admiral Schley -denied the accusations, and all of these charges -were afterwards proven to be false. Near the -close of that internecine struggle a number of -sailors and others from the <i>Baltimore</i> had -gone ashore at Valparaiso. While in a rather -disreputable saloon in that city an altercation -arose between some Chilean soldiers and the -party of American marines. One of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[384]</a></span> -Chileans was knocked down, and a general -fight resulted in which the Yankees were assaulted -with clubs, knives and revolvers. One -American was killed instantly, another died -from his injuries a short time later, and a -score of others were more or less seriously -injured. In the diplomatic correspondence -which followed, an indemnity was courteously -demanded by the United States, to which an -almost insulting reply was made by Chile. -International trouble threatened for a while, -but Chile made apologies and paid the sum of -$75,000 as compensation. The matter was -then dropped, but the anti-American feeling -did not evaporate as quickly as the war-cloud.</p> - -<p>Only a little over a year ago another controversy -arose through the demand made by -the State Department of the United States for -the settlement of a claim which had been in -dispute for many years. As a result much -anti-American comment appeared in the newspapers -of Chile, as though the United States -was trying to enforce a rejected claim against -a weaker nation. The visit of President Montt -to the United States, while on his way to -Europe to seek medical advice, only a few -months afterward, however, seems to presage<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[385]</a></span> -that the government of Chile has buried all -difficulties and good will is again restored. It -was not necessary for President Montt to -come this way, and he undoubtedly did it in -a spirit of amity and good will.</p> - -<p>A great many erroneously place strong reliance -upon the favourable effect of the Monroe -Doctrine in South America. As a matter of -fact the Monroe Doctrine at no period has -caused the sale of a dollar’s worth of merchandise -in those markets. It has, on the -other hand, through misinterpretation of its -intended beneficence, caused ill feeling, and, -perhaps, prevented the sale of American goods -in many instances. If the United States adheres -to this doctrine, the completion of the -Panama Canal will increase the responsibilities -of the United States instead of lessening -them. We, of the great North American republic, -know that the action of the United -States under this doctrine has always been -intended for the welfare of the other Americans. -Those who should feel kindly toward -us, because of it, as a matter of fact rather -resent its effect. They feel able to fight their -own battles without the aid of the powerful -republic on the North American continent.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[386]</a></span> -The visit of the United States fleet a few years -ago at the various ports of South America, -and the trip made by Elihu Root, then Secretary -of State, did more to encourage a kindly -feeling toward the United States and to develop -a Pan-American spirit than anything the -United States has ever done. It now needs -only a wise and diplomatic policy to strengthen -and extend the good feeling engendered by -those events.</p> - -<p>Chile, like all the west coast republics, is -becoming very much interested in the Panama -Canal, and the effect that its completion will -have upon the country. Unlike the North -American, the South American does not become -impatient over the probable date of the -completion of the canal, for it does not make -much difference to him whether it is ten years -or twenty-five years hence. The only question -in his mind is what may be the ultimate effect -of the canal. It is, perhaps, of more interest -to a North American, because the North American -is interested in the possibilities of trade -development with that coast. At the present -time there are perhaps 11,500,000 of people -living in the republics of Ecuador, Peru, -Bolivia and Chile, which have a foreign commerce,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[387]</a></span> -including both exports and imports, in -excess of $300,000,000. In addition to this -there is the trade with the Pacific coast of -Colombia. Then there is added to this the -question of the probability of future development -of those countries, which are in themselves -larger than any European kingdoms, -except Russia. The enthusiastic Chilean, for -instance, will tell you how many times larger -is his country than Holland, and estimates the -immense population that his country could -support at the same density per mile as that -little European kingdom. This, of course, is -absolutely impossible, because such large sections -of the country are untillable. Furthermore, -there never has been as yet such rapid -increases in population in any of the west -coast countries as the United States, Canada, -Argentina and Australia can show. Hence it -is not well to think of this section as being -likely to have sudden growths of population, -but there will doubtless be a slow and steady -increase in each of the countries mentioned.</p> - -<p>One advantage that will accrue from the -completion of the canal will be better transportation -between all the ports of the west -coast and New York. A direct line of steamers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[388]</a></span> -between Valparaiso, and possibly ports farther -south, to New York is sure to be established, -for business conditions will not only -demand, but warrant such a line. By this -route the distance from New York to Valparaiso -will be only fifty-one hundred miles, -including the stops at several intervening -ports. When this distance is compared with -that from Valparaiso to Liverpool, by the way -of the Straits of Magellan, which is ninety-five -hundred miles, it shows that New York -will be several thousand miles nearer to Valparaiso -than European ports by the same -route, and the difference becomes greater as -you journey along the coast toward Panama. -If British steamers should use the Panama -Canal it would still make New York nearer to -all the ports on the west coast by almost three -thousand miles. As it is there are no boats -flying the American flag which visit Chilean -or other west coast ports, except an occasional -tramp lumber schooner which comes down -from Seattle, or a boat which comes through -the Straits of Magellan now and then from -New York for a load of nitrate. Much of the -traffic is obliged to go to Callao, Peru, and -there be transferred to another steamer to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[389]</a></span> -taken to Panama; then it is shipped by rail -across the Isthmus, and again loaded on another -steamer destined either for New York -or New Orleans.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus49"> -<img src="images/illus49.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">THE CUSTOM HOUSE, VALPARAISO.</p> -</div> - -<p>It does not require an especially sharp -insight to see the advantage from a commercial -standpoint of a direct line between these -ports and New York. Furthermore, since the -completion of the Transandine Railway, and -still more so when the other route farther south -may be finished, large sections of fertile Argentina -will be nearer to the west coast than to -Buenos Aires or Bahia Blanca, on the Atlantic -coast. This would mean that shipments which -are destined for the United States from those -sections would probably be made by the steamers -using the west coast route, and through -the Panama Canal. Of course that would not -be true of grain products, for those shipments -go to Europe, as the United States has not -yet become an importer of grain, with the -exception of flax seed. We do, however, take -the greatest portion of wool, hides and certain -other products. It will tend, in the opinion -of the writer, to not only bring about closer -commercial relations, but to develop a spirit -of Pan-Americanism, which will mean a great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[390]</a></span> -deal for the United States. Peru, Bolivia, -and Ecuador have been much under the influence -of American business interests, and -Chile has a natural inclination as well toward -the North Americans, but the diplomatic incidents -heretofore mentioned have made the -Chileans a little bit suspicious of the policies -of the United States. This will, however, I -believe, be entirely overcome within a very -short time. The people of Chile will then -realize that the North Americans are their -best friends.</p> - -<p class="titlepage">THE END.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[391]</a></span></p> - -<div class="footnotes"> - -<h2>FOOTNOTES</h2> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> This statement is disputed by some authorities.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> South America on the Eve of Emancipation, by Bernard -Moses.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> An unconquerable race.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> See Argentina and Her People of To-day.</p> - -</div> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[392]</a></span></p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[393]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="APPENDICES">APPENDICES</h2> - -<h3>I<br /> -<span class="smaller">AREA AND POPULATION</span></h3> - -<p>The population of Chile is not large when -its possibilities are considered. It is very unevenly -distributed. The number of persons to -the square mile is less than one-half the proportion -in the United States. The pure white -population are undoubtedly in the minority. -The following table shows the names of provinces, -with their area and population according -to government census of 1907:</p> - -<table class="borders" summary="Population statistics"> - <tr> - <th>Province</th> - <th>Area</th> - <th>Population</th> - <th>Capital</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Aconcagua</td> - <td class="tdr">5,410</td> - <td class="tdr">128,486</td> - <td>San Felipe</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Antofagasta</td> - <td class="tdr">46,830</td> - <td class="tdr">123,323</td> - <td>Antofagasta</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Arauco</td> - <td class="tdr">2,055</td> - <td class="tdr">61,538</td> - <td>Lebu</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Atacama</td> - <td class="tdr">30,430</td> - <td class="tdr">63,968</td> - <td>Copiapó</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bio-Bio</td> - <td class="tdr">4,720</td> - <td class="tdr">97,968</td> - <td>Los Angeles</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cautin</td> - <td class="tdr">6,150</td> - <td class="tdr">139,553</td> - <td>Temuco</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chiloé</td> - <td class="tdr">8,600</td> - <td class="tdr">88,619</td> - <td>Ancud</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Colchagua</td> - <td class="tdr">3,870</td> - <td class="tdr">158,160</td> - <td>San Fernando</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Concepción</td> - <td class="tdr">3,545</td> - <td class="tdr">216,994</td> - <td>Concepción</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Coquimbo</td> - <td class="tdr">13,465</td> - <td class="tdr">175,021</td> - <td>Le Serena</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Curico</td> - <td class="tdr">2,900</td> - <td class="tdr">107,090</td> - <td>Curico</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Linares</td> - <td class="tdr">3,875</td> - <td class="tdr">109,363</td> - <td>Linares</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[394]</a></span>Llanquihue</td> - <td class="tdr">38,575</td> - <td class="tdr">105,043</td> - <td>Puerto Montt</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Malleco</td> - <td class="tdr">3,100</td> - <td class="tdr">113,775</td> - <td>Angol</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Maule</td> - <td class="tdr">2,425</td> - <td class="tdr">110,462</td> - <td>Cauquenes</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nuble</td> - <td class="tdr">3,460</td> - <td class="tdr">166,239</td> - <td>Chillan</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>O’Higgins</td> - <td class="tdr">2,050</td> - <td class="tdr">92,278</td> - <td>Rancagua</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Santiago</td> - <td class="tdr">5,720</td> - <td class="tdr">516,870</td> - <td>Santiago</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tacna</td> - <td class="tdr">9,615</td> - <td class="tdr">28,748</td> - <td>Tacna</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Talca</td> - <td class="tdr">3,750</td> - <td class="tdr">131,958</td> - <td>Talca</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tarapacá</td> - <td class="tdr">18,400</td> - <td class="tdr">110,036</td> - <td>Iquique</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Valdivia</td> - <td class="tdr">8,400</td> - <td class="tdr">119,277</td> - <td>Valdivia</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Valparaiso</td> - <td class="tdr">1,935</td> - <td class="tdr">281,385</td> - <td>Valparaiso</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Magellanes Territory</td> - <td class="tdr">64,040</td> - <td class="tdr">17,143</td> - <td>Punta Arenas</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>The following table shows the population -according to the several censuses taken:—</p> - -<table class="borders" summary="Population statistics from the censuses"> - <tr> - <td>Census of 1835</td> - <td class="tdr">1,010,332</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="ditto">”</span> <span class="ditto">”</span> 1843</td> - <td class="tdr">1,083,801</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="ditto">”</span> <span class="ditto">”</span> 1854</td> - <td class="tdr">1,439,120</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="ditto">”</span> <span class="ditto">”</span> 1865</td> - <td class="tdr">1,819,223</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="ditto">”</span> <span class="ditto">”</span> 1875</td> - <td class="tdr">2,075,971</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="ditto">”</span> <span class="ditto">”</span> 1885</td> - <td class="tdr">2,527,320</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="ditto">”</span> <span class="ditto">”</span> 1895</td> - <td class="tdr">2,712,145</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="ditto">”</span> <span class="ditto">”</span> 1907</td> - <td class="tdr">3,248,224</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[395]</a></span></p> - -<h3>II<br /> -<span class="smaller">MOUNTAINS AND VOLCANOES</span></h3> - -<p>The Coast, or Maritime range of mountains -in Chile does not present, like the Andean -range, a continuous chain, but is broken by -valleys and small plains, as well as by rivers -in their course to the ocean. The slopes of -this range are generally formed by a succession -of hills, frequently covered with vegetation, -but which rarely exceed six thousand feet in -height. In places cross ridges connect this -range with its loftier neighbouring range, -where the two systems seem to merge into one. -The three highest peaks in the Maritime range -are Cerro de Limon Verde (11,380 ft.), Cerro -de Agua Amarga (10,550 ft.) and Cerro de la -Campana de Quillota (9,325 ft.)</p> - -<p>The Andean range of mountains is a succession -of high mountains with lofty peaks covered -with the everlasting snows. At intervals -passes are formed in this cordillera, which -permit access from one side to the other. The -lowest of these is that of Perez Rosales (3,230<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[396]</a></span> -ft.) in Southern Chile, and the highest is Agua -Negra (15,715 ft.). The highest point of the -Andes is Mount Aconcagua, and from there to -the south the altitude gradually decreases until -it reaches sea level at the Straits of Magellan.</p> - -<p>The following table gives the names and -height of the principal peaks of this range of -lofty mountains according to the best estimates.</p> - -<table class="borders" summary="Mountain statistics"> - <tr> - <th>Names</th> - <th>Latitude</th> - <th>Altitude<br />Feet</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pico del Aconcagua</td> - <td>32° 41´</td> - <td class="tdr">23,080</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cerro del Mercedario</td> - <td>31° 59´</td> - <td class="tdr">22,300</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cerro Tupungato</td> - <td>33° 25´</td> - <td class="tdr">22,015</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Volcán de San José</td> - <td>33° 41´</td> - <td class="tdr">20,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cerro Juncal</td> - <td>33° 10´</td> - <td class="tdr">19,500</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cerro El Cobre</td> - <td>28° 28´</td> - <td class="tdr">18,320</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cerro Peña Negra</td> - <td>28° 11´</td> - <td class="tdr">18,300</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Volcán de Maipo</td> - <td>33° 59´</td> - <td class="tdr">17,665</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Altura sin nombre</td> - <td>27° 50´</td> - <td class="tdr">17,100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Llullaillaco</td> - <td>24° 15´</td> - <td class="tdr">17,060</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cerro del Plomo</td> - <td>33° 14´</td> - <td class="tdr">16,750</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cerro Doña Ana</td> - <td>29° 37´</td> - <td class="tdr">15,315</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Volcán de Tinguiririca</td> - <td>34° 50´</td> - <td class="tdr">14,700</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cerro del Viento</td> - <td>30° 45´</td> - <td class="tdr">14,050</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cerro del Campanario</td> - <td>35° 57´</td> - <td class="tdr">13,120</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cerro Colorado</td> - <td>35° 18´</td> - <td class="tdr">12,975</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Descabezado del Maule</td> - <td>35° 36´</td> - <td class="tdr">12,755</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cerro del Azufre o Copiapó</td> - <td>31° 16´</td> - <td class="tdr">12,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Volcán de Peteroa o Planchón</td> - <td>35° 13´</td> - <td class="tdr">11,925</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Volcán de Villarica or Quetripillan</td> - <td>39° 14´</td> - <td class="tdr">11,810</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Volcán de La Yegua</td> - <td>36° 00´</td> - <td class="tdr">11,342</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nevado de Longavi</td> - <td>36° 14´</td> - <td class="tdr">10,522</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Volcán de Nevado de Chillan</td> - <td>36° 47´</td> - <td class="tdr">9,725</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Volcán de Antuco</td> - <td>37° 23´</td> - <td class="tdr">9,060</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Corcovado</td> - <td>43° 10´</td> - <td class="tdr">7,380</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Monte Sarmiento (Tierra del Fuego)</td> - <td>54° 10´</td> - <td class="tdr">6,890</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Yanteles</td> - <td>43° 30´</td> - <td class="tdr">6,625</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[397]</a></span></p> - -<h3>III<br /> -<span class="smaller">SUGGESTIONS FOR TRAVELLERS</span></h3> - -<p>The completion of the Panama Canal, which -is promised by 1914, will make the access to -the west coast of South America much more -convenient. Without doubt there will be established -at that time a direct line of steamers -from New York to Valparaiso, which will touch -at a number of intermediate ports between -Panama and that city. At the present time it -is necessary to take a steamer from New York, -or New Orleans, to Colon, a journey of six or -seven days, cross the isthmus by train, and -then embark on another steamer from Panama -to Valparaiso. Two lines of steamers, the -Pacific Steam Navigation Company (recently -absorbed by the Royal Mail Steam Packet -Company) and the Compañia Sud Americana -de Vapores, render this service, but sometimes -it is necessary to transship at Callao, Peru. -There is also a Peruvian line of fast steamers -to Callao. The quickest service between<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[398]</a></span> -Panama and Valparaiso is twelve days, and, -if one takes the slower coast steamers, the time -is longer by several days. The trip is, however, -a very interesting one and full of scenic -beauty, as well as novelty. It gives the traveller -an opportunity to get a glimpse of -Jamaica, and to see the great work of Uncle -Sam on the isthmus, which is undoubtedly the -most stupendous undertaking ever attempted -by man. Furthermore, it would be difficult to -find smoother seas over which to sail.</p> - -<p>From Guayaquil, Ecuador, the traveller is -enabled to visit Quito, the capital of this equatorial -republic, which is situated at an elevation -of about 10,000 feet, and almost on the -equatorial line. One can visit Lima, capital of -Peru, and one of the most interesting cities in -South America, and can also visit La Paz, -capital of Bolivia, and the highest capital in -the world. By taking the transcontinental line -across South America to Buenos Aires, and -returning to New York by the east coast route, -one is enabled to visit the leading republics of -South America, and thus gain an adequate -idea of the entire continent. There is a very -good line of steamers from Buenos Aires to -New York, stopping at Montevideo, Uruguay,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[399]</a></span> -Santos, Rio de Janeiro and Bahia, Brazil, and -Barbados Island; or, if time is not urgent, the -traveller can return via Europe at only a -slightly increased cost. The cost of such a trip -from New York back to New York, including -all necessary expenses at sea, except gratuities, -is about five hundred dollars. This does -not cover any of the expenses on land. The -trip around the southern end of the continent -through the Straits of Magellan is most interesting, -and the scenery is magnificent. The -cost, however, is more, and the time involved -is ten days greater.</p> - -<p>The language of Chile is Spanish, but, in -the cities and towns, there is very little difficulty -for one not familiar with that language -to get along without much embarrassment. -Comfortable hotels will be found in Valparaiso, -Santiago and many other cities. The prices -are rather higher than for similar accommodations -in the United States. The rates are generally -inclusive, and provide coffee and rolls -in the morning, which are generally served in -the bedroom, and two substantial meals which -are very similar in their menu. The railroad -equipment of the Chilean railroads is generally -quite good, and one will find the only real Pullman<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[400]</a></span> -cars in South America. Chair cars will -be found on some of the State Railway trains, -and sleepers also in the long journeys. The -railroad fare is exceedingly cheap, and one -wonders how the service can be provided at -such a low cost.</p> - -<p>The money of Chile is arranged on the same -system as our own, the standard being the -peso, which is divided into one hundred centavos -and has a value of about twenty-one -cents, but the rate of exchange varies somewhat -from day to day. Exchange is always -based on the value of the English sovereign. -The money is nearly all paper and very little -gold will be found in circulation. The price -of most articles of wear is rather high, because -of the import duties. One will notice in travelling -on the English steamers that the barber -carries a very large stock of goods, and at -each of the ports many people call on him and -purchase various articles, because his prices -are so much lower than those on shore. English -book stores will be found in the cities, -where books and magazines can be purchased. -The tariff for cab charges in all the cities is -very low and the equipment poor, but the -traveller should be sure to inform himself of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[401]</a></span> -the legitimate charges, or he will pay for his -experience. The cab driver of Chile is very -much like his counterpart the world over. -Street car fares are very cheap also.</p> - -<p>The traveller must always remember that the -seasons south of the equator are reversed, and -that summer time in that part of the world is -the winter season in the northern climates. As -one goes south the temperature becomes cooler, -being just the reverse of conditions in northern -latitudes. The temperature also changes with -the altitude, and this fact must be borne in mind -when arrangements are being made for the -clothing to be taken on the trip. Each thousand -feet of elevation makes a very perceptible -change in the temperature.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[402]</a></span></p> - -<h3>IV<br /> -<span class="smaller">BIBLIOGRAPHY</span></h3> - -<div class="hanging"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Alcock, Frederick</span>: Trade and travel in South America. London, 1903.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Akers, Charles E.</span>: History of South America. London, 1904.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Boyd, R. Nelson</span>: Sketches of Chile and the Chileans. London, 1881.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Butterworth, Hezekiah</span>: South America, a popular illustrated history. New York, 1898.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Carpenter, Frank G.</span>: South America, social, industrial, and political. Akron, Ohio, 1900.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Child, Theodore</span>: The Spanish American Republics. New York, 1891.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Chile</span>: a handbook. Washington, 1909.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Clark, Francis E.</span>: The continent of opportunity. New York, 1907.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Conway</span>, Sir <span class="smcap">Martin</span>: Aconcagua and Tierra del Fuego. London, 1902.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Crommelin, Mary</span>: Over the Andes from the Argentine to Chile and Peru. New York, 1896.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Curtis, William Eleroy</span>: Between the Andes and the ocean. Chicago, 1900.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Darwin, Charles</span>: Voyage of the “Beagle.” London, 1845.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dawson, Thomas C.</span>: The South American Republics. New York, 1904.</p> - -<p>Economical and social progress of the republic of Chile. Valparaiso, 1906.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Elliott, G. F. Scott</span>: Chile, its history and development. London, 1909.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fitzgerald, E. A.</span>: The Highest Andes. London, 1899.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hancock, Anson Uriel</span>: A history of Chile. Chicago, 1893.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hervey, Maurice N.</span>: Dark days in Chile; an account of the revolution of 1891. London, 1892.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Jones, A. D.</span>: History of South America. London, 1899.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Keane, A. H.</span>: Central and South America. London, 1901.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Martin, Percy F.</span>: Through five republics of South America. London, 1905.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[403]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Markham, Clements R.</span>: The war between Peru and Chile. London, 1883.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Mitre, Bartolomé</span>: History of San Martin. London, 1893.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Moses, Bernard</span>: South America on the eve of emancipation. New York, 1908.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Osborn, Chase S.</span>: Andean Land. 2 Vols. Chicago, 1909.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Pepper, Charles M.</span>: Panama to Patagonia. Chicago, 1907.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ruhl, Arthur</span>: The other Americans. New York, 1908.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Russell, William Howard</span>: A visit to Chile and the nitrate fields. London, 1890.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Smith, William Anderson</span>: Temperate Chile. London, 1889.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Spears, John R.</span>: The gold diggings of Cape Horn. New York, 1895.</p> - -<p>United States, Hydrographic office: The West Coast of South America. Washington, 1890.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Vincent, Frank R.</span>: Round and about South America. New York, 1890.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Wiborg, Frank</span>: A commercial traveller in South America. New York, 1905.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Wright, Marie Robinson</span>: The Republic of Chile. Philadelphia, 1905.</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[404]</a></span></p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[405]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="INDEX">INDEX</h2> - -<ul> - -<li class="ifrst">Aconcagua, Mt., <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aconcagua, province of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aconcagua River, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Agriculture, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">school of, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aguardiente, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alacaloofs, <a href="#Page_142">142-4</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Albano, Elias Fernandez, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Almagro, Diego de, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alpaca, the, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Altitude, the lure of, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Americans, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ancients, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ancon, Treaty of, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ancud, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Andes, the, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156-173</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Anglican Church, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Antarctic Circle, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Antarctic Sea, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Antofagasta, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">capture of by Chile, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">by revolutionists, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Araucanians, the, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arauco, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Architecture, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Area, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arequipa, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Argentina, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159-161</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">dispute with, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arica, <a href="#Page_33">33-38</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aristocracy, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Army, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arrieros, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arteaga, Colonel, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Artistic element, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ascensors, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Atacama, desert of, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Australia, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aymara Indians, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Bahia Blanca, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Balboa, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Balmaceda, José Manuel, <a href="#Page_338">338 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">death of, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Balmacedists, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Baltimore incident, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Banking, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Baquedano, General, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bargaining, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bautista, San Juan, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Beagle Channel, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bible societies, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bibliography, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bio-Bio River, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Birds, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Boer colonies, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bolivar, <a href="#Page_290">290-2</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bolivia, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">war with, <a href="#Page_314">314 <i>et seq.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bomberos, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Borax, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brandy, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bravery, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brunswick, peninsula of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Buendia, General, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Buenos Aires, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Buenos Aires and Pacific Railway, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[406]</a></span>Bulnes, General, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cabinet, the, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cacti, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cadiz, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Calaguayas, <a href="#Page_225">225-9</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Caldera, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Caleta Buena, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">California, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Callao, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Calle-Calle River, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Capricorn, Tropic of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Caracoles, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Castro, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Casuchas, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cattle, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cautin River, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Centennial, first, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chacabuco, battle of, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chacao, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Charities, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Characteristics, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Charles IV., <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chiloé, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108-111</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chimborazo, Mt., <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Christ of the Andes, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chimneys, absence of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chincha Islands, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chillan, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chorrillos, battle of, <a href="#Page_330">330-332</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Church, the, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">wealth of, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Clark, John and Matthew, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Climate, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Clubs, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coal, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cochrane, Lord, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298-301</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Colleges, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Colombia, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Comision Conservada, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Commerce, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372-5</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Concepción, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105-6</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Condors, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Conductors, women, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Congress, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365-7</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">power of, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Congress, Palace of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Constitucion, city of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Constitution, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Convents, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Conway, Sir Martin, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Copiapó, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Copper, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coquimbo, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">province of, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cordilleras, the, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cordoba, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Corral, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Corruption, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Corso, the, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cotopaxi, Mt., <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Council of State, the, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Courts, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Courting, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cousiño family, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cousiño Park, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Creoles, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crimes, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cross, Southern, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cruelty, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cruelties of Spaniards, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crusoe, Robinson, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cueca, La, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cumbre, El, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Customs, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cuyo, province of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cuzco, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Darwin, Charles, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Debt, foreign, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Deputies, chamber of, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Desert, <a href="#Page_32">32-40</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the nitrate, <a href="#Page_178">178 <i>et seq.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Desolation Island, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Development, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Disasters, ocean, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Doctor, Indian, <a href="#Page_225">225-229</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dogs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dominican Friars, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Drake, Sir Francis, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Drunkenness, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Earthquake, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[407]</a></span>Easter Island, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ecuador, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Education, <a href="#Page_230">230 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Elections, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Encalada Manuel Blanco, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">England, Church of, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">English, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208-9</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Equator, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Errázuriz, Federico, Sr., <a href="#Page_311">311-2</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Errázuriz, Federico, <a href="#Page_355">355-6</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Espinar, Colonel, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Espiritu, Cafe, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Exchange, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Exports, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Falkland Islands, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Famine, Port, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Farms, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ferdinand VII, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fertilizers, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fiestas, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fire department, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fire, Land of the, <a href="#Page_120">120 <i>et seq.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Firemen, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Firelanders, <a href="#Page_143">143-8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fish, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fitzgerald, E. A., <a href="#Page_169">169-171</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Forests, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Freire, General, <a href="#Page_302">302-3</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">French, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Frowards, Cape, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fruits, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fuegian Archipelago, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fuego, Tierra del, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Gambling, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Germans, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Glaciers, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gold, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Governors, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Government, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grace, W. R., & Co., <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Graft, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grapes, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grau, Admiral, <a href="#Page_320">320-2</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Great Southern Railway, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grube, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guanaco, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guano, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guayaquil, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guayacan, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guaytecas Islands, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Haciendas, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Health, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hidalgo, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Himalayas, the, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">History, <a href="#Page_14">14-18</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124-5</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_280">280 <i>et seq.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Historians, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Honesty, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Horn, Cape, <a href="#Page_120">120-8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Huascaran, Mt., <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Iglesias, General, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Illimani, Mt., <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Immigrants, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Imperial, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Imports, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Incas, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Incas, Bridge of the, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Incas, Lake of the, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Independence, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Indians, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141-6</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212 <i>et seq.</i></a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">endurance of, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Inquilinos, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Insects, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Intemperance, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Intendentes, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Iodine, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Iquique, <a href="#Page_39">39-42</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">capture of by Chile, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">by revolutionists, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Irrigation, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Iron, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Islands, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Italians, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Itata River, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Jamaica, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jesuits, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[408]</a></span>Journalism, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Juan Fernandez Islands, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Juncal, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jungles, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">King William, peninsula of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Korner, General, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">La Paz, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">La Serena, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lago del Inca, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Laja, Lake, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Language, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Las Cadenas, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Las Cuevas, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Las Peñas, Gulf of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lautaro, the Indian hero, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Libraries, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lima, Archbishop of, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lima, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">capture of by Chile, <a href="#Page_328">328-334</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Limache, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Literature, <a href="#Page_234">234-240</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Llai Llai, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Llama, the, <a href="#Page_173">173-7</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Llanquihue, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Llanquihue, Lake, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lobsters, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Longitudinal Railway, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Los Angeles, <a href="#Page_150">150-1</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lota, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Luco, Ramon Barros, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lynch, Captain, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Mackenna, Benjamine V., <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Magellan, Ferdinand de, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Magellan, Straits of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mail service, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Maipo, battle of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Maipo River, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Malga Malga, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mellinca, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Manta, the, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Manufacturing, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mapocho River, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Maritime laws, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Markets, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mariguina, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Marriage, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mas-a-Tierra, island of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Maule River, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">McKinley, Mt., <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Meiggs, Henry, <a href="#Page_245">245-6</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mendoza, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mendoza, Garcia, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mendoza River, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Merchants, peripatetic, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mercedario, Mt., <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Methodist Episcopal Church, <a href="#Page_276">276-8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Military, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Milk selling, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Minerals, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mines, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mining Claim, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Miramar, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Miraflores, battle of, <a href="#Page_330">330-3</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Missions, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mollendo, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Monasteries, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Money, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Monroe Doctrine, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Montt, Jorge, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354-5</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Montt, Manuel, <a href="#Page_307">307-9</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Montt, Pedro, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Montevideo, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mortality, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mountains, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395-6</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Music, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Museums, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Napoleon, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Napoleon, Joseph, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Navigation, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247-9</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Navy, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">revolt of, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Newsboys, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Newspapers, <a href="#Page_234">234-7</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nitrate of soda, <a href="#Page_38">38-42</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Novelists, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Officials, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[409]</a></span>Oficinas, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">O’Higgins, Bernardo, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">O’Higgins, General Don Ambrosio, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294 <i>et seq.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ollague, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Onas, the, <a href="#Page_142">142-7</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Opera, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oroya Railroad, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Orphanage, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oruro, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Osorno, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Osorio, General, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oysters, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Pacific Steam Navigation Company, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Paita, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Palena River, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Panama, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Panama Canal, <a href="#Page_386">386-390</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Parasites, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pareja, Admiral, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Parties, political, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Paseo, the, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pascua Island, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Patagonia, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Peck, Annie S., <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pelicans, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Peonage, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Peons, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">People, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191 <i>et seq.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Penco, battle of, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Penguins, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Penitents, Ridge of the, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Penitentas, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Perez, José Joaquin, <a href="#Page_309">309-311</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Peru, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">war with, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314 <i>et seq.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pierola, Nicolas de, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pillar, Cape, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pinto, Anibal, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pisagua, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pisco, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pizarro, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Placilla, battle of, <a href="#Page_350">350-2</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Politeness, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Politics, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Polygamy, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Poncho, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Poopo, Lake, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pope, the, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Population, <a href="#Page_393">393-4</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ports, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Portales, <a href="#Page_305">305-6</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Porvenir, battle of, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Postal service, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Post-office, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Poverty, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Prat, Arturo, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Presbyterian Church, <a href="#Page_277">277-8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Press, the, <a href="#Page_234">234-8</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Priests, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Prieto, General, <a href="#Page_304">304-6</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Prisons, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Protestantism, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275-9</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Provinces, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393-4</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Puente del Inca, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Puerto Montt, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Punta Arenas, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131-8</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Quillota, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Quinta Normal, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Quinteros, battle of, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Quito, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Races, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Railways, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_243">243 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rain, lack of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Religion, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261 <i>et seq.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Revolution, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344 <i>et seq.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Riesco, Jerman, <a href="#Page_356">356-7</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rio de Janeiro, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rivers, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Robinson Crusoe, island of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rodriguez, Zorobabel, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rosario, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[410]</a></span>Rotos, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196-201</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Saavedra, Juan de, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Salitre, <a href="#Page_180">180 <i>et seq.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Saltpetre, <a href="#Page_180">180 <i>et seq.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Salto del Soldado, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">San Felipe, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">San Francisco, California, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">San Francisco, battle of, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">San Martin, José de, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Santa Lucia, rock of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Santa Maria, Domingo, <a href="#Page_337">337-8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Santiago, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sarmiento, Mt., <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Schley, Admiral, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">School, Naval, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Schools, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sea lions, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Selkirk, Alexander, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Serfdom, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sheep, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shopping, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sierras, the, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Silver, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Soldier’s Leap, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sorata, Mt., <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Spain, King of, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Spain, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">war with, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Spaniards, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sports, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Statues, curious, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Strikes, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Tacna, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Talca, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Talcahuano, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Taltal, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tarapacá, desert of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tchili, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tehuelches, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Telegraph, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Temperature, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Temuco, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Theatres, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tierra del Fuego, <a href="#Page_120">120 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Timber, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Titicaca, Lake, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Todos Santos, Lake, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Trade, possibilities, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Transandino Chileno Railway, <a href="#Page_258">258-260</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Transandino Argentino Railway, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Travel, <a href="#Page_307">307-400</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Travellers, fellow, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Travelling, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Trinidad, Gulf of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tucapel, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tupungato, Mt., <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">United States, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381-5</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Universities, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ushuaia, <a href="#Page_138">138-140</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Uspallata pass, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Valley, great central, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Valdivia, city of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Valdivia, Pedro de, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216-8</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Valparaiso, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46-59</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">capture of, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vandalism, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vicuña, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vicuña, Señor, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Villagran, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Villagran, the, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Viña del Mar, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vineyards, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Virgenes, Cape, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Virgins, Feast of the, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Volcanoes, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395-6</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">War, the nitrate, <a href="#Page_315">315 <i>et seq.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Waterfalls, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Water power, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[411]</a></span>Wheelwright, William, <a href="#Page_243">243-5</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Whymper, Edward, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wine, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Women, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203-7</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271-339</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wool, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wrecks, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Yahgans, the, <a href="#Page_142">142-4</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Yanqui, the, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Zañartú, Señor, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> - -</ul> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Chile and Her People of To-day, by Nevin O. 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