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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/6052.txt b/6052.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a42d999 --- /dev/null +++ b/6052.txt @@ -0,0 +1,12142 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Minds and Manners of Wild Animals +by William T. Hornaday + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: The Minds and Manners of Wild Animals + +Author: William T. Hornaday + +Release Date: July, 2004 [EBook #6052] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on October 28, 2002] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WILD ANIMALS *** + + + + +Produced by Ralph Zimmermann, Charles Franks +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + + + + + + +[Illustration with caption: OVERPOWERING CURIOSITY OF A MOUNTAIN SHEEP +This "lava ram" stood thus on a lava crest in the Pinacate Mountains +for about twenty minutes, gazing spellbound at two men and a pack mule. +(See page 149)] + + + + +THE MINDS AND MANNERS OF WILD ANIMALS + +A BOOK OF PERSONAL OBSERVATIONS + +BY WILLIAM T. HORNADAY, Sc.D., A.M. DIRECTOR OF THE NEW YORK +ZOOLOGICAL PARK. AUTHOR OF "THE AMERICAN NATURAL HISTORY," "TWO +YEARS IN THE JUNGLE," "CAMP FIRES IN THE CANADIAN ROCKIES," "OUR +VANISHING WILD LIFE," ETC. + +WITH ILLUSTRATIONS + +_The wild animal must think, or die._* * * * * + +_"Prove all things; hold fast that which is good."_ + +COPYRIGHT, 1922, BY WILLIAM T. HORNADAY + +Printed in the United States of America + +_The right of translation is reserved_ + +Published May, 1922 + + + + +TO THE OFFICERS AND MEN OF THE NEW YORK ZOOLOGICAL PARK, WHOSE SAFETY +DEPENDS UPON THEIR KNOWLEDGE OF THE MINDS OF WILD ANIMALS, THIS VOLUME +IS DEDICATED AS A TOKEN OF APPRECIATION AND REGARD + + + + + CONTENTS + + + I. A SURVEY OF THE FIELD + + + I. THE LAY OF THE LAND + II. WILD ANIMAL TEMPERAMENT & INDIVIDUALITY + III. THE LANGUAGE OF ANIMALS + IV. THE MOST INTELLIGENT ANIMALS + V. THE RIGHTS OF WILD ANIMALS + + + II. MENTAL TRAITS OF WILD ANIMALS + + + VI. THE BRIGHTEST MINDS AMONG ANIMALS + VII. KEEN BIRDS AND DULL MEN + VIII. THE MENTAL STATUS OF THE ORANG-UTAN + IX. THE MAN-LIKENESS OF THE CHIMPANZEE + X. THE TRUE MENTAL STATUS OF THE GORILLA + XI. THE MIND OF THE ELEPHANT + XII. THE MENTAL AND MORAL TRAITS OF BEARS + XIII. MENTAL TRAITS OF A FEW RUMINANTS + XIV. MENTAL TRAITS OF A FEW RODENTS + XV. THE MENTAL TRAITS OF BIRDS + XVI. THE WISDOM OF THE SERPENT + XVII. THE TRAINING OF WILD ANIMALS + + + III. THE HIGHER PASSIONS + + + XVIII. THE MORALS OF WILD ANIMALS + XIX. THE LAWS OF THE FLOCKS AND HERDS + XX. PLAYS AND PASTIMES OF WILD ANIMALS + XXI. COURAGE IN WILD ANIMALS + + + IV. THE BASER PASSIONS + + + XXII. FEAR AS A RULING PASSION + XXIII. FIGHTING AMONG WILD ANIMALS + XXIV. WILD ANIMAL CRIMINALS AND CRIME + XXV. FIGHTING WITH WILD ANIMALS + + +THE CURTAIN. + + + + +PREFACE + + +During these days of ceaseless conflict, anxiety and unrest among +men, when at times it begins to look as if "the Caucasian" really is +"played out," perhaps the English-reading world will turn with a sigh +of relief to the contemplation of wild animals. At all events, the +author has found this diversion in his favorite field mentally +agreeable and refreshing. + +In comparison with some of the alleged men who now are cursing this +earth by their baneful presence, the so-called "lower animals" do not +seem so very "low" after all! As a friend of the animals, this is a +very proper time in which to compare them with men. Furthermore, if +thinking men and women desire to know the leading facts concerning the +intelligence of wild animals, it will be well to consider them now, +before the bravest and the best of the wild creatures of the earth go +down and out under the merciless and inexorable steam roller that we +call Civilization. + +The intelligence and the ways of wild animals are large subjects. +Concerning them I do not offer this volume as an all-in-all production. +Out of the great mass of interesting things that might +have been included, I have endeavored to select and set forth only +enough to make a good series of sample exhibits, without involving the +general reader in a hopelessly large collection of details. The most +serious question has been: What shall be left out? + +Mr. A. R. Spofford, first Librarian of Congress, used to declare that +"Books are made from books"; but I call the reader to bear witness that +this volume is not a mass of quotations. A quoted authority often can +be disputed, and for this reason the author has found considerable +satisfaction in relying chiefly upon his own testimony. + +Because I always desire to know the _opinions_ of men who are +writing upon their own observations, I have felt free to express my own +conclusions regarding the many phases of animal intelligence as their +manifestation has impressed me in close-up observations. + +I have purposely avoided all temptations to discuss the minds and +manners of domestic animals, partly because that is by itself a large +subject, and partly because their minds have been so greatly influenced +by long and close association with man. The domestic mammals and birds +deserve independent treatment. + +A great many stories of occurrences have been written into this +volume, for the purpose of giving the reader all the facts in +order that he may form his own opinions of the animal mentality +displayed. + +Most sincerely do I wish that the boys and girls of America, and of the +whole world, may be induced to believe that _the most interesting +thing about a wild animal is its mind and its reasoning,_ and that a +dead animal is only a poor decaying thing. If the feet of the young men +would run more to seeing and studying the wild creatures and less to +the killing of them, some of the world's valuable species might escape +being swept away tomorrow, or the day after. + +The author gratefully acknowledges his indebtedness to Munsey's +Magazine, McClure's Magazine and the Sunday Magazine Syndicate for +permission to copy herein various portions of his chapters from those +publications. + +W. T. H. + +The Anchorage, Stamford, Conn. December 19, 1921. + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + + Overpowering Curiosity of a Mountain Sheep + Christmas at the Primates' House + The Trap-Door Spider's Door and Burrow + Hanging Nest of the Baltimore Oriole Great + Hanging Nests of the Crested Cacique + "Rajah," the Actor Orang-Utan + Thumb-Print of an Orang-Utan + The Lever That Our Orang-Utan Invented + Portrait of a High-Caste Chimpanzee + The Gorilla With the Wonderful Mind + Tame Elephants Assisting in Tying a Wild Captive + Wild Bears Quickly Recognize + Protection Alaskan Brown Bear, + "Ivan," Begging for Food + The Mystery of Death + The Steady-Nerved and Courageous Mountain Goat + Fortress of an Arizona Pack-Rat + Wild Chipmunks Respond to Man's Protection + An Opossum Feigning Death + Migration of the Golden Plover. (Map) + Remarkable Village Nests of the Sociable Weaver Bird + Spotted Bower-Bird, at Work on Its Unfinished Bower Hawk-Proof + Nest of a Cactus Wren + A Peace Conference With an Arizona Rattlesnake + Work Elephant Dragging a Hewn Timber The Wrestling Bear, + "Christian," and His Partner + Adult Bears at Play + Primitive Penguins on the Antarctic Continent, Unafraid of Man + Richard W. Rock and His Buffalo Murderer + "Black Beauty" Murdering "Apache" + + + + +THE MINDS AND MANNERS OF WILD ANIMALS + +MAN AND THE WILD ANIMALS + + +If every man devoted to his affairs, and to the affairs of his +city and state, the same measure of intelligence and honest industry +that every warm-blooded wild animal devotes to its affairs, the people +of this world would abound in good health, prosperity, peace and +happiness. + +To assume that every wild beast and bird is a sacred creature, +peacefully dwelling in an earthly paradise, is a mistake. They +have their wisdom and their folly, their joys and their sorrows, +their trials and tribulations. + +As the alleged lord of creation, it is man's duty to know the wild +animals truly as they are, in order to enjoy them to the utmost, to +utilize them sensibly and fairly, and to give them a square deal. + + + + +I. A SURVEY OF THE FIELD + +I + +THE LAY OF THE LAND + + +There is a vast field of fascinating human interest, lying only just +outside our doors, which as yet has been but little explored. It is the +Field of Animal Intelligence. + +Of all the kinds of interest attaching to the study of the world's +wild animals, there are none that surpass the study of their minds, +their morals, and the acts that they perform as the results of their +mental processes. + +In these pages, the term "animal" is not used in its most common +and most restricted sense. It is intended to apply not only to +quadrupeds, but also to all the vertebrate forms,--mammals, +birds, reptiles, amphibians and fishes. + +For observation and study, the whole vast world of living +creatures is ours, throughout all zones and all lands. It is not +ours to flout, to abuse, or to exterminate as we please. While for +practical reasons we do not here address ourselves to the +invertebrates, nor even to the sea-rovers, we can not keep them +out of the background of our thoughts. The living world is so vast +and so varied, so beautiful and so ugly, so delightful and so +terrible, so interesting and so commonplace, that each step we +make through it reveals things different and previously unknown. + +The Frame of Mind. To the inquirer who enters the field of animal +thought with an open mind, and free from the trammels of egotism +and fear regarding man's place in nature, this study will prove an +endless succession of surprises and delights. In behalf of the +utmost tale of results, the inquirer should summon to his aid his +rules of evidence, his common sense, his love of fair play, and +the inexorable logic of his youthful geometry. + +And now let us clear away a few weeds from the entrance to our +field, and reveal its cornerstones and boundary lines. To a +correct understanding of any subject a correct point of view is +absolutely essential. + +In a commonplace and desultory way man has been mildly interested +in the intelligence of animals for at least 30,000 years. The Cro- +Magnons of that far time possessed real artistic talent, and on +the smooth stone walls and ceilings of the caves of France they +drew many wonderful pictures of mammoths, European bison, wild +cattle, rhinoceroses and other animals of their period. Ever since +man took unto himself certain tractable wild animals, and made +perpetual thralls of the horse, the dog, the cat, the cattle, +sheep, goats and swine, he has noted their intelligent ways. Ever +since the first caveman began to hunt wild beasts and slay them +with clubs and stones, the two warring forces have been interested +in each other, but for about 25,000 years I think that the wild +beasts knew about as much of man's intelligence as men knew of +theirs. + +I leave to those who are interested in history the task of +revealing the date, or the period, when scholarly men first began +to pay serious attention to the animal mind. + +In 1895 when Mr. George J. Romanes, of London, published his +excellent work on "Animal Intelligence," on one of its first pages +he blithely brushed aside as of little account all the +observations, articles and papers on his subject that had been +published previous to that time. Now mark how swiftly history can +repeat itself, and also bring retribution. + +In 1910 there arose in the United States of America a group of +professional college-and-university animal psychologists who set +up the study of "animal behavior." They did this so seriously, and +so determinedly, that one of the first acts of two of them +consisted in joyously brushing aside as of no account whatever, +and quite beneath serious consideration, everything that had been +seen, done and said previous to the rise of their group, and the +laboratory Problem Box. In view of what this group has +accomplished since 1910, with their "problem boxes," their "mazes" +and their millions of "trials by error," expressed in solid pages +of figures, the world of animal lovers is entitled to smile +tolerantly upon the cheerful assumptions of ten years ago. + +But let it not at any time be assumed that we are destitute of +problem boxes; for the author has two of his own! One is called +the Great Outdoors, and the other is named the New York Zoological +Park. The first has been in use sixty years, the latter twenty-two +years. Both are today in good working order, but the former is not +quite as good as new. + +A Preachment to the Student. In studying the wild-animal mind, +the boundary line between Reality and Dreamland is mighty easy to +cross. He who easily yields to seductive reasoning, and the call +of the wild imagination, soon will become a dreamer of dreams and +a seer of visions of things that never occurred. The temptation to +place upon the simple acts of animals the most complex and far- +fetched interpretations is a trap ever ready for the feet of the +unwary. It is better to see nothing than to see a lot of things +that are not true. + +In the study of animals, we have long insisted that _to the open +eye and the thinking brain, truth is stranger than fiction._ +But Truth does not always wear her heart upon her sleeve for +zanies to peck at. Unfortunately there are millions of men who go +through the world looking at animals, but not seeing them. + +Beware of setting up for wild animals impossible mental and moral +standards. The student must not deceive himself by overestimating +mental values. If an estimate must be made, make it under the mark +of truth rather than above it. While avoiding the folly of +idealism, we also must shun the ways of the narrow mind, and the +eyes that refuse to see the truth. Wild animals are not superhuman +demigods of wisdom; but neither are they idiots, unable to reason +from cause to effect along the simple lines that vitally affect +their existence. + +Brain-owning wild animals are not mere machines of flesh and +blood, set agoing by the accident of birth, and running for life +on the narrow-gauge railway of Heredity. They are not "Machines in +Fur and Feathers," as one naturalist once tried to make the world +believe them to be. Some animals have more intelligence than some +men; and some have far better morals. + +What Constitutes Evidence. The best evidence regarding the ways of +wild animals is one's own eye-witness testimony. Not all second- +hand observations are entirely accurate. Many persons do not know +how to observe; and at times some are deceived by their own eyes +or ears. It is a sad fact that both those organs are easily +deceived. The student who is in doubt regarding the composition of +evidence will do well to spend a few days in court listening to +the trial of an important and hotly contested case. In collecting +real evidence, all is not gold that glitters. + +Many a mind misinterprets the thing seen, sometimes innocently, +and again wantonly. The nature fakir is always on the alert to see +wonderful phenomena in wild life, about which to write; and by +preference he places the most strained and marvellous +interpretation upon the animal act. Beware of the man who always +sees marvellous things in animals, for he is a dangerous guide. +There is one man who claims to have seen in his few days in the +woods more wonders than all the older American naturalists and +sportsmen have seen added together. + +Now, Nature does not assemble all her wonderful phenomena and hold +them in leash to be turned loose precisely when the great Observer +of Wonders spends his day in the woods. Wise men always suspect +the man who sees too many marvelous things. + +The Relative Value of Witnesses. It is due that a word should be +said regarding "expert testimony" in the case of the wild animal. +Some dust has been raised in this field by men posing as +authorities on wild animal psychology, whose observations of the +world's wild animals have been confined to the chipmunks, +squirrels, weasels, foxes, rabbits, and birds dwelling within a +small circle surrounding some particular woodland house. In +another class other men have devoted heavy scientific labors to +laboratory observations on white rats, domestic rabbits, cats, +dogs, sparrows, turtles and newts as the handpicked exponents of +the intelligence of the animals of the world! + +Alas! for the human sense of Proportion! + +Fancy an ethnologist studying the Eskimo, the Dog-Rib Indian, the +Bushman, the Aino and the Papuan, and then proceeding to write +conclusively "On the Intelligence of the Human Race." + +The proper place in which to study the minds, manners and morals +of wild animals is in the most thickly populated haunts of the +most intelligent species. The free and untrammeled animal, busily +working out its own destiny unhindered by man, is the beau-ideal +animal to observe and to study. Go to the plain, the wilderness, +the desert and the mountain, not merely to shoot everything on +foot, but to SEE _animals at home,_ and there use your eyes +and your field-glass. See what _normal wild animals_ do as +"behavior," and then try to find out why they do it. + +The next best place for study purposes is a spacious, sanitary and +well-stocked zoological park, wherein are assembled great +collections of the most interesting land vertebrates that can be +procured, from all over the earth. There the student can observe +many new traits of wild animal character, as they are brought to +the surface by captivity. There will some individuals reveal the +worst traits of their species. Others will reveal marvels in +mentality, and teach lessons such as no man can learn from them in +the open. To study temperament, there is no place like a zoo. + +Even there, however, the wisest course,--as it seems to me,--is +not to introduce too many appliances as aids to mental activity, +but rather to see what the animal subject thinks and does _by +its own initiative._ In the testing of memory and the +perceptive faculties, training for performances is the best method +to pursue. + +The reader has a right to know that the author of this volume has +enjoyed unparalleled opportunities for the observation and study +of highly intelligent wild animals, both in their wild haunts and +in a great vivarium; and these combined opportunities have covered +a long series of years. + +Before proceeding farther, it is desirable to define certain terms +that frequently will be used in these pages. + +THE ANIMAL BRAIN is the generator of the mind, and the clearing- +house of the senses. As a mechanism, the brain of man is the most +perfect, and in the descent through the mammals, birds, reptiles, +amphibians and fishes, the brain progressively is simplified in +form and function. + +THOUGHT is the result of the various processes of the brain and +nervous system, stimulated by the contributions of the senses. + +SANITY is the state of normal, orderly and balanced thought, as +formulated by a healthy brain. + +INSANITY is a state of mental disease, resulting in disordered, +unbalanced and chaotic thought, destitute of reason. + +REASON is the manifestation of correct observation and healthful +thought which recognizes both cause and effect, and leads from +premise to conclusion. INTELLIGENCE is created by the possession +of knowledge either inherited or acquired. It may be either latent +or active; and it is the forerunner of reason. + +INSTINCT is the knowledge or impulse which animals or men derive +from their ancestors by inheritance, and which they obey, either +consciously or subconsciously in working out their own +preservation, increase and betterment. Instinct often functions as +a sixth sense. + +EDUCATION is the acquirement of knowledge by precept or by +observation; but animals as well as men may be self-taught, and +become self-educated, by the diligent exercise of the observing +and reasoning faculties. The adjustment of a wild animal mind to +conditions unknown to its ancestors is through the process of +self-education, and by logical reasoning from premise to +conclusion. + +The wild animal must think, or die. + +Animal intelligence varies in quantity and quality as much as +animals vary in size. Idiots, maniacs and sleeping persons are the +only classes of human beings who are devoid of intelligence and +reasoning power. Idiots and maniacs also are often devoid of the +common animal _instinct_ that ordinarily promotes self- +preservation from fire, water and high places. A heavily sleeping +person is often so sodden in slumber that his senses of smell and +hearing are temporarily dead; and many a sleeping man has been +asphyxiated by gas or smoke, or burned to death, because his +deadened senses failed to arouse him at the critical moment. (This +dangerous condition of mind can be cured by efforts of the will, +exercised prior to sleep, through a determination resolutely to +arouse and investigate every unusual sensation that registers +"danger" on any one of the senses.) The normal individual sleeps +with a subconscious and sensitive mind, from which thought and +reason have not been entirely eliminated. + +Every act of a man or animal, vertebrate or invertebrate, is based +upon either _reason_ or _hereditary instinct._ It is a +mistake to assume that because an organism is small it +necessarily has no "mind," and none of the propelling impulse that +we call thought. The largest whale may have less intelligence and +constructive reasoning than a trap-door spider, a bee or an ant. +To deny this is to deny the evidence of one's senses. + +A MEASURE FOR ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE. The intelligence of an animal +may be estimated by taking into account, separately, its mental +qualities, about as follows: + +1. General knowledge of surrounding conditions. +2. Powers of independent observation and reasoning. +3. Memory. +4. Comprehension under tuition. +5. Accuracy in the execution of man's orders. + +Closely allied to these are the _moral qualities_ which go to +make up an animal's temperament and disposition, about as follows: + +1. Amiability, which guarantees security to its associates. +2. Patience, or submission to discipline and training. +3. Courage, which gives self-confidence and steadiness. +4. A disposition to obedience, with cheerfulness. + +All normal vertebrate animals exercise their intelligence in +accordance with their own rules of logic. Had they not been able +to do so, it is reasonable to suppose that they could never have +developed into vertebrates, reaching even up to man himself. + +According to the laws of logic, this proposition is no more open +to doubt or dispute than is the existence of the Grand Canyon of +the Colorado. But few persons have seen the Canyon, and far fewer +ever have proven its existence by descending to its bottom; but +none the less Reason admonishes all of us that the great chasm +exists, and is not a debatable question. + +To men and women who really know the vertebrate animals by contact +with some of them upon their own levels, the reasoning power of +the latter is not a debatable question. The only real question is: +how far does their intelligence carry them? It is with puzzled +surprise that we have noted the curious diligence of the +professors of animal psychology in always writing of "animal +_behavior_," and never of old-fashioned, common-sense +_animal intelligence_. Can it be possible that any one of +them really refuses to concede to the wild animal the possession +of a mind, and a working intelligence? + +Yes. Animals do reason. If any one truth has come out of all the +critical or uncritical study of the animal mind that has been +going on for two centuries, it is this. Animals do reason; they +always have reasoned, and as long as animals live they never will +cease to reason. + +The higher wild animals possess and display the same fundamental +passions and emotions that animate the human race. This fact is +subject to intelligent analysis, discussion and development, but +it is not by any means a "question" subject to debate. In the most +intellectual of the quadrupeds, birds and reptiles, the display of +fear, courage, love, hate, pleasure, displeasure, confidence, +suspicion, jealousy, pity, greed and generosity are so plainly +evident that even children can and do recognize them. To the +serious and open-minded student who devotes prolonged thought to +these things, they bring the wild animal very near to the "lord of +creation." + +To the question, "Have wild animals souls?" we reply, "That is a +debatable question. Read; then think it over." + +METHODS WITH THE ANIMAL MIND. In the study of animal minds, much +depends upon the method employed. It seems to me that the problem- +box method of the investigators of "animal behavior" leaves much +to be desired. Certainly it is not calculated to develop the +mental status of animals along lines of natural mental +progression. To place a wild creature in a great artificial +contrivance, fitted with doors, cords, levers, passages and what +not, is enough to daze or frighten any timid animal out of its +normal state of mind and nerves. To put a wild sapajou monkey,-- +weak, timid and afraid,--in a strange and formidable prison box +filled with strange machinery, and call upon it to learn or to +invent strange mechanical processes, is like bringing a boy of ten +years up to a four-cylinder duplex Hoe printing-and-folding press, +and saying to him: "Now, go ahead and find out how to run this +machine, and print both sides of a signature upon it." + +The average boy would shrink from the mechanical monster, and have +no stomach whatever for "trial by error." + +I think that the principle of determining the mind of a wild +animal _along the lines of the professor_ is not the best +way. It should be developed _along the natural lines of the +wild-animal mind._ It should be stimulated to do what it feels +most inclined to do, and educated to achieve real mental progress. + +I think that the ideal way to study the minds of apes, baboons and +monkeys would be to choose a good location in a tropical or sub- +tropical climate that is neither too wet nor too dry, enclose an +area of five acres with an unclimbable fence, and divide it into +as many corrals as there are species to be experimented upon. Each +corral would need a shelter house and indoor playroom. The stage +properties should be varied and abundant, and designed to +stimulate curiosity as well as activity. + +Somewhere in the program I would try to teach orang-utans and +chimpanzees the properties of fire, and how to make and tend +fires. I would try to teach them the seed-planting idea, and the +meaning of seedtime and harvest. I would teach sanitation and +cleanliness of habit,--a thing much more easily done than most +persons suppose. I would teach my apes to wash dishes and to cook, +and I am sure that some of them would do no worse than some human +members of the profession who now receive $50 per month, or more, +for spoiling food. + +In one corral I would mix up a chimpanzee, an orang-utan, a golden +baboon and a good-tempered rhesus monkey. My apes would begin at +two years old, because after seven or eight years of age all apes +are difficult, or even impossible, as subjects for peaceful +experimentation. + +I would try to teach a chimpanzee the difference between a noise +and music, between heat and cold, between good food and bad food. +Any trainer can teach an animal the difference between the +blessings of peace and the horrors of war, or in other words, +obedience and good temper versus cussedness and punishment. + +Dr. Yerkes' laboratory in Montecito, California, and his +experiments there with an orang-utan and other primates, were in a +good place, and made a good beginning. It is very much to be hoped +that means will be provided by which his work can be prosecuted +indefinitely, and under the most perfect conditions that money can +provide. + +I hope that I will live long enough to see Dr. Yerkes develop the +mind of a young grizzly bear in a four-acre lot, to the utmost +limits of that keen and sagacious personality. + + + + +II + +WILD ANIMAL TEMPERAMENT AND INDIVIDUALITY + + +In man and in vertebrate animals generally, temperament is the +foundation of intelligence and progress. Fifty years ago Fowler +and Wells, the founders of the science of phrenology and +physiognomy, very wisely differentiated and defined four +"temperaments" of mankind. The six types now recognized by me are +the _morose, lymphatic, sanguine, nervous, hysterical_ and +_combative_; and their names adequately describe them. + +This classification applies to the higher wild animals, quite as +truly as to men. By the manager of wild animals in captivity, +wild-animal temperament universally is recognized and treated as a +factor of great practical importance. Mistakes in judging the +temper of dangerous animals easily lead to tragedies and sudden +death. + +Fundamentally the temperament of a man or an animal is an +inheritance from ancestors near or remote. In the human species a +morose or hysterical temperament may possibly be corrected or +improved, by education and effort. With animals this is rarely +possible. The morose gorilla gives way to cheerfulness only when +it is placed in ideally pleasant and stimulating social +conditions. This, however, very seldom is possible. The nervous +deer, bear or monkey is usually nervous to the end of its days. + +The morose and hysterical temperaments operate against mental +development, progress and happiness. In the human species among +individuals of equal mental calibre, the sanguine individual is +due to rise higher and go farther than his nervous or lymphatic +rivals. A characteristic temperament may embrace the majority of +a whole species, or be limited to a few individuals. Many species +are permanently characterized by the temperament common to the +majority of their individual members. Thus, among the great apes +the gorilla species is either morose or lymphatic; and it is +manifested by persistent inactivity and sullenness. This leads to +loss of appetite, indigestion, inactivity and early death. Major +Penny's "John Gorilla" was a notable exception, as will appear in +Chapter IX. + +The orang-utan is sanguine, optimistic and cheerful, a good +boarder, affectionate toward his keepers, and friendly toward +strangers. He eats well, enjoys life, lives long, and is well +liked by everybody. + +Except when quite young, the chimpanzee is either nervous or +hysterical. After six years of age it is irritable and difficult +to manage. After seven years of age (puberty) it is rough, +domineering and dangerous. The male is given to shouting, yelling, +shrieking and roaring, and when quite angry rages like a demon. I +know of no wild animal that is more dangerous per pound than a +male chimpanzee over eight years of age. When young they do +wonders in trained performances, but when they reach maturity, +grow big of arm and shoulder, and masterfully strong, they quickly +become conscious of their strength. It is then that performing +chimpanzees become unruly, fly into sudden fits of temper, their +back hair bristles up, they stamp violently, and sometimes leap +into a terrorized orchestra. Next in order, they are retired +willy-nilly from the stage, and are offered for sale to zoological +parks and gardens having facilities for confinement and control. + +The baboons are characteristically fierce and aggressive, and in a +wild state they live in troops, or even in herds of hundreds. +Being armed with powerful canine teeth and wolf-like jaws, they +are formidable antagonists, and other animals do not dare to +attack them. It is because of their natural weapons, their +readiness to fight like fiends, and their combined agility and +strength that the baboons have been able to live on the ground and +survive and flourish in lands literally reeking with lions, +leopards, hyenas and wild dogs. The awful canine teeth of an old +male baboon are quite as dangerous as those of any leopard, and +even the leopard's onslaught is less to be feared than the wild +rage of an adult baboon. In the Transvaal and Rhodesia, it is a +common occurrence for an ambitious dog to go after a troop of +baboons and never return. + +Temperamentally the commoner groups of monkeys are thus +characterized: + +The rhesus monkeys of India are nervous, irritable and dangerous. + +The green monkeys of Africa are sanguine, but savage and +treacherous. + +The langur monkeys of India are sanguine and peace-loving. + +The macaques of the Far East vary from the sanguine temperament to +the combative. + +The gibbons vary from sanguine to combative. + +The lemurs of Madagascar are sanguine, affectionate and peaceful. + +Nearly all South American monkeys are sanguine, and peace-loving, +and many are affectionate. + +The species of the group of Carnivora are too numerous and too +diversified to be treated with any approach to completeness. +However, to illustrate this subject the leading species will be +noticed. + +TEMPERAMENTS OF THE LARGE CARNIVORES + +The lion is sanguine, courageous, confident, reposeful and very +reliable. + +The tiger is nervous, suspicious, treacherous and uncertain. + +The black and common leopards are nervous and combative, +irreconcilable and dangerous. + +The snow leopard is sanguine, optimistic and peace-loving. The +puma is sanguine, good natured, quiet and peaceful. + +The wolves are sanguine, crafty, dangerous and cruel. + +The foxes are hysterical, timid and full of senseless fear. + +The lynxes are sanguine, philosophic, and peaceful. + +The mustelines are either nervous or hysterical, courageous, +savage, and even murderous. + +The bears are so very interesting that it is well worth while to +consider the leading species separately. Possibly our conclusions +will reveal some unsuspected conditions. + +BEAR TEMPERAMENTS, BY SPECIES. The polar bears are sanguine, but +in captivity they are courageous, treacherous and dangerous. + +The Alaskan brown bears in captivity are sanguine, courageous, +peaceful and reliable, but in the wilds they are aggressive and +dangerous. + +The grizzlies are nervous, keen, cautious, and seldom wantonly +aggressive. + +The European brown bears are sanguine, optimistic and good- +natured. + +The American black bears are sanguine and quiet, but very +treacherous. + +The sloth bears of India are nervous or hysterical, and uncertain. + +The Malay sun bears are hysterical, aggressive and evil-tempered. + +The Japanese black bears are nervous, cowardly and aggressive. + +To those who form and maintain large collections of bears, +involving much companionship in dens, it is necessary to keep a +watchful eye on the temperament chart. + +THE DEER. In our Zoological Park establishment there is no +collection in which both the collective and the individual +equation is more troublesome than the deer family. In their +management, as with apes, monkeys and bears, it is necessary to +take into account the temperament not only of the species, but +also of each animal; and there are times when this necessity bears +hard upon human nerves. The proneness of captive deer to maim and +to kill themselves and each other calls for the utmost vigilance, +and for heroic endurance on the part of the deer keeper. + +Even when a deer species has a fairly good record for common +sense, an individual may "go crazy" the instant a slightly new +situation arises. We have seen barasingha deer penned up between +shock-absorbing bales of hay seriously try to jump straight up +through a roof skylight nine feet from the floor. We have seen +park-bred axis deer break their own necks against wire fences, +with 100 per cent of stupidity. + +CHARACTERS OF DEER SPECIES + +The white-tailed deer is sanguine, but in the fall the bucks are +very aggressive and dangerous, and to be carefully avoided. The +mule deer is sanguine, reasonable and not particularly dangerous. + +The elk is steady of nerve, and sanguine in temperament, but in +the rutting season the herd-masters are dangerous. + +The fallow deer species has been toned down by a hundred +generations of park life, and it is very quiet, save when it is to +be captured and crated. + +The axis deer is nervous, flighty, and difficult to handle. + +The barasingha deer is hysterical and unaccountable. + +The Indian and Malay sambar deer are lymphatic, confident, +tractable and easily handled. + +Never keep a deer as a "pet" any longer than is necessary to place +it in a good home. All "pet deer" are dangerous, and should be +confined all the time. Never go into the range or corral of a deer +herd unless accompanied by the deer-keeper; and in the rutting +season do not go in at all. + +The only thoroughly safe deer is a dead one; for even does can do +mischief. A SAMPLE OF NERVOUS TEMPERAMENT. As an example of +temperament in small carnivores, we will cite the coati mundi of +South America. It is one of the most nervous and restless animals +we know. An individual of sanguine temperament rarely is seen. Out +of about forty specimens with which we have been well acquainted, +I do not recall one that was as quiet and phlegmatic as the +raccoon, the nearest relative of _Nasua_. With a disposition +so restless and enterprising, and with such vigor of body and +mind, I count it strange that the genus _Nasua_ has not +spread all over our south-eastern states, where it is surely +fitted to exist in a state of nature even more successfully than +the raccoon or opossum. + +The temper of the coati mundi is essentially quarrelsome and +aggressive. While young, they are reasonably peaceful, but when +they reach adult age, they become aggressive, and quarrels are +frequent. Separations then are very necessary, and it is rare +indeed that more than two adult individuals can be caged together. +Even when two only are kept together, quarrels and shrill +squealings are frequent. But they seldom hurt each other. The +coati is not a treacherous animal, it is not given to lying in +wait to make a covert attack from ambush, and being almost +constantly on the move, it is a good show animal. + +THE STRANGE COMBATIVE TEMPERAMENT OF THE GUANACO. In appearance +the guanaco is the personification of gentleness. Its placid +countenance indicates no guile, nor means of offense. Its lustrous +gazelle-like eyes, and its soft, woolly fleece suggest softness of +disposition. But in reality no animal is more deceptive. In a wild +state amongst its own kind, or in captivity,--no matter how +considerately treated,--it is a quarrelsome and at times +intractable animal. "A pair of wild guanacos can often be seen or +heard engaged in desperate combat, biting and tearing, and rolling +over one another on the ground, uttering their gurgling, bubbling +cries of rage. Of a pair so engaged, I shot one whose tail had +then been bitten off in the encounter. In confinement, the guanaco +charges one with his chest, or rears up on his hind legs to strike +one with his fore-feet, besides biting and spitting up the +contents of the stomach."--Richard Crawshay in "The Birds of Terra +del Fuego." + +MENTAL TRAITS AND TEMPER OF THE ATLANTIC WALRUS + +Mr. Langdon Gibson, of Schenectady, kindly wrote out for me the +following highly interesting observations on a remarkable arctic +animal with which we are but slightly acquainted: + +"In the summer of 1891, as a member of the first Peary Expedition +I had an opportunity of observing some of the traits of the +Atlantic walrus. I found him to be a real animal, of huge size, +with an extremely disagreeable temper and most belligerently +inclined. We hunted them in open whale-boats under the shadows of +Greenland's mountain-bound coast, in the Whale Sound region, Lat. +77 degrees North. + +"We hunted among animals never before molested, except by the +Eskimo who (so far as I was able to ascertain) hunt them only +during the winter season on the sea ice. We found animals whose +courage and belief in themselves and their prowess had hitherto +been unshaken by contact with the white man and his ingenious +devices of slaughter. + +"The walrus has a steady nerve and a thoroughly convincing roar. +They have fought their kind and the elements for centuries and +centuries, and know no fear. This, then, was the animal we sought +in order to secure food for our dog teams. I can conceive of no +form of big game hunting so conducive to great mental excitement +and physical activity as walrus hunting from an open whale-boat. +At the completion of such a hunt I have seen Eskimo so excited and +worked up that they were taken violently sick with vomiting and +headache. + +"The walrus is a gregarious animal, confederating in herds +numbering from ten to fifty, and in some instances no doubt larger +numbers may be found together. On calm days they rest in +unmolested peace on pans of broken ice which drift up and down the +waters of Whale Sound. It is unfortunate that no soundings were +taken in the region where the walrus were found, as a knowledge of +the depth of water would have furnished some information as to the +distances to which the animal will dive in search of food. + +"The stomachs of all half- and full-grown walrus taken in Whale +Sound were without exception well filled with freshly opened +clams, with very few fragments of shells in evidence; the removal +of the clam from the shell being as neatly accomplished as though +done by an expert oysterman. + +"In most cases these segregated herds of walrus were in charge of +a large bull who generally occupied a central position in the mass +of animals. Upon approaching such a herd for the first time, and +when within about 200 feet, a large bull would lift his head, +sniff audibly in our direction and give a loud grunt which +apparently struck a responsive chord in the other sleeping +animals. They would grunt in unison, in more subdued tones, after +which the old walrus would drop his head to resume his interrupted +nap. Their contempt for us was somewhat disconcerting. + +"At the first crack of a rifle, however, the animals immediately +aroused, and then during the fusillade which followed there +occurred what might be called an orderly scramble for the water. +In the first place the young ones were hustled to the edge of the +ice-pan, and there, apparently under the protection of the +mother's flipper, pushed into the water, immediately followed by +the mother. The young bulls followed, and I recall no exceptions +where the last animal into the water was not the big bull, who +before diving would give our boat a wicked look and a roar of +rage. + +"The animals would immediately dive, and then we first became +aware of a remarkable phenomenon. We found that when excited they +would continue their roaring under water, and these strange sounds +coming to us from below added considerably to the excitement of +the chase. Although the cows and young animals would generally +swim to places of safety, the other full grown animals would hover +beneath our boat and from time to time come to the surface and +charge. These charges were in all cases repulsed by the discharge +of our rifles in the faces of the animals. The balls, however, +from our .45 calibre carbines would flatten out under the skin on +the massive bony structure of the animal's skull, and cause only a +sort of rage and a sneeze, but it however had the effect of making +them dive again. It is my belief that when enraged the walrus if +not resisted would attack and attempt to destroy a boat. Icquah, +one of our native hunters, showed me in the deck of his kyak two +mended punctures which he told me were made by the tusks of a +walrus that had made an _unprovoked_ attack upon him. + +"On more than one occasion I have seen two strong uninjured +animals come to the assistance of a wounded companion, and swim +away with it to a position of safety, _the injured animal being +supported on both sides_, giving the appearance of three +animals swimming abreast. The first time I witnessed this I did +not comprehend its real meaning, but on another occasion in +McCormick Bay I saw a wounded animal leaving a trail of blood and +oil, supported on either side by two uninjured ones. They were +making a hasty retreat and would occasionally dive together, but +would quickly return to the surface. + +"We found the most effective exposed spot to place a bullet was at +the base of the animal's skull. A walrus instantly killed this way +generally sinks, leaving a trail of blood and oil to mark the +place of his descent. When hunting these animals it is well to +have an Eskimo along with harpoon and line in readiness to make +fast; otherwise one is apt to lose his quarry. + +"In the early winter we usually found the walrus in smaller groups +up in the bays. This was after the ice had begun to make, and in +coming to the surface to breathe the animals found it necessary +to butt their noses against the ice to break it. I have seen this +done in ice at least four inches in thickness. In some instances +I have seen a fractured star in the ice, a record of an unsuccessful +attempt to make a breathing hole." Around these breathing holes +we frequently found fragments of clam-shells, sections of +crinoids and sea-anemones. It is evident that after raking the +bottom with his tusks and filling his mouth with food, the walrus +separates the food he desires to retain and rejects on his way up +and at the surface such articles as he has picked up in haste and +does not want. + +"From the fact that the walrus is easily approached it is a simple +matter to kill him with the modern high power rule. It is +therefore to be hoped that future expeditions into the arctic seas +will kill sparingly of these tremendous brutes which from point of +size stand in the foremost rank among mammals." + +The Elephant, Rhinoceros and Hippopotamus. _Individual +Elephants_ vary in temperament far more than do rhinoceroses +or hippopotami, and the variations are wide. In a wild state, +elephants are quiet and undemonstrative, almost to the point of +dullness. They do not domineer, or hector, or quarrel, save when a +rogue develops in the ranks, and sets out to make things +interesting by the commission of lawless acts. A professional +rogue is about everything that an orthodox elephant should not +be, and he soon makes of himself so great a nuisance that he is +driven out of the herd. + +The temperament of the standardized and normal elephant is +distinctly sanguine, _but a nervous or hysterical individual is +easily developed by bad conditions or abuse_. Adult male +elephants are subject to various degrees of what we may as well +call sexual insanity, which is dangerous in direct proportion to +its intensity. This causes many a "bad" show elephant to be +presented to a zoological garden, where the dangers of this mental +condition can at least be reduced to their lowest terms. Our +Indian elephant who was known as Gunda was afflicted with sexual +insanity, and he gradually grew worse, and increasingly dangerous +to his keepers, until finally it was necessary to end his troubles +painlessly with a bullet through his brain. + +_The Rhinoceros_ is a sanguine animal, of rather dull vision +and slow understanding. In captivity it gives little trouble, and +lives long. Adults individually often become pettish, or peevish, +and threaten to prod their keepers without cause, but I have never +known a keeper to take those lapses seriously. The average rhino +is by no means a dull or a stupid animal, and they have quite +enough life to make themselves interesting to visitors. In British +East Africa a black rhinoceros often trots briskly toward a +caravan, and seems to be charging, when in reality it is only +desiring a "close-up" to satisfy its legitimate curiosity. + +_Every Hippopotamus_, either Nile or pygmy, is an animal of +serene mind and steady habits. Their appetites work with clock- +like regularity, and require no winding. I can not recall that any +one of our five hippos was ever sick for a day, or missed a meal. +When the idiosyncrasies of Gunda, our bad elephant, were at their +worst, the contemplation of Peter the Great ponderously and +serenely chewing his hay was a rest to tired nerves. Keeper Thuman +treats the four pygmy hippos like so many pet pigs,--save the +solitary adult male, who sets himself up to be peevish. The +breeding female is a wise and good mother, with much more maternal +instinct than our chimpanzee "Suzette." + +It may be set down as an absolute rule that hippos are lymphatic, +easy-going, contented, and easy to take care of _provided_ +they are kept scrupulously clean, and are fed as they should be +fed. They live long, breed persistently, give no trouble and have +high exhibition value. + +_Giraffe_ individuals vary exceedingly,--beyond all other +hoofed animals. Each one has its own headful of notions, and +rarely will two be found quite alike in temperament and views of +life. Some are sanguine and sensible, others are nervous, +crotchety, and full of senseless fears. Those who are responsible +for them in captivity are constantly harassed by fears that they +will stampede in their stalls or yards, and break their own necks +and legs in most unexpected ways. They require greater vigilance +than any other hoofed animals we know. Sometimes a giraffe will +develop foolishness to such a degree as to be unwilling to go out +of its own huge door, into a shady and comfortable yard. + + + + +III + +THE LANGUAGE OF WILD ANIMALS + + +Language is the means by which men and animals express their +thoughts. Of language there are four kinds: vocal, pictured, +written and sign language. + +Any vocal sound uttered for the purpose of conveying thought, or +influencing thought or action, is to be classed as vocal language. +Among the mammals below man, _speech_ is totally absent; but +parrots, macaws, cockatoos and crows have been taught to imitate +the sound of man's words, or certain simple kinds of music. + +The primitive races of mankind first employed the sign language, +and spoken words. After that comes picture language, and lastly +the language of written words. Among the Indians and frontiersmen +of the western United States and Canada, the sign language has +reached what in all probability is its highest development, and +its vocabulary is really wonderful. + +The higher wild animals express their thoughts and feelings +usually by sign language, and rarely by vocal sounds. Their power +of expression varies species by species, or tribe by tribe, quite +as it does among the races and tribes of men. It is our belief +that there are today several living races of men whose +vocabularies are limited to about 300 words. + +Very many species of animals appear to be voiceless; but it is +hazardous to attempt to specify the species. Sometimes under +stress of new emergencies, or great pain, animals that have been +considered voiceless suddenly give tongue. That hundreds of +species of mammals and birds use their voices in promoting +movements for their safety, there is no room to doubt. The only +question is of the methods and the extent of voice used. Birds and +men give expression to their pleasure or joy by singing. + +In the jungle and the heavily wooded wilderness, one hears really +little of vocal wild-animal language. Through countless +generations the noisiest animals have been the first ones to be +sought out and killed by their enemies, and only the more silent +species have survived. All the higher animals, as we call the +higher vertebrates, have the ability to exchange thoughts and +convey ideas; and that is language. + +At the threshold of this subject we are met by two interesting +facts. Excepting the song-birds, the wild creatures of today have +learned through instinct and accumulated experience that silence +promotes peace and long life. The bull moose who bawls through a +mile of forest, and the bull elk who bugles not wisely but too +well, soon find their heads hanging in some sportsman's dining- +room, while the silent Virginia deer, like the brook, goes on +forever. + +Association with man through countless generations has taught +domestic animals not only the fact of their safety when giving +voice, but also that very often there is great virtue in a +vigorous outcry. With an insistent staccato neigh, the hungry +horse jars the dull brain of its laggard master, and prompts him +to "feed and water the stock." But how different is the cry of a +lost horse, which calls for rescue. It cannot be imitated in +printed words; but every plainsman knows the shrill and prolonged +trumpet-call of distress that can be heard a mile or more, +understandingly. + +And think of the vocabulary of the domestic chicken! Years of life +in fancied security have developed a highly useful vocabulary of +language calls and cries. The most important, and the best known, +are the following: + +"Beware the hawk!"--"Coor! Coor!" "Murder! Help!"--"Kee- +_owk_! Kee-_owk_! Kee-_owk_!" "Come on"--"Cluck! +Cluck! Cluck!" "Food here! Food!"--"Cook-cook-cook-cook!" +Announcement, or alarm--"Cut-cut-cut-_dah_-cut!" But does +the wild jungle-fowl, the ancestor of our domestic chicken, +indulge in all those noisy expressions of thought and feeling? By +no means. I have lived for months in jungles where my hut was +surrounded by jungle-fowl, and shot many of them for my table; but +the only vocal sound I ever heard from their small throats was the +absurdly shrill bantam-like crow of the cock. And even that led to +several fatalities in the ranks of _Gallus stanleyi_. + +Domestic cattle, swine and fowls have each a language of their +own, and as far as they go they are almost as clear-cut and +understandable as the talk of human beings. Just how much more is +behind the veil that limits our understanding we cannot say; but +no doubt there is a great deal. + +But it is with the language of wild animals that we are most +concerned. As already pointed out, wild creatures, other than +song-birds, do not care to say much, because of the danger of +attracting enemies that will exterminate them. Herein lies the +extreme difficulty of ascertaining how wild beasts communicate. +In the Animallai Hills of southern India I hunted constantly for +many weeks through forests actually teeming with big game. There +were herds upon herds of elephants, gaur, axis deer, sambar deer, +monkeys by the hundred, and a good sprinkling of bears, wild hogs +and tigers. + +We saw hundreds upon hundreds of animals; but with the exception +of the big black monkeys that used to swear at us, I can almost +count upon my fingers the whole number of times that we heard +animals raise their voices to communicate with each other. + +Ape Voices. Naturally it is of interest to know something of the +voices of the animals that physically and mentally stand nearest +to man. + +The wild gorilla has a voice almost equal to that of the +chimpanzee, but in captivity he rarely utters any vocal sound +other than a shriek, or scream. + +The baby orang-utan either whines or shrieks like a human child. +The half-grown or adult orang when profoundly excited bellows or +roars, in a deep bass voice. Usually, however, it is a +persistently silent animal. + +The chimpanzee has a voice, and vociferously expresses its +emotions. + +First and most often is the plaintive, coaxing note, "Who'-oo! +who'-oo! who'-oo!" + +Then comes the angry and threatening, "Wah', wah', wah-! +_Wah'_-hool _Wah'_-hool" + +Lastly we hear the fearful, high-pitched yell or shriek, "Ah-h-h- +h!" or "E-e-e-e." + +The shriek, or scream, can be heard half a mile, and at close +range it is literally ear-splitting. Usually it is accompanied by +violent stamping or pounding with the feet upon the floor. It may +signify rage, or nothing more than the joy of living, and of +having a place in which to yell. It is this cry that is uncannily +human-like in sound, and when heard for the first time it seems to +register anguish. + +In its Bornean jungle home, the orang-utan is nearly as silent as +the grave. Never save once did I hear one utter a vocal sound. +That was a deep bass roar emitted by an old male that I disturbed +while he was sleeping on the comfortable nest of green branches +that he had built for himself. + +Concerning the chimpanzee, the late Mr. Richard L. Garner +testified as follows: + +"Not only does the chimpanzee often break the silence of the +forest when all other voices are hushed, but he frequently answers +the sounds of other animals, as if in mockery or defiance. ... +Although diurnal in habit, the chimpanzees often make the night +reverberate with the sounds of their terrific screaming, which I +have known them to continue at times for more than an hour, with +scarcely a moment's pause,--not one voice but many, and within +the area of a square mile or so I have distinguished as many as +seven alternating adult male voices. + +"The gorilla is more silent and stoical than the chimpanzee, but +he is far from being mute. He appears to be devoid of all +risibility, but he is often very noisy. Although diurnal in habit, +he talks less frequently during the day than at night, but his +silence is a natural consequence of his stealth and cunning. There +are times, however, when he ignores all danger of betraying his +whereabouts or his movements, and gives vent to a deluge of +speech. At night his screams and shouts are terrific." + +The gibbons (including the siamang) have tremendous voices, with +numerous variations, and they love to use them. My acquaintance +with them began in Borneo, in the dense and dark coastal forest +that there forms their home. I remember their cries as vividly as +if I had heard them again this morning. While feeding, or quietly +enjoying the morning sun, the gray gibbon (_Hylobates +concolor_) emits in leisurely succession a low staccato, +whistle-like cry, like "Hoot! Hoot! Hoot!" which one can easily +counterfeit by whistling. This is varied by another whistle cry of +three notes, thus: "Who-ee-hoo! Who-ee-hoo!" also to be duplicated +by whistling. In hunting for specimens of that gibbon, for +American museums, I could rarely locate a troop save by the tree- +top talk of its members. + +But all this was only childish prattle in comparison with the +daily performances of the big white-handed, and the black hoolock +gibbons, now and for several years past residing in our Primate +House. Every morning, and perhaps a dozen times during the day, +those three gibbons go on a vocal rampage and utter prolonged and +ear-splitting cries and shrieks that make the welkin ring. The +shrieking chorus is usually prolonged until it becomes tiresome to +the monkeys. In all our ape and monkey experience we never have +known its equal save in the vocal performances of Boma, our big +adult male chimpanzee, the husband of Suzette. + +A baboon emits occasionally, and without any warning, a fearful +explosive bark, or roar, that to visitors is as startling as the +report of a gun. The commonest expressions are "Wah!" and +"_Wah'_-hoo!", and the visitor who can hear it close at hand +without jumping has good nerves. + +The big and solemn long-nosed monkey of Borneo (_Nasalis +larvatus_) utters in his native tree-top (overhanging water), a +cry like the resonant "honk" of a saxophone. He says plainly, "Kee +honk," and all that I could make of its meaning was that it is +used as the equivalent of "All's well." + +Of all the monkeys that I have ever known, either wild or in +captivity, the red howlers of the Orinoco, in Venezuela, have the +most remarkable voices, and make the most remarkable use of them. +The hyoid cartilage is expanded,--for Nature's own particular +reasons,--into a wonderful sound-box, as big as an English walnut, +which gives to the adult voice a depth of pitch and a booming +resonance that is impossible to describe. The note produced is a +prolonged bass roar, in alternately rising and falling cadence, +and in reality comprising about three notes. It is the habit of +troops of red howlers to indulge in nocturnal concerts, wherein +four, five or six old males will pipe up and begin to howl in +unison. The great volume of uncanny sound thus produced goes +rolling through the still forest, far and wide; and to the white +explorer who lies in his grass hammock in pitchy darkness, +fighting off the mosquitoes and loneliness, and wondering from +whence tomorrow's meals will come, the moral effect is gruesome +and depressing. + +In captivity the youthful howler habitually growls and grumbles in +a way that is highly amusing, and the absurd pitch of the deep +bass voice issuing from so small an animal is cause for wonder. + +It is natural that we should look closely to the apes and monkeys +for language, both by voice and sign. In 1891 there was a flood of +talk on "the speech of monkeys," and it was not until about 1904 +that the torrent stopped. At first the knowledge that monkeys can +and do communicate to a limited extent by vocal sounds was hailed +as a "discovery"; but unfortunately for science, nothing has been +proved beyond the long-known fact that primates of a given species +understand the meaning of the few sounds and cries to which their +kind give utterance. + +Thus far I have never succeeded in teaching a chimpanzee or +orangutan to say even as much as "Oh" or "Ah." Nothing seems to be +further from the mind of an orang than the idea of a new vocal +utterance as a means to an end. + +Our Polly was the most affectionate and demonstrative chimpanzee +that I have ever seen, and her reaction to my voice was the best +that I have found in our many apes. She knew me well, and when I +greeted her in her own language, usually she answered me promptly +and vociferously. Often when she had been busy with her physical- +culture exercises and Delsartean movements on the horizontal bars +or the trapeze in the centre of her big cage, I tested her by +quietly joining the crowd of visitors in the centre of the room +before her cage, and saying to her: "Polly! Wah! Wah! Wah!" + +Nearly every time she would stop short, give instant attention and +joyously respond "Wah! Wah! Wah!", repeating the cry a dozen times +while she clambered down to the lower front bars to reach me with +her hands. When particularly excited she would cry "_Who_-oo! +_Who_-oo! _Who_-oo!" with great clearness and vehemence, +the two syllables pitched four notes apart. This cry was uttered +as a joyous greeting, and also at feeding-time, in expectation of +food; but, simple as the task seems to be, I really do not know +how to translate its meaning into English. In one case it appears +to mean "How do you do?" and in the other it seems to stand for +"Hurry up!" + +Polly screamed when angry or grieved, just like a naughty child; +and her face assumed the extreme of screaming-child expression. +She whined plaintively when coaxing, or when only slightly +grieved. With these four manifestations her vocal powers seemed to +stop short. Many times I opened her mouth widely with my fingers, +and tried to surprise her into saying "Ah," but with no result. It +seems almost impossible to stamp the vocal-sound idea upon the +mind of an orang-utan or chimpanzee. Polly uttered two distinct +and clearly cut syllables, and it really seemed as if her vocal +organs could have done more if called upon. + +The cries of the monkeys, baboons and lemurs are practically +nothing more than squeals, shrieks or roars. The baboons (several +species, at least) bark or roar most explosively, using the +syllable "Wah!" It is only by the most liberal interpretation of +terms that such cries can be called language. The majority express +only two emotions--dissatisfaction and expectation. Every primate +calls for help in the same way that human beings do, by shrill +screaming; but none of them ever cry "Oh" or "Ah." + +The only members of the monkey tribe who ever spoke to me in their +native forests were the big black langurs of the Animallai Hills +in Southern India. They used to glare down at us, and curse us +horribly whenever we met. Had we been big pythons instead of men +they could not have said "Confound you!" any more plainly or more +vehemently than they did. + +In those museum-making days our motto was "All's fish that cometh +to net"; and we killed monkeys for their skins and skeletons the +same as other animals. My brown-skinned Mulcer hunters said that +the bandarlog hated me because of my white skin. At all events, as +we stalked silently through those forests, half a dozen times a +day we would hear an awful explosion overhead, startling to men +who were still-hunting big game, and from the middle zone of the +tree-tops black and angry faces would peer down at us. They said: +"Wah! Wah! Wah! Ah-^oo-oo-Aoo-oo-^oo-oo!" and it was nothing else +than cursing and blackguarding. How those monkeys did hate us! I +never have encountered elsewhere anything like it in monkey-land. +la 1902 there was a startling exhibition of monkey language at +our Primate House. That was before the completion of the Lion House. +We had to find temporary outdoor quarters for the big jaguar, +"Senor Lopez"; and there being nothing else available, we decided +to place him, for a few days only, in the big circular cage at the +north end of the range of outside cages. It was May, and the +baboons, red-faced monkeys, rhesus, green and many other of the +monkeys were in their outside quarters. + +I was not present when Lopez was turned into the big: cage; but I +heard it. Down through the woods to the polar bears' den, a good +quarter of a mile, came a most awful uproar, made by many voices. +The bulk of it was a medley of raucous yells and screeches, above +which it was easy to distinguish the fierce, dog-like barks and +roars of the baboons. + +We knew at once that Lopez had arrived. Hurrying up to the Primate +House, we found the wire fronts of the outside cages literally +plastered with monkeys and baboons, all in the wildest excitement. +The jaguar was in full view of them, and although not one out of +the whole lot, except the sapajous, ever had an ancestor who had +seen a jaguar, one and all recognized a hostile genus, and a +hereditary enemy. + +And how they cursed him, reviled him, and made hideous faces at +him! The long-armed yellow baboons barked and roared until they +were heard half a mile away. The ugly-tempered macaques and +rhesus monkeys nearly burst with hatred and indignation. The row +was kept up for a long time, and the monkey language that was lost +to science on that occasion was, both in quantity and quality, +beyond compare. + +Bear Language. In their native haunts bears are as little given +to loud talk as other animals; but in roomy and comfortable +captivity, where many are yarded together, they rapidly develop +vocal powers. Our bears are such cheerful citizens, and they do so +many droll things, that the average visitor works overtime in +watching them. I have learned the language of our bears +sufficiently that whenever I hear one of them give tongue I know +what he says. For example: + +In warning or threatening an enemy, the sloth bear says: "Ach! +Ach! Ach!" and the grizzly says: "Woof! Woof!" A fighting bear +says: "Aw-aw-aw!" A baby's call for its mother is "Row! Row!" A +bear's distress call is: "Err-_wow_-oo-oo-oof!" + +But even in a zoological park it is not possible for everyone to +recognize and interpret the different cries of bears, although the +ability to do so is sometimes of value to the party of the second +part. For example: + +One day in February I was sitting in my old office in the Service +Building, engrossed in I know not what important and solemn +matter. The park was quiet; for the snow lay nine inches deep over +all. There were no visitors, and the maintenance men were +silently shovelling. Over the hill from the bear dens came the +voice of a bear. It said, as plainly as print: "Err-wow!" I said +to myself: "That sounds like a distress call," and listened to +hear it repeated. + +Again it came: "Err-wow!" + +I caught up my hat and hastened over the hill toward the bear +dens. On the broad concrete walk, about a hundred feet from the +dens, four men were industriously shovelling snow, unaware that +anything was wrong anywhere except on the pay-roll, opposite their +names. + +Guided by the cries that came from "The Nursery" den, where six +yearling cubs were kept, I quickly caught sight of the trouble. +One of our park-born brown bear cubs was hanging fast by one +forefoot from the top of the barred partition. He had climbed to +the top of the ironwork, thrust one front paw through between two +of the bars (for bears are the greatest busybodies on earth), and +when he sought to withdraw it, the sharp point of a bar in the +overhang of the tree-guard had buried itself in the back of his +paw, and held him fast. It seemed as if his leg was broken, and +also dislocated at the shoulder. No wonder the poor little chap +squalled for help. His mother, on the other side of the partition, +was almost frantic with baffled sympathy, for she could do nothing +to help him. + +It did not take more than a quarter of a minute to have several +men running for crowbars and other things, and within five minutes +from the discovery we were in the den ready for action. The little +chap gave two or three cries to let us know how badly it hurt his +leg to hang there, then bent his small mind upon rendering us +assistance. + +First we lifted him up bodily, and held him, to remove the strain. +Then, by good luck, we had at hand a stout iron bar with a U- +shaped end; and with that under the injured wrist, and a crowbar +to spring the treacherous overhang, we lifted the foot clear, and +lowered little Brownie to the floor. From first to last he helped +us all he could, and seemed to realize that it was clearly "no +fair" to bite or scratch. Fortunately the leg was neither broken +nor dislocated, and although Brownie limped for ten days, he soon +was all right again. + +After the incident had been closed, I gave the men a brief lecture +on the language of bears, and the necessity of being able to +recognize the distress call. + +You can chase bison, elephants and deer all day without hearing a +single vocal utterance. They know through long experience the +value of silence. + +The night after I shot my second elephant we noted an exception. +The herd had been divided by our onslaught. Part of it had gone +north, part of it south, and our camp for the night (beside the +dead tusker) lay midway between the two. About bedtime the +elephants began signalling to each other by trumpeting, and what +they sounded was "The assembly." They called and answered +repeatedly; and finally it became clear to my native followers +that the two herds were advancing to unite, and were likely to +meet in our vicinity. That particular trumpet call was different +from any other I have ever heard. It was a regular "Hello" signal- +call, entirely different from the "Tal-_loo_-e" blast which +once came from a feeding herd and guided us to it. + +But it is only on rare occasions that elephants communicate with +each other by sound. I once knew a general alarm to be +communicated throughout a large herd by the sign language, and a +retreat organized and carried out in absolute silence. Their +danger signals to each other must have been made with their trunks +and their ears; but we saw none of them, because all the animals +were concealed from our view except when the two scouts of the +herd were hunting for us. + +In captivity an elephant trumpets in protest, or through fear, or +through rage; but I am obliged to confess that as yet I cannot +positively distinguish one from the other. + +Once in the Zoological Park I heard our troublesome Indian +elephant, Alice, roaring continuously as if in pain. It continued +at such a rate that I hurried over to the Elephant House to +investigate. And there I saw a droll spectacle. Keeper Richards +had taken Alice out into her yard for exercise and had ordered +her to follow him. And there he was disgustedly marching around +the yard while Alice marched after him at an interval of ten +paces, quite free and untrammeled, but all the while lustily +trumpeting and roaring in indignant protest. The only point at +which she was hurt was in her feelings. + +Two questions that came into public notice concerning the voices +of two important American animals have been permanently settled +by "the barnyard naturalists" of New York. + +The Voice of the American Bison. In 1907 the statement of George +Catlin, to the effect that in the fall the bellowing of buffalo +bulls on the plains resembled the muttering of distant thunder, +was denied and severely criticized in a sportsman's magazine. On +October 4 of that year, while we were selecting the fifteen bison +to be presented to the Government, to found the Wichita National +Bison Herd, four of us heard our best bull _bellow_ five +times, while another did the same thing four times. + +The sound uttered was a deep-voiced roar,--not a grunt,--rising +and falling in measured cadence, and prolonged about four or five +seconds. It was totally different from the ordinary grunt of +hunger, or the menace of an angry buffalo, which is short and +sharp. In discussing the quality of the bellow, we agreed that it +could properly be called a low roar. It is heard only in the +rutting season,--the period described by Catlin,--and there is +good reason to believe that Caitlin's description is perfectly +correct. + +The Scream of the Puma. This is a subject that will not lie still. +I presume it will recur every five years as long as pumas endure. +Uncountable pages of controversial letters have been expended upon +the question: "Does the puma ever scream, like a woman in +distress?" + +The true answer is easy, and uncontestable by people whose minds +are open to the rules of evidence. + +Yes; the adult female puma DOES scream,-_in the mating +season_, whenever it comes. It is loud, piercing, prolonged, +and has the agonized voice qualities of a boy or a woman screaming +from the pain of a surgical operation. To one who does not know +the source or the cause, it is nerve-racking. When heard in a +remote wilderness it must be truly fearsome. It says "Ow-w-w-w!" +over and over. We have heard it a hundred times or more, and it +easily carries a quarter of a mile. + +The language of animals is a long and interesting subject,--so +much so that here it is possible only to sketch out and suggest +its foundations and scope. On birds alone, an entire volume should +be written; but animal intelligence is a subject as far reaching +as the winds of the earth. + +No man who ever saw high in the heavens a V-shaped flock of wild +geese, or heard the honk language either afloat, ashore or in the +air, will deny the spoken language of that species. If any one +should do so, let him listen to the wild-goose wonder tales of +Jack Miner, and hear him imitate (to perfection) the honk call of +the gander at his pond, calling to wild flocks in the sky and +telling them about the corn and safety down where he is. + +The woodpecker drums on the high and dry limb of a dead tree his +resounding signal-call that is nothing more nor less (in our view) +than so much sign language. + +It was many years ago that we first heard in the welcome days of +early spring the resounding _"Boo-hoo-hoo"_ courting call of +the cock pinnated grouse, rolling over the moist earth for a mile +or more in words too plain to be misunderstood. + +The American magpie talks beautifully; but I regret to say that I +do not understand a word of its language. One summer we had +several fine specimens in the great flying-cage, with the big and +showy waterfowl, condor, griffon vulture, ravens and crows. One of +those magpies often came over to the side of the cage to talk to +me, and as I believe, make complaints. Whether he complained about +his big and bulky cagemates, or the keepers, or me, I could not +tell; but I thought that his grievances were against the large +birds. Whenever I climbed over the guard rail and stooped down, he +would come close up to the wire, stand in one spot, and in a +quiet, confidential tone talk to me earnestly and gesticulate with +his head for five minutes straight. I have heard senile old men +run on in low-voiced, unintelligible clack in precisely the same +way. The modulations of that bird's voice, its inflections and its +vocabulary were wonderful. From his manner a messenger from Mars +might easily have inferred that the bird believed that every word +of the discourse was fully understood. + +The lion roars, magnificently. The hyena "laughs"; the gray wolf +gives a mournful howl, the coyote barks and howls, and the fox +yaps. The elk bugles, the moose roars and bawls, in desire or +defiance. The elephant trumpets or screams in the joy of good +feeding, or in fear or rage; and it also rumbles deeply away down +in its throat. The red squirrel barks and chatters, usually to +scold some one whom he hates, but other small rodents know that +silence is golden. + +The birds have the best voices of all creatures. They are the +sweet singers of the animal world, and to the inquiring mind that +field is a wonderland. + +The frogs are vociferous; and now if they were more silent they +would last longer. + +Of all the reptiles known to me, only two utter vocal sounds,--the +alligator and the elephant tortoise. The former roars or bellows, +the latter grunts. + + + + +IV + +THE MOST INTELLIGENT ANIMALS + + +To the professional animal-man, year in and year out comes the +eternal question, "Which are the most intelligent animals?" + +The question is entirely legitimate. What animals are the best +exponents of animal intelligence? + +It seems to me that the numerous factors involved, and the +comparisons that must be made, can best be expressed in figures. +Opinions that are based upon only one or two sets of facts are not +worth much. There are about ten factors to be taken into account +and appraised separately. + +In order to express many opinions in a small amount of space, we +submit a table of estimates and summaries, covering a few +mammalian species that are representative of many. But, try as +they will, it is not likely that any two animal men will set down +the same estimates. It all depends upon the wealth or the poverty +of first-hand, eye-witness evidence. When we enter the field of +evidence that must stand in quotation marks, we cease to know +where we will come out. We desire to state that nearly all of the +figures in the attached table of estimates are based upon the +author's own observations, made during a period of more than +forty years of ups and downs with wild animals. ESTIMATES OF THE +COMPARATIVE INTELLIGENCE AND ABILITY OF CERTAIN CONSPICUOUS WILD +ANIMALS, BASED UPON KNOWN PERFORMANCES, OR THE ABSENCE OF THEM. +[Footnote: To the author, correspondence regarding the reasons for +these estimates is impossible.] + +[beginning of chart] + +Perfection in all=100 [list of categories below are written +vertically above the columns, with the last column unnamed and +representing a total score of animal intelligence/1000] + +Hereditary Knowledge Perceptive Faculties Original Thought Memory +Reason Receptivity in Training Efficiency in Execution Nervous +Energy Keenness of the Senses Use of the Voice + +Primates + +Chimpanzee . . . . . . . . .100 100 100 100 75 100 100 100 100 50 925 + Orang-Utan . . . . . . . . .100 100 100 75 100 75 100 75 100 25 850 + Gorilla. . . . . . . . . . . . .50 50 50 50 75 25 25 50 100 25 500 + +Ungulates + +Indian Elephant . . . . . .100 100 100 100 100 100 100 75 50 25 850 +Rhinoceros. . . . . . . . .25 25 25 25 25 0 0 25 25 0 175 + Giraffe . . . . . . . . . . . . .50 25 25 25 25 25 0 25 100 0 300 + White-Tailed Deer . . .100 100 100 25 50 0 0 100 100 0 575 + Big-Horn Sheep . . . . . .100 100 50 25 50 0 0 100 100 0 525 + Mountain Goat. . . . . . .100 100 100 25 100 0 0 100 100 0 625 + Domestic Horse. . . . . .100 100 100 75 75 75 75 100 100 50 850 + +Carnivores + +Lion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100 100 50 75 50 75 50 100 100 25 725 + Tiger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100 75 50 50 50 25 25 100 100 0 575 + Grizzly Bear . . . . . . . . .100 100 50 25 50 75 50 75 100 25 725 + Brown Bear (European)100 100 50 25 50 75 50 75 100 25 650 +Gray Wolf . . . . . . . . . . . 100 100 100 25 75 00 100 100 25 625 + Coyote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 75 50 25 50 0 0 75 100 25 500 + Red Fox . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 100 50 75 100 0 0 100 100 25 650 + Domestic Dog . . . . . . . . .50 100 75 75 75 75 100 100 100 100 850 + Wolverine . . . . . . . . . . .100 100 100 25 100 0 75 100 100 0 700 + +Beaver . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100 100 100 25 100 0 100 100 100 0 725 + + +According to the author's information and belief, _these are +"the most intelligent" animals:_ The Chimpanzee is the most +intelligent of all animals below man. His mind approaches most +closely to that of man, and it carries him farthest upward toward +the human level. He can learn more by training, and learn more +easily, than any other animal. + +The Orang-Utan is mentally next to the chimpanzee. + +The Indian Elephant in mental capacity is third from man. + +The high-class domestic Horse is a very wise and capable animal; +but this is chiefly due to its age-long association with man, and +education by him. Mentally the wild horse is a very different +animal, and in the intellectual scale it ranks with the deer and +antelopes. + +The Beaver manifests, in domestic economy, more intelligence, +mechanical skill and reasoning power than any other wild animal. + +The Lion is endowed with keen perceptive faculties, reasoning +ability and judgment of a high order, and its mind is +surprisingly receptive. + +The Grizzly Bear is believed to be the wisest of all bears. + +The Pack Rat (_Neotona_) is the intellectual phenomenon of +the great group of gnawing animals. It is in a class by itself. + +The White Mountain Goat seems to be the wisest of all the mountain +summit animals whose habits are known to zoologists and sportsmen. + +A high-class Dog is the animal that mentally is in closest touch +with the mind, the feelings and the impulses of man; and it is the +only one that can read a man's feelings from his eyes and his +facial expression. + +The Marvelous Beaver. Let us consider this animal as an +illuminating example of high-power intelligence. + +In domestic economy the beaver is the most intelligent of all +living mammals. His inherited knowledge, his original thought, his +reasoning power and his engineering and mechanical skill in +constructive works are marvelous and beyond compare. In his +manifold industrial activities, there is no other mammal that is +even a good second to him. He builds dams both great and +small, to provide water in which to live, to store food and to +escape from his enemies. He builds air-tight houses of sticks and +mud, either as islands, or on the shore. When he cannot live as a +pond-beaver with a house he cheerfully becomes a river-beaver. +He lives in a river-bank burrow when house-building in a pond +is impossible; and he will cheerfully tunnel under a stone wall +from one-pond monotony, to go exploring outside. + +[Illustration: CHRISTMAS AT THE +PRIMATES' HOUSE Chimpanzees (with large ears) and orang-utans +(small ears). The animal on the extreme right is an orang of the +common caste] + +He cuts down trees, both small and large, and he makes them fall +as he wishes them to fall. He trims off all branches, and leaves +no "slash" to cumber the ground. He buries green branches, in +great quantity, in the mud at the bottom of his pond, so that in +winter he can get at them under a foot of solid ice. He digs +canals, of any length he pleases, to float logs and billets of +wood from hinterland to pond. + +If you are locating beavers in your own zoo, and are wise, you can +induce beavers to build their dam where you wish it to be. This is +how we did it! + +We dug out a pond of mud in order that the beavers might have a +pond of water; and we wished the beavers to build a dam forty feet +long, at a point about thirty feet from the iron fence where the +brook ran out. On thinking it over we concluded that we could +manage it by showing the animals where we wished them to go to +work. + +We set a l2-inch plank on its edge, all the way across the dam +site, and pegged it down. Above it the water soon formed a little +pool and began to flow over the top edge in a very miniature +waterfall. Then we turned loose four beavers and left them. + +The next morning we found a cart-load of sticks and fresh mud +placed like a dam against the iron fence. In beaver language this +said to us: + +"We would rather build our dam here,--if you don't mind. It will +be easier for us, and quicker." + +We removed all their material; and in our language that action +said: "No; we would rather have you build over the plank." + +The next night more mud and sticks piled against the fence said to +us, + +"We really _insist_ upon building it here!" + +We made a second clearance of their materials, saying in effect: + +"You _shall not_ build against the fence! You _must_ +build where we tell you!" + +Thereupon, the beavers began to build over the plank, saying, + +"Oh, well, if you are going to make a fuss about it, we will let +you have your way." + +So they built a beautiful water-tight dam precisely where we +suggested it to them, and after that our only trouble was to keep +them from overdoing the matter, and flooding the whole valley. + +I am not going to dwell upon the mind and manners of the beaver. +The animal is well known. Three excellent books have been written +and pictured about him, in the language that the General Reader +understands. They are as follows: "The American Beaver and His +Works," Lewis H. Morgan (1868); "The Romance of the Beaver," A. R. +Dugmore (no date); "History and Traditions of the Canada Beaver," +H. T. Martin (1892). + +"Clever Hans," the "Thinking Horse." From 1906 to 1910 the world +read much about a wonderful educated horse owned and educated by +Herr von Osten, in Germany. The German scientists who first came +in touch with "Hans" were quite bowled over by the discovery that +that one horse could "think." The _Review of Reviews_ said, +in 1910: + +"It may be recalled that Clever Hans knew figures and letters, +colors and tones, the calendar and the dial, that he could count +and read, deal with decimals and fractions, spell out answers to +questions with his right hoof, and recognize people from having +seen their photographs. In every case his 'replies' were given in +the form of scrapings with his right forehoof. + +"Whether the questioner was von Osten, who had worked with him for +seven years, or a man like Schillings, who was a complete +stranger, seemed immaterial; and this went farthest, perhaps, in +disposing of all talk of 'collusion' between master and beast." + +Now, by the bald records of the case the fact was fixed for all +time that Hans was the most wonderful mental prodigy that ever +bore the form of a four-footed animal. His learning and his +performances were astounding, and even uncanny. I do not care how +he was trained, nor by what process he received ideas and reacted +to them! He was a phenomenon, and I doubt whether this world ever +sees his like again. His mastery of figures alone, no matter how +it was wrought, was enough to make any animal or trainer +illustrious. + +But eventually Clever Hans came to grief. He was ostensibly +thrown off his pedestal, in Germany, by human jealousy and +egotism. Several industrious German scientists deliberately set +to work to discredit him, and they stuck to it until they +accomplished that task. The chief instrument in this was no less a +man than the director of the "Psychological Institute" of the +Berlin University, Professor Otto Pfungst. He found that when Hans +was put on the witness stand and subjected to rigid cross +examinations _by strangers_, his answers were due partly to +_telepathy and hypnotic influence_! For example, the +discovery was made that Hans could not always give the correct +answer to a problem in figures unless it was known to the +questioner himself. + +To Hans's inquisitors this discovery imparted a terrible shock. It +did not look like "thinking" after all! The mental process was +_different_ from the process of the German mind! The +wonderful fact that Hans could remember and recognize and +_reproduce_ the ten digits was entirely lost to view. At once +a shout went up all over Germany,--in the scientific circle, that +Hans was an "impostor," that he could not "think," and that his +mind was nothing much after all. + +Poor Hans! The glory that should have been his, and imperishable, +is gone. He was the victim of scientists of one idea, who had no +sense of proportion. He truly WAS a thinking horse; and we are +sure that there are millions of men whose minds could not be +developed to the point that the mind of that "dumb" animal +attained,--no, not even with the aid of hypnotism and telepathy. + +The bare fact that a horse _can_ be influenced by occult +mental powers proves the close parallelism that exists between the +brains of men and beasts. The Trap-Door Spider. Let no one +suppose for one moment that animal mind and intelligence is +limited to the brain-bearing vertebrates. The scope and activity +of the notochord in some of the invertebrates present phenomena +far more wonderful per capita than many a brain produces. +Interesting books have been written, and more will be written +hereafter, on the minds and doings of ants, bees, wasps, spiders +and other insects. + +Consider the ways and means of the ant-lion of the East, and the +trap-door spider of the western desert regions. As one object +lesson from the insect world, I will flash upon the screen, for a +moment only, the trap-door spider. This wonderful insect personage +has been exhaustively studied by Mr. Raymond L. Ditmars, in the +development of a series of moving pictures, and at my request he +has contributed the following graphic description of this +spider's wonderful work. + +"The trap-door spiders, inhabiting the warmer portions of both the +Old and New Worlds, dig a deep tunnel in the soil, line this with +a silken wallpaper, then construct a hinged door at the top so +perfectly fitted and camouflaged with soil, that when it is closed +there is no indication of the burrow. Moreover, the inside portion +of the door of some species is so constructed that it may be +"latched," there being two holes near the edge, precisely placed +where the curved fangs may be inserted and the door held firmly +closed. Also, the trap-door of a number of species is so designed +as to be absolutely rain-proof, being bevelled and as accurately +fitting a corresponding bevel of the tube as the setting of a +compression valve of a gasolene engine. + +[Illustration: THE TRAP-DOOR +SPIDER'S DOOR AND BURROW By R. L. Ditmars 1. The door closed. Its +top carefully counterfeits the surrounding ground. 2. The door +with silken hinge, held open by a needle. 3. The spider in its +doorway, looking for prey. 4. Section of the burrow and trap- +door.] + +"The study of a number of specimens of our southern California +species, which builds the cork-type door, including observations +of them at night, when they are particularly active, indicates +that the construction of the tube involves other material than the +silken lining employed by many burrowing spiders. In the +excavation of the tube and retention of the walls, the spider +appears to employ a glairy substance, which thoroughly saturates +the soil and renders the interior of the tube of almost cement- +like hardness. It is then plastered with a thick jet of silk from +the spinning glands. This interior finishing process appears to +be quite rapid, a burrow being readily lined within a couple of +hours. + +"The construction of the trap-door is a far more complicated +process, this convex, beautifully bevelled entrance with its hinge +requiring real scientific skill. Judging from observations on a +number of specimens, the work is done from the outside, the spider +first spinning a net-like covering over the mouth of the tube. +This is thickened by weaving the body over the net, each motion +leaving a smoky trail of silk. Earth is then shoveled into the +covering, the spider carefully pushing the particles toward the +centre, which soon sags, and assumes the proper curvature, and +automatically moulds against the bevelled walls of the tube. + +"The shoveling process must be nicely regulated to produce the +proper bevel and thickness of the door. Then the cementing +process is applied to the top, rendering the door a solid unit. +From the actions of these spiders,--which often calmly rest an +hour without a move,--it appears that the edges of the door are +now subjected, by the stout and sharp fangs, to a cutting process +like that of a can opener, leaving a portion of the marginal silk +to act as a hinge. This hinge afterward receives some finishing +touches, and the top of the door is either pebbled or finished +with a few fragments of dead vegetation, cemented on, in order to +exactly match the surrounding soil." + + + + +V + +THE RIGHTS OF WILD ANIMALS + + +Every harmless wild bird and mammal has the right to live out its +life according to its destiny; and man is in honor bound to +respect those rights. At the same time it is a mistake to regard +each wild bird or quadruped as a sacred thing, which under no +circumstances may be utilized by man. We are not fanatical Hindus +of the castes which religiously avoid the "taking of life" of any +kind, and gently push aside the flea, the centipede and the +scorpion. The reasoning powers of such people are strictly +limited, the same as those of people who are opposed to the +removal by death of the bandits and murderers of the human race. + +The highest duty of a reasoning being is to reason. We have no +moral or legal right to act like idiots, or to become a menace to +society by protecting criminal animals or criminal men from +adequate punishment. Like the tree that is known by its fruit, +every alleged "reasoning being" is to be judged by the daily +output of his thoughts. + +Toward wild life, our highest duty is to be sane and sensible, in +order to be just, and to promote the greatest good for the +greatest number. Be neither a Hindu fanatic nor a cruel game- +butcher like a certain wild-animal slaughterer whom I knew, who +while he was on earth earned for himself a place in the hottest +corner of the hereafter, and quickly passed on to occupy it. + +The following planks constitute a good platform on which to base +our relations with the wild animal world, and by which to regulate +our duty to the creatures that have no means of defense against +the persecutions of cruel men. They may be regarded as +representing the standards that have been fixed by enlightened and +humane civilization. + +THE WILD ANIMALS' BILL OF RIGHTS + +This Bill of Rights is to be copied and displayed conspicuously +in all zoological parks and gardens, zoos and menageries; in all +theatres and shows where animal performances are given, and in all +places where wild animals and birds are trained, sold or kept for +the pleasure of their owners. + +Article 1. In view of the nearness of the approach of the higher +animals to the human level, no just and humane man can deny that +those wild animals have certain rights which man is in honor bound +to respect. + +Art. 2. The fact that God gave man "dominion over the beasts of +the field" does not imply a denial of animal rights, any more than +the supremacy of a human government conveys the right to oppress +and maltreat its citizens. + +Art. 3. Under certain conditions it is justifiable for man to kill +a limited number of the so-called game animals, on the same basis +of justification that domestic animals and fowls may be killed for +food. + +Art. 4. While the trapping of fur-bearing animals is a necessary +evil, that evil must be minimized by reducing the sufferings of +trapped animals to the lowest possible point, and by preventing +wasteful trapping. + +Art. 5. The killing of harmless mammals or birds solely for +"sport," and without utilizing them when killed, is murder; and no +good and humane man will permit himself to engage in any such +offenses against good order and the rights of wild creatures. + +Art. 6. Shooting at sea-going creatures from moving vessels, +without any possibility of securing them if killed or wounded, is +cruel, reprehensible, and criminal, and everywhere should be +forbidden by ship captains, and also by law, under penalties. + +Art. 7. The extermination of a harmless wild animal species is a +crime; but the regulated destruction of wild pests that have been +proven guilty, is sometimes necessary and justifiable. + +Art. 8. No group or species of birds or mammals that is accused of +offenses sufficiently grave to merit destruction shall be +condemned undefended and unheard, nor without adequate evidence of +a character which would be acceptable in a court of law. + +Art. 9. The common assumption that every bird or mammal that +offends, or injures the property of any man, is necessarily +deserving of death, is absurd and intolerable. The death penalty +should be the last resort, not the first one! + +Art. 10. Any nation that fails adequately to protect its crop-and- +tree-protecting birds deserves to have its fields and forests +devastated by predatory insects. + +Art. 11. No person has any moral right to keep a wild mammal, +bird, reptile or fish in a state of uncomfortable, unhappy or +miserable captivity, and all such practices should be prevented by +law, under penalty. It is entirely feasible for a judge to +designate a competent person as a referee to examine and decide +upon each case. + +Art. 12. A wild creature that cannot be kept in comfortable +captivity should not be kept at all; and the evils to be guarded +against are cruelly small quarters, too much darkness, too much +light, uncleanliness, bad odors, and bad food. A fish in a glass +globe, or a live bird in a cage the size of a collar-box is a case +of cruelty. + +Art. 13. Every captive animal that is suffering hopelessly from +disease or the infirmities of old age has the right to be +painlessly relieved of the burdens of life. + +Art. 14. Every keeper or owner of a captive wild animal who +through indolence, forgetfulness or cruelty permits a wild +creature in his charge to perish of cold, heat, hunger or thirst +because of his negligence, is guilty of a grave misdemeanor, and +he should be punished as the evidence and the rights of captive +animals demand. + +Art. 15. An animal in captivity has a right to do all the damage +to its surroundings that it can do, and it is not to be punished +therefor. + +Art. 16. The idea that all captive wild animals are necessarily +"miserable" is erroneous, because some captive animals are better +fed, better protected and are more happy in captivity than similar +animals are in a wild state, beset by dangers and harassed by +hunger and thirst. It is the opinion of the vast majority of +civilized people that there is no higher use to which a wild bird +or mammal can be devoted than to place it in perfectly comfortable +captivity to be seen by millions of persons who desire to make +its acquaintance. + +Art. 17. About ninety-five per cent of all the wild mammals seen +in captivity were either born in captivity or captured when in +their infancy, and therefore have no ideas of freedom, or visions +of their wild homes; consequently their supposed "pining for +freedom" often is more imaginary than real. + +Art. 18. A wild animal has no more inherent right to live a life +of lazy and luxurious ease, and freedom from all care, than a man +or woman has to live without work or family cares. In the large +cities of the world there are many millions of toiling humans who +are worse off per capita as to burdens and sorrows and joys than +are the beasts and birds in a well kept zoological park. "Freedom" +is comparative only, not absolute. + +Art. 19. While the use of trained animals in stage performances +is not necessarily cruel, and while training operations are based +chiefly upon kindness and reward, it is necessary that vigilance +should be exercised to insure that the cages and stage quarters of +such animals shall be adequate in size, properly lighted and +acceptably ventilated, and that cruel punishments shall not be +inflicted upon the animals themselves. + +Art. 20. The training of wild animals may, or may not, involve +cruelties, according to the intelligence and the moral status of +the trainer. This is equally true of the training of children, and +the treatment of wives and husbands. A reasonable blow with a +whip to a mean and refractory animal in captivity is not +necessarily an act of cruelty. Every such act must be judged +according to the evidence. + +Art. 21. It is unjust to proclaim that "all wild animal +performances are cruel" and therefore should be prohibited by law. +The claim is untrue, and no lawmaker should pay heed to it. Wild +animal performances are no more cruel or unjust than men-and-women +performances of acrobatics. Practically all trained animals are +well fed and tended, they welcome their performances, and go +through them with lively interest. Such performances, when good, +have a high educational value,--but not to closed minds. + +Art. 22. Every bull-fight, being brutally unfair to the horses and +the bull engaged and disgustingly cruel, is an unfit spectacle for +humane and high-minded people, and no Christian man or woman can +attend one without self-stultification. + +Art. 23. The western practice of "bulldogging," now permitted in +some Wild West shows, is disgusting, degrading, and never should +be permitted. + +Art. 24. The use of monkeys by organ-grinders is cruel, it is +degrading to the monkeys, and should in all states be prohibited +by law. + +Art. 25. The keeping of live fishes in glass globes nearly always +ends in cruelty and suffering, and should everywhere be prohibited +by law. A round glass straight-jacket is just as painful as any +other kind. + +Art. 26. The sale and use of chained live chameleons as ornaments +and playthings for idiotic or vicious men and children always +means death by slow torture for the reptile, and should in all +states be prohibited by law. + + + + +II. MENTAL TRAITS OF WILD ANIMALS + +VI + +THE BRIGHTEST MINDS AMONG AMERICAN ANIMALS + + +We repeat that _the most interesting features of a wild animal +are its mind, its thoughts, and the results of its reasoning._ +Besides these, its classification, distribution and anatomy are of +secondary importance; but at the same time they help to form the +foundation on which to build the psychology of species and +individuals. Let no student make the mistake of concluding that +when he has learned an animal's place in nature there is nothing +more to pursue. + +After fifty years of practical experience with wild animals of +many species, I am reluctantly compelled to give the prize for +greatest cunning and foresight _in self-preservation_ to the +common brown rat,--the accursed "domestic" rat that has adopted +man as his perpetual servant, and regards man's goods as his +lawful prey. When all other land animals have been exterminated +from the earth, the brown rat will remain, to harry and to rob the +Last Man. + +The brown rat has persistently accompanied man all over the world. +Millions have been spent in fighting him and the bubonic-plague +flea that he cheerfully carries in his offensive fur. For him no +place _that contains food_ is too hot or too cold, too wet or +too dry. Many old sailors claim to believe that rats will desert +at the dock an outward-bound ship that is fated to be lost at sea; +but that certificate of superhuman foreknowledge needs a backing +of evidence before it can be accepted. + +Of all wild animals, rats do the greatest number of "impossible" +things. We have matched our wits against rat cunning until a +madhouse yawned before us. Twice in my life all my traps and +poisons have utterly failed, and left me faintly asking: +_Are_ rats possessed of occult powers? Once the answer to +that was furnished by an old he-one who left his tail in my steel +trap, but a little later _caught himself_ in a trap-like +space in the back of the family aeolian, and ignominiously died +there,--a victim of his own error in judging distances without a +tape line. + +Tomes might be written about the minds and manners of the brown +rat, setting forth in detail its wonderful intelligence in quickly +getting wise to new food, new shelter, new traps and new poisons. +Six dead rats are, as a rule, sufficient to put any _new_ +trap out of business; but poisons and infections go farther before +being found out. [Footnote: For home use, my best rat weapon is +rough-on-rats, generously mixed with butter and spread liberally +on very thin slices of bread. It has served me well in effecting +clearances.] + +The championship for keen strategy in self-preservation belongs to +the musk-oxen for their wolf-proof circle of heads and horns. +Every musk-ox herd is a mutual benefit life insurance company. +When a gaunt and hungry wolf-pack appears, the adult bull and cow +musk-oxen at once form a close circle, with the calves and young +stock in the centre. That deadly ring of lowered heads and sharp +horns, all hung precisely right to puncture and deflate hostile +wolves, is impregnable to fang and claw. The arctic wolves know +this well. Mr. Stefansson says it is the settled habit of wolf +packs of Banks Land to pass musk-ox herds without even provoking +them to "fall in" for defense. + +Judging by the facts that Charles L. Smith and the Norboe brothers +related to Mr. Phillips and me around our camp-fires in the +Canadian Rockies, the wolverine is one of the most cunning wild +animals of all North America. This is a large order; for the gray +wolf and grizzly bear are strong candidates for honors in that +contest. + +The greatest cunning of the wolverine is manifested in robbing +traps, stealing the trapper's food and trap-baits, and at the same +time avoiding the traps set for him. He is wonderfully expert in +springing steel traps for the bait or prey there is in them, +without getting caught himself. He will follow up a trap line for +miles, springing all traps and devouring all baits as he goes. +Sometimes in sheer wantonness he will throw a trap into a river, +and again he will bury a trap in deep snow. Dead martens in traps +are savagely torn from them. Those that can not be eaten on the +spot are carried off and skilfully cached under two or three feet +of snow. + +Trapper Smith once set a trap for a wolverine, and planted close +behind it a young moose skull with some flesh upon it. The +wolverine came in the night, started at a point well away from the +trap, dug a tunnel through six feet of snow, fetched up well +behind the trap,--and triumphantly dragged away the head through +his tunnel. + +From the testimony of W. H. Wright, of Spokane, in his interesting +book on "The Grizzly Bear," and for other reasons, I am convinced +that the Rocky Mountain silver-tip grizzly is our brightest North +American animal, and very keen of nose, eye, ear and brain. Mr. +Wright says that "the grizzly bear far excels in cunning any other +animal found throughout the Rocky Mountains, and, for that matter, +he far excels them all combined." While the last clause is a large +order, I will not dispute the opinion of a man of keen +intelligence who has lived much among the most important and +interesting wild animals of the Rockies. + +In the Bitter Root Mountains Mr. Wright and his hunting party once +set a bear trap for a grizzly, in a pen of logs, well baited with +fresh meat. On the second day they found the pen demolished, the +bait taken out, and everything that was movable piled on the top +of the trap. + +The trap was again set, this time loosely, under a bed of moss. +The grizzly came and joyously ate all the meat that was scattered +around the trap, but the moss and the trap were left untouched. +And then followed a major operation in bear trapping. A mile away +there was a steep slope of smooth rock, bounded at its foot by a +creek. On one side was a huge tangle of down timber, on the other +side loomed some impassable rocks; and a tiny meadow sloped away +at the top. The half-fleshed carcasses of two dead elk were thrown +half way down the rock slide, to serve as a bait. On the two sides +two bear guns were set, and to their triggers were attached two +long silk fish-lines, stretched taut and held parallel to each +other, extending across the rocky slope. The idea was that the +bear could not by any possibility reach the bait from above or +below, without setting off at least one gun, and getting a bullet +through his shoulders. + +On the first night, no guns went off. The next morning it was +found that the bear had crossed the stream and climbed straight up +toward the bait until he reached the first fish-line; where he +stopped. Without pressing the string sufficiently to set off its +gun, he followed it to the barrier of trees. Being balked there, +he turned about, retraced his steps carefully and followed the +string to the barrier of rocks. Being blocked there, he back- +tracked down the slide and across the stream, over the way he +came. Then he widely circled the whole theatre, and came down +toward the bait from the little meadow at its top of the slide. + +Presently he reached the upper fish-line, twelve feet away from +the first one. First he followed this out to the log barrier, then +back to the rock ledge that was supposed to be unclimbable. There +he scrambled up the "impossible" rocks, negotiated the ledge foot +by foot, and successfully got around the end of line No. 2. +Getting between the two lines he sailed out across the slope to +the elk carcasses, feasted sumptuously, and then meandered out +the way he came, without having disturbed a soul. + +All this was done at night, and in darkness; and presumably that +bear is there to this day, alive and well. No wonder Mr. Wright +has a high opinion of the grizzly bear as a thinking animal. + +In hiding their homes and young, either in burrows or in nests on +the ground, wild rabbits and hares are wonderfully skilful, even +under new conditions. Being quite unable to fight, or even to dig +deeply, they are wholly dependent upon their wits in keeping their +young alive by hiding them. Thanks to their keenness in +concealment, the gray rabbit is plentiful throughout the eastern +United States in spite of its millions of enemies. Is it not +wonderful? The number killed by hunters last year in Pennsylvania +was about 3,500,000! + +The most amazing risk that I ever saw taken by a rabbit was made +by a gray rabbit that nested in a shallow hole in the middle of a +lawn-mower lawn east of the old National Museum building in +Washington. The hollow was like that of a small wash-basin, and +when at rest in it with her young ones the neutral gray back of +the mother came just level with the top of the ground. At the +last, when her young were almost large enough to get out and go +under their own steam, a lawn-mower artist chanced to look down +at the wrong moment and saw the family. Evidently that mother +believed that the boldest ventures are those most likely to win. + +Among the hoofed and horned animals of North America the white- +tailed deer is the shrewdest in the recognition of its enemies, +the wisest in the choice of cover, and in measures for self- +preservation. It seems at first glance that the buck is more keen- +witted than the doe; but this is a debatable question. Throughout +the year the buck thinks only of himself. During fully one-half +the year the doe is burdened by the cares of motherhood, and the +paramount duty of saving her fawns from their numerous enemies. +This, I am quite sure, is the handicap which makes it so much +easier to kill a doe in the autumn hunting season than to bag a +fully antlered and sophisticated buck who has only himself to +consider. + +The white-tailed deer saves its life by skulking low in timber and +thick brush. This is why it so successfully resists the +extermination that has almost swept the mule deer, antelope, +white goat, moose and elk from all the hunting-grounds of the +United States. Thanks to its alertness in seeing its enemies +first, its skill and quickness in hiding, _and its mental +keenness in recognizing and using deer sanctuaries,_ the white- +tailed or "Virginia" deer will outlive all the other hoofed +animals of North America. In Pennsylvania they know enough to rush +for the wire-bounded protected area whenever the hunters appear. +That state has twenty-six such deer sanctuaries,--well filled +with deer. + +The moose and caribou dwell upon open or half-open ground, and are +at the mercy of the merciless long-range rifles. Their keenness +does not count much against rifles that can shoot and kill at a +quarter of a mile. In the rutting season the bull moose of Maine +or New Brunswick is easily deceived by the "call" of a birch-bark +megaphone in the hands of a moose hunter who imitates the love +call of the cow moose so skilfully that neither moose nor man can +detect the falsity of the lure. + +The mountain sheep is wide-eyed, alert and ready to run, but he +dwells in exposed places from the high foothills up to the +mountain summits, and now even the most bungling hunter can find +him and kill him at long range. In the days of black powder and +short ranges the sheep had a chance to escape; but now he has none +whatever. He has keener vision and more alertness than the goat, +but as a real life-saving factor that amounts to nothing! Wild +sheep are easily and quickly exterminated. + +The mountain goat has no protection except elevation and +precipitous rocks, and to the hunter who has the energy to climb +up to him he, too, is easy prey. Usually his biped enemy finds him +and attacks him in precipitous mountains, where running and hiding +are utterly impossible. When discovered on a ledge two feet wide +leading across the face of a precipice, poor Billy has nothing to +do but to take the bullets as they come until he reels and falls +far down to the cruel slide-rock. He has a wonderful mind, but its +qualities and its usefulness belong in Chapter XIII. + +Warm-Coated Animals Avoid "Fresh Air." On this subject there is a +strange divergence of reasoning power between the wild animals of +cold countries and the sleeping-porch advocates of today. + +Even the most warm-coated of the fur-bearing animals, such as the +bears, foxes, beavers, martens and mink, and also the burrowing +rodents, take great pains to den up in winter just as far from the +"fresh air" of the cold outdoors as they can attain by deep +denning or burrowing. The prairie-dog not only ensconces himself +in a cul-de-sac at the end of a hole fourteen feet deep and long, +but as winter sets in he also tightly plugs up the mouth of his +den with moist earth. When sealed up in his winter den the black +bear of the north draws his supply of fresh air through a hole +about one inch in diameter, or less. + +But the human devotees of fresh air reason in the opposite +direction. It is now the regular thing for mothers to open wide to +the freezing air of out-doors either one or all the windows of the +rooms in which their children sleep, giving to each child enough +fresh air to supply ten full-grown elephants, or twenty head of +horses. And the final word is the "sleeping-porch!" It matters not +how deadly damp is the air along with its 33 degrees of cold, or +the velocity of the wind, the fresh air must be delivered. The +example of the fat and heavily furred wild beast is ignored; and I +just wonder how many people in the United States, old and young, +have been killed, or permanently injured, by fresh air, during the +last fifteen years. + +And furthermore. Excepting the hoofed species, it is the universal +rule of the wild animals of the cold-winter zones of the earth +that the mother shall keep her helpless young close beside her in +the home nest and keep them warm partly by the warmth of her own +body. The wild fur-clad mother does not maroon her helpless +offspring in an isolated cot in a room apart, upon a thin mattress +and in an atmosphere so cold that it is utterly impossible for the +poor little body and limbs to warm it and keep it warm. Yet many +human mothers do just that, and some take good care to provide a +warmer atmosphere for themselves than they joyously force upon +their helpless infants. + +No dangerous fads should be forced upon defenseless children or +animals. + +A proper amount of fresh air is very desirable, but the intake of +a child is much less than that of an elephant. Besides, if Nature +had intended that men should sleep outdoors in winter, with the +moose and caribou, we would have been furnished with ruminant +pelage and fat. + + + + +VII + +KEEN BIRDS AND DULL MEN + + +If all men could know how greatly the human species varies from +highest to lowest, and how the minds and emotions of the lowest +men parallel and dove-tail with those of the highest quadrupeds +and birds, we might be less obsessed with our own human ego, and +more appreciative of the intelligence of animals. + +A thousand times in my life my blood has been brought to the +boiling point by seeing or reading of the cruel practices of +ignorant and vicious men toward animals whom they despised because +of their alleged standing "below man." By his vicious and cruel +nature, many a man is totally unfitted to own, or even to +associate with, dogs, horses and monkeys. Many persons are born +into the belief that every man is necessarily a "lord of +creation," and that all animals per se are man's lawful prey. In +the vicious mind that impression increases with age. Minds of the +better classes can readily learn by precept or by reasoning from +cause to effect the duty of man to observe and defend the God- +given rights of animals. + +It was very recently that I saw on the street a group that +represented man's attitude toward wild animals. It consisted of +an unclean and vicious-looking man in tramp's clothing, grinding +an offensive hand-organ and domineering over a poor little +terrorized "ringtail" monkey. The wretched mite from the jungle +was encased in a heavy woolen straight-jacket, and there was a +strap around its loins to which a stout cord was attached, running +to the Root of All Evil. The pavement was hot, but there with its +bare and tender feet on the hot concrete, the sad-eyed little waif +painfully moved about, peering far up into the faces of passers-by +for sympathy, but all the time furtively and shrinkingly watching +its tormentor. Every now and then the hairy old tramp would jerk +the monkey's cord, each time giving the frail creature a violent +bodily wrench from head to foot. I think that string was jerked +about forty times every hour. + +And that exhibition of monkey torture in a monkey hell continues +in summer throughout many states of our country,--because "it +pleases the children!" The use of monkeys with hand-organs is a +cruel outrage upon the monkey tribe, and no civilized state or +municipality should tolerate it. I call upon all humane persons to +put an end to it. + +As an antidote to our vaulting human egotism, we should think +often upon the closeness of mental contact between the highest +animals and the lowest men. In drawing a parallel between those +two groups, there are no single factors more valuable than the +home, and the family food supply. These hark back to the most +primitive instincts of the vertebrates. They are the bedrock +foundations upon which every species rests. As they are stable or +unstable, good or bad, so lives or dies the individual, and the +species also. + +In employing the term "highest animals" I wish to be understood as +referring to the warm-blooded vertebrates, and not merely the apes +and monkeys that both structurally and mentally are nearest to +man. + +Throughout my lifetime I have been by turns amazed, entertained +and instructed by the marvelous intelligence and mechanical skill +of small mammals in constructing burrows, and of certain birds in +the construction of their nests. Today the hanging nest of the +Baltimore oriole is to me an even greater wonder than it was when +I first saw one over sixty years ago. Even today the mechanical +skill involved in its construction is beyond my comprehension. My +dull brain can not figure out the processes by which the bird +begins to weave its hanging purse at the tip end of the most +unstable of all earthly building sites,--a down-hanging elm-tree +branch that is swayed to and fro by every passing breeze. The +situation is so "impossible" that thus far no moving picture +artist has ever caught and recorded the process. + +Take in your hand a standard oriole nest, and examine it +thoroughly. First you will note that it is very strong, and +thoroughly durable. It can stand the lashings of the fiercest +gales that visit our storm-beaten shore. + +How long would it take a man to unravel that nest, wisp by wisp, +and resolve it into a loose pile of materials? Certainly not less +than an entire day. Do you think that even your skilful fingers,-- +unassisted by needles,--could in two days, or in three, weave of +those same materials a nest like that, that would function as did +the original? I doubt it. The materials consist of long strips of +the thin inner bark of trees, short strings, and tiny grass stems +that are long, pliable and tough. Who taught the oriole how to +find and to weave those rare and hard-to-find materials? And how +did it manage all that weaving with its beak only? Let the wise +ones answer, if they can; for I confess that I can not! + +Down in Venezuela, in the delta of the Orinoco River, and +elsewhere, lives a black and yellow bird called the giant cacique +(pronounced cay-seek'), which as a nest-builder far surpasses our +oriole. Often the cacique's hanging nest is from four to six feet +long. The oriole builds to escape the red squirrels, but the +cacique has to reckon with the prehensile-tailed monkeys. + +Sometimes a dozen caciques will hang their nests in close +proximity to a wasps' nest, as if for additional protection. A +cacique's nest hangs like a grass rope, with a commodious purse at +its lower end, entered by a narrow perpendicular slit a foot or so +above the terminal facilities. It is impossible to achieve one of +these nests without either shooting off the limb to which it +hangs, or felling the tree. If it hangs low enough a charge of +coarse shot usually will cut the limb, but if high, cutting it down +with a rifle bullet is a more serious matter. + +[Illustration with caption: HANGING NEST OF THE BALTIMORE ORIOLE +(From the "American Natural History")] + +[Illustration with caption: GREAT HANGING NESTS OF THE CRESTED +CACIQUE As seen in the delta of the Orinoco Rover, Venezuela.] + +To our Zoological Park visitors the African weaver birds are a +wonder and a delight. Orioles and caciques do not build nests in +captivity, but the weavers blithely transfer their activities to +their spacious cage in our tropical-bird house. The bird-men keep +them supplied with raffia grass, and they do the rest. Fortunately +for us, they weave nests for fun, and work at it all the year +round! Millions of visitors have watched them doing it. To +facilitate their work the upper half of their cage is judiciously +supplied with tree-branches of the proper size and architectural +slant. The weaving covers many horizontal branches. Sometimes a +group of nests will be tied together in a structure four feet +long; and it branches up, or down, or across, seemingly without +rhyme or reason. + +Some of the weavers, which inhabit Africa, Malayana and Australia, +are "communal" nest-builders. They build colonies of nests, close +together. Imagine twenty-five or more Baltimore orioles massing +their nests together on one side of a single tree, in a genuine +village. That is the habit of some of the weaver birds;--and this +brings us to what is called the most wonderful of all +manifestations of house-building intelligence among birds. It is +the community house of the little sociable weaver-bird of South +Africa (_Philetoerus socius_). Having missed seeing the work +of this species save in museums, I will quote from the Royal +Natural History, written by the late Dr. Richard Lydekker, an +excellent description: --This species congregates in large flocks, +many pairs incubating their eggs under the same roof, which is +composed of cartloads of grass piled on a branch of some camel- +thorn tree in one enormous mass of an irregular umbrella shape, +looking like a miniature haystack and almost solid, but with the +under surface (which is nearly flat) honeycombed all over with +little cavities, which serve not only as places for incubation, +but also as a refuge against rain and wind. + +"They are constantly being repaired by their active little +inhabitants. It is curious that even the initiated eye is +constantly being deceived by these dome-topped structures, since +at a distance they closely resemble native huts. The nesting- +chambers themselves are warmly lined with feathers." + +Here must we abruptly end our exhibits of the intelligence of a +few humble little birds as fairly representative of the wonderful +mental ability and mechanical skill so common in the ranks of the +birds of the world. It would be quite easy to write a volume on +The Architectural Skill of Birds! + +Now, let us look for a moment into the house-building intelligence +and skill of some of the lower tribes of men. Out of the multitude +of exhibits available I will limit myself to three, widely +separated. In the first place, the habitations of the savage and +barbaric tribes are usually the direct result of their own mental +and moral deficiencies. The Eskimo is an exception, because his +home and its location are dictated by the hard and fierce +circumstances which dictate to him what he must do. Often he is +compelled to move as his food supply moves. The Cliff-Dweller +Indian of the arid regions of the Southwest was forced to cliff- +dwell, in order to stave off extermination by his enemies. Under +that spur he became a wonderful architect and engineer. + +For present purposes we are concerned with three savage tribes +which might have been rich and prosperous agriculturists or +herdsmen had they developed sufficient intelligence to see the +wisdom of regular industry. + +Consider first the lowest of three primitive tribes that inhabit +the extreme southern point of Patagonia, whose real estate +holdings front on the Strait of Magellan. That region is treeless, +rocky, windswept, cold and inhospitable. I can not imagine a place +better fitted for an anarchist penal colony. North of it lie +plains less rigorous, and by degrees less sterile, and finally +there are lands quite habitable by cattle-and-crop-growing men. + +But those three tribes elect to stick to the worst spot in South +America. The most primitive is the tribe of "canoe Indians" of +Tierra del Fuego, which probably represents the lowest rung of the +human ladder. Beside them the cave men of 30,000 years ago were +kings and princes. Their only rivals seem to be the Poonans of +Central Borneo, who, living in a hot country, make no houses or +shelters of any kind, and have no clothing but a long strip of +bark cloth around the loins. + +The Fuegians have long been known to mariners and travellers. They +inhabit a region that half the year is bleak, cold and raw, but +they make nothing save the rudest of the rude in canoes--of rough +slabs tied together and caulked _with moss,_--and rough bone- +pointed spears, bows, arrows and paddles. Their only clothing +consists of skins of the guanacos loosely hung from the neck, and +flapping over the naked and repulsive body. They make no houses, +and on shore their only shelters from the wind and snow and +chilling rains are rabbit-like forms of brush, broken off by hand. + +These people are lower in the scale of intelligence than any wild +animal species known to me; for they are mentally too dull and low +to maintain themselves on a continuing basis. Their hundred years +of contact with man has taught them little; and numerically they +are decreasing so rapidly that the world will soon see the +absolute finish of the tribe. + +In the best of the three tribes, the Tchuelclus, the birth rate is +so low that within recent times the tribe has diminished from +about 5,000 to a remnant of about 500. + +Now, have those primitive creatures "immortal souls?" Are they +entitled to call chimpanzees, elephants, bears and dogs "lower +animals?" Do they "think," or "reason," any more than the animals +I have named? + +It is a far cry from the highest to the lowest of the human race; +and we hold that the highest animals intellectually are higher +than the lowest men. + +Now go with me for a moment to the lofty and dense tropical forest +in the heart of the Territory of Selangor, in the Malay Peninsula. +That forest is the home of the wild elephant, rhinoceros and +sladang. And there dwells a jungle tribe called the Jackoons, some +members of which I met at their family home, and observed +literally in their own ancestral tree. Their house was not wholly +bad, but it might have been 100 per cent better. It was merely a +platform of small poles, placed like a glorified bird's nest in +the spreading forks of a many-branched tree, about twenty feet +from the ground. The main supports were bark-lashed to the large +branches of the family tree. Over this there was a rude roof of +long grass, which had a fairly intelligent slope. As a shelter +from rain, the Jackoon house left much to be desired. The scanty +loin cloths of the habitants knew no such thing as wash-day or +line. With all its drawbacks, however, this habitation was far +more adequate to the needs of its builders than the cold brush +rabbit-forms of the Patagonian canoe Indians. + +We now come to a tribe which has reduced the problem of housing +and home life to its lowest common denominator. The Poonans of +Central Borneo, discovered and described by Carl Bock, build _no +houses of any kind,_ not even huts of green branches; and their +only overture toward the promotion of personal comfort in the home +is a five-foot grass mat spread upon the sodden earth, to lie upon +when at rest. And this, in a country where in the so-called "dry +season" it rains half the time, and in the "wet season" all the +time. + +The Poonans have rudely-made spears for taking the wild pig, deer +and smaller game, their clothes consist of bark cloth, around the +loins only. They know no such thing as agriculture, and they live +off the jungle. + +It was said some years ago that a similarly primitive jungle tribe +of Ceylon, known as the Veddahs, could count no more than five, +that they could not comprehend "day after to-morrow," and that +their vocabulary was limited to about 200 words. + +It is very probable that the language of the Poonans and the +Jackoons is equally limited. And what are we to conclude from +all the foregoing? Briefly, I should say that the architectural +skill of the orioles, the caciques and the weaver birds is greater +than that of the South Patagonia native, the Jackoon and the +Poonan. I should say that those bird homes yield to their makers +more comfort and protection, and a better birth-rate, than are +yielded by the homes of those ignorant, unambitious and +retrogressive tribes of men now living and thinking, and supposed +to be possessed of reasoning powers. If the whole truth could be +known, I believe it would be found that the stock of ideas +possessed and used by the groups of highly-endowed birds would +fully equal the ideas of such tribes of simple-minded men as those +mentioned. If caught young, those savages could be trained by +civilized men, and taught to perform many tricks, but so can +chimpanzees and elephants. + +Curiously enough, it is a common thing for even the higher types +of civilized men to make in home-building just as serious mistakes +as are made by wild animals and savages. For example, among the +men of our time it is a common mistake to build in the wrong +place, to build entirely too large or too ugly, and to build a +Colossal Burden instead of a real Home. From many a palace there +stands forth the perpetual question: "_Why_ did he do it?" + +Any reader who at any time inclines toward an opinion that the +author is unduly severe on the mentality of the human race, even +as it exists today in the United States, is urged to read in the +_Scientific Monthly_ for January, 1922, an article by +Professor L. M. Tennan entitled "Adventures in Stupidity.--A +Partial Analysis of the Intellectual Inferiority of a College +Student." He should particularly note the percentages on page 34 +in the second paragraph under the subtitle "The Psychology of +Stupidity." + + + + +VIII + +THE MENTAL STATUS OF THE ORANG-UTAN + + +My first ownership of a live orang-utan began in 1878, in the +middle of the Simujan River, Borneo, where for four Spanish +dollars I became the proud possessor of a three-year old male. No +sooner was the struggling animal deposited in the bottom of my own +boat than it savagely seized the calf of my devoted leg and +endeavored to bite therefrom a generous cross section. My leggings +and my leech stockings saved my life. That implacable little beast +never gave up; and two days later it died,--apparently to spite +me. + +My next orang was a complete reverse of No. 1. He liked not the +Dyaks who brought him to me, but in the first moment of our +acquaintance he adopted me as his foster-father, and loved me like +a son. Throughout four months of jungle vicissitudes he stuck to +me. He was a high-class orang,--and be it known that many orangs +are thin-headed scrubs, who never amount to anything. His skull +was wide, his face was broad, and he had a dome of thought like a +statesman. He had a fine mind, and I am sure I could have taught +him everything that any ape could learn. + +During the four months that he lived with me I taught him, almost +without effort, many things that were necessary in our daily life. +Even the Dyaks recognized the fact that the "Old Man" was an orang +(or "mias") of superior mind, and some of them traveled far to see +him. Unfortunately the exigencies of travel and work compelled me +to present him to an admiring friend in India. Mr. Andrew Carnegie +and his then partner, Mr. J. W. Vandevorst, convoyed my Old Man +and another small orang from Singapore to Colombo, Ceylon, whence +they were shipped on to Madras, received there by my old friend A. +G. R. Theobald,--and presented at the court of the Duke of +Buckingham. + +Up to a comparatively recent date, the studies of the +psychologists that have been devoted to the minds of animals below +man, have been chiefly concerned with low and common types. +Comparatively few investigators have found it possible to make +extensive and prolonged observations of the most intelligent wild +animals of the world, even in zoological gardens, and their +observations on wild animals in a state of nature seem to have +been even more circumscribed. I know only three who have studied +any of the great apes. + +In attempting to fathom the mental capacity and the mental +processes of some of the highest mammals, there is the same +superior degree of interest attaching to the study of wild species +that the ethnologist finds in the study of savage races of men +that have been unspoiled by civilization. Obviously, it is more +interesting to fathom the mind of a creature in an absolute state +of nature than of one whose ancestors have been bred and reared in +the trammels of domestication and for many successive generations +have bowed to the will of man. The natural fury of the Atlantic +walrus, when attacked, is much more interesting as a psychologic +study than is the inbred rage of the bull-dog; and the remarkable +defensive tactics of the musk-ox far surpass in interest the +vagaries of range cattle. + +For several reasons, the great apes, and particularly the +chimpanzees and orang-utans, are the most interesting subjects for +psychologic study of all the wild-animal species with which the +writer is acquainted. Primarily this is due to the fact that +intellectually and temperamentally, as well as anatomically, +these animals stand very near to man himself, and closely resemble +him. The great apes mentioned can give visible expression to a +wide range of thoughts and emotions, + +The voice of the adult orang-utan is almost absent, and only +sufficient to display on rare occasions. What little there is of +it, in animals over six years of age, is very deep and guttural, +and may best be described as a deep-bass roar. Under excitement +the orang can produce a roar by inhalation. Young orangs under two +years of age often whine, or shriek or scream with anger, like +excited human children, but with their larger growth that vocal +power seems to leave them. + +Despite the difference in temperament and quickness in delivery, I +regard the measure of the orang-utan's mental capacity as being +equal to that of the chimpanzee; but the latter is, and always +will remain, the more alert and showy animal. The superior feet of +the chimpanzee in bipedal work is for that species a great +advantage, and the longer toes of the orang are a handicap. +Although the orang's sanguine temperament is far more comforting +to a trainer than the harum-scarum nervous vivacity of the +chimpanzee, the value of the former is overbalanced, on the stage, +by the superior acting of the chimp. For these reasons the +trainers generally choose the chimp for stage education. + +The chimpanzee is not only nervous and quick in thought and in +action, but it is equally so _in temper._ It will play with +any good friend to almost any extent, but the moment it suspects +malicious unfairness, or what it regards as a "mean trick," it +instantly becomes angry and resentful. Once when I attempted to +take from our large black-faced chimpanzee, called Soko, a small +lump of rubber which I feared she might swallow, my efforts were +kindly but firmly thwarted. At last, when I diverted her by small +offerings of chocolate, and at the right moment sought by a +strategic movement to snatch the rubber from her, the palpable +unfairness of the attempt caused the animal instantly to fly into +a towering passion, and seek to wreak vengeance upon me. Her lips +drew far back in a savage snarl, and she denounced my perfidy by +piercing cries of rage and indignation. She also did her utmost to +seize and drag me forcibly within reach of her teeth, for the +punishment which she felt that I deserved. + +A large male orang-utan named Dohong, under a similar test, +revealed a very different mental attitude. He dexterously snatched +a valuable watch-charm from a visitor who stood inside the railing +of his cage, and fled with it to the top of his balcony. As +quickly as possible I thrust my handkerchief between the bars, and +waved it vigorously, to attract him. At once the animal came down +to me, to secure another trophy, and before he realized his +position I successfully snatched the charm from him, and restored +it unharmed to its owner. Dohong seemed to regard the episode as a +good joke. Without manifesting any resentment he turned a +somersault on his straw, then climbed upon his trapeze and began +to perform, as if nothing in particular had occurred. + +The orang is distinctly an animal of more serene temper and more +philosophic mind than the chimpanzee. This has led some authors +erroneously to pronounce the orang an animal of morose and +sluggish disposition, and mentally inferior to the chimpanzee. +After a close personal acquaintance with about forty captive +orangs of various sizes, I am convinced that the facts do not +warrant that conclusion. The orang-utans of the New York +Zoological Park certainly have been as cheerful in disposition, as +fond of exercise and as fertile in droll performances as our +chimpanzees. Even though the mind of the chimpanzee does act more +quickly than that of its rival, and even though its movements are +usually more rapid and more precise, the mind of the orang carries +that animal precisely as far. Moreover, in its native jungles the +orang habitually builds for itself a very comfortable nest on +which to rest and sleep, which the chimpanzee ordinarily does not +do. + +I think that the exact mental status of an anthropoid ape is best +revealed by an attempt to train it to do some particular thing, in +a manner that the trainer elects. Usually about five lessons, +carefully observed, will afford a good index of the pupil's mental +capabilities. Some chimpanzees are too nervous to be taught, some +are too obstinate, and others are too impatient of restraint. Some +orang-utans are hopelessly indifferent to the business in hand, +and refuse to become interested in it. I think that no orang is +too dull to learn to sit at a table, and eat with the utensils +that are usually considered sacred to man's use, but the majority +of them care only for the food, and take no interest in the +function. On the other hand, the average chimpanzee is as restless +as a newly-caught eel, and its mind is dominated by a desire to +climb far beyond the reach of restraining hands, and to do almost +anything save that which is particularly desired. + +Among the twenty or more orangs which up to 1922 have been +exhibited in the Zoological Park, two stand out with special +prominence, by reason of their unusual mental qualities. They +differed widely from each other. One was a born actor and +imitator, who loved human partnership in his daily affairs. The +other was an original thinker and reasoner, with a genius for +invention, and at all times impatient of training and restraint. +The first was named Rajah, the latter was called Dohong. + +Rajah was a male orang, and about four years of age when received +by us. His high and broad forehead, large eyes and general breadth +of cranium and jaw marked him at once as belonging to the higher +caste of orangs. Dealers and experts have no difficulty in +recognizing at one glance an orang that has a good brain and good +general physique from those which are thin-headed, narrow-jawed, +weak in body and unlikely to live long. + +At the Zoological Park we have tested out the orang-utan's +susceptibility to training, and proven that the task is so simple +and easy that even amateurs can accomplish much in a short time. +Desiring that several of our orangs should perform in public, we +instructed the primate keepers to proceed along certain lines and +educate them to that idea. Naturally, the performance was laid out +to match our own possibilities. In a public park, where only a +very little time can be devoted to training, we do not linger long +over an animal that is either stupid or obstinate. Those which +cannot be trained easily and quickly are promptly set aside as +ineligible. + +Without any great amount of labor, and with no real difficulty, +our orangs were trained to perform the following simple acts: + +1. To sit at table, and eat and drink like humans. This involved +eating sliced bananas with a fork, pouring out milk from a teapot +into a teacup, drinking out of a teacup, drinking out of a beer- +bottle, using a toothpick, striking a match, lighting a cigarette, +smoking and spitting like a man. + +2. To ride a tricycle, or bicycle. + +3. To put on a pair of trousers, adjust the suspenders, put on a +sweater or coat, and a cap, reversing the whole operation after +the performance. + +4. To drive nails with a hammer. + +5. Use a key to lock and unlock a padlock. The animal most +proficient in this became able to select the right Yale key out of +a bunch of half a dozen or more, with as much quickness and +precision as the average man displays. + +The orang Dohong learned to pedal and to guide a tricycle in about +three lessons. He caught the two ideas almost instantly, and soon +brought his muscles under control sufficiently to ride +successfully, even under difficult conditions. + +It was quickly recognized that our Rajah was a particularly good +subject, and with him the keepers went farther than with the four +others. From the first moment, the training operations were to him +both interesting and agreeable. The animal enjoyed the work, and +he entered into it so heartily that in two weeks he was ready to +dine in public, somewhat after the manner of human beings. + +A platform eight feet in height was erected in front of the +Reptile House, and upon it were placed a table, a high chair such +as small children use, and various dishes. To the platform a step- +ladder led upward from the ground. Every day at four o'clock lusty +Rajah was carried to the exhibition space, and set free upon the +ground. Forthwith the keepers proceeded to dress him in trousers, +vest, coat and cap. The moment the last button had been fastened +and the cap placed upon his head, he would promptly walk to the +ladder, climb up to the platform, and in the most business-like +way imaginable, seat himself in his chair at the table, all ready +to dine. + +He used a napkin, ate his soup with a spoon, speared and conveyed +his sliced bananas with his fork, poured milk from a teapot into +his teacup, and drank from his cup with great enjoyment and +decorum. When he took a drink (of tea) from a suspicious-looking +black bottle, the audience always laughed. When he elevated the +empty bottle to one eye and looked far into it, they roared; and +when he finally took a toothpick and gravely placed it in his +mouth, his auditors were delighted. Several times during the +progress of each meal, Rajah would pause and benignly gaze down +upon the crowd, like a self-satisfied judge on his bench. + +Not once did Rajah spoil this exhibition, which was continued +throughout an entire summer, nor commit any overt act of +impatience, indifference or meanness. The flighty, nervous temper +of the chimpanzee was delightfully absent. The most remarkable +feature of it all was his very evident enjoyment of his part of +the performance, and his sense of responsibility to us and to his +audiences. + +Rajah easily and quickly learned to ride a tricycle, and guide it +himself. But for his untimely death, through a remarkable invasion +of a microscopic parasite (_Balentidium coli_) imported from +the Galapagos Islands by elephant tortoises, his mind would have +been developed much farther. Since his death, in 1902, we have had +other orang-utans that were successfully taught to dine, but none +of them entered into the business with the same hearty zest which +characterized Rajah, and made his performances so interesting. + +We now come to a consideration of simian mental traits of very +different character. Another male orang, named Dohong, of the +same age and intellectual caste as Rajah, developed a faculty for +mechanics and invention which not only challenged our admiration, +but also created much work for our carpenters. He discovered, or +invented, as you please, the lever as a mechanical force,--as fairly +and squarely as Archimedes discovered the principle of the screw. +Moreover, he delighted in the use of the new power thus acquired, +quite as much as the successful inventor usually does. At the same +time, two very bright chimpanzees of his own age, and with the +same opportunities, discovered nothing. + +[Illustration caption: THUMB-PRINT OF AN ORANG-UTAN +A group of fourteen experts in the New York City Departement of +Criminal Records were unable to recognise this thumb print as +anything else than that of a man] + +[Illustration caption: "RAJAH," THE ACTOR ORANG-UTAN +In three lessons he learned to ride a tricycle] + +Dohong was of a reflective turn of mind, and never was entirely +willing to learn the things that his keepers sought to teach him. +To him, dining at a table was tiresomely dull, and the donning of +fashionable clothing was a frivolous pastime, On the other hand, +the interior of his cage, and his gymnastic appliances of ropes, +trapeze and horizontal bars, all interested him greatly. Every +square inch of surface, and every piece of material in his +apartment, was carefully investigated, many times over. + +When three years old he discovered his own strength, and at first +he used it good-naturedly to hector his cage-mate, a female +chimpanzee smaller than himself. That, however, was of trifling +interest. The day on which he made the discovery that he could +break the wooden one and one-half inch horizontal bars that were +held out from his cage walls on cast iron brackets, was for him a +great day. Before his discovery was noted by the keepers he had +joyfully destroyed two bars, and with a broken piece used as a +lever was attacking a third. These bars were promptly replaced by +larger bars, of harder wood, but screwed to the same cast-iron +brackets that had carried the first series. + +For a time, the heavier bars endured; but in an evil moment the +ape swung his trapeze bar, of two-inch oak, far over to one side +of his cage, and applied the bar as a lever, inside of a +horizontal bar and from above. The new force was too much for the +cast-iron brackets, and one by one they gave way. Some were broken +off, and others were torn from the wall by the breaking of the +screws that held them. Knowing that all those brackets +must be changed immediately, Dohong was left to destroy them; +which he did, promptly and joyfully. We then made heavy +brackets of flat wrought iron bars, 1/2 by 21/2 inches, unbreakable +even with a lever. These were screwed on with screws +so large and heavy that our carpenters knew they were quite +secure. + +[Illustration caption: THE LEVER THAT OUR ORANG-UTAN INVENTED, AND +THE WAY HE APPLIED IT By W. A. Camadeo, in the "Scientific +American," 1907] + +In due time, Dohong tested his lever upon the bars with their new +brackets, and at first they held securely. Then he engaged Polly, +his chimpanzee companion, to assist him to the limit of her +strength. While Dohong pulled on the lever, Polly braced her +absurd little back against the wall, and pushed upon it, with all +her strength. At first nothing gave way. The combined strength +exerted by the three brackets was not to be overcome by prying at +the horizontal bar itself. It was then that Dohong's inventive +genius rose to its climax. He decided to attack the brackets +singly, and conquer them one by one. On examining the situation +very critically, he found that each bracket consisted of a right- +angled triangle of wrought iron, with its perpendicular side +against the wall, its base uppermost, and its hypotenuse out in +the air. Through the open centre of the triangle he introduced the +end of his trapeze bar, chain and all, as far as it would go, then +gave a mighty heave. The end of his lever was against the wall, +and the power was applied in such a manner that few machine screws +could stand so great a strain. One by one, the screws were torn +out of the wood, and finally each bracket worked upon was torn +off. + +But there was one exception. The screws of one bracket were so +firmly set in a particularly hard strip of the upright tongued- +and-grooved yellow pine flooring that formed the wall, the board +itself was finally torn out, full length! The board was four +inches wide, seven-eighths of an inch thick, and seven feet long. +Originally it was so firmly nailed that no one believed that it +could be torn from its place. [Footnote: In the Winter of 1921 +about a dozen newspapers in the United States published a +sensational syndicated article, occupying an entire page, in which +all of Dohong's lever discovery and cage-wrecking performances +were reported as of recent occurrence, and credited to a stupid +and uninteresting young orang called Gabong, now in the Zoological +Park, that has not even the merit of sufficient intelligence to +maintain a proper state of bodily uprightness, let alone the +invention of mechanical principles.] + +Without delay, Dohong started in with his lever to pry off the +remaining boards of the wall, but this movement was promptly +checked. Our next task consisted in making long bolts by which the +brackets of the horizontal bars were bolted entirely through the +partition walls and held so powerfully on the other side that even +the lever could not wreck them. + +As soon as the brackets were made secure, Dohong turned his +attention to the two large sleeping boxes which were built very +solidly on the balcony of his cage. Both of those structures he +tore completely to pieces,--always working with the utmost good +nature and cheerfulness. Realizing that they could not exist in +the cage with him, we gave him a permit to tear them out--and save +the time of the carpenters. + +Dohong's use of his lever was seen by hundreds of visitors, and +one frequent visitor to the Park, Mr. L. A. Camacho, an engineer, +was so much impressed that he published in the _Scientific +American_ an illustrated account of what he saw. + +For a long period, Dohong had been more or less annoyed by the +fact that he could not get his head out between the front bars of +his cage, and look around the partition into the home of his next- +door neighbor. Very soon after he discovered the use of the lever, +he swung his trapeze bar out to the upper corner of his cage, +thrust the end of it out between the first bar and the steel +column of the partition, and very deftly bent two of the iron bars +outward far enough so that he could easily thrust his head outside +and have his coveted look. + +One of our later and largest orangs made a specialty of twisting +the straw of his bedding into a rope six or seven feet long, then +throwing it over his trapeze bar and swinging by it, forward and +back. + +Time and space will not permit the enumeration of the various +things done by that ape of mechanical mind with his swinging rope +and his trapeze, with ropes of straw _twisted by himself,_ +with keys, locks, hammer, nails and boxes. Any man who can witness +such manifestations as those described above, and deny the +existence in the animal of an ability to reason from cause to +effect, must be prepared to deny the evidence of his own senses. + +The individual variations between orangs, as also between +chimpanzees, are great and striking. It may with truth be said +that no two individuals of either species are really quite alike +in physiognomy, temperament and mental capacity. As subjects for +the experimental psychologist, it is difficult to see how any +other could be found that would be even a good second in living +interest to the great apes. The facts thus far recorded, so I +believe, present only a suggestion of the rich results that await +the patient scientific investigator. In the year 1915 Dr. Robert +M. Yerkes, of Harvard University, conducted at Montecito, +southern California, in a comfortable primate laboratory, six +months of continuous and diligent experiments on the behavior of +orang-utans and monkeys. His report, published under the title of +"The Mental Life of Monkeys and Apes: A Study of Ideational +Behavior," is a document of much interest and value. Dr. Yerkes' +use of the orang-utan as a subject was a decided step forward in +the study of "animal behavior" in America. + + + + +IX + +THE MAN-LIKENESS OF THE CHIMPANZEE + + +During the past twenty years, millions of thinking people have +been startled, and not a few shocked, by the amazing and uncanny +human-likeness of the performances of trained chimpanzees on the +theatrical stage. Really, when a well trained "chimp" is dressed +from head to foot like a man, and is seen going with quickness, +precision and spirit through a performance half an hour in length, +we go away from it with an uncomfortable feeling that speech is +all that he lacks of being a citizen. + +In 1904 the American public saw Esau. Next came Consul,--in about +three or four separate editions! In 1909 we had Peter. Then came I +know not how many more, including the giant Casey and Mr. Garner's +Susie; and finally in 1918 our own Suzette. The theatre-going +public has been well supplied with trained chimpanzees, and the +mental capacity of that species is now more widely known and +appreciated than that of any other wild animal except the Indian +elephant. + +There are several reasons why chimpanzees predominate on the +stage, and why so few performing orang-utans have been seen. They +are as follows: + +1. The orang is sanguine, and slower in execution than the nervous +chimpanzee. + +2. The feet of the orang are not good for shoes, and biped work. + +3. The orang is rather awkward with its hands, and finally, + +4. There are fully twice as many chimps in the market. + +But the chimpanzee has certain drawbacks of his own. His nervous +temper and his forced-draught activities soon wear him out. If he +survives to see his sixth or seventh year, it is then that he +becomes so strong and so full of ego that he becomes dangerous and +requires to be retired. + +Bright minds are more common among the chimpanzee species than +among the orangs. Three chimps out of every five are good for +training, but not more than two orangs out of five can be +satisfactorily developed. + +Some sensitive minds shrink from the idea that man has "descended" +from the apes. I never for a moment shared that feeling. I would +rather descend from a clean, capable and bright-minded genus of +apes than from any unclean, ignorant and repulsive race of the +genus _Homo._ In comparing the chimpanzees of Fernan Vaz +with the Canoe Indians of the Strait of Magellan and other human +tribes we could name, I think the former have decidedly the best +of it. There are millions of members of the human race who are +more loathsome and repulsive than wild apes. + +The face of the chimpanzee is highly mobile, and the mouth, lips, +eyes and voice express the various emotions of the individual +with a degree of clearness and precision second only to the facial +expression of man himself. In fact, the face of an intelligent +chimpanzee or orang-utan is a fairly constant index of the state +of mind of the individual. In their turn, those enormously +expansive lips and keen brown eyes express contentment, doubt, +fear and terror; affection, disapproval, jealousy, anger, rage; +hunger and satiety; lonesomeness and illness. + +The lips of the chimpanzee afford that animal several perfectly +distinct expressions of the individual's mind and feelings. While +it is not possible to offer a description of each which will +certainly be recognizable to the reader, the two extremes will at +least be appreciated. When coaxing for food, or attention, the +lips are thrust far out beyond the teeth, and formed into a funnel +with the small end outermost. When the chimpanzee flies into a +rage at some real or fancied offense, the snarling lips are drawn +back, and far up and down, until the teeth and gums are fully +exposed in a ghastly threat of attack. At the same time, the voice +gives forth shrill shrieks of rage, correctly represented by the +syllable "Ee-ee-ee!", prolonged, and repeated with great force, +three or four times. On such occasions as the latter, the +offending party must look out for himself, or he may be roughly +handled. + +The voice of the chimpanzee is strong, clear, and in captivity it +is very much in evidence. Two of its moderate tones are almost +musical. It is heard when the animal says, coaxingly, "Who'-oe! +Who'-oe!" A dozen times a day, our large specimens indulge in +spells of loud yelling, purely for their own amusement. Their +strident cry sounds like "Hoo-hoo-hoo-hoo! _Wah'_-hoo! +_Wah'_-hoo! Hoo'-hoo! _Wah_-h-h-h! _Wah_-h-h!" The +second combination, "Wah-hoo," consists of two sounds, four notes +apart. + +It is with their voices that chimpanzees first manifest their +pleasure at seeing cherished friends of the human species, or +their anger. Their recognition, and their exuberant joy on such +occasions, is quite as apparent to every observer as are the +manifestations of welcome of demonstrative human beings. + +Like all other groups of species, the apes of various genera now +living vary widely in their mentalities. The chimpanzee has the +most alert and human-like mind but with less speed the orang-utan +is a good second. The average captive gorilla, if judged by +existing standards for ape mentality, is a poor third in the +anthropoid scale, below the chimp and orang; but since the rise of +Major Penny's family-pet gorilla, named John, we must revise all +our former views of that species, and concede exceptions. + +In studying the mental status of the primates I attach great +importance to the work and results of the professional trainers +who educate animals for stage performances. If the trainer does +not know which are the brightest species of apes, baboons and +monkeys, then who does? Their own fortunes depend upon their +estimate of comparative mentality in the primates. Fortunately for +our purposes, the minds of the most intelligent and capable apes, +baboons, and monkeys have been partially developed and exploited +by stage trainers, and to a far less extent by keepers in zoological +parks. Some wonderful results have been achieved, and the best of +these have been seen by the public in theatres, in traveling shows +and in zoological parks. All these performances have greatly +interested me, because they go so far as measures of mental +capacity. I wish to make it clear that I take them very seriously. + +[Illustration +with caption: PORTRAIT OF A HIGH-CASTE CHIMPANZEE "Baldy" was an +animal of fine intelligence and originality in thought. He was a +natural comedian] + +While many of the acts of trained animals are due to their power +of mimicry and are produced by imitation rather than by original +thought, even their imitative work reveals a breadth of +intelligence, a range of memory and of activity and precision in +thought and in energy which no logical mind can ignore. To say +that a chimpanzee who can swing through thirty or forty different +acts "does not think" and "does not reason," is to deny the +evidence of the human senses, and fall outside the bounds of human +reason. + +Training Apes for Performances. As will appear in its own chapter, +there is nothing at all mysterious in the training of apes. The +subject must be young, and pliant in mind, and of cheerful and +kind disposition. The poor subjects are left for cage life. The +trainer must possess intelligence of good quality, infinite +patience and tireless industry. Furthermore, the stage properties +must be ample. An outfit of this kind can train any ape that is +mentally and physically a good subject. Of course in every animal +species, wild or domestic, there are individuals so dull and +stupid that it is inexpedient to try to educate them. + +The chimpanzee Suzette who came to us direct from the vaudeville +stage performed every summer in her open-air "arena cage," until +she entered motherhood, which put an end to her stage work. She +was a brilliant "trick" bicycle rider. She could stand upright on +a huge wooden ball, and by expert balancing and foot-work roll it +up a steep incline, down a flight of stairs, and land it safely +upon the stage, without once losing her balance or her control. +She was entirely at home on roller skates, and when taken out upon +the pavement of Baird Court she would go wildly careering around +the large grass plat at high speed. + +All the above acts were acrobatic feats that called for original +thought and action, and were such as no dull mind and body could +exert. All the training skill in the world could not take a +machine and teach it to ride a bicycle through a collection of +bottles, and an intelligent ape is a million years from being a +"machine in fur and feathers." + +More than once I have been astounded by the performances of apes +on the stage. Mr. J. S. Edwards' orang-utan Joe was a very capable +animal, and his performances were wonderful. He could use a +hammer in driving nails, and a screwdriver in inserting and +extracting screws, with wonderful dexterity. + +The most remarkable chimpanzee performance that I ever saw was +given in a New York theatre in 1909. The star actor was a fine +male animal about six years old, called Peter. I made a complete +record of his various acts, and the program was as follows + +PERFORMANCE OF PETER, A CHIMPANZEE + +Stage properties: a suit of clothes, shoes, chair, table, bed, +bureau, hatrack, candle, cigarette, match, cuspidor, roller +skates, bottles, flag, inclined plane and steps; plate, napkin, +cup, spoon, teapot. + +As Peter entered, he bowed to the audience, took off his cap and +hung it upon a hatrack. He went to the table, seated himself in +the chair, unfolded and put on a napkin, and with a string +fastened it in place under his chin. With a fork he speared some +slices of banana and ate them. Into his tumbler he poured liquid +from a bottle, drank, then corked the bottle. Next, he poured +tea into a cup, put in sugar and cream, took tea from the spoon, +then drank from the cup. After that he took a toothpick and used +it elaborately. + +Striking a match he lit a cigarette, and smoked. In perfect man- +fashion he took the cigarette between his fingers, gave his keeper +a light, smoked again, and blew puffs of smoke first from one +corner of his mouth and then the other. Then he elaborately spat +into the cuspidor. + +Next in order he went to the bureau, cleaned his teeth with a +tooth-brush, brushed his hair on both sides, looked into the +mirror and powdered his face. + +Finally he bit a coin and put it on the keeper's plate as a tip. + +He pulled off his coat, took off his cuffs and vest, and thus half +undressed he joyously danced about, beating a tambourine. Then he +removed his shirt, trousers, shoes, garters and socks. Lighting +his candle he walked to his bed, blew out the candle and went to +bed. + +Very soon he rose, put on his trousers and a pair of roller skates +and playfully pursued a young woman who ran before him. His use of +the roller skates was excellent. + +The stage was cleared of furniture, and a bicycle was brought out. +He mounted it and started off, at the first trial, and swiftly +rode around the stage about fifteen times. While riding he took +off his cap and waved it. He rode up an inclined plane and down +four steps without falling off, repeating for an encore,--but +here he became peeved about something. + +Five bottles were set in a figure 8, and he rode between them +several times. At last he took up a bottle and drank out of it. +Then he drank out of a tumbler, all while riding. After much flag- +waving and swift riding, Peter stopped at the center of the stage, +dismounted, bowed, clapped his hands vigorously and retired. + +Peter's performance was remarkable because of the great length of +it, the absolute skill and precision of it, and the animal's easy +mastery of every situation. There was a notable absence of +hesitations and mistakes, and of visible direction. The trainer +seemed to do nothing save to assist with the stage properties, +just as an assistant helps any acrobat through the property +business of his act. If any commands or signs were given, the +audience was not aware of it. Later on I learned that sometimes +Peter did not perform with such spirit, and required some urging +to be prompt. The trainer was kept hustling to keep up with his +own duties. The animal seemed to remember, and I believe he did +remember, the sequence of a performance of _fifty-six separate +acts!_ + +When I witnessed Peter's performance in New York, saw the length +of it and noted the immense amount of nervous energy that each +performance used up, I made the prediction that he could not for +one year endure such a strain. It was reported to me that he died +nine months from that time. + +In October, 1909, when Peter went to Philadelphia, he was +frequently and closely studied and observed by Dr. Lightner +Witmer, professor of psychology at the University of Pennsylvania, +and his mentality was tested at the laboratory of the University. +Dr. Witmer's conclusions, as set forth in a paper in the December +(1909) issue of the _Psychological Clinic,_ are of very great +interest. He approached Peter's first performance in a skeptical +frame of mind. I gladly waive the opportunity to express my own +views regarding Peter in order to put upon the stand a more +competent witness. Hear Dr. Witmer: + +"As I entered the theatre," he says, "my feelings were commingled +interest and doubt. My doubts were bred from knowledge of the +difficulty of judging the intelligence of an animal from a stage +performance. So-called educated horses and even educated seals and +fleas have made their appeal in large number to the credulity of +the public. Can any animal below man be educated in the proper +sense of the word? Or is the animal mind susceptible of nothing +more than a mechanical training, and only given the specious +counterfeit of an educated intelligence when under the direct +control of the trainer? + +"Since that day I have seen Peter in five public performances, +have tested him at my psychological clinic and privately on three +occasions. I now believe that in a very real sense the animal is +himself giving the stage performance. He knows what he is doing, +he delights in it, he varies it from time to time, he understands +the succession of tricks which are being called for, he is guided +by word of mouth without any signal open or concealed, and the +function of his trainer is exercised mainly to steady and control. + +"I am prepared to accept the statement of his trainers, Mr. and +Mrs. McArdle, that Peter's proficiency is not so much the result +of training as of downright self-education." + +Peter was put through many of the tests which Dr. Witmer uses for +the study of backward children. He performed many of these tests +in a very satisfactory manner. He was able to string beads the +first time he tried it. He put pegs in the ordinary kindergarten +pegging board. He opened and closed a very difficult lock. He used +hammer and screw driver, and distinguished without any mistake +between nails and screws. A peculiar kind of hammer was given to +him in order to fool him, but Peter was not fooled. He felt both +ends of the hammer and used the flat end instead of the round end. + +Showing his initiative during the tests, Peter got away from those +who were watching him and darted for a washstand, quickly turned +the faucet and put his mouth to the spigot and secured a drink +before he was snatched away by his trainers. He understood +language and followed instructions without signs. He was able to +say "mamma," and Doctor Witmer taught him in five minutes to give +the sound of "p." The most remarkable performance was making the +letter "w" on the blackboard, in which he imitated Doctor Witmer's +movements exactly, and reproduced a fair copy of the letter. + +The last four paragraphs reproduced above have been copied from an +article which appeared in the Philadelphia _Public Ledger_ on +December 17, 1909. + +Dr. Witmer declares that the study of this ape's mind is a subject +fit, not for the animal psychologist, but for the child +psychologist. + +Suzette's Failure in Maternal Instinct. As a closing contribution +to our observations on the chimpanzee, I must record a tragic +failure in maternal instinct, as well as in general intelligence, +in a chimpanzee. + +In 1919 our two fine eight-year old chimpanzees, Boma and Suzette, +were happily married. It was a genuine love match, and strictly +monogamous at that; for while big Fanny Chimp in the cage next +door to Boma loved Boma and openly courted him, he was +outrageously indifferent to her, and even scorned her. After +seven months of gestation, a very good baby was born to Suzette, +quite naturally and successfully. Boma's shouts of excitement and +delight carried half a mile throughout the Park. Everything looked +most auspicious for the rearing of a wonderful cage-bred and +cage-born chimpanzee, the second one ever born in captivity. +Instead of carrying her infant astride her hip, as do orang +mothers, and the coolie women of India, Suzette astonished us +beyond measure by tucking it _into her groin,_ between her +thigh and her abdomen, head outward. It was a fine place,--warm +and soft,--but not good when overdone! When Suzette walked, as she +freely did, she held up the leg responsible for the baby, to hold +it securely in place, and walked upon the other foot and her two +hands. About all this there was one very bad thing. The baby was +perfectly helpless! As long as the mother chose to keep it in her +groin prison, it could not get free. + +Suzette was completely isolated, kept absolutely quiet, and every +chance was given her to go on with the functions of motherhood. +Her breasts contained plenty of milk, and the flow was due to +start on the second day after the infant's arrival. + +Day and night the baby was jealously confined in that massive and +powerful groin,--and _under too much pressure!_ When the baby +cried, and kicked, and struggled to get free, Suzette would +nervously rearrange her straw bed, carefully pick from the tiny +fingers every straw that they had clutched, and settle down again. +If the struggle was soon renewed, Suzette would change the infant +over to the other groin, and close upon it as before. + +Sleeping or waking, walking, sitting or lying down, she held it +there. If we attempted to touch the infant, the mother instantly +became savage and dangerous. Not one human finger was permitted to +touch it. For hours, and for days, we anxiously watched for +nursing to begin; but in vain. At last we became almost frantic +from the spectacle of the infant being slowly starved to death +because the mother did not realize that it needed her milk, and +that she alone could promote nursing. _Her mother instinct +utterly failed to supply the link that alone could connect infancy +to motherhood, and furnish life._ + +Of course this failure was due to poor Suzette's artificial life, +and unnatural surroundings. Had she been all alone, in the depths +of a tropical forest, Nature would have proceeded along her usual +lines. But in our Primate House, Suzette felt that her infant was +surrounded by a host of strange enemies, from whom it must be +strongly and persistently _guarded and defended._ That was +the idea that completely dominated her mind, ruled out all human +help, and blocked the main process of nature. + +During the eight days that the infant lived, it was able to reach +her breast and nurse only once, for about one minute; and then +back it went to its prison, where it died from sheer lack of +nourishment. + +In 1920, that same history was repeated, except that on this +occasion our Veterinary Surgeon, Dr. W. Reid Blair, worked (on the +fifth day) for seven hours without intermission to stupefy Suzette +with chloroform, or other opiates, sufficiently to make it +possible to remove the baby without a fight with the mother and +its certain death. Owing to her savage temper all the work had to +be done between iron bars, to keep from losing hands or arms, and +the handicap on the human hand was too great. Even when Suzette +had received chloroform for an hour and twenty minutes, and was +regarded as _half dead,_ at the first touch of a human finger +upon her thigh she instantly aroused and sprang up, raging and +ready for battle. + +The whole effort failed. To rope Suzette and attempt to control +her by force would have been sheer folly, or worse. In such a +struggle the infant would have been torn to pieces. + +The second one died as the first one did, and for an awful week we +were unable to gain possession of the decomposing cadaver. Suzette +knew that something was wrong, and she realized the awful odor, +but that idea of defense of her offspring obscured all others. In +maintaining her possession of that infant, nothing could surpass +the cunning of that ape mother. Will we ever succeed in outwitting +her, and in getting one of her babies alive into a baby incubator? +Who can say? + + + + +X + +THE TRUE MENTAL STATUS OF THE GORILLA + + +The true mental status of the gorilla was discovered in 1919 and +1920, at 15 Sloane Street, London, by Major Rupert Penny, of the +Royal Air Service, and his young relative, Miss Alyse Cunningham. +Prior to that time, through various combinations of retarding +circumstances, no living gorilla had ever been placed and kept in +an environment calculated to develop and display the real mental +calibre of the gorilla mind. It seems that an exhibition cage, in +a zoological park or garden thronged with visitors, actually tends +to the suppression, or even the complete extinguishment, of true +gorilla character. The atmosphere of the footlights and the stage +in which the chimpanzee delights and thrives is to the gorilla +repulsive and unbearable. + +Judging by Major Penny's "John," the gorilla wishes to live in a +high-class human family, in a modern house, and be treated like a +human being! It is now definitely recognized by us, and also by +our colleagues in the London Zoological Gardens, that gorillas can +not live long and thrive on public exhibition, before great crowds +of people, and that it is folly to insist upon trying to compel +them to do so. The male individual that lived several years in the +Breslau Zoological Garden and attained the age of seven years was +a striking exception. + +We have had two gorillas at our Park, one of which, a female named +Dinah, arrived in good health, and lived with us eleven and one- +half months. Her mind was dull and hopelessly unresponsive. She +learned next to nothing, and she did nothing really interesting. +Other captive gorillas I have known have been equally morose and +unresponsive, and lived fewer months than Dinah. + +It is because of such animals as Dinah that for fifty years the +mental status of the gorilla species has been under a cloud. Until +now it has been much misunderstood and unappreciated. Of the few +gorillas that have been seen in England and America, I think that +all save John have been so morose and unresponsive, _and so +undeveloped by companionship and training_, that mentally they +have been rated far below the chimpanzee and orang. + +Our own Dinah was no exception to the rule. Personally she was a +stupid little thing, even when in excellent health. Her most +pronounced and exasperating stupidities were shown in her refusal +to eat, or to taste, strange food, even when very hungry. Any ape +that does not know enough to eat a fine, ripe banana, and will +only mince away at the _inner lining_ of the banana skin, is +an unmitigated numskull, and hardly fit to live. Dinah was all +that, and more. But, alas! We have seen a few stupid human +children who obstinately refused even to taste certain new and +unknown kinds of food, because they "know" they will not like +them! So Dinah was not alone in her childish folly. + +At last a chain of circumstances placed an intellectual and +sensible gorilla, two years of age, in the hands of a family +specially fitted by education and home surroundings to develop its +mind and its manners. The results of those efforts have given to +the gorilla an entirely new mental status. Thanks to the +enterprise and diligence of Major Rupert Penny and Miss Cunningham +in purchasing and caring for a sick and miserable young male +gorilla,--a most hazardous risk,--a new chapter in wild-animal +psychology now is to be written. + +In December, 1918, "John Gorilla" was purchased in a London +department store, out of a daily atmosphere heated to _85 +degrees_, and a nightly condition of solitude and terror. From +that awful state it was taken to live in Major Penny's comfortable +apartments. John was seriously ill. He was in a "rickety" +condition, and he weighed only 32 pounds. With a pure atmosphere, +kept at 65 degrees only, and amid good surroundings, he soon +became well. He attained such robust health and buoyant spirits +that in March, 1921, he stood 40 1/2 inches high and weighed 112 +pounds. + +At my solicitation Miss Cunningham wrote out for me the very +remarkable personal history of that wonderful animal,--apparently +the most wonderful gorilla ever observed in captivity. It is a +clear, straightforward and convincing record, and not one of its +statements is to be for one moment doubted. While it is too long +to reproduce here in its entirety, I will present a condensation +of it, in Miss Cunningham's own words that will record the salient +facts,--with no changes save in arrangement. + +Miss Cunningham says: + +LONELINESS. "We soon found it was impossible to leave him alone at +night, because he shrieked every night, and nearly all night, from +loneliness and fear. This we found he had done in the store where +he lived before coming to us. He always began to cry directly he +saw the assistants putting things away for the night. We found +that this loneliness at night was trying on his health and +appetite. As soon as possible my nephew had his bed made up every +night in the room adjoining the cage, with the result that John +was quite happy, and began to grow and put on fat. + +TREATMENT. "I fed him, washed his hands, face and feet twice a +day, and brushed and combed his hair,--which he would try to do +himself whenever he got hold of the brush or comb. He soon got to +like all this. + +TRAINING. "My next idea was to teach him to be strictly clean in +his habits. It was my ambition to be able to have him upstairs in +our house as an ordinary member of the household. I taught him +first as a child is taught and handled. This took some time. At +first I could not make him understand what we expected of him, +even though I always petted him and gave him grapes (of which he +was especially fond), but I think at first he imagined that this +treatment was a punishment. At first, without other reasons, he +would roll on the floor and shriek, but directly he understood +what was expected of him he soon learned, and began to behave +excellently. + +"This training occupied quite six weeks. About February, 1919, we +took him out of his cage, and allowed him the freedom of the +house. Thereafter he would run upstairs to the bathroom of his own +accord, turning the doorknob of whatever room he was in, and also +opening the door of the bathroom.... He would get out of bed in +the night by himself, go back to bed, and pull the blankets over +himself quite neatly. + +FOOD. "John's appetite seemed to tire of foods very quickly. The +only thing he stuck to was milk, which he liked best when warmed. +We began by giving him a quart a day, rising to three and one-half +quarts a day. I found that he preferred to choose his own food, so +I used to prepare for him several kinds, such as bananas, oranges, +apples, grapes, raisins, currants, dates and any small fruits in +season, such as raspberries or strawberries, _all of which he +liked to have warmed!_ + +"These displays I placed on a high shelf in the kitchen, where he +could get them with difficulty. I think that he thought himself +very clever when he stole anything. He never would eat anything +stale. He was extremely fond of fresh lemon jelly, but he never +would touch it after the second day. He loved roses, _to +eat_, more than anything. The more beautiful they were, the +more he liked them, but he never would eat faded roses. He never +cared much for nuts of any other kind than baked peanuts, save +walnuts. I found that nuts gave him dreadful spells of +indigestion. + +USE OF TOOLS. "He knew what hammers and chisels were for, but for +obvious reasons we never encouraged him in anything to do with +carpentry. With cocoanuts he was very funny. He knew that they had +to be broken, and he would try to break them on the floor. When he +found he couldn't manage that, he would bring the nut to one of us +and try to make us understand what he wished. If we gave him a +hammer he would try to use it on the nut, and on not being able to +manage that, he would give back to us both the hammer and the +cocoanut. + +GAMES AND PLAY. "We never taught him any tricks; he simply +acquired knowledge himself. A game he was very fond of was to +pretend he was blind, shutting his eyes very tightly, and running +around the room knocking against tables and chairs. . . . We found +that exercise was the thing he required to keep him in health, and +my nephew used to give him plenty of that by playing hide and seek +with him in the morning before breakfast, and in the evening +before dinner,--up and down stairs, in and out of all the rooms. +He simply loved that game, and would giggle and laugh while being +chased.... If he saw that a stranger was at all nervous about him, +he loved running past him, and giving him a smack on the leg,--and +you could see him grin as he did so. + +"A thing he greatly enjoyed was to stand on the top rail of his +bed and jump on the springs, head over heels, just like a child. + +CAUTION. "He was very cautious. He would never run into a dark +room without first turning on the light. + +FEAR. "John seemed to realize danger for other people in high +places, for if anyone looked out of a high window he always pushed +them away if he were at the window himself, but if he was away +from it he would run and pull them back. . . . He was very much +afraid of full-grown sheep, cows and horses, but he loved colts, +calves and lambs, proving to us that he recognized youth. + +WOODS VS. FIELDS. "We found he did not like fields or open +country, but he was very happy in a garden, or in woods. . . . He +always liked nibbling twigs, and to eat the green buds of trees. + +TABLE MANNERS. "His table manners were really very good. He always +sat at the table, and whenever a meal was ready, would pull his +own chair up to his place. He did not care to eat a great deal, +but he especially liked to drink water out of a tumbler. . . . He +was the least greedy of all the animals I have ever seen. He never +would snatch anything, and always ate very slowly. He always drank +a lot of water, which he would always get himself whenever he +wanted it by turning on a tap. Strange to say, he always turned +off the water when he had finished drinking. + +PLAYING TO THE GALLERY. "John seemed to think that everyone was +delighted to see him, and he would throw up the window whenever he +was permitted. If he found the sash locked he would unfasten it, +and when a big crowd had collected outside he would clap his chest +and his hands. [Footnote: In the summer of 1920 a globe-trotter +just arrived from England excitedly reported to me: "While driving +along a street in London _I saw a live gorilla_ in the upper +window of an apartment. It was a _real gorilla;_ and it +clapped its hands at us as we looked! Now _what_ did it all +mean?" Fortunately I was able to explain it.] + +PUNISHMENT AND REPENTANCE. "We made one very great mistake with +John. His cage was used as a punishment, with the result that we +never could leave him there alone, for he would shriek all the +time. . . . Now, a stick was the one thing that our gorilla would +not stand from anyone, save Major Penny and myself. Presently we +found out that the only way to deal with him was to tell him that +he was very naughty, and push him away from us; when he would roll +on the floor and cry, and be very-repentant, holding one's ankles, +and putting his head on our feet. + +AFFECTION FOR A CHILD. "He was especially fond of my little niece, +three years old. John and she used to play together for hours, and +he seemed to understand what she wanted him to do. If she ever +cried, and her mother would not go and pick her up, John would +always try and nip the mother, or give her a smack with the full +weight of his hand, evidently thinking she was the cause of the +child's tears. + +A SENSE OF GOOD ORDER. "He loved to take everything +out of a wastepaper basket and strew the contents all over the +room, after which, when told to do so he would pick up everything +and put it all back, but looking very bored all the while. If the basket +was very full he would push it all down very carefully, to make room +for more. He would always put things back when told to do so, such +as books from a bookshelf or things from a table. + +[Illustration caption: THE GORILLA WITH THE WONDERFUL MIND Owned +by Major Rupert Penny, educated by Miss Alyse Cunningham, London, +1918-1921] + +TWO CASES OF ORIGINAL THOUGHT. (1) "One day we were going out, for +which I was sitting ready dressed, when John wished to sit in my +lap. My sister, Mrs. Penny, said: 'Don't let him. He will spoil +your dress.' + +"As my dress happened to be a light one I pushed him away, and +said, 'No!' He at once lay on the floor and cried just like a +child, for about a minute. Then he rose, looked round the room, +found a newspaper, went and picked it up, spread it on my lap and +climbed up. This was quite the cleverest thing I ever saw him do. +_Even those who saw it said they would not have believed it had +they not seen it themselves!_ Both my nephews, (Major Penny and +Mr. E. C. Penny), his wife and my sister (Mrs. Penny) were in the +room, and can testify to the correctness of the above record. + +(2) "Another clever thing John did, although I suspect this was +due more to instinct that to downright cleverness. A piece of +filet beefsteak had just come from the butcher. Inasmuch as +occasionally I gave him a small mouthful of raw beef, a small +piece of the coarser part of the steak was cut off, and I gave it +to him. He tasted it, then gravely handed it back to me. Then he +took my hand and put it on the finer part of the meat. From that I +cut off a tiny piece, gave it to him, and he ate it. When my +nephew came home he wouldn't believe it, so I tried it again, with +the same result, except that then he did not even attempt to eat +the coarser meat." + +* * * * * + +Concerning Miss Cunningham's wonderful story, I wish to state that +I believe all of it,--because there is no reason to do otherwise! +It sets a new mark in gorilla lore, and it lifts a curtain from an +animal mind that previously was unknown, and very generally +misunderstood. + +To the Doubting Thomases who will doubt some portions of Miss +Cunningham's story, let me cite, by way of caution, the following +history: + +When Du Chaillu discovered the gorilla, and came to America and +England with his specimens to tell about it, he said that when a +big gorilla is attacked and made angry it beats its breast, +repeatedly, with its clenched fists. The wiseacres of that day +solemnly shook their heads and said: "Oh, no! That can not be +true. No ape ever did that. He is romancing!" But now we know that +this breast-beating and chest-clapping habit is to a gorilla a +common-place performance, even in captivity. + +Sometimes there are more things in heaven and earth than are +dreamt of in all our philosophy. + + + + +XI + +THE MIND OF THE ELEPHANT + + +It was in the jungles of the Animallai Hills of southern India +that I first became impressed by the mental capacity of the Indian +elephant. I saw many wild herds. I saw elephants at work, and at +one period I lived in a timber camp, consisting of working +elephants and mahouts. I saw a shrewd young elephant-driver +soundly flogged for stealing an elephant, farming it out to a +native timber contractor for four days, and then elaborately +pretending that the animal had been "lost." Later on I saw +elephant performances in the "Greatest Show on Earth" and +elsewhere, and for eighteen years I have been chief mourner over +the idiosyncrasies of Gunda and Alice. If I do not now know +something about elephants, then my own case of animal intelligence +is indeed hopeless. + +To me it seems that the only thing necessary to establish the +elephant as an animal of remarkable intellect and power of +original reasoning is to set forth the unadorned facts that lie +ready to hand. + +Cuvier recorded the opinion that in sagacity the elephant in no +way excels the dog and some other species of carnivora. Sir +Emerson Tennent, even after some study of the elephant, was +disposed to award the palm for intelligence to the dog, but only +"from the higher degree of development consequent on his more +intimate domestication and association with man." In the mind of +G. P. Sanderson we fear that familiarity with the elephant bred a +measure of contempt; and this seems very strange. He says: + +"Its reasoning faculties are undoubtedly far below those of the +dog, and possibly of other animals; and in matters beyond its +daily experience it evinces no special discernment." + +To me it seems that all three of those opinions are off the +target. The dog is not a wild, untrammeled animal; and neither +dogs, cats nor savage men evince any special discernment "beyond +the range of their daily experience." Moreover, there are some +millions of tame men of whom the same may be said with entire +safety. + +Very often the question is asked: "Is the African elephant equal +in intelligence and training capacity to the Indian species?" + +To this we must answer: Not proven. We do not know. The African +species never has been tried out on the same long and wide basis +as the Indian. Many individual African elephants, very +intelligent, have been trained, successfully, and have given good +accounts of themselves. For my own part I am absolutely sure that +when taken in hand at the same age, and trained on the same basis +as the Indian species, the African elephant will be found mentally +quite the equal of the Indian, and just as available for work or +performances. + +No negro tribe really likes to handle elephants and train them. +The Indian native loves elephants, and enjoys training them and +working with them. It is these two conditions that have left the +African elephant far behind the procession. The African elephant +belongs to the great Undeveloped Continent. He has been, and he +still is, mercilessly pursued and slaughtered for his tusks. All +the existing species of African elephants are going down and out +before the ivory hunters. We fear that they will all be dead one +hundred years from this time, or even less. A century hence, when +the last _africanus_ has gone to join the mammoth and the +mastodon, his well protected wild congener in India still will be +devouring his four hundred pounds of green fodder per day, and the +tame ones will be performing to amuse the swarming human millions +of this overcrowded world. + +In the minds of our elephant keepers, familiarity with elephants +has bred just the reverse of contempt. Both Thuman and Richards +are quite sure that elephants are the wisest of all wild animals. + +Despite the very great amount of trouble made for Keeper Thuman by +Gunda, the Indian, and Kartoum, the African, Thuman grows +enthusiastic over the shrewdness of their "cussedness." He is +particularly impressed by their skill in opening chain shackles, +and unfastening the catches and locks of doors and gates. And +really, Kartoum's ingenuity in finding out how to open latches and +bolts is almost inexhaustible, as well as marvelous. + +Keeper Richards declares that our late African pygmy elephant, +Congo, was the wisest animal he ever has known. I have elsewhere +referred to his ability in shutting his outside door. Richards +taught him to accept coins from visitors, deposit them in a box, +then pull a cord to ring a bell, one pull for each coin +represented. The keeper devised four different systems of intimate +signals by which he could tell Congo to stop at the right point, +and all these were so slight that no one ever detected them. One +was by a voice-given cue, another by a hand motion, and a third +was by an inclination of the body. + +Keeper Richards relates that Congo would go out in his yard, +collect a trunkful of peanuts from visitors, bring them inside and +secretly cache them in a corner behind his feed box. Then he would +go out for more graft peanuts, bring them in, hide them and +proceed to eat the first lot. There are millions of men who do not +know what it is to conserve something that can be eaten. + +In this discussion of the intellectual powers and moral qualities +of the elephant I will confine myself to my own observations on +_Elephas indicus_, except where otherwise stated. A point to +which we ask special attention is that in endeavoring to estimate +the mental capacity of the elephant, we will base no general +conclusions upon _any particularly intelligent individual_, +as all mankind is tempted to do in discussions of the intelligence +of the dog, the cat, the horse, parrot and ape. On the contrary, +it is our desire to reveal the mental capacity of _every +elephant living_, tame or wild, except the few individuals with +abnormal or diseased minds. It is not to be shown how successfully +_an_ elephant has been taught by man, but how _all_ +elephants in captivity have been taught, and the mental capacity +of _every_ elephant. + +Under the head of intellectual qualities we have first to consider +the elephant's + +POWERS OF INDEPENDENT OBSERVATIONS, AND REASONING FROM CAUSE TO +EFFECT + +While many wonderful stories are related of the elephant's +sagacity and independent powers of reasoning, it must be admitted +that a greater number of more wonderful anecdotes are told on +equally good authority of dogs. But the circumstances in the case +are wholly to the advantage of the universal dog, and against the +rarely seen elephant. While the former roams at will through his +master's premises, through town and country, mingling freely with +all kinds of men and domestic animals, with unlimited time to lay +plans and execute them, the elephant in captivity is chained to a +stake, with no liberty of action whatever aside from begging with +his trunk, eating and drinking. His only amusement is in swaying +his body, swinging one foot, switching his tail, and (in a +zoological park) looking for something that he can open or +destroy. Such a ponderous beast cannot be allowed to roam at large +among human beings, and the working elephant never leaves his +stake and chain except under the guidance of his mahout. There is +no means of estimating the wonderful powers of reasoning that +captive elephants might develop if they could only enjoy the +freedom accorded to all dogs except the blood-hound, bull-dog and +a few others. + +In the jungles of India the writer frequently has seen wild +elephants reconnoitre dangerous ground by means of a scout or spy; +communicate intelligence by signs; retreat in orderly silence from +a lurking danger, and systematically march, in single file, like +the jungle tribes of men. + +Once having approached to within fifty yards of the stragglers of +a herd of about thirty wild elephants, which was scattered over +about four acres of very open forest and quietly feeding, two +individuals of the herd on the side nearest us suddenly suspected +danger. One of them elevated his trunk, with the tip bent forward, +and smelled the air from various points of the compass. A moment +later an old elephant left the herd and started straight for our +ambush, scenting the air with upraised trunk as he slowly and +noiselessly advanced. We instantly retreated, unobserved and +unheard. The elephant advanced until he reached the identical spot +where we had a moment before been concealed. He paused, and stood +motionless as a statue for about two minutes, then wheeled about +and quickly but noiselessly rejoined the herd. In less than half +a minute the whole herd was in motion, heading directly away from +us, and moving very rapidly, but _without the slightest +noise_. The huge animals simply vanished like shadows into the +leafy depths of the forest. Before proceeding a quarter of a mile, +the entire herd formed in single file and continued strictly in +that order for several miles. Like the human dwellers in the +jungle, the elephants know that the easiest and most expeditious +way for a large body of animals to traverse a tangled forest is +for the leader to pick the way, while all the others follow in his +footsteps. + +In strong contrast with the stealthy and noiseless manner in which +elephants steal away from a lurking danger, or an ambush +discovered, from an open attack accompanied with the noise of +fire-arms they rush away at headlong speed, quite regardless of +the noise they make. On one occasion a herd which I was designing +to attack, and had approached to within forty yards, as its +members were feeding in some thick bushes, discovered my presence +and retreated so silently that they had been gone five minutes +before I discovered what their sudden quietude really meant. In +this instance, as in several others, the still alarm was +communicated by silent signals, or sign-language. + +At the Zoological Park we reared an African pygmy elephant +(_Elephas pumilio_). When his slender little tusks grew to +eighteen inches in length he made some interesting uses of them. +Once when the keepers wished to lead him upon our large platform +scales, the trembling of the platform frightened him. He conceived +the idea that it was unsafe, and therefore that he must keep off. +He backed away, halted, and refused to leave solid ground. The men +pushed him. He backed, and trumpeted a shrill protest. The men +pushed harder, and forced him forward. Trumpeting his wild alarm +and his protest against what he regarded as murder, he fell upon +his knees and drove his tusks into the earth, quite up to his +mouth, to anchor himself firmly to the solid ground. It was +pathetic, but also amusing. When Congo finally was pushed upon the +scales and weighed, he left the trembling instrument of torture +with an air of disgust and disapproval that was quite as eloquent +as words. On several occasions when taken out for exercise in the +park, he endeavored to hinder the return to quarters by anchoring +himself to Mother Earth. + +Congo once startled us by his knowledge of the usefulness of +doors. For a time he was kept in a compartment that had an outside +door running sidewise on a trolley track, and controlled by two +hanging chains, one to close it and one to open it. Each chain had +on its end a stout iron ring for a handle. One chilly morning when +I went to see Congo, I asked his keeper to open his door, so that +he could go out. + +The keeper did so, by pulling the right hand chain. The moment the +draft of chilly outer air struck Congo, who stood in the centre of +his stall facing me, he impatiently wheeled about, walked up to +the left hand chain, grabbed it with his trunk, slipped the ring +over one of his tusks, then inclined his head downward and with an +irritated tug pulled the door shut with a spiteful slam. "Open +it again," I said to the keeper. + +He did so, and in the same way, but with a visible increase in +irritation, Congo closed it in the same manner as before. Again +the keeper opened the door, and this time, with a real exhibition +of temper Congo again thrust the ring over his tusk, and brought +the door shut with a resounding bang. It was his regular habit to +close that door, or to open it, when he felt like more air or less +air; and who is there who will say that the act was due to +"instinct" in a jungle-bred animal, or anything else than original +thought. The ring on his tusk was his own invention, as a means to +a desired end. + +Every elephant that we ever have had has become, through his own +initiative and experimenting, an expert in unfastening the latches +of doors and gates, and in untying chains and ropes. Gunda always +knew enough to attack the padlocks on his leg chains, and break +them if possible. No ordinary clevis would hold him. When the pin +was threaded at one end and screwed into its place, Gunda would +work at it, hour by hour, until he would start it to unscrewing, +and then his trunk-tip would do the rest. The only clevis that he +could not open was one in which a stout cotter pin was passed +through the end of the clevis-pin and strongly bent. + +Through reasons emanating in his own savage brain, Gunda took +strong dislikes to several of our park people. He hated Dick +Richards,--the keeper of Alice. He hated a certain messenger boy, +a certain laborer, a painter and Mr. Ditmars. Toward me he was +tolerant, and never rushed at me to kill me, as he always did to +his pet aversions. He stood in open fear of his own keeper, Walter +Thuman, until he had studied out a plan to catch him off his guard +and "get him." Then he launched his long-contemplated attack, and +Thuman was almost killed. + +Our present (1921) male African elephant, Kartoum, is not so +hostile toward people, but his insatiable desire is to break and +to smash all of his environment that can be bent or broken. His +ingenuity in finding ways to damage doors and gates, and to bend +or to break steel beams, is amazing. His greatest feat consisted +in breaking squarely in two, by pushing with his head, a 90-pound +steel railroad iron used as the top bar of his fence. He knows the +mechanism of the latch of the ponderous steel door between his two +box stalls, and nothing but a small pin that only human fingers +can manipulate suffices to thwart his efforts to control the +latch. + +Kartoum has gone over every inch of surface of his two apartments, +his doors, gates and fences, to find something that he can break +or damage. The steel linings of his apartment walls, originally +five feet high, we have been compelled to extend upward to a +height of nine feet, to save the brick walls from being battered +and disfigured. He has searched his steel fences throughout, in +order to find their weakest points, and concentrate his attacks +upon them. If the sharp-pointed iron spikes three inches long that +are set all over his doors are perfectly solid, he respects them, +but if one is the least bit loose in its socket, he works at it +until he finally breaks it off. + +I invite any Doubting Thomas who thinks that Kartoum does not +"think" and "reason" to try his own thinking and reasoning at +inventing for Kartoum's door a latch that a keeper can easily and +surely open and close at a distance of ten feet, and that will be +Kartoum-proof. As for ourselves, three or four seemingly +intelligent officers and keepers, and a capable foreman of +construction, have all they can do to keep ahead of that one +elephant, so great is his ingenuity in thwarting our ways and +means to restrain him. + +In about two days of effort our elephant keepers taught Gunda to +receive a coin from the hand of a visitor, or pick it off the +floor, lift the lid of a high-placed cash-box, drop the coin into +it and ring a bell. This very amusing industry was kept up for +several years, but finally it became so popular that it had to be +discontinued. + +Keeper Dick Richards easily taught Alice to blow a mouth organ, +and to ring a telephone, to take the receiver off its hook and +hold it to her ear and listen. For years Alice has rendered, every +summer, valuable services of a serious nature in carrying children +and other visitors around her yard, and only once or twice has she +shown a contrary or obstinate spirit. + +Tame elephants never tread on the feet of their attendants or +knock them down by accident; or, at least, no instances of the +kind have come to my knowledge. The elephant's feet are large, his +range of vision is circumscribed, and his extreme and wholly +voluntary solicitude for the safety of his human attendants can +not be due to anything else than independent reasoning. The most +intelligent dog is apt to greet his master by planting a pair of +dirty paws against his coat or trousers. The most sensible +carriage-horse is liable to step on his master's foot or crowd him +against a wall in a moment of excitement; but even inside the +keddah, with wild elephants all about, and a captive elephant +hemmed in by three or four tame animals, the noosers safely work +under the bodies and between the feet of the tame elephant until +the feet of the captive are tied. + +All who have witnessed the tying of captives in a keddah wherein a +whole wild herd has been entrapped, testify to the uncanny human- +like quality of the intelligence displayed by the tame elephants +who assist in tying, leading out and subjugating the wild +captives. They enter into the business with both spirit and +understanding, and as occasion requires will deceitfully cajole or +vigorously punish a troublesome captive. Sir Emerson Tennent +asserts that the tame elephants display the most perfect +conception of every movement, both of the object to be attained +and the means to accomplish it. + +Memory in the Elephant. So far as memory may be regarded as an +index of an animal's mental capacity, the weight of evidence is +most convincingly creditable to the elephant. As a test of memory +in an animal, we hold that a trained performance surpasses all +others. During the past forty years millions of people have +witnessed in either Barnum's or Ringling Brothers' shows, or in +the two combined, an imitation military drill performed by from +twelve to twenty elephants which in animals of any other species +would be considered a remarkable performance. The following were +the commands given by one trainer, understood and remembered by +each elephant, and executed without any visible hesitation or +mistake. These we will call the + +Accomplishments of Performing Elephants. + +1. Fall in line. + +2. Roll-call. (As each elephant's name is called, he takes his +place in the ranks). + +3. Present arms. (The trunk is uplifted, with its tip curved +forward and held in that position for a short time.) + +4. Forward, march. + +5. File left, march. + +6. Right about face, march. + +7. Left about face, march. + +8. Right by twos, march. + +9. Double quick, march. + +10. Single file, march. + +11. File right. + +12. Halt. + +13. Ground arms. (All lie down, and lie motionless.) + +14. Attention (All arise.) + +15. Shoulder arms. (All stand up on their hind-legs.) + +In all, fifteen commands were obeyed by the whole company of +elephants. + +It being impossible, or at least impracticable, to supply so large +a number of animals with furniture and stage properties for a +further universal performance, certain individuals were supplied +with the proper articles when necessary for a continuation of the +performance, as follows: + +16. Ringing bells. + +17. Climbing up a step-ladder. + +18. Going lame in a fore leg. + +19. Going lame in a hind leg. + +20. Stepping up on a tub turned bottom up. + +[Illustration with +caption: TAME ELEPHANTS ASSISTING IN TYING A WILD CAPTIVE The +captive elephant is marked "C." The tame elephants have been +quietly massed around him to keep him still and to give the +noosers a chance to work at his legs from under the bodies of the +tame elephants. The black figures on the tame elephants are their +mahouts, wrapped in blankets and lying down. (From A. G. R. +Theobald, Mysore)] + +21. Standing on a tub on right legs only. + +22. The same, on opposite legs. + +23. The same, on the fore legs only. + +24. The same, on the hind legs only. + +25. Using a fan. + +26. Turning a hand-organ. + +27. Using a handkerchief to wipe the eyes. + +28. Sitting in a chair. + +29. Kneeling, with the fore legs. + +30. Kneeling with the hind legs. + +31. Walking astride a man lying lengthwise. + +32. Stepping over a man lying down. + +33. Forming a pyramid of elephants, by using tubs of various +sizes. + +While it is true that not all of the acts in the latter part of +this performance were performed by each one of the elephants who +went through the military drill, there is no reason to doubt the +entire ability of each individual to be trained to obey the whole +thirty-three commands, and to remember them all accurately and +without confusion. The most astonishing feature of the +performance, aside from the perfect obedience of the huge beasts, +was their easy confidence and accuracy of memory. + +We come now to a consideration of the Accomplishments of Working +Elephants. In all the timber-forests of southern India every +captive elephant is taught to perform all the following acts and +services, as I have witnessed on many occasions: + +1. To _salaam,_ or salute, by raising the trunk. + +2. To kneel, to receive a load or a passenger. + +3. When standing, to hold up a fore-foot, to serve the driver as a +step in climbing to his place. + +4. To lie down to be washed, first on one side and then on the +other. + +5. To open the mouth. 6. To "hand up" any article from the +ground to the reach of a person riding. + +7. To pull down an obstructing bough. + +8. To halt. + +9. To back. + +10. To pick up the end of a drag-rope and place it between the +teeth. + +11. To drag a timber. + +12. To kneel and with the head turn a log over, or turn it with +the tusks if any are present. + +13. To push a log into position parallel with others. + +14. To balance and carry timbers on the tusks, if possessing tusks +of sufficient size. + +15. To "speak," or trumpet. + +16. To work in harness. + +Every working elephant in India is supposed to possess the +intelligence necessary to the performance of all the acts +enumerated above at the command of his driver, either by spoken +words, a pressure of the knees or feet, or a touch with the +driving goad. For the sake of generalization I have purposely +excluded from this list all tricks and accomplishments which are +not universally taught to working elephants. We have seen, +however, that performing elephants are capable of executing +nearly double the number of acts commonly taught to the workers; +and, while it is useless to speculate upon the subject, it must be +admitted that, were a trainer to test an elephant's memory by +ascertaining the exact number of commands it could remember and +execute in rotation, the result would far exceed anything yet +obtained. For my own part, I believe it would exceed a hundred. +The performance in the circus-ring is limited by time and space, +and not by the mental capacity of the elephants. + +Comprehension under Training. When we come to consider the +comparative mental receptivity and comprehension of animals under +man's tuition, we find the elephant absolutely unsurpassed. On +account of the fact that an elephant is about eighteen years in +coming to anything like maturity, according to the Indian +Government standard for working animals, it is far more economical +and expeditious to catch full-grown elephants in their native +jungles, and train them, than it is to breed and rear them. About +ninety per cent of all the elephants now living in captivity were +caught in a wild state and tamed, and of the remainder at least +eighty per cent were born in captivity of females that were gravid +when captured. It will be seen, therefore, that the elephant has +derived no advantage whatever from ancestral association with man, +and has gained nothing from the careful selection and breeding +which, all combined, have made the collie dog, the pointer and the +setter the wonderfully intelligent animals they are. For many +generations the horse has been bred for strength, for speed, or +for beauty of form, but the breeding of the dog has been based +_chiefly_ on his intelligence as a means to an end. _With +all his advantages, it is to be doubted whether the comprehensive +faculties of the dog, even in the most exceptional individuals of +a whole race, are equal to those of the adult wild elephant fresh +from the jungle._ + +The extreme difficulty of teaching a dog _of mature age_ even +the simplest thing is so well known that it has passed into a +proverb: "It is hard to teach an old dog new tricks." In other +words, the conditions _must_ be favorable. But what is the +case with the elephant? The question shall be answered by G. P. +Sanderson. In his "Wild Beasts of India," he says: "_Nor are +there any elephants which can not be easily subjugated, whatever +their size or age. The largest and oldest elephants are frequently +the most easily tamed, as they are less apprehensive than the +younger ones._" + +Philosophy of the Elephant in Accepting Captivity and Making the +Best of It. The most astounding feature in the education of an +elephant is the suddenness of his transition from a wild and +lawless denizen of the forest to the quiet, plodding, good- +tempered, and cheerful beast of draught or burden. I call it +astounding, because in comparison with what could _not_ be +done with other wild animals caught when adult, no other word is +adequate to express the difference. The average wild animal caught +fully grown is "a terror," and so far as training is concerned, +perfectly impossible. + +There takes place in the keddah, or pen of capture, a mighty +struggle between the giant strength of the captive and the +ingenuity of man, ably seconded by a few powerful tame elephants. +When he finds his strength utterly overcome by man's intelligence, +he yields to the inevitable, and accepts the situation +philosophically. Sanderson once had a narrow escape from death +while on the back of a tame elephant inside a keddah, attempting +to secure a wild female. She fought his elephant long and +viciously, with the strength and courage of despair, but finally +she was overcome by superior numbers. Although her attack on +Sanderson in the keddah was of the most murderous description, he +states that her conduct after her defeat was most exemplary, and +she never afterward showed any signs of ill-temper. + +Mr. Sanderson and an elephant-driver once mounted a full-grown +female elephant _on the sixth day after her capture, without +even the presence of a tame animal._ Sir Emerson Tennent +records an instance wherein an elephant fed from the hand on the +first night of its capture, and in a very few days evinced +pleasure at being patted on the head. Such instances as the above +can be multiplied indefinitely. To what else shall they be +attributed than philosophic reasoning on the part of the elephant? +The orang-utan and the chimpanzee, so often put forward as his +intellectual superior, when captured alive at any other period +than that of helpless infancy, are vicious, aggressive, and +intractable not only for weeks and months, but for the remainder +of their lives. Orangs captured when fully adult exhibit the most +tiger-like ferocity, and are wholly intractable. + +If dogs are naturally superior to elephants in natural intellect, +it should be as easy to tame and educate newly-caught wild dogs or +wolves of mature age, as newly-caught elephants. But, so far from +this being the case, it is safe to assert that it would be +_impossible_ to train even the most intelligent company of +pointers, setters or collies ever got together to perform the +feats accomplished with such promptness and accuracy by all +regularly trained work elephants. + +The successful training of all elephants up to the required +working point is so fully conceded in India that the market value +of an animal depends wholly upon its age, sex, build and the +presence or absence of good tusks. The animal's education is +either sufficient for the buyer, or, if it is not, he knows it can +be made so. + +Promptness and Accuracy in the Execution of Man's Orders. This is +the fourth quality which serves as a key to the mental capacity +and mental processes of an animal. + +To me the most impressive feature of a performance of elephants in +the circus-ring is the fact that every command uttered is obeyed +with true military promptness and freedom from hesitation, and so +accurately that an entire performance often is conducted and +concluded without the repetition of a single command. One by one +the orders are executed with the most human-like precision and +steadiness, amounting sometimes to actual nonchalance. Human +beings of the highest type scarcely could do better. To some +savage races--for example, the native Australians, the Veddahs of +Ceylon, or the Jackoons of the Malay Peninsula, I believe that +such a performance would be impossible, even under training. I do +not believe their minds act with sufficient rapidity and accuracy +to enable a company of them to go through with such a wholly +artificial performance as successfully as the elephants do. + +The thoughtful observer does not need to be told that the brain of +the ponderous quadruped acts, as far as it goes, with the same +rapidity and precision as that of an intelligent man,--and this, +too, in a performance that is wholly artificial and acquired. +In the performance of Bartholomew's horses, of which I once kept a +record in detail, even the most accomplished members of his troupe +often had to be commanded again and again before they would obey. +A command often was repeated for the fifth or sixth time before +the desired result was obtained. I noted particularly that not one +of his horses,--which were the most perfectly trained of any ever +seen by me,--was an exception to this rule, or performed his +tasks with the prompt obedience and self-confidence so noticeable +in _each one_ of the sixteen Barnum elephants. The horses +usually obeyed with tardiness and hesitation, and very often +manifested nervousness and uncertainty. + +In the mind of the elephant, e. g., _each_ elephant, there +was no confusion of ideas or lapses of memory, but, on the +contrary, the mental grasp on the whole subject was so secure and +comprehensive that the animal felt himself the master of the +situation. + +I have never yet seen a performance of trained dogs which could be +considered worthy of serious comparison with the accomplishments +of either performing or working elephants. In the matter of native +educational capacity the dog can not on any grounds be considered +the rival of the elephant. The alleged mental superiority of the +dog is based almost wholly upon his powers of independent +reasoning and observation as exhibited in a state of almost +perfect _freedom._ Until the elephant who has grown to +maturity under man's influence, is allowed the dog's freedom to +plan and execute, no conclusive comparison between them can be +made. + +Moral Qualities of the Elephant. Finally, we come to a +consideration of the elephant's moral qualities that have a direct +bearing upon our subject. In India, excepting the professional +"rogue," the elephant bears a spotless reputation for patience, +amiability and obedience. The "rogue" is an individual afflicted +with either an incorrigible disposition, or else is afflicted with +insanity, either temporary or permanent. I know of no instance on +record wherein a _normal elephant_ with a _healthy mind_ +has been guilty of unprovoked homicide, or even of attempting it. +I have never heard of an elephant in India so much as kicking, +striking or otherwise injuring either human beings or other +domestic animals. There have been several instances, however, of +persons killed by elephants which were temporarily insane, or +"_must,_" and also by others permanently insane. In America +several persons have been killed in revenge for ill treatment. In +Brooklyn a female elephant once killed a civilian who burned her +trunk with a lighted cigar. It is the misfortune but not the fault +of the elephant that in advanced age or by want of necessary +exercise, he is liable to be attacked by _must,_ or sexual +insanity, during which period he is clearly irresponsible for his +acts. + +So many men have been killed by elephants in this country that of +late years the idea has been steadily gaining ground that +elephants are naturally ill-tempered, and vicious to a dangerous +extent. Under fair conditions, nothing could be farther from the +truth. We have seen that in the hands of the "gentle Hindu" the +elephant is safe and reliable, and never attacks man except under +the circumstances already stated. In this country, however, many +an elephant is at the mercy of quick-tempered and sometimes +revengeful showmen, who very often do not understand the +temperaments of the animals under their control, and who during +the traveling season are rendered perpetually ill-tempered and +vindictive by reason of overwork and insufficient sleep. With such +masters as these it is no wonder that occasionally an animal +rebels, and executes vengeance. In Minneapolis in December an +elephant once went on a rampage through the freezing of its ears. +I am quite convinced that an elephant could by ill treatment be +driven to insanity, and I have no doubt that this has been done +many times. Our bad elephant, Gunda, was bad by nature, but +finally he became afflicted with sexual insanity, for which there +was no cure. When commanded by man, the elephant will tear a +criminal limb from limb, or crush him to death with his knees, or +go out to battle holding a sword in his trunk. He will, when told +to do so, attack his kind with fury and persistence; but in the +course of many hours, and even days, spent in watching wild herds, +I never yet saw a single individual show any signs of impatience +or ill-temper toward his fellows. + +It is safe to say that, thus far, not one half the elephant's +mental capabilities have been developed, or even understood. It +would be of great interest to determine by experiment the full +educational capacity of this interesting quadruped. It would be +equally interesting to determine the limit of its reasoning +powers in applied mechanics. An animal that can turn a hand-organ +at the proper speed, or ring a telephone and go through the +motions of listening with a receiver, can be taught to push a +smoothing-plane invented purposely for him; but whether he would +learn of himself to plane the rough surface smooth, and let the +smooth ones remain untouched, is an open question. + +While it is generally fruitless and unsatisfactory to enter the +field of speculation, I can not resist the temptation to assert my +belief that an elephant can be taught to read written characters, +and also to express some of his own thoughts or states of feeling +in writing. It would be a perfectly simple matter to prepare +suitable appliances by which the sagacious animal could hold a +crayon in his trunk, and mark upon a surface adapted to his +convenience. Many an elephant has been taught to make chalk-marks +on a blackboard. In Julian's work on "The Nature of Animals," the +eleventh chapter of the second book, he describes in detail the +wonderful performances of elephants at Rome, all of which he saw. +One passage is of peculiar interest to us, and the following has +been given as a translation: "...I saw them writing letters on +Roman tablets with their trunks, neither looking awry nor turning +aside. The hand, however, of the teacher was placed so as to be a +guide in the formation of the letters; and, while it was writing, +the animal kept its eye fixed down in an accomplished and scholar- +like manner." + +I can conceive how an elephant may be taught that certain +characters represent certain ideas, and that they are capable of +intelligent combinations. The system and judgment and patient +effort which developed an active, educated, and even refined +intellect in Laura Bridgman--deaf, dumb and blind from birth-- +ought certainly to be able to teach a clear-headed, intelligent +elephant to express at least _some_ of his thoughts in +writing. + +I believe it is as much an act of murder to wantonly take the life +of a healthy elephant as to kill a native Australian or a Central- +African savage. If it is more culpable to kill an ignorant human +savage than an elephant, it is also more culpable to kill an +elephant than an echinoderm. Many men are both morally and +intellectually lower than many quadrupeds, and are, in my opinion, +as wholly destitute of that indefinable attribute called soul as +all the lower animals commonly are supposed to be. + +If an investigator like Dr. Yerkes, and an educator like Dr. Howe, +should take it in hand to develop the mind of the elephant to the +highest possible extent, their results would be awaited with +peculiar interest, and it would be strange if they did not +necessitate a revision of the theories now common among those who +concede an immortal soul to every member of the human race, even +down to the lowest, but deny it to all the animals below man. + +Curvature in the Brain of an Elephant. There is curvature of the +spine; and there is curvature in the brain. It afflicts the human +race, and all other vertebrates are subject to it. + +In the Zoological Park we have had, and still have, a persistent +case of it in a female Indian elephant now twenty-three years of +age, named "Alice." Her mental ailment several times manifested +itself in Luna Park, her former home; but when we purchased the +animal her former owners carelessly forgot to mention it. + +Four days after Alice reached her new temporary home in our +Antelope House, and while being marched around the Park for +exercise, she heard the strident cry of one of our mountain lions, +and immediately turned and bolted. + +Young as she was at that time, her two strong and able-bodied +keepers, Thuman and Bayreuther, were utterly unable to restrain +her. She surged straight forward for the front door of the Reptile +House, and into that building she went, with the two keepers +literally swinging from her ears. + +As the great beast suddenly loomed up above the crowd of +sightseers in the quiet building, the crowd screamed and became +almost panic-stricken. + +Partly by her own volition and partly by encouragement, she +circumnavigated the turtle-bank and went out. + +Once outside she went where she pleased, and the keepers were +quite unable to control her. Half an hour later she again headed +for the Reptile House and we knew that she would again try to +enter. + +In view of the great array of plate glass cases in that building, +many of them containing venomous cobras, rattlesnakes, moccasins +and bushmasters, we were thoroughly frightened at the prospect of +that crazy beast again coming within reach of them. + +With our men fighting frantically, and exhausted by their +prolonged efforts to control her, Alice again entered the Reptile +House. As she attempted to pass into the main hall,--the danger +zone,--our men succeeded in chaining her front feet to the two +steel posts of the guard rail, set solidly in concrete on each +side of the doorway. Alice tried to pull up those posts by their +roots, but they held; and there in front of the Crocodile Pool the +keepers and I camped for the night. We fed her hay and bread, to +keep her partially occupied, and wondered what she would do in the +morning when we would attempt to remove her. + +Soon after dawn a force of keepers arrived. Chaining the +elephant's front feet together so that she could not step more +than a foot, we loosed the chains from the two posts and ordered +her to come to an "about face," and go out. Instead of doing that +she determinedly advanced toward the right, and came within reach +of twelve handsome glazed cases of live reptiles that stood on a +long table. Frantically the men tried to drive her back. For +answer she put her two front feet on the top bar of the steel +guard rail and smashed ten feet of it to the floor. Then she began +to butt those glass snake cages off their table, one by one. + +_"Boom!" "Bang!" "Crash!"_ they went on the floor, one after +another. Soon fourteen banded rattlesnakes of junior size were +wriggling over the floor. "Smash" went more cases. The Reptile +House was in a great uproar. Soon the big wall cases would be +reached, and then--I would be obliged to shoot her dead, to avoid +a general delivery of poisonous serpents, and big pythons from +twenty to twenty-two feet long. The room resounded with our +shouts, and the angry trumpeting of Alice. + +At last, by vigorous work with the elephant hooks, Alice was +turned and headed out of the building. A foot at a time she passed +out, then headed toward the bear dens. Midway, we steered her in +among some young maple trees, and soon had her front legs chained +to one of them. Alice tried to push it over, and came near to +doing so. + +Then we quickly tied her hind legs together,--and she was all +ours. Seeing that all was clear for a fall, we joyously pushed +Alice off her feet. She went over, and fell prone upon her side. +In three minutes all her feet were securely anchored to trees, and +we sat down upon her prostrate body. + +At that crowning indignity Alice was the maddest elephant in the +world for that day. We gave her food, and the use of her trunk, +and left her there twenty-four hours, to think it over. She +deserved a vast beating with canes; but we gave her no punishment +whatever. It would have served no good purpose. + +During the interval we telephoned to Coney Island, and asked Dick +Richards, the former keeper of Alice, to come and reason with her. +Promptly he came,--and he is still guiding as best he can the +checkered destinies of that erring female. + +When Alice was unwound and permitted to arise,--with certain +limitations as to her progress through the world,--it was evident +that she was in a chastened mood. She quietly marched to her +quarters at the Antelope House, and there we interned her. But +that was not all of Alice. Very soon we had to move her to the +completed Elephant House, half a mile away. Keeper Richards said +that two or three times she had bolted into buildings at Luna +Park; so we prepared to overcome her idiosyncrasies by a +combination of force and strategy. I had the men procure a strong +rope about one hundred feet long, in the middle of which I had +them fix a very nice steel hook, large enough to hook suddenly +around a post or a tree. + +One end of that rope we tied to the left foot of Charming Alice, +and the remainder of the rope was carried out at full length in +front of her. + +Willingly enough she started from the Antelope House, and Richards +led her about three hundred feet. Then she stopped, and +disregarding all advice and hooks, started to come about, to +return to the Antelope House. Quickly the anchor was hooked around +the nearest fence post, and Alice fetched up against a force +stronger than herself. She was greatly annoyed, but in a few +minutes decided to go on. + +Another lap of two hundred feet, and the same act was repeated, +without the slightest variation. + +This process continued for nearly half a mile. By that time we +were opposite the Elk House and Alice had become wild with baffled +rage. She tried hard to smash fences and uproot trees. + +At last she stood still and refused to move another foot; and then +we played our ace of trumps. Near by, twenty laborers were +working. Calling all hands, they took hold of that outstretched +rope, and heading straight for the new Elephant House started a +new tug of war. Every "heave-ho" of that hilarious company meant a +three-foot step forward for Gentle Alice,--willy-nilly. As she +raged and roared, the men heaved and laughed. A yard at a time +they pulled that fatal left foot, into the corral and into the +apartment of Alice; and she had to follow it. + +Ever since that time, Alice has been permanently under arrest, and +confined to her quarters; but within the safe precincts of two +steel-bound yards she carries children on her back, and in summer +earns her daily bread. + +Elephant Mentality in the Jungle. Mr. A. E. Ross, while +Commissioner of Forests in Burma, had many interesting experiences +with elephants, and he related the following: + +A bad-tempered mahout who had been cruel to his work-elephant +finally so enraged the animal that it attempted to take revenge. +To forestall an accident, the mahout was discharged, and for two +years he completely disappeared. After that lapse of time he +quietly reappeared, looking for an engagement. As the line of +elephants stood at attention at feeding time, with a score of +persons in a group before them, the elephant instantly recognized +the face of his old enemy, rushed for him, and drove him out of +the camp. + +An ill-tempered and dangerous elephant, feared by everybody, once +had the end of his trunk nearly cut off in an accident. While the +animal was frantic with the pain of it, Mr. Ross ordered him to +lie down. As the patient lay in quiet submission, he dressed the +wound and put the trunk in rude bamboo splints. The elephant +wisely aided the amateur elephant doctor until the wound healed; +and afterward that once dangerous animal showed dog-like affection +for Mr. Ross. + + + + +XII + +THE MENTAL AND MORAL TRAITS OF BEARS + + +Considered as a group, the bears of the world are supremely +interesting animals. In fact, no group surpasses them save the +Order Primates, and it requires the enrollment of all the apes, +baboons and monkeys to accomplish it. + +From sunrise to sunrise a bear is an animal of original thought +and vigorous enterprise. Put a normal bear in any new situation +that you please, he will try to make himself master of it. Use any +new or strange material that you please, of wood, metal, stone or +concrete, and he will cheerfully set out to find its weakest +points and destroy it. If one board in a wall happens to be of +wood a little softer than its fellows, with wonderful quickness +and precision he will locate it. To tear his way out of an +ordinary wooden cage he asks nothing better than a good crack or a +soft knot as a starting point. + +Let him who thinks that all animals are mere machines of heredity +and nothing more, take upon himself the task of collecting, +yarding, housing and KEEPING a collection of thirty bears from all +over the world, representing from ten to fifteen species. In a +very short time the believer in bear knowledge by inheritance +only, will begin to see evidences of new thought. + +In spite of our best calculations, in twenty-two years and a total +of about seventy bears, we have had three bear escapes. The +species involved were an Indian sloth bear, an American black bear +and a Himalayan black bear. The troublesome three laboriously +invented processes by which, supported by surpassing acrobatics, +they were able to circumvent our overhanging bars. Now, did the +mothers of those bears bequeath to them the special knowledge +which enabled them to perform the acrobatic mid-air feat of +warping themselves over that sharp-pointed overhang barrier? No; +because none of their parents ever saw steel cage-work of any +kind. + +Universal Traits. The traits common to the majority of bear +_species_ as we see them manifested in captivity are the +following: + +First, playfulness; second, spasmodic treachery; third, +contentment in comfortable captivity; fourth, love of water; +fifth, enterprise in the mischievous destruction of things that +can be destroyed. + +The bears of the world are distributed throughout Asia, Borneo, +the heavy forests of Europe, all North America, and the +northwestern portion of South America. In view of their +wonderfully interesting traits, it is surprising that so few books +have been written about them. The variations in bear character +and habit are almost as wide as the distribution of the species. + +There are four books in English that are wholly devoted to +American bears and their doings. These are "The Grizzly Bear" and +"The Black Bear," by William H. Wright, of Spokane(Scribner's), +"The Grizzly Bear," by Enos A. Mills, and "The Adventures of James +Capen Adams." In 1918 Dr. C. Hart Merriam published as No. 41 of +"North American Fauna" a "Review of the Grizzly and Brown Bears of +North America" (U.S. Govt.). This is a scientific paper of 135 +pages, the product of many years of collecting and study, and it +recognizes and describes eighty-six species and sub-species of +those two groups in North America. The classification is based +chiefly upon the skulls of the animals. + +It is unfortunate that up to date no bear student with a tireless +pen has written The Book of Bears. But let no man rashly assume +that he knows "all about bears." While many bears do think and act +along certain lines, I am constantly warning my friends, "Beware +of the Bear! You never can tell what he will do next." I hasten to +state that of all the bears of the world, the "pet" bear is the +most dangerous. + +A Story of a "Pet" Bear. In one of the cities of Canadaa +gentleman greatly interested in animals kept a young bear cub, as +a pet; and once more I say--if thine enemy offend thee, present +him with a black-bear cub. The bear was kept in a back yard, +chained to a post, and after his first birthday that alleged "pet" +dominated everything within his circumpolar region. + +One day a lady and gentleman called to see the pet, to observe how +tame and good-natured it was. The owner took on his arm a basket +of tempting apples, and going into the bear's territory proceeded +to show how the Black One would eat from his owner's hand. + +The bear was given an apple, which was promptly eaten. The owner +reached for a second, but instead of accepting it, the bear +instantly became a raging demon. He struck Mr. C. a lightning- +quick and powerful blow upon his head, ripping his scalp open. +With horrible growls and bawling, the beast, standing fully erect, +struck again and again at his victim, who threw his arms across +his face to save it from being torn to pieces. Fearful blows from +the bear's claw-shod paws rained upon Mr. C.'s head, and his scalp +was almost torn away. In the melee he fell, and the bear pounced +upon him, to kill him. + +The visiting gentleman rushed for a club. Meanwhile the lady +visitor, rendered frantic by the sight of the bear killing her +host, did a very brave but suicidally dangerous thing. She +_seized the hindquarters_ of the bear, gripping the fur in +her bare hands, and actually dragged the animal off its victim! +Fortunately at that dangerous juncture the lady's husband rushed +up with a club, beat the raging animal as it deserved, and +mastered it. + +The owner of the bear survived his injuries, and by a great effort +the surgeons saved his scalp. A "pet" bear in its second year +may become the most dangerous of all wild animals. This is +because it _seems_ so affectionate and docile, and yet is +liable to turn in one second,--and without the slightest warning, +--into a deadly enemy. + +Scores of times we have seen this quick change in temper take +place in bears inhabiting our dens. Four bears will be quietly and +peacefully consuming their bread and vegetables when,-- +"_biff!_" Like a stroke of lightning a hairy right arm shoots +out and lands with a terriffic jolt on the head of a peaceful +companion. The victim roars,--in surprise, pain and protest, and +then a fight is on. The aggressor roars and bawls, and follows up +his blow as if to exterminate his perfectly inoffensive cage-mate. + +Mean and cruel visitors are fond of starting bear fights by +throwing into the cages tempting bits of fruit, or peanuts; and +sometimes a peach stone kills a valuable bear by getting jammed in +the pyloric orifice of the stomach. + +The owners of bears should NEVER allow visitors to throw food to +them. Unlimited feeding by visitors will spoil the tempers of the +best bears in the world. + +Power of Expression in Bears. Next to the apes and monkeys, I +regard bears as the most demonstrative of all wild animals. The +average bear is proficient in the art of expression. The position +of his ears, the pose of his head and neck, the mobility of his +lips and his walking or his resting attitudes all tell their +story. + +To facial and bodily expression the bear adds his voice; and +herein he surpasses most other wild animals! According to his mood +he whines, he threatens, or warns by loud snorting. He roars with +rage, and when in pain he cries, or he bawls and howls. In +addition to this he threatens an enemy by snapping his jaws +together with a mighty ominous clank, accompanied by a warning +nasal whine. An angry bear will at times give a sudden rake with +his claws to the ground, or the concrete on which he stands. +Now, with all this facility for emotional expression, backed by an +alert and many-sided mind, boundless energy and a playful +disposition, is it strange that bears are among the most +interesting animals in the world? + +Bears in Captivity. With but few exceptions the bears of the world +are animals with philosophic minds, and excellent reasoning power, +though rarely equal to that of the elephant. One striking proof of +this is the promptness with which adult animals accept +_comfortable_ captivity, and settle down in contentment. +What we mean by comfortable captivity very shortly will be +defined. + +No bear should be kept in a cage with stone walls and an uneven +floor; nor without a place to climb; and wherein life is a daily +chapter of inactive and lonesome discomfort and unhappiness. The +old-fashioned bear "pit" is an abomination of desolation, a sink- +hole of misery, and all such means of bear torture should be +banished from all civilized countries. + +He who cannot make bears comfortable, contented and happy should +not keep any. + +A large collection of bears of many species properly installed may +be relied upon to reveal many variations of temperament and +mentality, from the sanguine and good-natured stoic to the +hysterical demon. Captivity brings out many traits of character +that in a wild state are either latent or absent. + +Prominent Traits of Prominent Species. After twenty years of daily +observation we now know that + +The grizzly is the most keen-minded species of all bears. + +The big Alaskan brown bears are the least troublesome in +captivity. + +The polar bear lives behind a mask, and is not to be trusted. + +The black bear is the nearest approach to a general average in +ursine character. + +The European brown bears are best for training and performances. + +The Japanese black bear is nervous, cowardly and hysterical; the +little Malay sun bear is the most savage and unsatisfactory. + +The Lesson of the Polar and Grizzly. The polar bears of the north, +and the Rocky Mountain grizzlies, a hundred years ago were bold +and aggressive. That was in the days of the weak, small-bore, +muzzle-loading rifles, black powder and slow firing. Today all +that is changed. All those bears have recognized the fearful +deadliness of the long-range, high-power repeating rifle, and the +polar and the grizzly flee from man at the first sight of him, +fast and far. No grizzly attacks a man unless it has been +attacked, or wounded, or cornered, or _thinks_ it is +cornered. As an exception, Mr. Stefansson observed two or three +polar bears who seemed to be quite unacquainted with man, and but +little afraid of him. + +The great California grizzly is now believed to be totally +extinct. The campaign of Mr. J. A. McGuire, Editor of _Outdoor +Life_ Magazine, to secure laws for the reasonable protection of +bears, is wise, timely and thoroughly deserving of success because +such laws are now needed. The bag limit on grizzlies this side of +Alaska should be one per year, and no trapping of grizzlies should +be permitted anywhere. + +The big brown bears of Alaska have not yet recognized the true +deadliness of man. They have vanquished so many Indians, and +injured or killed so many white men that as yet they are unafraid, +insolent, aggressive and dangerous. They need to be shot up so +thoroughly that they will learn the lesson of the polars and +grizzlies,--that man is a dangerous animal, and the only safe +course is to run from him at first sight. + +Bears Learn the Principles of Wild Life Protection. Ordinarily +both the grizzlies and black bears are shy, suspicious and +intensely "wild" creatures; and therefore the quickness and +thoroughness with which they learn that they are in sanctuary is +all the more surprising. The protected bears of the Yellowstone +Park for years have been to tourists a source of wonder and +delight. The black bears are recklessly trustful, and familiar +quite to the utmost limits. The grizzlies are more reserved, but +they have done what the blacks have very wisely not done. They +have broken the truce of protection, and attacked men on their +own ground. + +Strange to say, of several attacks made upon camping parties, the +most serious and most nearly fatal was that of 1917 upon Ned +Frost, the well-known guide of Cody, Wyoming, and his field +companion. They were sleeping under their wagon, well wrapped from +the cold in heavy blankets and comfortables, and it is to their +bedding alone that they owe their lives. They were viciously +attacked by a grizzly, dragged about and mauled, and Frost was +seriously bitten and clawed. Fortunately the bedding engaged the +activities of their assailant sufficiently that the two men +finally escaped alive. + +How Buffalo Jones Disciplined a Bad Grizzly. The most ridiculous +and laughable performance ever put up with a wild grizzly bear as +an actor was staged by Col. C. J.("Buffalo") Jones when he was +superintendent of the wild animals of the Yellowstone Park. He +marked down for punishment a particularly troublesome grizzly that +had often raided tourists' camps at a certain spot, to steal food. +Very skilfully he roped that grizzly around one of his hind legs, +suspended him from the limb of a tree, and while the disgraced and +outraged silver-tip swung to and fro, bawling, cursing, snapping, +snorting and wildly clawing at the air, Buffalo Jones whaled it +with a bean-pole until he was tired. With commendable forethought +Mr. Jones had for that occasion provided a moving-picture camera, +and this film always produces roars of laughter. + +Now, here is where we guessed wrongly. We supposed that whenever +and wherever a well-beaten grizzly was turned loose, the angry +animal would attack the lynching party. But not so. When Mr. +Jones' chastened grizzly was turned loose, it thought not of +reprisals. It wildly fled to the tall timber, plunged into it, and +there turned over a new leaf. I once said: "C. J., you ought to shoot +some of those grizzlies, and teach all the rest of them to behave +themselves." + +[Illustration with caption: WILD +BEARS QUICKLY RECOGNIZE PROTECTION The truce of the black bears of +the Yellowstone Park. The grizzlies are not nearly so trustful. +Photographed by Edmund Heller, 1921. (All rights reserved.)] + +"I know it!" he responded, "I know it! But Col. Anderson won't let +me: He says that if we did, some people would make a great fuss +about it; and I suppose they would." + +Recently, however, it has been found imperatively necessary to +teach the Park grizzlies a few lessons on the sanctity of a +sanctuary, and the rights of man. + +We will now record a few cases that serve to illustrate the mental +traits of bears. + +Case I. The Steel Panel. Two huge male Alaskan brown bears, Ivan +and Admiral, lived in adjoining yards. The partition between them +consisted of panels of steel. The upper panels were of heavy bar +iron. The bottom panels, each four feet high and six feet long, +were of flat steel bars woven into a basket pattern. The ends of +these flat bars had been passed through narrow slots in the heavy +steel frame, and firmly clinched. We would have said that no land +animal smaller than an elephant could pull out one of those +panels. + +By some strange aberration in management, one day it chanced that +Admiral's grizzly bear wife was introduced for a brief space into +Ivan's den. Immediately Admiral went into a rage, on the ground +that his constitutional rights had been infringed. At once he set +to work to recover his stolen companion. He began to test those +partition panels, one by one. Finally he found the one that seemed +to him least powerful, and he at once set to work to tear it out +of its frame. + +The keepers knew that he could not succeed; but he thought +differently. Hooking his short but very powerful claws into the +meshes he braced backward and pulled. After a fierce struggle an +upper corner yielded. Then the other corner yielded; and at last +the whole upper line gave way. + +I reached the scene just as he finished tearing both ends free. I +saw him bend the steel panel inward, crush it down with his +thousand pounds of weight, and dash through the yawning hole into +his rival's arena. + +Then ensued a great battle. The two huge bears rose high on their +hind legs, fiercely struck out with their front paws, and fought +mouth to mouth, always aiming to grip the throat. They bit each +other's cheeks but no serious injuries were inflicted, and very +soon by the vigorous use of pick-handles the two bear keepers +drove the fighters apart. + +Case 2. Ivan's Begging Scheme. Ivan came from Alaska when a small +cub and he has long been the star boarder at the Bear Dens. He is +the most good-natured bear that we have, and he has many thoughts. +Having observed the high arm motion that a keeper makes in +throwing loaves of bread over the top of the nine-foot cage work, +Ivan adopted that motion as part of his sign language when food is +in sight outside. He stands up high, like a man, and with his left +arm he motions, just as the keepers do. Again and again he waves +his mighty arm, coaxingly, suggestively, and it says as plain as +print: "Come on! Throw it in! Throw it!" + +If there is too much delay in the response, he motions with his +right paw, also, both arms working together. It is irresistible. +At least 500 times has he thus appealed, and he will do it +whenever a loaf of bread is held up as the price of an exhibition +of his sign language. Of course Ivan thought this out himself, and +put it into practice for a very definite purpose. + +Case 3. Ivan's Invention for Cracking Beef Bones. Ivan invented a +scheme for cracking large beef bones, to get at the ultimate +morsels of marrow. He stands erect on his hind feet, first holds +the picked bone against his breast, then with his right paw he +poises it very carefully upon the back of his left paw. When it is +well balanced he flings it about ten feet straight up into the +air. When it falls upon the concrete floor a sufficient number of +times it breaks, and Ivan gets his well-earned reward. This same +plan was pursued by Billy, another Alaskan brown bear. Case 4. A +Bear's Ingenious Use of a Door. When Admiral is annoyed and chased +disagreeably by either of his two cage-mates he runs into his +sleeping-den, slams the steel door shut from the inside, and thus +holds his tormentors completely at bay until it suits him to roll +the door back again and come out. At night in winter when he goes +to bed he almost always shuts the door tightly from within, and +keeps it closed all night. He does not believe in sleeping- +porches, nor wide-open windows in sleeping-quarters. + +Case 5. Admiral Will Not Tolerate White Boots. Recently our bear +keepers have found that Admiral has violent objections to boots of +white rubber. Keeper Schmidt purchased a pair, to take the place +of his old black ones, but when he first wore them into the den +for washing the floor the bear flew at him so quickly and so +savagely that he had all he could do to make a safe exit. A second +trial having resulted similarly, he gave the boots a coat of black +paint. But one coat was not wholly satisfactory to Admiral. He saw +the hated white through the one coat of black, promptly registered +"disapproval," and the patient keeper was forced to add another +coat of black. After that the new boots were approved. + +Case 6. The Mystery of Death. Once upon a time we had a Japanese +black bear named Jappie, quartered in a den with a Himalayan black +bear,--the species with long, black side-whiskers and a white tip +to its chin. The Japanese bear was about one-third smaller than +the Himalayan black. + +One night the Japanese bear died, and in the morning the keepers +found it lying on the level concrete top of the sleeping dens. + +At once they went in to remove the body; but the Himalayan black +bear angrily refused to permit them to touch it. For half an hour +the men made one effort after another to coax, or entice or to +drive the guardian bear away from the dead body, but in vain. When +I reached the strange and uncanny scene, the guardian bear was in +a great rage. It took a position across the limp body, and from +that it fiercely refused to move or to be driven. As an experiment +we threw in a lot of leaves, and the guardian promptly raked them +over the dead one and stood pat. + +We procured a long pole, and from a safe place on the top of the +nearest overhang, a keeper tried to prod or push away the guardian +of the dead. The living one snarled, roared, and with savage vigor +bit the end of the pole. By the time the bear was finally enticed +with food down to the front of the den, and the body removed, +seven hours had elapsed. + +Now, what were the ideas and emotions of the bear? One man can +answer about as well as another. We think that the living bear +realized that something terrible had happened to its cage-mate,-- +in whom he never before had manifested any guardianship +interest,--and he felt called upon to defend a friend who was very +much down and out. It was the first time that he had encountered +the great mystery, Death; and whatever it was, he resented it. + +Case 7. A Terrible Punishment. Once we had a particularly mean +and vicious young Adirondack black bear named Tommy. In a short +time he became known as Tommy the Terror. We put him into a big +yard with Big Ben, from Florida, and two other bears smaller than +Ben, but larger than himself. + +In a short time the Terror had whipped and thoroughly cowed Bruno +and Jappie. Next he tackled Ben; but Ben's great bulk was too much +for him. Finally he devoted a lot of time to bullying and reviling +_through the bars_ a big but good-natured cinnamon bear, +named Bob, who lived in the next den. In all his life up to that +time, Bob had had only one fight. Tommy's treatment of Bob was so +irritating to everybody that it was much remarked upon; and +presently we learned how Bob felt about it. + +One morning while doing the cage work, the keeper walked through +the partition gate from Bob's den into Tommy's. He slammed the +iron gate behind him, as usual, but this time the latch did not catch +as usual. In a moment Bob became aware of this unstable condition. +Very innocently he sauntered up to the gate, pushed it open, and +walked through into the next den. The keeper was then twenty feet +away, but a warning cry from without set him in motion to stop +the intruder. + +[Illustration +with caption: ALASKAN BROWN BEAR "IVAN" BEGGING FOR FOOD He +invented the very expressive sign language that he employs.] + +[Illustration with caption: THE MYSTERY OF DEATH. Himalayan bear +jealously guarding the body of a dead cage-mate.] + +Having no club to face, Bob quietly ignored the keeper's broom. +Paying not the slightest attention to the three inoffensive +bears, Bob fixed his gaze on the Terror, at the far end of the +den, then made straight for him. Tommy made a feeble attempt at +defense, but Bob seized him by the back, bit him, and savagely +shook him as a terrier shakes a rat. The Terror yelled lustily +"Murder! Murder! Help!" but none of the other bears made a move +for his defense. Bob was there to give Tommy the punishment that +was due him for his general meanness and his insulting behavior. + +The horrified keeper secured his pike-pole, with a stout spike set +in the end for defense, and drove the spike into Bob's shoulder. +Bob went right on killing the Terror. Again the keeper drove in +his goad, and blood flowed freely; but Bob paid not the slightest +attention to this severe punishment. + +Then the keeper began to beat the cinnamon over the nose; and that +made him yield. He gave the Terror a parting shake, let him go, +and with a bloody shoulder deliberately walked out of that den and +into his own. The punishment of the Terror went to the full limit, +and we think all those bears approved it. In a few hours he died +of his injuries. + +Case 8. The Grizzly Bear and the String. One of the best +illustrations I know of the keenness and originality of a wild +bear's mind and senses, is found in Mr. W. H. Wright's account of +the grizzly bear he did not catch with an elk bait and two set +guns, in the Bitter Root Mountains. This story is related in +Chapter VI. + +Case 9. Silver King's Memory of His Capture. At this moment we +have a huge polar bear who refuses to forget that he was captured +in the water, in Kane Basin, and who now avoids the water in his +swimming pool, almost as much as any burned child dreads fire. +Throughout the hottest months of midsummer old Silver King lies on +the rock floor of his huge and handsome den, grouching and +grumbling, and not more than once a week enjoying a swim in his +spacious pool. No other polar bear of ours ever manifested such an +aversion for water. The other polar bears who have occupied that +same den loved that pool beyond compare, and used to play in its +waters for hours at a time. Evidently the chase of Silver King +through green arctic water and over ice floes, mile after mile, +his final lassoing, and the drag behind a motor boat to the ship +were, to old Silver King, a terrible tragedy. Now he regards all +deep water as a trap to catch bears, but, strange to relate, the +winter's snow and ice seem to renew his interest in his swimming +pool. Occasionally he is seen at play in the icy water, and toying +with pieces of ice. + +Memory in Bears. I think that ordinarily bear memory for human +faces and voices is not long. Once I saw Mr. William Lyman +Underwood test the memory of a black bear that for eighteen months +had been his household pet and daily companion. After a +separation of a year, which the bear spent in a public park near +Boston, Mr. Underwood approached, alone, close up to the bars of +his cage. He spoke to him in the old way, and called him by his +old name, but the bear gave absolutely no sign of recognition or +remembrance. + +How a Wild Grizzly Bear Caches Food. The silver-tip grizzly bear +of the Rocky Mountains has a mental trait and a corresponding +habit which seems to be unique in bear character. It is the habit +of burying food for future use. Once I had a rare opportunity to +observe this habit. It was in the Canadian Rockies of British +Columbia, in the month of September(1905), while bears were very +activism. John M. Phillips and I shot two large white goats, +one of which rolled down a steep declivity and out upon the slide- +rock, where it was skinned. The flensed body of the other was +rolled over the edge of a cliff, and fell on a brushy soil-covered +spot about on the same level as the remains of goat No. 1. + +The fresh goat remains were promptly discovered by a lusty young +grizzly, which ate to satiety from Goat No. 1. With the remains +of. Goat No. 2 the grizzly industriously proceeded to establish a +cache of meat for future use. + +The goat carcass was dragged to a well chosen spot of seclusion +on moss-covered earth. On the steep hillside a shallow hole was +dug, the whole carcass rolled into it, and then upon it the bear +piled nearly a wagon load of fresh earth, moss, and green plants +that had been torn up by the roots. Over the highest point of the +carcass the mass was twenty-four inches deep. On the ground the +cache was elliptical in shape, and its outline measured about +seven by nine feet. On the lower side it was four feet high, and +on the upper side two feet. The cache was built around two larch +saplings, as if to secure their support. On the uphill side of the +cache the ground was torn up in a space shaped like a half moon, +twenty-eight feet long by nineteen wide. + +I regard that cache as a very impressive exhibit of ursine +thought, reasoning and conclusion. It showed more fore-thought +and provision, and higher purpose in the conservation of food than +some human beings ever display, even at their best. The plains +Indians and the buffalo hunters were horribly wasteful and +improvident. _The impulse of that grizzly was to make good use +of every pound of that meat, and to conserve for the future._ + +Survival of the Bears.--The bears of North America have survived +thirty thousand years after the lions and the sabre-toothed tigers +of La Brea perished utterly and disappeared. But there were bears +also in those days, as the asphalt pits reveal. Now, why did not +all the bears of North America share the fate of the lions and the +tigers? It seems reasonable to answer that it was because the +bears were wiser, more gifted in the art of self-preservation, and +more resourceful in execution. In view of the omnivorous menu of +bears, and their appalling dependence upon small things for food, +it is to me marvelous that they now maintain themselves with such +astounding success. + +A grizzly will dig a big and rocky hole three or four feet deep to +get one tiny ground-squirrel, a tidbit so small that an adult +grizzly could surely eat one hundred of them, like so many plums, +at one sitting. A bear will feed on berries under such handicaps +that one would not be surprised to see a bear starve to death in a +berry-patch. + +But almost invariably the wild bear when killed is fairly well fed +and prosperous; and I fancy that no one ever found a bear that had +died of cold and exposure. The cunning of the black bear in self- +preservation surpasses that of all other large mammal species of +North America save the wolf, the white-tailed deer and the coyote. +In the game of self-preservation I will back that quartet against +all the other large land animals of North America. + +What Constitutes Comfortable Captivity. It is impossible for any +man of good intelligence to work continuously with a wild animal +without learning something of its thoughts and its temper. + +In our Zoological Park, day by day and hour by hour our people +carry into practical effect their knowledge of the psychology of +our mammals, birds and reptiles. In view of the work that we have +done during the past twenty-one years of the Park's history, we do +not need to apologize for claiming to know certain definite things +about wild animal minds. It is my belief that nowhere in the world +is there in one place so large an aggregation of dangerous beasts, +birds and reptiles as ours. And yet accidents to our keepers from +them have been exceedingly few, and all have been slight save +four. + +Twenty-five years ago I endeavored to plan for the Zoological +Society the most humane and satisfactory bear dens on earth. +Fortunately we knew something about bears, both wild and captive. +Never before have we written out the exact motif of those dens, +but it is easily told. We endeavored to give each bear the +following things: + +A very large and luxurious den, open to the sky, and practically +on a level with the world; + +Perfect sanitation; + +A great level playground of smooth concrete; + +High, sloping rocks to climb upon when tired of the level floor; + +A swimming pool, always full and always clean; + +Openwork steel partitions between cages, to promote sociability +and cheerfulness; + +Plenty of sunlight, but an adequate amount of shade; + +Dry and dark sleeping dens with wooden floors, and + +_Close-up views of all bears for all visitors._ + +If there are anywhere in the wilds any bears as healthy, happy and +as secure in their life tenure as ours, I do not know of them. The +wild bear lives in hourly fear of being shot, and of going to bed +hungry. + +The service of our bear dens is based upon our knowledge of bear +psychology. We knew in the beginning that about 97 per cent of our +bears would come to us as cubs, or at least when quite young, and +we decided to take full advantage of that fact. All our bears save +half a dozen all told, have been trained to permit the keepers of +the dens to go into their cages, and to _make no fuss about +it._ The bears know that when the keepers enter to do the +morning housework, or at any other time for any other purpose, +they must at once climb up to the gallery, above the sleeping +dens, and stay there until the keepers retire. A bear who is slow +about going up is sternly ordered to "Go on!" and if he shows any +inclination to disobey, a heavy hickory pick-handle is thrown at +him with no uncertain hand. + +Now, in grooming a herd of bears, a hickory pick-handle leaves no +room for argument. If it hits, it hurts. If it does not hit a +bear, it strikes the concrete floor or the rocks with a resound +and a rebound that frightens the boldest bear almost as much as +being hit. So the bear herd wisely climbs up to the first balcony +and sits down to wait. No bear ever leaps down to attack a keeper. +The distance and the jolt are not pleasant; and whenever a bear +grows weary and essays to climb down, he is sternly ordered back. +The keepers are forbidden to permit any familiarities on the part +of their bears. + +All the bears, save one, that have come to us fully grown, and +savage, have been managed by other methods, involving shifting +cages. + +On two occasions only have any of our keepers been badly bitten in +our bear dens. Both attacks were due to over-trustfulness of +"petted" bears, and to direct disobedience of fixed orders. + +From the very beginning I laid down this law for our keepers, and +have repeated it from year to year. + +"_Make no pets of animals large enough to become dangerous._ +Make every animal understand and admit day by day that you are +absolute master, that it has got to obey, and that if it disobeys, +or attacks you, _you will kill it!_" + +Familiarity with a dangerous wild animal usually breeds contempt +and attack. + +Timidity is so fatal that none but courageous and determined men +should be chosen, _or be permitted,_ to take care of +dangerous animals. + +In every zoological garden heroic deeds are common; and the men +take them all as coming in the day's work. Men in positions of +control over zoological parks and gardens should recognize it as a +solemn duty to provide good salaries for all men who take care of +live wild mammals, birds and reptiles. _A man who is in daily +danger of getting hurt should not every waking hour of his life be +harried and worried by poverty in his home._ + +Let me cite one case of real heroism in our bear dens, which went +in with "the day's work," as many others have done. Keeper Fred +Schlosser thought it would be safe to take our official +photographer, Mr. E. R. Sanborn, into the den of a European brown +bear mother, to get a close-up photograph of her and her cubs. +Schlosser felt sure that Brownie was "all right," and that he +could prevent any accident. + +But near the end of the work the mother bear drove her cubs into +their sleeping den and then made a sudden, vicious and most +unexpected attack upon Keeper Schlosser. She rushed him, knocked +him down, seized him by his thigh, bit him severely, and then +actually began _to drag him_ to the door of her sleeping den! +(Just _why_ she did this I cannot explain!) + +Heroically ignoring the great risk to himself, and thinking of +nothing but saving Schlosser, Mr. Sanborn seized the club that had +fallen from the keeper's hand when he fell, rushed up to the +enraged bear and beat her over the head so savagely and so +skilfully that she was glad to let go of her victim and retreat +into her den. Then Mr. Sanborn seized Schlosser, dragged him away +from the den, and stood guard over him until help came. + + + + +XIII + +MENTAL TRAITS OF A FEW RUMINANTS + + +When we wish to cover with a single word the hoofed and horned +"big game" of the world, we say Ruminants. That easy and +comprehensive name embraces (1) the Bison and Wild Cattle, (2) the +Sheep, Goats, Ibexes and Markhors, (3) the Deer Family and (4) the +Antelope Family. These groups must be considered separately, +because the variations in mind and temperament are quite well +marked; but beyond wisdom in self-preservation, I do not regard +the intelligence of wild ruminants as being really great. + +Intellectually the ruminants are not as high as the apes and +monkeys, bears, wolves, foxes and dogs, the domestic horses and +the elephants. They are handicapped by feet that are good for +locomotion and defense, but otherwise are almost as helpless as so +many jointed sticks. This condition closes to the ruminants the +possibility of a long program of activities which the ruminant +brain might otherwise develop. The ruminant hoof and leg is well +designed for swift and rough travel, for battles with distance, +snow, ice, mud and flood, and for a certain amount of fighting, +but they are inept for the higher manifestations of brain power. + +Because of this unfortunate condition, the study of ruminants in +captivity does not yield a great crop of results. The free wild +animals are far better subjects, and it is from them that we have +derived our best knowledge of ruminant thoughts and ways. It is +not possible, however, to set forth here any more than a limited +number of representative species. + +THE BISON AND WILD CATTLE. The American Bison.--Through the age- +long habit of the American bison to live in large herds, and to +feel, generation after generation, the sense of personal security +that great numbers usually impart, the bison early acquired the +reputation of being a stolid or even a stupid animal. Particularly +was this the case in the days of the greatest bison destruction, +when a still-hunter could get "a stand" on a bunch of buffaloes +quietly grazing at the edge of the great mass, and slowly and +surely shoot down each animal that attempted to lead that group +away from the sound of his rifle. + +During that fatal period the state of the buffalo mind was nothing +less than a tragedy. "The bunch" would hear a report two hundred +yards away, they would see a grazing cow suddenly and mysteriously +fall, struggle, kick the air, and presently lie still. The +individuals nearest dully wondered what it was all about. Those +farthest away looked once only, and went on grazing. If an +experienced old cow grew suspicious and wary, and quietly set out +to walk away from those mysterious noises, "bang!" said the +Mystery once more, and she would be the one to fall. On this +murderous plan, a lucky and experienced hunter could kill from +twenty to sixty head of buffaloes, mostly cows, on a space of +three or four acres. The fatal trouble was that each buffalo felt +that the presence of a hundred or a thousand others feeding close +by was an insurance of _security_ to the individual, and so +there was no stampede. + +But after all, the bison is not so big a fool as he looks. He can +think; and he can _learn._ + +In 1886, when we were about to set out for Montana to try to find +a few wild buffaloes for the National Museum, before the reckless +cowboys could find, kill and waste absolutely the last one, a +hilarious friend said: + +"Pshaw! You don't need to take any rifles! Just get a rusty old +revolver, mount a good, sensible horse, ride right up alongside +the lumbering old beasts, and shoot them down at arm's length." +We went; but not armed with "a rusty old revolver." We found a few +buffaloes, but ye gods! How changed they were from the old days! +Although only two short years had elapsed since the terminal +slaughter of the hundreds of thousands whose white skeletons then +thickly dotted the Missouri-Yellowstone divide, _they had +learned fear of man,_ and also how to preserve themselves from +that dangerous wild beast. They sought the remotest bad lands, +they hid in low grounds, they watched sharply during every +daylight hour, and whenever a man on horseback was sighted they +were off like a bunch of racers, for a long and frantic run +straight away from the trouble-maker. Even at a distance of two +miles, or as far as they could see a man, they would run from +him,--not one mile, or two, but five miles, or seven or eight +miles, to another wild and rugged hiding-place. + +To kill the buffalo specimens that we needed, three cowboys and +the writer worked hard for nearly three months, and it was all +that we could do to outwit those man-scared bison, and to get near +enough to them to kill what we required. Many a time, when weary +from a long chase, I thought with bitter scorn of my friend with +the rusty-old-revolver in his mind. No deer, mountain sheep, +tiger, bears nor elephants,--all of which I have pursued (and +sometimes overtaken!)--were ever more wary or keen in self- +preservation than those bison who _at last_ had broken out +from under the fatal spell of herd security. I am really glad that +this strange turn of Fortune's wheel gave me the knowledge of the +true scope of the buffalo mind before the last chance had passed. + +What did a wild buffalo do when he found himself with a broken +leg, and unable to travel, but otherwise sound? Did he go limping +about over the landscape, to attract enemies from afar, and be +quickly shot by a man or torn to pieces by wolves? Not he! With +the keen intelligence of the wounded wild ruminant, he chose the +line of least resistance, and on three legs fled downhill. He went +on down, and kept going, until he reached the bottom of the +biggest and most tortuous coulee in his neighborhood. And then +what? Instead of coming to rest in a reposeful little valley a +hundred feet wide, he chose the most rugged branch he could find, +the one with the steepest and highest banks, and up that dry bed, +with many a twist and turn, he painfully limped his way. At last +he found himself in a snug and safe ditch, precisely like a front +line trench seven feet wide, with perpendicular walls and zig- +zagging so persistently that the de'il himself could not find him +save by following him up to close quarters, and landing upon his +horns. There, without food or water, the wounded animal would +stand for many days,--in fact, until hunger would force him back +to the valley's crop of grass. His wild remedy was to _keep +still,_ and give that broken leg its chance to knit and grow +strong. + +I have seen in buffalo skeletons healed bone fractures that filled +us with wonder. One case that we shot was a big and heavy bull +whose hip socket had been utterly smashed, femur head and all, by +a heavy rifle ball; but the bull had escaped in spite of his +wound, and he had nursed it until it had healed in _good working +order._ We can testify that he could run as well as any of the +bisons in his bunch. + +Of course young bisons can be tamed, and to a certain extent +educated. "Buffalo" Jones broke a pair of two-year-old bulls to +work under a yoke, and pull a light wagon. He tried them with +bridles and bits, but the buffaloes refused to work with them. +With tight-fitting halters, and the exercise of much-muscle, he +was able for a time to make them "gee" and "haw." But not for +long. When they outgrew his ability in free-hand drawing, he +rigged an upright windlass on each side of his wagon-box, and +firmly attached a line to each. When the team was desired to +"gee," he deftly wound up the right line on its windlass, and vice +versa for "haw." + +But even this did not last a great while. The motor control was +more tentative than absolute. Once while driving beside a creek on +a hot and thirsty day, the super-heated buffaloes suddenly espied +the water, twenty feet or so below the road. Without having been +bidden they turned toward it, and the windlass failed to stop +them. Over the cut bank they went, wagon, man and buffalo bulls, +"in one red burial blent." Although they secured their drink, +their reputation as draught oxen was shattered beyond repair, and +they were cashiered the service. + +Elsewhere I have spoken of the bison's temper and temperament. + +THE WILD SHEEP.--It takes most newly-captured adult mountain sheep +about six months in palatial zoo quarters to get the idea out of +their heads that every man who comes near them, even including the +man who feeds and waters them, is going to kill them, and that +they must rush wildly to and fro before it occurs. But there are +exceptions. + +At the same time, wild herds soon learn the large difference +between slaughter and protection, and thereafter accept man's hay +and salt with dignity and persistence. The fine big-horn +photographs that have been taken of _wild_ sheep herds on +public highways just outside of Banff, Alberta, tell their own +story more eloquently than words can do. The photograph of wild +sheep, after only twenty-seven years of protection, feeding in +herds in the main street of Ouray, Colorado, is an object lesson +never to be forgotten by any student of wild animal psychology. +And can any such student look upon such a picture and say that +those animals have not thought to some purpose upon the important +question of danger and safety to sheep? + +Is there anyone left who still believes the ancient and bizarre +legend that mountain sheep rams jump off cliffs and alight upon +their horns? I think not. People now know enough about anatomy, +and the mental traits of wild sheep, to know that nothing of that +kind ever occurred save by a dreadful accident, followed by the +death of the sheep. No spinal column was ever made by Nature or +developed by man that could endure without breaking a headforemost +fall from the top of a cliff to the slide-rock bottom thereof. + +In Colorado, in May 1907, the late Judge D. C. Beaman of Denver +saw a big-horn ram which was pursued by dogs to the precipitous +end of a mountain ridge, take a leap for life into space from top +to bottom. The distance straight down was "between twenty and +twenty-five feet." The ram went down absolutely upright, with his +head fully erect, and his feet well apart. He landed on the slide +rock on his feet, broke no bones, promptly recovered himself and +dashed away to safety. Judge Beaman declared that "the dogs were +afraid to approach even as near as the edge of the cliff at the +point from which the sheep leaped off." + +John Muir held the opinion that the legend of horn-landing sheep +was born of the wild descent of frightened sheep down rocks so +steep that they _seemed_ perpendicular but were not, and the +sheep, after touching here and there in the wild pitch sometimes +landed in a heap at the bottom,--quite against their will. To me +this has always seemed a reasonable explanation. + +The big-horn sheep has one mental trait that its host of ardent +admirers little suspect. It does not like pinnacle rocks, nor +narrow ledges across perpendicular cliffs, nor dangerous climbing. +It does not "leap from crag to crag," either up, down or across. +Go where you will in sheep hunting, nine times out of ten you will +find your game on perfectly safe ground, from which there is very +little danger of falling. + +In spirit and purpose the big-horns are great pioneers and +explorers. They always want to see what is on the other side of +the range. They will sight a range of far distant desert +mountains, and to see what is there will travel by night across +ten or twenty miles of level desert to find out. + +It was in the Pinacate Mountains of northwestern Mexico, on the +eastern shore of the head of the Gulf of California, that we made +our most interesting observations on wild big-horn sheep. On those +black and blasted peaks and plains of lava, where nature was +working hard to replant with desert vegetation a vast volcanic +area, we found herds of short-haired, undersized big-horn sheep, +struggling to hold their own against terrific heat, short food and +long thirst. It is a burning shame that since our discovery of +those sheep hunters of a dozen different kinds have almost +exterminated them. + +We saw one band of seventeen sheep, close to Pinacate Peak, all so +utterly ignorant of the ways of men that they practically refused +to be frightened at our presence and our silent guns. We watched +them a long time, forgetful of the flight of time. They were not +shrewdly suspicious of danger. They fed, and frolicked, and dozed, +as much engrossed in their indolence as if the world contained no +dangers for them. + +One day Mr. John M. Phillips and I shot two rams, for the Carnegie +Museum; and the next morning I had the most remarkable lesson that +I ever learned in mountain sheep psychology. + +Early on that November morning Mr. Jeff Milton and I left our +chilly lair in a lava ravine, and most foolishly left both our +rifles at our camp. Hobbling along on foot we led a pack mule over +half a mile of rough and terrible lava to a dead sheep. There we +quickly skinned the animal, packed the skin and a horned head upon +the upper deck of our mule, and started back to camp, leading our +assistant. Half way back we looked westward across an eighth of a +mile of rough, black lava, and saw standing on a low point a fine +big-horn ram. He stood in a statuesque attitude, facing us, and +fixedly gazing at us. He was trying to make out what we were, and +to determine why a perfectly good pair of sheep horns should grow +out of the back of a sorrel mule! Ethically he had a right to be +puzzled. + +Mr. Milton and I were greatly annoyed by the absence of our +rifles; and he proposed that we should leave the mule where he +stood, go back to our camp, get our guns, and kill the sheep. Now, +even then I was quite well up on the subject of curiosity in wild +animals, and I knew to a minute what to count upon as the standing +period of sheep, goat or deer. As gently as possible I informed +Milton that _no_ sheep would ever stand and look at a sorrel +mule for the length of time it would take us to foot it over that +lava to camp, and return. + +But my companion was optimistic, and even skeptical. + +"Maybe he will, now!" he persisted. "Let's try it. I think he may +wait for us." + +Much against my judgment, and feeling secretly rebellious at the +folly of it all, I agreed to his plan,--solely to be "a good +sport," and to play his game. But _I_ knew that the effort +would be futile, as well as exhausting. Jeff tied the mule, for +the sheep to contemplate. + +We went and got those rifles. We were gone fully twenty minutes. +When we again reached the habitat of the mule, _that ram was +still there!_ Apparently he had not moved a muscle, nor stirred +a foot, nor even batted an eye. Talk about curiosity in a wild +animal! He was a living statue of it. + +He continued to hold his pose on his lava point while we stalked +him under cover of a hillock of lava, and shot him,--almost half +an hour after we first saw him. He had been overwhelmingly puzzled +by the uncanny sight of a pair of curling horns like his own, +growing out of the back of a long-eared sorrel mule which he felt +had no zoological right to wear them. He did his level best to +think it out; he became a museum specimen in consequence, and he +has gone down in history as the Curiosity Ram. + +Mental Attitude of Captured Big-Horn Sheep. In 1906 an +enterprising and irrepressible young man named Will Frakes took +the idea into his head that he must catch some mountain sheep +alive, and do it alone and single-handed. Presently he located a +few _Ovis nelsoni_ in the Avawatz Mountains near Death +Valley, California. Finding a water hole to which mountain sheep +occasionally came at night to drink, he set steel traps around it. +One by one he caught five sheep of various ages, but chiefly +adults. The story of this interesting performance is told in +_Outdoor Life_ magazine for March, April and May, 1907. + +I am interested in the mental processes of those sheep as they +came in close contact with man, and were compelled by force of +circumstances to accept captivity. Knowing, as all animal men do, +the fierce resistance usually made by adult animals to the +transition from freedom to captivity, I was prepared to read that +those nervous and fearsome adult sheep fought day by day until +they died. + +But not so. Those sheep showed clear perceptive faculties and good +judgment. They were quick to learn that they were conquered, and +with amazing resignation they accepted the new life and its +strange conditions. In describing the chase on foot in thick +darkness of a big old male mountain sheep with a steel trap fast +on his foot, Mr. Frakes says: + +"A sheep's token of surrender is to lie down and lie still. Once +he 'possums, no matter what you do, or how badly you may hurt him, +he will never flinch. And when this sheep ("Old Stonewall") was +thrown down by the trap, he evidently thought that he was +captured, and lay still for a few minutes before he found out the +difference, which gave me time to come up with him.... So I went +to camp, got a trap clamp and some sacks, made a kind of sled and +dragged him in. It was just midnight when I got him tied down, and +just sun-up when I got to camp with him. I fixed him up the best +I could, stood him up beside the other big-horn and took their +pictures. He looked so "rough and ready" that I named him "Old +Stonewall." But for all his proud, defiant bearing he has always +been a good sheep, _and never tried to fight me._ Still he +can hit quick and hard when he wants to, and I have to keep him +tied up all the time to keep him from killing the other bucks." + +Now, I know not what conclusion others will draw from the above +clear and straightforward recital, but to me it established in +_Ovis nelsoni_ a reputation for quick thinking, original +reasoning and sound conclusions. In an incredibly short period +those animals came up to the status of tame animals. The five +sheep caught by Mr. Frakes were suddenly confronted by new +conditions, such as their ancestors had never even dreamed of +meeting; and _all of them reacted in the same way._ That was +more than "animal behavior." It was Thought, and Reason! + +THE GOATS. White Mountain Goat.--I never have had any opportunity +to study at length, in the wilds, the mental traits of the +markhors, ibexes, gorals or serows. I have however, enjoyed rare +opportunities with the white Rocky Mountain goat, on the summits +of the Canadian Rockies as well as in captivity. + +Where we were, on the Elk River Mountains of East Kootenay, the +goats had little fear of man. They did not know that we were in +the group of the world's most savage predatory animals, and we +puzzled them. Fourteen of them once leisurely looked down upon us +from the edge of a cliff, and silently studied us for a quarter of +an hour. An hour later three of them ran through our camp. One +morning an old billy calmly lay down to rest himself on the +mountain side about 300 feet above our tents. At last, however, he +became uneasy, and moved away. + +This goat is not a timid and fearsome soul, ready to go into a +panic in the presence of danger. The old billy believes that the +best defense is a vigorous offense. On the spot where Cranbrook, +B. C., now stands, an old billy was caught unawares on an open +plain and surrounded by Indians, dogs and horses. In the battle +that ensued he so nearly whipped the entire outfit that a squaw +rushed wildly to the rescue with a loaded rifle, to enable the Red +army to win against the one lone goat. + +In those mountains the white goat, grizzly bear, mountain sheep, +mule deer and elk all live together, in perfect liaison, and never +but once have I heard of the goat getting into a fight with a +joint-tenant species. A large silver-tip grizzly rashly attacked a +full-grown billy, and managed to inflict upon him mortal injuries. +Before he fell, however, the goat countered by driving his little +skewer-sharp black horns into the vitals of the grizzly with such +judgment and precision that the dead grizzly was found by Mr. A. +B. Fenwick quite near the dead goat. + +We know that the mountain goat is a good reasoner in certain life- +or-death matters affecting himself. + +He knows no such thing as becoming panic-stricken from surprise or +fear. An animal that looks death in the face every hour from +sunrise until sunset is not to be upset by trifles. We have seen +that if a dog and several men corner a goat on a precipice ledge, +and hem him in so that there is no avenue of escape, he does not +grow frantic, as any deer or most sheep would do, and plunge off +into space to certain death. Not he. He stands quite still, glares +indignantly upon his enemies, shakes his head, occasionally grits +his teeth or stamps a foot, but otherwise waits. His attitude and +his actions say: + +"Well, it is your move. What are you going to do next?" + +Most captive ruminants struggle frantically when put into crates +for shipment. White goats very rarely do so. They recognize the +inevitable, and accept it with resignation. Captive antelopes and +deer often kill themselves by dashing madly against wire fences, +but I never knew a white goat to injure itself on a fence. Many a +wild animal has died from fighting its shipping crate; but no wild +goat ever did so. A white goat will walk up a forty-five degree +plank to the roof of his house, climb all over it, and joyously +perch on the peak; but no mountain sheep or deer of ours ever did +so. _They are afraid!_ Only the Himalayan tahr equals the +white goat in climbing in captivity, and it will climb into the +lower branches of an oak tree, just for fun. + +Of all the ruminant animals I know intimately, the white mountain +goat is the philosopher-in-chief. Were it not so, how would it be +possible for him to live and thrive, and attain happiness, on the +savage and fearsome summits that form his chosen home? We +must bear in mind that the big-horn does not dare to risk +the haunts and trails of his white rivals. Hear the Cragmaster of +the Rockies: + +[Illustration with caption: THE STEADY-NERVED AND COURAGEOUS +MOUNTAIN GOAT He refused to be stampeded off his ledge by men or +dog. Photographed at eight feet by John M. Phillips (1905).] + +"On dizzy ledge of mountain wall, above the timber-line I +hear the riven slide-rock fall toward the stunted pine. Upon +the paths I tread secure no foot dares follow me, For I am +master of the crags, and march above the scree." + +In other chapters I have referred to the temperament and logic of +this animal, the bravest mountaineer of all America. + +THE DEER.--In nervous energy the species of the Deer Family vary +all the way from the nervous and hysterical barasingha to the +sensible and steady American elk that can successfully be driven +in harness like a horse. As I look over the deer of all nations I +am bound to award the palm for sound common-sense and reasoning +power to the elk. + +A foolishly nervous deer seldom takes time to display high +intelligence. Naturally we dislike men, women, children or wild +animals who are always ready to make fools of themselves, +stampede, and disfigure the landscape. + +The Axis Deer is quietly sensible,--so long as there is no +catching to be done. Try to catch one, and the whole herd goes off +like a bomb. Many other species are similar. No wild deer could +act more absurdly than does the axis, the barasingha and fallow, +even after generations have been bred in captivity. + +The Malay Sambar Deer of the Zoological Park have one droll trait. +The adult bucks bully and browbeat the does, in a rather mild way, +so long as their own antlers are on their heads. But when those +antlers take their annual drop, "O, times! O, manners! What a +change!" The does do not lose a day in flying at them, and taking +revenge for past tyranny. They strike the hornless bucks with +their front feet, they butt them, and they bite out of them +mouthfuls of hair. The bucks do not seem, to know that they can +fight without their antlers, and so the tables are completely +turned. This continues until the new horns grow out, the velvet +dries and is rubbed off,--and then quickly the tables are turned +again. + +No other deer species of my personal acquaintance has ever +equalled the American elk of Wyoming in recognizing man's +protection and accepting his help in evil times. It is not only a +few wise ones, or a few half-domestic bands, but vast wild herds +of thousands that every winter rush to secure man's hay in the +Jackson Hole country, south of the Yellowstone Park. No matter how +shy they _all_ are in the October hunting season, in the bad +days of January and February they know that the annual armistice +is on, and it means hay for them instead of bullets. They swarm in +the level Jackson Valley, around S. N. Leek's famous ranch and +others, until you can see a square mile of solid gray-yellow +living elk bodies. Mr. Leek once caught about 2,500 head in one +photograph, all hungry. They crowd around the hay sleds like +hungry horses. In their greatest hunger they attack the ranchmen's +haystacks, just as far as the stout and high log fences will +permit them to go, and many a kind-hearted ranchman has robbed his +own haystacks to save the lives of starving and despairing elk. + +The Yellowstone Park elk know the annual shooting and feeding +seasons just as thoroughly as do the men of Jackson Hole. + +Once there was a bold and hardy western man who trained a bunch of +elk to dive from a forty-foot high platform into a pool of water. +I say that he "trained" them, because it really was that. The +animals quickly learned that the plunge did nothing more than to +shock and wet them, and so they submitted to the part they had to +play, with commendable resignation. Some deer would have fought +the program every step of the way, and soon worn themselves out; +but elk, and also horses, learn that the diving performance is all +in the day's work; which to me seems like good logic. A few +persons believe that such performances are cruel to the animals +concerned, but the diving alone is not necessarily so. + +Some deer have far too much curiosity, too much desire to know +"What is that?" and "What is it all about?" The startled mule deer +leaps out, jumps a hundred feet or more at a great pace, then +foolishly stops and looks back, to gratify his curiosity. That is +the hunter's chance; and that fatal desire for accurate +information has been an important contributory cause to the +extermination of the mule deer, or Rocky Mountain "black-tail," +throughout large areas. In the Yellowstone Park the once-wild +herds of mule deer have grown so tame under thirty years of +protection that they completely overrun the parade ground, the +officers' quarters, and even enter porches and kitchens for food. + +Several authors have remarked upon the habits of the elephant, +llama and guanaco in returning to the same spot; and this reminds +me of a coincidence in my experience that few persons will believe +when I relate it. + +In the wild and weird bad-lands of Hell Creek, Montana, I once +went out deer hunting in company with the original old hermit +wolf-hunter of that region, named Max Sieber. With deep feeling +Max told me of a remarkable miss that he had made the previous +year in firing at a fine mule deer buck from the top of a small +butte; for which I gave him my sympathy. + +In the course of our morning's tramp through the very bad-lands +that were once the ancestral home of the giant carnivorous +dinosaur, yclept _Tyrannosaurus rex,_ we won our way to the +foot of a long naked butte. Then Sieber said, very kindly: + +"If you will climb with me up to the top of this butte I will show +you where I missed that big buck." + +It was not an alluring proposition, and I thought things that I +did not speak. However, being an Easy Mark, I said cheerfully, +"All right, Max. Go ahead and show me." + +We toiled up to a much-too-distant point on the rounded summit, +and as Max slowed up and peered down the farther side, he pointed +and began to speak. + +"He was standing right down there on that little patch of bare-- +why!" he exclaimed. "_There's a dee-er there now!_ But it's a +doe! Get down! Get down!" and he crouched. Then I woke up and +became interested. + +"It is _not_ a doe, Max. I see horns!"--Bang! + +And in another five seconds a fine buck lay dead on the very spot +where Sieber's loved and lost buck had stood one year previously. +But that was only an unbelievable coincidence,--unbelievable to +all save old Max. + +The natural impulse of the mule deer of those bad-lands when +flushed by a hunter is to _run over a ridge,_ and escape over +the top; but that is bad judgement and often proves fatal. It +would be wiser for them to run _down,_ to the bottoms of +those gashed and tortuous gullies, and escape by zig-zagging along +the dry stream beds. + +The White-Tailed, or Virginia Deer is the wisest member of the +Deer Family in North America, and it will be our last big-game +species to become extinct. It has reduced self-preservation to an +exact science. + +In areas of absolute protection it becomes very bold, and breeds +rapidly. Around our bungalow in the wilds of Putman County, New +York, the deer come and stamp under our windows, tramp through our +garden, feed in broad daylight with our neighbor's cattle, and +jauntily jump across the roads almost anywhere. They are beautiful +objects, in those wild wooded landscapes of lake and hill. + +But in the Adirondacks, what a change! If you are keen you may see +a few deer in the closed season, but to see in the hunting season +a buck with good horns you must be a real hunter. As a skulker and +hider, and a detector of hunters, I know no deer equal to the +white-tail. In making a safe get-away when found, I will back a +buck of this species against all other deer on earth. He has no +fatal curiosity. He will not halt and pose for a bullet in order +to have a look at you. What the startled buck wants is more space +and more green bushes between the Man and himself. + +The Moose is a weird-looking and uncanny monster, but he knows one +line of strategy that is startling in its logic. Often when a bull +moose is fleeing from a long stern chase,--always through wooded +country,--he will turn aside, swing a wide semicircle backward, +and then lie down for a rest close up to leeward of his trail. +There he lies motionless and waits for man-made noises, or man +scent; and when he senses either sign of his pursuer, he silently +moves away in a new direction. + +The Antelopes of the Old World. The antelopes, gazelles, gnus and +hartebeests of Africa and Asia almost without exception live in +herds, some of them very large. Owing to this fact their minds are +as little developed, individually, as the minds of herd animals +generally are. The herd animal, relying as it does upon its +leaders, and the security that large numbers always seem to +afford, is a creature of few independent ideas. It is not like the +deer, elk, sheep or goat that has learned things in the hard +school of solitude, danger and adversity, with no one on whom to +rely for safety save itself. The basic intelligence of the average +herd animal can be summed up in one line: + +"Post your sentinels, then follow your leader." + +Judging from what hunters in Africa have told me, the hunting of +most kinds of African antelopes is rather easy and quiet long- +range rifle work. In comparison with any sheep, goat, ibex, +markhor and even deer hunting, it must be rather mild sport. A +level grassy plain with more or less bushes and small trees for +use in stalking is a tame scenario beside mountains and heavy +forests, and it seems to me that this sameness and tameness of +habitat naturally fails to stimulate the mental development of the +wild habitants. In captivity, excepting the keen kongoni, or +Coke hartebeest, and a few others, the old-world antelopes are +mentally rather dull animals. They seem to have few thoughts, and +seldom use what they have; but when attacked or wounded the roan +antelope is hard to finish. In captivity their chief exercise +consists in rubbing and wearing down their horns on the iron bars +of their indoor cages, but I must give one of our brindled gnus +extra credit for the enterprise and thoroughness that he displayed +in wrecking a powerfully-built water-trough, composed of concrete +and porcelain. The job was as well done as if it had been the work +of a big-horn ram showing off. But that was the only exhibition of +its kind by an African antelope. + +The Alleged "Charge" of the Rhinoceros. For half a century African +hunters wrote of the assaults of African rhinoceroses on caravans +and hunting parties; and those accounts actually established for +that animal a reputation for pugnacity. Of late years, however, +the evil intentions of the rhinoceros have been questioned by +several hunters. Finally Col. Theodore Roosevelt firmly declared +his belief that the usual supposed "charge" of the rhinoceros is +nothing more nor less than a movement to draw nearer to the +strange man-object, on account of naturally poor vision, to see +what men look like. In fact, I think that most American sportsmen +who have hunted in Africa now share that view, and credit the +rhino with very rarely running at a hunter or a party in order to +do damage. + +The Okapi, of Central Africa, inhabits dense jungles of arboreal +vegetation and they are so expert in detecting the presence of man +and in escaping from him that thus far, so far as we are aware, no +white man has ever shot one! The native hunters take them only in +pitfalls or in nooses. Mr. Herbert Lang, of the American Museum of +Natural History, diligently hunted the okapi, with native aid, but +in spite of all his skill in woodcraft the cunning of the okapi +was so great, and the brushy woods were so great a handicap to +him, that he never shot even one specimen. + +In skill in self-preservation the African bongo antelope seems to +be a strong rival of the okapi, but it has been killed by a few +white men, of whom Captain Kermit Roosevelt is one. + + + + +XIV + +MENTAL TRAITS OF A FEW RODENTS + + +Out of the vast mass of the great order of the gnawing animals of +the world it is possible here to consider only half a dozen types. +However, these will serve to blaze a trail into the midst of the +grand army. + +The White-Footed Mouse, or Deer Mouse. On the wind-swept divides +and coulees of the short-grass region of what once were the +Buffalo Plains of Montana, only the boldest and most resourceful +wild mice can survive. There in 1886 we found a white-footed mouse +species (_Peromyscus leucopus_), nesting in the brain +cavities of bleaching buffalo skulls, on divides as bare and +smooth as golf links. + +In 1902, while hunting mule deer with Laton A. Huffman in the +wildest and most picturesque bad-lands of central Montana, we +pitched our tent near the upper waterhole of Hell Creek. +[Footnote: A few months later, acting upon the information of our +fossil discoveries that we conveyed to Professor Henry Fairfield +Osborn, an expedition from the American Museum of Natural History +ushered into the scientific world the now famous Hell Creek fossil +bed, and found, about five hundred feet from the ashes of our +camp-fire, the remains of _Tyrannosaurus rex._]For the +benefit of our camp-fire, our cook proceeded to hitch his rope +around a dry cottonwood log and snake it close up to our tent. +When it was cut up, we found snugly housed in the hollow, a nest, +made chiefly of feathers, containing five white-footed mice. +Packed close against the nest was a pint and a half of fine, clean +seed, like radish seed, from some weed of the Pulse Family. While +the food-store was being examined, and finally deposited in a pile +upon the bare ground near the tent door, the five mice escaped +into the sage-brush. Near by stood an old-fashioned buggy, which +now becomes a valuable piece of stage property. + +The next morning, when Mr. Huffman lifted the cushion of his +buggy-seat, and opened the top of the shallow box underneath, the +five mice, with their heads close together in a droll-looking +group, looked out at him in surprise and curiosity, and at first +without attempting to run away. But very soon it became our turn +to be surprised. + +We found that these industrious little creatures had gathered up +every particle of their nest, and every seed of their winter +store, and carried all of it up into the seat of that buggy! The +nest had been carefully re-made, and the seed placed close by, as +before. Considering the number of journeys that must have been +necessary to carry all those materials over the ground, plus a +climb up to the buggy seat, the industry and agility of the mice +were amazing. + +By way of experiment, we again removed the nest, and while the +mice once more took to the sage-brush, we collected all the seed, +and poured it in a pile upon the ground, as before. During the +following night, those indomitable little creatures _again_ +carried nest and seed back into the buggy seat, just as before! +Then we gathered up the entire family of mice with their nest and +seed, and transported them to New York. + +Now, the reasoning of those wonderful little creatures, in the +face of new conditions, was perfectly obvious, (1) Finding +themselves suddenly deprived of their winter home and store of +food, (2) they scattered and fled for personal safety into the +tall grass and sage-brush. (3) At night they assembled for a +council at the ruins of their domicile and granary. (4) They +decided that they must in all haste find a new home, close by, +because (5) at all hazards their store of food must be saved, to +avert starvation. (6) They explored the region around the tent and +camp-fire, and (7) finally, as a last resort, they ventured to +climb up the thills of the buggy. (8) After a full exploration of +it they found that the box under the seat afforded the best winter +shelter they had found. (9) At once they decided that it would do, +and without a moment's delay or hesitation the whole party of five +set to work carrying those seeds up the thills--a fearsome venture +for a mouse--and (10) there before daybreak they deposited the +entire lot of seeds. (11) Finding that a little time remained, +they carried up the whole of their nest materials, made up the +nest anew, and settled down within it for better or for worse. + +Now, this is no effort of our imagination. It is a story of actual +facts, all of which can be proven by three competent witnesses. +How many human beings similarly dispossessed and robbed of home +and stores, act with the same cool judgment, celerity and +precision that those five tiny creatures then and there displayed? + +The Wood Rat, Pack Rat, or Trading Rat. Although I have met this +wonderful creature (_Neotoma_) in various places on its +native soil, I will quote from another and perfectly reliable +observer a sample narrative of its startling mental traits. At Oak +Lodge, east coast of Florida, we lived for a time in the home of +a pair of pack rats whose eccentric work was described to me by Mrs. +C. F. Latham, as follows: + +First they carried a lot of watermelon seeds from the ground floor +upstairs, and hid them under a pillow on a bed. Then they took +from the kitchen a tablespoonful of cucumber seeds and hid them in +the pocket of a vest that hung upstairs on a nail. In one night +they removed from box number one, eighty five pieces of bee-hive +furniture, and hid them in another box. On the following night +they deposited in box number one about two quarts of corn and +oats. + +Western frontiersmen and others who live in the land of the pack +rat relate stories innumerable of the absurd but industrious +doings of these eccentric creatures. The ways of the pack rat are +so erratic that I find it impossible to figure out by any rules +known to me the workings of their minds. Strange to say, they are +not fiends and devils of malice and destruction like the brown rat +of civilization, and on the whole it seems that the destruction of +valuable property is not by any means a part of their plan. They +have a passion for moving things. Their vagaries seem to be due +chiefly to caprice, and an overwhelming desire to keep exceedingly +busy. I think that the animal psychologists have lost much by so +completely ignoring these brain-busy animals, and I hope that in +the future they will receive the attention they deserve. Why +experiment with stupid and nerveless white rats when pack rats are +so cheap? + +It was in the wonderland that on the map is labeled "Arizona" +that I met some astonishing evidences of the defensive reasoning +power of the pack rat. In the Sonoran Desert, where for arid +reasons the clumps of creosote bushes and salt bushes stand from +four to six feet apart, the bare level ground between clumps +affords smooth and easy hunting-grounds for coyotes, foxes and +badgers, saying nothing of the hawks and owls. + +Now, a burrow in sandy ground is often a poor fortress; and the +dropping spine-clad joints of the tree choyas long ago suggested +better defenses. In many places we saw the entrance of pack rat +burrows defended by two bushels of spiny choya joints and sticks +arranged in a compact mound-like mass. In view of the virtue in +those deadly spines, any predatory mammal or bird would hesitate +long before tackling a bushel of solid joints to dig through it to +the mouth of a burrow. + +Did those little animals collect and place those joints because of +their defensive stickers,--with deliberate forethought and +intention? Let us see. + +In the grounds of the Desert Botanical Laboratory, in November +1907, we found the answer to this question, so plainly spread +before us that even the dullest man can not ignore it, nor the +most skeptical dispute it. We found some pack rat runways and +burrow entrances so elaborately laid out and so well defended by +choya joints that we may well call the ensemble a fortress. On +the spot I made a very good map of it, which is presented on page +164. [Footnote: From "Camp-Fires on Desert and Lava" (Scribner's) +page 304.] The animal that made it was the White-Throated Pack Rat +(_Neotoma albigula_). The fortress consisted of several +burrow entrances, the roads leading to which were defended by +carefully constructed barriers of cactus joints full of spines. + +The habitants had chosen to locate their fortress between a large +creosote bush and a tree-choya cactus (_Opuntia fulgida_) +that grew on bare ground, twelve feet apart. When away from home +and in danger, the pack rats evidently fled for safety to one or +the other of those outposts. Between them the four entrance holes, +then in use, went down into the earth; and there were also four +abandoned holes. + +Connecting the two outposts,--the creosote bush and the choya,-- +with the holes that were in daily use there were some +much-used runways, as shown on the map; and each side of each +runway was barricaded throughout its length with spiny joints of +the choya. A few of the joints were old and dry, but the majority +were fresh and in full vigor. We estimated that about three +hundred cactus joints were in use guarding those runways; and no +coyote or fox of my acquaintance, nor eke a dog of any sense, +would rashly jump upon that spiny pavement to capture a rat. + +[Illustration with caption: FORTRESS OF A PACK-RAT, AT TUCSON +DEFENDED BY THE SPINY POINTS OF THE TREE CHOYA (_Opuntia +fulgida_)] + +Beyond the cactus outpost the main run led straight to the +sheltering base of a thick mesquite bush and a palo verde that +grew tightly together. This gave an additional ten feet of safe +ground, or about twenty-five feet in all. + +On our journey to the Pinacate Mountains, northwestern Mexico, we +saw about twelve cactus-defended burrows of the pack rat, some of +them carefully located in the midst of large stones that rendered +digging by predatory animals almost impossible. + +The beautiful little Desert Kangaroo Rat (_Dipodomys +deserti_) has worked out quite a different system of home +protection. It inhabits deserts of loose sand and creosote bushes, +where it digs burrows innumerable, always located amid the roots +of the bushes, and each one provided with three or four +entrances,--or exits, as the occasion may require. Each burrow is +a bewildering labyrinth of galleries and tunnels, and in +attempting to lay bare an interior the loose sand caved in, and +the little sprite that lived there either escaped at a distant +point or was lost in the shuffle of sand. + +The Gray Squirrel (_Sciurus carolinensis_).--This beautiful +and sprightly animal quickly recognizes man's protection and +friendship, and meets him half way. Go into the woods, sit still, +make a noise like a nut, and if any grays are there very soon you +will see them. The friendships between our Park visitors and the +Park's wild squirrels are one of the interesting features of our +daily life. We have an excellent picture of Mrs. Russell Sage +sitting on a park bench with a wild gray squirrel in her lap. I +have never seen red or fox squirrels that even approached the +confidence of the gray squirrel in the truce with Man, the +Destroyer, but no doubt generous treatment would produce in the +former the gray squirrel's degree of confidence. + +I never knew an observer of the home life of the gray squirrel who +was not profoundly impressed by the habit of that animal in +burying nuts in the autumn, and digging them up for food in the +winter and spring. From my office window I have seen our silver- +gray friends come hopping through eight or ten inches of snow, +carefully select a spot, then quickly bore a hole down through the +snow to Mother Earth, and emerge with a nut. Thousands of people +have seen this remarkable performance and I think that the +majority of them still ask the question: "_How_ does the +squirrel know precisely where to dig?" That question cannot be +answered until we have learned how to read the squirrel mind. + +Small city parks easily become overstocked with gray squirrels +that are not adequately fed, and the result is,--complaints of +"depredations." Of course hungry and half-starved squirrels will +depredate,--on birds' nests, fruit and gardens. My answer to all +inquirers for advice in such cases is--_feed the squirrels, +adequately, and constantly, on cracked corn and nuts, and send +away the surplus squirrels._ + +At this time many persons know that the wild animals and birds now +living upon the earth are here solely because they have had +sufficient sense to devise ways and means by which to survive. The +ignorant, the incompetent, the slothful and the unlucky ones have +passed from earth and joined the grand army of fossils. + +Take the case of the Rocky Mountain Pika, or little chief "hare," +of British Columbia and elsewhere. It is not a hare at all, and it +is so queer that it occupies a family all alone. I am now +concerning myself with _Ochotona princeps,_ of the Canadian +Rockies. It is very small and weak, but by its wits it lives in a +country reeking with hungry bears, wolverines and martens. The +pika is so small and so weak that in the open he could not +possibly dig down below the grizzly bear's ability to dig. + +And what does he do to save himself, and insure the survival of +the fittest? + +He burrows far down in the slide-rock that falls from the cliffs, +where he is protected by a great bed of broken stone so thick that +no predatory animal can dig through it and catch him. There in +those awful solitudes, enlivened only by the crack and rattle of +falling slide-rock, the harsh cry of Clark's nut-cracker and the +whistling wind sweeping over the storm-threshed summits and +through the stunted cedar, the pika chooses to make his +home. Over the slide-rock that protects him, the snows of the long +and dreary winter pile up from six to ten feet deep, and lie +unbroken for months. And how does the pika survive? + +[Illustration +with caption: WILD CHIPMUNKS RESPOND TO MAN'S PROTECTION. J. Alden +Loring and his wild pets] + +[Illustration with caption: AN OPOSSUM FEIGNING DEATH] + +When he is awake, _he lives on hay, of his own making!_ + +In September and October, and up to the arrival of the enveloping +snow, he cuts plants of certain kinds to his liking, he places +them in little piles atop of rocks or fallen logs where the sun +will strike them, and he leaves them there until they dry +sufficiently to be stored without mildewing. Mr. Charles L. Smith +declared that the pikas know enough to change their little hay +piles as the day wears on, from shade to sunlight. The plants to +be made into hay are cut at the edge of the slide-rock, usually +about a foot in length, and are carried in and placed on flat- +topped rocks around the mouth of the burrow. The stems are laid +together with fair evenness, and from start to finish the +haymaking of the pika is conducted with admirable system and +precision. When we saw and examined half a dozen of those curing +hay piles, we felt inclined to take off our hats to the thinking +mind of that small animal which was making a perfectly successful +struggle to hold its own against the winter rigors of the summits, +and at the same time escape from its enemies. + +The common, every-day Cotton-Tail Rabbit (_Lepus sylvaticus_) +is not credited by anyone with being as wise as a fox, but that +is due to our own careless habits of thought. It has been man's way, +ever since the days of the Cavemen, to underrate all wild animals +except himself. We are not going to cite a long line of individual +instances to exhibit the mental processes or the natural wisdom of +the rabbit. All we need do is to point to its success in +maintaining its existence in spite of the enemies arrayed against +it. + +Take the state of Pennsylvania, and consider this list of the +rabbit's mortal enemies: + +450,000 well-armed men and boys, regularly licensed and diligently +gunning throughout six weeks of the year, and actually killing +each year about 3,500,000 rabbits! + +200,000 farmers hunting on their own farms, without licenses. + +Predatory animals, such as dogs, cats, skunks, foxes and weasels. + +Predatory birds: hawks, eagles and owls. + +Destructive elements: forest fires, rain, snow and sleet. + +Now, is it not a wonder that _any_ rabbits remain alive in +Pennsylvania? But they are there. They refuse to be exterminated. +Half of them annually outwit all their enemies--smart as they +are; they avoid death by hunger and cold, and they go on breeding +in defiance of wild men, beasts and birds. Is it not wonderful-- +the mentality of the gray rabbit? Again we say--the wild animal +must think or die. + +In recognizing man's protection and friendship, the rabbit is as +quick on the draw as the gray squirrel. In our Zoological Park +where we constantly kill hunting cats in order that our little +wild neighbors, the rabbits, squirrels and chipmunks may live, the +rabbits live literally in our midst. They hang around the +Administration Building, rear and front, as if they owned it; and +one evening at sunset I came near stepping out upon a pair that +were roosting on the official door-mat on the porch. There are +times when they seem annoyed by the passage of automobiles over +the service road. + +To keep hungry rabbits from barking your young apple trees in +midwinter, spend a dollar or two in buying two or three bushels of +corn expressly for them. + +The sentry system of the Prairie-"Dog" in guarding "towns" is very +nearly perfect. A warning chatter quickly sends every "dog" +scurrying to the mouth of its hole, ready for the dive to safety +far below. No! the prairie-"dog," rattlesnake and burrowing owl +emphatically do NOT dwell together in peace and harmony in the +burrow of the "dog." The rodent hates both these interloping +enemies, and carefully avoids them. The pocket gopher does his +migrating and prospecting at night, when his enemies are asleep. +The gray squirrel builds for itself a summer nest of leaves. At +the real beginning of winter the prairie-"dog" tightly plugs up +with moist earth the mouth of his burrow; and he packs it with his +nose. The round-tailed muskrat of Florida (_Neofiber alleni_) +builds a little platform over the water of the marsh in which it +lives, on which it builds its nest high and dry. The Hudsonian red +squirrel will bark and scold at a human intruder for half an hour. + +In Chapter IV I have already accorded the beaver a place with the +most intelligent animals of the world. The books that have been +written concerning that species have been amply justified. It is, +however, impossible to refuse this important animal a place in any +chapter devoted to the mental traits of rodents, and I deem it +fitting to record here our latest experience with this remarkable +species. + +Our Last Beaver Experiment. In the autumn of 1921 we emptied and +cleaned out our Beaver Pond. The old house originally built by the +beavers in the centre of the pond, was for sanitary reasons +entirely removed. Work on the pond was not finished until about +October 25; and the beavers had no house. + +It seemed to me a physical impossibility for the beavers to begin +a new house at that late date and unassisted finish it by the +beginning of winter. One beaver had escaped, and for the remaining +three such a task would be beyond their powers. I decided to give +them a helping hand, provided they would accept it, by providing +them with a wooden house, which they might if they chose, entirely +surround and snugly cover with mud and sticks. + +But would they accept it in a grateful spirit, and utilize it? One +cannot always tell what a wild animal will do. + +With loose earth a low island with a flat top was built to carry +the house. Its top was six inches above high-water mark, and (that +would, if accepted) be the floor of the permanent house. A good, +practicable tunnel was built to an underwater entrance. + +Upon that our men set a square, bottomless house of wood, with +walls two feet high, and a low roof sloping four ways. Over all +this the men piled in a neat mound a lot of tree branches of kinds +suitable for beaver food; and with that we left the situation up +to the beavers. The finish of our work was made on October 28. + +For a week there were no developments. The beavers made no sign of +approval or disapproval. And then things began to happen. On +November 5 we saw a beaver carrying a small green branch into the +house for _bedding!_ That meant that our offering was going +to be accepted. + +The subsequent chronology of that beaver house is as follows: + +Nov. 10. The beavers pulled all our brush away from the house, +back to a distance of six or seven feet. The house stood fully +exposed. + +Nov. 11. They began to pile up mud and sticks against the base of +the south wall. + +Nov. 15. Mud-building to cover the house was in full progress. + +Nov. 17. Much of our brush had been placed in the stock of food +wood being stored for winter use in the pond west of the house. + +Nov. 29. The outside of the house was completely covered up to the +edges of the roof. The beavers were working fast and hard. No +freezing weather yet. + +Dec. 15. The roof was not yet covered. Ice had formed on the pond, +and house-building operations were at an end until the spring of +1922. + + + + +XV + +THE MENTAL TRAITS OF BIRDS + + +In comparison with mammalian mentality, the avian mind is much +more elementary and primitive. It is as far behind the average of +the mammals as the minds of fishes are inferior to those of +reptiles. + +Instinct Prominent in Birds. The average bird is more a creature +of instinct than of reason. Primarily it lives and moves by and +through the knowledge that it has inherited, rather than by the +observations it has made and the things it has thought out in its +own head. + +But let it not for one moment be supposed that the instinctive +knowledge of the bird is of a mental quality inferior to that of +the mammal. The difference is in kind only, not in degree. As a +factor in self-preservation the keen and correct reasoning of the +farm-land fox is in no sense superior to the wonderful instinct +and prescience of the golden plover that, on a certain calendar +day, or week, bids farewell to its comfortable breeding-grounds in +the cold north beyond the arctic circle, rises high in the air and +launches forth on its long and perilous migration flight of 8,000 +miles to its winter resort in Argentina. + +The Migrations of Birds. Volumes have been written on the +migrations of birds. The subject is vast, and inexhaustable. It +is perhaps the most wonderful of all the manifestations of avian +intelligence. It is of interest chiefly to the birds of the +temperate zone, whose summer homes and food supplies are for four +months of the year buried under a mantle of snow and ice. All but +a corporal's guard of the birds of the United States and Canada +must go south every winter or perish from starvation and cold. It +is a case of migrate or die. Many of the birds do not mind the +cold of the northern winter--if it is dry; and _if they could be +fed in winter,_ many of them would remain with us throughout +the year. + +Consider the migratory habits of our own home favorites, +and see what they reveal. After all else has been said, bird +migration is the one unfathomable wonder of the avian world. +Really, we know of it but little more than we know of the songs of +the morning stars. We have learned when the birds start; we know +that many of them fly far above the earth; we know where some of +them land, and the bird calendars show approximately when they +will return. And is not that really about _all_ that we do +know? + +[Illustration with caption: MIGRATION OF THE GOLDEN PLOVER From +"Bird Migration,", by Dr. W. W. Cooke, U. S. Department of +Agriculture, 1915.] + +What courage it must take, to start on the long, tiresome and +dangerous journey! How do they know where to go, far into the +heart of the South, to find rest, food and security? When and +where do they stop on the way to feed? Vast areas are passed over +without alighting; for many species never are seen in mid career. +Why is it that the golden plover feels that it is worth while to +fly from the arctic coast to Argentina? + +Let any man--if one there be--who is not profoundly impressed by +the combined instinct and the reasoning of migratory birds do +himself the favor to procure and study the 47-page pamphlet by Dr. +Wells W. Cooke, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, entitled +"Bird Migration." I wish I could reproduce it entire; but since +that is impossible, here are a few facts and figures from it. + +The Bobolink summers in the northern United States and southern +Canada, and winters in Paraguay, making 5000 miles of travel each +way. + +The Scarlet Tanager summers in the northeastern quarter of the +United States and winters in Colombia, Equador and northern Peru, +a limit to limit flight of 3,880 miles. + +The Golden Plover (_Charadrius dominicus_).--"In fall it +flies over the ocean from Nova Scotia to South America, 2,400 +miles--the longest known flight of any bird. In spring it returns +by way of the Mississippi Valley. Thus the migration routes form +an enormous ellipse, with a minor axis of 2,000 miles and a major +axis stretching 8,000 miles from arctic America to Argentina." +(Cooke.) The Arctic Tern (_Sterna paradisaea_), is "the +champion long-distance migrant of the world. It breeds as far +north as it can find land on which to build its nest, and winters +as far south as there is open water to furnish it food. The +extreme summer and winter homes are 11,000 miles apart, or a +yearly round trip of 22,000 miles." (Cooke.) + +By what do migrating birds guide their courses high in air on a +pitch-dark night,--their busy time for flying? Do they, too, know +about the mariner's Southern Cross, and steer by it on starlit +nights? Equally strange things have happened. + +The regular semi-annual migrations of birds may fairly be regarded +as the high-water mark of instinct so profound and far-reaching +that it deserves to rank as high as reason. To me it is one of the +most marvelous things in Nature's Book of Wonders. I never see a +humming-bird poised over a floral tube of a trumpet creeper +without pausing, in wonder that is perpetual, and asking the +eternal question: "Frail and delicate feathered sprite, that any +storm-gust might dash to earth and destroy, and that any enemy +might crush, _how_ do you make your long and perilous +journeys unstarved and unkilled? Is it because you bear a charmed +life? What is the unsolved mystery of your tiny existence in this +rough and cruel world?" + +We understand well enough the foundation principles of mammalian +and avian life, and existence under adverse circumstances. The +mammal is tied to his environment. He cannot go far from the +circumpolar regions of his home. A bear chained to a stake is +emblematic of the universal handicap on mammalian life. Survive or +perish, the average land-going quadruped must stay put, and make +the best of the home in which he is born. If he attempts to +migrate fast and far, he is reasonably certain to get into grave +danger, and lose his life. + +The bird, however, is a free moral agent. If the purple grackle +does not like the sunflower seeds in my garden, lo! he is up and +away across the Sound to Oyster Bay, Long Island, where his luck +may be better. Failing there, he gives himself a transfer to +Wilmington, or Richmond, via his own Atlantic coast line. + +The wonderful migratory instincts of birds have been developed +and intensified through countless generations by the imperative +need for instinctive guidance, and the comparatively small +temptation to inductive reasoning based on known facts. Evidently +the bird is emboldened to migrate by the comfortable belief that +somewhere the world contains food and warmth to its liking, and +that if it flies fast enough and far enough it will find it. + +As a weather prophet, the prescience of the bird is strictly +limited. The warm spells of late February deceive the birds just +as they do the flowers of the peach tree and the apple. Often the +bluebirds and robins migrate northward too early, encounter +blizzards, and perish in large numbers from snow, sleet, cold and +hunger. + +The Homing Sense of Birds. We can go no farther than to say that +while the homing instinct of certain species of birds is quite +well known, the mental process by which it functions is +practically unknown. The direction instinct of the homing pigeon +is marvelous, but we know that that instinct does not leap full- +fledged from the nest. The homer needs assistance and training. +When it is about three months old, it is taken in a basket to a +point a mile distant from its home and liberated. If it makes good +in returning to the home loft, the distances are increased by easy +stages--two, three, five, ten, twenty, thirty, fifty and seventy- +five miles usually being flown before the bird is sent as far as +100 miles. The official long-distance record for a homing pigeon +is 1689.44 miles, held by an American bird. + +The homing instinct, or sense, is present in some mammals, but it +is by no means so phenomenal as in some species of birds. In +mammals it is individual rather than species-wide. Individual +horses, dogs and cats have done wonderful things under the +propulsion of the homing instinct, but that instinct is by no +means general throughout those species. Among wild animals, +exhibitions of the home-finding instinct are rare, but the annals +of the Zoological Park contain one amusing record. + +For emergency reasons, a dozen fallow deer once were quartered in +our Bison range, behind a fence only sixty-six inches high. +Presently they leaped out to freedom, disappeared in the thick +northern forests of the Bronx, and we charged them up to profit +and loss. But those deer soon found that life outside our domain +was not the dream of paradise that they had supposed. After about +a week of wandering through a cold, unsympathetic and oatless +world those were sadder and wiser deer, and one night they all +returned and joyously and thankfully jumped back into their range, +where they were happy ever after. + +Recognition of Sanctuary Protection. In this field of precise +observation and reasoning, most birds,--if not indeed all of +them,--are quick in discernment and accurate in deduction. The +great gauntlet of guns has taught the birds of the United States +and Canada to recognize the difference between areas of shooting +and no shooting. Dull indeed is the bird mind that does not know +enough to return to the feeding-ground in which it has been safe +from attack. The wild geese and ducks are very keen about +sanctuary waters, and no protected pond or river is too small to +command attention. Our own little Lake Agassiz, in the New York +Zoological Park, each year is the resort of hundreds of mallards +and black ducks. And each year a number of absolutely wild wood +ducks breed there and in spite of all dangers rear their young. +Our wild-fowl pond, surrounded by various installations for birds, +several times has been honored by visiting delegations of wild +geese, seven of which were caught in 1902 for exhibition. + +The most astounding example of avian recognition of protection +and human friendship is the spectacle of Mr. Jack Miner's wild +goose sanctuary at Kingsville, Ontario, not far from Detroit. With +his tile works on one side and his home on the other, he scooped +out between them clay for his factory and made a small pond. With +deliberate and praiseworthy intention Mr. Miner planted there a +little flock of pinioned wild Canada geese, as a notice of +sanctuary and an invitation to wild flocks to come down for food, +rest and good society. + +Very slowly at first the wild geese began to come; but finally the +word was passed along the line from Hudson Bay to Currituck Sound +that Miner's roadhouse was a good place at which to stop. Year by +year the wild geese came, and saw, and were conquered. So many +thousands came that presently Mr. Miner grew tired of spending out +of his own pocket more than $700 a year for goose corn; and then +the Canadian government most commendably assumed the burden, and +made Mr. Miner's farm a national bird preserve. [Footnote: Mr. +Miner is writing his wild-goose story into a book: and the story +is worth it!] + +The annals of wild life protection literature contain many records +and illustrations of the remarkable quickness and thoroughness of +sanctuary recognition by birds. On the other hand I feel greatly +annoyed by the failure of waterfowl to reason equally well +regarding the decoys of duck-shooters. They fail to learn, either +by experience or hearsay, that small flocks of ducks sitting +motionless near a shore are loaded, and liable to go off. They +fail to learn that it is most wise to settle well outside such +flocks of alleged ducks, and that it is a fatal mistake to plump +down on the top of a motionless bunch. + +Protective Association of Wasps and Caciques. The colonizing +caciques, of South America, representing four genera, are very +solicitous of the safety of their colonies. In numerous cases, +these colonies are found in association with wasps, one or more +nests invariably being found near the nests of the birds. It is +natural to infer that this strange association is due to the +initiative of the birds. When monkeys attack the birds, the birds +need the stinging insects. + +As usual in the study of wild creatures, the first thing that we +encounter in the wild bird is + +Temperament. On this hangs the success or failure of a species in +association with man. Temperament in the most intellectual wild +creatures is just as evident and negotiable to the human eye as +colors are in fur or feathers. + +A vastly preponderating number of bird species are of sanguine +temperament; and it is this fact alone that renders it possible +for us to exhibit continuously from 700 to 800 species of birds. +Sensible behavior in captivity is the one conspicuous trait of +character in which birds mentally and physically are far better +balanced than mammals. But few birds are foolishly nervous or +hysterical, and when once settled down the great majority of them +are sanguine and philosophical. Birds of a great many species can +be caught in an adult state and settled down in captivity without +difficulty; whereas all save a few species of mammals, when +captured as adults, are irreconcilable fighters and many of them +die far too quickly. In a well-regulated zoological park nearly +every animal that has been caught when adult is a failure and a +nuisance. + +To name the species of birds that can be caught fully grown and +settled down for exhibition purposes, would create a list of +formidable length. It is indeed fortunate for us that this is +true; for the rearing of nestlings is a tedious task. + +A conspicuous exception to the rule of philosophic sedateness in +newly caught birds is the loon, or great northern diver. That bird +is so exceedingly nervous and foolish, and so persistent in its +evil ways, that never once have we succeeded in inducing a loon to +settle down on exhibition and be good. When caught and placed in +our kind of captivity, the loon goes daft. It dives and dives, and +swims under water until it is completely exhausted; it loses its +appetite, and very soon dies. Of course if one had a whole marine +biological station to place at the disposal of the foolish loon, +it might get on. + +There are other odd exceptions to the rule of normal bird conduct. +Some of our upland game birds, particularly the Franklin grouse +and ptarmigan of the Rocky Mountains, display real mental +deficiencies in the very necessary business of self-preservation. + +WILDNESS AND TAMENESS OF THE RUFFED GROUSE. The ruffed grouse is +one of the most difficult of all North American game birds to keep +in captivity. This fact is due largely, though not entirely, to +the nervous and often hysterical temperament of this species. Some +birds will within a reasonable time quiet down and accept +captivity, but others throughout long periods,--or forever,-- +remain wild as hawks, and perpetually try to dash themselves to +pieces against the wire of their enclosures. Prof. A. A. Allen of +Cornell once kept a bird for an entire year, only to find it at +the end of that time hopelessly wild; so he gave the bird its +liberty. + +However, in this species there are numerous exceptions. Some wing- +tipped birds have calmed down and accepted captivity gracefully +and sensibly, and a few of the cases of this kind have been +remarkable. The most astonishing cases, however, have been of the +tameness of free wild birds, in the Catskills, and also near the +city of Schenectady. A great many perfectly truthful stories have +been published of wild birds that actually sought close +acquaintance with people, and took food from their hands. + +We have been asked to account for those strange manifestations, +but it is impossible to do so. It seems that in some manner, +certain grouse individuals learned that Man is not always a killer +and a dangerous animal, and so those birds accepted him as a +friend,--until the killers came along and violated the sanctuary +status. + +It is both necessary, and highly desirable for the increase of +species, that all wild birds should fly promptly, rapidly and far +from the presence of Man, the Arch Enemy of Wild Life. The species +that persistently neglects to do so, or is unable, soon is utterly +destroyed. The great auk species was massacred and extirpated on +Funk Island because it could not get away from its sordid enemies +who destroyed it for a paltry supply of _oil_. + +The Fool Hen and Its Folly. In our own country there exists a +grouse species so foolish in its mind, and so destitute of the +most ordinary instinct of self-preservation that it has been known +for many years as "the Fool Hen." Definitely, it is the Franklin +Grouse (_Conachites franklini_), and its home is in the +foothills of the Rocky Mountains. This famous and pitiable victim +of misplaced confidence will sit only eight feet up on a jack pine +limb, beside a well travelled road, while Mack Norboe dismounts, +finds a suitable stick, and knocks the foolish bird dead from its +perch. I have seen these birds sit still and patiently wait for +their heads to be shot off, one by one, with a .22 calibre +revolver when all points of the compass were open for their +escape. + +All this, however, must be set down as an unusual and phenomenal +absence of the most natural instinct of self-protection. The +pinnated grouse, sage grouse, Bob White quail and ptarmigan +exercise but little keen reason in self-protection. They are easy +marks,--the joy of the pot-hunter and the delight of the duffer +"sportsman." + +Dullness of Instinct in Grouse and Quail. The pinnated grouse, +which in Iowa and the Dakotas positively is a migratory bird, does +know enough to fly high when it is migrating, but seemingly this +species and the sage grouse never will grow wise enough to save +themselves from hunters when on their feeding grounds. In +detecting the presence of their arch enemy they are hopelessly +dull; and they are slow in taking wing. + +The quail is a very good hider, but a mighty poor flyer. When a +covey is flushed by a collection of dogs and armed men, the +lightning-quick and explosive get-away is all right; but the +unshot birds do not fly half far enough! Instead of bowling away +for two or three miles and getting clear out of the danger zone +and hiding in the nearest timber, what do they do? They foolishly +stop on the other side of the field, or in the next acre of brush, +in full view of the hunters and dogs, who find it great fun to +hustle after them and in fifteen minutes put them up again. Thus +it is easy for a hunting party to "follow up" a covey until the +last bird of it has been bagged. + +Just before the five-year close season on quail went into effect +in Iowa, this incident occurred: + +On a farm of four hundred acres in the southern part of the state, +two gunners killed so nearly up to their bag limit of _fifty +birds per day_ that in ten days they went away with 400 quail. +The foolish birds obstinately refused to leave the farm which had +been their home and shelter. Day after day the chase with dogs and +men, and the fusillade of shots, went briskly on. As a matter of +fact, that outfit easily could have gone on until every quail on +that farm had fallen. + +It is indeed strange that the very bird which practices such fine +and successful strategy in leading an intruder away from its +helpless young, by playing wounded, should fail so seriously when +before the guns. A hunted quail covey should learn to post a +sentry to watch for danger and give the alarm in time for a safe +flight. + +But I know one quail species that is a glorious exception. It is +Gambel's quail, of southern Arizona. I saw a good wing shot, Mr. +John M. Phillips, hunt that quail (without dogs) until he was hot +and red, and come in with more wrath than birds. He said, with an +injured air: + +"The little beggars won't rise! I don't want to shoot them on the +ground, and the minute they rise above the creosote bushes they +drop right down into them again, and go on running." + +It was even so. They simply will not rise and fly away, as Bob +White does, giving the sportsmen a chance to kill them, but when +forced to fly up clear of the bushes they at once drop back again. +[Footnote: A very few quail-killers of the East who oppose long +close seasons contend that quail coveys "breed better" when they +are shot to pieces every year and "scattered," but we observed +that the quail of the Sonoran Desert managed to survive and breed +and perpetuate themselves numerously without the benevolent +cooperation of the "pump-gun" and the automatic shotgun.] While +the study of avian mentality is a difficult undertaking, this is +no excuse for the fact that up to this date (1922) that field of +endeavor has been only scratched on its surface. The birds of the +world are by no means so destitute of ideas and inventions that +they merit almost universal neglect. Because of the suggestions +they contain we will point out a few prominent mental traits in +birds, chosen at random. + +At the same time, let us all beware of seeing too much, and chary +of recording scientific hallucinations. It is better to see +nothing than to see many things that are not true! In ten octavo +pages that particular rock can split wide open the best reputation +ever grown. + +Bird Architecture. The wisdom of birds in the selection of nesting +sites, the designing of the best nest for their respective wants, +and finally the construction of them, indicate instinct, reasoning +power and mechanical skill of a high order. The range from the +wonderful woven homes of the weaver bird and the Baltimore oriole +down to the bare and nestless incubating spot of the penguin is so +great that nothing less than a volume can furnish space in which +to set it forth. But let us at least take a brief glance at a wide +range of home-building activities by birds. + +The orioles, caciques and weavers weave wonderful homes of fibrous +material, often in populous communities. + +The bower birds erect remarkable bowers, as playhouses. + +The brush turkey scratches together a huge mound of sticks and +leaves, four feet by ten or twelve wide at the base. + +The vireo and many others turn out beautiful cup-like nests. + +The hummingbird builds with the solidity and tenacity of the wasp. + +The swallow is a wonderful modeler with mud. + +The guacharo builds a solid nest like a cheese with a concave top. + +The auklet, the puffin and the kingfishers burrow into the +friendly and solid earth. The eider duck plucks from its own breast +the softest, of feather linings for its nest. + +[Illustration with caption: REMARKABLE +VILLAGE NESTS OF THE SOCIABLE WEAVER BIRD (Copied from "The Fauna +of South Africa Birds," by Arthur C. Stark)] + +The grebe thoughtfully keeps its nest above high-water mark by +building on a floating island. + +The murre and the guillemot do their best to escape their enemies +of the land by building high upon inaccessible rock ledges. + +The woodpecker trusts no living species save his own, and drills +high up into a hollow tree-trunk for his home. + +The cactus wren and crissal thrasher build in the geographical +centres of tree choyas, so protected by 500,000 spines that no +hawk or owl can reach them. + +This catalogue could be extended to a great length; but why pile +evidence upon evidence! + +It cannot be correct to assume that the nesting activities of +birds are based upon instinct alone. That theory would be +untenable. New conditions call for independent thought, and +originality of treatment. If the ancestral plans and +specifications could not be varied, then every bird would have to +build a nest just "such as mother used to make," or have no brood. + +All bird students know full well how easily the robin, the wren, +the hawk and the owl change locations and materials to meet new +and strange conditions. A robin has been known to build on the +running-board of a switch-engine in a freight yard, and another +robin built on the frame of the iron gate of an elephant yard. A +wren will build in a tin can, a piece of drain tile, a lantern, a +bird house or a coat pocket, just as blithely as its grandmother +built in a grape arbor over a kitchen door. All this is the hall +mark of New Thought. + +Whenever children go afield in bird country, they are constantly +on the alert for fresh discoveries and surprises in bird +architecture. Interest in the nest-building ingenuity and +mechanical skill of birds is perpetual. The variety is almost +endless. Dull indeed is the mind to which a cunningly contrived +nest does not appeal. Tell the boys that it is _all right_ to +collect _abandoned_ nests, but the taking of eggs and +occupied nests is unlawful and wicked. + +The Play-House of the Bower Bird. Years ago we read of the +wonderful playhouses constructed by the bower birds of Australia +and New Guinea, but nothing ever brought home to us this +remarkable manifestation of bird thought so closely as did the +sight of our own satin bower bird busily at work on his own bower. +He was quartered in the great indoor flying cage of our largest +bird house, and supplied with hard grass stems of the right sort +for bower-making. + +With those materials, scattered over the sand floor, the bird +built his bower by taking each stem in his beak, holding it very +firmly and then with a strong sidewise and downward thrust +slicking it upright in the sand, to stand and to point "just +exactly so." The finished bower was a Gothic tunnel with walls of +grass stems, about eighteen inches long and a foot high. In making +it the male bird wrought as busily as a child building a playhouse +of blocks. Our bird would pick up pieces of blue yarn that had +been placed in his cage to test his color sense, but never red,-- +which color seemed to displease him. As the bird worked quietly +yet diligently, one could not help longing to know what thoughts +were at work in that busy little brain. + +The most elaborate of all the bower bird play-houses is that +constructed by the gardener bower bird, which is thus described by +Pycraft in his "History of Birds": + +"This species builds at the foot of a small tree a kind of hut or +cabin, some two feet in height, roofed with orchid stems that +slope to the ground, regularly radiating from the central support, +which is covered with a conical mass of moss sheltering a gallery +round it. One side of this hut is left open, and in front of it is +arranged a bed of verdant moss, bedecked with blossoms and berries +of the brightest color. As the ornaments wither they are removed +to a heap behind the hut and replaced by others that are fresh. +The hut is circular and some three feet in diameter, and the mossy +lawn in front of it is nearly twice that expanse. Each hut and garden +is believed to be the work of a single pair of birds. The use of the +hut, it appears, is solely to serve the purpose of a playing-ground, +or as a place wherein to pay court to the female, since it, like the +bowers built by its near relatives, are built long before the nest +is begun, this, by the way, being placed in a tree." + +[Illustration with caption: SPOTTED BOWER-BIRD, AT WORK ON ITS +UNFINISHED BOWER Foreground garnished with the bird's playthings. +(From A. S. Le Souef, Sydney. Photo by F. C. Morse)] + +Most Birds Fear Man. With the exception of those that have been +reared in captivity, nearly all species of wild birds, either in +captivity or out of it, fear the touch of man, and shrink from +him. The birds of the lawn, the orchard and the farm are always +suspicious, always on the defensive. But of course there are +exceptions. A naturalist like J. Alden Loring can by patient +effort win the confidence of a chickadee, or a phoebe bird, and +bring it literally to his finger. These exceptions, however, are +rare, but they show conclusively that wild birds can be educated +into new ideas. + +The shrinking of wild birds from the hand of man is almost as +pronounced in captivity as it is in the wilderness, and this fact +renders psychological experiments with birds extremely difficult. +It is really strange that the parrots and cockatoos all should +take kindly to man, trust him and even like him, while nearly all +other birds persistently fly, or run, or swim or dive away from +him. A bird keeper may keep for twenty years, feeding daily, but +his hawks, owls and eagles, the perchers, waders, swimmers and +upland game birds all fly from him in nervous fear whenever he +attempts to handle them. The exceptions to this rule, out of the +20,000 species of the birds of the world, are few. + +Wild Birds that Voluntarily Associate with Man. The species that +will do so are not numerous, and I will confine myself to some of +those that I have seen. + +The Indian adjutant, the mynah, hoopoe, vulture, robin, phoebe +bird, bluebird, swallow, barn owl, flicker, oriole, jay, magpie, +crow, purple grackle, starling, stork, wood pigeon, Canada goose, +mallard, pintail, bob white and a few other species have accepted +man at his face value and endeavored to establish with him a +modus vivendi. The mallard and the graylag goose are the ancestors +of our domestic ducks and geese. The jungle fowls have given us +the domestic chickens. The wild turkey, the pheasants, the guinea +fowl, the ostrich, the emu and the peacock we possess in +domestication unchanged. + +Caged Wild Birds Quickly Appreciate Sanctuary. Mr. Crandall +reports that in the Zoological Park there have been many instances +of the voluntary return to their cages of wild birds that have +escaped from them. The following instances are cited, out of many +that are remembered: + +A wild hermit thrush, only two weeks in captivity, escaped from an +outdoor cage. But he refused to leave the vicinity of his new +home, and permanent food supply. He lingered around for two or +three days, and finally a wise keeper opened the cage door when he +was near it, and at once he went in. + +A magpie escaped from an outside cage, and for a week he lingered +around it unwilling to leave its vicinity. At last the other birds +of the cage were removed, the door was left open, and the magpie +at once went back home. + +Bird Memory and Talk. Birds have few ways and means by which to +reveal their powers of memory. The best exhibits are made by the +talking parrots and cockatoos. The feats of some of these birds, +both in memory and expression, are really wonderful. The startling +aptness with which some parrots apply the language they possess +often is quite uncanny. Concerning "sound mimicry" and the +efforts of memory on which they are based, Mr. Lee S. Crandall, +Curator of Birds, has contributed the following statement of his +observations: + +"Many birds, including practically all members of the parrot +tribe, many of the crows and jays, as well as mynas and starlings, +learn to repeat sounds, words and sentences. Ability varies with +both species and individuals. Certain species show greater +aptitude as a whole than other species, while there is a great +difference between individuals of the same species. "Gray +parrots are generally considered the most intelligent of their +tribe, and are especially apt at imitating sounds, such as running +water, whistles, etc. I have one at home which always answers a +knock with 'Come in.' Often he furnishes the knock himself by +pounding the perch with his bill, following it with 'Come in.' +Amazon parrots are especially good at tunes, some specimens being +able to whistle complicated airs and sometimes sing several verses +in a high, clear voice. Both grays and Amazons often talk with +great fluency, vocabularies having been reported of as many as one +hundred words. Often there seems to be intelligent association of +certain acts or conditions with corresponding sentences, these +sometimes occurring with singular patness. + +"Hill mynahs, of the genus _Eulabes,_ often talk as well as +parrots. The common introduced European starling often says a few +words quite clearly. I once knew a long-tailed glossy starling +(_Lamprotornis caudatus_) which shared an aviary with an +accomplished albino jackdaw. The starling had acquired much of the +jackdaw's repertoire, and the 'conversations' carried on between +the two birds were most amusing." + +A raven in the Zoological Park says "Arthur," "Shut up," "All out" +and "Now look what's here" as perfectly as any parrot. + +Listed in the order of their ability to learn and remember talk, +the important talking birds are as follows: African gray parrot, +yellow-headed Amazon, other Amazons, the hill mynahs, the +cockatoos, the macaws, and the various others previously +mentioned. + +It is safe to assert that all migratory birds display excellent +powers of memory, chiefly by returning to their favorite haunts +after long absences. + +Recognition of Persons. Mr. Crandall says there can be no doubt of +the ability of most birds to recognize individual persons. This is +seen in the smallest species as well as in the largest. He once +saw a bullfinch in the last stages of pneumonia and almost +comatose, show an instant reaction to the presence of an owner it +had not seen in weeks. Many birds form dislikes for individual +persons. This is especially noticeable in the parrot tribe. A +large male South American condor was friendly enough with two of +his keepers but would instantly attack any other keeper or other +person entering his enclosure, whether wearing the uniform or not. +With his two approved keepers he was gentleness itself. + +Parasitic Nesting Habits. In the bird world there are a few +species whose members are determined to get something for nothing, +and to avoid all labor in the rearing of their offspring. This +bad habit is known of the Old World cuckoos, the American cow- +birds, the South American rice grackle (_Cassidix_), and +suspected in the pin-tail whydah (_Vidua serena_). It seems +to reach its highest point in the cuckoos. It is believed that +individuals lay their eggs only in the nests of species whose eggs +resemble their own. Apparently much skill and intelligence is +required for introducing parasitic eggs at the most favorable +moment. This is equally true of other parasites. + +Curator Crandall has taken several eggs and young of the rice +birds from nests of two species of giant caciques in Costa Rica, +but never saw an adult _Cassidix._ It is considered a very +rare species, but probably is more sly than scarce. Young cuckoos +eject unwelcome nestlings shortly after hatching. + +Daily contact with a large and varied collection of birds great +and small, gathered from every section of the habitable regions of +the earth, naturally produces in time a long series of interesting +cases of intelligence and behavior. Out of our total occurrences +and observations I will offer two that reveal original thought. + +Good Sense of the Wedge-Tailed Eagle. In discussing bird +intelligence with Mr. Herbert D. Atkin, keeper of our Eagles +Aviary and the cranes and water birds in the Flying Cage, he +called to my attention two species of birds which had very much +impressed him. Afterward he showed me all that he described. +Keeper Atkin regards the wedge-tailed eagle, of Australia, as the +wisest species with which he has to deal. In the first place, all +four of the birds in that flock recognize the fact that he is a +good friend, not an enemy, and each day they receive him in their +midst with cheerful confidence and friendship. In the fall when +the time comes to catch them, crate them and wheel them half a +mile to their winter quarters in the Ostrich House, they do not +become frightened, nor fight against being handled, and submit +with commendable sense and appreciation. + +The one thing on which the wedge-tailed eagle really insists when +in his summer quarters, is his daily spray bath from a hose. When +his keeper goes in to give the daily morning wash to the cage, the +eagles perch close above his head and screech and scream until the +spray is turned upon them. Then they spread their wings, to get it +thoroughly, and come out thoroughly soaked. When the spray is +merely turned upon their log instead of upon the birds as they +sit higher up, they fly down and get into the current wherever it +may be. + +Memory of the Cereopsis Goose. Keeper Atkin also showed me an +instance of the wisdom of the cereopsis geese, from Van Diemens +Land, South Australia. During the winter those birds are kept in +the Wild-Fowl Pond; but in summer they are quartered in a secluded +yard of the Crane's Paddock, nearly half a mile away. Twice a year +these birds go under their own steam between those two enclosures. +When turned out of the Cranes' Paddock last November they at once +set out and walked very briskly southward up the Bird's Valley, +past the Zebra House. On reaching the Service Road, a quarter of a +mile away, they turned to the left and kept on to the Wolf Dens. +There they turned to the right and kept on two hundred yards until +they reached the walk coming down from the Reptile House. There +they turned to the left, crossed the bridge, stopped at the gate +to the Wild-Fowl Pond enclosure, and when the gate was opened they +entered and declared themselves "at home." + +Mr. Atkin says that in spring these birds show just as much +interest in going back to their summer home. Falconry. We cannot +do otherwise than regard the ancient sport of falconry as a high +tribute to the mental powers of the genus _Falco._ The +hunting falcons were educated into the sport of hawking, just as a +boy is trained by his big brother to shoot quail on the wing. The +birds were furnished with hoods and jesses, and other garnitures. +They were carried on the hand of the huntsman, and launched at +unlucky herons and bitterns as an _intelligent_ living force. +The hunting falcon entered into the sport like a true sportsman, +and he played the game according to the rules. The sport was +cruel, but it was politely exciting, and it certainly was a fine +exhibition of bird intelligence. Part of that intelligence was +instinctive, but the most of it was acquired, by educational +methods. + +Outstanding Traits in a Few Groups of Birds. In creatures as much +lacking in visible expression as most birds are, it is difficult +to detect the emotions and temperaments that prevail in the +various groups. Only a few can be cited with certain confidence. + +Vanity Displays in Birds. The males of a few species of birds have +been specially equipped by nature for the display of their natural +vanity. Anyone who has seen a Zoological Park peacock working +overtime on a Sunday afternoon in summer when the crowds of +visitors are greatest, solely to display the ocellated splendor of +his tail plumage, surely must conclude that the bird is well aware +of the glories of his tail, and also that he positively enjoys +showing off to admiring audiences. + +These displays are not casual affairs in the ordinary course of +the day's doings. It is a common thing for one of our birds to +choose a particularly conspicuous spot, preferably on an elevated +terrace, from which his display will carry farthest to the eyes of +the crowd. Even if the bird were controlled by the will of a +trainer for the purpose of vanity display, the exhibition could +not possibly be more perfect. Like a good speaker on a rostrum, +the bird faces first in one direction and then in another, and +occasionally with a slow and stately movement it completely +revolves on its axis for the benefit of those in the rear. "Vain +as a peacock" is by no means an unjustifiable comparison. + +Plumage displays are indulged in by turkeys, the blue bird of +paradise, the greater and lesser birds of paradise, the sage +grouse and pinnated grouse, ruffed grouse, golden pheasant and +argus pheasant. + +On the whole, we may fairly set down vanity as one of the well +defined emotions in certain birds, and probably possessed by the +males in many species which have not been provided by nature with +the means to display it conspicuously. + +Materials for Study. In seeking means by which to study the mental +and temperamental traits of wild birds and mammals, the definite +and clearly cut manifestations are so few in kind that we are glad +to seize upon everything available. Of the visible evidences, +pugnacity and the fighting habit are valuable materials, because +they are visible. Much can be learned from the fighting weakness +or strength of animals and men. + +In our great collections of birds drawn from all the land areas of +the globe, our bird men see much fighting. Mr. Crandall has +prepared for me in a condensed form an illuminating collection of +facts regarding + +PUGNACITY IN CAPTIVE BIRDS + +1. Most species do more or less competitive fighting for nesting +sites or mates, especially: + +Gallinaceous birds,--many of which fight furiously for mates; + +The Ruff, or Fighting Snipe (_Machetes pugnax_),--very +pugnacious for mates; + +House Sparrows (_Passer domesticus_) fight for nesting places +and mates; and + +Some Waterfowl, especially swans and geese, fight for nesting +places. + +2. Most species which do not depend chiefly upon concealment, +fight fiercely in defense of nests or young. Typical examples are: + +Geese; + +Swans; + +The larger Flycatchers; + +Birds of prey, especially the more powerful ones, such as Bald +Eagles, Duck Hawks and Horned Owls. + +3. Some species fight in competition for food. Conspicuous +examples are: + +The fiercer hawks; + +Some carrion eaters, as the King Vulture, Black, Sharp-Shinned, +Cooper, Gos and Duck Hawks, which fight in the air over prey. + +4. Certain birds show pugnacity in connection with the robber +instinct, as: + +Bald Eagle, which robs the Osprey; + +Skua and Jaeger, which rob gulls. + +5. Some species show general pugnacity. Species to be cited are: + +Cassowaries, Emus and Ostriches, all of which are more or less +dangerous; + +Saras Cranes, which strike wickedly and without warning; + +Some Herons, especially if confined, and + +Birds of Paradise, which are unreasonably quarrelsome. + +6. In non-social birds, each male will fight for his own breeding +and feeding territory. The struggle for territory is a wide one, +and it is now attracting the attention of bird psychologists. + +Birds are no more angelic than human beings are. They have their +faults and their mean traits, just as we have; but their +repertoire is not so great as ours. In every species that we have +seen tried out in captivity, the baser passions are present. This +is equally true of mammals. In _confinement_, in every herd +and in every flock from elephants down to doves, the strong bully +and oppress the weak, and drive them to the wall. + +_The most philosophic and companionable birds_ are the +parrots, parakeets, macaws and cockatoos. + +_The birds that most quickly recognize protection_ +sanctuaries and accept them, are the geese, ducks and swans. + +_The game birds most nervous and foolish, and difficult to +maintain in captivity,_ are the grouse, ptarmigan and quail. + +_The bird utterly destitute of sense_ in captivity is the +loon. + +_The birds that are most domineering_ in captivity are the +cranes. + +_The birds that are most treacherous_ in captivity are the +darters (_Anhinga_). + +_The birds that go easiest and farthest in training_ are the +parrots, macaws and cockatoos. + +_The most beautiful bird species of the world_ are about +fifty in number; and only a few of them are found among the birds +of paradise. + +The minds of wild birds are quite as varied and diversified as are +the forms and habits of the different orders and genera. XVI + +THE WISDOM OF THE SERPENT + +OF all the vertebrates, the serpents live under the greatest +handicaps. They are hated and destroyed by all men, they can +neither run nor fly far away, and they subsist under maximum +difficulties. Those of the temperate zone are ill fitted to +withstand the rigors of winter. + +And yet the serpents survive; and we have not heard of any species +having become extinct during our own times. + +It is indeed worth while to "consider the wisdom of the serpent." +Without the exercise of keen intelligence all the snakes of the +cultivated lands of the world long ago would have been +exterminated. The success of serpents of all species in meeting +new conditions and maintaining their existence in the face of +enormous difficulties compels us, as reasoning beings, to accord +to them keen intelligence and ratiocination. + +The poisonous serpents afford a striking illustration of reason +and folly en masse. The total number of venomous species is really +great, and their distribution embraces practically the whole of +the torrid and temperate zones. They are too numerous for mention +here; and their capacity for mischief to man is very great. Our +own country has at least eighteen species of poisonous snakes, +including the rattlesnakes, the copperhead, moccasin, and coral +snakes. All these, however, are remarkably pacific. Without +exception they are non-aggressive, and they attack only when they +think they are exposed to danger, and must defend themselves or +die. Hundreds of thousands, or even millions, of our people have +tramped through the woods and slept in the sage-brush and creosote +bushes of the rattlesnake, and waded through swamps full of +moccasins, with never a bite. In America only about two persons +per year are bitten by _wild_ rattlesnakes. + +Our snakes, and all but a very few of the other poison-snake +species of the world, know that _it pays to keep the peace._ +Now, what if all snakes were as foolishly aggressive as the hooded +and spectacled cobras of India? Let us see. + +Those cobra species are man-haters. They love to attack and do +damage. They go out of their way to bite people. They crawl into +huts and bungalows, especially during the monsoon rains, and they +infest thatch roofs. But are they wise, and retiring, like the +house-haunting gopher snake of the South? + +By no means. The cobra goes around with a chip on his shoulder. In +India they kill from 17,000 to 18,000 people annually! And in +return, about 117,000 cobras are killed annually. It is a mighty +fortunate thing for humanity on the frontier that the other +serpents of the world know that it is a good thing to behave +themselves, and not bite unnecessarily. + +Fighting Its Own Kind. The Indian cobra, (_Naia tripudians_), +is an exception to the rule of serpents that forbids fighting in +the family. While cobras in captivity usually do live together in +a state of vicious and fully-armed neutrality, sometimes they do +fight. One of our cobras once attacked a cage-mate two-thirds the +size of itself, vanquished it, seized it by the head and swallowed +two-thirds of it before the tragedy was discovered. The assailant +was compelled to disgorge his prey, but the victim was very dead. + +The poison venom of the cobra, rattlesnake, bushmaster and puff +adder is a great handicap on the social standing of the entire +serpent family. Mankind in general abhors snakes, both in general +and particular. The snake not actually known to be venomous +usually is suspected of being so. It is only the strongest mental +constitution that can permit a snake to go unkilled when the +killing opportunity offers. It is just as natural for the lay +brother to kill a chicken snake because it looks like a +copperhead, or a hog-nosed blowing "viper" because it looks like a +rattlesnake, as it is to shy at a gun that "may be loaded." + +To American plainsmen, the non-aggressive temper of the +rattlesnake is well known, and it is also a positive asset. I +never knew one who was nervously afraid while sleeping in the open +that snakes would come and crawl into his bed, or mix up with his +camp. Of course all frontiersmen kill rattlers, as a sort of +bounden duty to society, but I once knew an eastern man to turn +loose a rattlesnake that he had photographed, in the observance +of his principle never to kill an animal whose picture he had +taken. Subsequently it was gravely reported that one of the +restive horses of the outfit had "accidentally" killed that +rattler by stepping upon it. + +A Summary of Poisonous Snakes. There are about 300,000 poisonous +snakes in the United States, and 110,000,000 people for them to +bite; but more people are bitten by captive snakes than by wild +ones. + +A fool and his snake are soon parted. + +There are 200,000 rattlesnakes in our country, but all of them +will let you alone if you will let them alone. + +If your police record is clear, you can sleep safely in the sage- +brush. + +If ever you need to camp in a cave, remember that in warm weather +the rattlesnakes are all out hunting, and will not return until +the approach of winter. + +The largest snakes of the world exist only in the human mind. + +The rattlesnake is a world-beater at minding his own business. + +Men do far more fighting per capita than any snakes yet +discovered. + +The road to an understanding of the minds of serpents is long and +difficult. Perhaps the best initial line of approach is through a +well-stocked Reptile House. Having studied somewhat +in that school I have emerged with a fixed belief that of all +vertebrate creatures, snakes are the least understood, and also +the most thoroughly misunderstood. + +[Illustration: A +PEACE CONFERENCE WITH AN ARIZONA RATTLESNAKE "You let me alone and +I won't harm you" (From "Camp-Fires on Desert and Lava")] + +[Illustration: HAWK-PROOF NEST OF A CACTUS WREN Placed in the +centre of a tree choya cactus of Arizona and defended by 10 000 +hostile spines (From "Camp-Fires on Desert and Lava")] + +The world at large debits serpents with being far more quarrelsome +and aggressive than they really are, and it credits them with +knowing far less than they do know. + +Attitude of Snakes Toward Each Other. Toward each other, the +members of the various serpent species are tolerant, patient and +peaceful to the last degree. You may place together in one cage +twenty big Texas rattlers, or twenty ugly cottonmouth moccasins +from the Carolinas, a hundred garter snakes, twenty boa +constrictors, or six big pythons, and if the various +_species_ are kept separate there will be no fighting. You +may stir them up to any reasonable extent, and make them keen to +strike you, but they do not attack each other. + +There are, however, many species that will not mix together in +peace. For example, the king snake of New Jersey hates the +rattlesnake, no matter what his address may be. Being by habit a +constrictor, the king snake at once winds himself tightly around +the neck of the rattler,--and proceeds to choke him to death. + +The king cobra devours other snakes, as food, and wishes nothing +else. + +The Gopher Snake. Some snakes that feel sure you will not harm +them will permit you to handle them without a protest or a fight. +The most spectacular example is the gopher snake of the +southeastern United States. This handsome, lustrous, blue-black +species is six feet long, shiny, and as clean and smooth as ivory. +Its members are famous rat-killers. You can pick up a wild one +wherever you find it, and it will not bite you. They do not at all +object to being handled, even by timorous lady visitors who never +before have touched a live snake; and in the South they are +tolerated by farmers for the good they do as rat catchers. + +The Wisdom of a Big Python. Once I witnessed an example of snake +intelligence on a large scale, which profoundly impressed me. + +A reticulated python about twenty-two feet long arrived from +Singapore with its old skin dried down upon its body. The snake +had been many weeks without a bath, and it had been utterly unable +to shed its old skin on schedule time. It was necessary to remove +all that dead epidermis, without delay. + +The great serpent, fully coiled, was taken out of its box, sprayed +with warm water, and gently deposited on the gravel floor of our +most spacious python apartment. Later on pails of warm water, +sponges and forceps were procured, and five strong keepers were +assembled for active service. + +The first step was to get the snake safely into the hands of the +men, and fully under control. A stream of cold water from a hose +was suddenly shot in a deluge upon the python's head, and while it +was disconcerted and blinded by the flood, it was seized by the +neck, close behind the head. Immediately the waiting keepers +seized it by the body, from neck to tail, and straightened it out, +to prevent coiling. Strong hands subdued its struggles, and +without any violence stretched the writhing wild monster upon the +floor. + +Then began the sponging and peeling process. The frightened snake +writhed and resisted, probably feeling sure that its last hour had +come. The men worked quietly, spoke soothingly, and the work +proceeded successfully. With the lapse of time the serpent became +aware of the fact that it was not to be harmed; for it became +quiet, and lay still. At the same time, we all dreaded the crisis +that we thought would come when the jaws and the head would be +reached. + +By the time the head was reached, the snake lay perfectly passive. +Beyond all doubt, it understood the game that was being played. + +Now, the epidermis of a snake covers the entire head, _including +the eyes!_ And what would that snake do when the time came to +remove the scales from its eyes and lips? It continued to lie +perfectly still! When the pulling off of the old skin hurt the new +skin underneath, the head flinched slightly, just as any hurt +flesh will flinch by reflex action; but that was absolutely all. +For a long hour or more, and even when the men pulled the dead +scales from those eyes and lips, that strange creature made no +resistance or protest. I have seen many people fight their doctors +for less. + +That wild, newly-caught jungle snake quickly had recognized the +situation, and acted its part with a degree of sense and +appreciation that was astounding. I do not know of any _adult +wild_ mammal that would have shown that kind and degree of +wisdom under similar circumstances. + +Do Snakes "Charm" Birds? Sometimes a wild bird will sit still upon +its nest while a big pilot blacksnake, or some other serpent +equally bad, climbs up and poises its head before the motionless +and terrified bird until at last the serpent seizes the bird to +devour it. The bird victim really seems to be "charmed" by its +enemy. If there were not some kind of a hypnotic spell cast over +the bird, would it not fly away? + +I think this strange proceeding is easily explainable by any one +with sufficient imagination to put himself in the bird's place. It +is the rule of a sitting bird to sit tight, not to be scared off +by trifles, and to take great risks rather than expose her eggs to +cold and destruction. The ascent and approach of the serpent is +absolutely noiseless. Not a leaf is stirred. The potential mother +of a brood calmly sits with eyes half closed, at peace with all +the world. Suddenly, and with a horrible shock, she discovers a +deadly serpent's multi-fanged head and glittering eyes staring at +her _within easy striking distance._ + +The horrified mother bird feels that she is lost. She knows full +well that with any movement to escape the serpent instantly will +launch its attack. _Her one hope,_ and seemingly her only +chance for life, is that _if she remains motionless_ the +serpent will go its way without harming her. (Think of the +thousands of helpless men, women and children who have hoped and +acted similarly in the presence of bandits and hold-up men +presenting loaded revolvers! But they were far from being +"charmed.") + +The bird hopes, and sits still, _paralyzed with fear._ At its +leisure the serpent strikes; and after a certain number of +horrible minutes, all is over. I think there is no real "charm" +exercised in the tragedy; but that there is on the part of the +bird a paralysis of fear, which is in my opinion a well defined +emotion, common in animals and in men. I have seen it in many +animals. + +Snakes that Feign Death. The common hog-nosed snake, mistakenly +called the "puff-adder" and blowing "viper" (_Heterodon +platyrhinus_) of the New England states, often feigns death +when it is caught in the open, and picked up. It will "play +'possum" while you carry it by its tail, head downward, or hang +its limp body over a fence. Of course it hopes to escape by its +very clever ruse, and no doubt it often does so from the hands of +inexperienced persons. + +Do Snakes Swallow Their Young? I _think_ not. A number of +persons solemnly have declared that they have seen snakes do so, +but no _herpetologist_ ever has seen an occurrence of that +kind. I believe that all of the best authorities on serpents +believe that snakes do not swallow their young. The theory of the +pro-swallowists is that the mother snake takes her young into her +interior to provide for their safety, and that they do not go as +far down as the stomach. The anti-swallowists declare that the +powerful digestive juices of the stomach of a snake would quickly +kill any snakelets coming in contact with it; and I believe that +this is true. + +At present the snake-swallowing theory must be ticketed "not +proven," and is filed for further reference. + +The Hoop Snake Fable. There is no such thing as a "hoop-snake" +save in the vivid imaginations of a very few men. + +The Intelligence of the King Cobra. Curator of Reptiles Raymond +L. Ditmars regards the huge king cobra of the Malay Peninsula, the +largest of all poisonous serpents, as quite the wisest serpent +known to him. He says its mind is alert and responsive to a very +unusual degree in serpents, and that it manifests a keen interest +in everything that is going on around it, especially at feeding- +time. This is quite the reverse of the usual sluggish and +apathetic serpent mind in captivity. + +Incidentally, I would like very much to know just what our present +twelve-foot cobra thought when, upon its arrival at its present +home, its total blindness was relieved by the thrillingly skilful +removal of the _two layers_ of dead scales that had closed +over and finally adhered to each orbit. + +The vision of the king cobra is keen, and its temper is not easily +ruffled. Its temperament seems to be sanguine, which is just the +opposite of the nervous-combative hooded and spectacled cobra +species. + +The So-called "Snake Charmers" of India. Herpetologists generally +discredit the idea that a peripatetic Hindu can "charm" a cobra +any farther or more quickly than any snake-keeper. In the first +place, the fangs of the serpent are totally removed,--by a very +savage and painful process. After that, the unfortunate snake is +in no condition to fight or to flee. It seeks only to be let +alone, and the musical-pipe business is to impress the mind of the +observer. + +Serpent Psychology an Unplowed Field. At this date (1922) we know +only the rudiments of serpent intelligence and temperament. In the +wilds, serpents are most elusive and difficult to determine. In +captivity they are passive and undemonstrative. We do not know how +much memory they have, they rarely show what they think, and on +most subjects we do not know where they stand. But the future will +change all this. During the past twenty years the number of +herpetologists in the United States has increased about tenfold. +It is fairly impossible that serpent psychology should much longer +remain unstudied, and unrevealed along the lines of plain common- +sense. + +The Ways of Crocodiles. The ways of crocodiles are dark and deep; +their thoughts are few and far between. Their wisdom is above that +of the tortoises and turtles, but below that of the serpents. I +have had field experience with four species of crocodilians in the +New World and three in the Old. With but slight exceptions they +all think alike and act alike. + +The great salt-water crocodile of the Malay Peninsula and Borneo +is the only real man-eater I ever met. Except under the most +provocative circumstances, all the others I have met are +practically harmless to man. This includes the Florida species, +the Orinoco crocodile, the little one from Cuba, the alligator, +the Indian gavial and the Indian crocodile (_C. palustris_). + +The salt-water crocodile, that I have seen swimming out in the +ocean two miles or more from shore, is in Borneo a voracious man- +eater. It skilfully stalks its prey in the murky rivers where +Malay and Dyak women and children come down to the village bathing +place to dip up water and to bathe. There, unseen in the muddy +water, the monster glides up stealthily, seizes his victim by the +leg, and holding it tightly backs off into deep water and +disappears. The victims are drowned, not bitten to death. + +I found in Ceylon that the Indian crocodile is a shameless +cannibal, devouring the skinned carcasses of its relatives +whenever an opportunity offered. + +The Florida crocodile is the shrewdest species of all those I know +personally. It has the strange habit of digging out deep and +spacious burrows for concealment, in the perpendicular sandy +banks of southern Florida rivers where the deep water comes right +up to the shore. Starting well under low-water mark, the crock +digs in the yielding sand, straight into the bank, a roomy +subterranean chamber. In this snug retreat he once was safe from +all his enemies,--until the fatal day when his secret was +discovered, and revealed to a grasping world. Since that time, the +Alligator Joes of Palm Beach and Miami have made a business of +personally conducting parties of northern visitors, at $50 per +catch, to witness the adventure of catching a nine-foot crocodile +alive. The dens are located by probing the sand with long iron +rods. A rope noose is set over the den's entrance, and when all is +ready, a confederate probes the crocodile out of its den and into +the fatal noose. + +Today the Florida crocodile is so nearly extinct that it required +two years of diligent inquiry to produce one live specimen subject +to purchase. + +Common Sense in the Common Toad. Last spring, in planting a lot of +trees on our lawn, a round tree-hole that stood for several days +unoccupied finally accumulated about a dozen toads. Its two feet +of straight depth was unscalable, and when finally discovered the +toads were tired of their imprisonment. Partly as a test of their +common-sense, Mr. George T. Fielding placed a six-inch board in +the hole, at an angle of about thirty degrees, but fairly leading +out of the trap. + +In very quick time the toads recognized the possibilities of the +inclined plane and hopped upward to liberty. In the use of this +opportunity they showed more wisdom than our mountain sheep +manifest concerning the same kind of an improvement designed to +enable them to reach the roof of their building. XVII + +THE TRAINING OF WILD ANIMALS + +Before we enter this chapter let us pause a moment on the +threshold, and consider the logic of animal training and +performances. + +Logic is only another name for reason. Its reverse side is +fanaticism; and that way madness lies. It is the duty of every +sane man and woman to consider the cold logic of every question +affecting the welfare of man and nature. Fanaticism when carried +to extremes can become a misdemeanor or a crime. The soft-hearted +fanaticism of humanics that saves a brutal murderer, or would-be +murderer like Berkman, from the gallows or the chair, and +eventually turns him loose to commit more crimes against innocent +people, is not only wrong, and wicked, but in aggravated cases it +is a _crime_ against society. + +Just now there is a tiny wave of agitation against all +performances of trained wild animals, and the keeping of animals +in captivity, on the ground that all this is "cruel" and inhumane. +The Jacklondon Society of Boston is working hard to get up steam +for this crusade, but thus far with only partial success. Its +influence is confined to a very small area. + +Now, what is the truth of this matter? Is it true that trained +wild animals are cruelly abused in the training, or in compelling +them to perform? Is it true that in making animals perform on the +stage, or in the circus ring, their rights are wickedly infringed? +Is it the duty of the American people to stop all performances by +animals? Is it wicked to make wild animals, or cats and dogs, +_work_ for a living, as men and women do? Is it true that +captive animals in zoological parks and gardens are miserable and +unhappy, and that all such institutions should be "abolished?" +What is truth? + +In the first place, there is no sound reasoning or logic in +assuming that the persons of animals, tame or wild, are any more +sacred than those of men, women and children. We hold that it is +no more "cruelty" for an ape or a dog to work in training quarters +or on the stage than it is for men, women and young people to work +as acrobats, or actors, or to engage in honest toil eight hours +per day. Who gave to any warm-blooded animal that consumes food +and requires shelter the right to live without work? _No +one!_ I am sure that no trained bear of my acquaintance ever +had to work as hard for his food and shelter as does the average +bear out in the wilds. In order to find enough to eat the latter +is compelled to hustle hard from dawn till dark. I have seen that +the Rocky Mountain grizzly feels forced to dig a big hole three +feet deep in hard, rocky ground, to get one tiny ground squirrel +the size of a chipmunk,--and weighing only eight or nine ounces. +Now, has he anything "on" the performing bear? Decidedly not. + +I regard the sentimental Jacklondon idea, that no wild animal +should be made to work on the stage or in the show-ring, as +illogical and absurd. Human beings who sanely work are much +happier per capita than those who do nothing but loaf and grouch. +I have worked, horse-hard, throughout all the adult years of my +life; and it has been good for me. I know that it is no more wrong +or wicked for a horse to work for his living,--of course on a +humane basis,--either on the stage or on the street, than it is +for a coal-carrier, a foundryman, a farmer, a bookkeeper, a school +teacher or a housewife to do the day's work. + +The person of a wild animal is no more sacred than is that of a +man or woman. A sound whack for an unruly elephant, bear or horse +is just as helpful as it is for an unruly boy who needs to be +shown that order is heaven's first law. + +In the presence of the world's toiling and sweating millions, in +the presence of millions of children in the home sweat-shops and +factories working their little lives out for their daily crust and +a hard bed, what shall we think and say of the good, kind-hearted +people who are spending time and energy in crusading against +trained animal performances? + +The vast majority of performing animals are trained by humane men +and women, practicing kindness to the utmost; and they are the +last persons in the world who would be willing to have their +valuable stock roughly handled, neglected or in any manner cruelly +treated. + +So far as zoological parks and gardens are concerned, they are no +more in need of defense than the Rocky Mountains. + +Every large zoological park is a school of wild-animal education +and training; and it is literally a continuous performance. Let +no one suppose that there is no training of wild beasts save for +the circus ring and the vaudeville stage. Of the total number of +large and important mammals that come into our zoological parks, +the majority of them actually are trained to play becomingly their +respective parts. An intractable and obstinate animal soon becomes +a nuisance. + +The following, named in the order of their importance, are the +species whose zoological park training is a matter of necessity: +Elephants, bears, apes, hippopotami, rhinoceroses, giraffes, +bison, musk-ox, wild sheep, goats and deer, African antelopes, +wild swine, and wild horses, asses and zebras. Of large birds the +most conspicuous candidates for training in park life are the +ostriches, emus, cassowaries, cranes, pelicans, swans, egrets and +herons, geese, ducks, pheasants, macaws and cockatoos, curassows, +eagles and vultures. Among the reptiles, the best trained are the +giant tortoises, the pythons, boas, alligators, crocodiles, +iguanas and gopher snakes. + +Each one of these species is educated (1) to be peaceful, and not +attack their keepers; (2) to not fear their keepers; (3) to do as +they are bid about going here or there; (4) to accept and eat the +food that is provided for them, and (5) finally, in some cases to +"show off" a little when commanded, for the benefit of visitors. + +All this training comes in the regular course of our daily work, +and there are few animals who do not respond to it. The necessity +for training is most imperative with the elephants and bears, for +without it the difficulties in the management of those dangerous +animals is greatly intensified. + +In training an animal to do a particular act not in the routine of +his daily life, it is of course necessary to show him clearly and +pointedly what is desired. I think that in quickness of +perception, and ability to adopt a new idea, the elephants and +the great apes are tied for first place. Both are remarkably +quick. It seems to me that it required only half a dozen lessons +to teach our Indian elephant, Gunda, to take a penny in his trunk, +lift the lid of a high-placed box, drop in the coin, then pull a +bell-cord and ring a bell. Of course the reward for the first +successful performances was lumps of sugar. Within three days this +rather interesting special exhibit was working smoothly, and +coining money. As a means of working off on the poor animal great +numbers of foreign copper coins, and spurious issues of all kinds, +it was a great boon to the foreign population of New York. Our +erratic elephant Alice was quickly trained by Keeper Richards to +blow a mouth organ, to ring a telephone by turning the crank, and +to take off the receiver and hold it up to her ear for an +imaginary call. + +Another keeper, with no previous experience as a trainer, taught a +male orang-utan called Rajah to go through a series of +performances that are elsewhere described. + +Bright and Dull Individuals. Every wild animal species contains +the same range of bright and dull individuals that are found in +the various races of men. Naturally the animal trainer selects for +training only those animals that are of amiable disposition, that +mentally are alert, responsive and possessed of good memories. The +worst mistakes they make are in taking on and forcing ill-natured +and irritable animals, that hate training and performing. Often a +trainer persists in retaining an animal that resolutely should be +thrown out. Captain Bonavita lost his arm solely because of his +fatal persistence in retaining in his group of lions an animal +that hated him, and which the trainer well knew was dangerous. + +While nearly every wild animal can be taught a few simple tricks, +the dull mind soon reaches its constitutional limit. Even among +the great apes, conditions are quite the same. One half the orang- +utans are of the thin-headed, pin-headed type that is hopeless for +stage training. The good ones are the stocky, round-headed, round- +faced individuals who have the cephalic index of the statesman or +jurist, and a broad and well-rounded dome of thought. + +Training for the Ring and the Stage. During his long and +successful career as a purveyor of wild animals for all purposes, +Carl Hagenbeck had great success in the production of large +animal groups trained for stage performances. I came in close +touch with his methods and their results. His methods were very +simple, and they were founded on kindness and common sense. Mr. +Hagenbeck hated whips and punishments. When an animal could not +get on without them, it was dropped from the cast. His working +theory was that an unwilling animal makes a bad actor. + +There is no mystery about the best methods in training animals, +wild or domestic. The first thing is to assemble a suitable number +of _young_ animals, all of which are mentally bright and +physically sound. Most adult animals are impracticable, and often +impossible, because they are set in their ways. The elephants are +monumental exceptions. A large, well-lighted and sunny room is +provided; and around it are the individual cages for the student +animals. The members of the company are fed wisely and well, kept +scrupulously clean, and in all ways made comfortable and +contented. When not at their work they are allowed to romp and +play together until they are tired of the exercise. + +The trainer who has been selected to create a specified group +spends practically his entire time with his pupils. He feeds them, +and mixes with them daily and hourly. From the beginning he +teaches them that _they must obey him, and not fight._ +The work of training begins with simple things, and goes on +to the complex; and each day the same routine is carried out. +To each animal is assigned a certain place in the circle, with +a certain tub or platform on which to sit at ease when not +acting in the ring. It is exceedingly droll to see a dozen cub +lions, tigers, bears and cheetahs sitting decorously on their +respective tubs and gravely watching the thirteenth cub who +is being labored with by the keeper to bring its ideas and acts +into line. The stage properties are many; and they all assist in +helping the actors to remember the sequence of their acts, as well +as the things to be done. The key that controls the mind of a good +animal is the reward idea. Many a really bad animal goes through +its share of the performance solely to secure the bit of meat, the +lump of sugar or the prized biscuit that never fails to show up at +the proper moment. + +[Illustration with caption: WORK ELEPHANT DRAGGING A HEWN TIMBER +The most primitive form of elephant harness. The end of the drag +rope is held between the teeth of the wise and patient animal +(From A. G. R. Theobald, Mysore)] + +The acts to be performed are gone over in the training quarters, +innumerable times; and this continues so long that by the time the +"group" is ready for the stage, behold! the cubs with which the +patient and tireless trainer began have grown so large that to the +audience they now seem like adult and savage animals. Those who +scoff at the wild animal mind, and say that all this displays +nothing but "machines in fur" need to be reminded that this very +same line of effort in training and rehearsal is absolutely +necessary in the production of every military company, every +ballet, and every mass performance on the stage. There is +_no_ successful performance without training. Boys and girls +require the very same sort of handling that the wild animals +receive, but the humans do with a little less of it. + +The man who flouts a good stage performance by wild animals on the +ground that it reveals "no thought," and is only "imitation," is, +in my judgment, a very short-sighted student. Maniacs and +imbeciles cannot be trained to perform any program fit to be seen. +I saw that tried fifty years ago, in "the wild Australian +children," who were idiots. _The performer must think, and +reason._ + +Of the many groups of trained animals that I have seen in +performances, my mind goes back first to the one which contained +a genuine bear comedian, of the Charlie Chaplin type. It was a +Himalayan black bear, with fine side whiskers, and it really +seemed to me absolutely certain that the other animals in the +group appreciated and enjoyed the fun that comedian made. He +pretended to be awkward, and frequently fell off his tub. He was +purposely dilatory, and was often the last one to finish. The +other animals seemed to be fascinated by his mishaps, and they sat +on their tubs and watched him with what looked like genuine +amusement. I remember another circle of seated animals who calmly +and patiently sat and watched while the trainer labored with a +cross and refractory leopard, to overcome its stubbornness, and to +make it do its part. + +Carl Hagenbeck loved to produce mixed groups of dangerous +animals,--lions, tigers, leopards, bears and wolves. One trainer +whom I knew was assisted in a highly dangerous group by a noble +stag-hound who habitually kept close to his master, and was said +to be ready to attack instantly any animal that might attack the +trainer. I never saw a finer bodyguard than that dog. + +In 1908 the most astounding animal group ever turned out of the +Hagenbeck establishment, or shown on any stage, appeared in +London. It consisted of _75 full-grown polar bears!_ Now, +polar bears, either for the cage or the stage, are bad citizens. +Instinctively I always suspect their mental reservations, and for +twenty-one years have carefully kept our keepers out of their +reach. But Mr. William Hagenbeck, brother of the great Carl, +actually trained and performed with a huge _herd_ of +dangerous polars to the number stated. + +In the _Strand_ magazine for April, 1908, there is a fine +article by Arthur Harold about this group and its production. It +says that the bears were obtained when seven or eight months old, +in large lots, and all thrown in together. It took a keeper +between seven and eight months to educate them out of their savage +state,--by contact, kindness, sugar and fruit,--and then they were +turned over to the trainer, Mr. Hagenbeck. They were taught to +form pyramids, climb ladders, shoot the chutes, ride in pony +carriages, draw and ride in sleds, drink from bottles, and work a +see-saw. Various individuals did individual tricks. The star +performer was Monk, the wrestling bear, who went with his trainer +through a fearsome wrestling performance. + +Concerning the temperament of that polar bear group Mr. William +Hagenbeck said: + +"Although I know every animal in the company, have taught each one +to recognize me, and have been among many of them for _fifteen +years,_ I can not now tell by their expressions the moods of +the animals. This is one of the characteristics of the polar bear. +Their expression remains the same, and it is impossible to detect +by watching their faces whether they are pleased or cross. Now in +most wild animals, such as the lion, you can tell by the +expression of the beast's face and by its actions whether it is in +a good temper or not.... The truth is, the polar bear is a most +awkward beast to train. In the first place its character is +difficult to understand. He is by nature very suspicious, and +without the least warning is apt to turn upon his trainer. Among +the seventy bears that have been taught to do tricks, _only +two_ of them are really fond of their work." + +In the end, Mr. William Hagenbeck was very nearly killed by one of +these polar bears. I was with Carl Hagenbeck a few hours after he +received telegraphic news of the tragedy, and his bitterness +against those polar bears was boundless. I understood that Monk, +the wrestling bear, was the assailant,--which was small cause for +wonder. When I saw Mr. Hagenbeck's polar bear show, it gave me +shivers of fear. The first two big male polars that we installed +at our Park came from that very group, and one of them led us into +a dreadful tragedy, with a female bear as the victim. + +The So-Called "Trick" Performances. Some psychologists make light +of what they call "trick performances," in which the performing +animals are guided by signs, or signals, or spoken commands from +their trainers. I have never been able to account for this. It is +incontestably true that dull and stupid animals can learn little, +and perform less. For example, all the training in the world could +not suffice to put a pig through a performance that a chimpanzee +or orang could master in two weeks. The reason is that the pig has +not the brain power that is indispensable. A woodchuck never could +become the mental equal of a wood rat (_Neotoma_). A sheep +could not hope to rival a horse, either in training or in +execution. + +Really, _the brain, the memory and reason must enter into every +animal performance that amounts to anything worth while._ It is +just as sensible to flout soldiers on the drill-ground as to wave +aside as of no account a troup of trained lions or sea-lions on +the stage. Any animal that can be taught to perform difficult +feats, and that delivers the goods in the blinding glare and riot +of the circus ring or the stage footlights, is entitled to my +profound respect for its powers of mind and nerve. + +The Sea-Lion's Repertoire. Long ago trainers recognized in the +California sea-lion (_Zalophus_) a good subject for the ring +and stage. Its long, supple neck, its lithe body and brilliant +nervous energy seemed good for difficult acts. The sea-lion takes +very kindly to training, and really delights in its performances. +In fact, it enters into its performance with a keen vigor and zest +that is pleasing to behold. Let this veracious record of a +performance of Treat's five sea-lions and two harbor seals, that I +witnessed October 15, 1910, tell the whole story, in order that +the reader may judge for himself: + +1. Each sea-lion balanced upright on its nose a wooden staff 3 +feet long, with a round knob on its upper end. + +2. Each sea-lion caught in its mouth a three-foot stick with a +ball on each end, tossed it up, whirled it in the air, and caught +it again. This was repeated, without a miss. + +3. Each sea-lion balanced on the tip of its nose, first a ball +like a baseball, then a large ball two feet in diameter. + +4. Each sea-lion climbed a double ladder of eight steps, and went +down on the other side, _balancing a large ball on the end of +its nose, without a miss._ + +5. The trainer handed a ball to the sea-lion nearest him, who +balanced it on his nose, walked with it to his box and climbed up. + +6. Then another sea-lion walked over to him, and waited +expectantly until sea-lion No. 1 tossed the ball to No. 2, who +caught it on his nose, walked over to his box, climbed up, and +presently tossed it to No. 3. + +7. A silk hat was balanced on its rim. + +8. A seal carrying a balanced ball scrambled upon a cylindrical +basket and rolled it across the arena, after which other seals +repeated the performance. + +9. In the last act a flaming torch was balanced, tossed about, +caught and whirled, and finally returned to the trainer, still +blazing. + +Trained Horses. By carefully selecting the brightest and most +intelligent horses that can be found, it is possible for a trainer +to bring together and educate a group that will go through a fine +performance in public. However, some exhibitions of trained +horses are halting, ragged and poor. I have seen only one that +stands out in my records as superlatively fine,--for horses. That +was known to the public when I saw it as Bartholomew's "Equine +Paradox," and it contained twelve wonderfully trained horses. My +record of this fine performance fills seven pages of a good-sized +notebook. While it is too long to reproduce here entire, it can at +least be briefly described. The trainer called his group a +"school," and of it he said: + +"While I do not say that any one horse knows the meaning of from +300 to 400 words, I claim that _as a whole_ the school does +know that number." + +The performance was fairly bewildering; but by diligent work I +recorded the whole of it. Various horses did various things. They +fetched chairs, papers, hats and coats; opened desks, rang bells, +came when called, bowed, knelt, and erased figures from a +blackboard. They danced a waltz, a clog dance, a figure-8; they +marched, halted, paced, trotted, galloped, backed, jumped, leaped +over each other, performed with a barrel, a see-saw and a double +see-saw. Their marching and drilling would have been creditable to +a platoon of rookies. + +In performing, every horse is handicapped by his lack of hands and +plant grade feet; and the horse memory is not very sure or +certain. More than any other animal, the horse depends upon the +trainer's command, and in poor performances the command often +requires to be repeated, two or three times, or more. The memory +of the horse is not nearly so quick nor so certain as that of the +chimpanzee or elephant. + +Dr. Martin J. Potter, of New York, famous trainer of stage and +movie animals, states that of all animals, wild or domestic, the +horse is the most intelligent; but I doubt whether he ever trained +any chimpanzees. Speaking from out of the abundance of his +training experience with many species of animals except the great +apes, Dr. Potter says that "the seal [i. e. California sea-lion] +learns its stage cues more easily than any other mute performer. +The horse, however, is the most intelligent of all animals in its +grasp and understanding of the work it has learned to perform, and +in its reliable faithfulness and memory." Dr. Potter holds that +of wild animals the tiger, owing to its treachery and ferocity, is +the most difficult wild animal to train; the lion is the most +reliable, and the most stupid of all animals is the pig. + +The Taming of Boma. A keeper for a short time in our place, named +D'Osta, once did a very neat piece of work in taming a savage and +intractable chimpanzee. When Boma came to us, fresh from the +French Congo, he was savage and afraid. He retreated to the +highest resting-place of his cage, came down only at night for his +meals, and would make no compromise. We believed that he had been +fearfully abused by his former owners, and through mistreatment +had acquired both fear and hatred of all men. + +After the lapse of several months with Boma on that basis, the +situation grew tiresome and intolerable. So D'Osta said: + +"I must tame that animal, and teach him not to be afraid of us." + +He introduced a roomy shifting cage into Boma's compartment, +fixed the drop door, and for many days served Boma's food and +water in that cage only. For two weeks the ape eluded capture, but +eventually the keeper caught him. At first Boma's rage and fear +were boundless; but presently the idea dawned upon his mind that +he was not to be killed immediately. D'Osta handed him excellent +food and water, twice a day, spoke to him soothingly, and +otherwise let him alone. Slowly Boma's manner changed. He learned +that he was not to be hurt, nor even annoyed. Confidence in the +men about him began to come to him. His first signs of +friendliness were promptly met and cultivated. + +At the end of ten days, D'Osta opened the sliding door, and Boma +walked out, a wiser and better ape. His bad temper and his fears +were gone. He trusted his keeper, and cheerfully obeyed him. +Strangest of all, he even suffered D'Osta to put a collar upon +him, and chain him to the front bars to curb his too great +playfulness while his cage was being cleaned. + +Boma's fear of man has never returned. Now, although he is big and +dangerous, he is a perfectly normal ape. + +The Training of an Over-Age Bear. A bear-trainer-athlete and +"bear-wrestler" named Jacob Glass once taught me a lesson that +astounded me. It related to the training of a bear that I thought +was too old to be trained. + +We had an Alaskan cinnamon bear, three years old, that had been +christened "Christian," at Skagway, because it stood so much +pestering without flying into rages, as the grizzly did. After a +short time with us, the concrete floors of our bear dens reacted +upon the soles of its feet so strangely and so seriously that we +were forced to transfer the animal to a temporary cage that had a +wooden floor. While I was wondering what to do with that bear, +along came Mr. Glass, anxious and unhappy. + +"My wrestling bear has died on me," he said, "and I've got to get +another. You have got one that I would like to buy from you. It's +the one you call Christian." + +Very kindly I said, "That is a mighty fine bear, as to temper; but +now he is entirely too old to train, and you couldn't do anything +with him. He would be a loss to you." + +"I've looked him over, and I like his looks. I think I can train +him all right. You let me have him, and I'll make a fine performer +of him." + +"I know that you never can do it; but you may try him, and send +him back when you fail." + +Thus ended the first lesson; and I was sure that in a month Mr. +Glass would beg me to take back the untrainable animal. + +About one year later Glass appeared again, jubilant. At once he +broke forth into eulogies of Christian; but one chapter would not +be large enough to contain them. He had trained that bear, with +outrageous ease and celerity, and hadimmediately taken him upon +the stage as a professional jiu-jitsu wrestler. And really, the +act was admirable. As a wrestler, the bear seemed almost as +intelligent as the man. He knew the "left-hand half-nelson" as well +as Glass, and he knew the following words, perfectly: "Right, +left, half-nelson, strangle, head up, nose under arm, and +hammer-lock." + +[Illustration with caption: THE WRESTLING BEAR "CHRISTIAN" AND HIS +PARTNER] + +Glass declared that this bear was more intelligent than any lion, +or any other trained animal ever seen by him. He was wise in many +ways besides wrestling,--in his friendship with Glass, with other +bears, with other men, and with a dog. _He obeyed all orders +willingly,_ even permitting Glass to take his food away when he +was eating; but he would not stand being punished with a whip or +a stick! In response to that he would bite. However, he generously +permitted himself to be _held down and choked, as a +punishment,_ after which he would be very repentant, and would +insist upon getting into his partner's lap,--to show his good +will. + +Glass was enthusiastically certain that Christian could reason +independently from cause to effect. He declared that his alertness +of mind was so pronounced it was very rarely necessary to show him +a second time how to do a given thing. + +Training an Adult Savage Monkey. Once we had a number of Japanese +red-faced monkeys, and one of the surplus adult males had a temper +as red as his face. Mr. Wormwood, an exhibitor of performing +monkeys, wished to buy that animal; but I declined to sell it, on +the ground that it would be impossible to train it. + +At that implied challenge the trainer perked up and insisted upon +having that particular bad animal; so we yielded. He wished him +for the special business of turning somersaults, because he had no +tail to interfere with that performance. + +Two months later Mr. Wormwood appeared again. "Yes," he said, but +not boastfully, "_I trained him;_ but I came mighty near to +giving him up as a bad job. He was the hardest subject I ever +tackled; but I conquered him at last, and now he is working all +right." + +A really great number of different kinds of animals have been +trained for stage performances, running the scale all the way up +from fleas to elephants. It is easy to recall mice, rats, rabbits, +squirrels, parrots, macaws, cockatoos, crows, chickens, geese, +cats, pigs, dogs, monkeys, baboons, apes, bears, seals, sea-lions, +walruses, kangaroos, horses, hippopotami and elephants. It is a +large subject, and its many details are full of interest. It is +impossible to discuss here all these species and breeds. + +In concluding these notes I leave off as I began,--with the +statement that any student of animal psychology who for any reason +whatever ignores or undervalues the intelligence of trained +animals puts a handicap upon himself. + + + + +III. THE HIGHER PASSIONS + +XVIII + +THE MORALS OF WILD ANIMALS + + +The ethics and morals of men and animals are thoroughly +comparative, and it is only by direct comparisons that they can be +analyzed and classified. It is quite possible that there are quite +a number of intelligent men and women who are not yet aware of the +fact that wild animals _have_ moral codes, and that on an +average they live up to them better than men do to theirs. + +It is a painful operation to expose the grinning skeletons in the +closets of the human family, but in no other way is it possible +to hold a mirror up to nature. With all our brightness and all our +talents,--real and imitation,--few men ever stop to ask what our +horses, dogs and cats think of our follies and our wickedness. + +By the end of the year 1921 the annual total of human wickedness +had reached staggering proportions. From August 1914 to November +1918 the moral standing of the human race reached the lowest depth +it ever sounded since the days of the cave-dwellers. This we know +to be true, because of the increase in man's capacity for +wickedness, and its crop of results. After what we recently have +seen in Europe and Asia, and on the high seas, let no man speak of +a monster in human form as "a brute;" for so far as moral standing +is concerned, some of the animals allegedly "below man" now are in +a position to look down upon him. + +It is a cold and horrid fact that today, all around us, and +sometimes close at hand, men are committing a long list of +revolting crimes such as even the most debased and cruel beasts of +the field _never_ commit. I refer to wanton wholesale murder, +often with torture; assault with violence, robbery in a hundred +cruel forms, and a dozen unmentionable crimes invented by +degenerate man and widely practiced. If anyone feels that this +indictment is too strong, I can cite a few titles that will be +quite sufficient for my case. + +Let us make a few comparisons between the human species (_Homo +sapiens_) and the so-called "lower" wild animals; and let it be +understood that the author testifies, in courtroom phrase, only +"to the best of his information and belief." + +Only two wild animal species known to me,--wolves and crocodiles, +--devour their own kind; but many of the races of men have been +cannibals, and some are so today. + +Among free wild animals, the cruel abuse or murder of children by +their parents, or by other adults of the tribe, is unknown; but in +all the "civilized" races of men infanticide and child murder are +frightfully common crimes. In 1921 a six-year-old Eskimo girl, +whose father and mother had been murdered, was strangled by her +relatives, because she had no visible means of support. + +The murder of the aged and helpless among wild animals is almost +unknown; but among both the savage and the civilized races of men +it is quite common. Our old acquaintance, Shack-Nasty Jim, the +Modoc Indian, tomahawked his own mother because she hindered his +progress; but many persons in and around New York have done worse +than that. + +Civil war between the members of a wild animal species is a thing +unknown in the annals of wild-animal history; but among men it is +an every-day occurrence. + +Among _free_ animals it is against the moral and ethical +codes of all species of vertebrates for the strong to bully and +oppress the weak; but it is almost everywhere a common rule of +action with about ten per cent of the human race. + +The members of a wild animal species are in honor bound not to rob +one another, but with 25 per cent of the men of all civilized +races, robbery, and the desire to get something for nothing, are +ruling passions. No wild animals thus far known and described +practice sex crimes; but the less said of the races of men on this +subject, the better for our feelings. + +Among animals, save in the warfare of carnivorous animals for +their daily food, there are no exterminatory wars between species, +and even local wars over territory are of very rare occurrence. +Among men, the territorial wars of tribes and nations are +innumerable, they have been from the earliest historic times, and +they are certain to continue as long as this earth is inhabited by +man. The "end of war" between the grasping nations of this earth +is an iridescent dream, because of the inextinguishable jealousy +and meanness of nations; but it is well to reduce them to a +minimum. Nations like Germany, Bulgaria, Turkey and Russia will +never stand hitched for any long periods. Their peace-loving +neighbors need to keep their weapons well oiled and polished, and +indulge in no hallucinations of a millenium upon this wicked +earth. + +In the mating season, there is fighting in many wild animal +species between the largest and finest male individuals for the +honor of overlordship in increasing and diffusing the species. +These encounters are most noticeable in the various species of the +deer family, because the fatal interlocking of antlers +occasionally causes the death of both contestants. We have in our +National Collection of Heads and Horns sets of interlocked antlers +of moose, caribou, mule deer and white-tailed deer. + +Otherwise than from the accidental interlocking of antlers,--due +to the fact that an animal can push forward with far greater force +than it can pull back,--I have never seen, heard or read of a wild +animal having been _killed_ outright in a fight over the +possession of females. Fur seal and Stellar sea-lion bulls, and +big male orang-utans, frequently are found badly scarified by +wounds received in fighting during the breeding season, but of +actual deaths we have not heard. + +The first law of the jungle is: "Live, and let live." + +Leaving out of account the carnivorous animals who must kill or +die, _all the wild vertebrate species of the earth have learned +the logic that peace promotes happiness, prosperity and long +life._ This fundamentally useful knowledge governs not only the +wild animal individual, but also the tribe, the species, and +contiguous species. + +Do the brown bears and grizzlies of Alaska wage war upon each +other, species against species? By no means. It seems reasonably +certain that those species occasionally intermarry. Do the big +sea-lions and the walruses seek to drive away or exterminate the +neighboring fur seals or the helpless hair seals? Such warfare is +absolutely unknown. Do the moose and caribou of Alaska and Yukon +Territory attack the mountain sheep and goats? Never. Does the +Indian elephant attack the gaur, the sambar, the axis deer or the +muntjac? The idea is preposterous. Does any species of giraffe, +zebra, antelope or buffalo attack any other species on the same +crowded plains of British East Africa? If so, we have yet to learn +of it. + +If the races and nations of men were as peace-loving, honest and +sensible in avoiding wars as all the wild animal species are, then +would we indeed have a social heaven upon earth. + +Now, tell me, ye winged winds that blow from the four corners of +the earth and over the seven seas, whence came the Philosophy of +Peace to the world's wild animals? Did they learn it by observing +the ways of man? "It is to laugh," says the innkeeper. Man has not +yet learned it himself; and therefore do we find the beasts of +the field a lap ahead of the quarrelsome biped who has assumed +dominion over them. + +Day by day we read in our newspapers of men and women who are +moral lepers and utterly unfit to associate with horses, dogs, +cats, deer and elephants. Our big male chimpanzee, Father Boma, +who knows no wife but Suzette, and firmly repels the blandishments +of his neighbor Fanny, is a more moral individual than many a +pretty gentleman whose name we see heading columns of divorce +proceedings in the newspapers. + +Said the Count to Julia in "The Hunchback," "Dost thou like the +picture, dearest?" As a natural historian, it is our task to hew +to the line, and let the chips fall where they will. + +Among the wild animals there are but few degenerate and unmoral +species. In some very upright species there are occasionally +individual lapses from virtue. A famous case in point is the rogue +elephant, who goes from meanness to meanness until he becomes +unbearable. Then he is driven out of the herd; he becomes an +outcast and a bandit, and he upsets carts, maims bullocks, tears +down huts and finally murders natives until the nearest local +sahib gets after him, and ends his career with a bullet through +his wicked brain. + +In my opinion the gray wolf of North America (like his congener in +the Old World) is the most degenerate and unmoral mammal species +on earth. He murders his wounded packmates, he is a greedy +cannibal, he will attack his wife and chew her unmercifully. On +the other hand, his one redeeming trait is that he helps to rear +the pups,--when they are successfully defended from him by their +mother! + +The wolverine makes a specialty of devilish and uncanny cunning +and energy in destroying the property of man. Trappers have told +us that when a wolverine invades a trapper's cabin in his absence, +he destroys very nearly its entire contents. The food that he can +neither eat nor carry away he defiles in such a manner that the +hungriest man is unable to eat it. This seems to be a trait of +this species only,--among wild animals; but during the recent war +it was asserted that similar acts were committed by soldiers in +the captured and occupied villas of northern France. + +The domestication of the dog has developed a new type of animal +criminal. The sheep-killing dog is in a class by himself. The wild +dog hunts in the broad light of day, often running down game by +the relay system. The sheep-killing dog is a cunning night +assassin, a deceiver of his master, a shrewd hider of criminal +evidence, a sanctimonious hypocrite by day but a bloody-minded +murderer under cover of darkness. Sometimes his cunning is almost +beyond belief. Now, can anyone tell us how much of this particular +evolution is due to the influence of Man upon Dog through a +hundred generations of captivity and association? Has the dog +learned from man the science of moral banditry, the best methods +for the concealment of evidence, and how to dissemble? + +Elsewhere a chapter is devoted to the crimes of wild animals; but +the great majority of the cases cited were found among _captive_ +animals, where abnormal conditions produced exceptional results. +The crimes of captive animals are many, but the crimes of free wild +animals are comparatively few. Whenever we disturb the delicate +and precise balance of nature we may expect abnormal results. + + + + +XIX + +THE LAWS OF THE FLOCKS AND THE HERDS + + +Through a thousand generations of breeding and living under +natural conditions, and of self-maintenance against enemies and +evil conditions, the wild flocks and herds of beasts and birds +have evolved a short code of community laws that make for their +own continued existence. + +And they do more than that. When free from the evil influences of +man, those flock-and-herd laws promote, and actually produce, +peace, prosperity and happiness. This is no fantastic theory of +the friends of animals. It is a fact, just as evident to the +thinking mind as the presence of the sun at high noon. + +The first wild birds and quadrupeds found themselves beset by +climatic conditions of various degrees and kinds of rigor and +destructive power. In the torrid zone it took the form of +excessive rain and humidity, excessive heat, or excessive dryness +and aridity. In the temperate and frigid zones, life was a +seasonal battle with bitter cold, torrents of cold rain in early +winter or spring, devastating sleet, and deep snow and ice that +left no room for argument. + +At the same time, the species that were not predatory found +themselves surrounded by fangs and claws, and the never-ending +hunger of their owners. The air, the earth and the waters swarmed +with predatory animals, great and small, ever seeking for the +herbivorous and traitorous species, and preferably those that +were least able to fight or to flee. The La Brea fossil beds at +Los Angeles, wherein a hospitable lake of warm asphalt conserved +skeletal remains of vertebrates to an extent and perfection quite +unparalleled, have revealed some very remarkable conditions. The +enormous output, up to date, of skulls of huge lions, wolves, +sabre-toothed tigers, bears and other predatory animals, shows, +for once, just what the camels, llamas, deer, bison and mammoths +of those days had to do, to be, and to suffer in order to survive. + +With the aid of a little serious study, it is by no means +difficult to recognize the hard laws that have enabled the +elephant, bison, sheep, goats, deer, antelope, gazelles, fur-seal, +walrus and others to survive and increase. From the wild animal +herds and bird flocks that we have seen and personally known, +_we know what their laws are,_ and can set them down in the +order of their evolution and importance. + +The First Law. _There shall be no fighting in the family, the +herd or the species, at any other time than in the mating season; +and then only between adult males who fight for herd +leadership._ + +The destructiveness of intertribal warfare, either organized or +desultory, must have been recognized in Jurassic times, millions +of years ago, by the reptiles of that period. Throughout the +animal kingdom below man the blessings of peace now are thoroughly +known. This first law is obeyed by all species save man. We doubt +whether all the testimony of the rocks added together can show +that one wild species of vertebrate life ever really was +exterminated by another species, not even excepting the predatory +species which lived by killing. + +No one (so far as we know) has charged that the lions, or the +tigers, the bears, the orcas, the eagles or the owls have ever +obliterated a species during historic times. It was the swine of +civilization, transplanted by human agencies, that exterminated +the dodo on the Island of Mauritius; and it was men, not birds of +prey, who swept off the earth the great auk, the passenger pigeon +and a dozen other bird species. + +The Second Law. _The strong members of a flock or herd shall not +bully nor oppress the weak._ + +This law, constantly broken by degenerate and vicious men, women +and children, very rarely is broken in a free wild herd or flock. +In the observance of this fundamental law, born of ethics and +expediency, mankind is far behind the wild animals. It would serve +a good purpose if the criminologists and the alienists would +figure out the approximate proportion of the human species now +living that bullies and maltreats and oppresses the weak and the +defenseless. At this moment "society" in the United States is in a +state of thoroughly imbecilic defenselessness against the new +type of predatory savages known as "bandits." + +The Third Law. _During the annual period of motherhood, both +prospective and actual, mothers must be held safe from all forms +of molestation; and their young shall in no manner be interfered +with._ + +For the perpetuation of a family, a clan or a species, the +protection of the mothers, and their weak and helpless offspring +is a necessity recognized by even the dullest vertebrate animals. +As birth-time or nesting-time approaches the wild flocks and herds +universally permit the potential mothers to seek seclusion, and to +work out their respective problems according to their own judgment +and the means at their command. The coming mother looks for a spot +that will afford (1) a secure hiding-place, (2) the best +available shelter from inclement weather, (3) accessible food and +water, and (4) cover or other protection for her young. + +During this period the males often herd together, and they serve a +protective function by attracting to themselves the attacks of +their enemies. For the mothers, the bearing time is a truce time. +There are fox-hunters who roundly assert that in spring fox hounds +have been known to refuse to attack and kill foxes about to become +mothers. + +The Fourth Law. _In union there is strength; in separation +there is weakness; and the solitary animal is in the greatest +danger._ + +It was the wild species of mammals and birds who learned and most +diligently observed this law who became individually the most +numerous. A hundred pairs of eyes, a hundred noses and a hundred +pairs of listening ears increase about ten times the protection of +the single individual against surprise attacks. The solitary +elephant, bison, sheep or goat is far easier to stalk and approach +than a herd, or a herd member. A wolf pack can attack and kill +even the strongest solitary musk-ox, bison or caribou, but the +horned herd is invincible. A lynx can pull down and kill a single +mountain sheep ram, but even the mountain lion does not care to +attack a herd of sheep. It is due solely to the beneficent results +of this clear precept, and the law of defensive union, that any +baboons are today alive in Africa. + +The grizzly bear loves mountain-goat meat; but he does not love to +have his inner tube punctured by the deadly little black skewers +on the head of a billy. It is the Mountain Goats' Protective Union +that condemns the silvertip grizzly to laborious digging for +humble little ground-squirrels, instead of killing goats for a +living. The rogue elephant who will not behave himself in the +herd, and will not live up to the herd law, is expelled; and after +that takes place his wicked race is very soon ended by a high- +power bullet, about calibre .26. The last one brought to my notice +was overtaken by Charles Theobald, State Shikaree of Mysore, in a +Ford automobile; and the car outlived the elephant. + +The Fifth Law. _Absolute obedience to herd leaders and parents +is essential to the safety of the herd and of the individual; and +this obedience must be prompt and thorough._ + +Whenever the affairs of grown men and women are dominated by +ignorant, inexperienced and rash juniors, look out for trouble; +for as surely as the sun continues to shine, it will come. With an +acquaintance that comprehends many species of wild quadrupeds and +birds, I do not recall even one herd or flock that I have seen led +by its young members. There are no young spendthrifts among the +wild animals. For them, youthful folly is too expensive to be +tolerated. The older members of the clan are responsible for its +safety, and therefore do they demand obedience to their orders. +They have their commands, and they have a sign language by which +they convey them in terms that are silent but unmistakable. They +order "Halt," and the herd stops, at once. At the command +"Attention," each herd member "freezes" where he stands, and +intently looks, listens and scents the air. At the order "Feed at +will," the tension slowly relaxes; but if the order is "Fly!" the +whole herd is off in a body, as if propelled by one mind and one +power. + +My first knowledge of this law of the flock came down to me from +the blue ether when I first saw, in my boyhood, a V-shaped flock +of Canada geese cleaving the sky with straight and steady flight, +and perfect alignment. Even in my boyish mind I realized that the +well-ordered progress of the wild geese was in obedience to +Intelligence and Flock Law. Later on, I saw on the Jersey sands +the mechanical sweeps and curves and doubles of flying flocks of +sandpipers and sanderlings, as absolutely perfect in obedience to +their leaders as the slats of a Venetian blind. + +A herd of about thirty elephants, under the influence of a still +alarm and sign signals, once vanished from the brush in front of +me so quickly and so silently that it seemed uncanny. One single +note of command from a gibbon troop leader is sufficient to set +the whole company in instant motion, fleeing at speed and in good +order, with not a sound save the swish of the small branches that +serve as the rungs of their ladder of flight. + +In the actual practice of herd leadership in species of ruminant +animals, the largest and most spectacular bull elk or bison is not +always the leader. Frequently it has been observed that a wise old +cow is the actual leader and director of the herd, and that "what +she says, goes." This was particularly remarked to me by James +McNaney during the course of our "last buffalo hunt" in Montana, +in 1886. From 1880 to 1884 he had been a mighty buffalo-hunter, +for hides. He stated that whenever as a still-hunter he got "a +stand on a bunch," and began to shoot, slowly and patiently, so as +not to alarm the stand, whenever a buffalo took alarm and +attempted to lead away the bunch, usually it proved to be a wise +old cow. The bulls seemed too careless to take notice of the +firing and try to lead away from it. + +The Sixth Law. _Of food and territory, the weak shall have their +share._ + +While this law is binding upon all the members of a wild flock, a +herd, a clan or a species, outside of species limits it may become +null and void; though in actual practice I think that this rarely +occurs. Among the hoofed animals; the seals and sea-lions; the +apes, baboons and monkeys, and the kangaroos, the food that is +available to a herd is common to all its members. We can not +recall an instance of a species attempting to dispossess and +evict another species, though it must be that many such have +occurred. In the game-laden plains of eastern Africa, half a dozen +species, such as kongonis, sable antelopes, gazelles and zebras, +often have been observed in one landscape, with no fighting +visible. + +With all but the predatory wild animals and man, the prevailing +disposition is to _live, and let live._ One of the few +recorded murders of young animals by an old one of the same +species concerned the wanton killing of two polar bear cubs in +northern Franz Joseph Land, as observed by Nansen. + +The Seventh Law. _Man is the deadliest enemy of all the wild +creatures; and the instant a man appears the whole herd must fly +from him, fast and far._ + +In some of the regions to which man and his death-dealing +influence have not penetrated, this law is not yet on the statute +books of the jungle and the wilderness. Sir Ernest Shackleton and +Captain Scott found it unknown to the giant penguins and sea +leopards of the Antarctic Continent, I have seen a few flocks and +herds by whom the law was either unknown or forgotten; but the +total number is a small one. There was a herd of mountain sheep on +Pinacate Peak, a big flock of sage grouse in Montana, various +flocks of ptarmigan on the summits of the Elk River Mountains, +British Columbia,--and out of a long list of occurrences that is +all I will now recall. + +It is fairly common for the members of a vast assemblage of +animals, like the bison, barren-ground caribou, fur seal, and sea +birds on their nesting cliffs, to assume such security from their +numbers as to ignore man; and all such cases are highly +interesting manifestations of the influence of the fourth law when +carried out to six decimal places. + +The Eighth and Last Law. _Whenever in a given spot all men cease +to kill us, there may we accept sanctuary and dwell in peace._ + +This law comes as Amendment 1 to the original Constitution of the +Animal Kingdom. The quick intelligence of wild animals in +recognizing a new sanctuary, and in adopting it unreservedly and +thankfully as their own territory, is to all friends of wild life +a source of wonder and delight. With their own eyes Americans have +seen the effects of sanctuary-making upon bison, elk, mule deer, +white-tailed deer, mountain sheep, mountain goat, prong-horned +antelope, grizzly and black bears, beavers, squirrels, chipmunks, +rabbits, sage grouse, quail, wild ducks and geese, swans, pelicans +brown and white, and literally hundreds of species of smaller +birds of half a dozen orders. + +In view of this magnificent and continent-wide manifestation of +discovery, new thought and original conclusion, let no man tell us +that the wild birds and quadrupeds "do not think" and "can not +reason." + +The Exceptions of Captivity. When wild animals come into +captivity, a few individuals develop and reveal their worst traits +of character, and much latent wickedness comes to the surface. A +small percentage of individuals become mean and lawless, and a +still smaller number show criminal instincts. These Bolshevistic +individuals commit misdemeanors and crimes such as are unknown in +the wild state. One male ruminant out of perhaps fifty will turn +murderer, and kill a female or a fawn, entirely contrary to the +herd law; and at long intervals a male predatory animal kills his +mate or young. + +Occasionally captivity warps wild animal or wild bird character +quite out of shape, though it is a satisfaction to know that the +total proportion of those so affected is very small. Long and +close confinement in a prison-like home, filled with more daily +cares and worries than any animal cage has of iron bars, has sent +many a human wife and mother to an insane asylum; but the super- +humanitarians who rail out at the existence of zoological parks +and zoos are troubled by that not at all. + + + + +XX + +PLAYS AND PASTIMES OF ANIMALS + + +I approach this subject with a +feeling of satisfaction; but I would not like to state the +number of hours that I have spent in watching the play of our +wild animals. + +Out in the wilds, where the bears, sheep and goats live and +thrive, the outdoorsmen see comparatively few wild animals at +play. No matter what the season, the dangers of the wilderness and +mountain summit remain the same. When kids and lambs are young, +the eaglets are hungriest, and their mothers are most determined +in their hunting. After September 1, the deadly still-hunters are +out, and strained watchfulness is the unvarying rule, from dawn +until dark. + +Out in the wilds, it is the _moving_ animal that instantly +catches every hostile eye within visual range. A white goat kid +vigorously gamboling on the bare rocks would attract all the +golden eagles, hunters, trappers and Indians within a radius of +two miles. It is the rule that kids, fawns and lambs must _lie +low and keep still,_ to avoid attracting deadly enemies. On the +bare summits, play can be indulged in only at great risk. +Generations of persecution have implanted in the brain of the +ruminant baby the commanding instinct to fold up its long legs, +neatly and compactly, furl its ears along its neck, and closely +lie for hours against a rock or a log. During daylight hours they +must literally hug the ground. Silence and inactivity is the first +price that all young animals in the wilds pay for their lives. It +is only in the safe shelter of captivity, or man-made sanctuaries, +that they are free to play. + +In the comfortable security of the "zoo" all the wild conditions +are changed. The restraints of fear are off, and every animal is +free to act as joyous as it feels. Here we see things that men +_never see in the wilds!_ If any Rocky Mountain bear hunter +should ever see bear cubs or full-grown bears wrestling and +carrying on as they do here, he would say that they were plumb +crazy! + +Of all our wild animals, not even excepting the apes and monkeys, +our young bears are the most persistently playful. In fact, I +believe that when _properly caged and tended,_ bears under +eight years of age are the most joyous and playful of all wild +animals. We have given our bears smooth and spacious yards floored +with concrete, with a deep pool in the centre of each, and great +possibilities in climbing upon rocks high and low. The top of each +sleeping den is a spacious balcony with a smooth floor. The +facilities for bear wrestling and skylarking are perfect, and +there are no offensive uneven floors nor dead stone walls to annoy +or discourage any bear. They can look at each other through the +entire series of cages and there is no chance whatever for a bear +to feel lonesome. We put just as many individuals into each cage +as we think the traffic will stand; and sometimes as many as six +young bears are reared together. + +Now, all these conditions promote good spirits, playfulness, and +the general enjoyment of life. Any one who thinks that our bears +are not far happier than those that are in the wilds and exposed +to enemies, hunger and cold, should pause and consider. + +Our bear cubs begin to play just as soon as they emerge from their +natal den, in March or April, and they keep it up until they are +six or seven years of age,--or longer! Our visitors take the +playfulness of small cubs as a matter of course, but the clumsy +and ridiculous postures and antics of fat-paunched full-grown +bears are irresistibly funny. Really, there are times when it +seems as if the roars of laughter from the watching crowd +stimulates wrestling bears to further efforts. On October 28, +1921, about seventy boys stood in front of and alongside the +den of two Kluane grizzly cubs and shouted for nearly half an hour +in approval and admiration of the rapid and rough play of those +cubs. + +[Illustration with caption: ADULT BEARS AT PLAY] + +The play of bears, young or middle-aged, consists in boxing, +catch-as-catch-can wrestling, and chasing each other to and fro. +Cubs begin to spar as soon as they are old enough to stand erect +on their hind feet. They take their distance as naturally as +prize-fighters, and they strike, parry and dodge just as men do. +They handle their front feet with far more dexterity and precision +than boys six years of age. + +Boxing bears always strike for the head, and bite to seize the +cheek of the opponent. In biting, mouth meets mouth, in defense as +well as attack. When a biting bear makes a successful pass and +finally succeeds in getting a firm toothhold on the cheek of his +opponent, the party of the second part promptly throws himself +prone upon the ground, and with four free feet concentrated upon +the head of the other bear forces him to let go. This movement, +and the four big, flat foot soles coming up into action is, in +large bears, a very laughable spectacle, and generally produces a +roar. + +Wrestling bears roll over and over on the ground, clawing and +biting, until one scrambles up, and either makes a new attack or +rushes away. + +Bears love to chase one another, _and be chased;_ and in this +form of skylarking they raise a whirlwind of activity which leads +all around the floor, up to the balcony and along the length of +it, and plunges down at the other end. Often a bear that is chased +will fling himself into the bathing pool, with a tremendous +splash, quickly scramble out again and rush off anew in a swirl of +flying water. + +The two big male polar bears that came to us from the William +Hagenbeck group were very fond of playing and wrestling in the +water of their swimming pool. Often they kept up that aquatic +skylarking for two hours at a stretch, and by this constant claw +work upon each other's pelts they kept their coats of hair so +thinned down that we had to explain them. One bear had a very +spectacular swimming trick. He would swim across the pool until +his front feet touched the side, then he would throw himself over +backwards, put his hind feet against the rock wall, and with a +final shove send himself floating gracefully on his back across to +the other side. + +Playful bears are much given to playing tricks, and teasing each +other. A bear sleeping out in the open den is regarded as a proper +subject for hectoring, by a sudden bite or cuff, or a general +assault. It is natural to expect that wrestling bears will +frequently become angry and fight; but such is not the case. This +often happens with boys and men, but bears play the game +consistently to the end. I can not recall a single instance of a +real bear fight as the result of a wrestling or boxing match; and +may all boys take note of this good example from the bear dens. + +Next to the bears, the apes and monkeys are our most playful +animals. Here, also, it is the young and the half grown members of +the company that are most active in play. Fully mature animals are +too sedate, or too heavy, for the frivolities of youth. A well- +matched pair of young chimpanzees will wrestle and play longer and +harder than the young of any other primate species known to me. It +is important to cage together only young apes of equal size and +strength, for if there is any marked disparity in size, the larger +and stronger animal will wear out the strength of its smaller +cage-mate, and impair its health. + +In playing, young chimps, orangs or monkeys seize each other and +wrestle, fall, and roll over and over, indefinitely. They make +great pretenses of biting each other, but it is all make-believe. +My favorite orang-utan pet in Borneo loved to play at biting me, +but whenever the pressure became too strong I would say chidingly, +"Ah! Ah!" and his jaws would instantly relax. He loved to butt me +in the chest with his head, make wry faces, and make funny noises +with his lips. I tried to teach him "cat's cradle" but it was too +much for him. His clumsy fingers could not manage it. + +One of our brightest chimpanzees, named Baldy, was much given to +hectoring his female cage-mate, for sport. What he regarded as his +best joke was destroying her bed. Many times over, after she had +laboriously carried straw up to the balcony, carefully made up a +nice, soft, circular bed for herself, and settled down upon it for +a well-earned rest, Baldy would silently climb up to her level, +suddenly fling himself upon her as she lay, and with all four of +his arms and legs violently working, the nest would be torn to +pieces and scattered and the lady orang rudely pulled about. Then +Baldy would joyously swing down to the lower level, settle himself +demurely at the front of the cage, and with a placid face and +innocent, far-away expression in his eyes gaze at the crowd. There +was nothing lacking but a mischievous wink of one eye. + +Whenever his cage-mate selected a particularly long and perfect +straw and placed it crosswise in her mouth, Baldy would steal up +behind her and gleefully snatch it away. + +Baldy was a born comedian. He loved to amuse a crowd and make +people laugh. He would go through a great trapeze performance of +clownish and absurd gymnastics, and often end it with three or +four loud smacks of his big black feet against the wall. This was +accomplished by violent kicking backwards. His dancing and up-and- +down jumping always made visitors laugh, after which he would +joyously give his piercing "_Wah-hoo_" shout of triumph. A +Sioux Indian squaw dances by jumping up and down, but her +performance is lifeless in comparison. + +No vaudeville burlesque dancer ever cut a funnier monkey shine +than the up-and-down high-jump dance and floor-slapping act of our +Boma chimpanzee (1921). Boma offers this whenever he becomes +especially desirous of entertaining a party of distinguished +visitors. In stiff dancing posture, he leaps high in the air, +precisely like a great black jumping-jack straight from Dante's +Inferno. Orangs love to turn somersaults, and some individuals +are so persistent about it as to wear the hair off their backs, +disfigure their beauty, and disgust their keepers. + +In the chapter on "Mental Traits of the Gorilla" a descriptionis +given of the play of Major Penny's wonderful John Gorilla. + +When many captive monkeys are kept together in one large cage +containing gymnastic properties, many species develop humor, and +indulge in play of many kinds. They remind me of a group of well- +fed and boisterous small boys who must skylark or "bust." From +morning until night they pull each other's tails, wrestle and +roll, steal each other's playthings, and wildly chase each other +to and fro. There is no end of chattering, and screeching, and +funny facial grimaces. A writer in _Life_ once said that the +sexes of monkeys can be distinguished by the fact that "the +females chatter twice as fast as the males," but I am sure that +many ladies will dispute that statement. + +In a company of mixed monkeys, or a mixed company of monkeys, a +timid and fearsome individual is often made the butt of practical +jokes by other monkeys who recognize its weakness. And who has not +seen the same trait revealed in crowds of boys? + +But we can linger no longer with the Primates. + +Who has not seen squirrels at play? Once seen, such an incident is +not soon forgotten. I have seen gray, fox and red squirrels engage +in highly interesting performances. The gray squirrel is stately +and beautiful in its play, but the red squirrel is amazing in its +elaborateness of method. I have seen a pair of those mischief- +makers perform low down on the trunk of a huge old virgin white +oak tree, where the holding was good, and work out a program +almost beyond belief. They raced and chased to and fro, up, down +and across, in circles, triangles, parabolas and rectangles, until +it was fairly bewildering. Really, they seemed to move just as +freely and certainly on the tree-trunk as if they were on the +ground, with no such thing in sight as the law of gravitation. + +It seems to me that the gray squirrel barks and the red squirrel +chatters, scolds, and at times swears, chiefly for the fun of +hearing himself make a noise. In the red squirrel it is impudent +and defiant; and usually you hear it near your camp, or in your +own grounds, where the rascals know that they will not be shot. + +The playful spirit seems to be inherent in the young of all the +Felidae. The playfulness of lion, tiger, leopard and puma cubs is +irresistibly pleasing; and it is worth while to rear domestic +kittens in order to watch their playful antics. + +I have been assured by men who seemed to know, that wolf and fox +cubs silently play in front of their home dens, when well screened +from view, just as domestic dog puppies do; and what on earth can +beat the playfulness of puppies of the right kind, whose parents +have given them red blood instead of fat as their inheritance. +Interesting books might be written about the play of dogs alone. + +The play of the otter, in sliding down a long and steep toboggan +slide of wet and slippery earth to a water plunge at the bottom, +is well known to trappers, hunters, and a few naturalists. It is +quite celebrated, and is on record in many places. I have seen +otter slides, but never had the good luck to see one in use. The +otters indulge in this very genuine sport with just as much +interest and zest as boys develop in coasting over ice and snow +with their sleds. + +Here at the Zoological Park, young animals of a number of species +amuse themselves in the few ways that are open to them. It is a +common thing for fawns and calves of various kinds to butt their +mothers, just for fun. A more common form of infantile ruminant +sport is racing and jumping. Now and then we see a red buffalo +calf three or four months old suddenly begin a spell of running +for amusement, in the pure exuberance of health and good living. A +calf will choose a long open course, usually up and down a gentle +slope, and for two hundred feet or more race madly to and fro for +a dozen laps, with tail stiffly and very absurdly held aloft. Of +course men and beasts all pause to look at such performances, and +at the finish the panting and perspiring calf halts and gazes +about with a conscious air of pride. All this is deliberate +"showing off," just such as small boys frequently engage in. + +Elk fawns, and more rarely deer fawns, also occasionally indulge +in similar performances. Often an adult female deer develops the +same trait. One of our female Eld's deer annually engages in a +series of spring runs. We have seen her race the full length of +her corral, up and down, over a two hundred foot course, at really +break-neck speed, and keep it up until her tongue hung out. + +Years ago, in the golden days, I was so lucky as to see several +times wonderful dances of flocks of saras cranes on the low sandy +islets in the River Jumna, northern India, just below Etawah. It +was like this: While the birds are idly stepping about, apropos of +nothing at all, one suddenly flaps his long wings several times in +succession, another jumps straight up in the air for a yard or so, +and presto! with one accord the whole flock is galvanized into +action. They throw aside their dignity, and real fun begins. Some +stand still, heads high up, and flap their wings many times. +Others leap in the air, straight up and down, one jump after +another, as high as they can go. Others run about bobbing and +bowing, and elaborately courtesying to each other with half opened +wings, breasts low down and their tails high in the air, cutting +very ridiculous figures. + +In springtime in the Zoological Park we often see similar +exhibitions of crane play in our large crane paddock. A +particularly joyous bird takes a fit of running with spread wings, +to and fro, many times over, and usually one bird thus performing +inspires another, probably of his own kind, to join in the game. +The other cranes look on admiringly and sometimes a spectator +shrilly trumpets his approval. + +In his new book, "The Friendly Arctic," Mr. Vilhjalmur Stefansson +records an interesting example of play indulged in jointly by a +frivolous arctic fox and eight yearling barren-ground caribou. It +was a game of tag, or its wild equivalent. The fox ran into and +through the group of caribou fawns, which gave chase and tried to +catch the fox, but in vain. At last the fawns gave up the chase, +returned to their original position, and came to parade rest. Then +back came the fox. Again it scurried through the group in a most +tantalizing manner, which soon provoked the fawns to chase the fox +anew. At the end of this inning the caribou again abandoned the +chase, whereupon the fox went off to attend to other affairs. + +On the whole, the play of wild animals is a large field and no +writer will exhaust it with one chapter. Very sincerely do we wish +that at least one of the many romance writers who are so +industriously inventing wild-animal blood-and-thunder stories +would do more work with his eyes and less with his imagination. + + + + +XXI + +COURAGE IN WILD ANIMALS + + +Either in wild animals or tame men, courage is the moral impulse +that impels an individual to fight or to venture at the risk of +bodily harm. Like Theodore Roosevelt, the truly courageous +individual engages his adversary without stopping to consider the +possible consequences to himself. The timid man shrinks from the +onset while he takes counsel of his fears, and reflects that "It +may injure me in my business," or that "It may hurt my standing;" +and in the end he becomes a slacker. + +Among the mental traits and passions of wild creatures, a +quantitative and qualitative analysis of courage becomes a highly +interesting study. We can easily fall into the error of +considering that fighting is the all-in-all measure of courage; +which very often is far from being true. The mother quail that +pretends to be wounded and feigns helplessness in order to draw +hostile attention unto herself and away from her young, thereby +displays courage of a high order. No quail unburdened by a +helpless brood requiring her protection ever dreams of taking such +risks. The gray gibbons of Borneo, who quite successfully made +their escape from us, but promptly returned close up to my party +in response to the S. O. S. cries of a captured baby gibbon, +displayed the sublime courage of parental affection, and of +desperation. Wary, timid and fearfully afraid of man, at the first +sight of a biped they swing away. At the first roar of a gun they +literally fly down hill through the treetops, and vanish in a wild +panic. And yet, the leading members of that troop halted and +swiftly came back, piercing the gloom and silence of the forest +with their shrill cries of mingled encouragement and protest. It +was quite as courageous and heroic as the act of a father who +rushes into a burning building to save his child, at the imminent +risk of his own life. + +The animal world has its full share of heroes. Also, it has its +complement of pugilists and bullies, its cowards and its +assassins. + +Few indeed are the wild creatures that fight gratuitously, or +attack other animals without cause. If a fight occurs, look for +the motive. The wild creatures know that peace promotes happiness +and long life. Now, of all wild quadrupeds, it is probable that +the African baboons are pound for pound the most pugnacious, and +the quickest on the draw. The old male baboon in his prime will +fight anything that threatens his troop, literally at the drop of +a hat. But there is method in his madness. He and his wives and +children dwell on the ground in lands literally reeking with fangs +and claws. He has to confront the lion, leopard, wild dog and +hyena, and make good his right to live. No wonder, then, that his +temper is hot, his voice raucous and blood-curdling; his canines +fearfully long and sharp, and his savage yell of warning +sufficient to keep even the king of beasts off his grass. + +Once I saw two baboons fight. We had two huge and splendid adult +male gelada baboons, from Abyssinia. They were kept separate, but +in adjoining cages; and the time came when we needed one of those +cages for another distinguished arrival. We decided to try the +rather hazardous experiment of herding those two geladas together. + +Accordingly, we first opened the doors to both outside cages, to +afford for the moment a free circulation of baboons, and then we +opened the partition door. Instantly the two animals rushed +together in raging combat. With a fierce grip each seized the +other by the left cheek; and then began a baboon cyclone. They +spun around on their axis, they rolled over and over on the floor, +and they waltzed in speechless rage over every foot of those two +cages. Strange to say, beyond coughing and gasping they made no +sounds. Never before had we witnessed such a fearsome exhibition +of insane hatred and rage. + +As soon as the horrified spectators could bring it about, the wild +fighters were separated; and strange to say, neither of them was +seriously injured. It was a drawn battle. + +It is quite difficult to weigh and measure the independent and +abstract courage inherent in any wild animal species. All that can +be done is to grope after the truth. On this subject there can be +almost as many different opinions as there are species of wild +animals. + +What animal will go farthest in daring and defying man, even the +man with a gun, in foraging for food? + +Unquestionably and indisputably, the lion. This is no idle +repetition of an old belief, or tradition. It is a fact; and we +say this quite mindful of the records made by the grizzly bear, +the Alaskan brown bear, the tiger, the leopard and the jaguar. + +"The Man-Eaters of Tsavo" opened up a strange and new chapter in +the life history of the savage lion. That truthful record of an +astounding series of events showed the lion in an attitude of +permanent aggression, backed by amazing and persistent courage. +For several months in that rude construction camp on the arid +bank of the Tsavo River, where a railway bridge was being +constructed on the famous Uganda Railway line of British East +Africa, lions and men struggled mightily and fought with each +other, with living men as the stakes of victory. The book written +by Col. J.H. Patterson, under the title mentioned above, tells a +plain and simple story of the nightly onslaughts of the lions, the +tragedies suffered from them, the constant, the desperate though +often ill-consideredefforts of the white engineers to protect +the terrorized black laborers, and finally the death of the man- +eaters. During a series of battles lasting four long months the +two lions _killed and carried of a total of twenty-eight +men!_ How many natives were killed and not reported never will +be known. The most hair-raising episode of all had a comedy touch, +and fortunately it did not quite end in a tragedy. This is what +happened: + +Col. Patterson and his staff decided to try to catch the boldest +of the lions in a trap baited with _a living man._ +Accordingly a two-room trap was built, one room to hold and +protect the man-bait, the other to catch and hold the lion. A very +courageous native consented to be "it," and he was put in place +and fastened up. The lion came on schedule time, he found the +live bait, boldly entered the trap to seize it, and the dropping +door fell as advertised. When the lion found himself caught, did +his capture trouble him? Not in the least. Instead of starting in +to tear his way out he decided to postpone his escape until he +had torn down the partition and eaten the man! So at the +partition he went, with teeth and claws. + +In mortal terror the live bait yelled for succor. In "the last +analysis" the man was saved from the lion, but the lion joyously +tore his way out and escaped without a scratch. So far from being +daunted by this divertisement he continued his man-killing +industry, quite as usual. + +Now, the salient points of the man-eaters of Tsavo consist of the +unquenchable courage of the two lions, and their persistent +defiance of white men armed with rifles. I am sure that there is +nowhere in existence another record of wild-animal courage equal +to this, and the truthfulness of it is quite beyond question. + +The annals of African travel and exploration contain instances +innumerable of the unparalleled courage of the lion in taking what +he wants when he wants it. + +THE GRIZZLY BEAR'S COURAGE. As a subject, this is a +hazardous risk, because so many men are able to tell all about it. +Judging from reliable records of the ways and means of the grizzly +bear, I think we must award the second prize for courage to "Old +Ephraim." The list of his exploits in scaring pioneers, in +attacking hunters, in robbing camps, and finally in bear- +handling and almost killing two guides in the Yellowstone Park, is +long and thrilling. The record reaches back to the days of Lewis +and Clark, who related many wild adventures with bears. The +grizzlies of their day were very courageous, but even then they +were _not_ greatly given to attacking men quite unprovoked! +In those days of bow-and-arrow Indians, and of white men armed +only with ineffective muzzle-loading pea rifles, using only weak +black powder, the grizzlies had an even chance with their human +adversaries, and sometimes they took first money. In those days +the courage of the grizzly was at its highest peak; and it was +then conceded by all frontiersmen that the grizzly was thoroughly +courageous, and always ready to fight. In the light of subsequent +history, and in order to be just to the grizzly, we claim that his +fighting was _in self defense,_ for even in those days the +unwounded bear preferred to run rather than to fight +unnecessarily. + +The rise of the high-power, long-range repeating rifle has made +the grizzly bear a different animal from what he was in the days +of Lewis and Clark. He has learned, _thoroughly,_ the supreme +deadliness of man's new weapons, and he knows that he is no longer +able to meet men on even terms. Consequently, he runs, he hides, +he avoids man, everywhere save in the Yellowstone Park, where he +has found out that firearms are prohibited. There he has broken +the truce so often that his offenses have had to be met with stern +disciplinary measures that have made for the safety of tourists +and guides. + +Once I saw an amusing small incident. Be it known that when a new +black bear cub is introduced to a den of its peers, the newcomer +shrinks in fright, and cowers, and takes its place right humbly. +But species alter cases. Once when we received an eight-months- +old grizzly cub we turned it loose in a big den that contained +five black bear cubs a year older than itself. But did the grizzly +cub cower and shrink? By no manner of means. With head fully +erect, it marched calmly to the centre of the den, and with serene +confidence gave the other cubs the once-over with an air that +plainly said: "_I'm_ a grizzly! I'm here, and I've come to +stay. Do I hear any objections?" + +Quite as if in answer to the challenge, an eighteen-months-old +black bear presently sidled up and made a trial blow at the +grizzly's head. Instantly the grizzly cub's right arm shot out a +well-delivered blow that sent the black one scurrying away in a +panic, and perceptibly cleared the atmosphere. That cub had +grizzly-bear _courage_ and _confidence;_ that was all. + +There are a number of American sportsmen who esteem the Cape +buffalo as the most aggressive and dangerous wild animal in +eastern Africa. He is so courageous and so persistently bold that +he is much given to lying in wait for hunters and attacking with +real fury. The high grass of his swamps is very helpful to him as +a means of defense. In our National Collection of Heads and Horns +there is a huge buffalo head (for years the world's highest +record) that tells the story of a near tragedy. The brother of Mr. +F.H. Barber, of South Africa, fired at the animal, but failed to +stop it. His gun jammed, and the charging beast was almost in the +act of killing him when F.H. Barber fired without pausing to take +aim. His lucky bullet knocked a piece out of the buffalo's left +horn, dazed the animal for a moment, and afforded time for the +shot that killed the mighty bull. + +The leopard is usually a vicious beast. When brought to bay it +fights with great fury and success. The black leopard is supremely +vicious and intractable. Nearly all leopards hate training, and I +have seen two or three leopard "acts" that were nerve-racking to +witness because of the clear determination of all the animals to +kill their trainer at the first opportunity. + +The status of the big Alaskan brown bear has already been referred +to in terms that may stand as an estimate of its courage. Really, +it is now in the same mental state as the grizzly bears of the +days of Lewis and Clark, and the surplus must be shot to admonish +the survivors and protect the rights of man. + +THE RAGE OF A WILD BULL ELK. One of the most remarkable +cases of rage, resentment and fighting courage in a newly +captured wild animal occurred near Buttonwillow, California, in +November 1904, and is very graphically described by Dr. C. Hart +Merriam in the _Scientific Monthly_ for November 1921. The +story concerns the leader of a band of the small California Valley +Elk (_Cervus nannodes_) which it was desired to transport to +Sequoia Park, for permanent preservation. + +The bull refused to be driven to the corral for capture, so he was +roped, thrown, hog-tied and hauled six miles on a wagon. This +indignity greatly enraged the animal. At the corral he was +liberated for the purpose of driving him through a chute and into +a car. + +From his capture and the jolting ride the bull was furious, and he +refused to be driven. His first act was to gore and mortally wound +a young elk that unfortunately found itself in the corral with +him. Then he was roped again and his horns were sawn off. At first +no horseman dared to ride into the corral to attempt to drive the +animal. Finally the leader of the cowboys, Bill Woodruff, mounted +on a wise and powerful horse who knew the game quite as well as +his rider, rode into the corral with the raging elk, and attempted +to drive it. + +The story of the fight that followed, of raging elk vs. horse and +man, makes stories of Spanish bullfights seem tame and +commonplace, and the adventure of St. George and the dragon a dull +affair. With the stubs of his antlers the bull charged the horse +again and again, inflicting upon the splendid animal heart-rending +punishment. Finally, after a fearful conflict, the wise and brave +horse conquered, and the elk devil was forced into the car. + +After a short railway journey the elk was forced into a crate,-- +fighting at every step,--and hauled a two days' journey to the +Park. Reduced to kicking as its sole expression of resentment, the +animal kicked continuously for forty-eight hours, almost +demolishing the crate. + +The final scene of this unparalleled drama of wild-animal rage is +thus described by Dr. Merriam: "Then the other gates were +raised, giving the bull an opportunity to step out. For the +first, time since his capture he did what was wanted; he +voluntarily crept to the rear of the wagon and hobbled out on the +ground. Looking around for an enemy to attack and not seeing any, +--some of the men having stationed themselves outside the park +fence, the others on top of the crate,--he set out for the river, +only a few rods away. + +"His courage had not forsaken him, but his strength had. He was no +longer the proudly aggressive wild beast he had been. He had +reached his limit. The terrible ordeal he had been through; the +struggle incident to his capture; the rough, hot ride to the +corral, hog-tied, on the hard floor of the dead-ax wagon; the +outbursts of passion in the corral; the fighting and second roping +in connection with the sawing off of his horns; the battle with +the big horse; the ceaseless violence of his destructive +assaults, first in the car, then in the crate, continued for three +days and nights, had finally undermined even his iron frame; so +when at last he found himself free on the ground, he presented a +truly pitiful picture. + +"With his head bent to one side and back curved, with one ear up +and the other down, and with a dejected, helpless expression on +his face, he hobbled wearily away, barely able to step without +falling. Slowly he made his way to the river, waded in, drank, +crossed to the far side, staggered laboriously up the low bank, +and lay down. The next day he was found in the same spot,--dead." + +THE DEFENSE OF THE HOME AND FAMILY. Any man who is too +cowardly to fight for his home and country deserves to live and +die homeless and without a country. + +With this subject of courage the parental and fraternal affections +of wild animals are inseparably linked. The defense of the home +and family unit is the foundation of all courage, and of all +fighting qualities in man or animals. The gospel of self-defense +is the first plank in the platform of the home defenders. +Obviously, the head of a family cannot permit himself to be +knocked out, because as the chief fighter in the Home Defense +League it is his bounden duty to preserve his strength and his +weapons, and remain fit. + +In the days of the club, the stone axe and the flint arrow-head, +men were few and feeble, and the wild beasts had no cause to fear +extermination. Tooth, claw and horn were about as formidable as +the clumsy and inadequate weapons of man. The wild species went on +developing naturally, and some mighty hosts were the result. + +But gunpowder changed all that. In the chase it gave weak men +their innings beside the strong. Man could kill at long range, +with little danger to himself, or even with none at all. And then +in the wild beast world the great final struggle for existence +began. Man's flippant phrase,--"the survival of the fittest,"-- +became charged with sinister and deadly meaning. + +But for Mother Love among wild creatures, species would not +multiply, and the earth soon would become depopulated. In the +entire Deer Family of the world, the annual shedding of all horns +is Nature's tribute to motherhood in the herd. A buck deer or a +bull moose is a domineering master--so long as his antlers remain +upon his head. But with the approach of fawn-bearing time in the +herd, down they go. I have seen a bull elk stand with humbly +lowered head, and gaze reproachfully upon his fallen antlers. The +dehorned buck not only no longer hectors and drives the females, +but in fear of hurting his tender new velvet stubs he keeps well +away from the front hoofs of the cows. The calves grow up quite +safe from molestation within the herd. + +It may be set down as a basic truth that all vertebrate animals +are ready to defend their homes and their young against all +enemies that do not utterly outclass them in size and strength. Of +course we do not expect the pygmy to try conclusions with the +giant, but at the same time, wild creatures have their own queer +ways of defense and counter-attack, and of matching superior +cunning against superior force. But now, throughout the animal +world, the fear of man is paramount. Nearly all the wild ones have +learned it. It is only the enraged, the frightened or the cornered +bear, lion, tiger or elephant that charges the Man with a Gun, and +seeks to counter upon him with fang and claw before it drops. The +deadly supremacy of the repeating rifle that kills big game at +half a mile, and the pump shotgun that gets five geese out of a +flock, are well recognized by the terrorized big game and small +game that flies before the sweeping pestilence of machine guns and +automobiles. + +THE FIGHTING CANADA GOOSE. In essaying to illustrate the +home defense spirit, my memory goes out to one truculent and +fearless Canada goose whose mate elected to nest in a horribly +exposed spot on the east bank of our Wild-Fowl Pond. The location +was an error in judgment. As soon as the nest was finished and the +eggs laid therein, the goose took her place upon the collection, +and the gander mounted guard. + +There were so many hostiles on the warpath that he was kept on the +qui vive during all daylight hours. At a radius of about twenty +feet he drew an imaginary dead-line around the family nest, and no +bird, beast or man could pass that line without a fight. If any +other goose, or a swan or duck, attempted to pass, the guardian +gander would rush forward with blazing eyes, open beak, wings open +for action, and with distended neck hiss out his challenge. If +the intruder failed to register respect, and came on, the gander +would seize the offender with his beak, and furiously wing-beat +him into flight. That gander was afraid of nothing, and his +courage and readiness to fight all comers, all day long, caused +visitors to accord him full recognition as a belligerent power. + +THE CASE OF THE LAUGHING GULL. About that same time, a pair +of laughing gulls had the temerity to build a nest on the ground +in the very storm centre of the great Flying Cage. Daily and +hourly they were surrounded by a truculent mob of pelicans, +herons, ibises, storks, egrets and ducks, the most of whom +delighted in wrecking households. The keepers sided with the +gulls by throwing around their nest a wire entanglement, with a +sally-port at one side for the use of the beleaguered pair. + +The voice of an angry or frightened laughing gull is it [sic] +owner's chief defense. The female sat on her nest and shrieked out +her shrill and defiant war cry of "Kah! kah, kah, kah!" The male +took post just outside the sally-port, where he postured and +screamed and threatened until we wondered why he did not burst +with superheated emotion. I am sure that never before did two +small gulls ever raise so much racket in so short a time and their +cage-mates must have found it rather trying. + +The gulls hatched their eggs, they reared their young +successfully, and at last peace was restored. + +A Mother Antelope Fights Off an Eagle. Mr. Howard Eaton, of Wolf, +Wyoming, once saw a female prong-horned antelope put up a strong +and successful fight in defense of her newly-born fawn. A golden +eagle, whose spring specialty is for fawns, kids and lambs, was +seen to swoop swiftly down toward a solitary antelope that had +been noticed on a treeless range beside the Little Missouri. It +quickly became evident that the eagle was after an antelope fawn. +As the bird swooped down toward the mother, and endeavored to +seize her fawn in its talons, the doe rose high on her hind legs, +and with her forelegs flying like flails struck with her sharp- +pointed hoofs again and again. Her blows went home, and feathers +were seen to fly from the body of the marauder. + +The doe made good her defense. The eagle was glad to escape, and +as quickly as possible pulled himself together and flew away. + +The Defensive Circle of the Musk-Ox. Several arctic explorers have +described the wonderful living-ring defense, previously mentioned, +of musk-ox herds against wolves. Mr. Paul Rainey's moving pictures +have shown it to us in thrilling detail, with Eskimo dogs instead +of wolves. When a musk-ox herd is attacked by the big and deadly +arctic white wolves, the bulls and adult cows herd the calves and +young stock into a compact group, then take their places shoulder +to shoulder around them in a perfect circle, and with lowered +heads await the onset. The sharp down-and-up curved horn of the +musk-ox is a deadly weapon against all the dangerous animals of +the North, except man. + +When a wolf approaches near and endeavors to make a breach in the +circle, the musk-ox nearest him tries to get him, and will even +rush out of the line for a short and brief pursuit. But the bull +does not pursue more than twenty yards or so, for fear of being +surrounded alone and cut off. At the end of his usually futile +run, back he goes and carefully backs into his place in the first +line of defense. A charging bull does not rush out far enough that +the wolves can cut him off and kill him. He is much too wise for +that. + +Mr. Stefansson says that the impregnability of the musk-ox defense +is so well recognized by the wolves of the North that often a pack +will march past a herd in close proximity without offering to +attack it, and without even troubling the herd to form the hollow +circle. + +A Savage Wild Boar. I once had a "fight" with a captive Japanese +wild boar, under conditions both absurd and tragic, and from it I +learned the courage and fury of such animals. The animal was +large, powerful, fearfully savage toward every living thing, and +insanely courageous. It was confined in a yard enclosed by a +strong wire fence, and while we were all very sure that the fence +would hold it, I became uneasy. In mid-afternoon I went alone to +the spot, passing hundreds of school children on the way, to study +the situation. When I reached the front of the corral and stood +still to look at the fence, the boar immediately rushed for me. He +came straight on, angry and terrible, and charged the wire like a +living battering-ram. He repeated these charges until I became +fearful of an outbreak, and decided to try to make him afraid to +repeat them. Procuring from the bear dens, a pike pole with a +stout spike in the end, I received the next charge with a return +thrust meant to puncture both the boar's hide and his +understanding. He backed off and charged more furiously than ever, +with white foam flying from his jaws. + +He cared nothing for his punishment. He charged until his snout +bled freely, and the fence bulged at the strain. + +Then I became regularly scared! I feared that the savage beast +would break through the fence in spite of its strength, and run +amuck among those helpless children. I "beat it" back to my +office, hurried back with one of my loaded rifles, and without +losing a second put a bullet through that raging brain and ended +that danger forever. + +The Overrated Peccary. This reminds me that the collared peccary +has been credited with a degree of courage that has been much +exaggerated. While a hunted and cornered peccary will fight dogs +or men, and put up a savage and dangerous defense, men whom I +know in the peccary belt of Mexico have assured me that a drove of +peccaries will _not_ attack a hunter who has killed one of +their mates, nor keep him up a tree for hours while they swarm +underneath him waiting for his blood. I have been assured by +competent witnesses that in peccary hunting there is no danger +whatever of mass attack through a desire for revenge, and that +peccaries fired at will run like deer. + +A Black Bear Killed a Man for Food. There is on record at least +one well-authenticated case of a black bear deliberately going out +of his way to cross a river, attack a man and kill him. + +On May 17, 1907, at a lumber camp of the Red Deer Lumber Company, +thirty miles south of Etiomami on the Canadian Northern Railway, +Northwest Territory, a cook named T. Wilson was chased by a large +black bear, without provocation, struck once on the head, and +instantly killed. The bear then picked him up, carried him a short +distance, and proceeded to _eat_ him. Ten shots from a .32 +calibre revolver had no effect. Later a rifle ball drove the bear +away, but only after it had eaten the left thigh and part of the +body. (Forest and Stream, Feb. 8, 1908.) + +The Status of the Gray Wolf. In America wolves rarely succeed in +killing men, although they often follow men's trails in the hope +of spoil of some kind. But there are exceptions. + +In 1912, around Lake Nipigon, Province of Ontario, Canada, there +existed a reign of terror from wolves. The first man killed was a +half-breed mail-carrier. Then, in December, another mail-carrier, +who was working the lumber camps north of Lake Nipigon, was killed +by wolves and completely devoured. The snow showed a terrible +struggle, in which four large wolves had been killed by the +carrier. + +In Russia and in France in the days preceding the use of modern +breech-loading firearms, the gray wolves of Europe were very bold, +and a great many people were killed by them. + +Killings by Wild Beasts in India. The killing by wild beasts of +unarmed and defenseless native men, women and children in India is +a very different matter from man-killing in resourceful and +dangerous North America. The annual slaughter by wild beasts in +Hindustan and British Burma is a fairly good index of the courage +and aggressiveness of the parties of the first part. In India +during the year 1878, in which we were specially interested, the +totals were as follows: + +Persons killed by elephants, 33; tigers, 816; leopards, 300; +bears, 94; wolves, 845; hyenas, 33; snakes, 16,812. + +Of course such slaughter as this by the ridiculous hyenas and the +absurd sloth bears of India is possible only in a country wherein +the swarming millions of people are universally defenseless, and +children are superabundant. + +As a corollary to the above figures, a comparison of them with the +roster of wild animals killed and paid for is of some interest. +The dangerous beasts destroyed were as follows: + +Elephants, 1; tigers, 1,493; leopards, 3,387; bears, 1,283; +wolves, 5,067; hyenas, 1,202; serpents, 117,782. + +The Fighting Spirit in Baboons. In the first analysis, we find +that courage is an individual trait, and that so far as we know, +it never characterizes all the individuals of any one species. The +strongest and the best armed of men and beasts usually are +accounted the bravest ones of earth. The defenseless ones do well +to be timid, to avoid hostilities and to flee from conflict to +avoid being destroyed. It is just as much the duty of a +professional mother to flee and to hide, in order to save her own +life, as it is for "the old he-one" to threaten and to fight. + +At the same time, there are many species which are concededly +courageous, as species. In making up this list I would place first +of all the baboons of eastern Africa, whom I regard collectively +as the most bold and reckless fighters per pound avoirdupois to be +found in the whole Order Primates. They have weapons, agility, +strength and cyclonic courage. On no other basis could they have +so long survived _on land_ in a country full of lions, +leopards, cheetahs, hyenas and wild dogs. + +In order to appreciate the fighting spirit of a male baboon, the +observer need only come just once in actual touch with one. A +dozen times I have been seized by a powerful baboon hand shot out +with lightning quickness between or under his cage bars. The +combined strength and ferocity of the grab, and the grip on the +human hand or arm, is unbelievable until felt, and this with an +accompaniment of glaring eyes, snarling lips and nerve-ripping +voice is quite sufficient to intimidate any ordinary man. + +But even in the courage and belligerency of baboons, there are +some marked differences between species. I rank them as follows: + +The most fierce and dangerous species is the East African baboon. + +The next for courage is the Rhodesian species. + +The spectacular hamadryas baboon is a very good citizen. The +long-armed yellow species makes very little trouble, and + +The small golden baboon is the best-behaved of them all. + +Courage in the Great Apes. After forty years of ape study, with +many kinds of evidence, I am convinced that the courage and the +alleged ferocity of the gorilla has been much over-rated. I +believe this is due to the influence upon the human mind of the +great size and terrifying aspect of the animal. + +Of all the men whom I have known or read, the late R. L. Garner +knew by far the most of gorilla habits and character by personal +observation in the gorilla jungles of equatorial Africa. And +never, in several years of intimate contact with Mr, Garner did he +so much as once put forth a statement or an estimate that seemed +to me exaggerated or overcolored. + +In our many discussions of gorilla character Mr. Garner always +represented that animal as very shy, wary of observation by man, +profoundly cunning in raiding _in darkness_ the banana +plantations of man's villages, and most carefully avoiding +exposures by daylight. He described the gorilla as practically +never attacking men unless first attacked by them, and fleeing +unless forcibly brought to bay. He told me of are doubtable +African tribesman who once captured a baby gorilla on the ground +by suddenly attacking the mother with his club and beating her so +successfully that she fled from him and abandoned her young. +"But," said Mr. Garner, "there is only one tribe in Africa that +could turn out a man who would attempt a feat like that." + +That the gorilla can and will fight furiously and effectively when +brought to bay is well known, and never denied. + +Of the apes I have known in captivity, the chimpanzees are by far +the most aggressive, courageous and dangerous. A vigorous male +specimen over eight years of age is more dangerous than a lion, +or tiger, or grizzly bear, and _far more anxious_ to fight +something. I think that even if our Boma were muzzled, no five men +of my acquaintance could catch him and tie his hands and feet. + +The orang-utan is only half the fighter that the chimpanzee is. +Even the adult males are not persistently aggressive, or inflamed +by savage desires to hurt somebody. + +Courage in Elephants as an Asset. In all portions of India wherein +tiger hunting with elephants is practiced, elephants with good +courage are at a premium. No elephant is fit to carry a howdah in +a line of beaters, with a valuable sahib on board, unless its +courage can stand the acid test of a wounded tiger's charge. When +an elephant can endure without panic an infuriated tiger climbing +up its frontispiece to get at the unhappy mahout and the hunter, +that elephant belongs in the courageous class. The cowardly +elephant screams in terror, bolts for the rear, and if there is a +tree in the landscape promptly wrecks the howdah and the sportsman +against its lower branches. + +A "rogue" elephant always reminds me of my Barbados boatman's +description of a pugnacious friend: "De trouble is, he am too +brave!" A rogue elephant will attack anything from a wheelbarrow +to a hut, and destroy it. The peak of rogue ambition was reached +on a railway in Burma, near Ban Klap, in March 1908, when a rogue +elephant "on hearing the locomotive whistle, trumpeted loudly and +then, lowering his head, charged the oncoming train. The impact +was tremendous. Such was the impetus of the great pachyderm that +the engine was partially derailed, the front of the smoke-box +shattered as far as the tubes, the cow-catcher was crushed into a +shapeless piece of iron, and other damages of minor importance +were sustained. The train was going thirty-four miles per hour, +and the engine alone weighed between forty and fifty tons. + +"Of course the elephant was killed by the shock, its head being +completely smashed.... It is believed that this particular rogue +had been responsible for considerable damage to villages in the +vicinity of Lopbusi. A number of houses have been pulled down +recently and havoc wrought in other ways." + +On another occasion a vicious rogue elephant elected to try +conclusions with a railway train. In 1906, on the Korat branch of +the Siamese State Railway, a bull elephant attacked a freight +train running at full speed. He charged the rushing locomotive, +with the result that the locomotive and several cars were derailed +and sent down the side of the grade, and two persons were killed. +The elephant was killed outright and buried under the wreck of the +train. This occurred in open country, where there was no excuse +for an elephant on the track, and therefore the charge of the +rogue was wholly gratuitous. + +Captive elephants whose managers are too humane to punish them for +manifestations of meanness become spoiled by their immunity, just +as mean children are spoiled when fond and foolish parents feel +that their little jackets are too sacred ever to be tanned. Such +complete immunity is as bad for bad elephants as for bad +children, but in practice the severe punishment of an elephant +with real benefit to the animal is next door to an impossibility, +and so we never attempt it. We do, however, inflict mild +punishments, of the fourth order of efficiency. + +Animals and Men. Among the animals that are most courageous +against man are the species and individuals that are most familiar +with him, and feel for him both contempt and hatred. The cat +scratches, the bad dog bites, the vicious horse kicks or bites, +and the mean pet bear, tiger, ape, leopard, bison or deer will +attempt injury or murder whenever they think the chance has +arrived. I know a lady whose pet monkey is a savage and mean +little beast, and because she never thrashes it as it deserves, +both of her arms from wrist to elbow have been scarified by its +teeth. + +Mr. E. R. Sanborn, official photographer of the Zoological Park, +once made an ingenious and also terrifying experiment. He made an +excellent dummy keeper, stood it up, and tied it fast against the +fence inside the yard of our very large and savage male Grevy +Zebra. Then he posed his moving picture camera in a safe place, +and the keeper turned the zebra into the yard. The moment the +bad zebra caught sight of the presumptive keeper,--at last within +his power,--he rushed at the dummy with glaring eyes and open +mouth, and seized his victim by the head. With furious efforts he +tore the dummy loose from its moorings, whirled it into the middle +of the yard, where in a towering rage he knelt upon it, bit and +tore its heart out. Of course the unfortunate dummy perished. The +zebra reveled in his triumph, and altogether it was a fearsome +sight. + +CAUTION. A thoroughly cowardly horse _never_ should be +ridden, nor driven to anything so light that a runaway is +possible. Such animals are too expensive both to human life and to +property. A dangerous horse can be just as great a risk as a bad +lion or bear. + + + +IV.--THE BASER PASSIONS + +XXII + +FEAR AS A RULING PASSION + + +If we were asked, "Which one may be called the ruling passion of +the wild animal?" we would without hesitation answer,--it is fear. + +From the cradle to the grave, every strictly wild animal lives, +day and night, in a state of fear of bodily harm, and dread of +hunger and famine. + +"Now the 'free, wild life' is a round of strife, And of +ceaseless hunger and fear; And the life in the wild of the +animal child Is not all skittles and beer." + +The first thing that the wild baby learns, both by precept and +example, is safety first! When the squalling and toddling bear cub +first goes abroad, the mother bear is worried and nervous for fear +that in a sudden and dangerous emergency the half-helpless little +one will not be able to make a successful get-away when the alarm- +signal snort is given. During the first, and most dangerous, days +in the life of the elk, deer and antelope fawn, the first care of +the mother is to hide her offspring in a spot cunningly chosen +beside a rock, beside a log, or in thick bushes. In the absence of +all those she looks for a depression in the earth wherein the fawn +can lie without making a hump in the landscape. The first impulse +of the fawn,--even before nursing if the birth occurs in +daylight,--is to fold its long legs, short body and reptilian neck +into a very small package, hug the earth tightly, close its eyes +and lie absolutely motionless until its mother gives the signal to +arise and sup. Such infants may lie for long and weary hours +without so much as moving an ear; and the anxious mother strolls +away to some distance to avoid disclosing her helpless offspring. + +Now, suppose you discover and touch an elk or a deer fawn while +thus hiding. What will it do? Nine times out of ten it will bound +up as if propelled by steel springs, and go off like an arrow from +a bow, dashing in any direction that is open and leads straight +away. The horrified mother will rush into view in dangerously near +proximity, and I have seen a wild white-tailed deer doe tear +madly up and down in full view and near by, to attract the danger +to herself. + +Thousands of men and boys have seen a mother quail flop and +flutter and play wounded, to lead the dangerous boy away from her +brood of little quail mites, and work the ruse so daringly and +successfully as to save both her babies and herself. I well +remember my surprise and admiration when a mother quail first +played that trick upon me. I expected to pick her up,--and forgot +all about the chicks,--until they were every one safely in hiding, +and then Mrs. Quail gave me the laugh and flew away. + +Was it strategy? Was it the result of quail thought and reason? Or +did it come by heredity, just like walking? To deny the cold facts +in the quail case is to discredit our own ability to reason and be +honest. + +Fear is the ruling emotion alike of the most timid creatures, and +also the boldest. Of course each wild animal keeps a mental list +of the other animals of which he is not afraid; and the predatory +animal also keeps a card catalogue of those which he may safely +attack when in need of food. + +But, with all due consideration to mighty forearm, to deadly claws +and stabbing fangs, there is (I think) absolutely no land animal +that is not afraid of something. Let us progressively consider a +few famous species near at hand. + +The savage and merciless weasel fears the fox, the skunk, the wolf +and the owl. The skunk fears the coyote which joyously kills him +and devours all of him save his jaws and his tail. The marten, +mink and fisher have mighty good reason to fear the wolverine, who +in his turn cheerfully gives the road to the gray wolf. The wolf +and the lynx carefully avoid the mountain lion and the black bear, +and the black bear is careful not to get too close to a grizzly. +Today a cotton-tail rabbit is not more afraid of a hound than a +grizzly bear is of a man. The polar bear once was bold in the +presence of man; but somebody has told him about breech-loading +high power rifles; and now he, too, runs in terror from every man +that he sees. The lion, the tiger, the leopard and the jaguar all +live in wholesome fear of man, and flee from him at sight. The +lordly elephant does likewise, and so does the rhinoceros, save +when he is in doubt about the identity of the biped animal and +trots up to get certainty out of a nearer view. Col. Roosevelt +became convinced, that most of the alleged "charging" of +rhinoceroses was due to curiosity and poor vision, and the desire +of rhinos to investigate at close range. + +Today the giant brown bears of Alaska exhibit less fear of man +than any other land animals that we know, and many individuals +have put themselves on record as dangerous fighters. And this +opens the door to the great Alaskan controversy that for a year +raged,--chiefly upon one side,--in certain Alaskan newspapers and +letters. + +Early in 1920, certain parties in Alaska publicly asked people to +believe that W. T. Hornaday in his "published works" had set up +the Alaskan brown bear as "a harmless animal." All these +statements and insinuations were notoriously false, but the +repetition of them went on right merrily, even while the author's +article portraying the savage and dangerous character of the brown +bear was being widely circulated in the United States through +_Boys' Life_ magazine. + +The indisputable facts regarding the temper of the great Alaskan +brown bears are as follows: Usually, unless fired at, these big +brown bears flee from man at sight of him, and by many experienced +Alaskan bear hunters who can shoot they are not regarded as +particularly dangerous, save when they are attacked by man, or +think that they are to be attacked. + +They are just now the boldest of all bears, and the most +dangerous. + +They often attack men who are hunting them, and have killed +several. + +They have attacked a few persons who were not hunting. + +Where they are really numerous they are a menace and a nuisance to +frontiersmen who need to traverse their haunts. + +In all places where Alaskan brown bears are quite too numerous for +public safety, their numbers should thoroughly be reduced; and +everywhere the bears of Alaska should be pursued and shot until +the survivors acquire the wholesome respect for man that now is +felt everywhere by the polar and the grizzly. Then the Alaskans +will have peace, and our Alaskan enemies possibly will cease to +try to discredit our intelligence. + +The most impressive exhibition of wild-animal fear that Americans +ever have seen was furnished by the African motion pictures of +Paul J. Rainey. They were taken from a blind constructed within +close range of a dry river bed in northern British East Africa, +where a supply of water was held, by a stratum of waterproof clay +or rock, about four feet below the surface of the dry river bed. +By industrious pawing the zebras had dug a hole down to the water, +and to this one life-saving well wild animals of many species +flocked from miles around. The camera faithfully recorded the +doings of elephants, giraffes, zebras, hartebeests, gnus, +antelopes of several species, wart-hogs and baboons. + +The personnel of the daily assemblage was fairly astounding, and +to a certain extent the observer of those wonderful pictures can +from them read many of the thoughts of the animals. + +Next to the plainly expressed desire to quench their thirst, the +dominant thought in the minds of those animals, one and all, was +the _fear of being attacked._ In some species this ever- +present and harassing dread was a pitiful spectacle. I wish it +might be witnessed by all those ultra-humane persons who think and +say that the free wild animals are the only happy ones! + +With the possible exception of the sanguine-tempered elephants, +all those animals were afraid of being seized or attacked while +drinking. One and all did the same thing. An animal would approach +the water-hole, nervously looking about for enemies. The fore feet +cautiously stepped down, the head disappeared to reach the water, +--but quickly shot upward again, to look for the enemies. It was +alternately drink, look, drink, look, for a dozen quick +repetitions, then a scurry for safety. + +Even the stilt-legged and long-necked giraffes went through that +same process,--a mouthful of water greedily seized, and a fling of +the head upward to stare about for danger. Group by group the +animals of each species took their turns. The baboons drifted down +over the steep rocky slope like a flock of skimming birds, and +watched and drank by turn. Having finished, they paused not for +idle gossip or play, but as swiftly as they came drifted up the +slope and sought safety elsewhere. + +And yet, it was noticeable that during the whole of that +astounding panorama of ferae naturae unalloyed by man's baleful +influence, no species attacked another, there was no fighting, nor +even any threatening of any kind. Had there been a white flag +waving over that water-hole, the truce of the wild could not have +been more perfect. + +Effect of Fear in Captive Animals. Among captive wild animals, by +far the most troublesome are those that are obsessed by slavish +fear of being harmed. The courageous and supremely confident +grizzly or Alaskan brown bear is in his den a good-natured and +reliable animal, who obeys orders when the keepers enter the den +to do the daily housework and order him to "Get up out of here." +The fear-possessed Japanese black bear, Malay sun bear and Indian +sloth bear are the ones that are most dangerous, and that +sometimes charge the keepers. + +Our famous "picture lion," Sultan, was serenely confident of his +own powers, his nerves were steady and reliable, and he never +cared to attack man or beast. Once when by the error of a fellow +keeper the wrong chain was pulled, and the wrong partition door +was opened, the working keeper bent his head, and broom in hand +walked into what he thought was an empty cage. To his horror, he +found himself face to face with Sultan, with only the length of +the broom handle between them. + +The startled and helpless keeper stood still, and said in a calm +voice, without batting an eye. + +"Hello, Sultan." + +Sultan calmly looked at him, wonderingly and inquiringly, but +without even a trace of excitement; and feeling sure that the +keeper did not mean to harm him, he seemed to have no thought of +attacking. + +The keeper quietly backed through the low doorway, and gently +closed the door. Had the keeper lost his nerve, _and shown +it,_ there might have been a tragedy. + +Lions are the best of all carnivorous performing animals, because +of their courage, serenity, self-confidence and absence of jumpy +nerves. Leopards are the worst, and polar bears stand next, with +big chimpanzees as a sure third. Beware of all three. + +Exceptions to the Rule of Fear. Fortunately for the wild animal +world, there are some exceptions to the rule of fear. I will +indicate the kinds of them, and students can supply the individual +cases. + +Whenever a wild animal species inhabits a spot so remote and +inaccessible that man's blighting hand never has fallen upon it, +nor in any way influenced its life or its fortunes, that species +knows no fear save from the warring elements, and from predatory +animals. The wonderful giant penguins found and photographed +near the south pole by Sir Ernest Shackleton never had seen nor +heard of men, never had been attacked by predatory animals or birds. +You may search this wide world over, and you will not find a more +striking example of sublime isolation. Those penguins had been +living in a penguin's paradise. The sea-leopard seals harmed them +not, and until the arrival of the irrepressible British explorer the +spell of that antarctic elysium was unbroken. + +[Illustration +with caption: PRIMITIVE PENGUINS ON THE ANTARCTIC CONTINENT, +UNAFRAID OF MAN (From Sir Ernest Shackleton's "Heart of the +Antarctic," by permission of William Heinemann and the J. B. +Lippincott Company, publishers)] + +Those astounding birds knew no such emotion as fear. Under the +impulse of the icy waves dashing straight up to the edge of the +ice floes, those giant penguins shot out of the water, sped like +catapulted birds curving through the air, and landed on their +cushioned breasts high and dry, fully ten feet back from the edge +of the floe. They flocked together, they waddled about erect and +serene, heads high in air, and marched close up to the ice-bound +ship to see what it was all about. Men and horses freely walked +among them without exciting fear, and when the birds gathered in a +vast assemblage the naturalists and photographers were welcomed +everywhere. + +And indeed those birds were well-nigh the most fortunate birds in +all the world. The men who found them were not low-browed +butchers thinking only of "oil" or "fertilizer"; and they did not +go to work at once to club all those helpless birds into masses of +death and corruption. Those men wondered at them, laughed at them, +photographed them, studied them,--and _left them in peace!_ + +What a thundering contrast that was with the usual course of Man, +the bloody savage, under such circumstances! The coast of Lower +California once swarmed with seals, sea-lions and birds, and the +waters of the Gulf were alive with whales. Now the Gulf and the +shores of the Peninsula are as barren of wild life as Death +Valley. + +The history of the whaling industry contains many sickening +records of the wholesale slaughter by savage whalers of newly +discovered herds of walrus, seals and sea birds that through +isolation knew no fear, and were easily clubbed to death en masse. + +Wild creatures generally subscribe to the political principle that +in union there is strength. In the minds of wild animals, birds +and reptiles, great numbers of individuals massed together make +for general security from predatory attacks. The herd with its +many eyes and ears feels far greater security, and less harrowing +fear, than the solitary individual who must depend upon his own +two pair. The herd members relax and enjoy life; but the solitary +bear, deer, sheep, goat or elephant does not. His nerves always +are strung up to concert pitch, and while he feeds or drinks, or +travels, he watches his step. A moving object, a strange-looking +object, a strange sound or a queer scent in the air instantly +fixes his attention, and demands analysis. + +On the North American continent the paramount fear of the wild +animal is aroused to its highest pitch by what is called "man +scent." And really, from the Battery to the North Pole, there is +good reason for this feeling of terror, and high wisdom in fleeing +fast and far. + +Said a wise old Ojibway Indian to Arthur Heming: + +"My son, when I smell some men, and especially some white men, I +never blame the animals of the Strong Woods for taking fright and +running away!" + +And civilization also has its terrors, as much as the wilderness. + +The fox, no matter what is the color of his coat, or his given +name, is the incarnation of timidity and hourly fear. The +nocturnal animals go abroad and work at night solely because they +are afraid to work in the daytime. The beaver will cheerfully work +in daytime if there is no prospect of observation or interference +by man. The eagle builds in the top of the tallest tree, and the +California condor high up on the precipitous side of a frightful +canyon wall, because they are afraid of the things on the ground +below. In the great and beautiful Animallai Forest (of Southern +India), in 1877 the tiger walked abroad in the daytime, because +men were few and weak, but in the populous and dangerous plains he +did his traveling and killing at night, and lay closely hidden by +day. + +Judging by the records of those who have hunted lions, I think +that naturally the lion has more courage and less fear of bodily +harm than any other wild animal of equal intelligence. By reason +of his courage and self-confidence, as well as his majesty of +physique, the lion is indeed well worthy to be called the King of +Beasts. + +Among the few animals that seem naturally bold and ready to take +risks, a notable species is the gray wolf. But is it really free +from fear? Far from it. When in touch with civilization, from dawn +until dark the wolf never forgets to look out for his own safety. +He fears man, he fears the claws of every bear, he fears traps, +poison and the sharp horns of the musk-ox. Individually the wolf +is a contemptible coward. Rarely does he attack all alone an +animal of his own size, unless it is a defenseless colt, calf or +sheep. No animal is more safe from another than an able-bodied +bull from the largest wolf. The wolf believes in mass action, not +in single combat. + +But there is hope for the harassed and nerve-racked children of +the wild. _The Game Sanctuary has come!_ Its area of safety, +and its magic boundary, are quickly recognized by the harried +deer, elk, sheep, goat and antelope, and right quickly do these +and all other wild animals set up housekeeping on a basis of +absolute safety. Talk about wild animals not "reasoning!" For +shame. What else than REASON convinced the wild mountain sheep in +the rocky fastnesses they once inhabited in terror that now they +are SAFE, even in the streets of Ouray, and that "Ouray" rhymes +with "your hay"? + +On account of his crimes against wild life, man (both civilized +and savage) has much to answer for; but each wild life sanctuary +that he now creates wipes out one chapter. From the Cape to Cairo, +from the Aru Islands to Tasmania and from Banks Land to the +Mexican boundary, they are growing and spreading. In them, save +for the misdoings of the few uncaught and unkilled predatory +animals, fear can die out, and the peace of paradise regained take +its place. + +HYSTERIA OF FEAR IN A BEAR. Among wild animals in captivity +hysteria, of the type produced by fear, is fairly common. A case +noticed particularly on October 16, 1909, in a young female Kadiak +bear, may well be cited as an example. + +The subject was then about two and one-half years old, and was +caged in a large open den with four other bears of the same age. +Of a European brown bear male, only a trifle larger than herself, +she elected to be terror-stricken, as much so as ever a human +child was in terror of every move of a brutal adult tormentor. +Strangely enough, the cause of all this terror was wholly +unconscious of it, and in the course of an observation lasting at +least twenty minutes he made not one hostile movement. The greater +portion of the time he idly moved about in the central space of +the den, wholly oblivious of the alarm he was causing. + +The young Kadiak, in full flesh and vigor, first attracted my +attention by her angry and terrified snorting, three quick snorts +to the series. On the top of the rocks she raced to and fro, +constantly eyeing the bear in the centre of the den. If he moved +toward the rocks, she wildly plunged down, snorting and glaring, +and raced to the front end of the den. If the bogey stopped to +lick up a fallen leaf, she took it as a hostile act and wildly +rushed past him and scrambled up the rocks at the farther end of +the den. This was repeated about fifteen times in twenty minutes, +accompanied by a continuous series of terrified snorts. She panted +from exhaustion, frothed at the mouth, and acted like an animal +half crazed by terror. + +Not once, however, did the bogey bear pay the slightest attention +to her, and his sleepy manner was anything but terrifying. + +These spells of hysteria (without real cause) at last became so +frequent that they seemed likely to injure the growth of a +valuable animal, and finally the bogey bear was removed to another +den. + + + + +XXIII + +FIGHTING AMONG WILD ANIMALS + + +Quarrels and combats between wild animals in a state of nature are +almost invariably due to one of two causes--attack and defense in +a struggle for prey, or the jealousy of males during the mating +season. With rare exceptions, battles of the former class occur +between animals of different Orders,--teeth and claws against +horns and hoofs, for instance; and it is a fight to the death. +Hunger forces the aggressor to attack something, and the intended +victim fights because it is attacked. The question of good or ill +temper does not enter in. On both sides it is a case of "must," +and neither party has any option. Such combats are tests of +agility, strength, and staying powers, and, in a few cases, of +thickness of bone and hide. + +How Orang-Utans Fight. Of the comparatively few animals which do +draw blood of their own kind through ill temper or jealousy, I +have never encountered any more given to internecine strife than +orang-utans. Their fighting methods, and their love of fighting, +are highly suggestive of the temper and actions of the human +tough. They fight by biting, and usually it is the fingers and +toes that suffer. Of twenty-seven orang-utans I shot in Borneo, +and twelve more that were shot for me by native hunters, five were +fighters, and had had one or more fingers or toes bitten off in +battle. Those specimens were taken in the days when the museums of +America were one and all destitute of anthropoid apes. + +A gorilla, chimpanzee, or orang-utan, being heavy of body, short +of neck, and by no means nimble footed, cannot spring upon an +adversary, choose a vulnerable spot, and bite to kill; but what it +lacks in agility it makes up in length and strength of arm and +hand. It seizes its antagonist's hand, carries it to its own +mouth, and bites at the fingers. Usually, the bitten finger is +severed as evenly as by a surgeon's amputation, and heals quite as +successfully. + +I never saw two big orang-utans fighting, but I have had several +captive ones seize my arm and try to bring my fingers within +biting distance. The canine teeth of a full grown male orang, +standing four feet four inches in height, and weighing a hundred +and fifty pounds or more, are just as large and dangerous as the +teeth of a bear of the same size, and the powerful incisors have +one quality which the teeth of a bear do not possess. A bear +pierces or tears an antagonist with his canines, but very rarely +bites off anything. An orang-utan bites off a finger as evenly as +a boy nips off the end of a stick of candy. + +When orang-utans fight, they also attack each other's faces, and +often their broad and expansive lips suffer severely. My eleventh +orang bore the scars of many a fierce duel in the tree-tops. A +piece had been bitten out of the middle of both his lips, leaving +in each a large, ragged notch. Both his middle fingers had been +taken off at the second joint, and his feet had lost the third +right toe, the fourth left toe, and the end of one hallux. His +back, also, had sustained a severe injury, which had retarded his +growth. This animal we called "The Desperado." + +Orang No. 34 had lost the entire edge of his upper lip. It had +been bitten across diagonally, but adhered at one corner, and +healed without sloughing off, so that during the last years of his +life a piece of lip two inches long hung dangling at the corner of +his mouth. He had also suffered the loss of an entire finger. No. +36 had lost a good sized piece out of his upper lip, and the first +toe had been bitten off his left foot. + +All these combats must have taken place in the tree-tops, for an +adult orang-utan has never been known to descend to the earth +except for water. In some manner it has become a prevalent +belief that in their native jungles all three of the great apes-- +gorilla, orang, and chimpanzee--are dangerous to human beings, and +often attack them with clubs. Nothing could be farther from the +truth. According to the natives of West Africa, a gorilla or +chimpanzee fights a hunter by biting his face and fingers, just as +an orang-utan does. I believe that no sane orang ever voluntarily +left the safety of a tree top to fight at a serious disadvantage +on the ground; and I am sure an orang never struck a blow with a +club, unless carefully taught to do so. + +WILD ANIMALS ARE NOT QUARRELSOME. As a species, man appears to be +the most quarrelsome animal on the earth; and the same quality is +strongly reflected in his most impressionable servant and +companion, the domestic dog. Nearly all species of wild animals +have learned the two foundation facts of the philosophy of life-- +that peace is better than war, and that if one must fight, it is +better to fight outside one's own species. To this rule, however, +wolves are a notable exception; for wherever wolves are abundant a +wounded wolf is a subject for attack, and usually it is killed and +eaten by the other members of the pack. + +I have observed the daily habits of many kinds of wild animals in +their wild haunts, but in the field I never yet have seen either a +fight between animals of the same species, or between two of +different species. This may seem a very humiliating admission for +a hunter to make, but it happens to be true. In the matter of +finding big snakes, having exciting adventures, and witnessing +combats between wild animals, there are some men who never are in +luck. + +Now there was the "Old Shekarry,"--whose elephants, tigers, bison, +bears, and sambar always were so much larger than mine. In his +book, "Sport in Many Lands," he describes an affair of honor +between a tiger and a bull bison, which was a truly ideal combat. +The champions met by appointment,--by the light of the moon, in +order to be safe from interference by the jungle police,--and they +fought round after round, in the most orthodox prize ring style, +under the Queensberry rules. So fairly did they fight that neither +claimed a foul, and at the finish the two combatants retired to +their respective corners and died simultaneously, "to the musical +twitter of the night bird." + +Another writer has given a vivid description of a battle to the +death between a wild bull and a grizzly bear; and we have read of +several awful combats between black bears and alligators, in +Florida; but some of us have yet to find either a black bear or an +alligator that will stop to fight when he has an option on a line +of retreat. When he has lived long,--say to the length of twelve +feet,--the alligator is a hideous and terrorizing beast; but, for +all that, he knows a thing or two; and a full grown, healthy black +bear of active habit is about the last creature on earth that a +'gator would care to meddle with. Pigs and calves, fawns, stray +dogs, ducks and mud hens are antagonists more to his liking. + +The Fighting Tactics of Bears. In captivity, bears quarrel and +scold one another freely, at feeding time, but seldom draw blood. +I have questioned many old hunters, and read many books by bear +hunters, but Ira Dodge, of Wyoming, is the only man I know who has +witnessed a real fight between wild bears. He once saw a battle +between a cinnamon and a grizzly over the carcass of an elk. + +In attacking, a bear does three things, and usually in the same +order. First, he delivers a sweeping sidewise blow on the head of +his antagonist; then he seizes him by the cheek, with the +intention of shifting to the throat as quickly as it is safe to do +so. His third move consists in throwing his weight upon his foe +and bearing him to the earth, where he will have a better chance +at his throat. If the fighters are fairly matched, the struggle is +head to head and mouth to mouth. After the first onset, the paws +do little or no damage, and the attacks of the teeth rarely go as +far down as the shoulders. Often the assailant will seize his +opponent's cheek and hold on so firmly that for a full minute the +other can do nothing; but this means little. + +In combats between bears, the one that is getting mauled, or that +feels outclassed, will throw himself upon the ground, flat upon +his back, and proceed to fight with all four sets of claws in +addition to his teeth. This attitude is purely defensive, and +often is maintained until an opportunity occurs to attack with +good advantage, or to escape. It is very difficult for a standing +bear to make a serious impression upon an antagonist who lies upon +his back, clawing vigorously with all four feet at the head of his +assailant. + +Tiger Versus Grizzly Bear. Often is the question asked, "If a +grizzly bear and a tiger should fight, which would whip the +other?" One can answer only with opinions and deductions, not by +reference to the records of the ring; for it seems that the +terrors of the occident and the orient have never yet been matched +in a fight to a finish. + +One of the heaviest tigers ever weighed, prior to 1878, scaled +four hundred and ninety five pounds, and was as free from surplus +flesh and fat as a prizefighter in the ring. He stood three feet +seven inches at the shoulder, measured thirty-six inches around +the jaws, and twenty inches around the forearm. Very few lions +have ever exceeded his weight or dimensions. So far as I know, a +wild grizzly bear of the largest size has never been scaled, but +it is not at all certain that any California grizzly has weighed +more than twelve hundred pounds. The silvertip of the Rocky +Mountain region is a totally different animal, being smaller, as +well as different in color. + +In a match between a grizzly and a tiger of equal weights, the +activity of the latter, combined with the greater spread of his +jaws and length of his canine teeth, would insure him the victory. +The superior attack of the tiger would give him an advantage which +it would probably be impossible to overcome. The blow of a +tiger's paw is as powerful as that of a grizzly of the same size, +though I doubt if it is any quicker in delivery. The quickness +with which a seemingly clumsy bear can deliver a smashing blow is +astonishing. Moreover, nature has given the grizzly a coat of fur +which as a protection in fighting is almost equal to chain mail. +Its length, combined with its density, makes it difficult for +teeth or claws to cut through it, and in a struggle with a tiger, +protective fur is only a fair compensation for a serious lack of +leaping power in the hinder limbs. Though the tiger would win at +equal weights, it is extremely probable that an adult California +grizzly would vanquish a tiger of the largest size, for his +greater bulk would far outweigh the latter's agility. + +The Great Cats as Fighters. Tigers, when well matched, fight head +to head and mouth to mouth, as do nearly all other carnivora, and +at the same time they strike with their front paws. One of the +finest spectacles I ever witnessed was a pitched battle between +two splendid tigers, in a cage which afforded them ample room. +With loud, roaring coughs, they sprang together, ears laid tight +to their heads, eyes closed until only sparks of green and yellow +fire flashed through four narrow slits, and their upper lips +snarling high up to clear the glittering fangs beneath. Coughing, +snarling, and often roaring furiously, each sprang for the +other's throat, but jaw met jaw until their teeth almost cracked +together. They rose fully erect on their hind legs, with their +heads seven feet high, stood there, and smashed away with their +paws, while tufts of hair flew through the air, and the cage +seemed full of sparks. Neither gave the other a chance to get the +throat hold, nor indeed to do aught else than ward off calamity; +and each face was a picture of fury. + +This startling combat lasted a surprisingly long time, without +noticeable advantage to either side. Finally the tigers backed +away from each other, and when at a safe distance apart dropped +their front feet to the floor, growling savagely and licking their +lips wherever a claw had drawn blood. + +Of all the wild animals that are preyed upon by lions, tigers, +leopards, jaguars, and pumas, only half a dozen species do +anything more than struggle to escape. The gaur and the wild +buffalo of India are sufficiently vindictive in dealing with a +human hunter whose aim is not straight, but both fly before the +tiger, and count themselves lucky when they can escape with +nothing worse to show than a collection of long slits on their +sides and hind quarters made by his knife-like claws. They do not +care to return to do battle for the sake of revenge, and seek to +put the widest possible stretch of jungle between themselves and +their dreaded enemy. + +The same is true of the African buffalo and the lion. As to the +antelopes of Africa and the deer of India, what can they do but +make a desperate effort to escape, and fly like the wind whenever +they succeed? Of course many of these defenseless animals make a +gallant struggle for their lives, and not a few succeed in +throwing off their assailants and escaping. Even domestic cattle +sometimes return to the hill country villages of southern India +bearing claw marks on their sides--usually the work of young +tigers, or of rheumatic old ones. + +Here is a deer and puma story. In the picturesque bad-lands of +Hell Creek, Montana, I saw my comrade, Laton A. Huffman, kill a +large mule deer buck that three months previously had been +attacked by a puma. From above it, the great cat had leaped upon +the back of the deer, and laid hold with teeth and claws. In its +struggle for life the buck either leaped or fell off the edge of a +perpendicular "cut bank," and landed upon its back, with the puma +underneath. Evidently the puma was so seriously injured that it +could not continue the struggle; but it surely left its ear-marks. + +One ear of the buck was fearfully torn. There was a big wound on +the top of the neck, where the puma jaws had lacerated the skin +and flesh; and both hind legs had been badly clawed by the +assailant's hind feet. The main beam of the right antler had been, +broken off half-way up, while the antlers were still in the +velvet, which enabled us to fix the probable date of the +encounter. + +In the great Wynaad forest I once got lost, and in toiling through +a five acre patch of grass higher than my head, and so dense that +it was not negotiable except by following the game trails, my +simple old Kuramber and I came suddenly upon the scene of a great +struggle. In the center of a space about twenty feet in diameter, +on which the tall grass had been trampled flat, lay the remains of +a sambar stag which had very recently been killed and eaten by a +tiger. The neck had not been dislocated, and the sambar had fought +long and hard. Evidently the tiger had lain in wait on the runway, +and had failed to subdue the sambar by his first fierce onslaught. +Now an angry stag with good antlers is no mean antagonist, and it +is strange if the tiger in the case went through that struggle +without a puncture in his tawny skin. + +In South Africa, Vaughan Kirby once found the dead bodies of a +"patriarchal bull" sable antelope and a lion, "which had evidently +been a fine specimen," lying close together, where the two +animals had fallen after a great struggle. The sable antelope must +have killed its antagonist by a lucky backward thrust of its long, +curved horns as the lion fastened upon its back to pull it down. + +Mr. Kirby's dogs once disturbed a sanguinary struggle between a +leopard and a wild boar, or "bush pig," which had well-nigh +reached a finish. The old boar, when bayed by the dogs, was found +to be most terribly mauled. Its tough skin hung literally in +shreds from its neck and shoulders, presenting ghastly open +wounds. The entrails protruded from a deep claw gash in the side, +and the head was a mass of blood and dirt. "On searching around," +says Mr. Kirby, "we found unmistakable evidence of a life and +death struggle. The ground was covered with gouts of blood and +yellow hair, to some of which the skin (of the leopard) was still +attached. Blood was splashed plentifully on the tree stems and the +low brushwood, which for a space of a dozen yards around was +trampled flat." The leopard had fled upon the approach of the +dogs, leaving a trail of blood, which, though followed quickly, +was finally lost in bad ground. It is no wonder that from the +above and many other evidences equally good, Mr. Kirby considers +the bush pig a remarkably courageous animal. He says that it was +"never yet known to show the white feather," and declares that "a +pig is never defeated until he is dead." + +The Combats of Male Deer. The sable antelope is one of the few +exceptions to the well-nigh universal rule against fighting +between wild animals of the same species. Of this species, Mr. +Kirby says: "Sable antelope bulls fight most fiercely amongst +themselves, and though I have never actually witnessed an +encounter between them, I have often seen the results of such, +evidenced by great gaping wounds that could have been made by +nothing else than the horns of an opponent. I once killed a large +bull with a piece of another's horn tip, fully three inches long, +buried in its neck. In 1889 I shot an old bull on the Swinya with +a terrible wound in its off shoulder, caused by a horn thrust." + +During the jealous flashes of the mating season, the males of +several species of deer fight savagely. After a long period of +inaction while the new antlers are developing--from April to +September--the beginning of October finds the male deer, elk, or +moose of North America with a new suit of hair, new horns, a +swollen neck, and all his usual assertiveness. The crisp autumn +air promotes a disposition to fight something, precisely as it +inspires a sportsman to "kill something." During October and +November, particularly, it is well for an unarmed man to give +every antlered deer a wide berth. + +At this period, fights between the males of herds of mule deer, +white-tailed deer and elk are of frequent occurrence, but in a +wild state they rarely end in bloodshed or death, save from locked +antlers. Many times, however, two bucks will come together, and +playfully push each other about without being angry. Many pairs of +bucks have been found with their antlers fast locked in death--and +I never see a death lock without a feeling of grim satisfaction +that neither of the quarrelsome brutes had had an opportunity to +attack some defenseless man, and spear him to death. + +The antlers of the common white-tailed deer seem peculiarly +liable to become interlocked so tightly that it is well-nigh +impossible to separate them. And whenever this happens, the doom +of both deer is sealed. Unless found speedily and killed, they +must die of starvation. While it is quite true that two deer +playing with their antlers may become locked fast, it is safe to +say that the great majority meet their fate by charging each other +with force sufficient to spring the beams of their antlers, and +make the lock so perfect that no force they can exert will release +it. A deer cannot pull back with the same power it exerts in +plunging forward. + +All members of the deer family that I know follow the same natural +law in regard to supremacy. Indeed, this is true of nearly all +animals. Leadership is not always maintained by the largest and +strongest member of a herd, but very often by the most pugnacious. +Sometimes a herd of elk is completely tyrannized by an old doe, +who makes the young bucks fly from her in terror, when one prod of +their sharp antlers would quickly send her to the rear. + +When bucks in a state of freedom fight for supremacy, the weaker +does not stay to be overthrown and speared to death by the victor. +As soon as he feels that he is mastered he releases his antlers at +the first opportunity, flings himself to one side, and either +remains in the herd as an acknowledged subject of the victor, or +else seeks fresh fields and pastures new. + +Battles in Zoological Parks. In captivity, where escape is +impossible, it is no uncommon thing for elk to kill each other. +In fact, with several adult males in a small enclosure, tragedies +may always be expected in the autumn and early winter. The process +is very simple. So long as the two elk can stand up and fight head +to head, there are no casualties; but when one wearies and weakens +before the other, its guard is broken. Then one strong thrust in +its side or shoulder sends it to the earth, badly wounded; and +before it can rise, it is generally stabbed to death with horn +thrusts into its lungs and liver. But, as I said before, I have +never known of a fatal duel between elk outside of a zoological +garden or park. + +One of the most novel and interesting fights that has yet taken +place in the New York Zoological Park was a pitched battle between +two cow elk--May Queen and the Dowager. A bunch of black fungus +suddenly appeared on the trunk of a tree, about twelve feet from +the ground. My attention was first called to this by seeing May +Queen, a fine young cow, standing erect on her hind legs in order +to reach the tempting morsel with her mouth. A little later the +Dowager, the oldest and largest cow elk in the herd, met her under +the tree, whereupon the two made wry faces at each other, and +champed their teeth together threateningly. Suddenly both cows +rose on their hind legs, struck out viciously with their sharp +pointed front hoofs, and, after a lively sparring bout, they +actually clinched. The young cow got both front legs of the old +cow between her own, where they were held practically helpless, +and then with her own front hoofs she fiercely rained blows upon +the ribs of her assailant. The Dowager backed away and fled, +completely vanquished, with May Queen close upon her heels; and +thus was the tyrannical rule of the senior cow overthrown forever. + +During the breeding season, our wild buffaloes of the great +vanished herds were much given to fighting, and always through +jealousy. The bulls bellowed until they could be heard for miles, +tore up earth and threw it into the air, rolled their eyes, and +often rushed together in a terrifying manner; but beyond butting +their heads, pushing and straining until the weaker turned and +ran, nothing came of it all. I have yet to find a man who ever saw +a wild buffalo that had been wounded to the shedding of blood by +another wild buffalo. It is probable that no other species ever +fought so fiercely and did so little damage as the American bison. + +Elephants, Wolves, and Others. In ordinary life the Indian +elephant is one of the most even-tempered of all animals. I have +spent hours in watching wild herds in southern India, sometimes +finding the huge beasts all around me, and in dangerously close +proximity. Several times I could have touched a wild elephant with +a carriage whip, had I possessed one. So far from fighting, I +never saw an elephant threaten or even annoy another. + +Elephants, being the most intelligent of all animals in the matter +of training, have been educated to fight in the arena, usually by +pushing each other head to head. A fighting tusker can lord it +over almost any number of tuskless elephants, because he can +pierce their vitals, and they cannot pierce his. A female fights +by hitting with her head, striking her antagonist amidships, if +possible. Once when the late G. P. Sanderson was in a keddah, +noosing wild elephants, and was assulted [sic] by a vicious +tusker, his life was saved by a tame female elephant, whose boy +driver caused her to attack the tusker with her head, and nearly +bowl him over by the force of her blows upon his ribs. + +In captivity, wolves are the meanest brutes on earth, and in a +wild state they are no better. As a rule, the stronger ones are +ever ready to kill the weaker ones, and eat them, too. One night, +our male Russian wolf killed his mate, and ate nearly half of her +before morning. A fox or a wolf cub which thrusts one of its legs +between the partition bars and into a wolf's den almost invariably +gets it bitten off as close to the body as the biter can go. In +the arctic regions, north of the Great Slave Lake, "Buffalo" Jones +and George Rea fought wolves incessantly for several days, and +every wolf they wounded was immediately killed and devoured by its +pack mates. + +In captivity, a large proportion of mammals fight, more or less; +and the closer the confinement, the greater their nervousness and +irritability, and the more fighting. Monkeys fight freely and +frequently. Serpents, lizards, and alligators rarely do, although +large alligators are prone to bite off the tails or legs of their +small companions, or even to devour them whole. Storks, trumpeter +swans, darters, jays, and some herons are so quarrelsome and +dangerous that they must be kept well separated from other +species, to prevent mutilation and murder. In 1900, when a pair of +trumpeter swans were put upon a lake in Prospect Park, Brooklyn, +with three brown pelicans for associates, they promptly assailed +the pelicans, dug holes in their backs, and killed all three. The +common red squirrel is a persistent fighter of the gray species, +and, although inferior in size, nearly always wins. + +A Fight Between a Whale and a Swordfish. One of the strangest wild +animal combats on record was thus described in the Proceedings of +the Zoological Society of London, for 1909. + +"Mr. Malcolm Maclaren, through Mr. C. Davies Sherborn, F. Z. S., +called the attention of the Fellows to an account of a fight +between a whale and a swordfish observed by the crew of the +fishing-boat 'Daisy' in the Hauraki Gulf, between Ponui Island and +Coromandel, as reported in the 'Auckland Weekly News,' 19th Nov., +1908. A cow whale and her calf were attacked by a 12 ft. 6 in. +swordfish, the object of the fish being the calf. The whale +plunged about and struck in all directions with her flukes. +Occasionally the fins of the swordfish were seen as he rose from a +dive, his object apparently being to strike from below. For over +a quarter of an hour the whale circled round her calf, lashing +furiously and churning up the water so that the assailant was +unable to secure a good opportunity for a thrust. At last, after +a fruitless dive, the swordfish came close up and made a thrust at +the calf, but received a blow from the whale's flukes across the +back, which apparently paralyzed it. It was killed and hauled on +board the boat without difficulty, while the whale and calf went +off towards Coromandel with splashings and plungings. The whale's +blow had almost knocked off the back fin of the swordfish, and +heavily bruised the flesh around it. No threshers accompanied the +swordfish." + +Beyond question, as firearms and hunters multiply, all wild +animals become more timid, less inclined to attack man, and also +less inclined to attack one another. The higher creatures are the +most affected by man's destructiveness of animal life, and the +struggle for existence has become so keen that fighting for the +glory of supremacy, or as a pastime, will soon have no important +place in the lives of wild animals. + + + + +XXIV + +WILD ANIMAL CRIMINALS AND CRIME + + +Many human beings are "good" because they never have been under +the harrow of circumstances, nor sufficiently tempted to do wrong. +It is only under the strain of strong temptation that human +character is put through the thirty-third degree and tried out. No +doubt a great many of us could be provoked to join a mob for +murder, or forced to steal, or tortured into homicidal insanity. +It is only under the artificial conditions of captivity, with loss +of freedom, exemption from the daily fear of death, abundant food +without compensating labor, and with every want supplied, that the +latent wickedness of wild creatures comes to the surface. A +captive animal often reveals traits never recognized in the free +individual. + +"Satan finds some mischief still for idle hands to do." + +These manifestations are of many kinds; but we propose to consider +the criminal tendencies of wild animals both free and captive. + +The persistence of the mental and moral parallelism between men +and wild animals is a source of constant surprise. In a state of +freedom, untrammeled by anything save the fear of death by +violence, the deer or the mountain sheep works out in his own way +his chosen scheme for the survival of the fittest,--himself. In +the wilds we see very few manifestations of the criminal instinct. +A fight between wild elk bulls for the supremacy of a herd is not +a manifestation of murder lust, but of obedience to the +fundamental law of evolution that the largest, the strongest +and the most courageous males of every herd shall do the breeding. +The killing of natural prey for daily food is not murder. A +starving wolf on the desolate barren grounds may even kill and +devour a wounded pack-mate without becoming a criminal by that act +alone. True, such a manifestation of hard-heartedness and bad +taste is very reprehensible; but its cause is hunger, not sheer +blackness of heart. Among wild animals, the wanton killing of a +member of the killer's own species would constitute murder in the +first degree, and so is all unnecessary and wanton killing outside +the killer's own species. + +To many a wild animal there comes at tunes the murder lust which +under the spur of opportunity leads to genuine crime. In some of +the many cases that have come under my notice, the desire to +commit murder for the sake of murder has been as sharply defined +as the fangs or horns of the criminal. Of the many emotions of +wild animals which are revealed more sharply in captivity than in +a state of nature, the crime-producing passions, of jealousy, +hatred, desire for revenge, and devilish lust for innocent blood, +are most prominent. In the management of large animals in +captivity, the criminal instinct is quite as great a trouble- +breeder and source of anxiety as are wild-animal diseases, and the +constant struggle with the elements. + +In many cases there is not the slightest premonitory manifestation +of murderous intent on the part of a potential criminal. Indeed, +with most cunning wisdom, a wild-animal murderer will often +conceal his purpose until outside interference is an +impossibility, and the victim is entirely helpless. These +manifestations of fiendish cunning and premeditation are very +exasperating to those responsible for the care of animals in +captivity. + +In every well regulated zoological park, solitary confinement is +regarded as an unhappy or intolerable condition. Animals that live +in herds and groups in large enclosures always exercise more, have +better appetites, and are much more contented and happy than +individuals that are singly confined. + +To visitors, a happy and contented community of deer, antelopes, +bears, wolves, or birds is a source of far more mental +satisfaction than could be found in any number of solitary +animals. A small pen with a solitary animal in it at once suggests +the prison-and-prisoner idea, and sometimes arouses pity and +compassion rather than pleased admiration. The peaceful herd or +flock is the thing to strive for as the highest ideal attainable +in an exhibition of wild animals. But mark well the difficulties. + +_All the obstacles encountered in carrying out the community +idea are created by the evil propensities of the animals +themselves._ Among the hoofed animals generally, every pair of +horns and front hoofs is a possible storm-center. No keeper knows +whether the members of his herd of deer will live together in +peace and contentment until tomorrow, or whether, on any autumn or +winter night, a buck will suddenly develop in his antlered head +the thought that it is a good time to "kill something." + +In the pairing season we always watch for trouble, and the danger +signal always is up. In October a male elk may become ever so +savage, and finally develop into a raging demon, dangerous to man +and beast; but when he first manifests his new temper openly and +in the broad light of day, we feel that he is treating fairly both +his herd-mates and his keepers. If he gives fair warning to the +world about him, we must not class him as a mean criminal, no +matter what he may do later on. It is our duty to corral him at +night according to the violence of his rage. If we separate him +from the herd, and he tears a fence in pieces and kills his rival, +that is honest, open warfare, not foul murder. But take the +following case. + +In October, 1905, the New York Zoological Park received from the +state of Washington a young mule deer buck and two does. Being +conspicuous members of the worst species of "difficult" deer to +keep alive at Atlantic tidewater, and being also very thin and +weak, it required the combined efforts of several persons to keep +them alive. For six months they moped about their corral, but at +last they began to improve. The oldest doe gave birth to two fawns +which actually survived. But, even when the next mating season +began, the buck continued to be lanquid and blase. At no time did +he exhibit signs of temper, of even suspicious vigor. + +In the middle of the night of November 6, 1906, without the +slightest warning, he decided to commit a murder, and the mother +of the two nursing fawns was selected as the victim. Being weak +from the rearing of her offspring, she was at his mercy. He gored +her most savagely, about twenty times, and killed her. + +That was deliberate, fiendish and cowardly murder. The killing of +any female animal by her male consort is murder; but there are +circumstances wherein the plea of temporary insanity is an +admissible defense. In the autumn, male members of the deer +family _often become temporarily insane and irresponsible,_ +and should be judged accordingly. With us, sexual insanity is a +recognized disease. + +Such distressing cases as the above are so common that whenever I +go deer-hunting and kill a lusty buck, the thought occurs to me,-- +"another undeveloped murderer, perhaps!" + +The most exasperating thing about these corral murders is the +cunning treachery of the murderers. Here is another typical case: +For three years a dainty little male Osceola deer from Florida was +as gentle as a fawn and as harmless as a dove. But one crisp +morning Keeper Quinn, to whom every doe in his charge is like a +foster-daughter, was horrified at finding blood on the absurd +little antlers of the Osceola pet. One of the females lay dead in +a dark corner where she had been murdered during the night; and +this with another and older buck in the same corral which might +fairly have been regarded as an offensive rival. + +The desire to murder for the sake of killing is born in some +carnivorous animals, and by others it is achieved. Among the +largest and finest of the felines, the lions and tigers, midnight +murders very rarely occur. We never have known one. Individual +dislike is shown boldly and openly, and we are given a fair chance +to prevent fatalities. Among the lions, tigers, leopards, jaguars +and pumas of the New York Zoological Park, there has been but one +murder. That was the crime of Lopez, the big jaguar, who richly +deserved instant death as a punishment. It was one of the most +cunning crimes I have ever seen among wild animals, and is now +historic. + +For a year Lopez _pretended,_ ostentatiously, to be a good- +natured animal! Twenty times at least he acted the part of a +playful pet, inviting me to reach in and stroke him. At last we +decided to give him a cage-mate, and a fine adult female jaguar +was purchased. The animals actually tried to caress each other +through the bars, and the big male completely deceived us, one and +all. + +At the end of two days it was considered safe to permit the female +jaguar to enter the cage of Lopez. She was just as much deceived +as we were. An animal that is afraid always leaves its traveling- +cage slowly and unwillingly, or refuses to leave it at all. When +the two sets of doors were opened, the female joyously walked into +the cage of her treacherous admirer. In an instant, Lopez rushed +upon her, seized her whole neck in his powerful jaws, and crushed +her cervical vertebrae by his awful bite. We beat him over the +head; we spiked him; we even tried to brain him; but he held her, +as a bull-dog would hold a cat, until she was dead. He had +determined to murder her, but had cunningly concealed his purpose +until his victim was fully in his power. + +Bears usually fight "on the square," openly and above-board, +rarely committing foul murder. If one bear hates another, he +attacks at the very first opportunity, He does not cunningly wait +to catch the offender at a disadvantage and beyond the possibility +of rescue. Sometimes a captive bear kills a cage-mate or mauls a +keeper, but not by the sneaking methods of the human assassin who +shoots in the dark and runs away. + +I do not count the bear as a common criminal, even though at rare +intervals he kills a cage-mate smaller and weaker than himself. +One killing of that kind, done by Cinnamon Jim to a small black +bear that had annoyed him beyond all endurance, was inflicted as a +legitimate punishment, and was so recorded. The attack of two +large bears, a Syrian and a sloth bear, upon a small Japanese +black bear, in which the big pair deliberately attempted to +disembowel the small victim, biting him only in the abdomen, +always has been a puzzle to me. I cannot fathom the idea which +possessed those two ursine minds; but I have no doubt that some of +the book-making men who read the minds of wild animals as if they +were open books could tell me all about it. + +On the ice-pack in front of his stone hut at the north end of the +Franz Josef Archipelago Nansen saw an occurrence that was plain +murder. A large male polar bear feeding upon a dead walrus was +approached across the ice-pack by two polar-bear cubs. The +gorging male immediately stopped feeding and rushed toward the +small intruders. They turned and fled wildly; but the villain +pursued them, far out upon the ice. He overtook them, killed both, +and then serenely returned to his solitary feast. + +In February, 1907, a tragedy occurred in the Zoological Park which +was a close parallel of the Lopez murder. It was a case in which +my only crumb of satisfaction was in my ability to say, "I told +you so,"--than which no consolation can be more barren. + +For seven years there had lived together in the great polar bears' +den of the Zoological Park two full-grown, very large and fine +polar bears. They came from William Hagenbeck's great group, and +both were males. Their rough-and-tumble wrestling, both in the +swimming pool and out of it, was a sight of almost perennial +interest; and while their biting and boxing was of the roughest +character, and frequently drew blood, they never got angry, and +never had a real fight. + +In the autumn of 1906 one of the animals sickened and died, and +presently the impression prevailed that the survivor was lonesome. +The desirability of introducing a female companion was spoken of, +but I was afraid to try the experiment. + +By and by, Mr. Carl Hagenbeck, who had handled about forty polar +bears to my one, wrote to us, offering a fine female polar as a +mate to the survivor. She was conceded to be one-third smaller +than the big male, but was fully adult. Without loss of time I +answered, declining to make the purchase, on the ground that our +male bear would kill the female. It was my belief that even if he +did not at once deliberately murder her, he soon would wear her +out by his rough play. + +Mr. Hagenbeck replied with the assurance that, in his opinion, all +would be well; that, instead of a tragedy taking place, the male +would be delighted with a female companion, and that the pair +would breed. As convincing proof of the sincerity of his views, +Mr. Hagenbeck offered to lose half the purchase price of the +female bear in the event that my worst fears were realized. + +I asked the opinion of our head keeper of bears, and after due +reflection he said: + +"Why, no; I don't believe he'd kill her. He's not a _bad_ +bear at all. I think we could work it so that there would be no +great trouble." + +Mr. Hagenbeck's son also felt sure there would be no tragedy. + +Quite against my own judgment of polar-bear character, but in +deference to the expert opinion arrayed against mine, I finally +yielded. The female bear was purchased, and on her arrival she was +placed for three weeks in the large shifting-cage which connects +with the eastern side of the great polar bears' den. + +The two animals seemed glad to see each other. At once they +fraternized through the bars, licked each other's noses, and ate +their meals side by side. At night the male always slept as near +as possible to his new companion. There was not a sign of ill +temper; but, for all that, my doubts were ever present. + +At last, after three full weeks of close acquaintance, it was +agreed that there was nothing to be gained by longer delay in +admitting the female to the large den. But we made preparations +for trouble. The door of the sleeping-den was oiled and overhauled +and put in thorough working order, so that if the female should +dash into it for safety, a keeper could instantly slide the +barrier and shut her in. We provided pike-poles, long iron bars, +lariats, meat, and long planks a foot wide. Heartily wishing +myself a hundred miles away, I summoned all my courage and gave +the order: + +"Open her door, a foot only, and let her put her head out. Keep +him away." + +The female bear had not the slightest fear or premonition of +danger. Thrusting her head through the narrow opening, she looked +upon the world and the open sky above, and found that it was good. +She struggled to force the door open wider; and the male stood +back, waiting. + +"Let her go!" Forcing the door back with her own eager strength, +she fearlessly dropped the intervening eighteen inches to the +floor of the den, and was free. The very _next second_ the +male flung his great bulk upon her, and the tragedy was on. + +I would not for five thousand dollars see such a thing again. A +hundred times in the twenty minutes that followed I bitterly +regretted my folly in acting contrary to my own carefully formed +conclusions regarding the temper, the strength, and the mental +processes of that male bear. + +He never left her alone for ten seconds, save when, at five or six +different times, we beat him off by literally ramming him away. +When she first fell, the slope of the floor brought her near the +cage bars, which gave us a chance to fight for her. We beat him +over the head; we drove big steel spikes into him; and we rammed +him with planks, not caring how many bones we might break. But +each time that we beat him off, and the poor harried female rose +to her feet, he flung himself upon her anew, crushed her down upon +the snow, and fought to reach her throat! + +Gallantly the female fought for her life, with six wild men to +help her. After a long battle,--it seemed like hours, but I +suppose it was between twenty and thirty minutes, the male bear +recognized the fact that so long as the female lay near the bars +his own punishment would continue and the end would be postponed. +Forthwith he seized his victim and dragged her inward and down to +the ice that covered the swimming-pool in the centre of the den, +beyond our reach. The floor of the den was so slippery from ice +and snow that it was utterly unsafe for any of our men to enter +and try to approach the now furious animal within striking +distance. + +Very quickly some choice pieces of fresh meat were thrown within +six feet of the bears, in the hope that the male would be tempted +away from his victim. In vain! Then, with all possible haste, +Keeper Mulvehill coiled a lasso, bravely entered the den, and with +the first throw landed the noose neatly around the neck of the +male bear. In a second it was jerked taut, the end passed through +the bars, and ten eager arms dragged the big bear away from his +victim and close up to the bars. Another lariat was put on him to +guard against breakages, and no bear ever missed being choked to +death by a narrower margin than did that one. That morsel of +revenge was sweet. While he was held thus, two men went in and +attached a rope to the now dying female, and she was quickly +dragged into the shifting-cage. + +But the rescue came too late. At the last moment on the ice, the +canine teeth of the big bear had severed the jugular vein of the +female, and in two minutes after her rescue she was dead. It is +my belief that at first the male did not intend to murder the +female. I think his first impulse was to play with her, as he had +always done with the male comrade of his own size. But the _joy +of combat_ seized him, and after that his only purpose was to +kill. My verdict was, not premeditated murder, but murder in the +second degree. + +In the order of carnivorous animals, I think the worst criminals +are found in the Marten Family (_Mustelidae_); and if there +is a more murderous villain than the mink, I have yet to find him +out. The mink is a midnight assassin, who loves slaughter for the +joy of murder. The wolverine, the marten, mink and weasel are all +courageous, savage and merciless. To the wolverine Western +trappers accord the evil distinction of being a veritable imp of +darkness on four legs. To them he is the arch-fiend, beyond which +animal cunning and depravity cannot go. Excepting the profane +history of the pickings and stealings of this "mountain devil" as +recorded by suffering trappers, I know little of it; but if its +instincts are not supremely murderous, its reputation is no index +of its character. + +The mink, however, is a creature that we know and fear. Along the +rocky shores of the Bronx River, even in the Zoological Park, it +perversely persisted long after our park-building began. In spite +of traps, guns, and poison, and the killing of from three to five +annually in our Park, _Putorius vison_ would not give up. +With us, the only creatures that practiced wholesale and +unnecessary murder were minks and dogs. The former killed our +birds, and during one awful period when a certain fence was being +rebuilt, the latter destroyed several deer. A mink once visited an +open-air yard containing twenty-two pinioned laughing gulls, and +during that _noche triste_ killed all of those ill-fated +birds. It did not devour even one, and it sucked the blood of only +two or three. + +On another tragic occasion a mink slaughtered an entire flock of +fifteen gulls; but its joy of killing was short-lived, for it was +quickly caught and clubbed to death. A miserable little weasel +killed three fine brant geese, purely for the love of murder; and +then he departed this life by the powder-and-lead route. + +All the year round captive buffalo bulls are given to fighting, +and for one bull to injure or kill another is an occurrence all +too common. Even in the great twenty-seven thousand acre reserve +of the Corbin Blue Mountain Forest Association, fatal fights +sometimes occur. It was left to a large bull named Black Beauty, +in our Zoological Park herd, to reveal the disagreeable fact that +under certain circumstances a buffalo may become a cunning and +deliberate assassin. + +In the spring of 1904, a new buffalo bull, named Apache, was added +to the portion of our herd which up to that time had been +dominated by Black Beauty. We expected the usual head-to-head +battle for supremacy, succeeded by a period of peace and quiet. It +is the law of the herd that after every contest for supremacy the +vanquished bull shall accept the situation philosophically, and +thereafter keep his place. + +At the end of a half-hour of fierce struggle, head-to-head, Black +Beauty was overpowered by Apache, and fled from him into the open +range. To emphasize his victory, Apache followed him around and +around at a quiet walk, for several hours; but the beaten bull +always kept a factor of safety of about two hundred feet between +himself and the master of the herd. Convinced that Black Beauty +would no longer dispute his supremacy, Apache at last pronounced +for peace and thought no more about the late unpleasantness. His +rival seemed to accept the situation, and rejoined the herd on the +subdued status of an ex-president. + +For several days nothing occurred; but all the while Black Beauty +was biding his time and watching for an opportunity. At last it +came. As Apache lay dozing and ruminating on a sunny hill-side, +his beaten rival quietly drifted around his resting-place, +stealthily secured a good position, and, without a second's +warning plunged his sharp horns deep into the lungs of the +reclining bull. With the mad energy of pent-up and superheated +fury, the assassin delivered stab after stab into the unprotected +side of the helpless victim, and before Apache could gain his feet +he had been gored many times. He lived only a few minutes. + +It was foul murder, fully premeditated; and had Black Beauty been +my personal property, he would have been executed for the crime, +without any objections, or motions, or appeals, or far-fetched +certificates of unreasonable doubt. + +During the past twenty years a number of persons have been +treacherously murdered by animals they had fed and protected. One +of the most deplorable of these tragedies occurred late in 1906, +near Montclair, New Jersey. Mr. Herbert Bradley was the victim. +While walking through his deer park, he was wantonly attacked by a +white-tailed buck and murdered on the spot. At Helena, Montana, a +strong man armed with a pitchfork was killed by a bull elk. There +have been several other fatalities from elk. + +The greater number of such crimes as the above have been committed +by members of the Deer Family (deer, elk, moose and caribou). The +hollow-horned ruminants seem to be different. I believe that +toward their keepers the bison, buffaloes and wild cattle +entertain a certain measure of respect that in members of the Deer +Family often is totally absent. But there are exceptions; and a +very sad and notable case was the murder of Richard W. Rock, of +Henry's Lake, Idaho, in 1903. + +Dick Rock was a stalwart ranchman in the prime of life, who +possessed a great fondness for big-game animals. He lived not far +from the western boundry of the Yellowstone Park. He liked to rope +elk and moose in winter, and haul them on sleds to his ranch; to +catch mountain goats or mule deer for exhibition; and to breed +buffaloes. His finest bull buffalo, named Indian, was one of his +favorites, and was broken _to ride!_ Scores of times Rock +rode him around the corral, barebacked and without bridle or +halter. Rock felt that he could confidently trust the animal, and +he never dreamed of guarding himself against a possible evil day. + +But one day the blood lust seized the buffalo, and he decided to +assassinate his best friend. The next time Dick Rock entered the +corral, closing the gate and fastening it securely,--thus shutting +himself in,--the big bull attacked him so suddenly and fiercely +that there was not a moment for either escape or rescue. We can +easily estimate the suddenness of the attack by the fact that +alert and active Dick Rock had not time even to climb upon the +fence of the corral, whereby his life would have been saved. With +a mighty upward thrust, the treacherous bull drove one of his +horns deeply into his master's body, and impaled him so completely +and so securely that the man hung there and died there! As a +crowning horror, the bull was unable to dislodge his victim, and +the body of the ranchman was carried about the corral on the horns +of his assassin until the horrified wife went a mile and a half +and summoned a neighbor, who brought a rifle and executed the +murderer on the spot. + +Such sudden onslaughts as this make it unsafe to trust implicitly, +and without recourse, to the good temper of any animal having +dangerous horns. + +If bird-lovers knew the prevalence of the murder instinct among +the feathered folk, no doubt they would be greatly shocked. Many +an innocent-looking bird is really a natural villain without +opportunity to indulge in crime. It is in captivity that the +wickedness inherent in wild creatures comes to the surface and +becomes visible. In the open, the weak ones manage to avoid +danger, and to escape when threatened; but, with twenty birds in +one large cage, escape is not always possible. A "happy-family" of +a dozen or twenty different species often harbors a criminal in +its midst; and when the criminal cunningly waits until all +possibilities of rescue are eliminated, an assassination is the +result. + +[Illustration with caption: RICHARD W. ROCK AND HIS +BUFFALO MURDERER This bison treacherously killed the man soon +after this picture was made] + +[Illustration with caption: "BLACK BEAUTY" MURDERING "APACHE"] +Here is a partial list of the crimes in our bird collection during +one year: + +A green jay killed a blue jay. A jay-thrush and several smaller +birds were killed by laughing thrushes,--which simply love to do +murder! A nightingale was killed by a catbird and two mocking- +birds. Two snake-birds killed a third one--all of them thoroughly +depraved villains. Three gulls murdered another; a brown pelican +was killed by trumpeter-swans; and a Canada goose was killed by a +gull. All these victims were birds in good health. + +It is deplorable, but nevertheless true, that in large mixed +companies of birds, say where forty or fifty live together, it is +a common thing for a sick bird to be set upon and killed, unless +rescued by the keepers. In crimes of this class birds often murder +their own kind, but they are quite as ready to kill members of +other species. In 1902 a sick brant goose was killed by its mates; +and so were a red-tailed hawk, two saras cranes, two black +vultures, a road-runner, and a great horned owl. An aged and +sickly wood ibis was killed by a whooping crane; and a night heron +killed its mate. + +Strange as it may seem, among reptiles there is far less of real +first-degree murder than among mammals and birds. Twenty +rattlesnakes may be crowded together in one cage, without a family +jar. Even among cobras, perhaps the most irritable and pugnacious +of all serpents, I think one snake never wantonly murders another, +although about once in twenty years one will try to swallow +another. The big pythons and anacondas never fight, nor try to +commit murder. And yet, a twenty-foot regal python with a bad +heart--like Nansen's polar bear--could easily constrict and kill +any available snake of smaller size. + +At this moment I do not recall one instance of wanton murder among +serpents. It is well known that some snakes devour other snakes; +but that is not crime. The record of the crocodilians is not so +clear. It is a common thing for the large alligators in our +Reptile House to battle for supremacy and in these contests +several fatalities have occurred. Some of these occurrences are +not of the criminal sort; but when a twelve-foot alligator attacks +and kills a six-foot individual, entirely out of his class and far +too small to fight with him, it is murder. An alligator will seize +the leg of a rival and by violently whirling around on his axis, +like a revolving shaft, twist the leg completely off. + +Among sea creatures, the clearly defined criminal instinct, as +exhibited aside from the never-ending struggle for existence and +the quest of food, is rarely observed, possibly because +opportunities are so few. The sanguinary exploits of the grampus, +or whale-killer, among whales small enough to be killed and eaten, +are the onslaughts of a marine glutton in quest of food. + +Among the fishes there is one murderer whose evil reputation is +well deserved. The common swordfish of the Atlantic, forty miles +or so off Block Island or Montauk Point, is not only one of the +most fearless of all fishes, but it also is the most dangerous. +His fierce attacks upon the boats of men who have harpooned him +and seek to kill him are well known, and his unparalleled courage +fairly challenges our wonder and admiration. But, unfortunately, +the record of the swordfish is stained with crime. When the spirit +of murder prompts him to commit a crime in sheer wantonness, he +will attack a whale, stab the unfortunate monster again and again, +and pursue it until it is dead. This is prompted solely by +brutality and murder lust, for the swordfish feeds upon fish, and +never attempts to eat any portion of a whale. It can easily be +proved that wild animals in a normal state of nature are by no +means as much given to murder, either of their own kind or other +kinds, as are many races of men. The infrequency of animal +murders cannot be due wholly to the many possibilities for the +intended victim to escape, nor to difficulty in killing. In every +wild species murders are abundantly possible; but it is wholly +against the laws of nature for free wild beasts to kill one +another in wantonness. It is left to the savage races of men to +commit murders without cause, and to destroy one another by fire. +The family crimes and cruelties of people both civilized and +savage completely eclipse in blackness and in number the doings of +even the worst wild beasts. In wild animals and in men, crime is +an index to character. The finest species of animals and the +noblest races of men are alike distinguished by their abhorrence +of the abuse of the helpless and the shedding of innocent blood. +The lion, the elephant, the wild horse, the grizzly bear, the +orang-utan, the eagle and the whooping crane are singularly free +from the criminal instinct. On the other hand, even today Africa +contains tribes whose members are actually fond of practicing +cruelty and murder. In the Dark Continent there has lived many a +"king" beside whom a hungry lion or a grizzly bear is a noble +citizen. + + + + +XXV + +FIGHTING WITH WILD ANIMALS + + +The study of the intelligence and temperaments of wild animals is +by no means a pursuit of academic interest only. Men now are +mixing up with dangerous wild beasts far more extensively than +ever before, and many times a life or death issue hangs upon the +man's understanding of the animal mind. I could cite a long and +gruesome list of trainers, keepers and park owners who have been +killed by the animals they did not correctly understand. + +Not long ago, it was a park owner who was killed by a dangerous +deer. Next it was a bull elk who killed the keeper who undertook +to show that the animal was afraid of him. In Idaho we saw a +death-penalty mistake with a bull buffalo. Recently, in Spain, an +American ape trainer was killed by his big male chimpanzee. +Recently in Switzerland a snake-charmer was strangled and killed +on the stage by her python. + +Men who keep or who handle dangerous animals owe it to themselves, +their heirs and their assigns to _know the animal mind and +temperament, and to keep on the safe side._ + +In view of the tragedies and near-tragedies that animal trainers +and keepers have been through during the past twenty years, I am +desirous of so vividly exhibiting the wild animal mind and temper +that at least a few of the mistakes of the past may be avoided in +the future. Fortunately I am able to state that thus far no one +ever has been killed by an animal in the Zoological Park; but +several of our men have been severely hurt. The writer hereof +carries two useless fingers on his best hand as a reminder of a +fracas with a savage bear. How Dangerous Animals Attack Men. The +following may be listed as the wild animals most dangerous to man: + +1. In the open: Alaskan brown bears, the grizzly bears, lion, +tiger, elephant, leopard, wolf, African buffalo, Indian gaur and +buffalo, and gorilla. + +All these species are dangerous to the man who meddles with them, +either to kill or to capture them. If they are not molested by +man, there is very little to fear from any of them save the man- +eating lions, and tigers, the northern wolf packs, Alaskan brown +bears and rogue elephants. + +2. In captivity, or in process of capture: Under this head a +special list may be thus composed: + +Male elk and deer in the rutting season; male elephants over +fifteen years of age; all bears over one year of age, and +especially "pet" bears; all gorillas, chimpanzees and orangs over +seven years of age (puberty); all adult male baboons, gibbons, +rhesus monkeys, callithrix or green monkeys, Japanese red-faced +monkeys and large macaques; many adult bison bulls and cows of +individually bad temper; also gaur, Old World buffalo, anoa bulls, +many individually bad African antelopes, gnus and hartebeests; all +lions, tigers, jaguars, leopards, wolves, hyenas, and all male +zebras and wild asses over four years of age. + +How they attack. The _lion, tiger and bear_ launches at a +man's head or face a lightning-quick and powerful fore-paw blow +that in one stroke tears the skin and flesh in long gashes, and +knocks down the victim with stunning force. Before recovery is +possible the assailant rushes to the prostrate man and begins to +bite or to tear him. Instinctively the fallen man covers his face +with his arms, and with the lion, tiger and leopard the arms come +in for fearful punishment. It is the way of carnivorous beasts to +attack each other head to head and mouth to mouth, and this same +instinct leads these animals to focus their initial attacks upon +the heads and faces of their human quarry. + +After a man-eating lion or tiger has reduced the human victim to a +state of non-resistance, the great beast seizes the man by a bite +embracing the chest, and with the feet dragging upon the ground +rushes off to a place of safety to devour him at leisure. Dr. +David Livingston was seized alive by a lion, and carried I forget +how many yards without a stop. His left humerus was broken in the +onset, but the lion abandoned him without doing him any further +serious harm. + +Once I could not believe that a lion or a tiger could pick up a +man in his mouth and rapidly carry him off, as a fox gets away +with a chicken; but when I shot a male tiger weighing 495 pounds, +standing 37 inches high and measuring 35 inches around his jaws, I +was forever convinced. In the Malay Peninsula Captain Syers told +me that a tiger leaped a stockade seven feet high, seized a +Chinese woodcutter, leaped out with him, and carried him away. + +In a scrimmage with a lion or tiger in the open, the fight is not +prolonged. It is a case of kill or be killed quickly. The time of +times for steady nerves and perfectly accurate shooting is when a +lion, tiger or bear charges the hunter at full speed, beginning +sufficiently far away to give the hunter a sporting chance. _The +hunter can not afford to be "scared!"_ It is liable to cost too +much! + +The Alaskan brown bear has a peculiar habit. Occasionally he kills +the hunter he has struck down, but very often he contents himself +with biting his victim on his fleshy parts, _literally from head +to foot._ More than one unfortunate amateur hunter has been +fearfully bitten without having a bone broken, and without having +an important artery or vein severed. Such unfortunates lie upon +their faces, with their arms protecting their heads as best they +can, and take the awful punishment until the bear tires of it and +goes away. Then they _crawl,_ on hands and knees, to come +within reach of discovery and help. In the annals of Alaska's +frontier life there are some heart-rending records of cases such +as I have described, coupled with some marvellous recoveries. +Strange to say, bear bites or scratches _almost never produce +blood poisoning!_ This seems very strange, for the bites of +lions, tigers and leopards very frequently end in blood poisoning, +incurable fever and death. This probably is due to the clean mouth +of the omnivorous bear and the infected mouth of the large cats, +from putrid meat between their teeth. + +_The wolf_ is particularly dangerous to his antagonists, man +or beast, from the cutting power of his fearful snap. His molar +teeth shear through flesh and small bones like the gash of a +butcher's cleaver; and his wide gape and lightning-quick +movements render him a very dangerous antagonist. The bite of a +wolf is the most dangerous to man of any animal bite to which +keepers are liable, and it is the law of zoological gardens and +parks that every wolf bite means a quick application of anti- +rabies treatment at a Pasteur institute. Personally, I would be no +more scared by a wolf-bite than by a feline bite, but the verdict +of the jury is,--"it is best to be on the safe side." + +_Buck elk and deer_ very, very rarely attack men in the +wilds, unless they have been wounded and brought to bay; and then +very naturally they fight furiously. It is the attacks of captive +or park-bred animals that are most to be feared. + +All the deer that I know attack in the same way,--first by a +_slow_ push forward, in order to come to close quarters +_without getting hurt,_ and then follows the relentless push, +push, push to get up steam for the final raging and death-dealing +drive. Even in fighting each other, buck elk and deer do not come +together with a long run and a grand crash. Each potential fighter +_fears for his own eyes,_ and conserves them by a cautious +and deliberate engaging process. This is referred to in another +chapter. + +Fortunately for poor humanity, the same slow and cautious tactics +are adopted when a buck deer or wapiti decides to attack a man. +This gives the man in the case a chance to put up his defense. + +The attacking deer lowers his head, throws his antlers far to the +front, and pushes for the body of the man. The instant a tine +touches the soft breast or abdomen, he lunges forward to drive it +in. But thanks to that life-saving slow start, the man is +mercifully afforded a few seconds of time in which to save +himself, or at least delay the punishment. + +No man ever should enter the enclosure of a "bad" deer, or any +buck deer in the rut, without a stout and tough club or pitchfork +for defense. Of the two weapons, the former is the best. + +In the first place, keep away from all bad deer, especially +between October and January first. If you are beset, follow these +instructions, as you value your life: + +If unarmed, seize the deer by the antlers before he touches your +vitals, hold on for all you are worth, and _shout for help. Keep +your feet,_ just as long as you possibly can. Never mind being +threshed about, so long as you keep your feet and keep the tines +out of your vitals. Your three hopes are (1) that help will come, +(2) or that you can come within reach of a club or some shelter, +or (3) that the animal will in some manner decide to desist,--a +most forlorn hope. + +With a good club, or even a stout walking-stick, you have a +fighting chance. As the animal lowers his head and comes close up +to impale you on his spears of bone, hit him a smashing blow +_across the side of his head, or his nose._ In a desperate +situation, _aim at the eye,_ and lay on the blows. If your +life is in danger from a buck elk or a large deer, do not hesitate +about putting out an eye for him. What are a thousand deer eyes +compared with a twelve inch horn thrust through your stomach? My +standing instructions to our keepers of dangerous animals are: +"Save your own life, at all hazards. Don't let a dangerous animal +kill you. Kill any animal rather than let it kill you!" + +It is useless to strike a charging deer on the top of its head, or +on its antlers. Give a sweeping _side_ blow for the +unprotected cheek and jaw, or the tender nose. There is nothing +that a club can do that is so disconcerting as the eye and nose +attack, for a badly injured eye always shuts both eyes, +automatically. Once when alone in the corral of the axis deer +herd, I was treacherously and wantonly attacked by a full-grown +buck. I had violated my own rules about going in armed with a +stick, and it was lucky for me that the axis deer was not as large +as the barasingha or the mule deer. As the buck lowered his head, +threw his long, sharp beams straight forward, and pushed for my +vitals, I seized him by both antlers, to make my defense. At that +he drove forward and nearly upset me. Quickly I let go the right +antler and shifted myself to the animal's left side, where by +means of the left antler I pulled the struggling buck's head +around to my side. Then he began to plunge. Throwing the weight of +my chest upon his shoulders I reached over him and with my free +hand finally grasped his right foreleg below the knee, and pulled +it up clear of the ground. With that I had him. + +He tried to struggle free, but I was strong in those days, and +angry besides, and he was helpless. Up beside the deer barn, most +providentially for the finish, I saw a very beautiful barrel +stave. It was the very thing! I worked him over to it, caught it +up, and then still holding him by his left antler I laid that +stave along his side until he was well punished, and glad when +released to rush from that neighborhood. + +Female "pet" deer, and female elk, can and do put up dangerous +fights with their front hoofs, standing high up on their hind legs +and striking fast and furiously. A gentleman of my acquaintance +was thus attacked, most unexpectedly, by his pet white-tailed deer +doe. She struck about a dozen times for his breast, and his vest +and coat were slit open in several places. I once saw two cow elk +engage with their front feet in a hot fight, but they did no real +damage. + +Of course an angry _bison, buffalo or gaur_ lowers its head +in attacking a man, and seeks to gore and toss him at the same +moment. The American bison will start at a distance of ten or +twenty yards, and with half lowered head jump forward, grunting +"Uh! Uh! Uh!" as he comes. When close up he pauses for a second +and poises his head for the toss. That is the man's one chance. At +that instant he must strike the animal on the side of his head, +and strike hard; and the region of the eye is the spot at which to +aim. + +Once we were greatly frightened by the determined charge of a +savage cow bison upon Keeper McEnroe, who was armed with a short- +handled 4-tine pitchfork. As she grunted and came for him we could +not refrain from shouting a terrorized warning, "Look out, +McEnroe! Look out!" + +He looked out. He stood perfectly still, and calmly awaited the +onset. The cow rushed close up, and dropped her chin low down for +the goring toss. The keeper was ready for her. Swinging his +pitchfork he delivered a smashing blow upon the left side of the +cow's head, which disconcerted and checked her. Before she could +recover herself he smashed her again, and again. Then she turned +tail and ran, followed by the shouts of the multitude. + +_Adult male elephants_ are among the most dangerous of all +wild animals to keep in captivity. They _will_ grow bad- +tempered with adult age, keepers _will_ become careless of +danger that is present every day, and a bad elephant often is a +cunning and deceitful devil. The strength of an elephant is so +great, the toughness of its hide is so pronounced, and the danger +of a sudden attack is so permanent that life in a park with a +"bad" elephant is one continuous nightmare. + +Naturally we have been ambitious to prevent all manner of fatal +wild beast attacks upon our keepers. We try our best to provide +for their safety, and having done that to the limit we say: "Now +it is up to you to preserve your own life. If you can not save +yourself from your bad animals, no other person can do it for +you!" + +Either positively, comparatively or superlatively, a bad elephant +is a cunning, treacherous and dangerous animal. We have seen +several elephants in various stages of cussedness. Alice, the +adult Indian female, is mentally a freak, but she is not vicious +save under one peculiar combination of circumstances. Take her +outside her yard, and instantly she becomes a storm centre. Gunda +was bad to begin with, worse in continuation and murderously +worst at his finish. At present Kartoum is dangerous only to +inanimate fences and doors. + +A wild elephant attacks a hunter by charging furiously and +persistently, sometimes making a real man-chase, seizing the man +or knocking him down, and then impaling him upon his tusks as he +lies. More than one hunter has been knocked down, and escaped the +impalement thrust only through the mercy of heaven that caused the +tusks to miss him and expend their murderous fury in the ample +earth. + +On rare occasions an enraged wild elephant deliberately tramples a +man to death; and there is one instance on record wherein the +elephant held his dead native victim firmly to the ground while he +tore him asunder "and actually jerked his arms and legs to some +distance." + +In captivity a mean elephant kills a keeper, or other person, by +suddenly knocking him down, and then either trampling upon him or +impaling him. + +Gunda, our big male Indian tusker, was the worst elephant with +which I ever came in close touch, and we hope never to see his +like again. When about ten years old he came to us direct from +Assam, and when I saw his big and bulging eyes, and the slits torn +in his ears, I recognized him as a bad-tempered animal. I kept my +opinions to myself. Two weeks later when we started Gunda's Hindu +keeper back toward his native land, I sent for Keepers Gleason and +Forester to give them a choice lot of instruction in elephant +management. They heard me through attentively, and then Forester +said very solemnly: + +"Director, I think that is a bad elephant; and I'm afraid of him!" + +Keeper Gleason willingly took him over, on condition that he +should have sole charge of him, and as long as Gleason remained in +our service he managed the elephant successfully. Elsewhere I +have spoken at length of Gunda's mind and manners. He went +steadily from bad to worse; but we never once really punished him. +The time was when there was only one man in the world whom he +feared, and would obey, and that was his keeper, Walter Thuman. I +have seen that great dangerous beast cower and quake with fear, +and back off into a corner, when Thuman's powerful voice yelled at +him, and admonished him to behave himself. But all that ended on +the day that he "got" Thuman. + +On that fateful afternoon, with no visitors present, Thuman opened +the outside door, took Gunda by the left ear, and with his steel- +shod elephant hook in his left hand started to lead the huge +animal out into his yard. Just inside the doorway Gunda thought he +saw his chance, and he took it. + +With a fierce sidewise thrust of his head he struck his keeper +squarely on the shoulder and sent him plunging to the floor in the +stall corner nearest him. Then, instantly he wheeled about and +started to follow up his attack. In the fall Thuman's hook flew +from his hand. + +At first Gunda tried to step on him, but he lay so close into the +corner that the elephant could not plant his feet so that they +would do execution. Then he tried to kneel upon the keeper, with +the same result. + +Thuman struggled more closely into the corner, and tried hard to +pull himself into the refuse box, through its low door; but with +his trunk Gunda caught him by a leg and dragged him back. Then he +made a fierce downward thrust with his tusks, which were nearly +four feet long, to transfix his intended victim. + +His left tusk struck the steel-clad wall and shattered into +fragments, half way up. The resounding crash of that breaking tusk +was what saved Thuman's life. + +Gunda thrust again and again with his sound tusk, with the +terrified and despairing keeper trying to cling to the broken tusk +and save himself. At last the point of the sound tusk drove full +and fair through the flat of Thuman's left thigh, as he lay, and +stopped against the concrete floor. + +Experienced animal men always are listening for sounds of trouble. + +In the cage of Alice, three cages and a vestibule distant, Keeper +Dick Richards was busily working, when he heard the peculiar crash +of that shattered tusk. "What's all that!" said he; and "That's +some trouble," was his own answer. + +Grabbing his pitchfork he shot out of that cage, ran down the +keeper's passage and in about ten seconds' arrived in front of +Gunda's cage. And there was Gunda, killing Walter Thuman. + +Richards darted in between the widely-separated front bars, gave a +wild yell, and with a fierce thrust drove all the tines of his +pitchfork into Gunda's unprotected hind-quarters, where the skin +was thin and vulnerable. + +With a shrill trumpet scream of pain and rage, Gunda whirled away +from Thuman, bolted through the door, and rushed madly into his +yard. + +Keeper Thuman survived, and his recovery was presently +accomplished. When I first called to see him he begged me not to +kill Gunda for what he had done, or tried to do. In due course +Thuman got well, and again took charge of Gunda; but after that +the elephant was not afraid of him. We adopted a policy which +prevented further accidents, but finally Gunda became a hopeless +case of sexual insanity and lust for murder. + +When Gunda became most dangerous, we protected our keepers by +chaining his feet, and keeping the men out of the reach of his +trunk. Because of this, his fury was boundless; and as soon as it +was apparent that he was suffering from his confinement and never +would be any better, we quickly decided to end it all. He was +painlessly put to death, by Mr. Carl E. Akeley, with a single .26 +calibre bullet very skilfully sent through the elephant's brain. + +_Chimpanzees and Orang-Utans_ attack and fight men just as +they attack each other,--by biting the face and neck, and the +hands, shoulders and arms. The fighting ape always reaches out, +seizes the arm or wrist of the person to be harmed, drags it up to +his mouth and bites savagely. As a home illustration of this +method of attack, a chimpanzee named Chico in the Central Park +Menagerie once bit a finger from the hand of his keeper. In April, +1921, Mr. Ellis Joseph, the animal dealer, was very severely +bitten on his face and neck by his own chimpanzee, so much so in +fact that eighteen stitches were required to sew up his +lacerations. + +One excellent thing about the manners of chimpanzees and orang- +utans in captivity and on the stage is that they do not turn +deadly dangerous all in a moment, as do bears and elephants, and +occasionally deer. The ape who is falling from grace goes +gradually, and gives warning signs that wise men recognize. They +first become strong and boisterous, then they playfully resist and +defy the keeper's restraining hand. Next in order they openly +become angry at their keepers over trifles, and bristle up, stamp +on the floor and savagely yell. It is then that the whip and the +stick become not only useless but dangerous to the user, and must +be discarded. It is then that new defensive tactics must be +inaugurated, and the keeper must see to it that the big and +dangerous ape gets no advantage. This means the exercise of good +strategy, and very careful management in cage-cleaning. It calls +for two cages for each dangerous ape. + +There is only one thing in this world of which our three big +chimps are thoroughly afraid, and that is an absurd little _toy +gun_ that cost about fifty cents, and looks it. No matter how +bad Boma may be acting, if Keeper Palmer says in a sharp tone, +"_Where's that gun!_" Boma hearkens and stops short, and if +the "gun" is shown in front of his cage he flies in terror to the +top of his second balcony, and cowers in a corner. + +Why are those powerful and dangerous apes afraid of that absurd +toy? I do not know. Perhaps the answer is--instinct; but if so, +how was it acquired? The natives of the chimp country do not have +many firearms, and the white man's guns have been seen and heard +by not more than one out of every thousand of that chimp +population. + +Baboons Throw Stones. So far as we are aware, baboons are the only +members of the Order Primates who ever deliberately throw +missiles as means of offense. In 1922 there was in the New York +Zoological Park a savage and aggressive Rhodesian baboon +(_Choiropithecus rhodesiae,_ Haagner) which throws stones at +people whenever he can get hold of such missiles. We have seen him +set up against Keeper Palmer and Curator Ditmars a really vigorous +bombardment with stones and coal that had been supplied him. His +throw was by means of a vigorous underhand pitch, and but for the +intervening bars he would have done very good execution. + +Keeper Rawlinson, of the Primate House, who was in the Boer War, +states that on one occasion when his company was deploying along +the steep side of a rock-covered kopje a troop of baboons above +them rolled and threw so many stones down at the men that finally +two machine guns were let loose on the savage beasts to disperse +them. + + + + +THE CURTAIN + + +On one side of the heights above the River of Life stand the men +of this little world,--the fully developed, the underdone, and +the unbaked, in one struggling, seething mass. On the other side, +and on a level but one step lower down, stands the vanguard of the +long procession of "Lower" Animals, led by the chimpanzee, the +orang and the gorilla. The natural bridge that _almost_ spans +the chasm lacks only the keystone of the arch. + +Give the apes just one thing,--_speech,_--and the bridge is +closed! + +Take away from a child its sight, speech and hearing, and the +whole world is a mystery, which only the hardest toil of science +and education ever can reveal. Give back hearing and sight, +without speech, and even then the world is only half available. +Give a chimpanzee articulate expression and language, and no one +could fix a limit to his progress. + +Take away from a man the use of one lobe of his brain, and he is +rendered speechless. + +The great Apes have travelled up the River of Life on the opposite +side from Man, but they are only one lap behind him. Let us not +deceive ourselves about that. Remember that truth is inexorable in +its demands to be heard. + +We need not rack our poor, finite minds over the final problem of +evolution, or the final destiny of Man and Ape. We cannot prove +anything beyond what we see. We do not know, and we never can +know, whether the chimpanzee has a "soul" or not; and we cannot +_prove_ that the soul of man is immortal. If man possesses a +soul of lofty stature, why not a soul of lowly stature for the +chimpanzee? + +We do not know just _where_ "heaven" is; and we cannot know +until we find it. But what does it all matter on earth, if we keep +to the straight path, and rest our faith upon the Great Unseen +Power that we call God? + +Said the great Poet of Nature in his ode "To a Waterfowl:" + + "He who from zone to zone +Guides through the boundless +Sky thy certain flight, In the long way that I must tread + alone Will lead my steps aright." + +CURTAIN. + + + + + + + + +BY WILLIAM T. HORNADAY + + + + +THE MINDS AND MANNERS OF WILD ANIMALS + +CAMP FIRES ON DESERT AND LAVA + +CAMP FIRES IN THE CANADIAN ROCKIES + +TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING + +TWO YEARS IN THE JUNGLE The Experiences of a Hunter and Naturalist +in India, Ceylon, the Malay Peninsula and Borneo. Illustrated. 8 vo. + +THE AMERICAN NATURAL HISTORY A Foundation of Useful Knowledge of +the Higher Animals of North America. Four Crown Octavo Volumes, +Illustrated in colors and half-tones. + +THE SAME Royal 8 vo. Complete in one volume. + +OUR VANISHING WILD LIFE Its Extermination and Preservation. + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Minds and Manners of Wild Animals +by William T. Hornaday + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WILD ANIMALS *** + +This file should be named 6052.txt or 6052.zip + +Produced by Ralph Zimmermann, Charles Franks +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we usually do not +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +We are now trying to release all our eBooks one year in advance +of the official release dates, leaving time for better editing. +Please be encouraged to tell us about any error or corrections, +even years after the official publication date. + +Please note neither this listing nor its contents are final til +midnight of the last day of the month of any such announcement. +The official release date of all Project Gutenberg eBooks is at +Midnight, Central Time, of the last day of the stated month. 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