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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5c5ed8b --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #62675 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/62675) diff --git a/old/62675-0.txt b/old/62675-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 5efc276..0000000 --- a/old/62675-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1975 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 54, by F. E. L. Beal - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 54 - Some Common Birds In Their Relation to Agriculture - -Author: F. E. L. Beal - -Release Date: July 16, 2020 [EBook #62675] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USDA FARMERS' BULLETIN NO. 54 *** - - - - -Produced by Tom Cosmas - - - - - - - - -Transcriber Note - -Text emphasis denoted by _Italics_. - - -Revised! - - U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. - - - - - - FARMERS' BULLETIN No. 54· - - - - - SOME COMMON BIRDS - - IN THEIR RELATION TO AGRICULTURE. - - - BY - - F. E. L. BEAL, B. S., - - ASSISTANT ORNITHOLOGIST, BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. - - - [May, 1897.] - - [Illustration] - - - WASHINGTON: - - GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. - - 1898. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - Page. - - Introduction 3 - - The cuckoos (_Coccyzus americanus and C. erythophthalmus_) (fig. 1) 5 - - The woodpeckers (figs. 2-5) 6 - - The kingbird (_Tyrannus tyrannus_) (fig. 6) 11 - - The phÅ“be (_Sayornis phÅ“be_) (fig. 7) 13 - - The bluejay (_Cyanocitta cristata_) (fig. 8) 14 - - The crow (_Corvus americanus_) 15 - - The bobolink, or ricebird (_Dolichconyx oryzivorus_) (fig. 9) 17 - - The redwinged blackbird (_Agelaius phÅ“niceus_) (fig. 10) 19 - - The meadow lark, or old field lark (_Sturnella magna_) (fig. 11) 21 - - The Baltimore oriole (_Icterus galbula_) (fig. 12) 23 - - The crow blackbird, or grackle (_Quiscalus quiscula_) (fig. 13) 24 - - The sparrows (fig. 14) 26 - - The rose-breasted grosbeak (_Zamelodia ludoviciana_) (fig. 15) 28 - - The swallows (fig. 16) 30 - - The cedarbird (_Ampelis cedrorum_) (fig. 17) 31 - - The catbird (_Galeoscoptes carolinensis_) (fig. 18) 33 - - The brown thrasher (_Harporhynchus rufus_) (fig. 19) 34 - - The house wren (_Troglodytes aëdon_) (fig. 20) 35 - - The robin (_Merula migratoria_) (fig. 21) 37 - - The bluebird (_Sialia sialis_) (fig. 22) 39 - - - - -SOME COMMON BIRDS IN THEIR RELATION TO AGRICULTURE. - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -It has long been known that birds play an important part in relation to -agriculture, but there seems to be a tendency to dwell on the harm they do -rather then on the good. Whether a bird is injurious or beneficial depends -almost entirely upon what it eats, and in the case of species which are -unusually abundant or which depend in part upon the farmer's crops for -subsistence the character of the food often becomes a very practical -question. If crows or blackbirds are seen in numbers about cornfields, -or if woodpeckers are noticed at work in an orchard, it is perhaps not -surprising that they are accused of doing harm. Careful investigation, -however, often shows that they are actually destroying noxious insects, -and also that even those which do harm at one season may compensate -for it by eating noxious species at another. Insects are eaten at all -times by the majority of land birds, and during the breeding season most -kinds subsist largely and rear their young exclusively on this food. -When insects are unusually plentiful, they are eaten by many birds which -ordinarily do not touch them. Even birds of prey resort to this diet, and -when insects are more easily obtained than other fare, the smaller hawks -and owls live on them almost entirely. This was well illustrated during -the recent plague of Rocky Mountain locusts in the Western States, when it -was found that locusts were eaten by nearly every bird in the region, and -that they formed almost the entire food of a large majority of the species. - -Within certain limits, birds feed upon the kind of food that is most -accessible. Thus, as a rule, insectivorous birds eat the insects that -are most easily obtained, provided they do not have some peculiarly -disagreeable property. It is not probable that a bird habitually passes by -one kind of insect to look for another which is more appetizing, and there -seems little evidence in support of the theory that tire selection of -food is restricted to any particular species of insect, for it is evident -that a bird eats those which by its own method of seeking are most easily -obtained. Thus, a ground-feeding bird eats those it finds among the dead -leaves and grass; a flycatcher, watching for its prey from some vantage -point, captures entirely different kinds; and the woodpecker and warbler, -in the tree tops, select still others. It is thus apparent that a bird's -diet is likely to be quite varied, and to differ at different seasons of -the year. - -In investigating the food habits of birds, field observation can be relied -on only to a limited extent, for it is not always easy to determine what -a bird really eats by watching it. In order to be positive on this point, -it is necessary to examine the stomach contents. When birds are suspected -of doing injury to field crops or fruit trees, a few individuals should be -shot and their stomachs examined. This will show unmistakably whether or -not the birds are guilty. - -In response to a general demand for definite information regarding the -food habits of our native birds, the biological Survey of the Department -of Agriculture has for some years past been conducting a systematic -investigation of the food of species which are believed to be of economic -importance. Thousands of birds' stomachs have been carefully examined in -the laboratory, and all the available data respecting the food brought -together. The results of the investigations relating to birds of prey, -based on an examination of nearly 3,000 stomachs, were published in 1893, -in a special bulletin entitled The Hawks and Owls of the United States. -Many other species have been similarly studied and the results published, -either in special bulletins or as articles in the yearbooks. The present -bulletin contains brief abstracts of the results of food studies of about -30 grain and insect eating birds belonging to 10 different families.[1] - -[1] The limits of this bulletin preclude giving more than a very brief -statement regarding the food of each bird, but more detailed accounts -of some of the species will be found in the following reports of the -Biological Survey (formerly Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy): The -Cuckoos--Bulletin No. 9, 1898, pp. 1-14; Crow--Bulletin No. 6, 1895, -pp. 1-98; Woodpeckers--Bulletin No. 7, 1895, pp. 1-39; Kingbird--Annual -Report Secretary of Agriculture for 1893, pp. 233-234; Redwinged -Blackbird--Yearbook for 1897, pp. 349-351; Baltimore Oriole--Yearbook -for 1895, pp. 426-430; Grackles--Yearbook for 1894, pp. 233-248; -Meadowlark--Yearbook for 1895, pp. 420-426; Cedarbird--Annual Report -Secretary of Agriculture for 1892, pp. 197-200; Catbird, Brown Thrasher, -and Wren--Yearbook for 1895, pp. 405-418. - -These species comprise among others the crow blackbirds and ricebirds, -against which serious complaints have been made on account of the damage -they do to corn, wheat, rice, and other crops; and also the cuckoos, -grosbeaks, and thrashers, which are generally admitted to be beneficial, -but whose true value as insect destroyers has not been fully appreciated. -The practical value of birds in controlling insect pests should be more -generally recognized. It maybe an easy matter to exterminate the birds -in an orchard or grain field, but it is an extremely difficult one to -control the insect pests. It is, certain, too, that the value of our -native sparrows as weed destroyers is not appreciated. Weed seed forms -an important item of the winter food of many of these birds, and it is -impossible to estimate the immense numbers of noxious weeds which are thus -annually destroyed. - -If birds are protected and encouraged to nest about the farm and garden, -they will do their share in destroying noxious insects and weeds, and a -few hours spent in putting up boxes for bluebirds, martins, and wrens will -prove a good investment. Birds are protected by law in many States, but -it remains for the agriculturalists to see that the laws are faithfully -observed. - - - - -THE CUCKOOS. - -(_Coccyzus americanus and C. erythophthalmus_) - - -Two species of cuckoos, the yellow-billed (fig. 1) and the black-billed, -are common in the United States east of the Plains, and a subspecies of -the yellow-billed extends westward to the Pacific. While the two species -are quite distinct, they do not differ greatly in food habits, and their -economic status is practically the same. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Yellow-billed cuckoo.] - -An examination of 155 stomachs has shown that these cuckoos are much -given to eating caterpillars, and, unlike most birds, do not reject those -covered with hair. In fact, cuckoos eat so many hairy caterpillars that -the hairs pierce the inner lining of the stomach and remain there, so that -when the stomach is opened and turned inside out, it appears to be lined -with a thin coating of fur. - -An examination of the stomachs of 40 black-billed cuckoos, taken during -the summer months, showed the remains of 900 caterpillars, 44 beetles, -96 grasshoppers, 100 sawflies, 30 stink bugs, and 15 spiders. In all -probability more individuals than these were represented, but their -remains were too badly broken for recognition. Most of the caterpillars -were hairy, and many of them belonged to a genus that lives in colonies -and feeds on the leaves of trees, including the apple tree. One stomach -was filled with larvæ of a caterpillar belonging to the same genus as the -tent caterpillar, while others contained that species. Other larvæ were -those of large moths, for which the bird seems to have a special fondness. -The beetles were mainly click beetles and weevils, with a few May beetles. -The sawflies were all found in two stomachs, one of which contained no -less than 100 in the larval stage. - -Of the yellow-billed cuckoo, 109 stomachs (collected from May to October, -inclusive) were examined. The contents consisted of 1,865 caterpillars, 93 -beetles, 242 grasshoppers, 37 sawflies, 69 bugs, 6 flies, and 86 spiders. -Most of the caterpillars belonged to hairy species and many of them were -of large size. One stomach contained 250 American tent caterpillars; -another 217 fall webworms. In places where tent caterpillars are abundant -they seem to constitute a large portion of the food of these two birds. -The beetles were distributed among several families, but all more or less -harmful to agriculture. In the same stomach which contained the tent -caterpillars were two Colorado potato beetles; in another were three -goldsmith beetles and remains of several other large beetles. Besides -grasshoppers were several katydids and tree crickets. The sawflies were -in the larval stage, in which they resemble caterpillars so closely that -they are commonly called false caterpillars, and perhaps this likeness may -be the reason the cuckoos eat them so freely. The bugs consisted of stink -bugs and cicadas or dog-day harvest flies, with the single exception of -one wheel bug, which was the only useful insect eaten, unless the spiders -be counted as such. - - - - -THE WOODPECKERS. - - -Five or six species of woodpeckers are familiarly known throughout the -eastern United States, and in the west are replaced by others of similar -habits. Several species remain in the northern States through the entire -year, while others are more or less migratory. - -Farmers are prone to look upon woodpeckers with suspicion. When the birds -are seen scrambling over fruit trees and pecking at the bark, and fresh -holes are found in the tree, it is concluded that they are doing harm. -Careful observers, however, have noticed that, excepting a single species, -these birds rarely leave any important mark on a healthy tree, but that -when a tree is affected by wood-boring larvæ the Insects are accurately -located, dislodged, and devoured. In case the holes from which the borers -are taken are afterwards occupied by colonies of ants, these ants in turn -are drawn out and eaten. - -Two of the best known woodpeckers, the hairy woodpecker (_Dryobates -villosus_) (fig. 2) and the downy woodpecker (_D. pubescens_), including -their races, range over the greater part of the United States, and for the -most part remain throughout the year in their usual haunts. They differ -chiefly in size, for their colors are practically the same, and the males, -like other woodpeckers, are distinguished by a scarlet patch on the head. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Hairy woodpecker.] - -An examination of many stomachs of these two birds shows that from -two-thirds to three-fourths of the food consists of insects, chiefly -noxious. Wood-boring beetles, both adults and larvæ, are conspicuous, and -with them are associated many caterpillars, mostly species that burrow -into trees. Next in importance are the ants that live in decaying wood, -all of which are sought by woodpeckers and eaten in great quantities. Many -ants are particularly harmful to limber, for if they find a small spot of -decay in the vacant burrow of some wood-borer, they enlarge the hole, and -as their colony is always on the increase, continue to eat away the wood -until the whole trunk is honey-combed. Moreover, these insects are not -accessible to other birds, and could pursue their career of destruction -unmolested were it not that the woodpeckers, with beaks and tongues -especially fitted for such work, dig out and devour them. It is thus -evident that woodpeckers are great conservators of forests. To them, more -than to any other agency, we owe the preservation of timber from hordes of -destructive insects. - -One of the larger woodpeckers familiar to everyone is the flicker, or -golden-winged woodpecker (_Colaptes auratus_) (fig. 3), which is generally -distributed throughout the United States from the Atlantic Coast to the -Rocky Mountain. It is there replaced by the red-shafted flicker (_C. -cafer_), which extends westward to the Pacific. The two species are as -nearly identical in food habits as their environment will allow. The -flickers, while genuine woodpeckers, differ somewhat in habits from the -rest of the family, and are frequently seen upon the ground searching -for food. Like the downy and hairy woodpeckers, they eat wood-boring -grubs and ants, but the number of ants eaten is much greater. Two of the -flickers' stomachs examined were completely filled with ants, each stomach -containing more than 3,000 individuals. These ants belonged to species -which live in the ground, and it is these insects for which the flicker is -searching when running about in the grass, although some grasshoppers are -also taken. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Flicker.] - -The red-headed woodpecker (_Melanerpes erythrocephalus_) (fig. 4) is well -known east of the Rocky Mountains, but is rather rare in New England. -Unlike some of the other species, it prefers fence posts and telegraph -poles to trees as a foraging ground. Its food therefore naturally differs -from that of the preceding species, and consists largely of adult beetles -and wasps, which it frequently captures on the wing, after the fashion -of flycatchers. Grasshoppers also form an important part of the food. -The red-head has a peculiar habit of selecting very large beetles, as -shown by the presence of fragments of several of the largest species in -the stomachs. Among the beetles were quite a number of predaceous ground -beetles, and unfortunately some tiger beetles, which are useful insects. -The red-head has been accused of robbing the nests of other birds; also -of attacking young birds and poultry and peeking out their brains, but -as the stomachs showed little evidence to substantiate this charge it is -probable that the habit is rather exceptional. - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Red-headed woodpecker.] - -It has been customary to speak of the smaller woodpeckers as "sapsuckers," -under the belief that they drill holes in the bark of trees for the -purpose of drinking the sap and eating the inner bark. Close observation, -however, has fixed this habit upon only one species, the yellow-bellied -woodpecker, or sapsucker (_Sphyrapicus varius_) (fig. 5). This bird has -been shown to be guilty of pecking holes in the bark of various forest -trees, and sometimes in that of apple trees, from which it drinks the sap -when the pits become filled. It has been proved, however, that besides -taking the gap the bird captures large numbers of insects which are -attracted by the sweet fluid, and that these form a very considerable -portion of its diet. In some cases the trees are injured by being thus -punctured, and die in a year or two, but since comparatively few are -touched the damage is not great. It is equally probable, moreover, that -the bird fully compensates for this injury by the insects it consumes. - -The vegetable food of woodpeckers is varied, but consists largely of small -fruits and berries. The downy and hairy woodpeckers eat such fruits as -dogwood, Virginia creeper, and others, with the seeds of poison ivy, -sumac, and a few other shrubs. The flicker also eats a great many small -fruits and the seeds of a considerable number of shrubs and weeds. None of -the three species is much given to eating cultivated fruits or crops. - -The red-head has been accused of eating the larger kinds of fruit, such -as apples, and also of taking considerable corn. The stomach examinations -show that to some extent these charges are substantiated but that the -habit is not prevalent enough to cause much damage. It is quite fond of -mast, especially beechnuts, and when these nuts are plentiful the birds -remain north all winter, instead of migrating as is their usual custom. - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Yellow-bellied woodpecker.] - -Half the food of the sapsucker, aside from sap, consists of vegetable -matter, largely berries of the kinds already mentioned, and also a -quantity of the inner bark of trees, more of which is eaten by this -species than by any other. - -Many other woodpeckers are found in America, but their food habits agree -in the main with those just described. Those birds are certainly the only -agents which can successfully cope with certain insect enemies of the -forests, and, to some extent, of fruit trees also. For this reason, if for -no other, they should be protected in every possible way. - - - - -THE KINGBIRD - -(_Tyrannus tyrannus_) - - -The kingbird (fig. 6) Is essentially a lover of the orchard, and wherever -the native groves have been replaced by fruit trees this pugnacious bird -takes up its abode. It breeds in all of the States east of the Rocky -Mountains, and less commonly in the Great Basin and on the Pacific Coast. -It migrates south early in the fall, and generally leaves the United -States to spend the winter in more southern latitudes. - -[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Kingbird.] - -The kingbird manifests its presence in many ways. It is somewhat -boisterous and obtrusive, and its antipathy for hawks and crows is well -known. It never hesitates to give battle to any of these marauders, no -matter, how superior in size, and for this reason a family of kingbirds is -a desirable adjunct to a poultry yard. On one occasion in the knowledge of -the writer a hawk which attacked a brood of young turkeys was pounced upon -and so severely buffeted by a pair of kingbirds, whose nest was near by, -that the would-be robber was glad to escape without his prey. Song birds -that nest near the kingbird are similarly protected. - -In its food habits this species is largely insectivorous. It is a true -flycatcher by nature, and takes a large part of its food on the wing. It -does not, however, confine itself to this method of hunting, but picks -up some insects from trees and weeds, and even descends to the ground in -search of myriapods or thousand legs. The chief complaint against the -kingbird is that it preys largely upon honeybees; and this charge has been -made both by professional bee keepers and others. Many observers have seen -the bird at work near hives, and there is no reason to doubt the honesty -of their testimony. One bee raiser in Iowa, suspecting the kingbirds of -feeding upon his bees, shot a number near his hives, but when the birds' -stomachs were examined by an expert entomologist not a trace of honeybees -could be found. - -The Biological Survey has made an examination of 281 stomachs collected -in various parts of the country, but found only 14 containing remains of -honeybees. In these 14 stomachs there were in all 50 honeybees, of which -40 were drones, 4 were certainly workers, and the remaining 6 were too -badly broken to be identified as to sex. - -The insects that constitute the great bulk of the food of this bird are -noxious species, largely beetles--May beetles, click beetles (the larvæ -of which are known as wire worms), weevils, which prey upon fruit and -grain, and a host of others. Wasps, wild bees, and ants are conspicuous -elements of the food, far outnumbering the hive bees. During summer -many grasshoppers and crickets, as well as leaf hoppers and other bugs, -are also eaten. Among the flies were a number of robber flies--insects -which prey largely upon other insects, especially honeybees, and which -have been known to commit in this way extensive depredations. It is thus -evident that the kingbird by destroying these flies actually does good -work for the apiarist. Nineteen robber flies were found in the stomachs -examined; these may be considered more than an equivalent for the four -worker honeybees already mentioned. A few caterpillars are eaten, mostly -belonging to the group commonly known as cutworms, all the species of -which are harmful. About 10 per cent of the food consists of small native -fruits, comprising some twenty common species of the roadsides and -thickets, such as dogwood berries, elder berries and wild grapes. The -bird has not been reported as eating cultivated fruit to an injurious -extent, and it is very doubtful if this is ever the case, for cherries -and blackberries are the only ones that might have come from cultivated -places, and they were found in but few stomachs. - -Three points seem to be clearly established in regard to the food of the -kingbird--(1) that about 90 per cent consists of insects, mostly injurious -species; (2) that the alleged habit of preying upon honeybees is much less -prevalent than has been supposed, and probably does not result in any -great damage; and (3) that the vegetable food consists almost entirely of -wild fruits which have no economic value. These facts, taken in connection -with its well-known enmity for hawks and crows, entitle the kingbird to a -place among the most desirable birds of the orchard or garden. - - - - -THE PHÅ’BE. - -(_Sayornis phÅ“be._) - - -Among the early spring arrivals at the North, none more welcome than the -phÅ“be (fig. 7). Though, naturally building its nest under an overhanging -cliff of rock or earth, or in the mouth of a cave, its preference for the -vicinity of farm buildings is so marked that in the more thickly settled -parts of the country the bird is seldom seen at any great distance from a -farmhouse except where a bridge spans some stream, affording a secure spot -for a nest. Its confiding disposition has rendered it a great favorite, -and consequently it is seldom disturbed. It breeds throughout the United -States east of the Great Plains, and winters from the South Atlantic and -Gulf States southward. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.--PhÅ“be.] - -The phÅ“be subsists almost exclusively upon insects, most of which are -caught upon the wing. An examination of 80 stomachs showed that over 93 -per cent of the year's food consists of insects and spiders, while wild -fruit constitutes the remainder. The insects belong chiefly to noxious, -species, and include many click beetles. May beetles, and weevils. -Grasshoppers in their season are eaten to a considerable extent, while -wasps of various species, many flies of species that annoy cattle, and a -few bugs and spiders are also eaten regularly. It is evident that a pair -of phÅ“bes must materially reduce the number of insects near a garden or -field, as the birds often, if not always, raise two broods a year, and -each brood numbers from four to six young. - -The vegetable portion of the food is unimportant, and consists mainly of a -few seeds, with small fruits, such as wild cherries, elder berries, and -juniper berries. The raspberries and blackberries found in the stomachs -were the only fruits that might have banged to cultivated varieties, and -the quantity was trifling. - -There is hardly a more useful species than the phÅ“be about the farm, -and it should receive every encouragement. To furnish nesting boxes is -unnecessary, as it usually prefers a more open situation, like a shed, or -a nook under the eaves, but it should be protected from cats and other -marauders. - - - - -THE BLUE JAY. - -(_Cyanocitta cristata._) - - -The blue jay (fig. 8) is a common bird of the United States east of the -Great Plains, and remains throughout the year in most of its range, -although its numbers are somewhat reduced in winter in the Northern -States. During spring and summer the jay is forced to become an -industrious hunter for insects, and is not so conspicuous a feature of -the landscape as when it roams the country at will after the cares of the -nesting season are over. - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Blue Jay.] - -Ornithologists and field observers in general declare that a considerable -portion of its food in spring and early summer consists of the eggs and -young of small birds, and some farmers accuse it of stealing corn to an -injurious extent in the fall. While there may be some truth in these -accusations, they have almost certainly been exaggerated. No doubt many -jays have been observed robbing nests of other birds, but thousands have -been seen that were not so engaged. - -In an investigation of the food of the blue jay 292 stomachs were -examined, which showed that animal matter comprised 24 per cent and -vegetable matter 70 per cent of the bird's diet. So much has been said -about the nest robbing habits of the jay that special search was made -for traces of birds or birds' eggs in the stomachs, with the result that -shells of small birds' eggs were found in three and the remains of young -birds in only two stomachs. Such negative evidence is not sufficient to -controvert the great mass of testimony upon this point, but it shows that -the habit is not so prevalent as has been believed. Besides birds and -their eggs, the jay eats mice, fish, salamanders, snails, and crustaceans, -which altogether constitute but little more than 1 per cent of its diet. -The insect food is made up of beetles, grasshoppers, caterpillars, and -a few species of other orders, all noxious, except some 3½ per cent of -predaceous beetles. Thus something more than 19 per cent of the whole food -consists of harmful insects. In August the jay, like many other birds, -turns its attention to grasshoppers, which constitute nearly one-fifth of -its food during that month. At this time, also, most of the other noxious -insects, including caterpillars, are consumed, though beetles are eaten -chiefly in spring. - -The vegetable food is quite varied, but the item of most interest is -grain. Corn was found in 70 stomachs, wheat in 8, and oats in 2--all -constituting 19 per cent of the total food. Corn is evidently the favorite -grain, but a closer inspection of the record shows that the greater part -was eaten during the first five months of the year, and that very little -was taken after May, even in harvest time, when it is abundant. This -indicates that most of the corn is gleaned from the fields after harvest, -except what is stolen from cribs or gathered in May at planting time. - -The jay's favorite food is mast (i. e., acorns, chestnuts, chinquapins, -etc.), which was found in 158 of the 292 stomachs and amounted to more -than 42 per cent of the whole food. In September corn formed 15 and mast -35 per cent, while in October, November, and December corn dropped to -an almost inappreciable quantity and mast amounted to 64, 82, and 83 -per cent, respectively. And yet in these months corn is abundant and -everywhere easily accessible. The other elements of food consist of a few -seeds and wild fruits, among which grapes and blackberries predominate. - -The results of the stomach examination show, (1) that the jay eats many -noxious insects; (2) that its habit of robbing the nests of other birds is -much less common, than has been asserted; and (3) that it does little harm -to agriculture, since all but a small amount of the corn eaten is waste -grain. - - - - -THE CROW. - -(_Corvus americanus._) - - -There are few birds so well known as the common crow, and unlike most -other species he does not seem to decrease in numbers as the country -becomes more densely populated. The crow is commonly regarded as a -blackleg and a thief. Without the dash and brilliancy of the jay, or the -bold savagery of the hawk, he is accused of doing more mischief than -either. That he does pull up sprouting corn, destroy chickens, and rob the -nests of small birds has been repeatedly proved. Nor are these all of his -sins. He is known to eat frogs, toads, salamanders, and some small snakes, -all harmless creatures that do some good by eating insects. With so many -charges against him, it may be well to show why he should not be utterly -condemned. - -The examination of a large number of stomachs, while confirming all the -foregoing accusations, has thrown upon the subject a light somewhat -different from that derived slowly from field observation. It shows that -the bird's nesting habit, as in the case of the jay, is not so universal -as has been supposed; and that, so far from being a habitual nest robber, -the crow only occasionally indulges in that reprehensible practice. The -same is true in regard to destroying chickens, for he is able to carry off -none but very young ones, and his opportunities for capturing them are -somewhat limited. Neither are many toads and frogs eaten, and as frogs are -of no great practical value, their destruction is not a serious matter; -but toads are very useful, and their consumption, so far as it goes, must -be counted against crow. Turtles, crayfishes, and snails, of which he eats -quite a large number, may be considered neutral, while mice may be counted -to his credit. - -In his insect food, however, the crow makes amends for sins in the rest of -his dietary, although even here the first item is against him. Predaceous -beetles are eaten in some numbers throughout the season, but the number -is not great. May beetles, "dor-bugs," or June bugs, and others of the -same family, constitute the principal food during spring and early summer, -and are fed to the young in immense quantities. Other beetles, nearly all -of a noxious character, are eaten to a considerable extent. Grasshoppers -are first taken in May, but not in large numbers until August, when, as -might be expected, they form the leading article of diet, showing that -the crow is no exception to the general rule that most birds subsist, -to a large extent, upon grasshoppers in the month of August. Many bugs, -some caterpillars, mostly cutworms, and some spiders are also eaten--all -of them either harmful or neutral in their economic relations. Of the -insect diet Mr. E. A. Schwarz says: "The facts, on the whole, speak -overwhelmingly in favor of the crow." - -Probably the most important item in the vegetable food is corn, and by -pulling up the newly sprouted seeds the bird renders himself extremely -obnoxious. Observation and experiments with tame crows show that hard, dry -corn is never eaten if anything else is to be had, and if fed to nestlings -it is soon disgorged. The reason crows resort to newly planted fields -is that the kernels of corn are softened by the moisture of the earth, -and probably become more palatable in the process of germination, which -changes the starch of the grain to sugar. The fact, however, remains that -crows eat corn extensively only when it has been softened by germination -or partial decay, or before it is ripe and still "in the milk." Experience -has shown that they may be prevented from pulling up young corn by -tarring the seed, which not only saves corn but forces them to turn their -attention to insects. If they persist in eating green corn it is not so -easy to prevent the damage; but no details of extensive injury in this way -have yet been presented and it is probable that no great harm has been -done. - -Crows eat fruit to some extent, but confine themselves for the most part -to wild species, such as dogwood, sour gum, and seeds of the different -kinds of sumac. They have also a habit of sampling almost everything -which appears eatable, especially when food is scarce. For example, they -eat frozen apples found on the trees in winter, or pumpkins, turnips, -and potatoes which have been overlooked or neglected; even mushrooms are -sometimes taken, probably in default of something better. - -In estimating the economic status of the crow, it must be acknowledged -that he does some damage, but, on the other hand, he should receive much -credit for the insects which he destroys. In the more thickly settled -parts of the country the crow probably does more good than harm, at -least when ordinary precautions are taken to protect young poultry and -newly-planted corn against his depredations. If, however, corn is planted -with no provision against possible marauders, if hens and turkeys are -allowed to nest and to roam with their broods at a distance from farm -buildings, losses must be expected. - - - - -THE BOBOLINK, OR RICEBIRD. - -(_Dolichconyx oryzivorus_) - - -The bobolink (fig. 9) is a common summer resident of the United States, -north of about latitude 40°, and from New England westward to the Great -Plains, wintering beyond our southern border. In New England there are few -birds, if any, around which so much romance has clustered; in the South -none on whose head so many maledictions have been heaped. The bobolink, -entering the United States from the South at a time when the rice fields -are freshly sown, pulls up the young plants and feeds upon the seed. Its -stay, however, is not long, and it soon hastens northward, where it is -welcomed as a herald of summer. During its sojourn in the Northern States -it feeds mainly upon insects and small seeds of useless plants; but while -rearing its young, insects constitute its chief food, and almost the -exclusive diet of its brood. After the young are able to fly, the whole -family gathers into a small flock and begins to live almost entirely upon -vegetable food. This consists for the most part of weed seeds, since in -the North these birds do not appear to molest grain to any great extent. -They eat a few oats, but their stomachs do not reveal a great quantity of -this or any other grain. As the season advances they gather into larger -flocks and move southward, until by the end of August nearly all have -left their breeding grounds. On their way they frequent the reedy marshes -about the mouths of rivers and on the inland waters of the coast region, -subsisting largely upon wild rice. After leaving the Northern States they -are commonly known as reed birds, and having become very fat are treated -as game. - -They begin to arrive on the rice fields in the latter part of August, and -during the next month make havoc in the ripening crop. It is unfortunate -that the rice districts lie exactly in the track of their fall migration, -since the abundant supply of food thus offered has undoubtedly served to -attract them more and more, until most of the bobolinks bred in the North -are concentrated with disastrous effect on the south east coast when the -rice ripens in the fall, there was evidently a time when no such supply of -food awaited the birds on their journey southward, and it seems probable -that the introduction of rice culture in the South, combined with the -clearing of the forests in the North, thus affording a larger available -breeding area, has favored an increase in the numbers of this species. The -food habits of the bobolink are not necessarily easily inimical to the -interests of agriculture. It simply happens that the rice affords a supply -of food more easily obtainable than did the wild plants which formerly -occupied the same region. Were the rice fields at a distance from the -line of migration, or north of the bobolinks' breeding ground, they would -probably never be molested; but lying, as they do, directly in the path -of migration, they form a recruiting ground, where the birds can rest and -accumulate flesh and strength for the long sea flight which awaits them in -their course to South America. - -[Illustration: Fig. 9.--Bobolink.] - -The annual loss to rice growers on account of bobolinks has been estimated -at $2,000,000. In the face of such losses it is evident that no mere -poetical sentiment should stand in the way of applying any remedy which -can be devised. It would be unsafe to assume that the insects which the -birds consume during their residence in the North can compensate for such -destruction. If these figures are any approximation to the truth, the -ordinary farmer will not believe that the bobolink benefits, the Northern -half of the country nearly as much as it damages the Southern half, and -the thoughtful ornithologist will be inclined to agree with him. But even -if the bird really does more harm than good, what is the remedy! For years -the rice planters have been employing men and boys to shoot the birds -and drive them away from the fields, but in spite of the millions slain -every year their numbers do not decrease. In fact, a large part of the -loss sustained is not in the grain which the birds actually eat, but in -the outlay necessary to prevent them from taking it all. At present there -seems to be no effective remedy short of complete extermination of the -species, and this is evidently impracticable even were it desirable. - - - - -THE REDWINGED BLACKBIRD. - -(_Agelaius phÅ“niceus._) - - -The redwinged, or swamp, blackbird (fig. 10) is found all over the United -States and the region immediately to the north. While common in most of -its range, its distribution is more or less local, mainly on account of -its partiality for swamps. Its nest is built near standing water, in -tall grass, rushes, or bushes. Owing to this peculiarity the bird may be -absent from large tracts of country which afford no swamps or marshes -suitable for nesting. It usually breeds in large colonies, though single -families, consisting of a male with several wives, may sometimes be found -in a small slough, where each of the females builds, her nest and rears -her own little brood, while her liege lord displays his brilliant colors -and struts in the sunshine. In the Upper Mississippi Valley it finds the -conditions most favorable, for the countless prairie sloughs and the -margins of the numerous shallow lakes form nesting sites for thousands -of redwings; and there are bred the immense flocks which sometimes do so -much damage to the grain fields of the West. After the breeding season is -over, the birds collect in flocks to migrate, and remain thus associated -throughout the winter. - -Many complaints have been made against the redwing, and several States -have at times placed a bounty upon its head. It is said to cause great -damage to grain in the West, especially in the Upper Mississippi Valley; -and the rice growers of the South say that it eats rice. No complaints -have been received from the Northeastern portion of the country, where the -bird is much less abundant than in the West and South. - -An examination of 725 stomachs showed that vegetable matter forms 74 per -cent of the food, while the animal matter, mainly insects, forms but -26 per cent. A little more than 10 per cent consists of beetles, mostly -harmful species, Weevils, or snout-beetles, amount to 4 per cent of the -year's food, but in June reach 25 per cent. As weevils are among the most -harmful insects known, their destruction should condone for at least some -of the sins of which the bird has been accused. Grasshoppers constitute -nearly 5 per cent of the food, while the rest of the animal matter is -made up of various insects, a few snails, and crustaceans. Several dragon -flies were found, but these were probably picked up dead, for they are -too active to be taken alive, unless by one of the flycatchers. So far as -the insect food as a whole is concerned, the redwing may be considered -entirely beneficial. - -[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Redwinged blackbird.] - -The interest in the vegetable food of this bird centers around the grain. -Only three kinds, corn, wheat, and oats, were found in appreciable -quantities in the stomachs, and they aggregate but little more than 13 -per cent of the whole food, oats forming nearly half of this amount. In -view of the many complaints that the redwing eats grain, this record -is surprisingly small. The crow blackbird has been found to eat more -than three times as much. In the case of the crow, corn forms one-fifth -of the food, so that the redwinged blackbird, whose diet is made up of -only a trifle more than one-eighth of grain, is really one of the least -destructive species; but the most important item of this bird's food is -weed seed, which forms practically the whole food in winter and about 57 -per cent of the whole year's fare. The principal weed seeds eaten are -those of ragweed, barn grass, smartweed, and about a dozen others. That -these seeds are preferred is shown by the fact that the birds begin to -eat them in August, when grain is still readily accessible, and continue -feeding on them even after insects become plentiful in April. The redwing -eats very little fruit and does practically no harm in the garden or -orchard. - -While it is impossible to dispute the mass of testimony which has -accumulated concerning its grain-eating propensity, the stomach -examinations show that the habit must be local rather than general. As -the area of cultivation increases and the breeding grounds are curtailed, -the species is likely to become reduced in numbers and consequently less -harmful. Nearly seven-eighths of the redwing's food is made up of weed -seed or of insects injurious to agriculture, indicating unmistakably that -the bird should be protected, except, perhaps, in a few places where it is -too abundant. - - - - -THE MEADOW LARK, OR OLD FIELD LARK. - -(_Sturnella magna._) - - -The meadow lark (fig. 11) is a common and well-known bird occurring from -the Atlantic Coast to the Great Plains, where it gives way to a closely -related subspecies, which extends thence westward to the Pacific. It -winters from our southern border as far north as the District of Columbia, -southern Illinois, and occasionally Iowa. Although it is a bird of the -plains, finding its most congenial haunts in the prairies of the West, it -does not disdain the meadows and mowing lands of New England. It nests on -the ground and is so terrestrial in its habits that it seldom perches on -trees, preferring a fence rail or a telegraph pole. When undisturbed, it -may be seen walking about with a peculiar dainty step, stopping every few -moments to look about and give its tail a nervous flirt or to sound a note -or two of its clear whistle. - -The meadow lark is almost wholly beneficial, although a few complaints -have been made that it pulls sprouting grain, and one farmer claims that -it eats clover seed. As a rule, however, it is looked upon with favor and -is not disturbed. - -In the 238 stomachs examined, animal food (practically all insects) -constituted 73 per cent of the contents and vegetable matter 27 per cent. -As would naturally be supposed, the insects were ground species, such as -beetles, bugs, grasshoppers, and caterpillars, with a few flies, wasps, -and spiders. A number of the stomachs were taken from birds that had been -killed when the ground was covered with snow, but still they contained a -large percentage of insects, showing the bird's skill in finding proper -food under adverse circumstances. - -Of the various insects eaten, crickets and grasshoppers are the most -important, constituting 29 per cent of the entire year's food and 69 per -cent of the food in August. It is scarcely necessary to enlarge upon this -point, but it can readily be seen what an effect a number of these birds -must have on a field of grass in the height of the grasshopper season. -Of the 238 stomachs collected at all seasons of the year, 178, or more -than two-thirds, contained remains of grasshoppers, and one was filled -with fragments at 37 of those insects. This seems to show conclusively -that grasshoppers are preferred and are eaten whenever they can be -procured. The great number taken in August is especially noticeable. This -is essentially the grasshopper month, i. e., the month when grasshoppers -reach their maximum abundance; and the stomach examination has shown that -a large number of birds resort to this diet in August, no matter what may -be the food during the rest of the year. - -[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Meadow lark.] - -Next to grasshoppers, beetles make up the most important item of the -meadow lark's food, amounting to nearly 21 per cent, of which about -one-third are predaceous ground beetles. The others are all harmful -species, and when it is considered that the bird feeds exclusively on the -ground, it seems remarkable that so few useful ground beetles are eaten. -Many of them have a disgusting odor, and possibly this may occasionally -save them from destruction by birds, especially when other food is -abundant. Caterpillars, too, form a very constant element, and in May -constitute over 28 per cent of the whole food. May is the month when the -dreaded cutworm begins its deadly career, and then the bird does some of -its best work. Most of these caterpillars are ground feeders, and are -overlooked by birds which habitually frequent trees; but the meadow lark -finds them and devours them by thousands. The remainder of the insect food -is made up of a few ants, wasps, and spiders, with a few bugs, including -some cinch bugs. - -The vegetable food consists of grain, weed, and other hard seeds. Grain -in general amounts to 14, and weed and other seeds to 12 per cent. The -grain, principally corn, is mostly eaten in winter and early spring, and -must be therefore simply waste kernels; only a trifle is consumed in -summer and autumn, when it is most plentiful. No trace of sprouting grain -was discovered. Clover seed was found in only six stomachs, and but little -in each. Seeds of weeds, principally ragweed, barn grass, and smartweed, -are eaten from November to April, inclusive, but during the rest of the -year are replaced by insects. - -Briefly stated, more than half of the meadow lark's food consists of -harmful insects; its vegetable food is composed either of noxious weeds -or waste grain, and the remainder is made up of useful beetles or neutral -insects and spiders. A strong point in the bird's favor is that, although -naturally an insect eater, it is able to subsist on vegetable food, and -consequently is not forced to migrate in cold weather any farther than is -necessary to find ground free from snow. This explains why it remains for -the most part in the United States during winter, and moves northward as -soon as the snow disappears from its usual haunts. - -There is one danger to which the meadow lark is exposed. As its flesh is -highly esteemed the bird is often shot for the table, but it is entitled -to all possible protection, and to slaughter it for game is the least -profitable way to utilize this valuable species. - - - - -THE BALTIMORE ORIOLE. - -(_Icterus galbula._) - - -Brilliancy of plumage, sweetness of song, and food habits to which no -exception can be taken are some of the striking characteristics of the -Baltimore oriole (fig. 12). In summer this species is found throughout -the northern half of the United States east of the Great Plains, and -is welcomed and loved in every country home in that broad land. In the -Northern States it arrives rather late, and is usually first seen, or -heard, foraging amidst the early bloom of the apple trees, where it -searches for caterpillars or feeds daintily on the surplus blossoms. Its -nest commands hardly less admiration than the beauty of its plumage or the -excellence of its song. Hanging from the tip of the outermost bough of a -stately elm, it is almost inaccessible, and so strongly fastened as to bid -defiance to the elements. - -By watching an oriole which has a nest one may see it searching among -the smaller branches of some neighboring tree, carefully examining each -leaf for caterpillars, and occasionally trilling a few notes to its mate. -Observation both in the field and laboratory shows that caterpillars -constitute the largest item of its fare. In 113 stomachs they formed 34 -per cent of the food, and are eaten in varying quantities during all the -months in which the bird remains in this country, although the fewest -are eaten in July, when a little fruit is also taken. The other insects -consist of beetles, bugs, ants, wasps, grasshoppers, and some spiders. The -beetles are principally click beetles, the larvæ of which are among the -most destructive insects known; and the bugs include plant and bark lice, -both very harmful, but so small and obscure as to be passed over unnoticed -by most birds. Ants are eaten mostly in spring, grasshoppers in July and -August, and wasps and spiders with considerable regularity throughout the -season. - -Vegetable matter amounts to only a little more than 10 per cent of the -food during the bird's stay in the United States, so that the possibility -of the oriole doing much damage to crops is very limited. The bird has -been accused of eating peas to a considerable extent, but remains of peas -were found in only two stomachs. One writer says that it damages grapes, -but none were found. In fact, a few blackberries and cherries comprised -the only cultivated fruit detected in the stomachs, the remainder of the -vegetable food being wild fruit and a few miscellaneous seeds. - -[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Baltimore oriole.] - - - - -THE CROW BLACKBIRD, OR GRACKLE. - -(_Quiscalus quiscula._) - - -The crow blackbird (fig. 13) or one of its subspecies is a familiar -object in all of the States east of the Rocky Mountains. It is a resident -throughout the year as far north as southern Illinois, and in summer -extends its range into British America. In the Mississippi Valley it is -one of the most abundant birds, preferring to nest in the artificial -groves and windbreaks near farms instead of the natural "timber" which -it formerly used. It breeds also in parks and near buildings, often in -considerable colonies. Farther east, in New England, it is only locally -abundant, though frequently seen in migration. After July it becomes very -rare, or entirely disappears, owing to the fact that it collects in large -flocks and retires to some quiet place, where food is abundant and where -it can remain undisturbed during the molting season, but in the latter -days of August and throughout September it usually reappears in immense -numbers before moving southward. - -[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Crow blackbird.] - -It is evident that a bird so large and so abundant may exercise an -important influence upon the agricultural welfare of the country it -inhabits. The crow blackbird has been accused of many sins, such as -stealing grain and fruit and robbing the nests of other birds; but the -farmers do not undertake any war of extermination against it, and, for the -most part, allow it to nest about the premises undisturbed. An examination -of 2,258 stomachs showed that nearly one-third of its food consists of -insects, of which the greater part are injurious. The bird also eats a few -snails, crayfishes, salamanders, small fish, and occasionally a mouse. The -stomach contents do not indicate that it robs other birds' nests to any -great extent, as remains of birds and birds' eggs amount to less than one -half of 1 per cent. - -It is, however, on account of its vegetable food that the grackle is most -likely to be accused of doing damage. Grain is eaten during the whole -year, and during only a short time in summer is other food attractive -enough to induce the bird to alter its diet. The grain taken in the -winter and spring months probably consists of waste kernels gathered from -the stubble. The stomachs do not indicate that the bird pulls sprouting -grain; but the wheat eaten in July and August, and the corn eaten in the -fall, are probably taken from fields of standing grain. The total grain -consumed during the year constitutes 45 per cent of the whole food, but -it is safe to say that at least half is waste grain, and consequently of -no value. Although the crow blackbird eats a few cherries and blueberries -in their season, and some wild fruit in the fall, it apparently does no -damage in this way. - -Large flocks of crow blackbirds no doubt do considerable injury to grain -crops, and there seems to be no remedy except the destruction of the -birds, which is in itself expensive. During the breeding season, however, -the species does much good by eating insects and by feeding them to its -young, which are reared almost entirely upon this food. The bird does the -greatest amount of good in spring, when it follows the plow in search -of large grub worms, of which it is so fond that it sometimes literally -crams its stomach full of them. The farmer must decide for himself -whether or not these birds cause more damage than can be repaid by insect -destruction; but when they destroy an entire crop it is no consolation to -know that they have already eaten a multitude of insects which, if left -alone, would have accomplished the same result. - - - - -THE SPARROWS.[2] - - -[2] The sparrows here mentioned are all native species. For a full -account of the English sparrow, including its introduction, habits, and -depredations, see Bull. No. 1 of the Division of Ornithology, published in -1896. - - -Sparrows are not obtrusive birds, either in plumage, song, or action. -There are some forty species, with nearly as many subspecies, in North -America, but their differences, both in plumage and habits, are in most -cases too obscure to be readily recognized, and not more than half a dozen -forms are generally known in any one locality. All the species are more or -less migratory, but so widely are they distributed that there is probably -no part of the country where some can not be found throughout the year. - -While sparrows are noted seed eaters, they do not by any means confine -themselves to a vegetable diet. During the summer, and especially in the -breeding season, they eat many insects, and probably feed their young -largely upon the same food. An examination of the stomachs of three -species--the song sparrow (_Melospiza_), chipping sparrow (_Spizella -socialis_), and field sparrow (_Spizella pusilla_) (fig. 14)--shows -that about one third of the food consists of insects, comprising many -injurious beetles, such as snout-beetles or weevils, and leaf beetles. -Many grasshoppers are eaten, and in the case of the chipping sparrow -these insects form one eighth of the food. Grasshoppers would seem to -be rather large morsels, but the bird probably confines itself to the -smaller species; indeed, this is indicated by the fact that the greatest -amount (over 36 per cent) is eaten in June, when the larger species are -still young and the small species most numerous. Besides the insects -already mentioned, many wasps and bugs are taken. Predaceous and parasitic -Hymenoptera and predaceous beetles, all useful insects, are eaten only -to a slight extent, so that as a whole the sparrows' insect diet may be -considered beneficial. - -Their vegetable food is limited almost exclusively to hard seeds. This -might seem to indicate that the birds feed to some extent upon grain, but -the stomachs examined show only one kind--oats--and but little of that. -The great bulk of the food is made up of grass and weed seed, which form -almost the entire diet during winter, and the amount consumed is immense. - -[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Field sparrow.] - -Anyone acquainted with the agricultural region of the Upper Mississippi -Valley can not have failed to notice the enormous growth of weeds in every -waste spot where the original sward has been disturbed. By the roadside, -on the borders of cultivated fields, or in abandoned fields, wherever they -can obtain a foothold, masses of rank weeds spring up, and often form -impenetrable thickets which afford food and shelter for immense numbers -of birds and enable them to withstand great cold and the most terrible -blizzards. A person visiting one of these weed patches on a sunny morning -in January, when the thermometer is 20° or more below zero, will be struck -with the life and animation of the busy little inhabitants. Instead of -sitting forlorn and half frozen, they may be seen flitting from branch to -branch, twittering and fluttering, and showing every evidence of enjoyment -and perfect comfort. If one of them be killed and examined, it will be -found in excellent condition--in fact, a veritable ball of fat. - -The snowbird (_Junco hyemalis_) and tree sparrow (_Spizella monticola_) -are perhaps the most numerous of all the sparrows. The latter fairly -swarms all over the Northern States in winter, arriving from the north -early in October and leaving in April. Examination of many stomachs shows -thats in Winter the tree sparrow feeds entirely upon seeds of weeds; and -probably each bird consumes about one-fourth of an ounce a day. In an -article contributed to the New York Tribune in 1881 the writer estimated -the amount of weed seed annually destroyed by these birds in the State of -Iowa. Upon the basis of one-fourth of an ounce of seed eaten daily by each -bird, and supposing that the birds averaged ten to each square mile, and -that they remain in their winter range two hundred days, we shall have -a total of 1,750,000 pounds, or 875 tons, of weed seed consumed by this -one species in a single season. Large as these figures may seem, they -certainly fall far short of the reality. The estimate of ten birds to a -square mile is much within the truth, for the tree sparrow is certainly -more abundant than this in winter in Massachusetts, where the food supply -is less than in the Western States, and I have known places in Iowa where -several thousand could be seen within the space of a few acres. This -estimate, moreover, is for a single species, while, as a matter of fact, -there are at least half a dozen birds (not all sparrows) that habitually -feed on these seeds during winter. - -Farther south the tree sparrow is replaced in winter by the white-throated -sparrow, the white-crowned sparrow, the fox sparrow, the song sparrow, -the field sparrow, and several others; so that all over the country there -are a vast number of those seed eaters at work during the colder months -reducing next year's crop of worse than useless plants. - -In treating of the value of birds, it has been customary to consider them -mainly as insect destroyers; but the foregoing illustration seems to -show that seed eaters have a useful function, which has never been fully -appreciated. - - - - -THE ROSE-BREASTED GROSBEAK. - -(_Zamelodia ludoviciana._) - - -The beautiful rose-breasted grosbeak (fig. 15) breeds in the northern half -of the United States east of the Missouri River, but spends its winters -beyond our boundaries. Unfortunately it is not abundant in New England, -and nowhere as plentiful as it should be. It frequents groves and orchards -rather than gardens or dooryards, but probably the beauty of the male is -the greatest obstacle to its increase; the fully adult bird is pure black -and white, with a broad patch of brilliant rose color upon the breast and -under each wing. On account of this attractive plumage the birds are -highly prized for ladies' hats; and consequently heave been shot in season -and out, till the wonder is not that there are so few, but that any remain -at all. - -When the Colorado potato beetle first swept over the land, and naturalists -and farmers were anxious to discover whether or not there were any enemies -which would prey upon the pest, the grosbeak was almost the only bird seen -to eat the beetles. Further observation confirmed the fact, and there can -be no reasonable doubt that where the bird is abundant it has contributed -very much to the abatement of the pest which has been noted during the -last decade. But this is not the only good which the bird does, for many -other noxious insects besides the potato beetle are also eaten. - -[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Rose-breasted grosbeak.] - -The vegetable food of the grosbeak consists of buds and blossoms of forest -trees, and seeds, but the only damage of which it has been accused is the -stealing of green peas. The writer has observed it eating peas and has -examined the stomachs of several that had been killed in the very act. The -stomachs contained a few peas and enough potato beetles, old and young, as -well as other harmful insects, to pay for all the peas the birds would be -likely to eat in a whole season. The garden where this took place adjoined -a small potato field which earlier in the season had been so badly -infested with the beetles that the vines were completely riddled. The -grosbeaks visited the field every day, and finally brought their fledged -young. The young birds stood in a row on the topmost rail of the fence and -were fed with the beetles which their parents gathered. When a careful -inspection was made a few days later, not a beetle, old or young, could be -found; the birds had swept them from the field and saved the potatoes. - -It is easy to advise measures either for increasing the numbers of this -bird or inducing it to take up its residence on the farm. Naturally it -inhabits thin, open woods or groves, and the change from such places to -orchards would be simple--in fact, has already been made in some parts -of Pennsylvania and Ohio. In New England the bird is somewhat rare, and -perhaps the best that can be done here or elsewhere it to see that it is -thoroughly protected. - - - - -THE SWALLOWS. - - -There are seven common species of swallows within the limits of the United -States, four of which have, to some extent, abandoned their primitive -nesting habits and attached themselves to the abodes of man. As a group, -swallows are gregarious and social in an eminent degree. Some species -build nests in large colonies, occasionally numbering thousands; in the -case of others only two or three pairs are found together; while still -others nest habitually in single pairs. - -Their habits are too familiar to require any extended description. Their -industry and tirelessness are wonderful, and during the day it is rare to -see swallows at rest except just before their departure for the South, -when they assemble upon telegraph wires or upon the roofs of buildings, -apparently making plans for the journey. - -[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Barn swallow.] - -A noticeable characteristic of several of the species is their attachment -to man. In the eastern part of the country the barn swallow (_Chelidon -erythrogastra_) (fig. 16) now builds exclusively under roofs, having -entirely abandoned the rock caves and cliffs in which it formerly nested. -More recently the cliff swallow (_Petrochelidon lunifrons_) has found a -better nesting site under the eaves of buildings than was afforded by the -overhanging-cliffs of earth or stone which it once used, and to which it -still resorts occasionally in the East, and habitually in the unsettled -West. The martin (_Progne subis_) and white-bellied swallow (_Tachycineta -bicolor_) nest either in houses supplied for the purpose, in abandoned -nests of woodpeckers, or in natural crannies in rocks. The other species -have not yet abandoned their primitive habitats, but possibly may do so as -the country becomes more thickly settled. - -Field observation will convince any ordinarily attentive person that the -food of swallows must consist of the smaller insects captured in mid-air, -or perhaps in some cases picked from the tops of tall grass or weeds. This -observation is borne out by an examination of stomachs, which shows that -the food consists of many small species of beetles which are much on the -wing; many species of Diptera (mosquitoes and their allies), with large -quantities of flying ants and a few insects of similar kinds. Most of them -are either injurious or annoying, and the numbers destroyed by swallows -are not only, beyond calculation, but almost beyond imagination. - -The white-bellied swallow eats a considerable number of berries of the -bayberry, or wax myrtle. During migrations and in winter it has a habit of -roosting in these shrubs, and it probably obtains the fruit at that time. - -It is a mistake to tear down the nests of a colony of cliff swallows from -the eaves of a barn, for so far from disfiguring a building the nests make -a picturesque addition, and their presence should be encouraged by every -device. It is said that cliff and barn swallows can be induced to build -their nests in a particular locality, otherwise suitable, by providing a -quantity of mud to be used as mortar. Barn swallows may also be encouraged -by cutting a small hole in the gable of the barn, while martins and -white-bellied swallows will be grateful for boxes like those for the -bluebird, but placed in some higher situation. - - - - -THE CEDAR BIRD. - -(_Ampelis cedrorum._) - - -The cedar waxwing, or cherry bird (fig. 17), inhabits the whole of the -United States, but is much less common in the West. Although the great -bulk of the species retires southward in winter, the bird is occasionally -found in every State during the colder months, especially if wild berries -are abundant. Its proverbial fondness for cherries has given rise to its -popular name, and much complaint has been made on account of the fruit -eaten. Observation has shown, however, that its depredations are confined -to trees on which the fruit ripens earliest, while later varieties are -comparatively untouched. This is probably owing to the fact that when wild -fruits ripen they are preferred to cherries, and really constitute the -bulk of the cedar bird's diet. - -In 152 stomachs examined animal matter formed only 13 and vegetable 87 -per cent, showing that the bird is not wholly a fruit eater. With the -exception of a few snails, all the animal food consisted of insects, -mainly beetles--and all but one more or less noxious, the famous elm -leaf-beetle being among the number. Bark or scale lice were found in -several stomachs, while the remainder of the animal food was made up of -grasshoppers, bugs, and the like. Three nestlings were found to have been -fed almost entirely on insects. - -[Illustration: Fig. 17.--Cedar bird.] - -Of the 87 per cent of vegetable food, 74 consisted entirely of wild fruit -or seeds and 13 of cultivated fruit, but a large part of the latter was -made up of blackberries and raspberries, and it is very doubtful whether -they represented cultivated varieties. Cherry stealing is the chief -complaint against this bird, but of the 152 stomachs only 9, all taken in -June and July, contained any remains of cultivated cherries, and these -aggregate but 5 per cent of the year's food. As 41 stomachs were collected -in those months, it is evident that the birds do not live to any great -extent on cultivated cherries. - -Although the cherry bird is not a great insect destroyer, it does some -good work in this way, since it probably rears its young mostly upon -insect food. On the other hand, it does not devour nearly as much -cultivated fruit as has been asserted, and most, if not all, of the -damage can be prevented. The bird should therefore be considered a useful -species, and as such should be accorded all possible protection. - - - - -THE CATBIRD. - -(_Galeoscoptes carolinensis._) - - -The catbird (fig. 18), like the thrasher, is a lover of swamps, and -delights to make its home in a tangle of wild grapevines, greenbriars, -and shrubs, where it is safe from attack and can find its favorite food -in abundance. It is found throughout the United States west to the Rocky -Mountains; occurs also in Washington, Idaho, and Utah, and extends -northward into British America. It winters in the Southern States, Cuba, -Mexico, and Central America. - -[Illustration: Fig. 18.--Catbird.] - -The catbird always attracts attention, and the intruder upon its haunts -soon understands that he is not welcome. There is no mistaking the meaning -of the sneering voice with which he is saluted, and there is little doubt -that this gave rise to the popular prejudice against the bird; but the -feeling has been increased by the fact that the species is sometimes a -serious annoyance to fruit growers. All such reports, however, seem to -come from the prairie country of the West. In New England, according -to the writer's experience the catbird is seldom seen about gardens -or orchards; the reason may possibly be found in the fact that on the -prairies fruit-bearing shrubs which afford so large a part of this bird's -food are conspicuously absent. With the settlement of this region comes an -extensive planting of orchards, vineyards, and small fruit gardens, which -furnish shelter and nesting sites for the catbird, as well as for other -species, with a consequent large increase in their numbers, but without -providing the native fruits upon which they have been accustomed to feed. -Under these circumstances, what is more natural than for the birds to -turn to cultivated fruits for their supplies? The remedy is obvious; -cultivated fruits can be protected by the simple expedient of planting -wild species or others which are preferred by the birds. Some experiments -with catbirds in captivity showed that the Russian mulberry was preferred -to any cultivated fruit that could be offered. - -The stomachs of 213 catbirds wore examined and found to contain 44 per -cent of animal (insect) and 56 per cent of vegetable food.[3] Ants, -beetles, caterpillars, and grasshoppers constitute three-fourths of the -animal food, the remainder being made up of bugs, miscellaneous insects -and spiders. One-third of the vegetable food consists of cultivated -fruits, or those which may be cultivated, such as strawberries, -raspberries, and blackberries; but while we debit the bird with the whole -of this, it is probable--and in the eastern and well-wooded part of the -country almost certain--that a large part was obtained from wild vines. -The rest of the vegetable matter is mostly wild fruit, such as cherries, -dogwood, sour gum, elder berries, greenbriar, spice berries, black alder, -sumac, and poison ivy. - -[3] The investigation of the food of the catbird, brown thrasher, and -house wren was made by Mr. Sylvester D. Judd and published in the Yearbook -of the Department of Agriculture for 1895, pp. 405-418. - -Although the catbird sometimes does considerable harm by destroying small -fruit, the bird can not be considered injurious. On the contrary, in most -parts of the country it does far more good than harm, and the evil it does -can be reduced appreciably by the methods already pointed out. - - - - -THE BROWN THRASHER. - -(_Harporhynchus rufus._) - - -The brown thrasher (fig. 19) breeds throughout the United States east -of the Great Plains, and winters in the south Atlantic and Gulf States. -It occasionally visits the garden or orchard, but nests in swamps or in -groves standing upon low ground. While it generally prefers a thickly -grown retreat, it sometimes builds in a pile of brush at a distance from -trees. On account of its more retiring habits it is not so conspicuous -as the robin, although it may be equally abundant. Few birds can excel -the thrasher in sweetness of song, but it is so shy that its notes are -not heard often enough to be appreciated. Its favorite time for singing -is the early morning, when, perched on the top of some tall bush or low -tree, it gives an exhibition of vocal powers which would do credit to a -mockingbird. Indeed, in the South, where the latter bird is abundant, the -thrasher is known as the sandy mocker. - -The food of the brown thrasher consists of both fruit and insects. An -examination of 121 stomachs showed 30 per cent of vegetable and 64 of -animal food, practically all insects, and mostly taken in spring before -fruit is ripe. Half the insects were beetles, and the remainder chiefly -grasshoppers, caterpillars, bugs, and spiders. A few predaceous beetles -were eaten, but, on the whole, its work as an insect destroyer may be -considered beneficial. - -[Illustration: Fig. 19.--Brown thrasher.] - -Eight per cent of the food is made up of fruits like raspberries and -currants which are or may be cultivated, but the raspberries at least -are as likely to belong to wild as to cultivated varieties. Grain, made -up mostly of scattered kernels of oats and corn, is merely a trifle, -amounting to only 3 per cent, and though some of the corn may be taken -from newly planted fields it is amply paid for by the May beetles which -are eaten at the same time. The rest of the food consists of wild fruit or -seeds. Taken all in all, the brown thrasher is a useful bird, and probably -does just as good work in its secluded retreats as it would about the -garden, for the swamps and groves are no doubt the breeding grounds of -many insects that migrate thence to attack the farmers' crops. - - - - -THE HOUSE WREN. - -(_Troglodytes aëdon._) - - -The diminutive house wren (fig. 20) frequents barns and gardens, and -particularly old orchards in which the trees are partially decayed. -He makes his nest in a hollow branch where perhaps a woodpecker had a -domicile the year before, but he is a pugnacious character, and if he -happens to fancy one of the boxes that have been put up for the bluebirds -he does not hesitate to take it. He is usually not slow to avail himself -of boxes, gourds, tin cans, or empty jars placed for his accommodation. - -As regards food habits, the house wren is entirely beneficial. -Practically, he can be said to live upon animal food alone, for an -examination of 62 stomachs showed that 98 per cent of the stomach -contents was made up of insects or their allies, and only 2 per cent was -vegetable, including bits of grass and similar matter, evidently taken by -accident with the insects. Half of this food consisted of grasshoppers -and beetles; the remainder of caterpillars, bugs, and spiders. As the -house wren is a prolific breeder, frequently rearing from twelve to -sixteen young in a season, a family of these birds must cause considerable -reduction in the number of insects in a garden. Wrens are industrious -foragers, searching every tree, shrub, or vine for caterpillars, examining -every post and rail of the fence, and every cranny in the wall for insects -or spiders. They do not, as a rule, fly far afield, but work industriously -in the immediate vicinity of their nests. In this way they become valuable -aids in the garden or orchard, and by providing suitable nesting boxes -they may be induced to take up residence where their services will do most -good. Their eccentricities in the selection of a home are well-known. -Almost anything, from an old cigar box to a tomato can, an old teapot, a -worn-out boot, or a horse's skull, is acceptable, provided it be placed -well up from the ground and out of reach of cats and other prowlers. - -[Illustration: Fig. 20.--House wren.] - -It does not seem possible to have too many wrens, and every effort should -be made to protect them and to encourage their nesting about the house. - - - - -THE ROBIN. - -(_Merula migratoria._) - - -The robin (fig. 21) is found throughout the United States east of the -Great Plains, and is represented farther west by a slightly different -subspecies. It extends far north through Canada, and is found even in -Alaska. Although the great bulk of the species leaves the Northern States -in winter, a few individuals remain in sheltered swamps, where wild -berries furnish an abundant supply of food. - -The robin builds its nest in orchards and gardens, and occasionally takes -advantage of a nook about the house, or under the shelter of the roof of -a shed or outbuilding. Its food habits have sometimes caused apprehension -to the fruit grower, for it is fond of cherries and other small fruits, -particularly the earlier varieties. For this reason many complaints have -been lodged against it, and some persons have gone so far as to condemn -the bird. The robin is, however, too valuable to be exterminated, and -choice fruit can be readily protected from its depredations. - -[Illustration: Fig. 21.--Robin.] - -An examination of 330 stomachs shows that over 42 per cent of its food is -animal matter, principally insects, while the remainder is made up largely -of small fruits or berries. Over 19 per cent consists of beetles, about -one-third of which are useful ground beetles, taken mostly in spring and -fall, when other insects are scarce. Grasshoppers makeup about one-tenth -of the whole food, but in August comprise over 30 per cent. Caterpillars -form about G per cent, while the rest of the animal food, about 7 per -cent, is made up of various insects, with a few spiders, snails, and -angle-worms. All the grasshoppers, caterpillars, and bugs, with in large -portion of the beetles, are injurious, and it is safe to say that noxious -insects comprise more than one-third of the robin's food. - -Vegetable food forms nearly 58 per cent of the stomach contents, over 47 -being wild fruits, and only a little more than 4 per cent being possibly -cultivated varieties. Cultivated fruit amounting to about 25 per cent was -found in the stomachs in June and July, but only a trifle in August. Wild -fruit, on the contrary, is eaten in every month, and constitutes a staple -food during half the year. No less than forty-one species were identified -in the stomachs of these, the most important were four species of dogwood, -three of wild cherries, three of wild grapes, four of greenbriar, two -of holly, two of elder; and cranberries, huckleberries, blueberries, -barberries, service berries, cranberries, and persimmons, with four -species of sumac, and various other seeds not strictly fruit. - -The depredations of the robin seem to be confined to the smaller and -earlier fruits, and few, if any, complaints have been made against it -on the score of eating apples, peaches, pears, grapes, or even late -cherries. By the time these are ripe the forests and hedges are teeming -with wild fruits, which the bird evidently finds more to its taste. The -cherry, unfortunately, ripens so early that it, is almost the only fruit -accessible at a time when the bird's appetite has been sharpened by a -long-continued diet of insects, earthworms, and dried berries, and it is -no wonder that at first the rich juicy morsels are greedily eaten. In view -of the fact that the robin takes ten times as much wild as cultivated -fruit, it seems unwise to destroy the birds to save so little. Nor is this -necessary, for by a little care both may be preserved. Where much fruit is -grown, it is no great loss to give up one tree to the birds; and in some -cases the crop can be protected by scarecrows. Where wild fruit is not -abundant, a few fruit-bearing shrubs and vines judiciously planted will -serve for ornament and provide food for the birds. The Russian mulberry -is a vigorous grower and a profuse bearer, ripening at the same time as -the cherry, and, so far as observation has gone, most birds scorn to -prefer its fruit to any other. It is believed that a number of these trees -planted around the garden or orchard would fully protect the more valuable -fruits. - -Many persons have written about the delicate discrimination of birds for -choice fruit, asserting that only the finest and costliest varieties are -selected. This is contrary to all careful scientific observation. Birds, -unlike human beings, seem to prefer fruit like the mulberry, that is -sweetly insipid, or that has some astringent or bitter quality like the -chokecherry or holly. The so-called black alder (_Ilex verticillata_), -which is a species of holly, has bright scarlet berries, as bitter as -quinine, that ripen late in October, and remain on the bushes through -November, and though frost grapes, the fruit of the Virginia creeper, -and several species of dogwood are abundant at the same time, the birds -eat the berries of the holly to a considerable extent, as shown by the -seeds found in the stomachs. It is moreover a remarkable fact that the -wild fruits upon which the birds feed largely are those which man neither -gathers for his own use nor adopts for cultivation. - - - - -THE BLUEBIRD. - -(_Sialia sialis._) - - -The common and familiar bluebird (fig. 22) is an inhabitant of all the -States east of the Rocky Mountains from the Gulf of Mexico northward into -Canada. It winters as far north as southern Illinois, in the Mississippi -Valley, and Pennsylvania in the east; in spring it is one of the first -migrants to arrive in the Northern States, and is always welcomed as an -indication of the final breaking up of winter. It frequents orchards and -gardens, where it builds its nest in hollow trees, or takes advantage of a -nesting box provided by the enterprising farmer's boy. - -[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Bluebird.] - -So far as known, this bird has not been accused of stealing fruit or of -preying upon any crops. An examination of 205 stomachs showed that 76 per -cent of the food consists of insects and their allies, while the other -24 per cent is made up of various vegetable substances, found mostly in -stomachs taken in winter. Beetles constitute 28 per cent of the whole -food, grasshoppers 22, caterpillars 11, and various insects, including -quite a number of spiders, comprise the remainder of the insect diet. All -these are more or less harmful, except a few predaceous beetles, which -amount to 8 per cent, but in view of the large consumption of grasshoppers -and caterpillars, we can at least condone this offense, if such it may be -called. The destruction of grasshoppers is very noticeable in the months -of August and September, when these insects form more than 60 per cent of -the diet. - -It is evident that in the selection of its food the bluebird is governed -more by abundance than by choice. Predaceous beetles are eaten in spring, -as they are among the first insects to appear; but in early summer -caterpillars form an important part of the diet, and are replaced a -little later by grasshoppers. Beetles are eaten at all times, except when -grasshoppers are more easily obtained. - -So far as its vegetable food is concerned, the bluebird is positively -harmless. The only trace of any useful product in the stomachs consisted -of a few blackberry seeds, and even these more probably belonged to wild -than cultivated varieties. Following is a list of the various seeds -which were found: Blackberry, chokeberry, juniperberry, pokeberry, -partridgeberry, greenbriar, Virginia creeper, bittersweet, holly, -strawberry bush, false spikenard, wild sarsaparilla, sumac (several -species), rose haws, sorrel, ragweed, grass, and asparagus. This list -shows how little the bluebird depends upon the farm or garden to supply -its needs, and indicates that by encouraging the growth of some of these -plants, many of which are highly ornamental, the bird can be induced to -make its home on the premises. - -Bluebirds are so well known that it seems unnecessary to urge anything -more in their favor; but in view of the fact that large numbers were -destroyed during the severe storm of 1895, more than ordinary vigilance -should be exercised in protecting them until they have regained their -normal abundance. - - - * * * * * - - -Transcriber Note - - -Figures were moved so as to prevent splitting paragraphs. Hyphenation -was standardized to the most prevalent form used in the publication. - - - - - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 54, by F. E. L. 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E. L. Beal, B. S., a Project Gutenberg eBook. - </title> - <style type="text/css"> - -body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} - -p {margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 1.5em;} - -hr {width: 33%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; - margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both;} - -hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-top: 2em;} -hr.tb {width: 45%;} - -table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center; border-collapse: collapse;} - -.pagenum {position: absolute; right: 3.5%; font-style: normal; /* prevent italics, etc. */ - font-size: small; text-align: right; color: #808080;} /* page numbers */ -.center {margin: 0 auto; text-indent: 0; text-align: center;} -.smaller {font-size: 0.8em;} -.tdl {text-align: left;} -.tdr {text-align: right;} -h1, h2, .caption2, .caption3, .caption4 {font-weight: bold; text-align: center; text-indent:0;} -h1 {font-size:2.00em; margin-top: 1.5em;} -h2, .caption2 {font-size:1.50em; margin-top: 1.0em;} -.caption2nb {font-size:1.50em; text-indent:0; margin-top: 1.0em; text-align: center; text-indent:0;} -.caption3 {font-size:1.25em; margin-top: 0.5em;} -.caption3nb {font-size:1.25em; text-indent:0; margin-top: 0.25em; text-align: center; text-indent:0;} -.caption4 {font-size:1.15em; margin-top: 0.5em;} -.caption4nb {font-size:1.15em; text-indent:0; margin-top: 0.1em; text-align: center; text-indent:0;} -.pmt4 {margin-top: 4em;} -.pmt2 {margin-top: 2em;} -.pmb2 {margin-bottom: 2em;} -.pmb4 {margin-bottom: 4em;} - -/* Images */ - -.fig_center {margin: auto; text-align: center;} - -.fig_caption {font-size: 0.8em; margin-bottom: 1em; - margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em; text-align: center;} - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.trans_notes {background-color: #e6e6fa; color: black; padding:1.5em; - margin-bottom:5em;} - -/* Footnotes */ -.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} -.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} -.fnanchor {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} - - - </style> - </head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -Project Gutenberg's USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 54, by F. E. L. Beal - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 54 - Some Common Birds In Their Relation to Agriculture - -Author: F. E. L. Beal - -Release Date: July 16, 2020 [EBook #62675] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USDA FARMERS' BULLETIN NO. 54 *** - - - - -Produced by Tom Cosmas - - - - - -</pre> - - - - - - - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="300" height="505" alt="Some Common Birds in Their Relation to Agriculture" /> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">« 1 »</a></span></p> - -<div style="width:35em; margin: 2em auto;"> - -<p>Revised!</p> - -<p class="caption3nb">U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.</p> - -<p class="caption4">FARMERS' BULLETIN No. 54·</p> - - -<h1>SOME COMMON BIRDS</h1> - -<p class="caption2nb">IN THEIR RELATION TO AGRICULTURE.</p> - - -<p class="center">BY</p> - -<p class="caption2">F. E. L. BEAL, B. S.,</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">ASSISTANT ORNITHOLOGIST, BIOLOGICAL SURVEY.</p> - - -<p class="center pmt2 pmb2">[May, 1897.]</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 222px;"> -<img src="images/logo.png" width="222" height="218" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<p class="caption3nb">WASHINGTON:</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">1898.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">« 2 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</a></h2> - - -<table summary="ToC"> -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr smaller">Page.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Introduction</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#INTRODUCTION">3</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The cuckoos (<i>Coccyzus americanus and C. erythophthalmus</i>) (<a href="#fig_1">fig. 1</a>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_CUCKOOS">5</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The woodpeckers (<a href="#fig_2">fig. 2-5</a>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_WOODPECKERS">6</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The kingbird (<i>Tyrannus tyrannus</i>) (<a href="#fig_6">fig. 6</a>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_KINGBIRD">11</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The phœbe (<i>Sayornis phœbe</i>) (<a href="#fig_7">fig. 7</a>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_PHOEBE">13</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The bluejay (<i>Cyanocitta cristata</i>) (<a href="#fig_8">fig. 8</a>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_BLUE_JAY">14</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The crow (<i>Corvus americanus</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_CROW">15</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The bobolink, or ricebird (<i>Dolichconyx oryzivorus</i>) (<a href="#fig_9">fig. 9</a>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_BOBOLINK_OR_RICEBIRD">17</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The redwinged blackbird (<i>Agelaius phœniceus</i>) (<a href="#fig_10">fig. 10</a>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_REDWINGED_BLACKBIRD">19</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The meadow lark, or old field lark (<i>Sturnella magna</i>) (<a href="#fig_11">fig. 11</a>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_MEADOW_LARK_OR_OLD_FIELD_LARK">21</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Baltimore oriole (<i>Icterus galbula</i>) (<a href="#fig_12">fig. 12</a>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_BALTIMORE_ORIOLE">23</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The crow blackbird, or grackle (<i>Quiscalus quiscula</i>) (<a href="#fig_13">fig. 13</a>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_CROW_BLACKBIRD_OR_GRACKLE">24</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The sparrows (<a href="#fig_14">fig. 14</a>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_SPARROWS">26</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The rose-breasted grosbeak (<i>Zamelodia ludoviciana</i>) (<a href="#fig_15">fig. 15</a>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_ROSE-BREASTED_GROSBEAK">28</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The swallows (<a href="#fig_16">fig. 16</a>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_SWALLOWS">30</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The cedarbird (<i>Ampelis cedrorum</i>) (<a href="#fig_17">fig. 17</a>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_CEDAR_BIRD">31</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The catbird (<i>Galeoscoptes carolinensis</i>) (<a href="#fig_18">fig. 18</a>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_CATBIRD">33</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The brown thrasher (<i>Harporhynchus rufus</i>) (<a href="#fig_19">fig. 19</a>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_BROWN_THRASHER">34</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The house wren (<i>Troglodytes aëdon</i>) (<a href="#fig_20">fig. 20</a>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_HOUSE_WREN">35</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The robin (<i>Merula migratoria</i>) (<a href="#fig_21">fig. 21</a>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_ROBIN">37</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The bluebird (<i>Sialia sialis</i>) (<a href="#fig_22">fig. 22</a>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THE_BLUEBIRD">39</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">« 3 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2 class="pmt4 pmb4">SOME COMMON BIRDS IN THEIR RELATION TO AGRICULTURE.</h2> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION.</a></h2> - - -<p>It has long been known that birds play an important part in relation -to agriculture, but there seems to be a tendency to dwell on the harm -they do rather then on the good. Whether a bird is injurious or beneficial -depends almost entirely upon what it eats, and in the case of -species which are unusually abundant or which depend in part upon the -farmer's crops for subsistence the character of the food often becomes a -very practical question. If crows or blackbirds are seen in numbers -about cornfields, or if woodpeckers are noticed at work in an orchard, it -is perhaps not surprising that they are accused of doing harm. Careful -investigation, however, often shows that they are actually destroying -noxious insects, and also that even those which do harm at one season -may compensate for it by eating noxious species at another. Insects -are eaten at all times by the majority of land birds, and during the -breeding season most kinds subsist largely and rear their young exclusively -on this food. When insects are unusually plentiful, they are -eaten by many birds which ordinarily do not touch them. Even birds -of prey resort to this diet, and when insects are more easily obtained -than other fare, the smaller hawks and owls live on them almost entirely. -This was well illustrated during the recent plague of Rocky Mountain -locusts in the Western States, when it was found that locusts were -eaten by nearly every bird in the region, and that they formed almost -the entire food of a large majority of the species.</p> - -<p>Within certain limits, birds feed upon the kind of food that is most -accessible. Thus, as a rule, insectivorous birds eat the insects that are -most easily obtained, provided they do not have some peculiarly disagreeable -property. It is not probable that a bird habitually passes by -one kind of insect to look for another which is more appetizing, and -there seems little evidence in support of the theory that tire selection -of food is restricted to any particular species of insect, for it is evident -that a bird eats those which by its own method of seeking are -most easily obtained. Thus, a ground-feeding bird eats those it finds -among the dead leaves and grass; a flycatcher, watching for its prey -from some vantage point, captures entirely different kinds; and the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">« 4 »</a></span> -woodpecker and warbler, in the tree tops, select still others. It is thus -apparent that a bird's diet is likely to be quite varied, and to differ at -different seasons of the year.</p> - -<p>In investigating the food habits of birds, field observation can be -relied on only to a limited extent, for it is not always easy to determine -what a bird really eats by watching it. In order to be positive on this -point, it is necessary to examine the stomach contents. When birds are -suspected of doing injury to field crops or fruit trees, a few individuals -should be shot and their stomachs examined. This will show unmistakably -whether or not the birds are guilty.</p> - -<p>In response to a general demand for definite information regarding -the food habits of our native birds, the biological Survey of the Department -of Agriculture has for some years past been conducting a systematic -investigation of the food of species which are believed to be of -economic importance. Thousands of birds' stomachs have been carefully -examined in the laboratory, and all the available data respecting -the food brought together. The results of the investigations -relating to birds of prey, based on an examination of nearly 3,000 -stomachs, were published in 1893, in a special bulletin entitled The -Hawks and Owls of the United States. Many other species have been -similarly studied and the results published, either in special bulletins -or as articles in the yearbooks. The present bulletin contains brief -abstracts of the results of food studies of about 30 grain and insect -eating birds belonging to 10 different families.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The limits of this bulletin preclude giving more than a very brief statement -regarding the food of each bird, but more detailed accounts of some of the species -will be found in the following reports of the Biological Survey (formerly Division -of Ornithology and Mammalogy): The Cuckoos—Bulletin No. 9, 1898, pp. 1-14; -Crow—Bulletin No. 6, 1895, pp. 1-98; Woodpeckers—Bulletin No. 7, 1895, pp. 1-39; -Kingbird—Annual Report Secretary of Agriculture for 1893, pp. 233-234; Redwinged -Blackbird—Yearbook for 1897, pp. 349-351; Baltimore Oriole—Yearbook for 1895, pp. -426-430; Grackles—Yearbook for 1894, pp. 233-248; Meadowlark—Yearbook for 1895, -pp. 420-426; Cedarbird—Annual Report Secretary of Agriculture for 1892, pp. 197-200; -Catbird, Brown Thrasher, and Wren—Yearbook for 1895, pp. 405-418.</p></div> - -<p>These species comprise among others the crow blackbirds and ricebirds, -against which serious complaints have been made on account of -the damage they do to corn, wheat, rice, and other crops; and also the -cuckoos, grosbeaks, and thrashers, which are generally admitted to be -beneficial, but whose true value as insect destroyers has not been fully -appreciated. The practical value of birds in controlling insect pests -should be more generally recognized. It maybe an easy matter to -exterminate the birds in an orchard or grain field, but it is an extremely -difficult one to control the insect pests. It is, certain, too, that the -value of our native sparrows as weed destroyers is not appreciated. -Weed seed forms an important item of the winter food of many of these -birds, and it is impossible to estimate the immense numbers of noxious -weeds which are thus annually destroyed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">« 5 »</a></span></p> - -<p>If birds are protected and encouraged to nest about the farm and garden, -they will do their share in destroying noxious insects and weeds, -and a few hours spent in putting up boxes for bluebirds, martins, and -wrens will prove a good investment. Birds are protected by law in -many States, but it remains for the agriculturalists to see that the laws -are faithfully observed.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2><a name="THE_CUCKOOS" id="THE_CUCKOOS">THE CUCKOOS.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption3nb">(<i>Coccyzus americanus and C. erythophthalmus</i>)</p> - - -<p>Two species of cuckoos, the yellow-billed (<a href="#fig_1">fig. 1</a>) and the black-billed, -are common in the United States east of the Plains, and a subspecies -of the yellow-billed extends westward to the Pacific. While the two -species are quite distinct, they do not differ greatly in food habits, and -their economic status is practically the same.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 309px;"> -<a id="fig_1"></a> -<img src="images/fig1.png" width="309" height="237" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Fig. 1.—Yellow-billed cuckoo.</div> -</div> - -<p>An examination of 155 stomachs has shown that these cuckoos are -much given to eating caterpillars, and, unlike most birds, do not reject -those covered with hair. In fact, cuckoos eat so many hairy caterpillars -that the hairs pierce the inner lining of the stomach and remain -there, so that when the stomach is opened and turned inside out, it -appears to be lined with a thin coating of fur.</p> - -<p>An examination of the stomachs of 40 black-billed cuckoos, taken -during the summer months, showed the remains of 900 caterpillars, 44 -beetles, 96 grasshoppers, 100 sawflies, 30 stink bugs, and 15 spiders. In -all probability more individuals than these were represented, but their -remains were too badly broken for recognition. Most of the caterpillars -were hairy, and many of them belonged to a genus that lives in -colonies and feeds on the leaves of trees, including the apple tree. -One stomach was filled with larvæ of a caterpillar belonging to the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">« 6 »</a></span> -same genus as the tent caterpillar, while others contained that species. -Other larvæ were those of large moths, for which the bird seems to -have a special fondness. The beetles were mainly click beetles and -weevils, with a few May beetles. The sawflies were all found in two -stomachs, one of which contained no less than 100 in the larval -stage.</p> - -<p>Of the yellow-billed cuckoo, 109 stomachs (collected from May to -October, inclusive) were examined. The contents consisted of 1,865 -caterpillars, 93 beetles, 242 grasshoppers, 37 sawflies, 69 bugs, 6 flies, -and 86 spiders. Most of the caterpillars belonged to hairy species and -many of them were of large size. One stomach contained 250 American -tent caterpillars; another 217 fall webworms. In places where tent -caterpillars are abundant they seem to constitute a large portion of the -food of these two birds. The beetles were distributed among several -families, but all more or less harmful to agriculture. In the same -stomach which contained the tent caterpillars were two Colorado potato -beetles; in another were three goldsmith beetles and remains of several -other large beetles. Besides grasshoppers were several katydids and -tree crickets. The sawflies were in the larval stage, in which they -resemble caterpillars so closely that they are commonly called false -caterpillars, and perhaps this likeness may be the reason the cuckoos -eat them so freely. The bugs consisted of stink bugs and cicadas or -dog-day harvest flies, with the single exception of one wheel bug, which -was the only useful insect eaten, unless the spiders be counted as such.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2><a name="THE_WOODPECKERS" id="THE_WOODPECKERS">THE WOODPECKERS.</a></h2> - - -<p>Five or six species of woodpeckers are familiarly known throughout -the eastern United States, and in the west are replaced by others of -similar habits. Several species remain in the northern States through -the entire year, while others are more or less migratory.</p> - -<p>Farmers are prone to look upon woodpeckers with suspicion. When -the birds are seen scrambling over fruit trees and pecking at the bark, -and fresh holes are found in the tree, it is concluded that they are -doing harm. Careful observers, however, have noticed that, excepting -a single species, these birds rarely leave any important mark on a -healthy tree, but that when a tree is affected by wood-boring larvæ -the Insects are accurately located, dislodged, and devoured. In case -the holes from which the borers are taken are afterwards occupied by -colonies of ants, these ants in turn are drawn out and eaten.</p> - -<p>Two of the best known woodpeckers, the hairy woodpecker (<i>Dryobates -villosus</i>) (<a href="#fig_2">fig. 2</a>) and the downy woodpecker (<i>D. pubescens</i>), including -their races, range over the greater part of the United States, and -for the most part remain throughout the year in their usual haunts. -They differ chiefly in size, for their colors are practically the same, and -the males, like other woodpeckers, are distinguished by a scarlet patch -on the head.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">« 7 »</a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 429px;"> -<a id="fig_2"></a> -<img src="images/fig2.png" width="429" height="389" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Fig. 2.—Hairy woodpecker.</div> -</div> - -<p>An examination of many stomachs of these two birds shows that -from two-thirds to three-fourths of the food consists of insects, chiefly -noxious. Wood-boring beetles, both adults and larvæ, are conspicuous, -and with them are associated many caterpillars, mostly species -that burrow into trees. Next in importance are the ants that live in -decaying wood, all of which are sought by woodpeckers and eaten in -great quantities. Many ants are particularly harmful to limber, for if -they find a small spot of decay in the vacant burrow of some wood-borer, -they enlarge the hole, and as their colony is always on the -increase, continue to eat away the wood until the whole trunk is honey-combed. -Moreover, these insects are not accessible to other birds, and -could pursue their career of destruction unmolested were it not that -the woodpeckers, with beaks and tongues especially fitted for such -work, dig out and devour them. It is thus evident that woodpeckers -are great conservators of forests. To them, more than to any other -agency, we owe the preservation of timber from hordes of destructive -insects.</p> - -<p>One of the larger woodpeckers familiar to everyone is the flicker, or -golden-winged woodpecker (<i>Colaptes auratus</i>) (<a href="#fig_3">fig. 3</a>), which is generally -distributed throughout the United States from the Atlantic Coast to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">« 8 »</a></span> -the Rocky Mountain. It is there replaced by the red-shafted flicker -(<i>C. cafer</i>), which extends westward to the Pacific. The two species are -as nearly identical in food habits as their environment will allow. The -flickers, while genuine woodpeckers, differ somewhat in habits from the -rest of the family, and are frequently seen upon the ground searching -for food. Like the downy and hairy woodpeckers, they eat wood-boring -grubs and ants, but the number of ants eaten is much greater. Two of -the flickers' stomachs examined were completely filled with ants, each -stomach containing more than 3,000 individuals. These ants belonged -to species which live in the ground, and it is these insects for which the -flicker is searching when running about in the grass, although some -grasshoppers are also taken.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 366px;"> -<a id="fig_3"></a> -<img src="images/fig3.png" width="366" height="308" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Fig. 3.—Flicker.</div> -</div> - -<p>The red-headed woodpecker (<i>Melanerpes erythrocephalus</i>) (<a href="#fig_4">fig. 4</a>) is well -known east of the Rocky Mountains, but is rather rare in New England. -Unlike some of the other species, it prefers fence posts and telegraph -poles to trees as a foraging ground. Its food therefore naturally differs -from that of the preceding species, and consists largely of adult -beetles and wasps, which it frequently captures on the wing, after the -fashion of flycatchers. Grasshoppers also form an important part of -the food. The red-head has a peculiar habit of selecting very large -beetles, as shown by the presence of fragments of several of the largest -species in the stomachs. Among the beetles were quite a number of -predaceous ground beetles, and unfortunately some tiger beetles, which -are useful insects. The red-head has been accused of robbing the nests -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">« 9 »</a></span> -of other birds; also of attacking young birds and poultry and peeking -out their brains, but as the stomachs showed little evidence to substantiate -this charge it is probable that the habit is rather exceptional.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 337px;"> -<a id="fig_4"></a> -<img src="images/fig4.png" width="337" height="374" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Fig. 4.—Red-headed woodpecker.</div> -</div> - -<p>It has been customary to speak of the smaller woodpeckers as "sapsuckers," -under the belief that they drill holes in the bark of trees for -the purpose of drinking the sap and eating the inner bark. Close observation, -however, has fixed this habit upon only one species, the yellow-bellied -woodpecker, or sapsucker (<i>Sphyrapicus varius</i>) (<a href="#fig_5">fig. 5</a>). This bird -has been shown to be guilty of pecking holes in the bark of various forest -trees, and sometimes in that of apple trees, from which it drinks the sap -when the pits become filled. It has been proved, however, that besides -taking the gap the bird captures large numbers of insects which are -attracted by the sweet fluid, and that these form a very considerable -portion of its diet. In some cases the trees are injured by being thus -punctured, and die in a year or two, but since comparatively few are -touched the damage is not great. It is equally probable, moreover, that -the bird fully compensates for this injury by the insects it consumes.</p> - -<p>The vegetable food of woodpeckers is varied, but consists largely of -small fruits and berries. The downy and hairy woodpeckers eat such -fruits as dogwood, Virginia creeper, and others, with the seeds of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">« 10 »</a></span> -poison ivy, sumac, and a few other shrubs. The flicker also eats a great -many small fruits and the seeds of a considerable number of shrubs -and weeds. None of the three species is much given to eating cultivated -fruits or crops.</p> - -<p>The red-head has been accused of eating the larger kinds of fruit, -such as apples, and also of taking considerable corn. The stomach -examinations show that to some extent these charges are substantiated -but that the habit is not prevalent enough to cause much damage. It -is quite fond of mast, especially beechnuts, and when these nuts are -plentiful the birds remain north all winter, instead of migrating as is -their usual custom.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 356px;"> -<a id="fig_5"></a> -<img src="images/fig5.png" width="356" height="409" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Fig. 5.—Yellow-bellied woodpecker.</div> -</div> - -<p>Half the food of the sapsucker, aside from sap, consists of vegetable -matter, largely berries of the kinds already mentioned, and also a quantity -of the inner bark of trees, more of which is eaten by this species -than by any other.</p> - -<p>Many other woodpeckers are found in America, but their food habits -agree in the main with those just described. Those birds are certainly -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">« 11 »</a></span> -the only agents which can successfully cope with certain insect enemies -of the forests, and, to some extent, of fruit trees also. For this reason, -if for no other, they should be protected in every possible way.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2><a name="THE_KINGBIRD" id="THE_KINGBIRD">THE KINGBIRD</a></h2> - -<p class="caption3nb">(<i>Tyrannus tyrannus</i>)</p> - - -<p>The kingbird (<a href="#fig_6">fig. 6</a>) Is essentially a lover of the orchard, and wherever -the native groves have been replaced by fruit trees this pugnacious -bird takes up its abode. It breeds in all of the States east of -the Rocky Mountains, and less commonly in the Great Basin and on -the Pacific Coast. It migrates south early in the fall, and generally -leaves the United States to spend the winter in more southern latitudes.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 286px;"> -<a id="fig_6"></a> -<img src="images/fig6.png" width="286" height="292" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Fig. 6.—Kingbird.</div> -</div> - -<p>The kingbird manifests its presence in many ways. It is somewhat -boisterous and obtrusive, and its antipathy for hawks and crows is well -known. It never hesitates to give battle to any of these marauders, -no matter, how superior in size, and for this reason a family of kingbirds -is a desirable adjunct to a poultry yard. On one occasion in -the knowledge of the writer a hawk which attacked a brood of young -turkeys was pounced upon and so severely buffeted by a pair of kingbirds, -whose nest was near by, that the would-be robber was glad to -escape without his prey. Song birds that nest near the kingbird are -similarly protected.</p> - -<p>In its food habits this species is largely insectivorous. It is a true flycatcher -by nature, and takes a large part of its food on the wing. It -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">« 12 »</a></span> -does not, however, confine itself to this method of hunting, but picks -up some insects from trees and weeds, and even descends to the ground -in search of myriapods or thousand legs. The chief complaint against -the kingbird is that it preys largely upon honeybees; and this charge -has been made both by professional bee keepers and others. Many -observers have seen the bird at work near hives, and there is no -reason to doubt the honesty of their testimony. One bee raiser in -Iowa, suspecting the kingbirds of feeding upon his bees, shot a number -near his hives, but when the birds' stomachs were examined by an -expert entomologist not a trace of honeybees could be found.</p> - -<p>The Biological Survey has made an examination of 281 stomachs collected -in various parts of the country, but found only 14 containing -remains of honeybees. In these 14 stomachs there were in all 50 honeybees, -of which 40 were drones, 4 were certainly workers, and the -remaining 6 were too badly broken to be identified as to sex.</p> - -<p>The insects that constitute the great bulk of the food of this bird are -noxious species, largely beetles—May beetles, click beetles (the larvæ -of which are known as wire worms), weevils, which prey upon fruit and -grain, and a host of others. Wasps, wild bees, and ants are conspicuous -elements of the food, far outnumbering the hive bees. During summer -many grasshoppers and crickets, as well as leaf hoppers and other bugs, -are also eaten. Among the flies were a number of robber flies—insects -which prey largely upon other insects, especially honeybees, and which -have been known to commit in this way extensive depredations. It is -thus evident that the kingbird by destroying these flies actually does -good work for the apiarist. Nineteen robber flies were found in the -stomachs examined; these may be considered more than an equivalent -for the four worker honeybees already mentioned. A few caterpillars -are eaten, mostly belonging to the group commonly known as -cutworms, all the species of which are harmful. About 10 per cent -of the food consists of small native fruits, comprising some twenty -common species of the roadsides and thickets, such as dogwood berries, -elder berries and wild grapes. The bird has not been reported as -eating cultivated fruit to an injurious extent, and it is very doubtful if -this is ever the case, for cherries and blackberries are the only ones that -might have come from cultivated places, and they were found in but -few stomachs.</p> - -<p>Three points seem to be clearly established in regard to the food of -the kingbird—(1) that about 90 per cent consists of insects, mostly -injurious species; (2) that the alleged habit of preying upon honeybees -is much less prevalent than has been supposed, and probably does not -result in any great damage; and (3) that the vegetable food consists -almost entirely of wild fruits which have no economic value. These -facts, taken in connection with its well-known enmity for hawks and -crows, entitle the kingbird to a place among the most desirable birds -of the orchard or garden.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">« 13 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="THE_PHOEBE" id="THE_PHOEBE">THE PHŒBE.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption3nb">(<i>Sayornis phœbe.</i>)</p> - - -<p>Among the early spring arrivals at the North, none more welcome -than the phœbe (<a href="#fig_7">fig. 7</a>). Though, naturally building its nest under an -overhanging cliff of rock or earth, or in the mouth of a cave, its preference -for the vicinity of farm buildings is so marked that in the more -thickly settled parts of the country the bird is seldom seen at any great -distance from a farmhouse except where a bridge spans some stream, -affording a secure spot for a nest. Its confiding disposition has rendered -it a great favorite, and consequently it is seldom disturbed. It -breeds throughout the United States east of the Great Plains, and -winters from the South Atlantic and Gulf States southward.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 302px;"> -<a id="fig_7"></a> -<img src="images/fig7.png" width="302" height="286" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Fig. 7.—Phœbe.</div> -</div> - -<p>The phœbe subsists almost exclusively upon insects, most of which -are caught upon the wing. An examination of 80 stomachs showed -that over 93 per cent of the year's food consists of insects and spiders, -while wild fruit constitutes the remainder. The insects belong chiefly -to noxious, species, and include many click beetles. May beetles, and -weevils. Grasshoppers in their season are eaten to a considerable -extent, while wasps of various species, many flies of species that annoy -cattle, and a few bugs and spiders are also eaten regularly. It is evident -that a pair of phœbes must materially reduce the number of insects -near a garden or field, as the birds often, if not always, raise two broods -a year, and each brood numbers from four to six young.</p> - -<p>The vegetable portion of the food is unimportant, and consists mainly -of a few seeds, with small fruits, such as wild cherries, elder berries, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">« 14 »</a></span> -juniper berries. The raspberries and blackberries found in the stomachs -were the only fruits that might have banged to cultivated varieties, -and the quantity was trifling.</p> - -<p>There is hardly a more useful species than the phœbe about the farm, -and it should receive every encouragement. To furnish nesting boxes -is unnecessary, as it usually prefers a more open situation, like a shed, -or a nook under the eaves, but it should be protected from cats and -other marauders.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2><a name="THE_BLUE_JAY" id="THE_BLUE_JAY">THE BLUE JAY.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption3nb">(<i>Cyanocitta cristata.</i>)</p> - - -<p>The blue jay (<a href="#fig_8">fig. 8</a>) is a common bird of the United States east of the -Great Plains, and remains throughout the year in most of its range, -although its numbers are somewhat reduced in winter in the Northern -States. During spring and summer the jay is forced to become an -industrious hunter for insects, and is not so conspicuous a feature of -the landscape as when it roams the country at will after the cares of -the nesting season are over.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 352px;"> -<a id="fig_8"></a> -<img src="images/fig8.png" width="352" height="214" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Fig. 8.—Blue Jay.</div> -</div> - -<p>Ornithologists and field observers in general declare that a considerable -portion of its food in spring and early summer consists of the eggs -and young of small birds, and some farmers accuse it of stealing corn -to an injurious extent in the fall. While there may be some truth in -these accusations, they have almost certainly been exaggerated. No -doubt many jays have been observed robbing nests of other birds, but -thousands have been seen that were not so engaged.</p> - -<p>In an investigation of the food of the blue jay 292 stomachs were -examined, which showed that animal matter comprised 24 per cent and -vegetable matter 70 per cent of the bird's diet. So much has been said -about the nest robbing habits of the jay that special search was made for -traces of birds or birds' eggs in the stomachs, with the result that shells -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">« 15 »</a></span> -of small birds' eggs were found in three and the remains of young -birds in only two stomachs. Such negative evidence is not sufficient -to controvert the great mass of testimony upon this point, but it shows -that the habit is not so prevalent as has been believed. Besides birds -and their eggs, the jay eats mice, fish, salamanders, snails, and crustaceans, -which altogether constitute but little more than 1 per cent of its -diet. The insect food is made up of beetles, grasshoppers, caterpillars, -and a few species of other orders, all noxious, except some 3½ per -cent of predaceous beetles. Thus something more than 19 per cent -of the whole food consists of harmful insects. In August the jay, like -many other birds, turns its attention to grasshoppers, which constitute -nearly one-fifth of its food during that month. At this time, also, -most of the other noxious insects, including caterpillars, are consumed, -though beetles are eaten chiefly in spring.</p> - -<p>The vegetable food is quite varied, but the item of most interest is -grain. Corn was found in 70 stomachs, wheat in 8, and oats in 2—all -constituting 19 per cent of the total food. Corn is evidently the favorite -grain, but a closer inspection of the record shows that the greater part -was eaten during the first five months of the year, and that very little -was taken after May, even in harvest time, when it is abundant. -This indicates that most of the corn is gleaned from the fields after -harvest, except what is stolen from cribs or gathered in May at planting -time.</p> - -<p>The jay's favorite food is mast (i. e., acorns, chestnuts, chinquapins, -etc.), which was found in 158 of the 292 stomachs and amounted to -more than 42 per cent of the whole food. In September corn formed -15 and mast 35 per cent, while in October, November, and December -corn dropped to an almost inappreciable quantity and mast amounted -to 64, 82, and 83 per cent, respectively. And yet in these months corn -is abundant and everywhere easily accessible. The other elements of -food consist of a few seeds and wild fruits, among which grapes and -blackberries predominate.</p> - -<p>The results of the stomach examination show, (1) that the jay eats -many noxious insects; (2) that its habit of robbing the nests of other -birds is much less common, than has been asserted; and (3) that it does -little harm to agriculture, since all but a small amount of the corn eaten -is waste grain.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2><a name="THE_CROW" id="THE_CROW">THE CROW.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption3nb">(<i>Corvus americanus.</i>)</p> - - -<p>There are few birds so well known as the common crow, and unlike -most other species he does not seem to decrease in numbers as the -country becomes more densely populated. The crow is commonly -regarded as a blackleg and a thief. Without the dash and brilliancy -of the jay, or the bold savagery of the hawk, he is accused of doing -more mischief than either. That he does pull up sprouting corn, destroy -chickens, and rob the nests of small birds has been repeatedly -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">« 16 »</a></span> -proved. Nor are these all of his sins. He is known to eat frogs, toads, -salamanders, and some small snakes, all harmless creatures that do -some good by eating insects. With so many charges against him, it -may be well to show why he should not be utterly condemned.</p> - -<p>The examination of a large number of stomachs, while confirming all -the foregoing accusations, has thrown upon the subject a light somewhat -different from that derived slowly from field observation. It shows -that the bird's nesting habit, as in the case of the jay, is not so universal -as has been supposed; and that, so far from being a habitual nest -robber, the crow only occasionally indulges in that reprehensible practice. -The same is true in regard to destroying chickens, for he is able -to carry off none but very young ones, and his opportunities for capturing -them are somewhat limited. Neither are many toads and frogs -eaten, and as frogs are of no great practical value, their destruction is -not a serious matter; but toads are very useful, and their consumption, -so far as it goes, must be counted against crow. Turtles, crayfishes, -and snails, of which he eats quite a large number, may be considered -neutral, while mice may be counted to his credit.</p> - -<p>In his insect food, however, the crow makes amends for sins in the -rest of his dietary, although even here the first item is against him. -Predaceous beetles are eaten in some numbers throughout the season, -but the number is not great. May beetles, "dor-bugs," or June bugs, -and others of the same family, constitute the principal food during -spring and early summer, and are fed to the young in immense quantities. -Other beetles, nearly all of a noxious character, are eaten to a -considerable extent. Grasshoppers are first taken in May, but not in -large numbers until August, when, as might be expected, they form the -leading article of diet, showing that the crow is no exception to the -general rule that most birds subsist, to a large extent, upon grasshoppers -in the month of August. Many bugs, some caterpillars, mostly -cutworms, and some spiders are also eaten—all of them either harmful -or neutral in their economic relations. Of the insect diet Mr. E. A. -Schwarz says: "The facts, on the whole, speak overwhelmingly in favor -of the crow."</p> - -<p>Probably the most important item in the vegetable food is corn, and -by pulling up the newly sprouted seeds the bird renders himself -extremely obnoxious. Observation and experiments with tame crows -show that hard, dry corn is never eaten if anything else is to be had, -and if fed to nestlings it is soon disgorged. The reason crows resort -to newly planted fields is that the kernels of corn are softened by the -moisture of the earth, and probably become more palatable in the process -of germination, which changes the starch of the grain to sugar. -The fact, however, remains that crows eat corn extensively only when -it has been softened by germination or partial decay, or before it is ripe -and still "in the milk." Experience has shown that they may be prevented -from pulling up young corn by tarring the seed, which not only -saves corn but forces them to turn their attention to insects. If -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">« 17 »</a></span> -they persist in eating green corn it is not so easy to prevent the damage; -but no details of extensive injury in this way have yet been presented -and it is probable that no great harm has been done.</p> - -<p>Crows eat fruit to some extent, but confine themselves for the most -part to wild species, such as dogwood, sour gum, and seeds of the -different kinds of sumac. They have also a habit of sampling almost -everything which appears eatable, especially when food is scarce. For -example, they eat frozen apples found on the trees in winter, or pumpkins, -turnips, and potatoes which have been overlooked or neglected; -even mushrooms are sometimes taken, probably in default of something -better.</p> - -<p>In estimating the economic status of the crow, it must be acknowledged -that he does some damage, but, on the other hand, he should -receive much credit for the insects which he destroys. In the more -thickly settled parts of the country the crow probably does more good -than harm, at least when ordinary precautions are taken to protect -young poultry and newly-planted corn against his depredations. If, -however, corn is planted with no provision against possible marauders, -if hens and turkeys are allowed to nest and to roam with their broods -at a distance from farm buildings, losses must be expected.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2><a name="THE_BOBOLINK_OR_RICEBIRD" id="THE_BOBOLINK_OR_RICEBIRD">THE BOBOLINK, OR RICEBIRD.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption3nb">(<i>Dolichconyx oryzivorus</i>)</p> - - -<p>The bobolink (<a href="#fig_9">fig. 9</a>) is a common summer resident of the United -States, north of about latitude 40°, and from New England westward to -the Great Plains, wintering beyond our southern border. In New -England there are few birds, if any, around which so much romance -has clustered; in the South none on whose head so many maledictions -have been heaped. The bobolink, entering the United States from the -South at a time when the rice fields are freshly sown, pulls up the young -plants and feeds upon the seed. Its stay, however, is not long, and it -soon hastens northward, where it is welcomed as a herald of summer. -During its sojourn in the Northern States it feeds mainly upon insects -and small seeds of useless plants; but while rearing its young, insects -constitute its chief food, and almost the exclusive diet of its brood. -After the young are able to fly, the whole family gathers into a small flock -and begins to live almost entirely upon vegetable food. This consists -for the most part of weed seeds, since in the North these birds do not -appear to molest grain to any great extent. They eat a few oats, but their -stomachs do not reveal a great quantity of this or any other grain. As -the season advances they gather into larger flocks and move southward, -until by the end of August nearly all have left their breeding grounds. -On their way they frequent the reedy marshes about the mouths of -rivers and on the inland waters of the coast region, subsisting largely -upon wild rice. After leaving the Northern States they are commonly -known as reed birds, and having become very fat are treated as game.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">« 18 »</a></span></p> - -<p>They begin to arrive on the rice fields in the latter part of August, -and during the next month make havoc in the ripening crop. It is -unfortunate that the rice districts lie exactly in the track of their fall -migration, since the abundant supply of food thus offered has undoubtedly -served to attract them more and more, until most of the bobolinks -bred in the North are concentrated with disastrous effect on the south -east coast when the rice ripens in the fall, there was evidently a time -when no such supply of food awaited the birds on their journey southward, -and it seems probable that the introduction of rice culture in the -South, combined with the clearing of the forests in the North, thus affording -a larger available breeding area, has favored an increase in the -numbers of this species. The food habits of the bobolink are not necessarily -easily inimical to the interests of agriculture. It simply happens that -the rice affords a supply of food more easily obtainable than did the -wild plants which formerly occupied the same region. Were the rice -fields at a distance from the line of migration, or north of the bobolinks' -breeding ground, they would probably never be molested; but lying, -as they do, directly in the path of migration, they form a recruiting -ground, where the birds can rest and accumulate flesh and strength for -the long sea flight which awaits them in their course to South America.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 322px;"> -<a id="fig_9"></a> -<img src="images/fig9.png" width="322" height="331" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Fig. 9.—Bobolink.</div> -</div> - -<p>The annual loss to rice growers on account of bobolinks has been -estimated at $2,000,000. In the face of such losses it is evident that -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">« 19 »</a></span> -no mere poetical sentiment should stand in the way of applying any -remedy which can be devised. It would be unsafe to assume that the -insects which the birds consume during their residence in the North -can compensate for such destruction. If these figures are any approximation -to the truth, the ordinary farmer will not believe that the -bobolink benefits, the Northern half of the country nearly as much as -it damages the Southern half, and the thoughtful ornithologist will be -inclined to agree with him. But even if the bird really does more harm -than good, what is the remedy! For years the rice planters have been -employing men and boys to shoot the birds and drive them away from -the fields, but in spite of the millions slain every year their numbers -do not decrease. In fact, a large part of the loss sustained is not in the -grain which the birds actually eat, but in the outlay necessary to prevent -them from taking it all. At present there seems to be no effective -remedy short of complete extermination of the species, and this is -evidently impracticable even were it desirable.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2><a name="THE_REDWINGED_BLACKBIRD" id="THE_REDWINGED_BLACKBIRD">THE REDWINGED BLACKBIRD.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption3nb">(<i>Agelaius phœniceus.</i>)</p> - - -<p>The redwinged, or swamp, blackbird (<a href="#fig_10">fig. 10</a>) is found all over the -United States and the region immediately to the north. While common -in most of its range, its distribution is more or less local, mainly -on account of its partiality for swamps. Its nest is built near standing -water, in tall grass, rushes, or bushes. Owing to this peculiarity the -bird may be absent from large tracts of country which afford no swamps -or marshes suitable for nesting. It usually breeds in large colonies, -though single families, consisting of a male with several wives, may -sometimes be found in a small slough, where each of the females builds, -her nest and rears her own little brood, while her liege lord displays his -brilliant colors and struts in the sunshine. In the Upper Mississippi -Valley it finds the conditions most favorable, for the countless prairie -sloughs and the margins of the numerous shallow lakes form nesting -sites for thousands of redwings; and there are bred the immense flocks -which sometimes do so much damage to the grain fields of the West. -After the breeding season is over, the birds collect in flocks to migrate, -and remain thus associated throughout the winter.</p> - -<p>Many complaints have been made against the redwing, and several -States have at times placed a bounty upon its head. It is said to cause -great damage to grain in the West, especially in the Upper Mississippi -Valley; and the rice growers of the South say that it eats rice. No -complaints have been received from the Northeastern portion of the -country, where the bird is much less abundant than in the West and -South.</p> - -<p>An examination of 725 stomachs showed that vegetable matter forms -74 per cent of the food, while the animal matter, mainly insects, forms -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">« 20 »</a></span> -but 26 per cent. A little more than 10 per cent consists of beetles, -mostly harmful species, Weevils, or snout-beetles, amount to 4 per -cent of the year's food, but in June reach 25 per cent. As weevils are -among the most harmful insects known, their destruction should condone -for at least some of the sins of which the bird has been accused. -Grasshoppers constitute nearly 5 per cent of the food, while the rest of -the animal matter is made up of various insects, a few snails, and crustaceans. -Several dragon flies were found, but these were probably -picked up dead, for they are too active to be taken alive, unless by one -of the flycatchers. So far as the insect food as a whole is concerned, -the redwing may be considered entirely beneficial.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 367px;"> -<a id="fig_10"></a> -<img src="images/fig10.png" width="367" height="309" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Fig. 10.—Redwinged blackbird.</div> -</div> - -<p>The interest in the vegetable food of this bird centers around the -grain. Only three kinds, corn, wheat, and oats, were found in appreciable -quantities in the stomachs, and they aggregate but little more -than 13 per cent of the whole food, oats forming nearly half of this -amount. In view of the many complaints that the redwing eats grain, -this record is surprisingly small. The crow blackbird has been found to -eat more than three times as much. In the case of the crow, corn forms -one-fifth of the food, so that the redwinged blackbird, whose diet is made -up of only a trifle more than one-eighth of grain, is really one of the -least destructive species; but the most important item of this bird's -food is weed seed, which forms practically the whole food in winter and -about 57 per cent of the whole year's fare. The principal weed seeds -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">« 21 »</a></span> -eaten are those of ragweed, barn grass, smartweed, and about a dozen -others. That these seeds are preferred is shown by the fact that the -birds begin to eat them in August, when grain is still readily accessible, -and continue feeding on them even after insects become plentiful -in April. The redwing eats very little fruit and does practically no -harm in the garden or orchard.</p> - -<p>While it is impossible to dispute the mass of testimony which has -accumulated concerning its grain-eating propensity, the stomach examinations -show that the habit must be local rather than general. As -the area of cultivation increases and the breeding grounds are curtailed, -the species is likely to become reduced in numbers and consequently -less harmful. Nearly seven-eighths of the redwing's food is -made up of weed seed or of insects injurious to agriculture, indicating -unmistakably that the bird should be protected, except, perhaps, in a -few places where it is too abundant.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2><a name="THE_MEADOW_LARK_OR_OLD_FIELD_LARK" id="THE_MEADOW_LARK_OR_OLD_FIELD_LARK">THE MEADOW LARK, OR OLD FIELD LARK.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption3nb">(<i>Sturnella magna.</i>)</p> - - -<p>The meadow lark (<a href="#fig_11">fig. 11</a>) is a common and well-known bird occurring -from the Atlantic Coast to the Great Plains, where it gives way to -a closely related subspecies, which extends thence westward to the -Pacific. It winters from our southern border as far north as the District -of Columbia, southern Illinois, and occasionally Iowa. Although -it is a bird of the plains, finding its most congenial haunts in the -prairies of the West, it does not disdain the meadows and mowing -lands of New England. It nests on the ground and is so terrestrial -in its habits that it seldom perches on trees, preferring a fence rail or -a telegraph pole. When undisturbed, it may be seen walking about -with a peculiar dainty step, stopping every few moments to look about -and give its tail a nervous flirt or to sound a note or two of its clear -whistle.</p> - -<p>The meadow lark is almost wholly beneficial, although a few complaints -have been made that it pulls sprouting grain, and one farmer -claims that it eats clover seed. As a rule, however, it is looked upon -with favor and is not disturbed.</p> - -<p>In the 238 stomachs examined, animal food (practically all insects) -constituted 73 per cent of the contents and vegetable matter 27 per -cent. As would naturally be supposed, the insects were ground species, -such as beetles, bugs, grasshoppers, and caterpillars, with a few flies, -wasps, and spiders. A number of the stomachs were taken from birds -that had been killed when the ground was covered with snow, but still -they contained a large percentage of insects, showing the bird's skill -in finding proper food under adverse circumstances.</p> - -<p>Of the various insects eaten, crickets and grasshoppers are the most -important, constituting 29 per cent of the entire year's food and 69 per -cent of the food in August. It is scarcely necessary to enlarge upon -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">« 22 »</a></span> -this point, but it can readily be seen what an effect a number of these -birds must have on a field of grass in the height of the grasshopper -season. Of the 238 stomachs collected at all seasons of the year, 178, -or more than two-thirds, contained remains of grasshoppers, and one -was filled with fragments at 37 of those insects. This seems to show -conclusively that grasshoppers are preferred and are eaten whenever -they can be procured. The great number taken in August is especially -noticeable. This is essentially the grasshopper month, i. e., the month -when grasshoppers reach their maximum abundance; and the stomach -examination has shown that a large number of birds resort to this diet -in August, no matter what may be the food during the rest of the year.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 383px;"> -<a id="fig_11"></a> -<img src="images/fig11.png" width="383" height="240" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Fig. 11.—Meadow lark.</div> -</div> - -<p>Next to grasshoppers, beetles make up the most important item of -the meadow lark's food, amounting to nearly 21 per cent, of which about -one-third are predaceous ground beetles. The others are all harmful -species, and when it is considered that the bird feeds exclusively on the -ground, it seems remarkable that so few useful ground beetles are eaten. -Many of them have a disgusting odor, and possibly this may occasionally -save them from destruction by birds, especially when other food is -abundant. Caterpillars, too, form a very constant element, and in May -constitute over 28 per cent of the whole food. May is the month when -the dreaded cutworm begins its deadly career, and then the bird does -some of its best work. Most of these caterpillars are ground feeders, -and are overlooked by birds which habitually frequent trees; but the -meadow lark finds them and devours them by thousands. The remainder -of the insect food is made up of a few ants, wasps, and spiders, with -a few bugs, including some cinch bugs.</p> - -<p>The vegetable food consists of grain, weed, and other hard seeds. -Grain in general amounts to 14, and weed and other seeds to 12 per cent. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">« 23 »</a></span> -The grain, principally corn, is mostly eaten in winter and early spring, -and must be therefore simply waste kernels; only a trifle is consumed -in summer and autumn, when it is most plentiful. No trace of sprouting -grain was discovered. Clover seed was found in only six stomachs, -and but little in each. Seeds of weeds, principally ragweed, barn grass, -and smartweed, are eaten from November to April, inclusive, but during -the rest of the year are replaced by insects.</p> - -<p>Briefly stated, more than half of the meadow lark's food consists of -harmful insects; its vegetable food is composed either of noxious weeds -or waste grain, and the remainder is made up of useful beetles or neutral -insects and spiders. A strong point in the bird's favor is that, -although naturally an insect eater, it is able to subsist on vegetable food, -and consequently is not forced to migrate in cold weather any farther -than is necessary to find ground free from snow. This explains why it -remains for the most part in the United States during winter, and -moves northward as soon as the snow disappears from its usual haunts.</p> - -<p>There is one danger to which the meadow lark is exposed. As its -flesh is highly esteemed the bird is often shot for the table, but it is -entitled to all possible protection, and to slaughter it for game is the -least profitable way to utilize this valuable species.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2><a name="THE_BALTIMORE_ORIOLE" id="THE_BALTIMORE_ORIOLE">THE BALTIMORE ORIOLE.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption3nb">(<i>Icterus galbula.</i>)</p> - - -<p>Brilliancy of plumage, sweetness of song, and food habits to which -no exception can be taken are some of the striking characteristics of -the Baltimore oriole (<a href="#fig_12">fig. 12</a>). In summer this species is found throughout -the northern half of the United States east of the Great Plains, -and is welcomed and loved in every country home in that broad land. -In the Northern States it arrives rather late, and is usually first seen, -or heard, foraging amidst the early bloom of the apple trees, where it -searches for caterpillars or feeds daintily on the surplus blossoms. -Its nest commands hardly less admiration than the beauty of its -plumage or the excellence of its song. Hanging from the tip of the -outermost bough of a stately elm, it is almost inaccessible, and so -strongly fastened as to bid defiance to the elements.</p> - -<p>By watching an oriole which has a nest one may see it searching -among the smaller branches of some neighboring tree, carefully examining -each leaf for caterpillars, and occasionally trilling a few notes to -its mate. Observation both in the field and laboratory shows that -caterpillars constitute the largest item of its fare. In 113 stomachs -they formed 34 per cent of the food, and are eaten in varying quantities -during all the months in which the bird remains in this country, -although the fewest are eaten in July, when a little fruit is also taken. -The other insects consist of beetles, bugs, ants, wasps, grasshoppers, -and some spiders. The beetles are principally click beetles, the larvæ -of which are among the most destructive insects known; and the bugs -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">« 24 »</a></span> -include plant and bark lice, both very harmful, but so small and -obscure as to be passed over unnoticed by most birds. Ants are eaten -mostly in spring, grasshoppers in July and August, and wasps and -spiders with considerable regularity throughout the season.</p> - -<p>Vegetable matter amounts to only a little more than 10 per cent of -the food during the bird's stay in the United States, so that the possibility -of the oriole doing much damage to crops is very limited. The bird -has been accused of eating peas to a considerable extent, but remains -of peas were found in only two stomachs. One writer says that it -damages grapes, but none were found. In fact, a few blackberries and -cherries comprised the only cultivated fruit detected in the stomachs, -the remainder of the vegetable food being wild fruit and a few miscellaneous -seeds.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 385px;"> -<a id="fig_12"></a> -<img src="images/fig12.png" width="385" height="302" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Fig. 12.—Baltimore oriole.</div> -</div> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2><a name="THE_CROW_BLACKBIRD_OR_GRACKLE" id="THE_CROW_BLACKBIRD_OR_GRACKLE">THE CROW BLACKBIRD, OR GRACKLE.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption3nb">(<i>Quiscalus quiscula.</i>)</p> - - -<p>The crow blackbird (<a href="#fig_13">fig. 13</a>) or one of its subspecies is a familiar -object in all of the States east of the Rocky Mountains. It is a resident -throughout the year as far north as southern Illinois, and in summer -extends its range into British America. In the Mississippi Valley -it is one of the most abundant birds, preferring to nest in the artificial -groves and windbreaks near farms instead of the natural "timber" -which it formerly used. It breeds also in parks and near buildings, -often in considerable colonies. Farther east, in New England, it is only -locally abundant, though frequently seen in migration. After July it -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">« 25 »</a></span> -becomes very rare, or entirely disappears, owing to the fact that it collects -in large flocks and retires to some quiet place, where food is -abundant and where it can remain undisturbed during the molting -season, but in the latter days of August and throughout September it -usually reappears in immense numbers before moving southward.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 396px;"> -<a id="fig_13"></a> -<img src="images/fig13.png" width="396" height="289" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Fig. 13.—Crow blackbird.</div> -</div> - -<p>It is evident that a bird so large and so abundant may exercise an -important influence upon the agricultural welfare of the country it -inhabits. The crow blackbird has been accused of many sins, such as -stealing grain and fruit and robbing the nests of other birds; but the -farmers do not undertake any war of extermination against it, and, -for the most part, allow it to nest about the premises undisturbed. An -examination of 2,258 stomachs showed that nearly one-third of its food -consists of insects, of which the greater part are injurious. The bird -also eats a few snails, crayfishes, salamanders, small fish, and occasionally -a mouse. The stomach contents do not indicate that it robs other -birds' nests to any great extent, as remains of birds and birds' eggs -amount to less than one half of 1 per cent.</p> - -<p>It is, however, on account of its vegetable food that the grackle is -most likely to be accused of doing damage. Grain is eaten during the -whole year, and during only a short time in summer is other food -attractive enough to induce the bird to alter its diet. The grain taken -in the winter and spring months probably consists of waste kernels -gathered from the stubble. The stomachs do not indicate that the bird -pulls sprouting grain; but the wheat eaten in July and August, and -the corn eaten in the fall, are probably taken from fields of standing -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">« 26 »</a></span> -grain. The total grain consumed during the year constitutes 45 per -cent of the whole food, but it is safe to say that at least half is waste -grain, and consequently of no value. Although the crow blackbird -eats a few cherries and blueberries in their season, and some wild -fruit in the fall, it apparently does no damage in this way.</p> - -<p>Large flocks of crow blackbirds no doubt do considerable injury to -grain crops, and there seems to be no remedy except the destruction -of the birds, which is in itself expensive. During the breeding season, -however, the species does much good by eating insects and by feeding -them to its young, which are reared almost entirely upon this food. -The bird does the greatest amount of good in spring, when it follows -the plow in search of large grub worms, of which it is so fond that it -sometimes literally crams its stomach full of them. The farmer must -decide for himself whether or not these birds cause more damage than -can be repaid by insect destruction; but when they destroy an entire -crop it is no consolation to know that they have already eaten a multitude -of insects which, if left alone, would have accomplished the same -result.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2><a name="THE_SPARROWS" id="THE_SPARROWS">THE SPARROWS.</a><a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></h2> - - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The sparrows here mentioned are all native species. For a full account of the -English sparrow, including its introduction, habits, and depredations, see Bull. No. 1 -of the Division of Ornithology, published in 1896.</p></div> - - -<p>Sparrows are not obtrusive birds, either in plumage, song, or action. -There are some forty species, with nearly as many subspecies, in North -America, but their differences, both in plumage and habits, are in -most cases too obscure to be readily recognized, and not more than -half a dozen forms are generally known in any one locality. All the -species are more or less migratory, but so widely are they distributed -that there is probably no part of the country where some can not be -found throughout the year.</p> - -<p>While sparrows are noted seed eaters, they do not by any means -confine themselves to a vegetable diet. During the summer, and -especially in the breeding season, they eat many insects, and probably -feed their young largely upon the same food. An examination of the -stomachs of three species—the song sparrow (<i>Melospiza</i>), chipping -sparrow (<i>Spizella socialis</i>), and field sparrow (<i>Spizella pusilla</i>) (<a href="#fig_14">fig. 14</a>)—shows -that about one third of the food consists of insects, comprising -many injurious beetles, such as snout-beetles or weevils, and leaf beetles. -Many grasshoppers are eaten, and in the case of the chipping sparrow -these insects form one eighth of the food. Grasshoppers would seem -to be rather large morsels, but the bird probably confines itself to the -smaller species; indeed, this is indicated by the fact that the greatest -amount (over 36 per cent) is eaten in June, when the larger species are -still young and the small species most numerous. Besides the insects -already mentioned, many wasps and bugs are taken. Predaceous and -parasitic Hymenoptera and predaceous beetles, all useful insects, are -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">« 27 »</a></span> -eaten only to a slight extent, so that as a whole the sparrows' insect -diet may be considered beneficial.</p> - -<p>Their vegetable food is limited almost exclusively to hard seeds. -This might seem to indicate that the birds feed to some extent upon -grain, but the stomachs examined show only one kind—oats—and but -little of that. The great bulk of the food is made up of grass and weed -seed, which form almost the entire diet during winter, and the amount -consumed is immense.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 311px;"> -<a id="fig_14"></a> -<img src="images/fig14.png" width="311" height="336" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Fig. 14.—Field sparrow.</div> -</div> - -<p>Anyone acquainted with the agricultural region of the Upper Mississippi -Valley can not have failed to notice the enormous growth of -weeds in every waste spot where the original sward has been disturbed. -By the roadside, on the borders of cultivated fields, or in abandoned -fields, wherever they can obtain a foothold, masses of rank weeds spring -up, and often form impenetrable thickets which afford food and shelter -for immense numbers of birds and enable them to withstand great cold -and the most terrible blizzards. A person visiting one of these weed -patches on a sunny morning in January, when the thermometer is 20° -or more below zero, will be struck with the life and animation of the -busy little inhabitants. Instead of sitting forlorn and half frozen, they -may be seen flitting from branch to branch, twittering and fluttering, -and showing every evidence of enjoyment and perfect comfort. If one -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">« 28 »</a></span> -of them be killed and examined, it will be found in excellent condition—in -fact, a veritable ball of fat.</p> - -<p>The snowbird (<i>Junco hyemalis</i>) and tree sparrow (<i>Spizella monticola</i>) -are perhaps the most numerous of all the sparrows. The latter fairly -swarms all over the Northern States in winter, arriving from the north -early in October and leaving in April. Examination of many stomachs -shows thats in Winter the tree sparrow feeds entirely upon seeds of -weeds; and probably each bird consumes about one-fourth of an ounce -a day. In an article contributed to the New York Tribune in 1881 the -writer estimated the amount of weed seed annually destroyed by these -birds in the State of Iowa. Upon the basis of one-fourth of an ounce -of seed eaten daily by each bird, and supposing that the birds averaged -ten to each square mile, and that they remain in their winter range -two hundred days, we shall have a total of 1,750,000 pounds, or 875 -tons, of weed seed consumed by this one species in a single season. -Large as these figures may seem, they certainly fall far short of the -reality. The estimate of ten birds to a square mile is much within the -truth, for the tree sparrow is certainly more abundant than this in -winter in Massachusetts, where the food supply is less than in the -Western States, and I have known places in Iowa where several thousand -could be seen within the space of a few acres. This estimate, -moreover, is for a single species, while, as a matter of fact, there are at -least half a dozen birds (not all sparrows) that habitually feed on these -seeds during winter.</p> - -<p>Farther south the tree sparrow is replaced in winter by the white-throated -sparrow, the white-crowned sparrow, the fox sparrow, the song -sparrow, the field sparrow, and several others; so that all over the -country there are a vast number of those seed eaters at work during -the colder months reducing next year's crop of worse than useless -plants.</p> - -<p>In treating of the value of birds, it has been customary to consider -them mainly as insect destroyers; but the foregoing illustration seems -to show that seed eaters have a useful function, which has never been -fully appreciated.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2><a name="THE_ROSE-BREASTED_GROSBEAK" id="THE_ROSE-BREASTED_GROSBEAK">THE ROSE-BREASTED GROSBEAK.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption3nb">(<i>Zamelodia ludoviciana.</i>)</p> - - -<p>The beautiful rose-breasted grosbeak (<a href="#fig_15">fig. 15</a>) breeds in the northern -half of the United States east of the Missouri River, but spends its -winters beyond our boundaries. Unfortunately it is not abundant in -New England, and nowhere as plentiful as it should be. It frequents -groves and orchards rather than gardens or dooryards, but probably -the beauty of the male is the greatest obstacle to its increase; the fully -adult bird is pure black and white, with a broad patch of brilliant -rose color upon the breast and under each wing. On account of this -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">« 29 »</a></span> -attractive plumage the birds are highly prized for ladies' hats; and -consequently heave been shot in season and out, till the wonder is not -that there are so few, but that any remain at all.</p> - -<p>When the Colorado potato beetle first swept over the land, and naturalists -and farmers were anxious to discover whether or not there were -any enemies which would prey upon the pest, the grosbeak was almost -the only bird seen to eat the beetles. Further observation confirmed -the fact, and there can be no reasonable doubt that where the bird is -abundant it has contributed very much to the abatement of the pest -which has been noted during the last decade. But this is not the only -good which the bird does, for many other noxious insects besides the -potato beetle are also eaten.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 393px;"> -<a id="fig_15"></a> -<img src="images/fig15.png" width="393" height="261" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Fig. 15.—Rose-breasted grosbeak.</div> -</div> - -<p>The vegetable food of the grosbeak consists of buds and blossoms of -forest trees, and seeds, but the only damage of which it has been -accused is the stealing of green peas. The writer has observed it eating -peas and has examined the stomachs of several that had been -killed in the very act. The stomachs contained a few peas and enough -potato beetles, old and young, as well as other harmful insects, to pay -for all the peas the birds would be likely to eat in a whole season. -The garden where this took place adjoined a small potato field which -earlier in the season had been so badly infested with the beetles that -the vines were completely riddled. The grosbeaks visited the field -every day, and finally brought their fledged young. The young birds -stood in a row on the topmost rail of the fence and were fed with the -beetles which their parents gathered. When a careful inspection was -made a few days later, not a beetle, old or young, could be found; the -birds had swept them from the field and saved the potatoes.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">« 30 »</a></span></p> - -<p>It is easy to advise measures either for increasing the numbers -of this bird or inducing it to take up its residence on the farm. Naturally -it inhabits thin, open woods or groves, and the change from such -places to orchards would be simple—in fact, has already been made in -some parts of Pennsylvania and Ohio. In New England the bird is -somewhat rare, and perhaps the best that can be done here or elsewhere -it to see that it is thoroughly protected.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2><a name="THE_SWALLOWS" id="THE_SWALLOWS">THE SWALLOWS.</a></h2> - - -<p>There are seven common species of swallows within the limits of the -United States, four of which have, to some extent, abandoned their -primitive nesting habits and attached themselves to the abodes of -man. As a group, swallows are gregarious and social in an eminent -degree. Some species build nests in large colonies, occasionally numbering -thousands; in the case of others only two or three pairs are -found together; while still others nest habitually in single pairs.</p> - -<p>Their habits are too familiar to require any extended description. -Their industry and tirelessness are wonderful, and during the day it is -rare to see swallows at rest except just before their departure for the -South, when they assemble upon telegraph wires or upon the roofs of -buildings, apparently making plans for the journey.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">« 31 »</a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 365px;"> -<a id="fig_16"></a> -<img src="images/fig16.png" width="365" height="368" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Fig. 16.—Barn swallow.</div> -</div> - -<p>A noticeable characteristic of several of the species is their attachment -to man. In the eastern part of the country the barn swallow (<i>Chelidon -erythrogastra</i>) (<a href="#fig_16">fig. 16</a>) now builds exclusively under roofs, having -entirely abandoned the rock caves and cliffs in which it formerly nested. -More recently the cliff swallow (<i>Petrochelidon lunifrons</i>) has found a -better nesting site under the eaves of buildings than was afforded by -the overhanging-cliffs of earth or stone which it once used, and to which -it still resorts occasionally in the East, and habitually in the unsettled -West. The martin (<i>Progne subis</i>) and white-bellied swallow (<i>Tachycineta -bicolor</i>) nest either in houses supplied for the purpose, in abandoned -nests of woodpeckers, or in natural crannies in rocks. The other -species have not yet abandoned their primitive habitats, but possibly -may do so as the country becomes more thickly settled.</p> - -<p>Field observation will convince any ordinarily attentive person that -the food of swallows must consist of the smaller insects captured in -mid-air, or perhaps in some cases picked from the tops of tall grass or -weeds. This observation is borne out by an examination of stomachs, -which shows that the food consists of many small species of beetles -which are much on the wing; many species of Diptera (mosquitoes and -their allies), with large quantities of flying ants and a few insects of -similar kinds. Most of them are either injurious or annoying, and the -numbers destroyed by swallows are not only, beyond calculation, but -almost beyond imagination.</p> - -<p>The white-bellied swallow eats a considerable number of berries of -the bayberry, or wax myrtle. During migrations and in winter it has a -habit of roosting in these shrubs, and it probably obtains the fruit at -that time.</p> - -<p>It is a mistake to tear down the nests of a colony of cliff swallows -from the eaves of a barn, for so far from disfiguring a building the -nests make a picturesque addition, and their presence should be -encouraged by every device. It is said that cliff and barn swallows -can be induced to build their nests in a particular locality, otherwise -suitable, by providing a quantity of mud to be used as mortar. Barn -swallows may also be encouraged by cutting a small hole in the gable -of the barn, while martins and white-bellied swallows will be grateful -for boxes like those for the bluebird, but placed in some higher situation.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2><a name="THE_CEDAR_BIRD" id="THE_CEDAR_BIRD">THE CEDAR BIRD.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption3nb">(<i>Ampelis cedrorum.</i>)</p> - - -<p>The cedar waxwing, or cherry bird (<a href="#fig_17">fig. 17</a>), inhabits the whole of the -United States, but is much less common in the West. Although the -great bulk of the species retires southward in winter, the bird is occasionally -found in every State during the colder months, especially if -wild berries are abundant. Its proverbial fondness for cherries has -given rise to its popular name, and much complaint has been made on -account of the fruit eaten. Observation has shown, however, that its -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">« 32 »</a></span> -depredations are confined to trees on which the fruit ripens earliest, -while later varieties are comparatively untouched. This is probably -owing to the fact that when wild fruits ripen they are preferred to cherries, -and really constitute the bulk of the cedar bird's diet.</p> - -<p>In 152 stomachs examined animal matter formed only 13 and vegetable -87 per cent, showing that the bird is not wholly a fruit eater. With -the exception of a few snails, all the animal food consisted of insects, -mainly beetles—and all but one more or less noxious, the famous elm -leaf-beetle being among the number. Bark or scale lice were found -in several stomachs, while the remainder of the animal food was made -up of grasshoppers, bugs, and the like. Three nestlings were found to -have been fed almost entirely on insects.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 269px;"> -<a id="fig_17"></a> -<img src="images/fig17.png" width="269" height="257" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Fig. 17.—Cedar bird.</div> -</div> - -<p>Of the 87 per cent of vegetable food, 74 consisted entirely of wild -fruit or seeds and 13 of cultivated fruit, but a large part of the latter -was made up of blackberries and raspberries, and it is very doubtful -whether they represented cultivated varieties. Cherry stealing is the -chief complaint against this bird, but of the 152 stomachs only 9, all -taken in June and July, contained any remains of cultivated cherries, -and these aggregate but 5 per cent of the year's food. As 41 stomachs -were collected in those months, it is evident that the birds do not live -to any great extent on cultivated cherries.</p> - -<p>Although the cherry bird is not a great insect destroyer, it does some -good work in this way, since it probably rears its young mostly upon -insect food. On the other hand, it does not devour nearly as much -cultivated fruit as has been asserted, and most, if not all, of the damage -can be prevented. The bird should therefore be considered a useful -species, and as such should be accorded all possible protection.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">« 33 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="THE_CATBIRD" id="THE_CATBIRD">THE CATBIRD.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption3nb">(<i>Galeoscoptes carolinensis.</i>)</p> - - -<p>The catbird (<a href="#fig_18">fig. 18</a>), like the thrasher, is a lover of swamps, and -delights to make its home in a tangle of wild grapevines, greenbriars, -and shrubs, where it is safe from attack and can find its favorite food -in abundance. It is found throughout the United States west to the -Rocky Mountains; occurs also in Washington, Idaho, and Utah, and -extends northward into British America. It winters in the Southern -States, Cuba, Mexico, and Central America.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 343px;"> -<a id="fig_18"></a> -<img src="images/fig18.png" width="343" height="259" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Fig. 18.—Catbird.</div> -</div> - -<p>The catbird always attracts attention, and the intruder upon its -haunts soon understands that he is not welcome. There is no mistaking -the meaning of the sneering voice with which he is saluted, and there -is little doubt that this gave rise to the popular prejudice against the -bird; but the feeling has been increased by the fact that the species -is sometimes a serious annoyance to fruit growers. All such reports, -however, seem to come from the prairie country of the West. In New -England, according to the writer's experience the catbird is seldom -seen about gardens or orchards; the reason may possibly be found in -the fact that on the prairies fruit-bearing shrubs which afford so large -a part of this bird's food are conspicuously absent. With the settlement -of this region comes an extensive planting of orchards, vineyards, -and small fruit gardens, which furnish shelter and nesting sites for the -catbird, as well as for other species, with a consequent large increase -in their numbers, but without providing the native fruits upon which -they have been accustomed to feed. Under these circumstances, what -is more natural than for the birds to turn to cultivated fruits for their -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">« 34 »</a></span> -supplies? The remedy is obvious; cultivated fruits can be protected -by the simple expedient of planting wild species or others which are -preferred by the birds. Some experiments with catbirds in captivity -showed that the Russian mulberry was preferred to any cultivated fruit -that could be offered.</p> - -<p>The stomachs of 213 catbirds wore examined and found to contain 44 -per cent of animal (insect) and 56 per cent of vegetable food.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> Ants, -beetles, caterpillars, and grasshoppers constitute three-fourths of the -animal food, the remainder being made up of bugs, miscellaneous insects -and spiders. One-third of the vegetable food consists of cultivated -fruits, or those which may be cultivated, such as strawberries, raspberries, -and blackberries; but while we debit the bird with the whole of -this, it is probable—and in the eastern and well-wooded part of the -country almost certain—that a large part was obtained from wild vines. -The rest of the vegetable matter is mostly wild fruit, such as cherries, -dogwood, sour gum, elder berries, greenbriar, spice berries, black alder, -sumac, and poison ivy.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> The investigation of the food of the catbird, brown thrasher, and house wren was -made by Mr. Sylvester D. Judd and published in the Yearbook of the Department -of Agriculture for 1895, pp. 405-418.</p></div> - -<p>Although the catbird sometimes does considerable harm by destroying -small fruit, the bird can not be considered injurious. On the contrary, -in most parts of the country it does far more good than harm, and the -evil it does can be reduced appreciably by the methods already pointed -out.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2><a name="THE_BROWN_THRASHER" id="THE_BROWN_THRASHER">THE BROWN THRASHER.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption3nb">(<i>Harporhynchus rufus.</i>)</p> - - -<p>The brown thrasher (<a href="#fig_19">fig. 19</a>) breeds throughout the United States east -of the Great Plains, and winters in the south Atlantic and Gulf States. -It occasionally visits the garden or orchard, but nests in swamps or in -groves standing upon low ground. While it generally prefers a thickly -grown retreat, it sometimes builds in a pile of brush at a distance from -trees. On account of its more retiring habits it is not so conspicuous -as the robin, although it may be equally abundant. Few birds can -excel the thrasher in sweetness of song, but it is so shy that its notes -are not heard often enough to be appreciated. Its favorite time for singing -is the early morning, when, perched on the top of some tall bush or -low tree, it gives an exhibition of vocal powers which would do credit to -a mockingbird. Indeed, in the South, where the latter bird is abundant, -the thrasher is known as the sandy mocker.</p> - -<p>The food of the brown thrasher consists of both fruit and insects. -An examination of 121 stomachs showed 30 per cent of vegetable and -64 of animal food, practically all insects, and mostly taken in spring -before fruit is ripe. Half the insects were beetles, and the remainder -chiefly grasshoppers, caterpillars, bugs, and spiders. A few predaceous -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">« 35 »</a></span> -beetles were eaten, but, on the whole, its work as an insect destroyer -may be considered beneficial.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 339px;"> -<a id="fig_19"></a> -<img src="images/fig19.png" width="339" height="249" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Fig. 19.—Brown thrasher.</div> -</div> - -<p>Eight per cent of the food is made up of fruits like raspberries and -currants which are or may be cultivated, but the raspberries at least -are as likely to belong to wild as to cultivated varieties. Grain, made -up mostly of scattered kernels of oats and corn, is merely a trifle, -amounting to only 3 per cent, and though some of the corn may be -taken from newly planted fields it is amply paid for by the May beetles -which are eaten at the same time. The rest of the food consists of -wild fruit or seeds. Taken all in all, the brown thrasher is a useful -bird, and probably does just as good work in its secluded retreats as -it would about the garden, for the swamps and groves are no doubt -the breeding grounds of many insects that migrate thence to attack -the farmers' crops.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2><a name="THE_HOUSE_WREN" id="THE_HOUSE_WREN">THE HOUSE WREN.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption3nb">(<i>Troglodytes aëdon.</i>)</p> - - -<p>The diminutive house wren (<a href="#fig_20">fig. 20</a>) frequents barns and gardens, and -particularly old orchards in which the trees are partially decayed. He -makes his nest in a hollow branch where perhaps a woodpecker had a -domicile the year before, but he is a pugnacious character, and if he -happens to fancy one of the boxes that have been put up for the bluebirds -he does not hesitate to take it. He is usually not slow to avail himself -of boxes, gourds, tin cans, or empty jars placed for his accommodation.</p> - -<p>As regards food habits, the house wren is entirely beneficial. Practically, -he can be said to live upon animal food alone, for an examination -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">« 36 »</a></span> -of 62 stomachs showed that 98 per cent of the stomach contents was -made up of insects or their allies, and only 2 per cent was vegetable, -including bits of grass and similar matter, evidently taken by -accident with the insects. Half of this food consisted of grasshoppers -and beetles; the remainder of caterpillars, bugs, and spiders. As the -house wren is a prolific breeder, frequently rearing from twelve to sixteen -young in a season, a family of these birds must cause considerable -reduction in the number of insects in a garden. Wrens are industrious -foragers, searching every tree, shrub, or vine for caterpillars, examining -every post and rail of the fence, and every cranny in the wall for -insects or spiders. They do not, as a rule, fly far afield, but work -industriously in the immediate vicinity of their nests. In this way -they become valuable aids in the garden or orchard, and by providing -suitable nesting boxes they may be induced to take up residence where -their services will do most good. Their eccentricities in the selection -of a home are well-known. Almost anything, from an old cigar box to -a tomato can, an old teapot, a worn-out boot, or a horse's skull, is -acceptable, provided it be placed well up from the ground and out of -reach of cats and other prowlers.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 350px;"> -<a id="fig_20"></a> -<img src="images/fig20.png" width="350" height="305" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Fig. 20.—House wren.</div> -</div> - -<p>It does not seem possible to have too many wrens, and every effort -should be made to protect them and to encourage their nesting about -the house.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">« 37 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="THE_ROBIN" id="THE_ROBIN">THE ROBIN.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption3nb">(<i>Merula migratoria.</i>)</p> - - -<p>The robin (<a href="#fig_21">fig. 21</a>) is found throughout the United States east of the -Great Plains, and is represented farther west by a slightly different -subspecies. It extends far north through Canada, and is found even -in Alaska. Although the great bulk of the species leaves the Northern -States in winter, a few individuals remain in sheltered swamps, where -wild berries furnish an abundant supply of food.</p> - -<p>The robin builds its nest in orchards and gardens, and occasionally -takes advantage of a nook about the house, or under the shelter of the -roof of a shed or outbuilding. Its food habits have sometimes caused -apprehension to the fruit grower, for it is fond of cherries and other -small fruits, particularly the earlier varieties. For this reason many -complaints have been lodged against it, and some persons have gone -so far as to condemn the bird. The robin is, however, too valuable to -be exterminated, and choice fruit can be readily protected from its -depredations.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 393px;"> -<a id="fig_21"></a> -<img src="images/fig21.png" width="393" height="240" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Fig. 21.—Robin.</div> -</div> - -<p>An examination of 330 stomachs shows that over 42 per cent of its food -is animal matter, principally insects, while the remainder is made up -largely of small fruits or berries. Over 19 per cent consists of beetles, -about one-third of which are useful ground beetles, taken mostly in -spring and fall, when other insects are scarce. Grasshoppers makeup -about one-tenth of the whole food, but in August comprise over 30 per -cent. Caterpillars form about G per cent, while the rest of the animal -food, about 7 per cent, is made up of various insects, with a few spiders, -snails, and angle-worms. All the grasshoppers, caterpillars, and bugs, -with in large portion of the beetles, are injurious, and it is safe to say -that noxious insects comprise more than one-third of the robin's food.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">« 38 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Vegetable food forms nearly 58 per cent of the stomach contents, over -47 being wild fruits, and only a little more than 4 per cent being possibly -cultivated varieties. Cultivated fruit amounting to about 25 per cent -was found in the stomachs in June and July, but only a trifle in August. -Wild fruit, on the contrary, is eaten in every month, and constitutes a -staple food during half the year. No less than forty-one species were -identified in the stomachs of these, the most important were four species -of dogwood, three of wild cherries, three of wild grapes, four of -greenbriar, two of holly, two of elder; and cranberries, huckleberries, -blueberries, barberries, service berries, cranberries, and persimmons, -with four species of sumac, and various other seeds not strictly fruit.</p> - -<p>The depredations of the robin seem to be confined to the smaller and -earlier fruits, and few, if any, complaints have been made against it -on the score of eating apples, peaches, pears, grapes, or even late -cherries. By the time these are ripe the forests and hedges are -teeming with wild fruits, which the bird evidently finds more to its -taste. The cherry, unfortunately, ripens so early that it, is almost the -only fruit accessible at a time when the bird's appetite has been sharpened -by a long-continued diet of insects, earthworms, and dried berries, -and it is no wonder that at first the rich juicy morsels are greedily -eaten. In view of the fact that the robin takes ten times as much wild -as cultivated fruit, it seems unwise to destroy the birds to save so -little. Nor is this necessary, for by a little care both may be preserved. -Where much fruit is grown, it is no great loss to give up one tree to the -birds; and in some cases the crop can be protected by scarecrows. -Where wild fruit is not abundant, a few fruit-bearing shrubs and vines -judiciously planted will serve for ornament and provide food for the -birds. The Russian mulberry is a vigorous grower and a profuse -bearer, ripening at the same time as the cherry, and, so far as observation -has gone, most birds scorn to prefer its fruit to any other. It is -believed that a number of these trees planted around the garden or -orchard would fully protect the more valuable fruits.</p> - -<p>Many persons have written about the delicate discrimination of birds -for choice fruit, asserting that only the finest and costliest varieties are -selected. This is contrary to all careful scientific observation. Birds, -unlike human beings, seem to prefer fruit like the mulberry, that is -sweetly insipid, or that has some astringent or bitter quality like the -chokecherry or holly. The so-called black alder (<i>Ilex verticillata</i>), -which is a species of holly, has bright scarlet berries, as bitter as -quinine, that ripen late in October, and remain on the bushes through -November, and though frost grapes, the fruit of the Virginia creeper, -and several species of dogwood are abundant at the same time, the -birds eat the berries of the holly to a considerable extent, as shown by -the seeds found in the stomachs. It is moreover a remarkable fact -that the wild fruits upon which the birds feed largely are those which -man neither gathers for his own use nor adopts for cultivation.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">« 39 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="THE_BLUEBIRD" id="THE_BLUEBIRD">THE BLUEBIRD.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption3nb">(<i>Sialia sialis.</i>)</p> - - -<p>The common and familiar bluebird (<a href="#fig_22">fig. 22</a>) is an inhabitant of all the -States east of the Rocky Mountains from the Gulf of Mexico northward -into Canada. It winters as far north as southern Illinois, in the -Mississippi Valley, and Pennsylvania in the east; in spring it is one -of the first migrants to arrive in the Northern States, and is always -welcomed as an indication of the final breaking up of winter. It frequents -orchards and gardens, where it builds its nest in hollow trees, -or takes advantage of a nesting box provided by the enterprising -farmer's boy.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 293px;"> -<a id="fig_22"></a> -<img src="images/fig22.png" width="293" height="256" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Fig. 22.—Bluebird.</div> -</div> - -<p>So far as known, this bird has not been accused of stealing fruit or -of preying upon any crops. An examination of 205 stomachs showed -that 76 per cent of the food consists of insects and their allies, while -the other 24 per cent is made up of various vegetable substances, found -mostly in stomachs taken in winter. Beetles constitute 28 per cent of -the whole food, grasshoppers 22, caterpillars 11, and various insects, -including quite a number of spiders, comprise the remainder of the -insect diet. All these are more or less harmful, except a few predaceous -beetles, which amount to 8 per cent, but in view of the large -consumption of grasshoppers and caterpillars, we can at least condone -this offense, if such it may be called. The destruction of grasshoppers -is very noticeable in the months of August and September, when these -insects form more than 60 per cent of the diet.</p> - -<p>It is evident that in the selection of its food the bluebird is governed -more by abundance than by choice. Predaceous beetles are eaten in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">« 40 »</a></span> -spring, as they are among the first insects to appear; but in early summer -caterpillars form an important part of the diet, and are replaced a -little later by grasshoppers. Beetles are eaten at all times, except when -grasshoppers are more easily obtained.</p> - -<p>So far as its vegetable food is concerned, the bluebird is positively -harmless. The only trace of any useful product in the stomachs consisted -of a few blackberry seeds, and even these more probably belonged -to wild than cultivated varieties. Following is a list of the various -seeds which were found: Blackberry, chokeberry, juniperberry, pokeberry, -partridgeberry, greenbriar, Virginia creeper, bittersweet, holly, -strawberry bush, false spikenard, wild sarsaparilla, sumac (several -species), rose haws, sorrel, ragweed, grass, and asparagus. This list -shows how little the bluebird depends upon the farm or garden to supply -its needs, and indicates that by encouraging the growth of some of -these plants, many of which are highly ornamental, the bird can be -induced to make its home on the premises.</p> - -<p>Bluebirds are so well known that it seems unnecessary to urge anything -more in their favor; but in view of the fact that large numbers -were destroyed during the severe storm of 1895, more than ordinary -vigilance should be exercised in protecting them until they have -regained their normal abundance.</p> - - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<div class="trans_notes"> -<p class="caption3">Transcriber Note</p> - - -<p>Figures were moved so as to prevent splitting paragraphs. Hyphenation -was standardized to the most prevalent form used in the publication.</p> - -</div> - - - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 54, by F. E. L. 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