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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..cf07695 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #62786 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/62786) diff --git a/old/62786-0.txt b/old/62786-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 9b4892e..0000000 --- a/old/62786-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,11240 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Spain and Her Colonies (World's Best -Histories), by Archibald Wilberforce - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Spain and Her Colonies (World's Best Histories) - Compiled from the Best Authorities - -Author: Archibald Wilberforce - -Release Date: July 30, 2020 [EBook #62786] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SPAIN AND HER COLONIES *** - - - - -Produced by D A Alexander, Chuck Greif, Natrona County -Public Library System, in Casper, Wyoming, for generously -donating the books in this project to PG and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - [Illustration: ALFONSO XIII., KING OF SPAIN] - - - - - THE WORLD’S BEST HISTORIES - - [Illustration] - - SPAIN - AND HER COLONIES - - COMPILED FROM THE BEST AUTHORITIES - BY ARCHIBALD WILBERFORCE - - _WITH FRONTISPIECE_ - - [Illustration] - - THE CO-OPERATIVE PUBLICATION SOCIETY - NEW YORK AND LONDON - - - - - SPAIN - AND HER COLONIES - - - - -CONTENTS - - -CHAPTER I - -SPAIN IN ANTIQUITY 7 - - -CHAPTER II - -THE CALIPHATE OF CORDOVA 16 - - -CHAPTER III - -MEDIEVAL SPAIN 30 - - -CHAPTER IV - -MOORISH SPAIN 61 - - -CHAPTER V - -THE INQUISITION 83 - - -CHAPTER VI - -THEIR CATHOLIC MAJESTIES 100 - - -CHAPTER VII - -UNITED SPAIN 140 - - -CHAPTER VIII - -MODERN SPAIN 162 - - -CHAPTER IX - -COLONIAL SPAIN 206 - -CHAPTER X - -THE FALL OF AN EMPIRE 225 - - -CHAPTER XI - -THE PHILIPPINES 251 - - -CHAPTER XII - -THE HISPANO-AMERICAN WAR 320 - - -CHAPTER XIII - -SPANISH ART, LITERATURE, AND SPORT 351 - -I. Painting and Architecture 351 - -II. Spanish Literature 370 - -III. Sport 379 - -APPENDIX 393 - - - - -THE HISTORY OF SPAIN - - - - -CHAPTER I - -SPAIN IN ANTIQUITY - -THE FIRST LAWS AND THE FIRST INVADERS--GREEKS, PHŒNICIANS, ROMANS AND -GOTHS - - -Hispania was the name by which the Romans called the peninsula which is -made up of Spain and Portugal. The origin of the name is disputed. To -the Greeks the country was known as Hesperia--the Land of the Setting -Sun. According to Mariana,[1] Spain is called after its founder, -Hispanus, a son or grandson of Hercules. But, for reasons hereinafter -related, better authorities derive it from the Phœnician _Span_. - -There is a legend which Mariana recites, to the effect that the primal -laws of Spain were written in verse, and framed six thousand years -before the beginning of Time. To medieval makers of chronicles, Tubal, -fifth son of Japhet, was the first to set foot on its shore. But earlier -historians, ignorant of Noah’s descendant, and, it may be, better -informed, hold that after the episodes connected with the Golden Fleece, -the Argonauts, guided by Hercules, sailed the seas and loitered a while -in Spain, where they were joined by refugees escaping from the totter -and fall of Troy. Black was their national color. It has been retained -in the mantillas of to-day. After the Greek adventurers came the -Phœnicians. The latter, a peaceful people, born traders, as are all of -Semitic origin, founded a colony at Gaddir (Cadiz). In a remoter era -they had established themselves at Canaan, where they built Bylos, Sidon -and Tyre. From Tyre emigrants moved to Africa. Their headquarters was -Kartha-Hadath, literally Newtown, that Carthage in whose ruins Marius -was to weep. The Phœnicians, as has been noted, were a peaceful people. -Under a burning sun their younger brothers developed into tigers. They -had the storm for ally. They ravaged the coast like whirlwinds. They -took Sicily, then Sardinia. Presently there was a quarrel at Gaddir. It -was only natural that the Phœnicians should ask aid of their relatives. -The Carthaginians responded, and, finding the country to their taste, -took possession of it on their own account. To the Romans, with whom -already they had crossed swords, they said nothing of this new -possession. It seemed wiser to leave it unmentioned than to guard it -with protecting, yet disclosive, treaties. More than once they scuttled -their triremes--suspicious sails were following them to its shore. From -this vigilance the name of Spain is derived. In Punic, _Span_ signifies -hidden. - -The hiding of Spain was possible when the Romans were still in the -nursery. But when the Romans grew up, when they had conquered Greece, -and all of Italy was theirs, their enterprises developed. Up to this -time the two nations had been almost allies. At once they were open -rivals. It was a question between them as to whom the world should -belong. - -The arguments on this subject, known as the Punic Wars, were three in -number. The first resulted in a loss of Sicily and Sardinia. In the -second, Spain went. In the third, Carthage was razed to the ground. - -It was with the conquest of Sagentum--a conquest not achieved until the -surviving inhabitants of that beleaguered city had committed -suicide--that annexation began. Then, slowly, at one time advancing, at -another retreating, now defeated, now defeating, the Romans promenaded -their eagles down the coast. Scipio came and watched the -self-destruction of the Numantians, as Hannibal had watched the -Sagentums fall. Pompey, boasting that he had made the Republic mistress -of a thousand towns, came too; and after him Cæsar, who, long before, as -simple quæstor, had wept at Cadiz because of Alexander, who at his age -had conquered the world--Cæsar, his face blanched with tireless -debauches, came back and gave the land its _coup de grace_. In this -fashion, with an unhealed wound in every province, Spain crawled down to -Augustus’s feet. A toga was thrown over her. When it was withdrawn the -wounds had healed. She was a Roman province, the most flourishing, -perhaps, and surely the most fair. - -The fusion of the two peoples was immediate. The native soldiery were -sent off to bleed in the four corners of the globe, to that Ultima Thule -where the Britons lived and which it took years to reach, or nearer home -in Gaul, or else far to the north among the Teuton States; and, in the -absence of an element which might have turned ugly, the Romans found it -easy work to open school. They had always been partial to Greek -learning, and they inculcated it on the slightest pretext. They imported -their borrowed Pantheon, their local Hercules, all the metamorphosed and -irritable gods, and with becoming liberality added to them those -divinities whom their adopted children most revered. It was in this way -that the fusion of the two races came about. When Augustus assumed the -purple, throughout the entire peninsula Latin was generally in use. It -was not of the purest, to be sure. It had been beaten in with the sword, -the accent was rough and the construction bristled with barbarisms; but -still it was Latin, and needed only a generation of sandpaper to become -polished and refined. But perhaps the least recognized factor in the -fusion of the two peoples was a growing and common taste for polite -literature. Such as the Romans possessed was, like their architecture, -their science, philosophy and religion, borrowed outright from the -Greeks. They were hungry for new ideas. These the Spaniards undertook to -provide. They had descended from a race whose fabulous laws were written -in verse, and something of that legendary inspiration must have -accompanied them through ages of preceding strife, for suddenly Boetica -was peopled with poets. In connection with this it may be noted that, -apart from the crop of Augustan rhymsters and essayists, almost -everything in the way of literature which Rome subsequently produced is -the work of Spaniards. Lucan and the Senecas were Boeticans--Martial, -Florus, Quintillian, Pomponius Mila were all of that race. J’en passe et -des meilleurs. The Romans, trained by the Greeks, were, it is true, the -teachers. Under their heavy hand the young Andalusians lost their way -among the clouds of Aristophanes, just as we have done ourselves; they -spouted the _Tityre tu_, and the _arma virum_, they followed the Odyssey -and learned that, in ages as remote to them as they are to us, Ulysses -had visited their coast. Indeed the Romans did what they could, and if -their pupils surpassed them it was owing to the lack-luster of their own -imaginations. But the education of backward Spain was not limited to -Greek poets and Augustan bores. Lessons in drawing were given, not as an -extra, but as part of the ordinary curriculum. The sciences, too, were -taught, the blackboard was brought into use, and Euclid--another -Greek--was expounded on the very soil that under newer conquerors was to -produce the charms and seductions of Algebra. Added to this, industry -was not neglected. The Romans got from them not poets alone, but -woolens, calicoes, and barbers too, emperors even. Trajan was an -Andalou, so was Hadrian, and so also was that sceptered misanthrope -Marcus Aurelius. As for arms, it is written in blood that the Romans -would have no others than those which came from Spain. The plebs dressed -themselves there. Strabo says that all the ready-made clothing came from -Tarragona. From Malaga, which in a fair wind was but six days’ sail from -the Tiber’s mouth, came potted herring, fat, black grapes that stained -the chin, and wax yellow as amber. From Cadiz came the rarest purple, -wine headier than Falernian, honey sweeter than that of Hymettus, and -jars of pale, transparent oil. To Iviça the Romans sent their togas; -there was a baphia there, a dyeing establishment, which, to be simply -charming, needed but the signboard _Morituri te salutamus_. And from the -banks of the Betis there came for the lupanars girls with the Orient in -their eyes, and lips that said “Drink me.” In this pleasant fashion -Rome, after conquering Spain, sat down to banquet on her products. The -Imperial City then was not unlike a professional pugilist who is unable -to find a worthy opponent; possible rivals had been slugged into -subjection. Perhaps she was weary, too. However great the future of a -combatant may be, there comes an hour when contention palls and peace -has charms. In any event, Rome at that time was more occupied in -assimilating her dominions than in extending the wonders of her sway. -And it was during this caprice that Spain found her fifty races fused in -one. On the distant throne was a procession of despots, terribly -tyrannical, yet doing what good they could. In return for flowers, -fruits and pretty girls, they gave roads, aqueducts, arenas, games and -vice. Claud introduced new fashions; Nero, the saturnalia. Each of the -emperors did what he was able, even to Hadrian, who increased the number -of Jews. It was during his reign that were felt the first tremors of -that cataclysm in which antiquity was to disappear. Rome was so -thoroughly mistress of the world that to master her Nature had to -produce new races. The parturitions, as we know, were successful. -Already the blue victorious eyes of Vandal and of Goth were peering down -at Rome; already they had whispered together, and over the hydromel had -drunk to her fall. - -The Goths were a wonderful people. When they first appear in history -their hair was tossed and tangled by the salt winds of the Baltic. -Later, when in tattered furs they issued from the fens of the Danube, -they startled the hardiest warriors of the world, the descendants of -that nursling of the gaunt she-wolf. Little by little from vagabond -herders they consolidated first into tribes, then into a nation, finally -into an army that beat at the gates of Rome. There they loitered a -moment, a century at most. When they receded again with plunder and with -slaves they left an emperor behind. Soon they were more turbulent than -ever. They swept over antiquity like a tide, their waves subsiding only -to rise anew. And just as the earth was oscillating beneath their -weight, from the steppes of Tartary issued cyclones of Huns. Where they -passed, the plains remained forever bare. In the shock of their -onslaught the empire of the Goths was sundered. Some of them, the -Ostrogoths, went back to their cattle, others, the Visigoths, went down -to have another word with Rome. It was then that their cousins the -Vandals got their fingers on her throat and frightened the world with -her cries. In the strain of incessant shrieks the Imperial City fell. -From out the ruins a mitered prelate dragged a throne. Paganism had been -strangled; antiquity was dead; new creeds and new races were -refurbishing the world. Among the latter the Goths still prowled. In the -advance through the centuries, in the journey from the Baltic to the -Mediterranean, in the friction with the Attic refinement which the -Romans had acquired, the Goths left some of their barbarism on the -road--not much, however. Historians have it that when they took -possession of Spain they manifested a love of art, a desire for culture, -and that they affected the manners and usages of polite society. But -historians are privileged liars. The majority of those who have treated -the subject admired the Goths because they fancied them Christians, and -in the admiration they placed them in flattering contrast to their -predecessors who were pagans, and to their successors who were -Muhammadans. As a matter of fact--one that is amply attested in local -chronicles--they were coarse, illiterate and stupid as carps; moreover, -they were not Christians, they were Arians, and they were Arians -precisely as they were Goths--they were born so. To the dogma of the -Trinity and the consubstantiability or non-consubstantiability of Jesus -the Christ they were as ignorant as of the formation of the earth. -Throughout Europe at that time not a thread of light was discernible. -The dark ages had begun. In the general obscurity the Goths were not a -bit more brilliant than their neighbors. Under their hand civilization -disappeared; in return they gave the Spanish nothing but gutturals and a -taste for chicanery. In ninety and nine cases, the specimens of -architecture which cheap-trippers admire as due to them are of Saracen -workmanship. The monuments which they did erect are not disproportioned -perhaps; yet, whatever the casuist may affirm, there is still a margin -between the commonplace and the beautiful. In brief, to the Visigoths -the world owes less than nothing. They let Andalusia retrograde for -three hundred years, and delayed the discovery and development of -America. Previous to their coming Cadiz had been a famous seaport. The -Romans called it The Ship of Stone. Its sons had been immemorial -explorers. The presentiment of another land across the sea was theirs by -intuition. They were constantly extending their expeditions. They were -in love with the sunset, they sailed as near it as they could, returned -for more provisions, and sailed again; nearer, and ever nearer that way. -To the Church the theory of the antipodes was an abominable heresy. It -was taught that the earth was a flat parallelogram, its extremities -walled by mountains that supported the skies. Lactance was particularly -vehement on this point, so too was St. Jerome. Vergilius in asserting -the contrary threw Christendom into indignant convulsions. It may be -remembered that the most serious obstacle which Columbus subsequently -encountered lay in the decisions of the Fathers. Now Cadiz had been more -or less converted before the advent of the Visigoths, but it had not for -that reason put aside its habits and customs. It continued to be -essentially maritime; but when the Visigoths came, navigation -languished, the Ship of Stone no longer turned to the west, it foundered -in a sea of ignorance which was then undiked, and the possible discovery -of America was indefinitely postponed. By way of compensation, the -Visigoths framed a code of laws the spirit of which still survives, and -which is serviceable in showing that the framers possessed two distinct -traits, a love of agriculture and a hatred of Jews. Traits which are -significant when it is understood that it was through agriculture they -were supported and through the Jews they were overthrown. It was the -Jews that beckoned the Berbers and their masters the Arabs--the Moors, -as those Arabs were called who had deserted the deserts for the African -Riviera. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -THE CALIPHATE OF CORDOVA - -THE CRESCENT AND THE CROSS--CORDOVA IN THE MIDDLE AGES--THE GLORIES OF -AZ ZAHRA--THE RISE OF ALMANZOR - - -It was in 712 that Spain, after remaining for nearly three centuries in -the possession of the Visigoths, fell under the yoke of the Saracens. -For some time past, from a palace at Tandjah (Tangiers), a Mussulman -emir had been eyeing the strip of blue water which alone separated him -from that Andalusia which, like the other parts of this world and all of -the next, had been promised to the followers of Muhammad. The invasion -that ensued was singularly pacific. The enthusiasm which distinguished -the youthful period of Muhammadism might account for the conquest which -followed, even if we could not assign additional causes--the factions -into which the Goths had become divided, the resentment of disappointed -pretenders to the throne, the provocations of one Count Julian, whose -daughter, seduced by Roderic, the last of the Gothic kings, caused him, -it is said, to urge the Moors to come over. It is more surprising that a -remnant of this ancient monarchy should not only have preserved its -national liberty and name in the northern mountains, but waged for some -centuries a successful, and generally an offensive, warfare against the -conquerors, till the balance was completely turned in its favor and the -Moors were compelled to maintain almost as obstinate and protracted a -contest for a small portion of the peninsula. But the Arabian monarchs -of Cordova found in their success and imagined security a pretext for -indolence; even in the cultivation of science and contemplation of the -magnificent architecture of their mosques and palaces they forgot their -poor but daring enemies in the Asturias; while, according to the nature -of despotism, the fruits of wisdom or bravery in one generation were -lost in the follies and effeminacy of the next. Their kingdom was -dismembered by successful rebels, who formed the states of Toledo, -Huesca, Saragossa, and others less eminent; and these, in their own -mutual contests, not only relaxed their natural enmity toward the -Christian princes, but sometimes sought their alliance. - -Be that as it may, of all who had entered Spain, whether Greek, -Phœnician, Vandal or Goth, the Moors were the most tolerant. The worship -of God was undisturbed. The temples were not only preserved, new ones -were built. In every town they entered, presto! a mosque and a school, -and mosques and schools that were entrancing as song. On the banks of -the Betis, renamed the Great River, Al-Ouad-al-Kebyr (Guadalquivir), -twelve hundred villages bloomed like roses in June. From three hundred -thousand filigreed pulpits the glory of Allah, and of Muhammad his -prophet, was daily proclaimed. - -They were superb fellows, these Moors. In earlier ages the restless -Bedouins, their ancestors, were rather fierce, and when the degenerate -Sabaism they professed was put aside for the lessons of Muhammad, they -were not only fierce, they were fanatic as well. A drop of blood shed -for Allah, equaled, they were taught, whole months of fasting and of -prayer. Thereafter, they preached with the scimiter. But in time, that -great emollient, they grew less dogmatic. In the ninth century the court -of Haroûn al Raschid was a free academy in which all the arts were -cultivated and enjoyed. Under the Moors, Cordova surpassed Bagdad. - -In the tenth century it was the most beautiful and most civilized city -of Europe. Concerning it Burke, in his “History of Spain”--a work to -which we are much indebted--writes as follows: - - There was the Caliph’s Palace of Flowers, his Palace of - Contentment, his Palace of Lovers, and, most beautiful of all, the - Palace of Damascus. Rich and poor met in the Mezquita, the noblest - place of worship then standing in Europe, with its twelve hundred - marble columns, and its twenty brazen doors; the vast interior - resplendent with porphyry and jasper and many-colored precious - stones, the walls glittering with harmonious mosaics, the air - perfumed with incense, the courtyards leafy with groves of orange - trees--showing apples of gold in pictures of silver. Throughout the - city, there were fountains, basins, baths, with cold water brought - from the neighboring mountains, already carried in the leaden pipes - that are the highest triumph of the modern plumber. - -But more wonderful even than Cordova itself was the suburb and palace of -Az Zahra. For five-and-twenty years the Caliph Abdur Rahman devoted to -the building of this royal fancy one-third of the revenues of the -State; and the work, on his death, was piously continued by his son, -who devoted the first fifteen years of his reign to its completion. For -forty years ten thousand workmen are said to have toiled day by day, and -the record of the refinement as well as the magnificence of the -structure, as it approached completion, almost passes belief. It is said -that in a moment of exaltation the Caliph gave orders for the removal of -the great mountain at whose foot the fairy city was built, as the dark -shade of the forests that covered its sides overshadowed the gilded -palace of his creation. - -Convinced of the impossibility of his enterprise, An Nasir was content -that all the oaks and beech trees that grew on the mountain side should -be rooted up; and that fig trees, and almonds, and pomegranates should -be planted in their place; and thus the very hills and forests of Az -Zahra were decked with blossom and beauty. - -Travelers from distant lands, men of all ranks and professions, princes, -embassadors, merchants, pilgrims, theologians and poets, all agreed that -they had never seen in the course of their travels anything that could -be compared with Az Zahra, and that no imagination, however fertile, -could have formed an idea of its beauties. Of this marvelous creation of -Art and Fancy not one stone remains upon another--not a vestige to mark -the spot on which it stood; and it is hard to reconstruct from the dry -records of Arab historians the fairy edifice of which we are told no -words could paint the magnificence. According to these authors the -inclosing wall of the palace was four thousand feet in length from east -to west, and two thousand two hundred feet from north to south. The -greater part of this space was occupied by gardens, with their marble -fountains, kiosks and ornaments of various kinds, not inferior in beauty -to the more strictly architectural parts of the building. - -Four thousand three hundred columns of the rarest and most precious -marbles supported the roof of the palace; of these some were brought -from Africa, some from Rome, and many were presented by the Emperor at -Constantinople to Abdur Rahman. The halls were paved with marble, -disposed in a thousand varied patterns. The walls were of the same -material, and ornamented with friezes of the most brilliant colors. The -ceilings, constructed of cedar, were enriched with gilding on an azure -ground, with damasked work and interlacing designs. Everything, in -short, that the wealth and resources of the Caliph could command was -lavished on this favorite retreat, and all that the art of -Constantinople and Bagdad could contribute to aid the taste and -executive skill of the Spanish Arabs was enlisted to make it the most -perfect work of its age. Did this palace of Zahra now remain to us, says -Mr. Fergusson, we could afford to despise the Alhambra and all the other -works of the declining ages of Moorish art. - -It was here that Abdur Rahman and Nasir received Sancho the Fat, and -Theuda, queen of Navarre, the envoys from Charles the Simple of France, -and the embassadors from the Emperor Constantine at Constantinople. The -reception of these imperial visitors is said to have been one of the -most magnificent ceremonies of that magnificent court. The orator who -had been at first intrusted with the speech of ceremonial greeting was -actually struck dumb by the grandeur of the scene, and his place was -taken by a less impressionable rhetorician. - -Nor was it only material splendor that was to be found at Cordova. At a -time when Christian Europe was steeped in ignorance and barbarism, in -superstition and prejudice, every branch of science was studied under -the favor and protection of the Ommeyad Caliphs. Medicine, surgery, -botany, chemistry, poetry, the arts, philosophy, literature, all -flourished at the court and city of Cordova. Agriculture was cultivated -with a perfection, both theoretical and practical, which is apparent -from the works of contemporary Arab writers. The Silo, so lately -introduced into England as a valuable agricultural novelty, is not only -the invention of the Arabs, but the very name is Arabic, as is that of -the Azequia and of the Noria of modern Spain. Both the second and the -third Abdur Rahman were passionately fond of gardening and -tree-planting; and seeds, roots and cuttings were brought from all parts -of the world and acclimatized in the gardens at Cordova. A pomegranate -of peculiar excellence, the Safari, which was introduced by the second -Abdur Rahman from Damascus, still maintains its superiority, and is -known in Spain to the present day as the Granada Zafari. - -Thus, in small things as in great, the Arabs of Cordova stood -immeasurably above every other people or any other government in Europe. -Yet their influence unhappily was but small. They surpassed, but they -did not lead. The very greatness of their superiority rendered their -example fruitless. Medieval chivalry, indeed, was largely the result of -their influence in Spain. But chivalry as an institution had itself -decayed long before a new-born Europe had attained to the material and -moral perfection of the great Emirs of Cordova. Their political -organization was unadapted to the needs or the aspirations of Western -Europe, and contained within itself the elements, not of development, -but of decay. Their civilization perished, and left no heirs behind -it--and its place knows it no more. - -The reign of Hakam II., the son and successor of the great Caliph, was -tranquil, prosperous and honorable, the golden age of Arab literature in -Spain. The king was above all things a student, living the life almost -of a recluse in his splendid retreat at Az Zahra, and concerning himself -rather with the collection of books for his celebrated library at -Cordova than with the cares of State and the excitements of war. He sent -agents to every city in the East to buy rare manuscripts and bring them -back to Cordova. When he could not acquire originals he procured copies, -and every book was carefully catalogued and worthily lodged. Hakam not -only built libraries, but, unlike many modern collectors, he is said to -have read and even to have annotated the books that they contained; but -as their number exceeded four hundred thousand, he must have been a -remarkably rapid student. - -The peaceful disposition of the new Caliph emboldened his Christian -neighbors and tributaries to disregard the old treaties and to assert -their independence of Cordova. But the armies of Hakam were able to make -his rights respected, and the treaties were reaffirmed and observed. -Many were the embassies that were received at Cordova from rival -Christian chiefs; and Sancho of Leon, Fernan Gonzalez of Castile, Garcia -of Navarre, Rodrigo Velasquez of Galicia, and finally Ordoño the Bad, -Pretender to the crown of Leon, were all represented at the court of Az -Zahra. - -The reign of this royal scholar was peaceful and prosperous; but kingly -power tends to decline in libraries, and when Hakam ceased to build and -to annotate, and his kingdom devolved upon his son, the royal authority -passed not into the hands of the young Hisham, who was only nine years -of age at the time of his father’s death, but into those of the Sultana -Sobeyra and of her favorite, Ibn-abu-amir, who is known to later -generations by the proud title of Almanzor.[2] - -Ibn-abu-amir began his career as a poor student at the University of -Cordova. Of respectable birth and parentage, filled with noble ambition, -born for empire and command, the youth became a court scribe, and, -attracting the attention of the all-powerful Sobeyra by the charm of his -manner and his nobility of bearing, he soon rose to power and -distinction in the palace; and as Master of the Mint, and afterward as -Commander of the City Guard, he found means to render himself -indispensable, as he had always been agreeable, to the harem. Nor was -the young courtier less acceptable to the Caliph. Intrusted by him on a -critical occasion with the supremely difficult mission of comptrolling -the expenditure of the army in Africa, where the general-in-chief had -proved over-prodigal or over-rapacious, Ibn-abu-amir acquitted himself -with such extraordinary skill and tact that he won the respect and -admiration, not only of the Caliph whose treasury he protected, but of -the general whose extravagance he checked, and even of the common -soldiers of the army, who are not usually drawn to a civilian -superintendent, or to a reforming treasury official from headquarters. -The expenses were curtailed; but the campaign was successful, and the -victorious general and the yet more victorious Cadi shared on equal -terms the honor of a triumphal entry into the capital. - -On the death of Hakam, in September, 976, Ibn-abu-amir showed no less -than his usual tact and vigor in suppressing a palace intrigue and -placing the young Hisham on the throne of his father. The Caliph was but -twelve years of age, and his powerful guardian, supported by the harem, -beloved by the people, and feared by the vanquished conspirators, took -upon himself the entire administration of the kingdom, repealed some -obnoxious taxes, reformed the organization of the army, and sought to -confirm and establish his power by a war against his neighbors in the -north. The peace which had so long prevailed between Moor and Christian -was thus rudely broken, and the Moslem once more carried his arms across -the northern frontier. The campaign was eminently successful. -Ibn-abu-amir, who contrived not only to vanquish his enemies but to -please his friends, became at once the master of the palace and of the -army. The inevitable critic was found to say that the victor was a -diplomatist and a lawyer rather than a great general; but he was -certainly a great leader of men, and if he was at any time unskilled in -the conduct of a battle, he owned from the first that higher skill of -knowing whom to trust with command. Nor was he less remarkable for his -true military virtue of constant clemency to the vanquished. - -In two years after the death of Hakam, Almanzor had attained the -position of the greatest of the _maires du palais_ of early France, and -he ruled all Muhammadan Spain in the name of young Hisham, whose throne -he forbore to occupy and whose person was safe in his custody. But if -Almanzor was not a dilettante like Abdur Rahman II., nor a collector of -MSS. like Hakam, he was no vulgar fighter like the early kings of Leon -or of Navarre. A library of books accompanied him in all his campaigns; -literature, science, and the arts were munificently patronized at court; -a university or high school was established at Cordova, where the great -mosque was enlarged for the accommodation of an increasing number of -worshipers. Yet in one thing did he show his weakness. He could afford -to have no enemies. - -Though the idol of the army, the lover of the queen, the prefect of the -city, the guardian of the person of the Caliph, Almanzor yet found it -necessary to conciliate the theologians; and the theologians were only -conciliated by the delivery of the great library of Hakam into the hands -of the Ulema. The shelves were ransacked for works on astrology and -magic, on natural philosophy, and the forbidden sciences, and after an -inquisition as formal and as thorough and probably no more intelligent -than that which was conducted by the curate and the barber in the house -of Don Quixote, tens of thousands of priceless volumes were publicly -committed to the flames. - -Nor did Almanzor neglect the more practical or more direct means of -maintaining his power. The army was filled with bold recruits from -Africa, and renegades from the Christian provinces of the north. The -organization and equipment of the regiments was constantly improved; and -the troops were ever loyal to their civilian benefactor. Ghalib, the -Commander-in-chief, having sought to overthrow the supreme administrator -of the kingdom, was vanquished and slain in battle (981). The Caliph was -practically a prisoner in his own palace, and was encouraged by his -guardian and his friends, both in the harem and in the mosque, to devote -himself entirely to a religious life, and abandon the administration of -his kingdom to the Hájib, who now, feeling himself entirely secure at -home, turned his arms once more against the Christians on the northern -frontiers; and it was on his return to Cordova, after his greeted with -the well-known title of Almanzor. - -In 984 he compelled Bermudo II. of Leon to become his tributary. In 985 -he turned his attention to Catalonia, and after a brief but brilliant -campaign he made himself master of Barcelona. Two years later (987), -Bermudo having dismissed his Moslem guards and thrown off his allegiance -to Cordova, Almanzor marched into the northwest, and after sacking -Coimbra, overran Leon, entirely destroyed the capital city, and -compelled the Christian king to take refuge in the wild fastnesses of -the Asturias. - -Meanwhile, at Cordova, the power of Almanzor became year by year more -complete. Victorious in Africa as well as in Spain, this heaven-born -general was as skillful in the council chamber as be was in the field. -The iron hand was ever clad in a silken glove. His ambition was content -with the substance of power, and with the gradual assumption - -[Illustration: SPAIN & PORTUGAL.] - -of any external show of supreme authority in the State. In 991 he -abandoned the office and title of Hajib to his son, Abdul Malik. In 992 -his seal took the place of that of the monarch on all documents of -State. In 993 he assumed the royal cognomen of Mowayad. Two years later -he arrogated to himself alone the title of Said; and in 996 he ventured -a step further, and assumed the title of Malik Karim, or king. - -But in 996 Almanzor was at length confronted by a rival. Sobeyra, the -Navarrese Sultana, once his mistress, was now his deadly enemy, and she -had determined that the queen, and not the minister, should reign -supreme in the palace. Almanzor was to be destroyed. Hakam, a feeble and -effeminate youth, was easily won over by the harem, who urged him to -show the strength that he was so far from possessing, by espousing the -cause of his mother against his guardian. The queen was assured of -victory. The treasury was at the disposal of the conspirators. A -military rival was secretly summoned from Africa. The minister was -banished from the royal presence. The palace was already jubilant. - -But the palace reckoned without Almanzor. Making his way into Hakam’s -chamber, more charming, more persuasive, more resolute than ever, -Almanzor prevailed upon the Caliph not only to restore him to his -confidence, but to empower him, by a solemn instrument under the royal -sign-manual, to assume the government of the kingdom. Sobeyra, defeated -but unharmed by her victorious and generous rival, retired to a -cloister; and Almanzor, contemptuously leaving to one of his lieutenants -the task of vanquishing his subsidized rival in Africa, set forth upon -the most memorable of all his many expeditions against Christian Spain -(July 3, 997). - -Making his way, at the head of an army, through Lusitania into far away -Galicia, he took Corunna, and destroyed the great Christian church and -city of Santiago de Compostella, the most sacred spot in all Spain, and -sent the famous bells which had called so many Christian pilgrims to -prayer and praise to be converted into lamps to illuminate the Moslem -worshipers in the mosque at Cordova. - -Five years later, in 1002, after an uncertain battle, Almanzor died in -harness, if not actually in the ranks, bowed down by mortal disease, -unhurt by the arm of the enemy. The relief of the Christians at his -death was unspeakable; and is well expressed, says Mr. Poole, in the -simple comment of the Monkish annalist, “In 1002 died Almanzor, and was -buried in Hell.” - -In force of character, in power of persuasion, in tact, in vigor, in -that capacity for command that is only found in noble natures, Almanzor -has no rival among the Regents of Spain. His rise is a romance; his -power a marvel; his justice a proverb. He was a brilliant financier; a -successful favorite; a liberal patron; a stern disciplinarian; a -heaven-born courtier; an accomplished general; and no one of the great -commanders of Spain, not Gonsalvo de Aguilar himself, was more uniformly -successful in the field than this lawyer’s clerk of Cordova. - -Hisham, in confinement at Az Zahra, was still the titular Caliph of the -West, but Almanzor was succeeded as commander-in-chief and virtual ruler -of the country by his favorite son, his companion-in-arms, and the hero -of an African campaign, Abdul Malik Almudaffar, the Hajib of 991. But -the glory of Cordova had departed. Abdul Malik indeed ruled in his -father’s place for six years. But on his death, in 1008, he was -succeeded by his half-brother, Abdur Rahman, who, as the son of a -Christian princess, was mistrusted both by the palace and by the people; -and the country became a prey to anarchy. - -Cordova was sacked. The Caliph was imprisoned; rebellions, poisonings, -crucifixions, civil war, bigotry and skepticism, the insolence of -wealth, the insolence of power, a Mahdi and a Wahdi, Christian alliance, -Berber domination, Slav mutineers, African interference, puppet princes, -all these things vexed the Spanish Moslems for thirty disastrous years; -while a number of weak but independent sovereignties arose on the ruins -of the great Caliphate of the West. - -The confused annals of the last thirty years of the rule of the -Ommeyades are mere records of blood and of shame, a pitiful story of -departed greatness. - -On the death of Hisham II., the Romulus Augustulus of Imperial Cordova, -Moslem Spain was divided into a number of petty kingdoms, Malaga, -Algeciras, Cordova, Seville, Toledo, Badajoz, Saragossa, the Balearic -Islands, Valencia, Murcia, Almeria, and Granada. And each of these -cities and kingdoms made unceasing war one upon another. - -From the death of Hisham, if not from the death of Almanzor, the centre -of interest in the history of Spain is shifted from Cordova to Castile. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -MEDIEVAL SPAIN - -THE FOUNDERS OF MODERN SPAIN--THE KINGDOMS OF THE ASTURIAS AND OF -LEON--THE DEFEAT AT RONCESVALLES--THE CID CAMPEADOR - - -The Crescent had conquered, but the Cross endured. The refuge of the -latter was in the Asturias, There--eight or ten years after the death of -the last of the Gothic kings--Pelayo, one of the early heroes of Spanish -history, was reigning over refugees from Moslem rule. It was these -refugees who laid the foundation of modern Spain, and it is related that -in their fastness at Covadonga, thirty of them, with Pelayo at their -head, actually routed, if they did not destroy, an entire army of four -hundred thousand Moslem besiegers. - -The story is of course mythological, but the good fortune of Pelayo did -much to kindle the national spirit by which ultimately Spain was -conquered for the Spaniards, and thus the story, if critically false, -becomes metaphorically true. - - * * * * * - -Nor [says Burke] do the Arabs seem to have made any attempt to retrieve -or avenge the fortunes of the day. Well satisfied, no doubt, with their -unopposed dominion over the rich plains of the genial south country, -they were willing to abandon the bleak and inhospitable mountains to -their wild inhabitants and the emboldened refugees whom they sheltered. -Be the reason what it may, Pelayo seems to have had peace all the days -of his life after his victory at Covadonga in 718. Prudently confining -his attention to the development of his little kingdom, he reigned, it -is said, for nineteen years at Cangas, and, dying in 737, was peacefully -succeeded by his son Favila. - -Pelayo, no doubt, was but a robber chieftain, a petty mountain prince, -and the legends of his royal descent are of later date, and of obviously -spurious manufacture; but Pelayo needs no tinsel to adorn his crown. He -was the founder of the Spanish monarchy. - -Meanwhile, in the recesses of the Pyrenees, a second Christian kingdom, -that of Navarre, had been founded by Garcias Iniguez, which, together -with Catalonia and Aragon, Charlemagne a little later (778) entered and -subdued. In repassing the Pyrenees, however, the Navarrese, led by -Fortun Garcias, fell upon the Frankish troops and cut to pieces the -rearguard, and even, it is said, the main body of the army. - -How far the Spanish Christians were aided, as it has been stated they -were, by the Moors, it is impossible to discover. The fact of such an -alliance, in itself sufficiently improbable, is quite unnecessary to -explain the ever-famous defeat at Roncesvalles. - -Nor can we speak with much greater confidence of the prowess or even of -the existence of the equally famous Roland, in the ranks of the invading -or evading army; or of that of the no less celebrated Bernardo del -Carpio in the ranks of the pursuers. - -Taillefer, who sang the song of Roland upon the battlefield of Hastings, -and Terouldes, whose thirteenth century epic suggested the poems of -Pulci, of Boiardo, and of greatest Ariosto, all these have made Roland -one of the favorite heroes of the Middle Ages. But in the story, as it -is told in the Spanish ballads, it is Bernardo del Carpio, the nephew of -the chaste but pusillanimous Alfonso, who is the true hero of -Roncesvalles, and who not only repulsed the host of Charlemagne, but -caught up the invulnerable Roland in his arms, and squeezed him to death -before his army. No carpet knight or courtier was Bernardo, but a true -Cantabrian mountaineer. - -In 790 Alfonso II., the great-grandson of the great Pelayo, then king of -Oviedo, repulsed the Mussulman army with great slaughter, and abolished -the ignominious tribute of one hundred virgins, an annual tribute paid -to the Muhammadan ruler, fifty virgins being of noble and fifty of base -or ignoble birth. From this circumstance is derived, by some historians, -his surname of the Chaste; attributed by others to his having made a -solemn vow of virginity, and observed it, even in marriage. This vow, -and the austere temper in which it probably originated, had considerable -influence over Alfonso’s life. He so deeply resented his sister Ximena’s -private marriage with a subject, the Count of Saldanha, that he shut her -up in a convent; and putting out her husband’s eyes, sentenced him to -perpetual imprisonment. - -The royal line of Navarre or Sobrarve was at this time extinct, Ximenes -Garcias, the grandson of Fortun Garcias, having died without children. -The nobles availed themselves of the opportunity to establish the famous -code entitled “Los Fueros de Sobrarve”--the laws of Sobrarve--which -subsequently became the groundwork of the liberties of Aragon. Navarre -was soon afterward recovered by the Moors, and Sobrarve included in the -Spanish March. - -Alfonso ruled upward of fifty years. Incessant wars now followed between -the followers of the Cross and the Crescent, and a frenzy for martyrdom -on the part of the Christians had to be repressed by a Christian -archbishop at the solemn request of the Cadis. - -Garcia of Oviedo died without children shortly after his accession; when -his brother Ordoño II. reunited the whole of his father’s dominions. He -transferred the seat of government to Leon, and altered the title of -King of Oviedo into that of King of Leon. - -This Ordoño abandoned the peaceful policy of his greater father, and -undertook many expeditions with varying and uncertain success against -the Arabs. He plundered Merida in 917, and routed the Berbers in -Southern Spain in 918. Yet three years later, at Val de Junqueras (921), -near Pamplona, the Christians suffered disastrous defeat. The usual -rebellion at home was appeased by the treacherous execution or murder of -no less than four counts of Castile in 922, and was followed by the -king’s death in 923. - -Of Fruela II. (923-925), Alfonso IV. (925-930), and Ramiro II. -(930-950), little need be said, but that they lived and reigned as kings -of Leon. - -To Ramiro, however, is due, at least, the honor of an authentic victory -over the Moslem forces of the great Caliph, Abdur Rahman an Nasir (939), -at Simancas, and afterward in the same year at Alhandega. - -Ramiro, after the usual rebellion, abdicated, in 950, in favor of his -son Ordoño--who had married Urraca, daughter of the principal rebel of -the day, Fernan Gonzalez, count of Castile--and who succeeded his father -as Ordoño III. - -But decapitation was a far more certain way of suppressing rebellion -than matrimony; and Fernan Gonzalez lived to intrigue against his -daughter and her royal husband in favor of Sancho, a younger brother of -the king. Ordoño, however, held his own against his brother, and -revenged himself on his father-in-law, by repudiating his wife; who, -with her personal and family grievances, was promptly _acquired_ by -Sancho, who succeeded, on his brother’s death, to the crown of which he -had failed to possess himself by force. But even as a legitimate -sovereign, Sancho, surnamed the Fat, was not allowed to reign in peace. -He was driven from his kingdom by that most versatile rebel, Count -Fernan Gonzalez, and sought refuge at the court of his uncle Garcia of -Navarre at Pamplona. Thence, in company with Garcia, and his mother -Theuda, he journeyed to the court of the Caliph at Cordova, where the -distinguished visitors were received with great show of welcome by Abdur -Rahman at Az Zahra; and where Hasdai, the Jew, the most celebrated -physician of the day, succeeded in completely curing Sancho of the -distressing malady--a morbid and painful corpulency--which incapacitated -him from the active discharge of his royal duties. - -The study and practice of medicine were alike disregarded by the rude -dwellers in Leon; but the Cordovan doctor, surpassing in his success, if -not in his skill, the most celebrated physicians of the present day, -contrived to reduce the king’s overgrown bulk to normal proportions, -and restored him to his former activity and vigor, both of body and -mind. Nor was the skill of Hasdai confined to the practice of medicine. -An accomplished diplomatist, he negotiated a treaty with his Christian -patient, by which Sancho bound himself to give up ten frontier -fortresses to the Caliph, on his restoration to the crown of Leon, while -Don Garcia and Dona Theuda undertook to invade Castile in order to -divert the attention of the common foe, the ever-ready Fernan Gonzalez. - -In due time Sancho, no longer the fat, but the hale, returned to Leon at -the head of a Moslem army, placed at his disposal by his noble host at -Cordova, drove out the usurper, Ordoño the Bad, and reigned in peace in -his Christian dominions. The visit of this dispossessed Ordoño to the -court of the Caliph Hakam at Cordova, in 962, is an interesting specimen -of the international politics or policy of his age and country. - -As Sancho had recovered his throne, by the aid of Abdur Rahman, so -Ordoño sought to dethrone him and make good his own pretensions by the -aid of Hakam. The Caliph, already harassed by Fernan Gonzalez, and -doubting the honesty of King Sancho, was not ill-pleased to have another -pretender in hand, and Ordoño was invited to Cordova, and received by -Hakam in the palace at Az Zahra with the utmost pomp and display. The -Leonese prince craved in humble language the assistance of the Moslem, -and professed himself his devoted friend, ally, and vassal; and he was -permitted to remain at the Court of Hakam, to await the issue of events -in the north. Some few days afterward a treaty was solemnly signed -between the Caliph and the Pretender, and once more the glories of Az -Zahra were displayed to the eyes of the astonished barbarian from Leon. - -Nor did the fame of these splendid ceremonies fail to reach Sancho in -the northwest; and his spirit of independence was considerably cooled by -the prospect of a Moslem army, headed by his cousin Ordoño, making its -appearance before his ill-defended frontiers. The maneuver was -sufficiently familiar; and the reigning monarch lost no time in -disassociating himself from the hostile proceedings of Fernan Gonzalez; -and sending an important embassy to Hakam at Cordova, to assure him of -his unwavering loyalty, he hastened to announce his readiness to carry -out to the letter all the provisions of his recent treaty with the -Caliph. Hakam was satisfied. Ordoño languished disregarded at Cordova, -despised alike by Moslem and Christian, but unharmed and in safety as -the guest of the Arab. Sancho reigned in peace until 967, when he was -poisoned by the rebel count of the day, Sanchez of Galicia. His son, who -was known as Ramiro III., an unwise and incapable monarch, reigned at -Leon from 967 to 982, without extending the possessions or the influence -of the Christians in Spain; and Bermudo II., who usurped the throne, was -no match for the fiery Almanzor, who ravaged his kingdom, took -possession of his capital, and compelled the Christian Court to take -refuge in the wild mountains of the Asturias, and once more to pay -tribute to the Moslem at Cordova. - -Bermudo died in 999; and on the death of Almanzor, three years later, -the Christian fortunes under the young Alfonso V., who had succeeded his -father Bermudo, at the age of only five, began to mend. Cordova was -given up to anarchy. The Moslem troops retired from Northern Spain. -Leon became once more the abode of the king and his court, and though -Alfonso gave his sister in marriage to Mohammed, an Emir or Vali of -Toledo, he extended his Christian dominion in more than one foray -against the declining power of the Moslem. - -Alfonso V., who is known in Spanish history as the Restorer of Leon, -sought to consolidate his own power, as he certainly exalted that of his -clergy, by the summoning of a Council, after the manner of the -Visigothic Councils of Toledo. The Council met at the city of Leon on -the 1st of August, 1020, in the Cathedral Church of St. Mary. The king -and his queen Elvira presided, and all the bishops and the principal -abbots and nobles of the kingdom took their seats in the assembly. And -if there was no Leander, nor Isidore, nor Julian to impose his will upon -king or council, the interests of the Church were not entirely -overlooked. Of the fifty-eight decrees and canons of this Council, the -first seventeen relate exclusively to matters ecclesiastical, the next -twenty are laws for the government of the kingdom, the remaining -thirty-one are municipal ordinances for the city of Leon. - -But Alfonso V. was not exempted from the usual rebellions, and -marriages, and assassinations, and executions, which constituted the -politics of the day. Garcia, the last Count of Castile, was -treacherously slain in 1026; and Alfonso was himself more honorably -killed in an attack upon a Moslem town in Lusitania in 1027. - -The life of Fernan Gonzalez, the Warwick of medieval Spain, is almost as -much overlaid with romantic legends as that of Roderic or Roland. The -lives and deeds of his ancestors, and the origin of his ever-celebrated -County of Castile, are involved in the utmost confusion and obscurity; -but Fernan Gonzalez himself is at least a historical personage. He -married Sancha, daughter of Sancho Abarca of Navarre, and their son, -Garcia Fernandez, succeeded him as hereditary Count of Castile. - -As early as the year 905, Sancho, a Christian chief of whose ancestors -and predecessors much has been written, much surmised, and nothing is -certainly known, was king or ruler of the little border state of -Navarre. A prudent as well as a warlike sovereign, he fortified his -capital city of Pamplona, and when his son, in alliance with Ordoño II. -of Leon, was defeated by the Moslems at Val de Junquera, the Navarrese -not only made good their retreat to that celebrated fortress, but -succeeded in course of a short time in driving the Moslems out of their -country. The grandson of this successful general was Sancho El Mayor--or -the Great--the most powerful of the Christian princes in Spain -(970-1035). Besides Navarre and Sobrarve he held the lordship of Aragon; -in 1026, in right of his wife, Muña Elvira, he became king or count of -Castile; while his successful interference in the affairs of Leon made -him virtual master of all Christian Spain outside the limits of the -quasi Frankish county of Catalonia. - -Sancho the Great died in 1035, when his territories were divided, -according to his will, among his four sons; and from this time forth the -history of Navarre, so far as it is not included in the history of -Aragon, of Castile, and of France, is a confused and dreary record of -family quarrels, of plots and assassinations, of uncertain alliances, of -broken treaties. The marriage of the Princess Berengaria with Richard I. -of England, in 1191, failed to secure for Sancho V. the influence that -he had hoped to secure: and with Sancho VI., who died in 1234, the male -line of the house of Sancho Iniguez or Inigo, the founder of Navarre, -was extinct. A French prince was chosen by the Navarrese to rule over -them. And from the death of Sancho VI., in 1234, to the death of Charles -the Bad, in 1387--one hundred and fifty years--the history of Navarre is -that of France. - -Bermudo III., who succeeded, on the death of his father, Alfonso V., in -1027, as king of Leon, was at once attacked by his powerful neighbors, -and the little States were distracted by family quarrels and civil war -until the death of Bermudo in battle, in 1037, when the male line of the -house of Leon became extinct. - -On the death of Bermudo III. in 1037, Ferdinand I., king of Castile, the -second son of Sancho the Great, succeeded to the kingdom of Leon, and -became, after over twenty years of civil war (1058), the most powerful -monarch in all Spain. The Moslems offered but an uncertain and -half-hearted resistance to his arms. For while the Christians were -growing strong, the Moslem empire was already declining to its fall. And -the decay of the Caliphate of Cordova, and the internal dissensions of -the Arabs, enabled Ferdinand not only to recover all the territory that -had been conquered by Almanzor, but to pursue the disheartened Moslem as -far as Valencia, Toledo, and Coimbra. Ferdinand confirmed the Fueros of -Alfonso V., and summoned a council at Coyanza (Valencia de Don Juan), -over which, with his Queen Sancha, he presided in 1050. All the bishops -and abbots, together with a certain number of lay nobles thus assembled -_ad restaurationem nostræ Christianitatis_, proceeded to make decrees or -canons, after the manner of the Councils of Toledo, of which the first -seven were devoted to matters ecclesiastical, and the remainder -connected with the civil government of the country. With territories -thus recovered and augmented, with cities restored and fortified, -Ferdinand determined to excel all his Christian predecessors, and to -emulate the noble example of the Arab, by enriching his dominion, not -with treasures of art or literature, with schools, with palaces, with -manuscripts--but with the bones of as many martyrs as he could collect. - -An army was raised for this sacred purpose, and the country of the Moors -was once more invaded and harried by the Christian arms. Ibn Obeid of -Seville, learning the objects of the invasion, offered Ferdinand every -facility for research in his city; and a solemn commission of bishops -and nobles were admitted within the walls to seek the body of Justus, -one of the martyrs of Diocletian. But in spite of all the diligence of -the Christians, and all the goodwill of the Arabs, the sacred remains -could nowhere be found. At length the spirit of Saint Isidore removed -the difficulty by appearing miraculously before the Commission, and -offering his own bones in the place of those of Justus, which were -destined, said he, to remain untouched at Seville. The Commission was -satisfied. And the body of the great Metropolitan, “fragrant with -balsamic odors,” was immediately removed to the Church of St. John the -Baptist at Leon--to the great satisfaction of both Christians and Moors, -in 1063. - -It was on the occasion of the return of these blessed relics to the -Christian capital that Ferdinand proclaimed the future division of his -kingdom. For after all the success that had attended the Union of the -dominions of Leon and Castile under the sole authority of Ferdinand, who -rather perhaps for his sanctity than for his wisdom had earned the title -of the Great, the king made the same grievous mistake that his father -had done before him, in dividing his united territories at his death -(1065) among his sons and daughters. To Sancho, the eldest son, he left -the kingdom of Castile; to Alfonso, Leon and the Asturias; to Garcia, -Galicia; to his younger daughter, Elvira, the town and district of Toro, -and to her elder sister Urraca the famous border city of Zamora, the -most debatable land in all Spain, and a strange heritage for a young -lady. Thus Castile and Leon were once more separated; and the usual -civil wars and family intrigues naturally followed. Alfonso, though not -at first the most successful, survived all his rivals, and was at length -proclaimed king of Leon and Castile. - -But the successes and glories of Alfonso VI., such as they were, are -overshadowed by the prowess of a Castilian hero, whose exploits form one -of the most favorite chapters in the national history of Spain--the -Christian knight with the Moslem title--Ruy Diaz, THE CID. - -Two years before William of Normandy landed at Hastings, a Castilian -knight, a youth who had already won for himself the proud title of The -Challenger, from his reckless bravery and his success in single combat, -is found leading the royal armies of Sancho of Castile against the -enemy. The knight was Ruy Diaz de Bivar. The enemy was Alfonso VI. of -Leon, the brother of Sancho, who was endeavoring to reunite the -inheritance divided by his father, in the good old medieval fashion in -Spain. - -Of noble birth and parentage, a Castilian of the Castilians, Roderic or -Ruy Diaz was born at Bivar, near Burgos, about the year 1040. His -position in the army of Sancho was that of Alferez, in title the -Standard-bearer, in effect the major-general or second in command, if -not commander-in-chief of the king’s army. - -For seven years Alfonso of Leon and Sancho of Castile had been at war, -each seeking to destroy the other; and at length at Golpejara, near -Carrion, on the eve of what promised to be a decisive battle, a solemn -engagement was entered into by the brothers that whichever of the two -was worsted in the encounter should resign his kingdom to the other -without further bloodshed. The Castilians, in spite of Sancho and his -famous Champion, were defeated at Golpejara; and Alfonso of Leon, -foolishly trusting his brother’s word, took no heed to improve his -victory, and his unsuspecting army was overwhelmed the next day by the -Castilian troops under Ruy Diaz de Bivar, the author of this exceedingly -characteristic, if not entirely authentic piece of treachery. - -It is scarcely surprising that the Cid was not trusted by Alfonso of -Leon, when he, in his turn, succeeded to the crown of Castile. But for -the moment Alfonso was not only deprived of his throne and of his -liberty by his more successful brother, but he was compelled to -purchase his life by a promise to enter the monastery of Sahagun. -Disregarding this vow, and making good his escape to Toledo, the royal -refugee was received with the usual hospitality of the Arab by El Mamun, -the Moslem ruler of the city, who sheltered and entertained him, as he -himself admitted, “like a son.” - -Sancho meanwhile had turned his arms against his brother Garcia, whom he -dispossessed of his territories; against his sister Elvira, who met with -a similar fate, and, lastly, against his sister Urraca, who withstood -him boldly in her city of Zamora. And not only did this time-honored -fortress resist the attack of Sancho and his wily major-general, but the -king was slain outside the walls of the city by one of his sister’s -knights. Alfonso thus not only recovered his own kingdom of Leon, but, -swearing perpetual friendship with El Mamun of Toledo, he was elected -king of Castile by the Commons assembled at Burgos; and the defeated -refugee of 1071 found himself, in less than two years, the greatest -prince in Christian Spain; Alfonso the Sixth of Leon and of Castile. - -Yet the legend runs that Alfonso was compelled to undergo the indignity -of a public examination, and a triple oath before the knights and nobles -assembled at Burgos, to the effect that he had had no share in the -murder of King Sancho; and the oath was administered by Ruy Diaz of -Bivar, the companion in arms of the Castilian king, sometime the -faithless enemy of Carrion, but now the acknowledged leader of the -Castilian nobility. - -Alfonso of Leon may have forgiven the treachery in the field, but he -never forgot the insult in the Council. He restrained his indignation, -however, and was even induced by reasons of State to grant to the bold -Castilian lord the hand of his cousin Ximena in marriage, and to intrust -him with the command of an expedition into Andalusia. But the royal -favor was of brief duration; and in 1081 we find that Roderic, partly -owing to the intrigues of Garcia Ordonez, and partly to the enduring -enmity of the king, was banished from the Christian dominions. - -Of all the petty sovereignties that came into existence on the breaking -up of the Ommeyad Caliphate of Cordova, that of Moctadir, the chief of -the Ben-i-hud of Saragossa, was the most powerful in Northern or Central -Spain; and at the Moslem court of Saragossa, Ruy Diaz, with his fame and -his followers, was warmly welcomed (1081) by Moctadir as a Said or -Cid--a lord or leader of the Arabs. He had been driven out of Castile by -Alfonso. He found a home and honorable command at Saragossa. So long as -he could make war upon his neighbors, all countries were alike to -Roderic of Bivar. Nor was it long before his prowess brought honor and -profit to Moctadir, or, rather, to his son and successor, Motamin. - -Ramon Berenguer III., count of Barcelona, was engaged, like other -Christian princes of his time, in chronic warfare with his Moslem -neighbors; and Motamin, with his Castilian Cid, marching against the -Catalans, defeated the Christians with great slaughter at Almenara, near -Lerida, and brought Ramon Berenguer a prisoner to Saragossa (1081), -where the victorious Cid was loaded with presents by the grateful -Motamin, and invested with an authority in the kingdom subordinate only -to that of the king himself. Two years later (1083) an expedition was -undertaken by the Moslems, under Roderic, against their Christian -neighbors in Aragon. King Sancho Ramirez was completely defeated by the -Castilian champion, who returned once more to Saragossa loaded with -booty and renown. In 1084 the Cid seems to have paid a friendly visit to -the court of Alfonso VI. But although he was apparently well received, -he suspected treachery, and, returning to the court of the Moslem, once -more took service under the delighted Motamin. His next campaign, -undertaken in the following year, was not against any Christian power, -but against the hostile Moslems of northern Valencia, and was crowned -with the usual success. Motamin died in 1085, but the Cid remained in -the service of his son and successor, Mostain, fighting against -Christian and Moslem as occasion offered, partly for the King of -Saragossa, but chiefly for the personal advantage of Ruy Diaz of Bivar. -A stranger national hero it is hard to imagine! Nor were his subsequent -proceedings in any degree less strange. - -Al Mamun, the host and protector of Alfonso VI., had died in 1075, -leaving, his grandson, Cadir, to succeed him as sovereign of Toledo. -Abdulaziz, the viceroy of the subject city of Valencia, took advantage -of the weakness of the young prince to declare himself independent, and -placing himself under the protection of the Christians, undertook to pay -a large subsidy to Alfonso VI. in return for his recognition and -support. The subsidy was punctually paid, and, in spite of a present of -no less than a hundred thousand pieces of gold handed over by Moctadir -of Saragossa to Alfonso as the price of Valencia, Abdulaziz retained his -hold of the city until his death in 1085. On this, numerous pretenders -to the government immediately arose, including Moctadir of Saragossa, a -purchaser for value, and the two sons of Abdulaziz; while Alfonso took -advantage of the confusion that ensued to persuade Cadir to surrender -Toledo, much coveted by the Christian king, and to accept, or, more -exactly, to retain, for himself the sovereignty of Valencia, under the -humiliating protection of Castile. Alfonso cared nothing that Toledo was -the inheritance of his youthful ally, the home of his old protector, -when he himself was a hunted refugee. He cared nothing that the -Valencians were hostile to Cadir, and that powerful neighbors were -prepared to dispute his possession. He cared nothing that Moctadir, who -had actually purchased the city from Alfonso himself, was on the way to -make good his claim. A treaty was forced upon Cadir by which Toledo was -surrendered to Alfonso VI. (1085), and the Christian king was bound to -place and maintain the unhappy prince in possession of his own -subordinate city of Valencia. - -Toledo thus became the capital of Christian Spain; and the evicted -sovereign, escorted by a large force of Castilian troops under Alvar -Fanez, made his sad and solemn entry into Valencia, despised at once by -the citizens of Toledo, whom he had abandoned to the Christian -sovereign, and by the citizens of Valencia, where his power was -maintained by Christian lances. And costly indeed was this Christian -maintenance. Six hundred pieces of gold is said to have been the daily -allowance of the army of Castilian mercenaries; and the taxes that were -necessitated by their presence only added to the unpopularity of the -government. Many of Cadir’s Moslem subjects fled from the city; and -their place was taken by his Christian supporters or pensioners, whose -rapacity was, if possible, exceeded by their cruelty. But the coming of -the Almoravides gave a new turn to the fortunes of the city. Alvar Fanez -and his knights were recalled by Alfonso, and after the defeat of the -Christians at Zalaca, in October, 1086, Cadir found himself threatened -with immediate expulsion by his own citizens, supported by Mondhir of -Lerida, the uncle of Mostain of Saragossa. In this difficulty he once -more sought the protection of Christian lances, and applied for aid to -the Cid, who immediately advanced on Valencia. - -An intriguer, at all times and places, Roderic promised his support to -Cadir in return for admission within the walls. He entered into a formal -treaty with Mostain that the city should be his, if all the booty were -handed over to the Campeador; and he sent envoys to Alfonso to assure -him that in all these forays and alliances he thought only of the -advantage of Christendom and the honor of Castile. Mondhir, overawed by -the appearance of the allied army from Saragossa, hastily retired from -before Valencia, where Mostain and his Christian Said were welcomed as -deliverers by Cadir. - -But although the Cid imposed a tribute upon the unhappy Valencians, he -failed to give over the city to Mostain, and assuring Cadir of his -constant support, as long as a monthly allowance of ten thousand golden -dinars was punctually paid, he withdrew himself from the remonstrances -of the disappointed Mostain--to whom he continued to protest his -continued devotion--on the plea of a necessary visit to his Christian -sovereign in Castile, to explain or excuse his position, and to engage -some Castilian troops for his army. Mostain, during his absence, -perceiving that he could not count upon so versatile and so ambitious a -Said in the matter of the handing over of Valencia, entered into an -alliance with his old enemy, Ramon Berenguer, of Barcelona; and the -Catalans had actually laid siege to the city when the return of the Cid -induced them to abandon their trenches and retire to Barcelona. - -If the Cid was a hero of romance, he did not wield his sword without the -most magnificent remuneration. At this period of his career (1089-92), -in addition to the eighty thousand golden pieces received from Ramon -Berenguer, he is said to have drawn fifty thousand from the son of -Mondhir, one hundred and twenty thousand from Cadir of Valencia, ten -thousand from Albarracin, ten thousand from Alpuente, six thousand from -Murviedro, six thousand from Segorbe, four thousand from Jerica, and -three thousand from Almenara. - -With such an amount of personal tribute, the Cid cannot, says Lafuente, -have been greatly inconvenienced by the action of Alfonso VI. in -despoiling him of his estates. Supporting his army of seven thousand -chosen followers on the rich booty acquired in his daily forays upon -Eastern Spain, from Saragossa to Alicante; regardless of Christian -rights, but the special scourge of the Moslems; no longer a Saragossan -general, but a private adventurer, the Cid could afford to quarrel at -once with Mostain and with Alfonso, and to defy the combined forces of -Mondhir and Ramon Berenguer. - -The rivalry between the Cid and the Catalan was ever fierce in Eastern -Spain. The opposing armies met at Tebar del Pinar in 1090, and although -the Cid was wounded in the battle, his army was completely successful. -Mondhir fled from the field; and Ramon Berenguer was once more a -prisoner in the hands of Roderic. Nor was the Christian count released -from a confinement more harsh than was generous or necessary until he -had given good security for the payment of the enormous ransom of eighty -thousand marks of gold. - -It is not easy, nor would it be fruitful, to follow the various -movements of the Cid at this period of his career. His quarrels and his -intrigues with Alfonso of Castile, with Cadir of Valencia, with the -various parties at the court of Saragossa, with Ramon Berenguer at -Barcelona, and even with the Genoese and Pisans, are neither easy nor -interesting to follow. But his principal objective was the rich city of -Valencia. Alfonso of Leon, ever jealous of his great and most -independent subject, resolved to thwart him in his design; and having -secured the co-operation of the Pisans and Genoese, who had arrived with -a fleet of four hundred vessels to assist the Cid, the king took -advantage of the absence of his rival on some foray to the north of -Saragossa to advance upon Valencia, and to push forward his operations -to the very walls of the city. Ruy Diaz riposted after his fashion. - -Leaving the Valencians to make good the defense of their own city, he -carried fire and sword into Alfonso’s peaceful dominions of Najera and -Calahorra, destroying all the towns, burning all the crops, slaughtering -the Christian inhabitants; and razing the important city of Logrono to -the ground. This savagery was completely successful, and met with no -reproach. The Cid is one of those fortunate heroes to whom all things -are permitted. His excesses are forgotten; his independence admired; his -boldness and his success are alone remembered. Alfonso, thus rudely -summoned to the north of the Peninsula, abruptly raised the siege of -Valencia. - -Nor was the king’s action at Valencia without a favorable influence upon -the fortunes of the Cid. Far from wresting the city from the grasp of -Roderic, Alfonso had rather precipitated the crisis which was ultimately -to lead to his triumphal entry as the independent ruler of the city. -Cadir was murdered by a hostile faction within the walls; and the Cid, -advancing with his usual prudence, spent some time in possessing himself -of the suburbs and the approaches to the city, before the siege was -commenced in good earnest, in July, 1093. - -The operations were carried on in the most ferocious fashion by the -attacking force. Roderic burned his prisoners alive from day to day -within the sight of the walls, or caused them to be torn in pieces by -his dogs under the very eyes of their fellow-townsmen. - -The blockaded city was soon a prey to the utmost horrors of famine. -Negotiation was fruitless. Succor came not. Neither Christian nor -Moslem, neither Alfonso the Castilian, nor Yusuf the Almoravide, nor -Mostain of Saragossa, appearing to defend or to relieve the city, -Valencia capitulated on the 15th of June, 1094. - -The Moslem commander, Ibn Jahaf, was burned alive. The Moslem -inhabitants were treated with scant consideration, and the Cid, as might -have been supposed, proclaimed himself sovereign of Valencia, -independent of either Christian Alfonso or Moorish Mostain; and at -Valencia he lived and reigned until the day of his death, but five -years afterward, in 1099. His rule was often threatened by the -Almoravides; but as long as the champion lived they could effect no -entry within the walls of his city. - -For full three years after his death, moreover, his widow Ximena, and -his cousin Alvar Fanez, maintained a precarious sovereignty at Valencia. -At length, unsupported by Alfonso of Leon, and unable to stand alone in -the midst of the Moslems, they retired to Burgos, carrying with them the -body of the Cid embalmed in precious spices, borne, as of old, on his -faithful steed Babieca, to its last resting place in Castile. Valencia -was immediately occupied by the Almoravides, and became once more a -Moslem stronghold; nor did it finally pass into Christian hands until it -was taken by James the First of Aragon in 1238. The Cid was buried in -the Monastery of Cardena, near Burgos; and the body of his heroic wife, -Dona Ximena, who died in 1104, was laid by his side in the tomb. - -The legend of the marriage of the Cid’s daughters with the Infantes of -Carrion, of their desertion, and of the vengeance of the Cid upon their -unworthy husbands, is undoubtedly an invention of the Castilian -minstrels. - -The legend of the death of the Cid’s son at the battle of Consuegra is -certainly fallacious. There is no evidence that a son was ever born to -him at all. But he had undoubtedly two daughters, one of whom, -Christina, married Ramiro, Infante of Navarre, and the other, Maria, -became the countess of Ramon Berenguer III. of Barcelona. The issue of -Ramon Berenguer III. was a daughter who died childless, but a -granddaughter of Ramiro of Navarre married Sancho III. of Castile, -whose son, Alfonso VIII., was the grandfather both of St. Ferdinand and -of St. Louis. And thus in a double stream, through the royal houses of -Spain and of France, the blood of the Cid is found to flow in the veins -of his Majesty Alfonso XIII., the reigning king of Spain. - -To understand or appreciate the position that is occupied by the Cid in -Spanish history is at the present day supremely difficult. A medieval -condottiere in the service of the Moslem, when he was not fighting to -fill his own coffers with perfect impartiality against Moor or -Christian: banished as a traitor by his Castilian sovereign, and -constantly leading the forces of the Infidel against Aragon, against -Catalonia, and even against Castile, he has become the national hero of -Spain. Warring against the Moslem of Valencia, whom he pitilessly -despoiled, with the aid of the Moslem of Saragossa, whose cause he -cynically betrayed, while he yet owned a nominal allegiance to Alfonso -of Castile, whose territories he was pitilessly ravaging; retaining -conquered Valencia for his personal and private advantage, in despite of -Moslem or Christian kings, he has become the type of Christian loyalty -and Christian chivalry in Europe. Avaricious, faithless, cruel and bold, -a true soldier of fortune, the Cid still maintains a reputation which is -one of the enigmas of history. - -The three favorites of medieval Spanish romance, says Senor Lafuente, -Bernardo del Carpio, Fernan Gonzalez, and the Cid, have this at least in -common, that they were all at war with their lawful sovereigns, and -fought their battles independently of the crown. Hence their popularity -in Spain. The Castilians of the Middle Ages were so devoted to their -independence, so proud of their Fueros, such admirers of personal -prowess, that they were disposed to welcome with national admiration -those heroes who sprang from the people, who defied and were ill-treated -by their kings. - -The theory is both ingenious and just, yet it by no means solves the -difficulty. Ruy Diaz of Bivar, who was one of the proudest nobles of -Castile, can scarcely be said to have sprung from the people, nor do we -clearly perceive why his long service under Moslem kings, even though he -was a rebel against his own sovereign, should have endeared him to the -Christian Spaniards, however independent or however democratic. Yet we -may learn at least from the character of the hero, ideal though it be, -that the medieval Castilians were no bigots, and that they were slaves -neither to their kings nor to their clergy. - -The people of Aragon no doubt held their king in a more distinctly -constitutional subjection. No Castilian chief-justice was found to call -the sovereign to order: no Privilege of Union legalized a popular war in -defense of popular liberties. But Roderic took the place of the -justiciary in legend, if not in history, when he administered the oath -to Alfonso at Burgos; and he invested himself with the privilege of -warring against an aggressive king, when he routed Alfonso’s forces, and -burned his cities, to requite him for his attack upon Valencia. - -It is this rebellious boldness which contributed no doubt very largely -to endear the Cid to his contemporaries. It is one of the most constant -characteristics of his career; one of the features that is portrayed -with equal clearness by the chroniclers and the ballad-makers of Spain. -For the Cid is essentially a popular hero. His legendary presentment is -a kind of poetic protest against arbitrary regal power. The Cid ballads -are a pæan of triumphant democracy. The ideal Cid no doubt was evolved -in the course of the twelfth century; and by the end of the fifteenth -century, when the rule of kings and priests had become harder and -heavier in Spain, an enslaved people looked back with an envious -national pride to the Castilian hero who personified the freedom of -bygone days. - -The Cid is the only knight-errant that has survived the polished satire -of Cervantes. For his fame was neither literary nor aristocratic; but, -like the early Spanish proverbs, in which it is said he took so great a -delight, it was embedded deep in the hearts of the people.[3] And -although the memory of his religious indifference may not have added to -his popularity in the sixteenth century in Spain, it is a part of his -character which must be taken into account in gauging the public opinion -of earlier days. - -From the close of the eighth century to the close of the fifteenth, the -Spanish people, Castilians and Aragonese, were, if anything, less -bigoted than the rest of Europe. The influence of their neighbors the -Moors, and of their Arab toleration, could not be without its effect -upon a people naturally free, independent, and self-reliant, and the -Cid, who was certainly troubled with no religious scruples in the course -of his varied career, and who, according to a popular legend, affronted -and threatened the Pope on his throne in St Peter’s, on account of some -fancied slight,[4] could never have been the hero of a nation of bigots. -The degenerate Visigoths from the time of Reccared the Catholic to the -time of Roderic the Vanquished could never have produced a Cid. Yet, -even in the dark days of Erwig and Egica, there was found a Julian, who -boldly maintained the national independence against the pretensions of -the Pope of Rome. For a thousand years after the landing of St. -Paul--if, indeed, he ever landed upon the coast--the Spanish Church was, -perhaps, the most independent in Europe. The royal submission to the -Papal authority, first by Sancho I. of Aragon, in 1071, and afterward by -Alfonso VI. of Leon, in 1085, in the matter of the Romish Ritual, was -distinctly unpopular. Peter II. found no lack of recruits for the army -that he led against the Papal troops in Languedoc, and King James I., -the most popular of the kings of Aragon, cut out the tongue of a -meddlesome bishop who had presumed to interfere in his private affairs -(1246). It was not until the Inquisition was forced upon United Spain by -Isabella the Catholic, and the national lust for the plunder of -strangers was aroused by the destruction of Granada, that the Spaniard -became a destroyer of heretics. It was not until the spoliation and the -banishment of Jews and Moriscos, and the opening of a new world of -heathen treasure on the discovery of America, that the Castilian, who -had always been independent himself, became intolerant of the -independence of others. Then, indeed, he added the cruelty of the priest -to the cruelty of the soldier, and wrapping himself in the cloak of a -proud and uncompromising national orthodoxy, became the most ferocious -bigot in two unhappy worlds. - -But in the beginning it was not so. And if the Cid could possibly have -been annoyed by Torquemada, his knights would have hanged the Inquisitor -upon the nearest tree. No priests’ man, in good sooth, was Roderic of -Bivar, nor, save in that he was a brave and determined soldier, had the -great Castilian Free Lance anything in common with the more conventional -heroes of United Spain. - -If history affords no reasonable explanation of his unrivaled renown -beyond that which has already been suggested, we find but little in the -early poetry to assist us. The Cid ballads impress us “more by their -number than their light.” They are neither very interesting in -themselves, nor are they even very suggestive. Only thirty-seven ballads -are considered by Huber to be older than the sixteenth century. “La -plupart de ces romances,” says M. Dozy, “accusent leur origine moderne”; -and, according to Mr. Ormsby, they do but little toward the illustration -of the Cid, either as a picturesque hero of romance or as a -characteristic feature of medieval history. - -The great French dramatist scarcely touches the true history of his -hero. The scene of the play is laid at Seville, where no Christian king -set his foot for a hundred and fifty years after the death of Roderic. -The title which he accepted from his employer, Mostain of Saragossa, is -said to have been granted by Alfonso of Leon, after the capture of two -imaginary Moorish kings, unknown to history, in an impossible battle on -the banks of the Guadalquivir, which was never seen by the Cid. The -whole action of the play turns upon the moral and psychological -difficulties arising from the purely legendary incident of the killing -of Chimene’s father by her lover, avenging an insult offered to his own -sire, and of the somewhat artificial indignation of the lady, until she -is appeased by a slaughter of Moors. Corneille’s drama abounds in noble -sentiments expressed in most admirable verse; but it does not assist us -to understand the character of the Cid, nor the reasons of his -popularity in his own or in any other country. But certain at least it -is that from the earliest times the story of his life and his career -took a strong hold upon the popular imagination in Spain, and his -virtues and his vices, little as they may seem to us to warrant the -popular admiration, were understood and appreciated in the age in which -he lived, an age of force and fraud, of domestic treason and foreign -treachery, when religion preached little but battle and murder, and -patriotism was but a pretext for plunder and rapine. Admired thus, even -in his lifetime, as a gallant soldier, an independent chieftain, and an -ever successful general, fearless, dexterous, and strong, his free -career became a favorite theme with the jongleurs and troubadours of the -next generation; and from the Cid of history was evolved a Cid of -legendary song. - -It is most difficult at the present day to know exactly where serious -history ends and where poetry and legend begin. Yet the Cid as -represented to us by M. Dozy, one of the most acute of modern -investigators of historic truth, is not so very different from the Cid -represented by Southey, or even by earlier and less critical poets, but -that we may form a reasonable estimate, from what is common to both -history and tradition, of what manner of man he was. The Cid of the -twelfth century legends, indeed, though he may be more marvelous, is by -no means more moral than the Cid of history. It was reserved for the -superior refinement of succeeding generations, and more especially for -the anonymous author of the poem of the thirteenth century to evolve a -hero of a gentler and nobler mold; a creature conforming to a higher -ideal of knightly perfection. From this time forward we have a glorified -Cid, whose adventures are no more historically false, perhaps, than -those of the unscrupulous and magnificent Paladin of the legends and -romances of the twelfth century, but whose character possesses all the -dignity and all the glory with which he could be invested by a generous -medieval imagination. And it is this refined and idealized hero; -idealized, yet most real; refined, yet eminently human, that has been -worshiped by nineteen generations of Spaniards as the national hero of -Spain. - -Ruy Diaz--as he lived and died--was probably no worse a man than any of -his neighbors. Far better than many of them he was, and undoubtedly -bolder and stronger, more capable, more adroit, and more successful. - -Seven of the Christian princes of Spain at this period fell in battle -warring against their own near relations, or were murdered by their -hands in cold blood. Garcia of Castile was slain by the sword of the -Velas. Bermudo III. of Leon and Garcia Sanchez of Navarre died fighting -against their brother, Ferdinand of Castile. Sancho II. of Castile was -assassinated by order of his sister Urraca, besieged by him in her city -of Zamora. Among the Christian kings of the century immediately before -him, Garcia of Galicia was strangled in prison by the hands of his -brothers, Sancho and Alfonso; Sancho Garcia of Navarre was assassinated -by his brother Ramon, at Peñalva; Ramon Berenguer II. of Barcelona died -by the dagger of his brother Berenguer Ramon; Sancho the Fat, in 967, -was poisoned at a friendly repast by Gonzalo Sanchez; Ruy Velasquez of -Castile, in 986, murdered his seven nephews, the unfortunate Infantes de -Lara; Sancho of Castile, in 1010, poisoned his mother, who had -endeavored to poison him. At the wedding festivities at Leon, in 1026, -Garcia, Count of Castile, was assassinated at the church door, and the -murderers were promptly burned alive by his friends; Garcia of Navarre, -in 1030, as an incident in a family dispute about a horse, accused his -mother of adultery. Such was the standard of the eleventh century in the -north of the Peninsula. - -To judge the Cid, even as we now know him, according to any code of -modern ethics, is supremely unreasonable. To be sure, even now, that we -know him as he was, is supremely presumptuous. But that Ruy Diaz was a -great man, and a great leader of men, a knight who would have shocked -modern poets, and a free lance who would have laughed at modern heroes, -we can have no manner of doubt. That he satisfied his contemporaries -and himself; that he slew Moors and Christians as occasion required, -with equal vigor and absolute impartiality; that he bearded the King of -Leon in his Christian council, and that he cozened the King of Saragossa -at the head of his Moslem army; that he rode the best horse and -brandished the best blade in Spain; that his armies never wanted for -valiant soldiers, nor his coffers for gold pieces; that he lived my Lord -the Challenger, the terror of every foe, and that he died rich and -respected in the noble city that had fallen to his knightly spear--of -all this at least we are certain; and, if the tale is displeasing to our -nineteenth century refinement, we must be content to believe that it -satisfied the aspirations of medieval Spain. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -MOORISH SPAIN - -THE LAST OF THE CALIPHS--THE RISE AND FALL OF GRANADA--FERDINAND AND -ISABELLA--THE GREAT CAPTAIN - - -Moslem rule in Spain may be conveniently summarized as -consisting--first, in the Caliphs of Cordova; second, in the dynasty of -the Almoravides; third, in that of the Almohades; and, finally, the -kings of Granada. - -Concerning the first it may be noted that in the long reign of the last -Abdur Rahman were the seeds of its dissolution. Brooking no rival during -his lifetime, at his death he found no successor. Then upon the ruins of -the great Caliphate twenty independent and hostile dynasties surged. -Meanwhile Alfonso was eyeing them from his citadel. At the gates of -Valencia was the Cid. For common safety the Moslem rivals looked for a -common defender. In Africa that defender was found in Yusuf, the Berber -chief of a tribe of religious soldiers known as the Almoravides. - -Invited to Spain, he crossed over, and, meeting Alfonso at Zalaca, near -Badajoz, on the 23d of October, 1086, he routed him with great and -historic slaughter. - - * * * * * - -Yusuf [says Burke] had come as a Moslem defender, but he remained as a -Moslem master. And once more in Spanish history, the over-powerful ally -turned his victorious arms against those who had welcomed him to their -shores. Yet Yusuf was no vulgar traitor. He had sworn to the envoys of -the Spanish Moslems that he would return to Africa, in the event of -victory, without the annexation to his African empire of a field or a -city to the north of the Straits. And his vow was religiously kept. -Retiring empty-handed to Mauritania, after the great battle at Zalaca, -he returned once more to Spain, unfettered on this new expedition by any -vow, and set to work with his usual vigor to make himself master of the -Peninsula. Tarifa fell in December. The next year saw the capture of -Seville, and of all of the principal cities of Andalusia. An army sent -by Alfonso VI., under his famous captain, Alvar Fanez, was completely -defeated, and all Southern Spain lay at the feet of the Berber, save -only Valencia, which remained impregnable so long as the Cid lived to -direct the defense. In 1102, after the hero’s death, Valencia succumbed, -and all Spain to the south of the Tagus became a province of the great -African empire of the Almoravides. - -The rule of these hardy bigots was entirely unlike that of the Ommeyad -Caliphs of the West. Moslem Spain had no longer even an independent -existence. The sovereign resided not at Cordova, but at Morocco. The -poets and musicians were banished from court. The beauties of Az Zahra -were forgotten. Jews and Christians were alike persecuted. The kingdom -was governed with an iron hand. But if the rule of the stranger was not -generous, it was just, and for the moment it possessed the crowning -merit that it was efficient. The laws were once more respected. The -people once more dreamed of wealth and happiness. But it was little more -than a dream. - -On the death of Yusuf in 1107 the scepter passed into the hands of his -son Ali, a more sympathetic but a far less powerful ruler. In 1118 the -great city of Saragossa, the last bulwark of Islam in the north of the -Peninsula, was taken by Alfonso I. of Aragon, who carried his victorious -arms into Southern Spain, and fulfilled a rash vow by eating a dinner of -fresh fish on the coast of Granada. - -Yet it was by no Christian hand that the empire of the Almoravides was -to be overthrown. - -Mohammed Ibn Abdullah, a lamplighter in the mosque at Cordova, had made -his way to remote Bagdad to study at the feet of Abu Hamid Algazali, a -celebrated doctor of Moslem law. The strange adventures, so -characteristic of his age and nation, by which the lowly student became -a religious reformer--a Mahdi--and a conqueror in Africa, and at length -overthrew the Almoravides, both to the north and the south of the -Straits of Gibraltar, forms a most curious chapter in the history of -Islam; but in a brief sketch of the fortunes of medieval Spain, it must -suffice to say that having established his religious and military power -among the Berber tribes of Africa, Ibn Abdullah, the Mahdi, landed at -Algeciras in 1145, and possessed himself in less than four years of -Malaga, Seville, Granada, and Cordova. The empire of the Almoravides was -completely destroyed; and, before the close of the year 1149, all Moslem -Spain acknowledged the supremacy of the Almohades. - -These more sturdy fanatics were still African rather than Spanish -sovereigns. Moslem Spain was administered by a Vali deputed from -Morocco; and Cordova, shorn of much of its former splendor, was the -occasional abode of a royal visitor from Barbary. For seventy years the -Almohades retained their position in Spain. But their rule was not of -glory but of decay. One high feat of arms indeed shed a dying luster on -the name of the Berber prince who reigned for fifteen years (1184-99) -under the auspicious title of Almanzor, and his great Moslem victory -over Alfonso II. at Alarcon in 1195 revived for the time the drooping -fortunes of the Almohades. But their empire was already doomed, -decaying, disintegrated, wasting away. And at length the terrible defeat -of the Moslem forces by the united armies of the three Christian kings -at the Navas do Tolosa in 1212, at once the most crushing and the most -authentic of all the Christian victories of medieval Spain, gave a final -and deadly blow to the Moslem dominion of the Peninsula. Within a few -years of that celebrated battle, Granada alone was subject to the rule -of Islam. - -It was in the year 1228 that a descendant of the old Moorish kings of -Saragossa rebelled against the Almohades and succeeded in making himself -master not merely of Granada, but of Cordova, Seville, Algeciras, and -even of Ceuta, and, obtaining a confirmation of his rights from Bagdad, -assumed the title of Amir ul Moslemin--Commander of the Moslems--and Al -Mutawakal--the Protected of God. - -But a rival was not slow to appear. Mohammed Al Ahmar, the Fair or the -Ruddy, defeated, dethroned, and slew Al Mutawakal, and reigned in his -stead in Andalusia. Despoiled in his turn of most of his possessions by -St. Ferdinand of Castile, Al Ahmar was fain at length to content -himself with the rich districts in the extreme south of the Peninsula, -which are known to fame, wherever the Spanish or the English language is -spoken, as the Kingdom of Granada. And thus it came to pass that the -city on the banks of the Darro, the home of the proud and highly -cultivated Syrians of Damascus, the flower of the early Arab invaders of -Spain, became also the abiding place of the later Arab civilization, -overmastered year after year, and destroyed, by the Christian armies -ever pressing on to the southern sea. Yet, in the middle of the -thirteenth century, the flood tide of reconquest had for the moment -fairly spent itself. The Christians were not strong enough to conquer, -and above all they were not numerous enough to occupy, the districts -that were still peopled by the Moor; and for once a wise and highly -cultivated Christian shared the supreme power in the Peninsula with a -generous and honorable Moslem. Alfonso X. sought not to extend his -frontiers, but to educate his people, not to slaughter his neighbors, -but to give laws to his subjects, not to plunder frontier cities, but to -make Castile into a kingdom, with a history, a civilization, and a -language of her own. If the reputation of Alfonso is by no means -commensurate with his true greatness, the statesmanship of Mohammed Al -Ahmar, the founder of the ever famous Kingdom of Granada, is -overshadowed by his undying fame as an architect. Yet is Al Ahmar worthy -of remembrance as a king and the parent of kings in Spain. The loyal -friend and ally of his Christian neighbor, the prudent administrator of -his own dominions, he collected at his Arab court a great part of the -wealth, the science, and the intelligence of Spain. His empire has long -ago been broken up; the Moslem has been driven out; there is no king nor -kingdom of Granada. But their memory lives in the great palace fortress -whose red towers still rise over the sparkling Darro, and whose fairy -chambers are still to be seen in what is, perhaps, the most celebrated -of the wonder works of the master builders of the world. - -After his long and glorious reign of forty-two years, Mohammed the Fair -was killed by a fall from his horse near Granada, and was succeeded by -his son, Mohammed II., in the last days of the year 1272. Al Ahmar had -ever remained at peace with Alfonso X., but his son, taking advantage of -the king’s absence in quest of an empire in Germany, sought the -assistance of Yusuf, the sovereign or emperor of Morocco, and invaded -the Christian frontiers. - -Victory was for some time on the side of the Moors. The Castilians were -defeated at Ecija in 1275, and their leader, the Viceroy Don Nunez de -Lara, was killed in battle, as was also Don Sancho, Infante of Aragon -and Archbishop of Toledo, after the rout of his army at Martos, near -Jaen, on the 21st of October, 1275; and the victorious Yusuf ravaged -Christian Spain to the very gates of Seville. - -In the next year, 1276, the Castilian armies were again twice defeated, -in February at Alcoy and in the following July at Lucena. To add to -their troubles, King James of Aragon died at Valencia in 1276. Sancho of -Castile sought to depose his father Alfonso, at Valladolid. All was in -confusion among the Christians; and had it not been for the defection of -Yusuf of Morocco, the tide of fortune might have turned in favor of -Islam. As it was, the African monarch not only abandoned his cousin of -Granada, but he was actually persuaded to send one hundred thousand -ducats to his Christian rival at Seville in 1280. - -The value of this assistance was soon felt. Tarifa was taken in 1292, -and the progress of the Moor was checked forever in Southern Spain. -Mohammed II. died in 1302, and was succeeded by his son, Mohammed III., -who was usually considered by the Moslem historians to have been the -ablest monarch of his house. But he reigned for only seven years, and he -was unable to defend Gibraltar from the assaults of his Christian -rivals. - -From this time the court of Granada became a sort of city of refuge for -the disaffected lords and princes of Castile, who sometimes, but rarely, -prevailed upon their Moslem hosts to assist them in expeditions into -Christian Spain, but who were always welcomed with true Arab hospitality -at the Moslem capital. To record their various intrigues would be a vain -and unpleasing task. The general course of history was hardly affected -by passing alliances. The Christian pressed on--with ever-increasing -territory behind him--on his road to the southern sea. - -In 1319, Abdul Walid or Ismail I. of Granada defeated and slew Don Pedro -and Don Juan, Infantes of Castile, at a place near Granada, still known -as the Sierra de los Infantes. But no important consequences followed -the victory. - -In the reign of Yusuf (1333-54) was fought the great battle of the -Salado (1340), when the Christians, under Alfonso XI., were completely -successful; and the capitulation of Algeciras three years later deprived -the Moslems of an important harbor and seaport. Day by day--almost hour -by hour--the Christians encroached upon Granada, even while cultivating -the political friendship and accepting the private hospitality of the -Moslem. Their treacherous intervention reached its climax in 1362, when -Peter the Cruel decoyed the King Abu Said, under his royal safe-conduct, -to the palace at Seville, and slew him with his own hand. - -With Mohammed or Maulai al Aisar, or the Left-handed, the affairs of -Granada became more intimately connected with the serious history of -Spain. Al Hayzari, proclaimed king in 1423, and dethroned soon after by -his cousin, another Mohammed, in 1427 sought and found refuge at the -court of John II., by whose instrumentality he was restored to his -throne at the Alhambra in 1429. Yet within four years a rival sovereign, -Yusuf, had secured the support of the fickle Christian, and Muley the -Left-handed was forced a second time to fly from his capital. Once -again, by the sudden death of the new usurper, he returned to reign at -Granada, and once again for the third time he was supplanted by a more -fortunate rival, who reigned as Mohammed IX. for nearly ten years -(1445-54). At the end of this period, however, another pretender was -dispatched from the Christian court, and after much fighting and -intrigue, Mohammed Ibn Ismail, a nephew of Maulai or Muley the -Left-handed, drove out the reigning sovereign and succeeded him as -Mohammed X. - -Yet were the dominions of this Christian ally unceasingly ravaged by his -Christian neighbors. Gibraltar, Archidona, and much surrounding -territory were taken by the forces of Henry IV. and his nobles; and a -treaty was at length concluded in 1464, in which it was agreed that -Mohammed of Granada should hold his kingdom under the protection of -Castile, and should pay an annual subsidy or tribute of twelve thousand -gold ducats. It was thus, on the death, in 1466, of this Mohammed Ismail -of Granada, that a vexed and harassed throne was inherited by his son -Muley Abul Hassan, ever famous in history and romance as “The old -king”--the last independent sovereign of Granada. - -Meanwhile, Henry’s only daughter Joanna being regarded as the fruit of -the queen’s adultery, he was deposed, but restored after acknowledging -as his heiress his sister Isabella, who subsequently, through her -marriage with Ferdinand of Aragon, joined the two most powerful of -Spanish kingdoms into one yet more powerful State. - -To return now to Muley Abul Hassan.[5] For many years after his -accession he observed with his Christian neighbors the treaties that had -been made, nor did he take advantage of the civil war which arose by -reason of Joanna’s pretensions to add to the difficulties already -existing, and in the spring of 1476 sought a formal renewal of the old -Treaty of Peace. - -Ferdinand, however, made his acceptance of the king’s proposal -contingent upon the grant of an annual tribute; and he sent an envoy to -the Moslem court to negotiate the terms of payment. But the reply of -Abul Hassan was decisive. “Steel,” said he, “not gold, was what -Ferdinand should have from Granada!” Disappointed of their subsidy, and -unprepared for war, the Christian sovereigns were content to renew the -treaty, with a mental reservation that as soon as a favorable -opportunity should present itself they would drive every Moslem not -only out of Granada, but out of Spain. - -For five years there was peace between Abul Hassan and the Catholic -sovereigns. The commencement of hostilities was the capture of Zahara by -the Moslems at the close of the year 1481; which was followed early in -next year, 1482, by the conquest of the far more important Moorish -stronghold of Alhama, not by the troops of Ferdinand and Isabella, but -by the followers of Ponce de Leon, the celebrated Marquis of Cadiz. -Alhama was not merely a fortress. It was a treasure-house and a -magazine; and it was but five or six leagues from Granada. The town was -sacked with the usual horrors. The Marquis of Cadiz, having made good -his position within the walls, defied all the attacks of Abul Hassan, -and at the same time sent messengers to every Christian lord in -Andalusia to come to his assistance--to all save one, his hereditary -enemy, the Duke of Medina Sidonia, chief of the great family of the -Guzmans. Yet it was this generous rival, who, assembling all his -chivalry and retainers, was the first to appear before the walls of -Alhama, and relieve the Christians from the threatened assault of the -Moslem. The days of civil discord had passed away in Castile; and -against united Christendom, Islam could not long exist in Spain. - -Meanwhile, Ferdinand, seeing that war had finally broken out, started -from Medina del Campo, and marched with all speed to Cordova, where he -was joined by Isabella early in April, 1482. The Inquisition had now -been for over a year in full blast at Seville. The fires of persecution -had been fairly lighted. The reign of bigotry had begun, and the king -and queen were encouraged to proceed from the plunder of the Jews or New -Christians to the plunder of the Moslems. Ferdinand accordingly repaired -in person to Alhama, with a large train of prelates and ecclesiastics of -lower degree. The city was solemnly purified. Three mosques were -consecrated by the Cardinal of Spain for Christian worship. Bells, -crosses, plate, altar cloths were furnished without stint; and Alhama -having been thus restored to civilization, Ferdinand descended upon the -fruitful valley or Vega of Granada, destroyed the crops, cut down the -fruit trees, uprooted the vines, and, without having encountered a -single armed enemy in the course of his crusade, returned in triumph to -Cordova. A more arduous enterprise in the following July was not -attended with the same success, when Ferdinand attacked the important -town of Loja, and was repulsed with great loss of Christian life. An -expedition against Malaga, later in the year, undertaken by Alfonso de -Cardenas, Grand Master of Santiago, and the Marquis of Cadiz, was even -more disastrous, for a small body of Moors in the mountain defiles of -the Axarquia fell upon the Christian marauders, and no less than four -hundred “persons of quality” are said to have perished in the retreat, -including thirty commanders of the great military order of Santiago. The -Grand Master, the Marquis of Cadiz, and Don Alfonso de Aguilar escaped -as by a miracle, and the survivors straggled into Loja and Antequera and -Malaga, leaving Abul Hassan and his brother Al Zagal, or the Valiant, -with all the honors of war. - -But the successes of the Moor in the field were more than -counterbalanced by treason in the palace. By Zoraya, a lady of Christian -ancestry, Muley Abul Hassan had a son, Abu Abdallah, who has earned a -sad notoriety under the more familiar name of Boabdil. Jealous of some -rival, or ambitious of greater power, the Sultana and her son intrigued -against their sovereign, and having escaped from the State prison, in -which they were at first prudently confined, raised the standard of -revolt, and compelled Abul Hassan, who was thenceforth more usually -spoken of as the Old King, to seek refuge on the sea-coast at Malaga. - -Boabdil, jealous of the success of his father and his undo at Loja and -in the Axarquia, and anxious to confirm his power by some striking -victory over the Christians, took the field and confronted the forces of -the Count of Cabra, near Lucena. The battle was hotly contested, but -victory remained with the Christians. Ali Atar, the bravest of the -Moorish generals, was slain by the hand of Alfonso de Aguilar, and -Boabdil himself was taken prisoner by a common soldier, Hurtado by name, -and fell into the hands of the victorious Count of Cabra. - -The captivity of Boabdil, the Little King, el Rey Chico, as he was -called by the Castilians, was the turning point in the history of the -Moorish dominion in Spain. Released on payment of a magnificent ransom -provided by his mother Zoraya, and bound to his Christian captors by a -humiliating treaty, he returned to Granada, disgraced and dishonored, as -the ally of the enemies of his country. Driven out of the capital by the -forces of his father, who had returned to occupy the great -palace-fortress of Alhambra, Boabdil and his mother retired to Almeria, -the second city in the kingdom; and the whole country was distracted by -civil war. - -Yet for four years the Castilians refrained from any important -expedition against Granada. Their tactics were rather those of Scipio at -Numantia. For Delay was all in favor of Disintegration. - -Yet the merciless devastation of fields and crops was carried on with -systematic and dreadful completeness. Thirty thousand destroyers of -peaceful homesteads, granaries, farmhouses, and mills were constantly at -work, and ere long there was scarce a vineyard or an oliveyard, scarce -an orchard or an orange-grove existing within reach of the Christian -borders. Under cover of the treaty with Boabdil, this devilish enginery -of destruction was steadily pushed forward, while the old king and his -more vigorous brother El Zagal were prevented by domestic treason from -making any effectual defense of their fatherland. Some of the border -towns, moreover, fell into the hands of the Christians, and many forays -were undertaken which produced rich booty for the marauders. Ferdinand -in the meantime occupied himself rather with the affairs of the -Inquisition and of foreign policy, while Isabella was personally -superintending the enormous preparations for a final attack on Granada. -Artillery was cast in large quantities, and artificers imported from -France and Italy; large stores of ammunition were procured from -Flanders. Nothing was hurried; nothing was spared; nothing was forgotten -by Isabella. A camp hospital, the first, it is said, in the history of -warfare, was instituted by the queen, whose energy was indefatigable, -whose powers of organization were boundless, and whose determination was -inflexible. To represent her as a tender and a timid princess is to -turn her true greatness into ridicule. But her vigor, her prudence, and -her perseverance are beyond the vulgar praise of history. - -Meanwhile, Granada was gradually withering away. The “pomegranate,” as -Ferdinand had foreseen and foretold, was losing one by one the seeds of -which the rich and lovely fruit had once been all compact. The old king, -defeated but not disgraced, blind, infirm, and unfortunate, was -succeeded too late by his more capable brother, El Zagal, a gallant -warrior, a skillful commander, and a resolute ruler. But if “the valiant -one” might hardly have held his own against the enormous resources of -the Christians in Europe, he was powerless against the combination of -foreign vigor and domestic treachery. The true conqueror of Granada is -Boabdil, the rebel and the traitor, who has been euphemistically -surnamed the Unlucky (El Zogoibi). Innocent, perchance, of the massacre -of the brave Abencerrages, he is guilty of the blood of his country. - -The capture of Velez Malaga by Ferdinand, already well supplied with a -powerful train of artillery, in April, 1487--while El Zagal was fighting -for his life against Boabdil in Granada--was soon followed by the -reduction, after a most heroic defense, of the far more important city -of Malaga in August, 1487. But the heroism of the Moslem woke no -generous echo in the hearts of either Ferdinand or Isabella. The entire -population of the captured city, men, women, and children--some fifteen -thousand souls--was reduced to slavery, and distributed not only over -Spain, but over Europe. - -A hundred choice warriors were sent as a gift to the Pope. Fifty of the -most beautiful girls were presented to the Queen of Naples, thirty more -to the Queen of Portugal, others to the ladies of her court, and the -residue of both sexes were portioned off among the nobles, the knights, -and the common soldiers of the army, according to their rank and -influence. - -For the Jews and renegades a more dreadful doom was reserved; and the -flames in which they perished were, in the words of a contemporary -ecclesiastic, “the illuminations most grateful to the Catholic piety of -Ferdinand and Isabella.” The town was repeopled by Christian immigrants, -to whom the lands and houses of the Moslem owners were granted with -royal liberality by the victors. The fall of Malaga, the second seaport -and the third city of the kingdom of Granada, was a grievous loss to the -Moors; and the Christian blockade was drawn closer both by land and by -sea. Yet an invasion of the eastern provinces, undertaken by Ferdinand -himself in 1488, was repulsed by El Zagal; and the Christian army was -disbanded as usual at the close of the year, without having extended the -Christian dominions. - -But in the spring of 1489 greater efforts were made. The Castilians sat -down before the town of Baza, not far from Jaen, and after a siege which -lasted until the following December, the city surrendered, not, as in -the case of Malaga, without conditions, but upon honorable terms of -capitulation, which the assailants, who had only been prevented by the -arrival of Isabella from raising the siege, were heartily glad to -accept. The fall of Baza was of more than passing importance, for it was -followed by the capitulation of Almeria, the second city in the kingdom, -and by the submission of El Zagal, who renounced as hopeless the double -task of fighting against his nephew at the Alhambra, and resisting the -Christian sovereigns who had already overrun his borders. The fallen -monarch passed over to Africa, where he died in indigence and misery, -the last of the great Moslem rulers of Spain. - -In the spring of 1490, Ferdinand, already master of the greater part of -the Moorish kingdom, sent a formal summons to his bondman, Boabdil, to -surrender to him the city of Granada; and that wretched and most foolish -traitor, who had refrained from action when action might have saved his -country, now defied the victorious Christians, when his defiance could -only lead to further suffering and greater disaster. - -Throughout the summer of 1490, Ferdinand, in person, devoted himself to -the odious task of the devastation of the entire Vega of Granada, and -the depopulation of the town of Guadix. But in the spring of the next -year, Isabella, who was ever the life and soul of the war, took up her -position within six miles of the city, and pitched her camp at Ojos de -Huescar at the very gate of Granada. - -And here was found assembled, not only all the best blood of Castile, -but volunteers and mercenary troops from various countries in Europe. -France, England, Italy, and even Germany, each provided their -contingent; and a body of Swiss soldiers of fortune showed the gallant -cavaliers of the Christian army the power and the value of a well -disciplined infantry. Among the foreigners who had come over to Spain in -1486 was an English lord, the Earl of Rivers, known by the Spaniards as -El Conde de Escalas, from his family name of Scales, whose magnificence -attracted the admiration of all, even at the magnificent court of -Isabella. - -But the destruction of Granada was not brought about by these gilded -strangers, nor even by the brilliant knights and nobles of Spain. It was -not due to skillful engineers nor to irresistible commanders. The gates -were opened by no victory. The walls were scaled by no assault. The -Christian success was due to the patient determination of Isabella, to -the decay and disintegration of the Moorish Commonwealth, and, to some -extent, to the skillful negotiation and diplomatic astuteness of a young -soldier whose early influence upon the fortunes of Spain has been -overshadowed by the greatness of his later achievements. - -For among all the splendid knights and nobles who assembled in the camp -of Isabella, the chroniclers wellnigh overlooked a gay cavalier of -modest fortune, the younger brother of Alfonso de Aguilar, distinguished -rather as a fop than a warrior--Gonsalvo Hernandez of Cordova, whose -fame was destined to eclipse that of all his companions in arms, and who -has earned an undying reputation in the history of three countries as -“The Great Captain.” - -The life of Gonsalvo de Cordova is interesting as being the history of a -brave soldier and an accomplished general, who flourished at a very -important period of the history of Europe. But it is further and much -more interesting as being the history of a man who united in himself -many of the characteristics of ancient and of modern times. His bravery -was the bravery of an old Castilian knight, and although he had many -splendid rivals, he was pronounced by common consent to be their -superior. Yet his individual courage was the least remarkable of his -qualities. He was a general such as the Western world had not known for -a thousand years, and he was the first diplomatist of modern Europe. In -personal valor, in knightly courtesy, in brave display, he was of his -own time. In astute generalship, and in still more astute diplomacy, he -may be said to have inaugurated a new era; and although greater -commanders have existed after him, as well as before him, he will always -be known as “The Great Captain.” - -The conquest of Granada marks an epoch, not only in the history of -Spain, but in the history of Europe; and Gonsalvo was the hero of -Granada. The expedition of Charles VIII. into Italy is a subject of -almost romantic interest, very nearly preferred by Gibbon to his own -immortal theme; and Gonsalvo in Italy was the admired of all French and -Italian admirers. The succeeding expedition of Louis XII. was scarcely -less interesting, and the part played by Gonsalvo was even more -remarkable. At his birth artillery was almost unknown. At his death it -had become the most formidable arm of offense; it had revolutionized the -rules and manner of warfare; and it was employed by The Great Captain in -both his Italian campaigns with marked skill and success. - -Gonsalvo Hernandez was born at Montilla, near Cordova, in 1453, of the -noble and ancient family of the Aguilars. After a boyhood and youth -devoted, not only to every manly sport and pursuit, and to the practice -of arms, but to the study of letters, and more especially of the Arabic -language, he made his first appearance in serious warfare on the field -of Olmedo, fighting under the banner of the Marquis of Villena. On the -death of Prince Alfonso, Gonsalvo returned to Cordova. His father had -already died; and according to the Spanish law of primogeniture the -whole of the rich estates of the family of Aguilar passed, on the death -of Don Pedro, to his eldest son Alfonso, while nothing but a little -personal property, a great name, a fine person, and “the hope of what he -might gain by his good fortune or his valor” was inherited by Alfonso’s -younger brother. - -Cordova was obviously too small a field for Gonsalvo de Aguilar; and in -the course of the eventful year 1474, having just arrived at man’s -estate, he proceeded to Segovia, and distinguished himself among the -young nobles who crowded to the Court of Isabella, by his prowess at -tournaments and all warlike games and exercises; and he soon became -celebrated for his personal beauty as well as for his valor, -distinguished for his fascinating manners, and, above all, by an -eloquence rarely found in a young soldier of two-and-twenty. He was -generally known as “the Prince of the Youth”; and he supported the -character by an almost royal liberality and ostentatious expenditure -entirely incompatible with his modest fortune. - -In the war of succession between Isabella and her niece, Gonsalvo served -under Alfonso de Cardenas, Grand Master of Santiago, in command of a -troop of one hundred and twenty horsemen; and he particularly -distinguished himself at the battle of Albuera. - -And now, in the camp before Granada, he was well pleased once more to -sun himself in the smiles of his queen and patroness, whose presence in -the camp inspired every soldier with enthusiasm. Isabella appeared on -the field superbly mounted and dressed in complete armor, and -continually visited the different quarters, and held reviews of the -troops. On one occasion she expressed a desire to have a nearer view of -the city, and a picked body of men, among whom was Gonsalvo de Cordova, -commanded by the Marquis Duke of Cadiz, escorted her to the little -village of Zubia, within a short distance of Granada. The citizens, -indignant at the near approach of so small a force, sallied out and -attacked them. The Christians, however, stood their ground so bravely, -and performed such prodigies of valor under the very eyes of Isabella -herself, that no less than two thousand Moslems are said to have fallen -in that memorable affray. - -It happened one night, about the middle of July, that the drapery of the -tent or pavilion in which Isabella was lodged took fire, and the -conflagration was not extinguished until several of the neighboring -tents had been consumed. The queen and her attendants escaped unhurt, -but a general consternation prevailed throughout the camp, until it was -discovered that no more serious loss had been experienced than that of -the queen’s wardrobe. - -Gonsalvo, however, who on more than one occasion showed himself at least -as practical a courtier as Sir Walter Raleigh, immediately sent an -express to Illora, and obtained such a supply of fine clothes from his -wife, Doña Maria Manrique, that the queen herself was amazed, as much -at their magnificence as at the rapidity with which they had been -obtained. - -But this incident led to even more important results than the amiable -pillage of Doña Maria’s wardrobe; for in order to guard against a -similar disaster, as well as to provide comfortable winter quarters for -the troops, Isabella determined to construct a sufficient number of -houses of solid masonry to provide quarters for the besieging army, a -design which was carried out in less than three months. This martial and -Christian town, which received the appropriate name of Santa Fe, may be -still seen by the traveler in the Vega of Granada, and is pointed out by -good Catholics as the only town in Andalusia that has never been -contaminated by the Moslem. - -But in spite of the attractions of all these feats of arms and -exhibitions of magnificence, and of all the personal display and rash -adventure which savors so much more of medieval chivalry than of modern -warfare, Gonsalvo was more seriously engaged in the schemes and -negotiations which contributed almost as much as the prowess of the -Christian arms to the fall of Granada. He had spies everywhere. He knew -what was going on in Granada better than Boabdil. He knew what was going -on in the camp better than Ferdinand. His familiarity with Arabic -enabled him to maintain secret communications with recreant Moors, -without the dangerous intervention of an interpreter. He kept up -constant communications with Illora, and having obtained the allegiance -or friendship of the Moorish chief, Ali Atar, he gained possession of -the neighboring fortress of Mondejar. He sent presents, in truly -Oriental style, to many of the Moorish leaders in Granada who favored -the party of Boabdil, and he was at length chosen by Isabella as the -most proper person to conduct the negotiations that led to the treaty of -capitulation, which was signed on the 25th of November, 1491. - -The nature and the effect of this Convention are well known. The -triumphal entry of the Christians into the old Moslem capital; “the last -sigh of the Moor,” and the setting up of the Cross in the palace-citadel -of Alhambra, not only form one of the most glowing pages in the romance -of history, but they mark an epoch in the annals of the world. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE INQUISITION - -TORQUEMADA AND ISABELLA--THE NEW TRIBUNAL--THE PENALTY OF UNSOUND -OPINIONS--THREE CENTURIES OF SHAME - - -The history of Spain assumed a new phase when, at the fall of Granada, -the attention of potentates and people ceased to be absorbed by the -excitement of a great religious war. Then the past and the romance of it -ended and the history of modern Spain began. - -Before proceeding with the latter, a name and a tribunal detain -attention. The one is Torquemada. The other is the Inquisition. Burke -has described them both, as follows: - - * * * * * - -The Inquisition, established in Italy by Honorius III. in 1231, and in -France by St. Louis in 1233, was formally introduced into Spain by -Gregory IX. in 1235, by a Rescript of April 30th, addressed to Mongriu, -Archbishop-Administrator of Tarragona, confirming and explaining -previous Briefs and Bulls upon the subject of the repression of heresy; -and prescribing the issue of certain Instructions which had been -prepared at the desire of his holiness by a Spanish saint, the Dominican -Raymond of Penafort. From this time forward, Bulls on the subject of -the Inquisition into heresy were frequently issued; and the followers of -Dominic were ever the trusted agents of the Holy See. - -The first suggestion of the serious introduction of the Tribunal of the -Holy Office into Castile, at the end of the fifteenth century, is said -to have come from Sicily. An Italian friar bearing the suggestive name -of Dei Barberi, Inquisitor-general at Messina, paid a visit to his -sovereign Ferdinand at Seville in 1477, in order to procure the -confirmation of a privilege accorded to the Sicilian Dominicans by the -Emperor Frederic II., in 1233, by virtue of which the Inquisitors -entered into possession of one-third of the goods of the heretic whom -they condemned. This dangerous charter was confirmed in due course by -Ferdinand on the 2d of September, 1477, and by Isabella on the 18th of -October; and very little argument was required on the part of the -gratified envoy to convince his sovereign of the various temporal and -spiritual advantages that would follow the introduction of the Tribunal, -that had so long existed in an undeveloped form in Sicily and in Aragon, -into the dominions of his pious consort, Isabella of Castile. - -In the middle of the year 1480 there was as yet no court of the Holy -Inquisition established in Spain. At length, pressed by the Papal -Nuncio, by the Dominicans, by her confessor, most of all by her husband, -Isabella gave her consent; and at length, in August, 1483, the -Inquisition was established as a permanent tribunal. Tomas de Torquemada -was appointed Inquisitor-general of both Castile and Aragon. Subordinate -tribunals were constituted; new and more stringent regulations were -made; the victims smoked from day to day on the great stone altar of -the Quemadero. - -The life of Tomas de Torquemada is the history of contemporary Spain. -Born of a noble family, already distinguished in the Church by the -reputation of the cardinal his uncle, Tomas early assumed the habit of a -Dominican, and was in course of time appointed prior of an important -monastery at Segovia, and confessor to the young Princess Isabella. His -influence upon that royal lady was naturally great; his piety pleased -her; his austerity affected her; and his powerful will directed, if it -could not subdue, a will as powerful as his own. Brought up far away -from a court whose frivolities had no charm for her, and where, under -any circumstances, she would have been considered as a rival if not a -pretender, the counsels of her confessor, both sacred and secular, were -the most authoritative that she could expect to obtain. It has been -constantly asserted that the friar obtained from the princess a promise -that, in the event of her elevation to the throne of Castile, she would -devote herself to the destruction of heretics and the increase of the -power of the Church. Such a promise would have been but one of many -which such a confessor would have obtained from such a penitent, and -would have been but the natural result of his teaching. Nor is it -surprising that in the intrigues that preceded the death of Henry IV., -and the War of Succession that immediately followed it, the whole -influence of the priesthood should have been cast on the side of -Isabella and against her niece Joanna. For ten years, says the -biographer of his Order, the skillful hand of Torquemada cultivated the -intellect of Isabella; and in due course the propitious marriage with -Ferdinand of Aragon, far from removing his pupil from his sacerdotal -influence, brought him a new and an equally illustrious penitent. -Torquemada became the confessor of the king as well as of the queen. - -If the establishment of the Inquisition was the fulfillment of -Isabella’s vow, and the realization of the aspirations of her tutor, his -appointment as Inquisitor-general, although it necessitated the choice -of another confessor, did not by any means withdraw him from his old -sphere of influence. He ceased not to preach the destruction of the -Moslem, even as he was employed about the destruction of the Jew; and if -Isabella was the active patroness of the war in Granada, there was a -darker spirit behind the throne, ever preaching the sacred duty of the -slaughter of the infidel and the heretic of every race and nation. - -Torquemada was at once a politician and an enthusiast; rigid, austere, -uncompromising; unbounded in his ambition, yet content to sacrifice -himself to the cause that made him what he was. His moral superiority to -the Innocents and Alexanders at Rome, his intellectual superiority to -the Carrillos and the fighting bishops of Spain, gave him that enormous -influence over both queen and king which his consuming bigotry and his -relentless tenacity of purpose induced him to use with such dreadful -effect. Aggressive even in his profession of humility, Torquemada was -insolent, not only to his unhappy victims, but to his colleagues, to his -sovereigns, to his Holy Father at Rome. He was, perhaps, the only man in -Europe who was more masterful than Isabella, more bloodthirsty than -Alexander; and he was able to impose his own will on both queen and -pope. Rejecting in his proud humility every offer of the miter, he -asserted and maintained his ecclesiastical supremacy even over the -Primate of Spain. Attended by a body-guard of noble youths who were glad -to secure at once the favor of the queen and immunity from -ecclesiastical censure by assuming the habit of the Familiars of the -Holy Office, the great destroyer lived in daily dread of the hand of the -assassin. - -Fifty horsemen and two hundred foot-guards always attended him. Nor was -it deemed inconsistent with the purity of his own religious faith that -he should carry about with him a talisman, in the shape of the horn of -some strange animal, invested with the mysterious power of preventing -the action of poison. - -On the death of Torquemada in September, 1498, Don Diego Deza was -promoted to the office of Inquisitor-general of Spain. Yet the activity -of the Ecclesiastical Tribunal was rather increased than diminished by -the change of masters, and an attempt was made soon afterward to extend -its operations to Naples. But Gonsalvo de Cordova, who was then acting -as viceroy, took upon himself to disregard not only the demands of the -Inquisitors, but the orders of Ferdinand (June 30, 1504), and to -postpone the introduction of the new tribunal into the country that he -so wisely and so liberally governed. After the recall of his great -representative, some six years later, Ferdinand himself made another -attempt to establish the hated Tribunal in Italy in 1510. But even -Ferdinand did not prevail; and Naples retained the happy immunity which -it owed to the Great Captain. - -If no error is more gross than to suppose that the establishment of the -Inquisition was due to popular feeling in Spain, it is almost equally -false to assert that it was the work of the contemporary popes. Rome was -bad enough at the end of the fifteenth century; but her vast load of -wickedness need not be increased by the burden of sins that are not her -own. The everlasting shame of the Spanish Inquisition is that of the -Catholic kings. It is not difficult to understand why the poor and -rapacious Ferdinand of Aragon should welcome the establishment of an -instrument of extortion which placed at his disposal the accumulated -savings of the richest citizens of Castile. It is yet easier to -comprehend that Isabella, who was not of a temper to brook resistance to -authority in Church or State, should have consented to what her husband -so earnestly desired. The queen, moreover, was at least sincerely -religious, after the fashion of the day; and was constrained to follow -the dictates of her confessor in matters judged by him to be within his -spiritual jurisdiction, even while she was, as a civil ruler, -withstanding the Pope himself on matters of temporal sovereignty. - -It is the height of folly to brand Isabella as a hypocrite, because we -are unable to follow the workings of a medieval mind, or to appreciate -the curious religious temper--by no means confined to the men and women -of the fifteenth century--that can permit or compel the same person to -be devoted to Popery and to be at war with the Pope, and find in the -punctilious observance of ceremonial duty excuse or encouragement for -the gratification of any vice and the commission of any crime. But that -the nobility and people of Castile should have permitted the crown to -impose upon them a foreign and an ecclesiastical despotism, is at first -sight much harder to understand. No one reason, but an unhappy -combination of causes, may perhaps be found to explain it. - -The influence of the queen was great. Respected as well as feared by the -nobles, she was long admired and beloved by the mass of the people.[6] -The great success of her administration, which was apparent even by the -end of 1480; her repression of the nobility; her studied respect for the -Cortes; all these things predisposed the Castilians, who had so long -suffered under weak and unworthy sovereigns, to trust themselves not -only to the justice but to the wisdom of the queen. The influence of the -clergy, if not so great as it was in France or Italy, was no doubt -considerable, and, as a rule, though not always, it was cast on the side -of the Inquisition. Last and most unhappy reason of all, the nobility -and the people were divided; and, if not actually hostile, were at least -ever at variance in Castile. - -The first efforts of the new tribunal, too, were directed either against -the converted Jews, of whose prosperity the Christians were already -jealous, and for whose interested tergiversations no one could feel any -respect; or against the more or less converted Moslems, toward whom -their neighbors still maintained a certain hereditary antipathy. The New -Christians alone were to be haled before the new tribunal. The Old -Christians might trust in the queen, if not in their own irreproachable -lineage, to protect them from hurt or harm. - -The number of subordinate or subsidiary tribunals of the Holy Office was -at first only four; established at Seville, Cordova, Jaen, and Ciudad -Real. The number was gradually increased, during the reign of the -Catholic kings, to thirteen; and over all these Ferdinand erected, in -1483, a court of supervision under the name of the Council of the -Supreme, consisting of the Grand Inquisitor as President, and three -other subordinate ecclesiastics, well disposed to the crown, and ready -to guard the royal interests in confiscated property. - -One of the first duties of this tremendous Council was the preparation -of a code of rules or Instructions, based upon the Inquisitor’s Manual -of Eymeric, which had been promulgated in Aragon in the fourteenth -century. The new work was promptly and thoroughly done; and twenty-eight -comprehensive sections left but little to be provided for in the future. - -The prosecution of unorthodox Spanish bishops by Torquemada on the -ground of the supposed backslidings of their respective fathers is -sufficiently characteristic of the methods of the Inquisition to be -worthy of a passing notice. Davila, bishop of Segovia, and Aranda, -bishop of Calahorra, were the sons of Jews who had been converted and -baptized by St. Vincent Ferrer. No suspicion existed as to the orthodoxy -of the prelates, both of whom were men distinguished for their learning -and their piety. But it was suggested that their fathers had relapsed -into Judaism before they died. They had each, indeed, left considerable -fortunes behind them: and it was sought to exhume and burn their mortal -remains, and to declare the property--long in the enjoyment of their -heirs and successors--forfeited to the crown; and, in spite of a brief -of Innocent VIII., of the 25th of September, 1487, the attempt was made -by the Spanish Inquisitors. Both prelates sought refuge and protection -by personal recourse to Rome (1490). Bishop Davila, in spite of the -urgent remonstrances of Isabella herself, ultimately secured the -protection of Alexander VI. and was invested with additional dignities -and honors. Bishop Aranda was less fortunate. He was stripped of his -office and possessions, and died a prisoner in the castle of St. Angelo -in 1497. - -It was not only living or dying heretics who paid the penalty of their -unsound opinions. Men long dead, if they were represented by rich -descendants, were cited before the Tribunal, judged, condemned, and the -lands and goods that had descended to their heirs passed into the -coffers of the Catholic kings. The scandal was so great that Isabella -actually wrote to the Bishop of Segovia to defend herself against an -accusation that no one had ever presumed to formulate. “I have,” said -the queen, “caused great calamities, I have depopulated towns and -provinces and kingdoms, for the love of Christ and of His Holy Mother, -but I have never touched a maravedi of confiscated property; and I have -employed the money in educating and dowering the children of the -condemned.” - -This strange apology, which seems to have to some extent imposed upon -Prescott, is shown, by more recent examination of the State papers to be -a most deliberate and daring falsehood, and would go far to justify the -suggestion of Bergenroth that if Ferdinand never scrupled to tell direct -untruths and make false promises whenever he thought it expedient, Queen -Isabella excelled her husband in “disregard of veracity.” - -If the Holy Office had existed in Aragon in an undeveloped state from -the thirteenth to the fifteenth century, and if it was actually -introduced into Castile at the suggestion of an Inquisitor of the -Aragonese island of Sicily, the old independence of the inhabitants once -more asserted itself when the time arrived for the introduction of the -brand-new Castilian Tribunal into the old kingdom that is watered by the -Ebro. Saragossa, indeed, may be nearer to Rome than Toledo; but the -Catalan has ever been less submissive than his brother or cousin in -Castile; less obedient to authority; more impatient of royal and -ecclesiastical oppression. Yet Aragon, which had defied Innocent at -Muret, and vanquished Martin at Gerona, was no match for the inquisitors -of Ferdinand the Catholic. - -The Inquisition, as we have seen, had once before been established in -Aragon; but in one most important particular the new institution -differed from the old. In former days, even in the rare cases when the -heretic paid the penalty of his heterodoxy with his life, his property -passed to his heirs. The ecclesiastical tribunal of Ferdinand was not -only more efficient in the matter of burning or otherwise disposing of -accused persons; but the property of all doubtful Catholics, even of -those who were graciously permitted to live after their trial, was -absolutely forfeit to the crown. And the number of rich men, not only -converted Jews but prosperous Christians, whose orthodoxy failed to come -up to the new standard, was even in those days considered remarkable. - -Ferdinand at all times hated popular assemblies. He spent the greater -part of his time in Castile; and he saw as little as possible of the -people of Aragon. But in April, 1484, he summoned a Cortes at Saragossa, -and decreed by royal ordinance the establishment of the new tribunal. -The old constitutional spirit of the Aragonese seems to have evaporated; -and a degenerate justiciary was found to swear to support the -jurisdiction of the Inquisitors. Yet envoys and delegates of the Commons -of Aragon were dispatched to Castile, whither Ferdinand had promptly -retired, and also to Rome, to remonstrate against the new Institution, -and more especially against the new provisions for the forfeiture of the -property of the convicted. If these provisions, contrary to the laws of -Aragon, were repealed or suspended, the deputies “were persuaded,” and -there was a grim humor in the suggestion, “that the Tribunal itself -would soon cease to exist.” - -But the repression of heresy was far too profitable an undertaking to be -lightly abandoned; nor was Ferdinand of Aragon the man to abandon it; -and the envoys returned from an unsuccessful mission to Valladolid to -find a Quemadero already blazing at Saragossa. - -Yet the Aragonese were not at once reduced to subjection. A popular -conspiracy led to the assassination of the Inquisitor-general, Pedro de -Arbues, in spite of his steel cap and coat of mail, as he stood one day -at matins in the Cathedral of Saragossa (15th September, 1457); but this -daring crime served only to enrage Ferdinand and to strengthen the power -of the Inquisition. A most rigorous and indefatigable inquiry, which was -extended from Saragossa into every part of Aragon, was at once -undertaken; and an immense number of victims, chosen not only from among -the people, but from almost every noble family in Aragon, if it did not -appease the vengeance of the Inquisitors, gratified at least the avarice -of Ferdinand. Among the accused, indeed, was Don Jayme of Navarre, a -nephew of the King of Aragon--a son of Eleanor, queen of Navarre, and -her husband, Gaston de Foix--who was actually arrested and imprisoned by -the Holy Office; and discharged only after having done public penance, -as convicted of having in some way sympathized with the assassination of -Arbues. But it may be noted that the young prince was anything but a -favorite with his uncle, to whom this bit of ecclesiastical discipline -was no doubt very gratifying. - -But it was not only at Saragossa that opposition was offered to the -establishment of the new Tribunal. In every part of Aragon and of -Valencia; at Lerida, at Teruel, at Barcelona, the people rose against -this new exhibition of royal and priestly tyranny. And it was not for -fully two years, and after the adoption of the most savage measures of -repression both royal and ecclesiastical, that the Inquisition was -finally accepted in the kingdom of Aragon, and that Torquemada, -fortified by no less than two special Bulls, made his triumphal entry as -Inquisitor-general into Barcelona on the 27th of October, 1488. - -Among all the tens of thousands of innocent persons who were tortured -and done to death by the Inquisition in Spain, it is instructive to turn -to the record of one man at least who broke through the meshes of the -ecclesiastical net that was spread abroad in the country; for the mode -of his escape is sufficiently instructive. Ready money at command, but -not exposed to seizure, was the sole shield and safeguard against the -assaults of Church and State. Don Alfonso de la Caballeria was a Jew by -race, and a man who was actually concerned in the murder of the -Inquisitor Arbues; but his great wealth enabled him to purchase not only -one but two Briefs from Rome, and to secure the further favor of -Ferdinand. He was accused and prosecuted in vain by the Holy Office of -Aragon. He not only escaped with his life, but he rose to a high -position in the State, and eventually mingled his Jewish and heretic -blood with that of royalty itself. - -Various attempts were made by the Commons of Aragon to abate the powers -of the Inquisition; and at the Cortes of Monzon, in 1510, so vigorous a -remonstrance was addressed to Ferdinand that he was unable to do more -than avoid a decision by a postponement on the ground of desiring fuller -information; and two years later, at the same place, he was compelled to -sanction a declaration or ordinance, by which the authority assumed by -the Holy Office, in defiance of the Constitution of Aragon, was -specifically declared to be illegal; and the king swore to abolish the -privileges and jurisdiction of the Inquisition. Within a few months, -however, he caused himself to be absolved from this oath by a Papal -Brief; and the Inquisition remained unreformed and triumphant. But the -Aragonese had not yet entirely lost their independence, and a popular -rising compelled the king not only to renounce the Brief, so lately -received, but to solicit from the Pope a Bull (May 12, 1515), -exonerating him from so doing, and calling upon all men, lay and -ecclesiastical, to maintain the authority of the Cortes. Aragon was -satisfied. And the people enjoyed for a season the blessings of -comparative immunity from persecution. - -To recall the manifold horrors of the actual working of the Inquisition -in Spain would be a painful and an odious task. To record them in any -detail is surely superfluous; even though they are entirely denied by -such eminent modern writers as Hefele, in Germany, or Menendez Pelayo, -in Spain. The hidden enemy, the secret denunciation, the sudden arrest, -the unknown dungeon, the prolonged interrogatory, the hideous torture, -the pitiless judge, the certain sentence, the cruel execution, the -public display of sacerdotal vengeance, the plunder of the survivors, -innocent even of ecclesiastical offense--all these things are known to -every reader of every history. All other considerations apart, it is an -abuse of language to speak of the proceedings before the Inquisition as -a trial, for the tribunal was nothing but a Board of Conviction. One -acquittal in two thousand accusations was, according to Llorente, who -had access to all the records of the Holy Office in Spain, about the -proportion that was observed in their judicial findings. - -Statistics, as a rule, are not convincing, and figures are rarely -impressive; yet it may be added that, according to Llorente’s cautious -estimate, over ten thousand persons were burned alive during the -eighteen years of Torquemada’s supremacy alone; that over six thousand -more were burned in effigy either in their absence or after their death, -and their property acquired by the Holy Office; while the number of -those whose goods were confiscated, after undergoing less rigorous -punishments, is variously computed at somewhat more or somewhat less -than one hundred thousand. But it is obvious that even these terrible -figures give but a very feeble idea of the vast sum of human suffering -that followed the steps of this dreadful institution. For they tell no -tale of the thousands who died, and the tens of thousands who suffered, -in the torture chamber. They hardly suggest the anguish of the widow and -the orphan of the principal victims, who were left, bereaved and -plundered, to struggle with a hard and unsympathetic world, desolate, -poor, and disgraced. - -Nor does the most exaggerated presentment of human suffering tell of the -disastrous effects of the entire system upon religion, upon morals, upon -civil society at large. The terrorism, the espionage, the daily and -hourly dread of denunciation, in which every honest man and woman must -have lived, the boundless opportunities for extortion and for the -gratification of private vengeance and worldly hatred, must have -poisoned the whole social life of Spain. The work of the Inquisition, -while it tended, no doubt, to make men orthodox, tended also to make -them false, and suspicious, and cruel. Before the middle of the -sixteenth century, the Holy Office had profoundly affected the national -character; and the Spaniard, who had been celebrated in Europe during -countless centuries for every manly virtue, became, in the new world -that had been given to him, no less notorious for a cruelty beyond the -imagination of a Roman emperor, and a rapacity beyond the dreams of a -republican proconsul. - -Torquemada and Ferdinand may have burned their thousands and plundered -their ten thousands in Spain. Their disciples put to death millions of -the gentlest races of the earth, and ravaged without scruple or pity the -fairest and most fertile regions of the new Continent which had been -given to them to possess. - -As long as the Inquisition confined its operations to the Jews and the -Moors, the Old Christians were injured and depraved by the development -of those tendencies to cruelty and rapacity that lie dormant in the -heart of every man. But this was not the end. For when Spain at length -sheltered no more aliens to be persecuted and plundered in the name of -religion, and murder and extortion were forced to seek their easy prey -in the new world beyond the Atlantic Ocean, the Holy Office turned its -attention to domestic heresy; and the character of the Spaniard in -Europe became still further demoralized and perverted. Every man was -suspected. Every man became suspicious. The lightest word might lead to -the heaviest accusation. The nation became somber and silent. Religious -life was but a step removed from heresy. Religion died. Original thought -was above all things dangerous. The Spaniard took refuge in Routine. -Social intercourse was obviously full of peril. A prudent man kept -himself to himself, and was glad to escape the observation of his -neighbors. Castile became a spiritual desert. The Castilian wrapped -himself in his cloak, and sought safety in dignified abstraction. - -The Holy Office has done its work in Spain. A rapacious government, an -enslaved people, a hollow religion, a corrupt Church, a century of -blood, three centuries of shame, all these things followed in its wake. -And the country of Viriatus and Seneca, of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius, -where Ruy Diaz fought, and Alfonso studied, and where two warrior kings -in two successive centuries defied Rome temporal and Rome spiritual, and -all the crusaders of Europe--Spain, hardly conquered by Scipio or by -Cæsar, was enslaved by the dead hand of Dominic. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -THEIR CATHOLIC MAJESTIES - -THE BANISHMENT OF THE JEWS--INTERNATIONAL NEGOTIATIONS--THE SPANIARDS IN -ITALY--THE VICTORIES OF GONSALVO--THE BEGINNING OF A NEW ERA - - -The fall of Granada left the Catholic sovereigns free to turn their -attention more completely to the domestic affairs of the kingdom; and it -seems moreover to have increased the bigotry both of the Church and of -the Court, and to have added new zeal to the fury of the Inquisition. - -The conquest of the Moorish kingdom was said by pious ecclesiastics to -be a special sign or manifestation of the approval by Heaven of the -recent institution of the Holy Office. The knights and nobles, proud of -their military successes, may have attributed the victory to causes more -flattering to their valor, their skill, and their perseverance. The -common people, as yet not demoralized, but gorged with plunder, and -invited to occupy without purchase the fairest province in the -Peninsula, were little disposed to quarrel with the policy of Ferdinand; -and far from feeling any pity for the sufferings of the vanquished -Moors, they sighed for new infidels to pillage. And new infidels were -promptly found. - -The Inquisition so far had troubled itself but little with Christian -heretics. The early Spanish Protestantism of the thirteenth century had -died away. The later Spanish Protestantism of the sixteenth century had -not yet come into existence. Few men had done more than Averroes of -Cordova and Ramon Lull of Palma to awaken religious thought in Medieval -Europe; yet speculative theology has never been popular among the -Spanish people. It was against the Jews, renegade or relapsed, even more -than the avowedly unconverted, that the Holy Office directed all its -exertions until the end of the fifteenth century. By April, 1492, -although a great number of the unfortunate Hebrews had already found -their way to the Quemadero, there was still a very large Jewish -population in Spain, the most industrious, the most intelligent, the -most orderly, but, unhappily for themselves, the most wealthy of all the -inhabitants of the Peninsula. - -The Spanish Jews, as we have seen, were treated on the arrival of the -Arab conquerors not only with consideration, but with an amount of favor -that was not extended to them under any other government in the world; -nor was this wise liberality, as time went on, displayed only by the -Moslem in Spain. At the Christian courts of Leon, of Castile, and of -Catalonia, the Jews were welcomed as lenders of money and as healers of -diseases, and as men skilled in many industrial arts; and they supplied -what little science was required in northern Spain, while their brethren -shared in the magnificent culture and extended studies of Cordova. When -the rule of the Arab declined, and Alfonso el Sabio held his court at -southern Seville, the learned Jews were his chosen companions. They -certainly assisted him in the preparation of his great astronomical -tables. They probably assisted him in his translation of the Bible. - -Nor does this court favor appear to have caused any serious jealousy -among Christian Spaniards. The fellow-student of Alfonso X., the trusted -treasurer of Peter the Cruel, the accommodating banker of many a king -and many a noble--the Jew was for some time a personage of importance -rather than a refugee in the Peninsula. And during the whole of the -thirteenth century, while the Jews were exposed throughout western -Europe to the most dreadful and systematic persecutions, they enjoyed in -Spain not only immunity, but protection, not only religious freedom, but -political consideration. - -Under Alfonso XI. they were particularly regarded, and even under Peter -the Cruel, who, though he tortured and robbed his Hebrew treasurer, did -not at any time display his natural ferocity in any form of religious -persecution. Yet, as we are told that his rival and successor, Henry of -Trastamara, sought popular favor by molesting the Jews, it would seem -that already by the end of the fourteenth century they were becoming -unpopular in Castile. But on the whole, throughout the Peninsula, from -the time of James I. of Aragon, who is said to have studied ethics under -a Jewish professor, to the time of John II. of Castile, who employed a -Jewish secretary in the compilation of a national “Cancionero,” or -ballad book, the Jews were not only distinguished, but encouraged, in -literature and abstract science, as they had always been in the more -practical pursuits of medicine and of commerce. - -But in less than a century after the death of Alfonso X. the tide of -fortune had turned. Their riches increased overmuch in a disturbed and -impoverished commonwealth, and public indignation began to be displayed, -rather at their un-Christian opulence than at their Jewish faith. -Inquisition was made rather into their strongboxes than into their -theology; and it was their debtors and their rivals, rather than any -religious purists, who, toward the end of the fourteenth century, and -more especially in Aragon, stirred up those popular risings against -their race that led to the massacres and the wholesale conversions of -1391. The first attack that was made upon the persons and property of -the Jews was in 1388, and it was no doubt provoked by the preaching of -the fanatic archdeacon Hernando Martinez at Seville. But it was in -nowise religious in its character, and was aimed chiefly at the -acquisition and destruction of the property of the rich and prosperous -Hebrews. The outbreaks which took place almost simultaneously in all -parts of Spain were disapproved both by kings and councils. Special -judges were sent to the disturbed cities, and a considerable amount of -real protection was extended to the plundered people. No one said a word -about conversion; or at least the conversion was that of ancient Pistol, -the conversion of the property of the Jews into the possession of the -Christians. When the Jewish quarter of Barcelona was sacked by the -populace, and an immense number of Hebrews were despoiled and massacred -throughout the country, John of Aragon, indolent though he was, used his -utmost endeavors to check the slaughter. He punished the aggressors, and -he even caused a restitution of goods to be made to such of the victims -as survived. - -The preaching of St. Vincent Ferrer, during the early part of the -fifteenth century, was addressed largely to the Jews in Spain, but -little or no religious persecution seems to have been directed against -them in consequence of his harangues. On the contrary, we read of -friendly conferences or public disputations between Jewish and Christian -doctors in Aragon, where the Inquisition was, at least, nominally -established. Such conferences could hardly be expected to convince or -convert the advocates of either faith, but they tell at least of an -amount of toleration on the part of the Christian authorities of the day -that was certainly not to be found in Spain at the close of the century; -and there is no doubt that they were followed by a very large number of -conversions of the more malleable members of the Hebrew community. But -it is a far cry from St. Vincent Ferrer to the uncanonized Tomas de -Torquemada. - -Yet, even in outward conformity to the established religion, the Jews, -as time went on, found no permanent safety from persecution and plunder. -John II. indeed had little of the bigot in his composition; it was -Politics and not Persecution that, under his successor, engrossed the -attention of clergy and laity in Castile; but, as soon as the power of -Isabella was formally established, the destruction of all that was not -orthodox, Catholic, and Spanish became the keynote of the domestic -policy of the new government of Spain. - -The earliest efforts of the Spanish Inquisition were directed, as we -have seen, almost exclusively against those converted Jews, or the sons -and daughters of converts, who were known by the expressive name of New -Christians, a title applied also to Christianized Moslems, and which -distinguished both classes from the Old Christians or Cristianos Viejos, -who could boast of a pure Castilian ancestry. These New Christians, as a -whole, at the end of the fifteenth century, were among the richest, the -most industrious, and the most intelligent of the population, and they -were regarded with considerable envy by their poorer neighbors, whose -blue blood did not always bring with it either wealth or fortune. The -Rules and Regulations for the guidance of the Inquisitors were therefore -specially framed to include every possible act or thought that might -bring the members of the classes specially aimed at within the deadly -category of the Relapsed. If the “New Christian” wore a clean shirt, or -spread clean table-linen on a Saturday (Art. 4), if he ate meat in Lent -(7), observed any of the Jewish fasts (8-17), or sat at table with any -Jew of his acquaintance (19); if he recited one of the Psalms of David -without the addition of the Doxology (20), if he caused his child to be -baptized under a Hebrew name (23), he was to be treated as a renegade -and condemned to the flames. - -With every act of his life thus at the mercy of spies and informers, his -last end was not unobserved by the Dominicans and the Familiars of the -Holy Office. If in the article of death he turned his weary face (31) to -the wall of his chamber, he was adjudged relapsed, and all his -possessions were forfeit; or if the sorrowing children of even the most -unexceptionable convert had washed his dead body with warm water (32) -they were to be treated as apostates and heretics, and were at least -liable to suffer death by fire, after their goods had been appropriated -by the Holy Office or by the Crown. - -In the sentences which condemned to the stake, to confiscation, and to -penances which were punishments of the severest description, we find -enumerated such offenses as the avoiding the use of fat, and especially -of lard; preparing amive, a kind of broth much appreciated by the Jews; -or eating “Passover bread”; reading, or even possessing, a Hebrew Bible; -ignorance of the Pater noster and the Creed; saying that a good Jew -could be saved, and a thousand other equally harmless deeds or words. - -But with the professed and avowed Jew, unpopular as he may have been -with his neighbors, and exposed at times to various forms of civil and -religious outrage, the Holy Office did not directly concern itself. The -Hebrew, like the Moslem, was outside the pale even of Christian inquiry. - -There is no doubt that it was the success of the operations against the -Moors of Granada that suggested to Ferdinand and Isabella the -undertaking of a campaign, easier by far, and scarcely less lucrative, -against the unhappy descendants of Abraham who had made their home in -Spain. - -The annual revenue that was derived by the Catholic sovereigns from the -confiscations of the Inquisition amounted to a considerable income; and -the source as yet showed no signs of drying up. Yet cupidity, marching -hand in hand with intolerance--the Devil, as the Spanish proverb has it, -ever lurking behind the Cross--the sovereigns resolved upon the -perpetration of an act of State more dreadful than the most -comprehensive of the Autos da Fe. - -The work of the Holy Office was too slow. The limits of the Quemadero -were too small. Half a million Jews yet lived unbaptized in Spain. They -should be destroyed at a single blow. The Inquisition might be left to -reckon with the New Christians whose conversion was unsatisfactory. - -As soon as the Spanish Jews obtained an intimation of what was -contemplated against them, they took steps to propitiate the sovereigns -by the tender of a donative of thirty thousand ducats, toward defraying -the expenses of the Moorish war; and an influential Jewish leader is -said to have waited upon Ferdinand and Isabella, in their quarters at -Santa Fe, to urge the acceptance of the bribe. The negotiations, -however, were suddenly interrupted by Torquemada, who burst into the -apartment where the sovereigns were giving audience to the Jewish -deputy, and drawing forth a crucifix from beneath his mantle, held it -up, exclaiming, “Judas Iscariot sold his master for thirty pieces of -silver; Your Highnesses would sell him anew for thirty thousand; here he -is, take him and barter him away.” The extravagant presumption of the -Inquisitor-general would not perhaps have been as successful as it was -had it not been obvious to the rapacious Ferdinand that thirty thousand -ducats was a trifle compared with the plunder of the entire body of Jews -in Spain. Yet the action of Torquemada was no doubt calculated to affect -the superstitious mind of Isabella, and even the colder spirit of -Ferdinand. - -Whatever may have been the scruples of the Spanish sovereigns, the -fanaticism of the Spanish people had been at this critical juncture -stirred up to an unusual pitch of fury by the proceedings and reports of -the Holy Office in a case which has attracted an amount of attention so -entirely disproportionate to its apparent importance that it merits -something more than a passing notice. - -In June, 1490, a converted Jew of the name of Benito Garcia, on his way -back from a pilgrimage to Compostella, was waylaid and robbed near -Astorga, by some of the Christian inhabitants. A Jew, converted or -otherwise, was a legitimate object of plunder. The contents of his -knapsack not being entirely satisfactory, and the ecclesiastical -authorities sniffing sacrilege in what was supposed to be a piece of the -consecrated wafer, Garcia, and not the robbers, was arrested, subjected -to incredible tortures, and finally handed over to the local -inquisitors. - -His case was heard with that of other Conversos; first at Segovia and -afterward at Avila. Tortures were repeated. Spies were introduced in -various guises and disguises, but no confession could be extorted. - -At length, after a year and a half of such practices, the endurance of -one of the accused gave way--the dreadful story affords some slight -notion of the methods of the Inquisition--and the unhappy man invented a -tale in accordance with what was demanded of him; the crucifixion of a -Christian child; the tearing out of his heart, the theft of the Host -from a Christian Church, and a magical incantation over the dreadful -elements, directed against Christianity, and more particularly against -the Holy Office. The Tribunal having been thus satisfied of the guilt -of the accused, a solemn Auto da Fe was held at Avila, on the 16th of -November, 1491, when two of the convicts were torn to death with red-hot -pincers; three who had been more mercifully permitted to die under the -preliminary tortures were burned in effigy; while the remaining -prisoners were visited only with the slight punishment of strangulation -before their consignment to the inevitable fire. That no boy, with or -without a heart, could be found or invented, by the most rigorous -examination; that no Christian child had disappeared from the -neighborhood of the unhappy Jews at the time of their arrest--this -surprised no one. In matters of Faith such evidences were wholly -superfluous. Secura judícat Ecclesia. - -That these poor Hebrews should have suffered torture and death for an -imaginary sacrilege upon the person of an imaginary boy was indeed a -thing by no means unexampled in the history of religious fanaticism. But -the sequel is certainly extraordinary. With a view of exciting the -indignation of the sovereigns and of the people against the Jews at an -important moment, Torquemada devoted much attention to the publication -throughout Spain of the dreadful story of the murdered boy, the Niño of -La Guardia, the village where the crime is supposed to have taken place. -As to the name of the victim, the authorities did not agree. Some -maintained that it was Christopher, while others declared for John. But -the recital of the awful wickedness of the Jews lost none of its force -by adverse criticism. The legend spread from altar to altar throughout -the country. The Niño de la Guardia at once became a popular hero, in -course of time a popular saint; miracles were freely worked upon the -spot where his remains had not been found, and something over a century -later (1613) his canonization was demanded at Rome. - -His remains, it was asserted by Francisco de Quevedo, could not be found -on earth, only because his body as well as his soul had been -miraculously carried up to heaven, where it was the most powerful -advocate and protector of the Spanish monarchy. The story, moreover, has -been twice dramatized--once by Lope de Vega--and no less than three -admiring biographies of this imaginary martyr have been published in -Spain within the last forty years of this nineteenth century. - -At length from conquered Granada, on the 30th of March, 1492, the -dreadful edict went forth. By the 30th of July not a Jew was to be left -alive in Spain. Sisenand, indeed, nine hundred years before, had -promulgated such an edict. But the Visigoth had been too tender-hearted -to enforce it. Isabella, whose gentleness and goodness historians are -never tired of applauding, was influenced by no such considerations, and -the sentence was carried out to the letter. With a cruel irony, the -banished people were permitted to sell their property, yet forbidden to -carry the money out of the kingdom, a provision which has obtained the -warm approval of more than one modern Spanish historian, by whom it is -accepted as a conclusive proof that this wholesale depopulation did not -and could not diminish the wealth of Spain! - -Thus two hundred thousand Spaniards, men, women, and children of tender -years, rich and poor, men of refinement and of position, ladies reared -in luxury, the aged, the sick, the infirm, all were included in one -common destruction, and were driven, stripped of everything, from their -peaceful homes, to die on their way to some less savage country. For the -sentence was carried out with the most relentless ferocity. Every road -to the coast, we read, was thronged with the unhappy fugitives, -struggling to carry off some shred of their ruined homes. To succor them -was death; to pillage them was piety. At every seaport, rapacious -shipmasters exacted from the defenseless travelers the greater part of -their remaining possessions, as the price of a passage to some -neighboring coast; and in many cases the passenger was tossed overboard -ere the voyage was completed, and his goods confiscated to the crew. A -rumor having got abroad that the fugitives were in the habit of -swallowing jewels and gold pieces in order to evade the royal decree, -thousands of unhappy beings were ripped up by the greedy knife of the -enemy, on land or sea, on the chance of discovering in their mutilated -remains some little store of treasure. - -And thus, north, south, east, and west, the Jews straggled and struggled -over Spain; and undeterred by the manifold terrors of the sea, a vast -multitude of exiles, whose homes in Spain once lay in sunny Andalusia, -sought and found an uncertain abiding place in neighboring Africa. - -Of all Christian countries, it was in neighboring Portugal that the -greatest number of the exiles found refuge and shelter; until, after -five brief years of peace and comparative prosperity, the heavy hand of -Castilian intolerance once more descended upon them, and they were -driven out of the country, at the bidding of Isabella and her too -dutiful daughter, the hope of Portugal and of Castile. - -But to every country in Europe the footsteps of some of the sufferers -were directed. Not a few were permitted to abide in Italy and Southern -France; some of the most distinguished found a haven in England; many -were fortunate enough to reach the Ottoman dominions, where, under the -tolerant government of the Turk, they lived and prospered, and where -their descendants, at many of the more important seaports of the Levant, -are still found to speak the Castilian of their forefathers. - -That the edict of banishment was meant to be, as it so constantly was, a -doom of death, and not merely a removal of heretics, is clear from the -action of the Spanish sovereigns, who, at the instigation of Torquemada, -procured from the pliant Innocent VIII. a Bull enjoining the authorities -of every country in Christian Europe to arrest and send back to Spain -all _fugitive_ Jews under penalty of the Greater Excommunication. - -More than once, indeed, the demand for extradition was made. But save in -the case of the Portuguese Jews, on the second marriage of the Princess -Isabella to the reigning sovereign of that country, no foreign prince -appears to have paid any heed to this savage edict. Nor was it, as a -rule, of any material advantage, either at Rome or at Seville, that it -should be put in force. - -Avarice was perhaps the besetting sin of Rome in the fifteenth century; -nor was bigotry unknown throughout Western Europe. But in Spain, as the -century drew to a close, avarice and bigotry joined hand in hand, and -flourished under royal and noble patronage, preached by religion, -practiced by policy, and applauded by patriotism. It was not strange -that, under such teaching, the people of Castile should have rapidly -become demoralized, and that the great race should have begun to develop -that sordid and self-satisfied savagery which disgraced the name of the -Spaniard, in the heartless and short-sighted plunder of the new world -that lay before him. - -Yet in all human affairs there is something that too often escapes our -observation, to explain, if not to excuse, what may seem the most -dreadful aberrations of the better nature of man. And it may be that the -uncompromising religious spirit, which has had so enormous an influence -for evil and for good upon the Spanish people, is to some extent the -result of their Semitic environment of eight hundred years. - -Religious controversy indeed, between rival branches of the Christian -Church in the days of the Visigoths, developed religious animosities -before the first Moslem landed at Tarifa; yet the Arab and the Moor, -fired with the enthusiasm of a new and living faith, brought into their -daily life in Spain, in peace and in war, a deep and all-pervading -religious spirit--an active recognition of the constant presence of one -true God--unknown to the Roman or the Visigoth, which must have had an -enormous influence upon the grave and serious Spaniards who lived under -the rule of the Arab. - -Nor was the Moslem the only factor in this medieval development. In no -other country in Europe was the Jew, as we have seen, more largely -represented, and more powerful, for the first fifteen centuries of our -era, than in Spain, whether under Christian or Moslem masters. But the -direct and simple monotheism of the Hebrew and the Arab, while it had so -great a direct influence upon Spanish Christianity, provoked as part of -the natural antagonism to the methods of the rival and the enemy, the -counter development of an excessive Hagiolatry, Mariolatry, and -Sacerdotalism. - -It would be strange enough if the religious fervor which doomed to death -and torment so many tens of thousands of Semites in Spain should be -itself of Semitic suggestion. It is hardly less strange that the Greek -Renaissance, which revolutionized the Christian world, and whose -anti-Semitic influence to the present day is nowhere more marked than in -every department of religious thought, should by the irony of fate have -been forestalled by a writer, at once Spanish and Semitic; and when, by -the sixteenth century, the rest of modern Europe had been led by the -teaching of Averroes to accept the philosophy of Aristotle, Spain, the -earliest home of Hellenism, new born in Europe, had already turned again -to a religious Philistinism or Phariseeism of the hardest and most -uncompromising type, Semitic in its thoroughness, Greek only in its -elaborate accessories, and Spanish in its uncompromising rigor. - -Thus it was that the Arab and the Jew, parents, in some sense, of the -religious spirit of Ximenez and of Torquemada, became themselves the -objects of persecution more bitter than is to be found in the annals of -any other European nation. The rigors of the Spanish Inquisition, and -the policy that inspired and justified it, are not to be fully explained -by the rapacity of Ferdinand, the bigotry of Isabella, the ambition of -Ximenez, or the cruelty of Torquemada. They were in a manner the -rebellion or outbreak of the old Semitic spirit against the Semite, -the ignorant jealousy of the wayward disciple against the master -whose teaching has been but imperfectly and unintelligently -assimilated--perverted, distorted, and depraved by the human or devilish -element which is to be found in all religions, and which seems ever -striving to destroy the better, and to develop the worser part of the -spiritual nature of man. - -We now enter upon a period of European history which is but feebly -characterized by the term interesting, and which has been too accurately -chronicled and too severely investigated to be called romantic; when a -well-founded jealousy, or fear of the growing power of France, alone -supplies the key to the ever-changing foreign policy of the sovereigns -of Spain. Genuine State papers of the fifteenth century are by no means -numerous. In such of them, however, as are still extant, we find the -fear expressed over and over again that the kings of France would render -themselves “masters of the world,” would “establish a universal empire,” -or “subject the whole of Christendom to their dictation.” The best means -to avert such a danger appeared to contemporary statesmen to be the -foundation of another European State as a counterpoise. Ferdinand the -Catholic, ambitious, diplomatic, and capable, was the first prince who -undertook the enterprise. - -Within less than three years after the Inquisition had been established -at Seville, Louis XI. of France, the old rival and colleague of John II. -of Aragon, had died in Paris, August 30, 1483. He was succeeded by his -son Charles VIII., a young prince whose ignorance was only equaled by -his vanity, and was if possible exceeded by his presumption. With such -an antagonist, Ferdinand of Aragon was well fitted to deal, with -advantage to himself and to Spain. To win over the Duchess of Bourbon, -who had virtually succeeded to the government of France on the death of -Louis XI., and to marry his eldest daughter Isabella to the young King -Charles VIII., were accordingly the first objects of his negotiations. -But in spite of all the flattery lavished on the duchess, Ferdinand did -not succeed in obtaining the crown for the Infanta. A more richly -dowered bride was destined for the King of France, to whom the -acquisition of the province of Brittany was of far greater importance -than the doubtful friendship of Spain; and after much public and private -negotiation, the Spanish embassador was reluctantly withdrawn from Paris -in the summer of 1487 (29th of July). - -Disappointed in his dealing with the court of France, the ever-watchful -and persistent Ferdinand turned his eyes to England; and in the last -days of the year 1487 an embassador from the Spanish sovereigns, -Roderigo de Puebla, doctor of canon and civil law, arrived at the court -of London. Henry VII., who greatly desired to establish a closer -alliance with Spain, succeeded in flattering the new envoy, and -rendering him almost from the first subservient to his personal -interests. Yet the King of England and the Spanish embassador together -were no match for Ferdinand of Aragon. The negotiations between the -sovereigns were prolonged for two years, and in the end Henry was -worsted at every point. He had signed a treaty of offensive alliance -with Spain against France, with which power he wisely desired to -maintain friendly relations, and he had been prevailed upon to send some -English troops into Brittany to co-operate with a Spanish contingent -which never arrived, in the expulsion of the French from that country. -He had concluded further treaties of friendship and alliance with the -King of the Romans, who was actually encouraging Perkin Warbeck to -assert his claim to the crown of England, and with the Archduke Philip, -whom he personally and independently hated. And he had been forced to -content himself with the promise of a very modest dowry with the Spanish -princess who was affianced to his son Arthur, Prince of Wales. - -Relatively too, as well as positively, he had been falsely borne in -hand. Maximilian, who had been no less ready than Henry with his -promises to Ferdinand, did not send a single soldier into Brittany, but -endeavored to overreach Henry, Charles, and Ferdinand by a hasty -marriage--by proxy--with the young duchess, without the consent or -knowledge of either England or Spain. Yet this diplomatic victory over -the very astute Englishman did not satisfy Ferdinand and Isabella, who, -fearful lest they should “become the victims of their honesty” if they -permitted Maximilian to surpass them in political perfidy, immediately -renewed secret negotiations with France, and declared themselves ready -to abandon the king, the duchess, and the emperor. Charles, they -promised, should obtain what he wished, without risking the life of a -single soldier, if only he would marry a Spanish Infanta. And they -offered him, not Isabella, their eldest born, but their second daughter, -Joanna. - -Charles, however, had other views, and finding no cohesion or certainty -in Ferdinand’s league against him, strengthened his cause and his -kingdom by marrying the Duchess Anne of Brittany himself, and uniting -her hereditary dominions forever to the crown of France, a fair stroke -of policy for a foolish sovereign in the midst of crafty and -unscrupulous adversaries. (December 13, 1491.) - -Ferdinand replied by calling on Henry VII. to fulfill his engagements -and invade France. Henry accordingly, on the 1st of October, 1492, -landed an army at Calais, and marched on Boulogne; while Ferdinand, -without striking a blow either for Spain or for England, took advantage -of the English expedition to extort from the fears and folly of Charles -VIII. the favorable conditions of peace and alliance that were embodied -in the celebrated Convention which was signed at Barcelona on the 19th -of January, 1493. By this instrument it was provided that each of the -high contracting parties should mutually aid each other against all -enemies, the Vicar of Christ alone excepted, that the Spanish sovereigns -should not enter into an alliance with any other power, to the prejudice -of the interests of France, and finally, that the coveted provinces of -Roussillon and Cerdagne, whose recovery had long been one of the chief -objects of Ferdinand’s ambition, should be immediately handed over to -Spain. - -The services of England being no longer needed by the peninsular -sovereigns, Ferdinand abruptly broke off all further negotiations with -Henry VII.; the signatures of Ferdinand and Isabella to the treaty which -had already been ratified were disposed of by the simple but effective -expedient of cutting them out of the parchment with a pair of scissors; -and the contract of marriage between Arthur, Prince of Wales, and the -Infanta Catharine--having served its immediate diplomatic purpose--was -removed, for the time being,[7] from the sphere of practical politics. - -It is sufficiently characteristic of both parties, that in the treaty of -Barcelona, between Charles and Ferdinand, Naples, the true objective of -the young king of France, was not even mentioned. Ferdinand, well -content with the immediate advantages obtained by the treaty, was by no -means imposed upon by such vain reticence, while Charles, pluming -himself upon the success of his diplomacy in his treaties with England, -with Spain, and with the empire, looked forward to establishing himself -without opposition on the throne of Naples, on his way to assume the -Imperial purple at Constantinople. - -The kingdom of Naples, on the death of Alfonso the Magnanimous of -Aragon, had passed, we have already seen, to his illegitimate son -Ferdinand, who proved to be a tyrant of the worst Italian type, -worthless, contemptible and uninteresting. To expel this hated monarch, -for whom not one of his Neapolitan subjects would have been found to -strike a blow in anger, seemed but a chivalrous and agreeable pastime to -the vain and ignorant youth who had succeeded Louis XI. upon the throne -of France. His more experienced neighbors indeed smiled with some -satisfaction at his presumption. Yet, strange to say, the judgment of -the vain and ignorant youth was just; and the wise men, who ridiculed -his statesmanship, and scoffed at his military ineptitude, were doomed -to great and astounding disappointment. - -Before the French preparations for the invasion of Italy were fairly -completed, in the early spring of 1494, Ferdinand of Naples died, and -was succeeded by his son Alfonso I., the cousin-german of Ferdinand of -Aragon. This change of rulers altered in no way the wild schemes of -Charles of France, nor, although the new king of Naples was far less -odious than his father had been in his own dominions, did it make any -important change in the condition of Italian politics. By the month of -June, 1494, the French preparations were so far advanced that Charles -judged it opportune to acquaint his Spanish allies with his designs on -Naples, and to solicit their active co-operation in his undertaking. - -That Ferdinand should, under any possible circumstances, have been found -to spend the blood and treasure of Spain in assisting any neighbor, -stranger, or ally, in any enterprise, without direct advantage to -himself, was a supposition entirely extravagant. But that he should -assist a feather-headed Frenchman to dispossess a son of Aragon of a -kingdom from which his own ancestors had thrice driven a French -pretender, and where, if any change were to be made in the sovereignty, -his own rights of succession were far superior to the shadowy claims -derived from the hated Angevins: this was a thing so grotesquely -preposterous that it is hard to suppose that even Charles of France -should have regarded it as being within the bounds of possibility. -Ferdinand contented himself for the moment with expressions of -astonishment and offers of good advice, while Charles pushed forward his -preparations for the invasion of Italy. Don Alfonso de Silva, dispatched -by the court of Spain as a special envoy, came up with the French army -at Vienne, on the Rhone, toward the end of June, 1494. But he was -instructed rather to seek, than to convey, intelligence of any sort; nor -was it to be supposed that his grave remonstrances or his diplomatic -warnings should have had much effect upon the movements of an army that -was already on the march. - -In August, 1494, thirty thousand men, hastily equipped, yet well -provided with the new and dreadful weapon that was then first spoken of -as a cannon, crossed the Alps, and prepared to fight their way to -Naples. But no enemy appeared to oppose their progress. The various -States of Italy, jealous of one another, if not actually at war, were -unable or unwilling to combine against the invader; the roads were -undefended; the troops fled; the citizens of the isolated cities opened -their gates, one after the other, at the approach of the strange and -foreign invader. The French army, in fine, after a leisurely promenade -militaire through the heart of Italy, marched unopposed into Rome on the -last day of the year 1494. - -Ferdinand and Isabella had, in the first instance, offered no serious -opposition to the French enterprise, which appeared to them to be -completely impracticable; and they had awaited with diplomatic -equanimity the apparently inevitable disaster, which, without the loss -of a single Spanish soldier or the expenditure of a single maravedi, -would at once have served all the purposes of Ferdinand, and permitted -him to maintain his reputation for goodwill toward Charles, which might -have been useful in future negotiations. The astonishing success of the -French invasion took the Spanish sovereigns completely by surprise, and -it became necessary for Ferdinand to adopt, without haste, but with -prudent promptitude, a new policy at once toward France and toward the -various parties in Italy. - -The boldest and the most capable of all the sovereigns of Italy, in -these trying times, was the Spanish Pontiff, who by a singular fate has -been made, as it were, the whipping boy for the wickedness of nineteen -centuries of popes at Rome, and who is known to every schoolboy and -every scribbler as the infamous Alexander VI. Roderic Lenzuoli, or -Llançol, was the son of a wealthy Valencian gentleman, by Juana, a -sister of the more distinguished Alfonso Borja, bishop of his native -city of Valencia. - -Born at Valencia about 1431, Roderic gave evidence from his earliest -years of a remarkable strength of character, and of uncommon -intellectual powers. While still a youth, he won fame and fortune as an -advocate. But his impatient nature chafed at the moderate restraint of a -lawyer’s gown; and he was on the point of adopting a military career, -when the election of his uncle to the Supreme Pontificate as Calixtus -III. in 1455 opened for him the way to a more glorious future. At the -instance of the new Pope, Roderic adopted his mother’s name, in the -Italian form already so well known and distinguished at the court of -Rome, and taking with him his beautiful mistress, Rosa Vanozza, whose -mother he had formerly seduced, he turned his back upon his native -Valencia, and sought the fortune that awaited him at the capital of the -world. - -Unusually handsome in person, vigorous in mind and body, masterful, -clever, eloquent, unscrupulous, absolutely regardless of all laws, human -or divine, in the gratification of his passions and the accomplishment -of his designs, Roderic, the Pope’s nephew, was a man made for success -in the society in which he was to find himself at Rome. On his arrival -at the Papal court in 1456 he was received with great kindness by his -uncle, and was soon created Archbishop of Valencia, Cardinal of St. -Nicholas _in Carcere Tulliano_, and Vice-Chancellor of the Holy Roman -Church. On the death of Calixtus in 1458, the Cardinal Roderic Borgia -sank into comparative insignificance; and during the reigns of Pius II., -Paul II., Sixtus IV. and Innocent VIII. we hear little of him but that -he was distinguished for his amours, for his liberality in the disposal -of his fortune, and for his attention to public business. Having thus -secured the goodwill of many of the cardinals and the affection of the -Roman people, he had no difficulty, on the death of Innocent VIII. in -July, 1492, in making a bargain with a majority of the members of the -Sacred College, in accordance with which he was elected Pope, and took -the title of Alexander VI. on the 26th of August, 1492. - -His election was received by the Roman people with the utmost -satisfaction, and celebrated with all possible demonstrations of joy. -His transcendent abilities and his reckless methods could not fail to -render him obnoxious to his companions and his rivals in Italy; but it -is due rather to his foreign origin, his Valencian independence of -character, and above all his insolent avoidance of hypocrisy in the -affairs of his private life, that he has been made a kind of -ecclesiastical and Papal scapegoat, a Churchman upon whose enormous -vices Protestant controversialists are never tired of dilating, and -whose private wickedness is ingenuously admitted by Catholic apologists -as valuable for the purposes of casuistic illustration, as the one -instance of a divinely infallible judge whose human nature yet remained -mysteriously impure, and whose personal or individual actions may be -admitted to have been objectively blamable. - -To measure the relative depths of human infamy is an impossible as well -as an ungrateful task. It is not given to mortals to know the secrets of -the heart. But bad as Alexander undoubtedly was, he was possibly no -worse than many of his contemporaries in the Consistory, less wicked -than some of his predecessors at the Vatican. The guilt of greater and -more vigorous natures passes for superlative infamy with the crowd; but -when dispassionately compared with that of his immediate predecessors, -Sixtus IV. and Innocent VIII., the character of Alexander VI. is in -almost every respect less flagitious and more admirable. - -So unblushing was the venality of the Holy See in the fourteenth century -that sacred dialecticians and jurists of high authority were found -seriously to argue that the Pope was not subjectively capable of -committing the offense of Simony. It might have been contended with -equal justice that in every other respect he was at once above, or -without, the scope of the entire moral law. Nor can it be said that the -fifteenth century brought any serious amendment. - -From the death of Benedict XI., in 1303, to the death of Alexander VI., -in 1503, the night was dark before the inevitable dawn; and in every -phase of human depravity, in every development of human turpitude, in -arrogance, in venality, in cruelty, in licentiousness, medieval Popes -may be found pre-eminent among contemporary potentates. Thus, if the -wickedness of Alexander was extravagant, it was by no means -unparalleled, even among the Popes of a single century. His cruelty was -no greater than that of Urban VI., or of Clement VII., or of John XXII. -His immorality was, at least, more human than that of Paul II. and of -Sixtus IV., nor were his amours more scandalous than those of Innocent -VIII. His sacrilege was less dreadful than that of Sixtus IV. His -covetousness could hardly have exceeded that of Boniface IX.; his -arrogance was less offensive than that of Boniface VIII. If he was -unduly subservient to Ferdinand and Isabella in his toleration of the -enormities of Torquemada, his necessities as an Italian sovereign -rendered the Spanish alliance a matter of capital importance. As a civil -potentate and as a politician, he was not only wiser, but far less -corrupt than Sforza, less rapacious than Ferdinand, more constant than -Maximilian of Germany, less reckless than Charles of France. His -administrative ability, his financial enlightenment, his energy as -regards public works, were no less remarkable than his personal -liberality, his affability, and his courage. His division of the New -World by a stroke of the pen was an assumption of imperial power which -was at least justified by the magnitude of its success. As he sat in his -palace on the Mons Vaticanus, he was the successor, not of Caligula, but -of Tiberius--not of Commodus, but of Diocletian. - -Of the misfortunes of his eldest son, created by Ferdinand Duke of -Gandia; of the wickedness of his second son, the fifteenth century -Cæsar, who succeeded his father as Cardinal Archbishop of Valencia; of -the profligacy of his daughter, so unhappily named Lucretia; of the -marriage of his youngest son Geoffrey to a daughter of Alfonso of -Naples, as a part of the treaty of alliance between the kingdom of the -Two Sicilies and the States of the Church, in 1494; of the alliance -between Alexander and Bajazet, and the poisoning of the Sultan’s -brother, Zem, after thirteen years’ captivity, on receipt of an -appropriate fee; of the elevation of a facile envoy to the full rank of -Cardinal, to please the Grand Turk; of all these things nothing need be -said in this place. - -We are more immediately concerned to know that on New Year’s Day, 1495, -Pope Alexander VI., a refugee, if not actually a prisoner, in the Castle -of St. Angelo, was fain to accept the terms that were imposed upon him -by the victorious Frenchmen--masters for the nonce of Italy and of Rome. - -As Charles VIII. was marching through Italy, and was approaching, all -unopposed, the sacred city of Rome, Alexander VI., anxious at all -hazards to obtain the assistance of his countrymen in the hour of -danger, had sent an envoy to the Spanish court representing the critical -state of affairs in Italy, assuring the king and queen of his constant -goodwill, in spite of certain disputes as to the Papal authority in -Spain, and conveying to them, with other less substantial favors, the -grant of the Tercias, or two-ninths of the tithes throughout all the -dominions of Castile, an impost which, until the middle of the present -century, formed a part of the revenues of the Spanish monarchy. He also -conceded to the Spanish crown the right of dominion over the whole of -northern Africa, except Fez, which had been given to the King of -Portugal. - -A projected marriage between the Duke of Calabria, eldest son of the -King of Naples, and the Infanta Maria, daughter of Ferdinand and -Isabella, served to give the King of Spain an opportunity for -negotiating with the Neapolitan court; and Ferdinand at the same time -dispatched the celebrated Garcilaso de la Vega as his embassador, with -instructions to return the most comforting assurances to the Pope at -Rome. Yet he refrained from making any definite promises, or from -committing himself to any definite policy. He was not a man to do -anything rashly; and he preferred to await the course of events. -Meanwhile, having sent a second mission from Guadalajara to the French -court or camp, with good advice for his young friend and ally Charles -VIII., Ferdinand betook himself with Isabella to Madrid, where the -Spanish sovereigns devoted themselves to the preparation and equipment -of an army to be dispatched at an opportune moment to any part of Italy -where subsequent events might render its presence necessary. As, for -various reasons, it was impossible that either Ferdinand or Isabella -should accompany their army abroad, it became necessary to select a -general. Among all the skillful leaders and gallant knights who had -signalized themselves in the wars of Granada, it was somewhat difficult -to decide upon a commander. But Isabella had never lost sight of -Gonsalvo de Cordova, in whom she discerned traces of rare military -talent; and from the moment the Sicilian expedition was planned she -determined that he should be captain-general of the royal forces. The -greater experience and apparently superior claims of many who had -distinguished themselves in battle against the Moors were urged by -Ferdinand without avail. The command was given to Gonsalvo de Cordova. - -But while the Spanish fleet, under the gallant Count of Trivento, was -riding at anchor at Alicante, and Gonsalvo was preparing to embark his -army on board the ships in that harbor, the Spanish sovereigns -dispatched a final embassy to Charles in Italy. On the 28th of January, -1495, as the king was leaving Rome on his way toward Naples, the -embassadors, Juan de Albion and Antonio de Fonseca, arrived at the -Vatican. They found Pope Alexander smarting under the humiliation of his -recent treaty with the invader, and willing to assist them in any scheme -for his discomfiture. They accordingly followed the French army with all -speed, overtook it within a few miles of Rome, and immediately demanded -an audience of Charles, even before his troops had come to a halt. They -delivered up to him their credentials as he was riding along, and -peremptorily required him to proceed no further toward Naples. The -haughty tone of the Spaniards, as may be supposed, excited the greatest -indignation in the breast of Charles and those who surrounded him; high -words arose on both sides, and finally Fonseca, giving way to a -simulated transport of rage, produced a copy of the once prized treaty -of Barcelona, tore it to pieces, and threw down the fragments at -Charles’s feet. Paul Jove seems to think that this violent and -unjustifiable conduct on the part of the Spanish embassador was entirely -unpremeditated; but it is certain that the whole scene had been -preconcerted with either Ferdinand or the Pope. Zurita and the other -chroniclers are silent on the point, but Peter Martyr in one of his -letters affirms that the mutilation of the treaty in Charles’s presence -was included in the secret instructions given to Fonseca by Ferdinand. - -The envoys, as was expected, were promptly ordered to quit the French -camp; and retiring with all speed to Rome, they hastened to transmit to -Spain the earliest intelligence of the success of their mission. They -were also permitted to inform their sovereigns of the new honor that had -been conferred upon them by his Holiness Alexander VI., in the shape of -the grant to them and to their heirs forever on the throne of Spain of -the title of “Catholic Kings.” - -Meanwhile Charles VIII. had reached Naples, which had at once opened its -gates to the invaders, and the Castel Nuovo and the Castel d’Uovo were -reduced to submission by their well-served artillery. King Alfonso -abdicated the crown, and Fabricio Colonna ravaged the whole kingdom of -Naples to the very gates of Brindisi, dispersing the little band of -troops that had been collected by Don Cæsar of Aragon, illegitimate -brother of the king; while Perron dei Baschi and Stuart d’Aubigny -overran the whole country almost without striking a blow; and the -greater part of the Neapolitan nobility gave their adhesion to the -French. Nothing, however, could be more impolitic or more ungrateful -than the manner in which Charles made use of his unexpectedly acquired -authority, and it soon became evident that the new state of affairs in -Naples would not be of very long duration. The moment for the judicious -interference of Ferdinand of Aragon had not been long in arriving. - -The conduct of the French at Naples showed pretty clearly to the -Italian States the mistake they had made in permitting Charles to enter -the country, and they were not slow to accept the suggestions of the -Spanish embassador, Don Lorenzo Suarez de Mendoza y Figueras, that they -should form a league with the object of expelling the French from Italy. -The attitude of the Duke of Orleans, who had remained at Asti, toward -the duchy of Milan, and the favorable reception accorded by Charles to -Giovanni Trivulzio, Cardinal Fregosi, and Hybletto dei Fieschi, the -chiefs of the banished nobles, and the sworn enemies of Ludovico Sforza, -showed that prince how little he had to expect from the French alliance; -and the conduct of Charles toward the Florentines, and indeed toward -every government whose dominion he had traversed throughout Italy, -terrified and enraged every statesman from Milan to Syracuse. - -The envoys of the various states assembled at Venice. The deliberations -in the council chamber were brief and decisive; and such was the secrecy -with which the negotiations were conducted that the astute statesman and -historian Philip de Commines, who then represented France at the court -of Venice, remained ignorant that any league or convention was even -contemplated by the various powers, until he was informed by the Doge -Agostino Barberigo, on the morning of the 1st of April, 1495, that the -treaty had been signed on the previous day. The avowed objects of this -Most Holy League, which was entered into by Spain, Austria, Venice, -Milan and the Court of Rome, were the recovery of Constantinople from -the Turks, and the protection of the interests of the Church; but the -secret articles of the treaty, as may be supposed, went much further, -and provided that Ferdinand should employ the Spanish armament, now on -its way to Sicily, in re-establishing his kinsman on the throne of -Naples; that a Venetian fleet of forty galleys should attack the French -positions on the Neapolitan coasts, that the Duke of Milan, the original -summoner, should expel the French from Asti, and blockade the passage of -the Alps, so as to prevent the arrival of further re-enforcements, and -that the Emperor and the King of Spain should invade France on their -respective frontiers, while the expense of all these warlike operations -should be defrayed by subsidies from the allies. The Sultan Bajazet II., -though not included in the League, offered, and was permitted, to assist -the Venetians both by sea and land against the French. Thus we see the -strange spectacle of the Pope and the Grand Turk--the Prince of -Christendom and the Prince of Islam--united against the first Christian -Power of Europe, under the leadership of The Most Christian King. - -Within six weeks of the signature of this important treaty, Charles -VIII. of France had caused himself to be crowned at Naples, with -extraordinary pomp, not only as king, but as emperor; and, having thus -gratified his puerile vanity, he abandoned his fantastic empire, and -flying from the dangers that threatened him in Italy he returned to -Paris. His army in Naples was intrusted to his cousin, Gilbert de -Bourbon, Duc de Montpensier, who was invested with the title of viceroy, -and instructed by the fugitive king to maintain his position in the -country against all opponents. - -It is not within the scope of this history to give any detailed account -of the retreat of the French through Italy, of the wonderful passage of -the Apennines at Pontremoli, and the still more wonderful victory of -Fornovo on the Taro, when the French, whose entire force did not exceed -ten thousand soldiers, completely routed the Italian army of thirty-five -thousand men, under the command of Gonzago, marquis of Mantua. The -French forces that remained in southern Italy were doomed to a very -different fate. The command of the French army had been intrusted to the -celebrated Stuart d’Aubigny, a knight of Scottish ancestry, who had been -invested by Charles VIII. with the dignity of Constable of France, and -who was accounted one of the most capable officers in Europe. But a -greater captain than D’Aubigny was already on his way from Castile, who -was in a single campaign to restore the reputation of the Spanish -infantry to the proud position which they had once occupied in the -armies of ancient Rome. - -Landing at Reggio in Calabria, on the 26th of May, 1495, with a force of -all arms not exceeding five thousand fighting men, Gonsalvo de Cordova -speedily possessed himself of that important base of operations, -established himself on the coast, captured several inland towns, was -victorious in many skirmishes, and would soon have overrun the whole of -Calabria, had not the rashness of Frederic, the young king of Naples, -who had succeeded but a few months before to the crown which Alfonso had -abdicated after a reign of less than one year, led to a disastrous check -at Seminara. But Gonsalvo rapidly reorganized his army, and showing -himself, like a great general, no less admirable in repairing a defeat -than in taking advantage of a victory, he had kept D’Aubigny so -completely in check that he had been unable even to go to the assistance -of Montpensier, who was in sore straits in Naples. The citizens soon -opened their gates to their lawful sovereign, and Montpensier retreated -with his remaining forces to Avella, on the banks of the Lagni, twenty -miles northeast of the city of Naples, whither Gonsalvo promptly marched -to besiege him. Having received intelligence in the course of his -march--Gonsalvo was ever well informed--that a strong body of French, -with some Angevin knights and nobles, were on their way to effect a -junction with D’Aubigny, he surprised them by a night attack in the -fortified town of Lino, where he captured every one of the Angevin -lords, no less than twenty in number, and immediately marching off to -Avella with his spoils and prisoners, and an immense booty, he arrived -at Frederic’s camp early in July, just thirteen months after their -separation on the disastrous field of Seminara. - -On hearing of Gonsalvo’s approach, the king marched out to meet him, -accompanied by Cæsar Borgia, the Papal Legate, and many of the principal -Neapolitan nobles and commanders, who greeted the victorious Castilian -with the proud title of “The Great Captain,” by which he was already -known to some of his contemporaries, and by which he has ever since been -distinguished by posterity. At Avella he found a re-enforcement of five -hundred Spanish soldiers, a welcome addition to his small force, which -amounted on his arrival to only two thousand one hundred men, of whom -six hundred were cavalry. With such an army, less numerous than a modern -German regiment, did Gonsalvo overrun Calabria, out-general the most -renowned French commanders, and defeat their gallant and -well-disciplined forces, emboldened by uninterrupted success. - -The siege operations at Avella, which had been conducted without energy -by the Neapolitans, received a new impetus from the presence of the -Spaniard, who displayed such skill and vigor that in a few days the -French, defeated at every point, were glad to sue for terms, and on the -21st of July, 1496, signed a capitulation which virtually put an end to -the war. It was meet that Gonsalvo should now pay a visit to his -countryman at the Vatican, and having, on his way to Rome, delivered the -town of Ostia from the dictatorship of a Basque adventurer of the name -of Guerri, the last remaining hope of the French in Italy, he was -received by Alexander VI. with such splendor that his entry into the -city is said to have resembled rather the _triumph_ of a victorious -general into ancient Rome than the visit of a modern grandee. - -The streets were lined with enthusiastic crowds, the windows were filled -with admiring spectators, the very tops of the houses were covered with -lookers-on, as Gonsalvo marched into and through the city, preceded by -bands of music, and accompanied by his victorious army. The entire -garrison of Ostia, with Manuel Guerri at their head, mounted on a -wretched horse, was led captive to the Vatican, where Roderic Borgia, in -the full splendor of his tiara and pontifical robes, and surrounded by -his cardinals, sat on his throne awaiting the coming of his victorious -countryman. When Gonsalvo reached the foot of the throne, he knelt down -to receive the pontifical benediction, but Alexander raised him in his -arms, and presented to him the Golden Rose, the highest and most -distinguished honor that a layman could receive from the hands of the -sovereign Pontiff. - -The Great Captain now returned to Naples, into which city he made an -entry scarcely less splendid than that into Rome; and he received at the -hands of Frederic more substantial honors than those of a golden rose, -in the shape of the dukedom of Santangelo, with a fief of two towns and -seven dependent villages in the Abruzzo. From Naples the new duke sailed -for Sicily, which was then in a state of open insurrection, in -consequence of the oppressive rule of Giovanni di Nuccia, the Neapolitan -viceroy. By the intervention of Gonsalvo, the inhabitants were satisfied -to return to their allegiance; and order was restored without the -shedding of a single drop of blood. After some further services to the -state, and to the cause of peace, services both diplomatic and military, -in Naples, in Sicily and in Calabria, adding in every case to his -reputation as a soldier and a statesman, and above all as a great -Castilian gentleman, Gonsalvo returned to his native Spain, where he was -received with the applause and respect that is not always granted to -great men by their own sovereigns, or even by their own countrymen. - -His last service to King Frederic and his people, ere he quitted the -country, was no less honorable than wise. Frederic was engaged in the -siege of the last city in the kingdom of Naples that refused to -recognize the dominion of Aragon, the ancient and noble city of Diano, -whose inhabitants, vassals of that Prince of Salerno who was attached -to the Angevin cause, refused to listen to the terms which were -proposed. Gonsalvo took charge of the operations; and the citizens, -convinced of the hopelessness of holding out any longer against so -vigorous a commander, surrendered a few days afterward at discretion. -Gonsalvo, whether touched at their bravery and their forlorn condition, -or merely being adverse from severity for which he saw no reason, -obtained from the king favorable terms for the garrison. - -The expulsion of the French from Naples put an end, as might have been -supposed, to The Most Holy League. For the high contracting parties, -finding themselves secure from immediate danger, conceived themselves no -longer bound by its provisions. Maximilian, ever penniless and generally -faithless, had made no attempt to engage in any operations on the French -frontier, nor had any one of the allies contributed to defray the heavy -charges incurred by the Spanish sovereigns in fulfilling their part of -the agreement. The Venetians were rather occupied in securing for -themselves as much of the Neapolitan territory as they could acquire, by -way of indemnification for their own expenses. The Duke of Milan had -already made a separate treaty with Charles VIII. Each member of the -league, in fact, after the first alarm had subsided, had shown himself -ready to sacrifice the common cause to his own private advantage; and -Ferdinand of Aragon, who had already suspended his operations on the -frontiers of Spain in October, 1496, had no difficulty in agreeing to a -further truce as regarded Naples and Italy, which was signed on the 5th -of March, 1497. - -The Spaniards had borne the entire burden of the late war. They had -been virtually abandoned by their allies, and their unassisted -operations had led to the deliverance of Naples, to the safety of the -Italian States, and the humiliation and the defeat of the French. Their -immediate objects having been thus happily accomplished, Ferdinand and -Isabella proposed to Charles VIII., without shame or hesitation, that -the French and Spaniards should enter into an immediate treaty of -alliance, with a view to drive out the reigning sovereign of Naples, and -divide his kingdom between themselves! Meanwhile the Castilian envoy to -the Holy See endeavored to induce Alexander VI. to withhold the -investiture of his kingdom from Frederic, the new sovereign of Naples, -on the ground that he was friendly to the Angevin party in Italy, the -hereditary enemies of Spain. But Alexander paid no heed to Garcilaso de -la Vega. Charles showed himself not only willing but eager to treat with -Fernando de Estrada; but unwilling at once to abandon all his claims to -Italian sovereignty, he offered to cede Navarre to Ferdinand, and keep -all Naples to himself. Proposals and counter proposals thus passed -between France and Spain; but before any definite programme had been -agreed to, the negotiations were cut short by the sudden death of the -French monarch, in the tennis court at Amboise, on the eve of Easter, -1498. - -The success of the Spanish arms under Gonsalvo de Cordova in Italy was -but the beginning of a long career of triumph. From the great victory at -Seminara, in 1503, to the great defeat of Rocroy, in 1643, the Spanish -infantry remained unconquered in Europe. The armies of Castile had been, -indeed, as Prescott has it, “cooped up within the narrow limits of the -Peninsula, uninstructed and taking little interest in the concerns of -the rest of Europe.” But the soldiers and sailors of Aragon and -Catalonia had fought with distinction, not only in Italy and in Sicily, -but in the furthest east of Europe, for two hundred years before the -Great Captain of the United Kingdom set foot on the shores of Calabria. -Yet the victories of Gonsalvo were the beginning of a new era, and his -life is interesting, not only as that of a brave soldier and an -accomplished general, who flourished at a very important period of the -history of Europe; but it is further and much more interesting as being -the history of a man who united in himself many of the characteristics -of ancient and modern civilization, and who himself appears as a sort of -middle term between medieval and modern times. - -In personal valor, in knightly courtesy, in gaudy display, he was of his -own time. In astute generalship, and in still more astute diplomacy, an -envoy not an adventurer, the servant and not the rival of kings, he -belongs to a succeeding age, when the leader of a victorious army is -prouder to be a loyal subject than a rash rebel. The Castilian lords of -earlier days had ever been brave knights; their followers had ever been -hardy and untiring combatants. But Gonsalvo was not only a tactician, -but a strategist. The men whom he commanded were soldiers. Newly armed -and admirably disciplined, the regiments were no longer the followers of -some powerful nobleman; they formed a part of the national army of -Spain. The short sword of their Celtiberian ancestors was once more -found in their hands. The long lances of the Swiss mercenaries were -adopted with conspicuous success. The drill-sergeant took the place of -the minstrel in the camp. - -Nor was this revolution in the art of war confined to the conduct of the -Spanish troops in the field. Before the close of the campaign a national -militia, or rather a standing army, had taken the place of the brave but -irregular levies of medieval Spain. A royal ordinance regulated the -equipment of every individual, according to his property. A man’s arms -were declared free from seizure for debt, even by the Crown, and smiths -and other artificers were restricted, under severe penalties, from -working up weapons of war into articles of more pacific use. In 1426 a -census was taken of all persons capable of bearing arms; and by an -ordinance issued at Valladolid, on February 22d of the same year, it was -provided that one out of every twelve inhabitants, between twenty and -forty-five years of age, should be enlisted for the service of the -State, whether in the conduct of a foreign war or the suppression of -domestic disorder. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -UNITED SPAIN - -THE DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD--VASCO DA GAMA--THE ROYAL -MARRIAGES--DREAMS OF EMPIRE--THE DEATH OF ISABELLA--FERDINAND’S END - - -The reign of Ferdinand and Isabella was made immemorial through Columbus -and his discovery. The man and the event will, in subsequent chapters, -be considered at length. For the present it will suffice to note that on -his return from the New World, after being loaded with honors, a -question arose as to Isabella’s right to confer the dignities thus -bestowed--Portugal claiming the territory by reason of an anterior grant -from the Pope, who, in common with all other parties, believed it to be -part of India. - -The question was referred to a Junta of learned men of both nations, at -the same time that application was made to the reigning Pope, Alexander -VI., concerning it. The junta decided that the discoveries of Columbus -were not included in the Portuguese grant; and his Holiness finally, as -he conceived, terminated the dispute by drawing a line across the -Atlantic, from pole to pole, and adjudging all lands discovered on the -east of that line to Portugal, all on the west to Castile. - -In connection with this it should be noted that, in 1497, Manuel of -Portugal sent Vasco da Gama with three ships to double the Cape of Good -Hope, with a view to tapping India. In the month of November, Gama -successfully doubled the formidable Cape, and sailed up the eastern -coast of Africa, as far as Mozambique. Here he found a Moor from Fez, -who, acting as interpreter between him and the natives, facilitated the -conclusion of a treaty, in virtue of which the King of Mozambique was to -furnish the adventurous navigators with pilots well acquainted with the -course to India. But, while they were taking in wood and water, a -quarrel arose with the natives, to whom the fault is of course imputed. -The pilots made their escape, and hostilities ensued. They did not last -long; the terrors of the Portuguese firearms soon compelling the -Africans to submit. Another, and, as the king assured Gama, a better -pilot was supplied, and on the 1st of April, 1498, he sailed from -Mozambique. - -The new pilot proved quite as ill-disposed as his predecessors, -endeavoring to betray the fleet into the power of his countrymen at -Mombaza; and being alarmed with apprehensions of detection, by the -bustle apparent in the crew of Gama’s ship, which had accidentally -grounded, he also made his escape. It was not till they reached Melinda -that they found really friendly natives. From that port Gama at last -obtained a pilot who steered him right across the gulf to the coast of -Malabar. - -The first place in India made by the Portuguese was Calecut. Here Gama -announced himself as an embassador sent by the King of Portugal to -negotiate a treaty of alliance with the sovereign, the zamorin of -Calecut, one of the most powerful princes of that part of Hindustan, to -establish commercial relations, and to convert the natives to -Christianity. How far this last object of his mission was agreeable to -the bigoted Hindus, or the equally bigoted Muhammadan conquerors, who -were then the masters of those wealthy regions, we are not distinctly -told by the Portuguese historians; but the zamorin appears in the first -instance to have received Gama well, and been upon the whole pleased -with his visit. This friendly intercourse was interrupted, as we are -assured, by the intrigues of the Moors or Arabs, who, being in -possession of the pepper trade, and indeed of the whole spice trade, -were jealous of interlopers. Quarrels arose, and some acts of violence -were committed. They ended, however, in Gama’s gaining the advantage, -and friendship was restored between him and the zamorin. He reached -Portugal in July, 1499, after a two years’ voyage, and was, like -Columbus in Spain, loaded with honors. - -We may now return to Ferdinand and Isabella. This was the brightest -period of their lives. The repulse of Charles VIII., and the victories -of Gonsalvo, added fresh luster to their reign. Moreover, through -measures then undertaken, the unconverted Moors were subdued, and the -French provinces were regained; but, over and above all, a new world had -been discovered, and marriages, seemingly the most fortunate, were -concluded: Ferdinand and Isabella’s son and heir, Don John, having -married the daughter of the Emperor Maximilian; their second daughter -Joanna, Philip, the son and heir of that monarch, by Mary of Burgundy, -and already, in right of his deceased mother, sovereign of the rich and -fertile Netherlands; the third, Katharine, was affianced to Arthur, -Prince of Wales; and Manuel, duke of Beja, having succeeded to his -cousin John II. of Portugal, despite all intrigues in favor of the -illegitimate Don George, solicited and obtained the hand of the eldest -Infanta, the widow of the Prince of Portugal. - -The first to be celebrated of all these royal marriages was that of the -Princess Isabella with Alfonso, the heir to the crown of Portugal, which -took place in the autumn of the year 1490, and which was apparently -calculated to lead to the happiest results. But the magnificent wedding -festivities at Lisbon were scarce concluded when the bridegroom died, -and the widowed princess returned disconsolate to her mother (January, -1491). - -The marriage of John, prince of Asturias, was the next, and apparently -the most important alliance that engaged the attention of his parents; -and, moved by many considerations of policy and prestige, they turned -their thoughts to far-away Flanders. Maximilian of Hapsburg, the titular -sovereign of the Holy Roman Empire, had, by his first wife, Mary, a -daughter of Charles the Bold, and in her own right Duchess of Burgundy, -been made the father of two children, Philip, born in 1478, and -Margaret, in 1480. Their mother, the beautiful empress, died in 1482; -and Philip, on attaining his legal majority at the age of sixteen, -assumed, in her right, the government of the Low Countries in 1494. It -was with this youthful sovereign, the heir to yet more splendid -possessions, that the Catholic sovereigns desired to unite their younger -daughter in marriage, while the hand of his sister Margaret was sought -for the Prince of Asturias. The advantages to Spain of such a double -marriage were enormous. - -If Prince John were to marry the Archduchess Margaret, the only daughter -of the emperor, he would inherit, in the event of the death of the -Archduke Philip without issue, the great possessions of the Hapsburgs, -Austria, Flanders, and Burgundy, with a claim to the empire that had -eluded his great ancestor, Alfonso X. That the Archduke Philip should in -his turn espouse, not Isabella, the eldest, but Joanna, the second -daughter of the Catholic king, would prevent Spain from passing under -the dominion of Austria, even in the unlikely event of the death of -Prince John without issue, inasmuch as Isabella of Portugal would, in -such a case, inherit the Spanish crown, to the prejudice of her younger -sister in Flanders. And finally, if all the young wives and husbands -should live to a reasonable age, and should leave children behind them -at their death, one grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella would wear the -imperial purple as lord of Central Europe, and another would sit upon -the throne of a great united Peninsular kingdom of Castile, Portugal, -and Aragon. - -In the early autumn of 1496 (August 22), a splendid fleet set out from -Laredo, a little port between Bilbao and Santander, which carried Joanna -in safety to her expectant bridegroom. The archduke and the princess for -whom so sad a fate was reserved were married at Lille with the usual -rejoicings; and the Spanish admiral, charged a second time with a -precious freight of marriageable royalty, brought back the Lady Margaret -of Hapsburg with all honor to Spanish Santander, early in March, 1497. -The marriage of the heir apparent took place at Burgos, on the 3d of -April; and on the 4th of October of the same year, the gentle and -accomplished Prince of Asturias had passed away from Spain, and from the -world. - -Yet, once again, and for a few months, there lived an heir to United -Spain, whose brief existence is scarce remembered in history. Isabella, -the widowed queen of John II. of Portugal, had been persuaded or -constrained by her parents to contract a second marriage with her -husband’s cousin and successor Emmanuel; but the price of her hand was -the price of blood. For it was stipulated that the Jews, who, by the -liberality of the late king, had been permitted to find a home in his -dominions, should be driven out of the country after the stern Castilian -fashion of 1492, ere the widowed Isabella should wed her cousin on the -throne of Portugal. - -Whether the princess was an apt pupil, or merely the slave of her mother -and the Inquisitor that lurked behind the throne, we cannot say, but the -Portuguese lover consented to the odious bargain. The marriage was -solemnized at Valencia de Alcantara, in the early days of the month of -August, 1497, and the stipulated Tribute to Bigotry was duly paid. But -before ever the bridal party had left the town, an express had arrived -with the news of the mortal illness of the bride’s only brother; and in -little more than a year the young queen herself, on the 23d of August, -1498, expired in giving birth to a son. The boy received the name of -Miguel, and lived for nearly two years--the heir apparent of Portugal, -of Aragon, and of Castile--until he too was involved in the general -destruction. - -But some time before the death, or even before the birth of Miguel, -another royal marriage had been concluded, whose results throughout all -time were no less remarkable and scarce less important than that which -handed over Spain to a Flemish emperor. For after infinite negotiations -and more than one rupture, after some ten years’ huxtering about dowry, -and a dozen changes of policy on the part of the various sovereigns -interested in the alliance, Katharine, the youngest daughter of -Ferdinand and Isabella, more familiarly known as Katharine of Aragon, -had been married to Arthur, Prince of Wales, and the first act had been -concluded of that strange and fateful drama that led to the Reformation -in England. - -The dignified sadness of her story as Queen Katharine--insulted, -divorced, and abandoned--the unwilling heroine of the great tragic drama -that was played in the reign of Henry VIII. of England, is known to all -men, who extend to her, with one consent, their pity and their respect. -But those only who know something of the seven dreary and disgraceful -years that she spent in the palace of her father-in-law, before she was -permitted to know, even for a season, the happiness of a husband’s love, -or to enjoy the great position of Queen of England, may alone understand -the fullness of the measure of her wretchedness. - -In June, 1504, Isabella, who had for some time been ailing, and who -seems to have suffered from some nervous disease, was struck down -suddenly by fever. She had lived a hard life. She had never spared -herself, or others. The unhappy marriages of her children had cast a -dark shadow over her life. But hers was not the nature to repine. -Diligent, abstemious, resolute, she had borne pain and suffering, and -she was not afraid to face death. Unable at length to rise from her -couch, as the autumn drew to a close, she continued to transact her -accustomed business, gave audience to embassadors, chatted with -privileged visitors, and, in the words of an astonished stranger, -governed the world from her bed. - -At last, on the 26th of November, 1504, as the church bells of Medina -del Campo were ringing out the hour of noon, the spirit of Isabella of -Castile flitted away from this world; and her mortal remains were -conducted by a mournful company to their last resting place under the -shadow of the red towers of Alhambra. Through storm and tempest, amid -earthquake and inundation, across mountain and river, the affrighted -travelers wended their way. For the sun was not seen by day nor the -stars by night, during three long and weary weeks, as if the very forces -of nature were disturbed at the death of a giant among the princes of -the earth. - -The character of Isabella has suffered to an uncommon extent from an -ignorant glorification of virtues that she was far from possessing, and -the concealment of those transcendent powers that made her not only one -of the greatest rulers of Spain, but one of the greatest women in the -history of the world. Until the opening of the treasure-house at -Simancas displayed her correspondence to the world, she was only known -from the extravagant but somewhat colorless panegyrics of contemporary -chroniclers, who recognized at least that she was a royal lady, -compelling their gallant admiration, and that she was immensely -superior to her husband, whom it was necessary also to glorify, as the -last Spanish sovereign of Spain. - -Isabella was one of the most remarkable characters in history. Not only -was she the most masterful, and, from her own point of view, by far the -most successful ruler that ever sat upon the throne of Spain, or of any -of the kingdoms of the Peninsula; she stands in the front rank of the -great sovereigns of Europe, and challenges comparison with the greatest -women who have ever held sway in the world. A reformer and a zealot, an -autocrat and a leader of men, with a handsome face and a gracious -manner, scarce concealing the iron will that lay beneath, Isabella was -patient in adversity, dignified in prosperity, at all times quiet, -determined, thorough. - -In one particular she stands alone among the great ruling women, the -conquerors and empresses of history. She is the only royal lady, save, -perhaps, Maria Theresa of Hungary, who maintained through life the -incongruous relations of a masterful sovereign and a devoted wife, and -shared not only her bed but her throne with a husband whom she -respected--a fellow-sovereign whom she neither feared nor disregarded. -To command the obedience of a proud and warlike people is given to few -of the great men of history. To do the bidding of another with vigor and -with discretion is a task that has been but rarely accomplished by a -heaven-born minister. But to conceive and carry out great designs, with -one hand in the grasp of even the most loyal of companions, is a -triumphant combination of energy with discretion, of the finest tact -with the most indomitable resolution, that stamps Isabella of Spain as -a being more vigorous than the greatest men, more discreet than the -greatest women of history. Semiramis, Zenobia, Boadicea, Elizabeth of -England, Catherine of Russia, not one of them was embarrassed by a -partner on the throne. The partner of Isabella was not only a husband -but a king, jealous, restless, and untrustworthy. It is in this respect, -and in the immense scope of her political action, that the great Queen -of Castile is comparable with the bold Empress-King of Hungary rather -than with any other of the great queens and royal ladies of history. - -The husband of Zenobia indeed enjoyed the title of Augustus; but it was -only after his assassination that the lady earned her fame as a ruler. -Catherine caused her imperial consort to be executed as a preliminary to -her vigorous reign in Russia; Boadicea was the successor and not the -colleague of Prasutagus; and Semiramis, though herself somewhat a -mythical personage, is said to have slain both her husband and his -rival, in her assertion of her absolute power. Yet Isabella -revolutionized the institutions of her country, religious, political, -military, financial, she consolidated her dominions, humiliated her -nobles, cajoled her Commons, defied the Pope, reformed the clergy; she -burned some ten thousand of her subjects; she deported a million more; -and of the remnant she made a great nation; she brooked no man’s -opposition, in a reign of thirty years, and she died in the arms of the -king, her husband! - -Ferdinand of Aragon was no hero. But he was a strong man; a capable -ruler; a clever if a treacherous diplomatist. And to this husband and -consort was Isabella faithful through life, not merely in the grosser -sense of the word, to which Ferdinand for himself paid so little heed; -but in every way and walk of life. She supported him in his policy; she -assisted him in his intrigues; she encouraged him in his ambitious -designs; she lied for him, whenever prudence required it; she worked for -him at all times, as she worked for Spain. For his policy, his -intrigues, his designs were all her own. Whenever the views of the king -and queen were for a moment discordant, Isabella prevailed, without -apparent conflict of authority. In her assumption of supremacy in the -marriage contract; in her nomination of Gonsalvo de Cordova to the -command of the army; in her choice of Ximenez as the Primate of Spain, -she carried her point, not by petulance or even by argument, but by -sheer force of character; nor did she strain for one moment, even in -these manifestations of her royal supremacy, the friendly and even -affectionate relations that ever subsisted between herself and her -husband. - -The love and devotion of Isabella was a thing of which the greatest of -men might have well been proud. And though Ferdinand the Catholic may -not fairly be counted among the greatest, he was a man wise enough to -appreciate the merits of his queen, and to accept and maintain the -anomalous position in which he found himself as her consort. - -In war at least it might have been supposed that the queen would occupy -a subordinate position. Yet in no department of State did Isabella show -to greater advantage than as the organizer of victorious armies; not as -a batallador after the fashion of her distinguished ancestors in -Castile and in Aragon; but as the originator of an entirely new system -of military administration. - -Before her time, in Spain, war had been waged by the great nobles and -their retainers in attendance upon the king. There was no such thing as -uniformity of action or preparation, no central organization of any -kind. Each man went into battle to fight and to forage as opportunity -offered. Each commander vied with his fellow nobles in deeds of bravery, -and accorded to them such support as he chose. The sovereign exercised a -general authority, and assumed the active command of the united -multitude of soldiers, on rare and important occasions. If victory -followed, as at the Navas de Tolosa, the soldiers were rewarded with the -plunder, and took possession of the property of the enemy. If the -Christians were defeated, the army melted away; and the king betook -himself to the nearest shelter. - -But Isabella had no sooner assumed the title of Queen of Castile, than -she was called upon to maintain her pretensions in the field. With no -experience but that of a country palace, with no training but that of a -country cloister, she set herself to work to organize an army. On the -1st of May, 1474, five hundred horsemen represented the entire forces of -the fair usurper. By the 19th of July she had collected over forty -thousand men, had armed and equipped them ready for the field, and had -sent them forward under the command of Ferdinand to the frontier. -Although she was at the time in delicate health, she was constantly in -the saddle, riding long distances from fortress to fortress, hurrying up -recruits all day, dictating letters all night, giving her zealous -personal attention to every detail of armory and equipment, showing -from the first that quiet energy and that natural aptitude for command -that ever so constantly distinguished her. That her levies were not -victorious in no way daunted her determination. A second army was raised -by her, within a few weeks after the first had melted away under -Ferdinand; nor would she listen to any offers of negotiation, until the -enemy had been driven out of Castile. - -In the conduct of the war of Granada, with time and money at her -command, her preparations were upon a very different scale. The most -skillful artificers were summoned from every part of Europe to assist in -the work of supplying the army with the necessary material of war. -Artillery, then almost unknown to the military art, was manufactured in -Spain according to the best designs. Model cannon were imported, and the -necessary ammunition collected from abroad. Sword-blades were forged at -home. Not only a commissariat, but a field hospital--institutions till -then unheard of in Spanish warfare--were organized and maintained under -the personal supervision of the queen. The presence of a lady on the day -of battle would, as a rule, as she rightly judged, have been rather a -hinderance than a help; but she was very far from being a mere -commissioner of supply. A first-rate horsewoman, she was constantly seen -riding about the camp, encouraging, inspecting, directing; and in the -last days of the siege of Granada, when the spirits of the troops had -begun to flag, she appeared daily in complete armor, and showed herself -upon more than one occasion in a post of danger on the field. The armies -with which Gonsalvo de Cordova overran Calabria, and annihilated the -French at Cerignola, were prepared and dispatched by Isabella; and if, -in a subsequent campaign, the Great Captain was left without supplies or -re-enforcements, it was that the queen was already sickening to her -death, broken down and worn out by her constant and enormous exertions. - -But with all her aptitude for military organization, Isabella had no -love for war. Her first campaign was undertaken to make good her -pretensions to the crown. The extermination of the Moslems was a matter -of religious feeling and patriotic pride, rather than an object of -military glory; but she refused to pursue her conquest across the -Straits of Gibraltar. The expeditions to Italy were a part of -Ferdinand’s diplomacy, though the honor of victory must be shared -between Isabella and her Great Captain. But the queen’s ambition lay not -in conquest abroad. On the contrary, as soon as the last province in -Spain had been delivered from the foreign yoke of the Moor, she turned -her attention to the peaceful development of the kingdom; and, -unlettered warrior as she was, she bestowed her royal patronage upon -students and studies, rather than upon the knights and nobles who had -fought her battles before Granada. - -The old foundations of the Universities, the new art of printing, -scholarship, music, architecture found in her a generous patron, not so -much from predilection as from policy. Men of letters and men of -learning were welcomed at her court, not only from every part of Spain, -but from every part of Europe. For herself she had little appreciation -of literature. She neither knew nor cared what influence her beloved -Inquisition would have upon science. But as long as the queen lived, -learning was honored in Spain. - -In this, as in all other things, her judgment of men was unerring. The -queen who made Gonsalvo the commander-in-chief of her armies, and -Ximenez the president of her council, who selected Torquemada as her -grand inquisitor, and Talavera as her archbishop of Granada, made no -mistake when she invited Peter Martyr to instruct her son in polite -letters, and commissioned Lebrija to compose the first Castilian Grammar -for the use of her court. - -Her beauty of face and form are familiar. Yet vanity was unknown to her -nature. Simple and abstemious in her daily life, and despising pomp for -its own sake, no one could make a braver show on fitting occasions; and -the richness of her apparel, the glory of her jewels, and the noble -dignity of her presence, have been celebrated by subjects and strangers. - -At the death of Isabella, Ferdinand, in accordance with the provisions -of her will, caused his daughter, Joanna, to be proclaimed queen and -himself regent. Philip, archduke of Austria, the husband of Joanna, -having disputed the rights of his father-in-law and threatened an appeal -to arms, the latter in disgust, with the view of again separating the -crowns of Aragon and Castile, entered into negotiations with Louis XII., -married Germaine de Foix, the niece of Louis (1505), and shortly -afterward resigned the regency of Castile. On the death of Philip, in -1506, he resumed the administration, though not without opposition, and -retained it till his death. In 1508 he joined the League of Cambray for -the partition of Venice, and thus without any trouble became master of -five important Neapolitan cities. - -In the following year (1509) the African expedition of Cardinal Ximenez -was undertaken, which resulted in the conquest of Oran. In 1511 -Ferdinand joined Venice and Pope Julius II. in a “holy league” for the -expulsion of the French from Italy. This gave a pretext for invading -Navarre, which had entered into alliance with France, and been laid -under Papal interdict in consequence. Aided by his son-in-law Henry -VIII. of England, who sent a squadron under the Marquis of Dorset to -co-operate in the descent on Guienne, Ferdinand became master of Navarre -in 1513; and on June 15, 1515, by a solemn act in Cortes held at Burgos, -he incorporated it with the kingdom of Castile. - -The League of Cambray, which was signed on the 10th of December, 1508, -between Louis XII., the Emperor Maximilian, and Ferdinand of Aragon, at -the instance of the warlike Pope Julius II., was nominally directed -against the Turks, but was in reality a coalition for the destruction -and partition among the confiscators of the rich State of Venice. If -anything was wanted to make this league of public plunderers more -corrupt and more odious than it would under any circumstances have been, -it was that the kings of France and of Aragon, in order to secure the -adhesion of the Medicis, sacrificed their faithful allies, the Pisans, -after solemn assurances of protection and support, and actually sold -that ancient city to the Florentines, their hereditary enemies, for a -hundred thousand ducats. - -But all their bad faith and covetousness was displayed in vain. The -perfidious leaguers could not even trust one another; and the success of -the French arms at Agnadel, in May, 1509, so seriously alarmed both -Julius and Ferdinand that a second treaty was concluded in October, -1511, when the Pope and the King of Aragon invited the Venetian -Republic, for whose destruction they had leagued themselves together -with Louis XII. not three years before, to assist them in driving the -French out of Italy. - -Of the consummate skill with which Ferdinand, from the middle of 1509 to -the end of 1511, played off his allies and rivals one against the other, -until he had accomplished the central object of his diplomacy in the -great Confederation against Louis XII., we may read in the history of -France and of Italy, of England and of Germany, rather than in the -Chronicles of Aragon. For King Ferdinand pulled the strings that moved -the puppets, while he remained wellnigh hidden himself. But by the end -of 1511 the showman was compelled to make his own appearance upon the -stage of European warfare; and Ferdinand was ever less successful as an -actor than as an impresario. His policy for the past two years had been -the formation of a league against his dearly-beloved uncle-in-law, Louis -XII., by the aid of his dearly-beloved son-in-law, Henry VIII. Queen -Katharine, who had already played the part of embassador to her English -father-in-law, was to make use of her influence over her English -husband; and if the queen should refuse to advise King Henry to go to -war with France, her confessor was to tell her that she was bound as a -good Christian to do so. - -To coerce the confessor, Ferdinand applied to the Pope; and to control -the Pope, he betrayed to him, in secret, the whole scheme of King Louis -XII. as regarded the plunder of the States of the Church. It is easy to -understand what an effect the communication of the French king’s plans -of spoliation produced upon the excitable and irascible Julius. When he -had learned that he was not only to be robbed of his temporalities, but -that he was to be deposed and imprisoned in case he should prove -spiritually intractable, he hastened, in spite of his age and his -infirmities, to traverse the snow-covered mountains, that he might meet -his enemy in the field. - -The King of Aragon was a diplomatist who left nothing to chance. He -trusted no man. And if no man trusted him, he never deceived himself by -supposing that any one was simple enough to do so. No detail, however -trifling, was neglected by him in his negotiations. No contingency, -however remote, was left out of sight in his intrigues. And however -little we may respect his character, which was perhaps not much worse -than that of some of his rivals, we cannot refuse to admire his -transcendent skill, his infinite perseverance, his forethought, and his -keen appreciation of every shade of political development. A little -honesty would have made him a great man, a little generosity would have -made him a great king. His policy, moreover, toward the close of his -life, is at least worthy of an admiration which has rarely been extended -to it. It was a policy which embraced all Europe in its scope; and -although it had no direct relation to Spain or the Spanish people, it -would be ill to conclude even a brief survey of the history of Spain -without referring to the imperial dreams of the great Spaniard, first of -modern diplomatists, and of his early endeavors to solve more than one -of those questions that still embarrass the foreign policy of modern -States: the establishment of a kingdom of Italy; the alliance between -Italy and Germany, to withstand a dreaded power beyond the Danube and -the Carpathians; the entanglement of England in a central European -league; and the treatment of the Pope of Rome. - -The Turks, the medieval bugbear in the East--for the Middle Ages had -also their Eastern Question--were at this time rapidly encroaching upon -Christian Europe; and it was obviously desirable to form a powerful -empire, as a bulwark of Christendom, on the banks of the Danube. The -opportunity of founding a great empire in central Europe actually -existed. Ladislaus II., king of Bohemia and of Hungary, had only one -son, Louis, who was of so delicate a constitution that no issue could be -expected of his marriage. In case he should die without children, his -sister, the Princess Anne, was the heiress of both his kingdoms; and if -her father could be persuaded to marry her to the heir of the Austrian -principalities, Bohemia, Austria, and Hungary, thus united with the -heritage of the Hapsburgs, would form by no means a contemptible State, -which might itself be but the nucleus of a greater and more ambitious -empire. - -Naples, which had so lately been added to the Spanish dominions, was -still exposed to the attacks of the French, who claimed one-half, and -were always ready to appropriate to themselves the whole of the kingdom. -Naples was separated from France, indeed, by a considerable extent of -territory in Italy; but the smaller Italian States were too weak to -render any serious resistance, and too fickle to be counted upon as -friends or as foes by any Spanish sovereign. The best way to render -Naples secure was, in the eyes of Ferdinand, the foundation of a great -kingdom in northern Italy, powerful enough to prevent the French from -marching their armies to the south. The formation of such a kingdom -moreover would have greatly facilitated a peaceful division of the great -Austro-Spanish inheritance between Prince Charles and his brother, the -Infante Ferdinand. - -If Charles could be provided not only with the kingdom of Spain, but -with the possessions of Maximilian and Ladislaus and the Princess Anne, -and the empire of central Europe, his younger brother Ferdinand might -content himself with a kingdom to be made up of all the States of Italy, -protected against the encroachments of France by Spanish infantry and -German landsknechts, and ready to drive the Turk out of the -Mediterranean in support of the Christian empire on the Danube. - -The kingdom of Italy, thus designed for his younger grandson by the -far-seeing Ferdinand of Aragon, was to consist of Genoa, Pavia, Milan, -and the Venetian territories on the mainland. The country of the Tyrol, -being the most southern of the Austrian dominions, could, without -sensibly weakening the projected empire, be separated from it and added -to the new kingdom in Italy. Thus stretching from the Mediterranean to -the Adriatic, and from the Gulf of Spezia to the Lake of Constance, this -sixteenth century kingdom of Italy, with the whole power of the Holy -Roman Empire to support it, would have been a splendid endowment for a -younger son of the greatest family on earth. There was also a reasonable -prospect that it might afterward be still further enlarged by the -addition of Naples, and the smaller Italian States would easily have -fallen a prey to their powerful neighbor. But in addition to all this, -Ferdinand thought that he would render a notable service to the Catholic -religion and to the peace of Europe if the Church were thoroughly -reformed. What Rome herself has lost by Ferdinand’s failure it is not -given even to the Infallible to know. What the king’s reforms were to -be, we can only shrewdly surmise; and although they would most assuredly -not have been Protestant, they would with equal certainty have been by -no means palatable to the Vatican. For it is reasonably probable that if -either Louis XII. or Ferdinand the Catholic had been permitted to carry -out their designs, the Pope of Rome would have found himself deprived of -his temporal power, and Garibaldi, nay, perchance Luther, would have -been forestalled. It was the reforms of Ximenez that to a large extent -prevented Luther in Spain. The reforms of Ferdinand might possibly have -prevented him in Italy. - -It was in 1516 that Ferdinand died. Seven years previous Queen Germaine -had been delivered of a son, who received from his parents the name of -John. But the curse that lay upon the children of Ferdinand was not yet -spent; and the rival of Charles V., the heir of Aragon, Sardinia, -Naples, and Sicily, was permitted to gladden the envious heart of his -father by but a few hours of life. As years passed on there seemed -little chance of any further issue of the King and Queen of Aragon. The -unity of Spain at length appeared to be secure. But the ambition of -Ferdinand was even surpassed by his jealousy. Childless, vindictive, and -obstinate, he chafed at the ill-success of his personal schemes; and -rather than suffer the crown of united Spain to pass over to his -daughter’s son and heir, he sought, at the hands of some medical -impostor, the powers that were denied to his old age. The drug that was -to have renewed his youth destroyed his constitution, and his death was -the direct result of one of the least creditable of the many -developments of his jealousy, his obstinacy, and his selfishness. - -At length came the inevitable end; and at the wretched hamlet of -Madrigalejo, near Guadalupe, in the mountains of Estremadura, on the 23d -of January of the new year 1516, Ferdinand died; and Spain was at length -a United Kingdom. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -MODERN SPAIN - -THE HOUSE OF HAPSBURG--PHILIP II.--DEFEAT OF THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA--A -BOURBON AMONG THEM--THE PENINSULAR WAR--ALFONSO XIII. - - -With the death of Ferdinand begins the period of uninterrupted Hapsburg -rule in Spain, which lasted for nearly two centuries. In the course of -this period, the monarchy obtained absolute authority, and Spain, after -rising for a time to be the foremost State in Europe, sank to the -position of a second-rate power, from which it has never since emerged. -Aragon and Castile were distinct kingdoms, and the former was again -divided into the three provinces of Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia, -each of which had its own Cortes, its own privileges, and the most -warmly-cherished traditions of independence. The foreign possessions of -the two crowns were a source of weakness rather than of strength. France -stood ready at the earliest opportunity to contest the possession of -Navarre with Castile, and that of Naples with Aragon. - -The difficulties of domestic government were increased by the fact that -the prospective ruler was a youthful foreigner, who had never visited -Spain, and who was completely ignorant of the customs and even of the -language of the country. Charles--the son of Philip, archduke of -Austria, and of Jane, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella--had been born -and educated in the Netherlands, of which he had been nominal ruler ever -since the death of his father in 1506. All his friends and advisers were -Flemings, who cared nothing for Spanish interests, and had already -acquired an evil reputation for selfish greed. The first symptom of -discontent in Spain was excited by Charles’s demand to be recognized as -king, in utter disregard of his mother. In Aragon the demand was -unhesitatingly refused, but in Castile the vigorous measures of the -famous Cardinal Ximenez secured Charles’s proclamation. - -The regent, however, had great difficulties to face. The nobles, -delighted to be rid of the strong government of Ferdinand, wished to -utilize the opportunity to regain the privileges and independence they -had lost. In this crisis the loyal devotion of Ximenez saved the -monarchy. Throwing himself upon the support of the citizen class, he -organized a militia which overawed the nobles and maintained order. A -French invasion of Navarre was repulsed, and to avoid any danger from -the discontent of the inhabitants, all the fortresses of the province, -with the single exception of Pamplona, were dismantled. These -distinguished services were rewarded with more than royal ingratitude by -Charles, who came to Spain in 1517, and who allowed the aged cardinal to -die on November 8th, without even granting him an interview. - -Charles’s enormous inheritance was increased by the successes of Cortes -in Mexico and of Pizarro in Peru, by his own annexation of the Milanese, -and by his conquests in northern Africa. - -The glory of Spain was then at its apogee. After his death, which -occurred in 1558, the decline set in. From this time also the House of -Hapsburg became divided into its contemporary branches. - -Charles was succeeded by Philip II., his only legitimate son. The -administration of the latter, while successful at home, was a failure -abroad. During his reign a claim to the throne of Portugal was -successfully asserted, and the unity of the Peninsula was completed. -Moreover, colonial possessions were greatly extended. Yet his religious -intolerance excited the revolt of the Netherlands, which resulted in a -loss of the seven northern provinces. His effort to obtain a -preponderant influence over France was dexterously foiled by the -succession and triumph of Henry IV. But his great and historical defeat -was that which he experienced with the Armada. - -Besides the Spanish crown, Philip succeeded to the kingdoms of Naples -and Sicily, the Duchy of Milan, Franche-Comte, and the Netherlands. In -Africa he possessed Tunis, Oran, the Cape Verd, and the Canary Islands; -and in Asia, the Philippine and Sunda Islands, and a part of the -Moluccas. Beyond the Atlantic he was lord of the most splendid portions -of the New World. The empires of Peru and Mexico, New Spain, and Chili, -with their abundant mines of the precious metals, Hispaniola and Cuba, -and many other of the American islands, were provinces of the sovereign -of Spain. - -Philip had also the advantage of finding himself at the head of a large -standing army in a perfect state of discipline and equipment, in an age -when, except some few insignificant corps, standing armies were unknown -to Christendom. The renown of the Spanish troops was justly high, and -the infantry in particular was considered the best in the world. His -fleet, also, was far more numerous, and better appointed, than that of -any other European power; and both his soldiers and his sailors had the -confidence in themselves and their commanders which a long career of -successful warfare alone can create. - -One nation only had been his active, his persevering, and his successful -foe. England had encouraged his revolted subjects in Flanders against -him, and given them the aid in men and money without which they must -soon have been humbled in the dust. English ships had plundered his -colonies; had defied his supremacy in the New World, as well as the Old; -they had inflicted ignominious defeats on his squadrons; they had -captured his cities, and burned his arsenals on the very coasts of -Spain. The English had made Philip himself the object of personal -insult. He was held up to ridicule in their stage plays and masks, and -these scoffs at the man had (as is not unusual in such cases) excited -the anger of the absolute king, even more vehemently than the injuries -inflicted on his power. Personal as well as political revenge urged him -to attack England. Were she once subdued, the Dutch must submit; France -could not cope with him, the empire would not oppose him; and universal -dominion seemed sure to be the result of the conquest of that malignant -island. - -For some time the destination of an enormous armament which he had long -been preparing was not publicly announced. Only Philip himself, the Pope -Sixtus, the Duke of Guise, and Philip’s favorite minister, Mendoza, at -first knew its real object. Rumors were sedulously spread that it was -designed to proceed to the Indies to realize vast projects of distant -conquest. Sometimes hints were dropped by Philip’s embassadors in -foreign courts that their master had resolved on a decisive effort to -crush his rebels in the Low Countries. But Elizabeth and her statesmen -could not view the gathering of such a storm without feeling the -probability of its bursting on their own shores. As early as the spring -of 1587, Elizabeth sent Sir Francis Drake to cruise off the Tagus. Drake -sailed into the Bay of Cadiz and the Lisbon Roads, and burned much -shipping and military stores, causing thereby an important delay in the -progress of the Spanish preparations. Drake called this “Singeing the -king of Spain’s beard.” Elizabeth also increased her succors of troops -to the Netherlanders, to prevent the Prince of Parma from overwhelming -them, and from thence being at full leisure to employ his army against -her dominions. - -Philip had an ally in France who was far more powerful than the French -king. This was the Duke of Guise, the chief of the League, and the idol -of the fanatic partisans of the Romish faith. Philip prevailed on Guise -openly to take up arms against Henry III. (who was reviled by the -Leaguers as a traitor to the true Church, and a secret friend to the -Huguenots); and thus prevent the French king from interfering in favor -of Queen Elizabeth. “With this object, the commander, Juan Iniguez -Moreo, was dispatched by him in the early part of April to the Duke of -Guise at Soissons. He met with complete success. He offered the Duke of -Guise, as soon as he took the field against Henry III., three hundred -thousand crowns, six thousand infantry, and twelve hundred pikemen, on -behalf of the king, his master, who would, in addition, withdraw his -embassador from the court of France, and accredit an envoy to the -Catholic party. A treaty was concluded on these conditions, and the Duke -of Guise entered Paris, where he was expected by the Leaguers, and -whence he expelled Henry III. on the 12th of May, by the insurrection of -the barricades. A fortnight after this insurrection, which reduced Henry -III. to impotence, and, to use the language of the Prince of Parma, did -not even ‘permit him to assist the Queen of England with his tears, as -he needed them all to weep over his own misfortunes,’ the Spanish fleet -left the Tagus and sailed toward the British isles.” - -Meanwhile in England, from the sovereign on the throne to the peasant in -the cottage, all hearts and hands made ready to meet the imminent deadly -peril. A camp was formed at Tilbury; and there Elizabeth rode through -the ranks, encouraging her captains and her soldiers by her presence and -her words. - -The ships of the royal navy at this time amounted to no more than -thirty-six; but the most serviceable merchant vessels were collected -from all the ports of the country; and the citizens of London, Bristol, -and the other great seats of commerce, showed as liberal a zeal in -equipping and manning vessels as the nobility and gentry displayed in -mustering forces by land. The seafaring population of the coast, of -every rank and station, was animated by the same ready spirit; and the -whole number of seamen who came forward to man the English fleet was -17,472. The number of the ships that were collected was 191; and the -total amount of their tonnage 31,985. There was one ship in the fleet -(the “Triumph”) of 1,100 tons, one of 1,000, one of 900, two of 800 -each, three of 600, five of 500, five of 400, six of 300, six of 250, -twenty of 200, and the residue of inferior burden. Application was made -to the Dutch for assistance: and, as Stowe expresses it, “The Hollanders -came roundly in, with threescore sail, brave ships of war, fierce and -full of spleen, not so much for England’s aid, as in just occasion for -their own defense; these men foreseeing the greatness of the danger that -might ensue, if the Spaniards should chance to win the day and get the -mastery over them; in due regard whereof their manly courage was -inferior to none.” - -The equipment of the Spanish forces consisted of 130 ships (besides -caravels), 3,165 cannon, 8,050 sailors, 2,088 galley-slaves, 18,973 -soldiers, 1,382 noblemen, gentlemen, and attendants, 150 monks, with -Martin Alarco, vicar of the Inquisition--the whole under the command of -the Duke of Medina Sidonia. - -While this huge armada was making ready in the southern ports of the -Spanish dominions, the Prince of Parma, with almost incredible toil and -skill, collected a squadron of warships at Dunkirk, and his flotilla of -other ships and of flat-bottomed boats for the transport to England of -the picked troops, which were designed to be the main instruments in -subduing England. Thousands of workmen were employed, night and day, in -the construction of these vessels, in the ports of Flanders and Brabant. - -One hundred of the kind called hendes, built at Antwerp, Bruges, and -Ghent, and laden with provisions and ammunition, together with sixty -flat-bottomed boats, each capable of carrying thirty horses, were -brought, by means of canals and fosses, dug expressly for the purpose, -to Nieuport and Dunkirk. One hundred smaller vessels were equipped at -the former place, and thirty-two at Dunkirk, provided with twenty -thousand empty barrels, and with materials for making pontoons, for -stopping up the harbors, and raising forts and intrenchments. The army -which these vessels were designed to convey to England amounted to -thirty thousand strong, besides a body of four thousand cavalry, -stationed at Courtroi, composed chiefly of the ablest veterans of -Europe; invigorated by rest (the siege of Sluys having been the only -enterprise in which they were employed during the last campaign), and -excited by the hopes of plunder and the expectation of certain conquest. - -Philip had been advised by the deserter, Sir William Stanley, not to -attack England in the first instance, but first to effect a landing and -secure a strong position in Ireland; his admiral, Santa Cruz, had -recommended him to make sure, in the first instance, of some large -harbor on the coast of Holland or Zealand, where the Armada, having -entered the Channel, might find shelter in case of storm, and whence it -could sail without difficulty for England; but Philip rejected both -these counsels, and directed that England itself should be made the -immediate object of attack; and on the 20th of May the Armada left the -Tagus, in the pomp and pride of supposed invincibility, and amid the -shouts of thousands, who believed that England was already conquered. -But steering to the northward, and before it was clear of the coast of -Spain, the Armada was assailed by a violent storm, and driven back with -considerable damage to the ports of Biscay and Galicia. It had, however, -sustained its heaviest loss before it left the Tagus, in the death of -the veteran admiral Santa Cruz, who had been destined to guide it -against England. - -This experienced sailor, notwithstanding his diligence and success, had -been unable to keep pace with the impatient ardor of his master. Philip -II. had reproached him with his dilatoriness, and had said with -ungrateful harshness, “You make an ill return for all my kindness to -you.” These words cut the veteran’s heart, and proved fatal to Santa -Cruz. Overwhelmed with fatigue and grief, he sickened and died. Philip -II. had replaced him by Alonzo Perez de Gusman, duke of Medina Sidonia, -one of the most powerful of the Spanish grandees, but wholly unqualified -to command such an expedition. He had, however, as his lieutenants, two -seamen of proved skill and bravery, Juan de Martinez Recalde of Biscay, -and Miguel Orquendo of Guipuzcoa. - -On the 12th of July the Armada, having completely refitted, sailed again -for the Channel, and reached it without obstruction or observation by -the English. - -The design of the Spaniards was, that the Armada should give them, at -least for a time, the command of the sea, and that it should join the -squadron which Parma had collected off Calais. Then, escorted by an -overpowering naval force, Parma and his army were to embark in their -flotilla, and cross the sea to England, where they were to be landed, -together with the troops which the Armada brought from the ports of -Spain. The scheme was not dissimilar to one formed against England a -little more than two centuries afterward. - -The orders of King Philip to the Duke of Medina Sidonia were, that he -should, on entering the Channel, keep near the French coast, and, if -attacked by the English ships, avoid an action, and steer on to Calais -Roads, where the Prince of Parma’s squadron was to join him. The hope of -surprising and destroying the English fleet in Plymouth led the Spanish -admiral to deviate from these orders, and to stand across to the English -shore; but, on finding that Lord Howard was coming out to meet him, he -resumed the original plan, and determined to bend his way steadily -toward Calais and Dunkirk, and to keep merely on the defensive against -such squadrons of the English as might come up with him. - -It was on Saturday, the 20th of July, that Lord Effingham came in sight -of his formidable adversaries. The Armada was drawn up in form of a -crescent, which from horn to horn measured some seven miles. There was a -southwest wind; and before it the vast vessels sailed slowly on. The -English let them pass by; and then, following in the rear, commenced an -attack on them. A running fight now took place, in which some of the -best ships of the Spaniards were captured; many more received heavy -damage; while the English vessels, which took care not to close with -their huge antagonists, but availed themselves of their superior -celerity in tacking and maneuvering, suffered little comparative loss. - -The Spanish admiral showed great judgment and firmness in following the -line of conduct that had been traced out for him; and on the 27th of -July he brought his fleet unbroken, though sorely distressed, to anchor -in Calais Roads. The Armada lay off Calais, with its largest ships -ranged outside, “like strong castles fearing no assault; the lesser -placed in the middle ward.” The English admiral could not attack them in -their position without great disadvantage, but on the night of the 29th -he sent eight fire-ships among them, with almost equal effect to that of -the fire-ships which the Greeks so often employed against the Turkish -fleets in their war of independence. The Spaniards cut their cables and -put to sea in confusion. One of the largest galeasses ran foul of -another vessel and was stranded. The rest of the fleet was scattered -about on the Flemish coast, and when the morning broke, it was with -difficulty and delay that they obeyed their admiral’s signal to range -themselves round him near Gravelines. Now was the golden opportunity for -the English to assail them, and prevent them from ever letting loose -Parma’s flotilla against England; and nobly was that opportunity used. -Drake and Fenner were the first English captains who attacked the -unwieldy leviathans: then came Fenton, Southwell, Burton, Cross, Raynor, -and then the lord-admiral, with Lord Thomas Howard and Lord Sheffield. -The Spaniards only thought of forming and keeping close together, and -were driven by the English past Dunkirk, and far away from the Prince of -Parma, who, in watching their defeat from the coast, must, as Drake -expressed it, have chafed like a bear robbed of her whelps. This was -indeed the last and the decisive battle between the two fleets. - -Many of the largest Spanish ships were sunk or captured in the action of -this day. And at length the Spanish admiral, despairing of success, -fled northward with a southerly wind, in the hope of rounding Scotland, -and so returning to Spain without a further encounter with the English -fleet. Lord Effingham left a squadron to continue the blockade of the -Prince of Parma’s armament; but that wise general soon withdrew his -troops to more promising fields of action. Meanwhile the lord-admiral -himself and Drake chased the vincible Armada, as it was now termed, for -some distance northward; and then, when it seemed to bend away from the -Scotch coast toward Norway, it was thought best, in the words of Drake, -“to leave them to those boisterous and uncouth northern seas.” - -The sufferings and losses which the unhappy Spaniards sustained in their -flight round Scotland and Ireland are well known. Of their whole Armada -only fifty-three shattered vessels brought back their beaten and wasted -crews to the Spanish coast which they had quitted in such pageantry and -pride. - -At the death of Philip, which occurred on September 13, 1598, he left to -his son and successor, Philip III., an empire nominally undiminished, -but unwieldy and internally exhausted. Resources had been squandered. -The attention of the masses had been turned from industry to war. The -soldiery once regarded as invincible had lost their prestige in the -Netherland swamps. Enormous taxes, from which nobles and clergy were -exempt, were multiplied on the people. That being insufficient, Philip -III. proved his orthodoxy by completing the work. In 1609 the Moors, or -Moriscoes, as they were called, were ordered to quit the Peninsula -within three days, and the penalty of death was decreed against all who -failed to obey, and against any Christians who should shelter the -recalcitrants. - -The edict was obeyed, but it was the ruin of Spain. The Moriscoes were -the backbone of the industrial population, not only in trade and -manufactures, but also in agriculture. The haughty and indolent -Spaniards had willingly left what they considered degrading employments -to their inferiors. The Moors had introduced into Spain the cultivation -of sugar, cotton, rice and silk. They had established a system of -irrigation which had given fertility to the soil. The province of -Valencia in their hands had become a model of agriculture to the rest of -Europe. In manufactures and commerce they had shown equal superiority to -the Christian inhabitants, and many of the products of Spain were -eagerly sought for by other countries. All these advantages were -sacrificed to an insane desire for religious unity. - -The resources of Spain, already exhausted, never recovered from this -terrible blow. Philip III. died in March, 1621. His reign had not been -glorious or advantageous to Spain, but it contrasts favorably with those -of his successors. Spanish literature and art, which had received a -great impulse from the intercourse with foreign countries under previous -rulers, reached their zenith during his lifetime. Three writers have -obtained European fame--Cervantes, who produced the immortal “Don -Quixote” between 1605 and 1613, and two of the most fertile of romantic -dramatists, Lope de Vega and Calderon. In the domain of art, Spain -produced two of the greatest masters of the seventeenth century, -Velasquez and Murillo. - -Philip II. was succeeded by Philip III. After him came Philip IV. and -then Charles II. Of these monarchs Mignet said: “Philip II. was merely a -king. Philip III. and Philip IV. were not kings, and Charles II. was not -even a man.” The death of the latter precipitated the War of the -Succession, the military operations of which were rendered famous by the -military exploits of Eugene and Marlborough. But this is not the place -to recite them. The chief scenes of hostilities were the Netherlands, -Germany and Italy, and their narration belongs more properly to the -histories of these lands. Suffice it to say that by the Treaty of -Utrecht war was concluded in 1711, and Philip V., a Bourbon, second -grandson of Louis XIV., was, in accordance with the will of Charles II., -acknowledged King of Spain. By the same treaty England gained Gibraltar, -while the Spanish Netherlands, Milan, Naples and Sardinia were ceded to -Austria. - -With the accession of a Bourbon, Spain entered into a new period of -history, during which it once more played a part in the politics of -Europe, as also in its wars; those, for instance, of the Polish and -Austrian successions--the country meanwhile being additionally embroiled -with England. - -Philip V. was succeeded by Ferdinand VI., and the latter by Charles -III., whose death, together with the accession of Charles IV., were -contemporary with the French Revolution. The execution of Louis XVI. -made a profound impression on a country where loyalty was a -superstition. Charles IV. was roused to demand vengeance for the insult -to his family. Godoy, the Prime Minister, could but follow the national -impulse; and Spain became a member of the first coalition against -France. But the two campaigns which ensued provoked the contempt of -Europe. They form a catalogue of defeats. Under the circumstances it is -no wonder that Spain followed the example of Prussia and concluded a -treaty of peace. - -The next event of importance was Napoleon’s famous coup de main--the -seizure of the Spanish royal family at Bayonne--the jugglery which he -performed with the crown, its transference by him from Ferdinand VII. -(son of Charles IV.) to Joseph Bonaparte, and the revolt of the South -American colonies which that act produced. - -Then came the restoration of Spanish independence through England’s aid; -Wellington’s famous campaign; the battles of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajos; -the entry into Madrid; the retreat of Joseph to Valencia; Napoleon’s -crushing defeat at Leipzig, and Ferdinand’s return from captivity at -Valençay. - -The circumstances through which these last-mentioned events were induced -or precipitated, and which are collectively known as the Peninsular War, -originated at the moment when Napoleon was practically master of Europe. -Its whole face was changed. Prussia was occupied by French troops. -Holland was changed into a monarchy by a simple decree of the French -emperor, and its crown bestowed on his brother Louis. Another brother, -Jerome, became King of Westphalia, a new realm built up out of the -electorates of Hesse-Cassel and Hanover. A third brother, Joseph, was -made King of Naples; while the rest of Italy, and even Rome itself, was -annexed to the French empire. It was the hope of effectually crushing -the world-power of Britain which drove him to his worst aggression, the -aggression upon Spain. - -Napoleon acted with his usual subtlety. In October, 1807, France and -Spain agreed to divide Portugal between them; and on the advance of -their forces the reigning House of Braganza fled helplessly from Lisbon -to a refuge in Brazil. But the seizure of Portugal was only a prelude to -the seizure of Spain. Charles IV., whom a riot in his capital drove at -this moment to abdication, and his son, Ferdinand VII., were drawn to -Bayonne in May, 1808, and forced to resign their claims to the Spanish -crown; while a French army entered Madrid and proclaimed Napoleon’s -brother Joseph king of Spain. - -This high-handed act of aggression was hardly completed when Spain rose -as one man against the stranger; and desperate as the effort of its -people seemed, the news of the rising was welcomed throughout England -with a burst of enthusiastic joy. “Hitherto,” cried Sheridan, a leader -of the Whig opposition, “Bonaparte has contended with princes without -dignity, numbers without ardor, or peoples without patriotism. He has -yet to learn what it is to combat a people who are animated by one -spirit against him.” Tory and Whig alike held that “never had so happy -an opportunity existed in Britain to strike a bold stroke for the rescue -of the world”; and Canning at once resolved to change the system of -desultory descents on colonies and sugar islands for a vigorous warfare -in the Peninsula. - -The furious and bloody struggle which ensued found its climax at -Vittoria, but it would be difficult to find in the whole history of war -a more thrilling chapter than that which tells of the six great -campaigns of which the war itself was composed. - -The Peninsular War was perhaps the least selfish conflict ever waged. It -was not a war of aggrandizement or of conquest. It was fought to deliver -Europe from the despotism of Napoleon. At its close the fleets of Great -Britain rode triumphant, and in the Peninsula between 1808-14 her land -forces fought and won nineteen pitched battles, made or sustained ten -fierce and bloody sieges, took four great fortresses, twice expelled the -French from Portugal and once from Spain. Great Britain expended in -these campaigns more than one hundred million pounds sterling on her own -troops, besides subsidizing the forces of Spain and Portugal. This -“nation of shopkeepers” proved that when kindled to action it could wage -war on a scale and in a fashion that might have moved the wonder of -Alexander or of Cæsar, and from motives too lofty for either Cæsar or -Alexander so much as to comprehend. It is worth while to tell afresh the -story of some of the more picturesque incidents in that great strife. - -On April 6, 1812, Badajos was stormed by Wellington; and the story forms -one of the most tragical and splendid incidents in the military history -of the world. Of “the night of horrors at Badajos,” Napier says, -“posterity can scarcely be expected to credit the tale.” No tale, -however, is better authenticated, or, as an example of what disciplined -human valor is capable of achieving, better deserves to be told. -Wellington was preparing for his great forward movement into Spain, the -campaign which led to Salamanca, the battle in which “forty thousand -Frenchmen were beaten in forty minutes.” As a preliminary he had to -capture, under the vigilant eyes of Soult and Marmont, the two great -border fortresses, Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajos. He had, to use Napier’s -phrase, “jumped with both feet” on the first-named fortress, and -captured it in twelve days with a loss of twelve hundred men and ninety -officers. - -But Badajos was a still harder task. The city stands on a rocky ridge -which forms the last spur of the Toledo range, and is of extraordinary -strength. The river Rivillas falls almost at right angles into the -Guadiana, and in the angle formed by their junction stands Badajos, oval -in shape, girdled with elaborate defenses, with the Guadiana, five -hundred yards wide, as its defense to the north, the Rivillas serving as -a wet ditch to the west, and no less than five great fortified -outposts--Saint Roque, Christoval, Picurina, Pardaleras, and a fortified -bridge-head across the Guadiana--as the outer zone of its defenses. -Twice the English had already assailed Badajos, but assailed it in vain. -It was now held by a garrison five thousand strong, under a soldier, -General Phillipson, with a real genius for defense, and the utmost art -had been employed in adding to its defenses. On the other hand, -Wellington had no means of transport and no battery train, and had to -make all his preparations under the keen-eyed vigilance of the French. -Perhaps the strangest collection of artillery ever employed in a great -siege was that which Wellington collected from every available quarter -and used at Badajos. Of the fifty-two pieces, some dated from the days -of Philip II. and the Spanish Armada, some were cast in the reign of -Philip III., others in that of John IV. of Portugal, who reigned in -1640; there were 24-pounders of George II.’s day, and Russian naval -guns; the bulk of the extraordinary medley being obsolete brass engines -which required from seven to ten minutes to cool between each discharge. - -Wellington, however, was strong in his own warlike genius and in the -quality of the troops he commanded. He employed eighteen thousand men in -the siege, and it may well be doubted whether--if we put the question of -equipment aside--a more perfect fighting instrument than the force under -his orders ever existed. The men were veterans, but the officers on the -whole were young, so there was steadiness in the ranks and fire in the -leading. Hill and Graham covered the siege, Picton and Barnard, Kempt -and Colville led the assaults. The trenches were held by the third, -fourth, and fifth divisions, and by the famous light division. Of the -latter it has been said that the Macedonian phalanx of Alexander the -Great, the Tenth Legion of Cæsar, the famous Spanish infantry of Alva, -or the iron soldiers who followed Cortes to Mexico, did not exceed it in -warlike quality. Wellington’s troops, too, had a personal grudge against -Badajos, and had two defeats to avenge. Perhaps no siege in history, as -a matter of fact, ever witnessed either more furious valor in the -assault, or more of cool and skilled courage in the defense. The siege -lasted exactly twenty days, and cost the besiegers five thousand men, or -an average loss of two hundred and fifty per day. It was waged -throughout in stormy weather, with the rivers steadily rising, and the -tempests perpetually blowing; yet the thunder of the attack never paused -for an instant. - -Wellington’s engineers attacked the city at the eastern end of the oval, -where the Rivillas served it as a gigantic wet ditch; and the Picurina, -a fortified hill, ringed by a ditch fourteen feet deep, a rampart -sixteen feet high, and a zone of mines, acted as an outwork. Wellington, -curiously enough, believed in night attacks, a sure proof of his faith -in the quality of the men he commanded; and on the eighth night of the -siege, at nine o’clock, five hundred men of the third division were -suddenly flung on the Picurina. The fort broke into a ring of flame, by -the light of which the dark figures of the stormers were seen leaping -with fierce hardihood into the ditch and struggling madly up the -ramparts, or tearing furiously at the palisades. But the defenses were -strong, and the assailants fell literally in scores. - -Napier tells how “the axmen of the light division, compassing the fort -like prowling wolves,” discovered the gate at the rear, and so broke -into the fort. The engineer officer who led the attack declares that -“the place would never have been taken had it not been for the coolness -of these men” in absolutely walking round the fort to its rear, -discovering the gate, and hewing it down under a tempest of bullets. The -assault lasted an hour, and in that period, out of the five hundred men -who attacked, no less than three hundred, with nineteen officers, were -killed or wounded! Three men out of every five in the attacking force, -that is, were disabled, and yet they won! - -There followed twelve days of furious industry, of trenches pushed -tirelessly forward through mud and wet, and of cannonading that only -ceased when the guns grew too hot to be used. Captain MacCarthy, of the -Fiftieth Regiment, has left a curious little monograph on the siege, -full of incidents, half tragic and half amusing, but which show the -temper of Wellington’s troops. Thus he tells how an engineer officer, -when marking out the ground for a breaching-battery very near the wall, -which was always lined with French soldiers in eager search of human -targets, “used to challenge them to prove the perfection of their -shooting by lifting up the skirts of his coat in defiance several times -in the course of his survey; driving in his stakes and measuring his -distances with great deliberation, and concluding by an extra shake of -his coat-tails and an ironical bow before he stepped under shelter!” - -On the night of April 6, Wellington determined to assault. No less than -seven attacks were to be delivered. Two of them--on the bridge-head -across the Guadiana and on the Pardaleras--were mere feints. But on the -extreme right Picton with the third division was to cross the Rivillas -and escalade the castle, whose walls rose, time-stained and grim, from -eighteen to twenty-four feet high. Leith with the fifth division was to -attack the opposite or western extremity of the town, the bastion of San -Vincente, where the glacis was mined, the ditch deep, and the scarp -thirty feet high. Against the actual breaches Colville and Andrew -Barnard were to lead the light division and the fourth division, the -former attacking the bastion of Santa Maria and the latter the Trinidad. -The hour was fixed for ten o’clock, and the story of that night attack, -as told in Napier’s immortal prose, is one of the great battle-pictures -of literature; and any one who tries to tell the tale will find himself -slipping insensibly into Napier’s cadences. - -The night was black; a strange silence lay on rampart and trench, broken -from time to time by the deep voices of the sentinels that proclaimed -all was well in Badajos. “Sentinelle garde à vous,” the cry of the -sentinels, was translated by the British private as “All’s well in -Badahoo!” A lighted carcass thrown from the castle discovered Picton’s -men standing in ordered array, and compelled them to attack at once. -MacCarthy, who acted as guide across the tangle of wet trenches and the -narrow bridge that spanned the Rivillas, has left an amusing account of -the scene. At one time Picton declared MacCarthy was leading them wrong, -and, drawing his sword, swore he would cut him down. The column reached -the trench, however, at the foot of the castle walls, and was instantly -overwhelmed with the fire of the besieged. MacCarthy says we can only -picture the scene by “supposing that all the stars, planets, and meteors -of the firmament, with innumerable moons emitting smaller ones in their -course, were descending on the heads of the besiegers.” MacCarthy -himself, a typical and gallant Irishman, addressed his general with the -exultant remark, “‘Tis a glorious night, sir--a glorious night!” and, -rushing forward to the head of the stormers, shouted, “Up with the -ladders!” The five ladders were raised, the troops swarmed up, an -officer leading, but the first files were at once crushed by cannon -fire, and the ladders slipped into the angle of the abutments. “Dreadful -their fall,” records MacCarthy of the slaughtered stormers, “and -appalling their appearance at daylight.” One ladder remained, and, a -private soldier leading, the eager red-coated crowd swarmed up it. The -brave fellow leading was shot as soon as his head appeared above the -parapet; but the next man to him--again a private--leaped over the -parapet, and was followed quickly by others, and this thin stream of -desperate men climbed singly, and in the teeth of the flashing musketry, -up that solitary ladder, and carried the castle. - -In the meanwhile the fourth and light divisions had flung themselves -with cool and silent speed on the breaches. The storming party of each -division leaped into the ditch. It was mined, the fuse was kindled, and -the ditch, crowded with eager soldiery, became in a moment a sort of -flaming crater, and the storming parties, five hundred strong, were in -one fierce explosion dashed to pieces. In the light of that dreadful -flame the whole scene became visible--the black ramparts, crowded with -dark figures and glittering arms, on the one side; on the other, the red -columns of the British, broad and deep, moving steadily forward like a -stream of human lava. The light division stood at the brink of the -smoking ditch for an instant, amazed at the sight. “Then,” says Napier, -“with a shout that matched even the sound of the explosion,” they leaped -into it and swarmed up to the breach. The fourth division came running -up and descended with equal fury but the ditch opposite the Trinidad was -filled with water; the head of the division leaped into it, and, as -Napier puts it, “about one hundred of the fusiliers, the men of Albuera, -perished there.” The breaches were impassable. Across the top of the -great slope of broken wall glittered a fringe of sword-blades, -sharp-pointed, keen-edged on both sides, fixed in ponderous beams -chained together and set deep in the ruins. For ten feet in front the -ascent was covered with loose planks, studded with sharp iron points. -Behind the glittering edge of sword-blades stood the solid ranks of the -French, each man supplied with three muskets, and their fire scourged -the British ranks like a tempest. - -Hundreds had fallen, hundreds were still falling; but the British clung -doggedly to the lower slopes, and every few minutes an officer would -leap forward with a shout, a swarm of men would instantly follow him, -and, like leaves blown by a whirlwind, they swept up the ascent. But -under the incessant fire of the French, the assailants melted away. One -private reached the sword-blades, and actually thrust his head beneath -them till his brains were beaten out, so desperate was his resolve to -get into Badajos. The breach, as Napier describes it, “yawning and -glittering with steel, resembled the mouth of a huge dragon belching -forth smoke and flame.” But for two hours, and until two thousand men -had fallen, the stubborn British persisted in their attacks. Currie, of -the 52d, a cool and most daring soldier, found a narrow ramp beyond the -Santa Maria breach only half-ruined; he forced his way back through the -tumult and carnage to where Wellington stood watching the scene, -obtained an unbroken battalion from the reserve, and led it toward the -broken ramp. But his men were caught in the whirling madness of the -ditch and swallowed up in the tumult. Nicholas, of the engineers, and -Shaw of the 43d, with some fifty soldiers, actually climbed into the -Santa Maria bastion, and from thence tried to force their way into the -breach. Every man was shot down except Shaw, who stood alone on the -bastion. “With inexpressible coolness he looked at his watch, said it -was too late to carry the breaches,” and then leaped down! The British -could not penetrate the breach; but they would not retreat. They could -only die where they stood. The buglers of the reserve were sent to the -crest of the glacis to sound the retreat; the troops in the ditch would -not believe the signal to be genuine, and struck their own buglers who -attempted to repeat it. “Gathering in dark groups, and leaning on their -muskets,” says Napier, “they looked up in sullen desperation at -Trinidad, while the enemy, stepping out on the ramparts, and aiming -their shots by the light of fire-balls, which they threw over, asked as -their victims fell, ‘Why they did not come into Badajos.’” - -All this while, curiously enough, Picton was actually in Badajos, and -held the castle securely, but made no attempt to clear the breach. On -the extreme west of the town, however, at the bastion of San Vincente, -the fifth division made an attack as desperate as that which was failing -at the breaches. When the stormers actually reached the bastion, the -Portuguese battalions, who formed part of the attack, dismayed by the -tremendous fire which broke out on them, flung down their ladders and -fled. The British, however, snatched the ladders up, forced the -barrier, jumped into the ditch, and tried to climb the walls. These were -thirty feet high, and the ladders were too short. A mine was sprung in -the ditch under the soldiers’ feet; beams of wood, stones, broken -wagons, and live shells were poured upon their heads from above. Showers -of grape from the flank swept the ditch. - -The stubborn soldiers, however, discovered a low spot in the rampart, -placed three ladders against it, and climbed with reckless valor. The -first man was pushed up by his comrades; he, in turn, dragged others up, -and the unconquerable British at length broke through and swept the -bastion. The tumult still stormed and raged at the eastern breaches, -where the men of the light and fourth division were dying sullenly, and -the men of the fifth division marched at speed across the town to take -the great eastern breach in the rear. The streets were empty, but the -silent houses were bright with lamps. The men of the fifth pressed on; -they captured mules carrying ammunition to the breaches, and the French, -startled by the tramp of the fast-approaching column, and finding -themselves taken in the rear, fled. The light and fourth divisions broke -through the gap hitherto barred by flame and steel, and Badajos was won! - -In that dreadful night assault the English lost three thousand five -hundred men. “Let it be considered,” says Napier, “that this frightful -carnage took place in the space of less than a hundred yards -square--that the slain died not all suddenly, nor by one manner of -death--that some perished by steel, some by shot, some by water; that -some were crushed and mangled by heavy weights, some trampled upon, -some dashed to atoms by the fiery explosions--that for hours this -destruction was endured without shrinking, and the town was won at last. -Let these things be considered, and it must be admitted a British army -bears with it an awful power. And false would it be to say the French -were feeble men. The garrison stood and fought manfully and with good -discipline, behaving worthily. Shame there was none on any side. Yet who -shall do justice to the bravery of the British soldiers or the noble -emulation of the officers?... No age, no nation, ever sent forth braver -troops to battle than those who stormed Badajos.” - -In addition to Badajos, the siege of Ciudad Rodrigo and of San Sebastian -deserve mention. The annals of strife nowhere record assaults more -daring than those which raged in turn around these three great -fortresses. Of them all that of Badajos was the most picturesque and -bloody; that of San Sebastian the most sullen and exasperating; that of -Ciudad Rodrigo the swiftest and most brilliant. A great siege tests the -fighting quality of an army as nothing else can test it. In the night -watches in the trenches, in the dogged toil of the batteries, and the -crowded perils of the breach, all the frippery and much of the real -discipline of an army dissolves. The soldiers fall back upon what may be -called the primitive fighting qualities--the hardihood of the individual -soldier, the daring with which the officers will lead, the dogged -loyalty with which the men will follow. As an illustration of the -warlike qualities in a race by which empire has been achieved, nothing -better can be desired than the story of how the breaches were won at -Ciudad Rodrigo. - -At the end of 1811 the English and the French were watching each other -jealously across the Spanish border. The armies of Marmont and of Soult, -sixty-seven thousand strong, lay within touch of each other, barring -Wellington’s entrance into Spain. Wellington, with thirty-five thousand -men, of whom not more than ten thousand men were British, lay within -sight of the Spanish frontier. It was the winter time. Wellington’s army -was wasted by sickness, his horses were dying of mere starvation, his -men had received no pay for three months, and his muleteers none for -eight months. He had no siege train, his regiments were ragged and -hungry, and the French generals confidently reckoned the British army -as, for the moment at least, une quantite negligeable. - -And yet at that precise moment, Wellington, subtle and daring, was -meditating a leap upon the great frontier fortress of Ciudad Rodrigo, in -the Spanish province of Salamanca. Its capture would give him a safe -base of operations against Spain; it was the great frontier place -d’armes for the French; the whole siege equipage and stores of the army -of Portugal were contained in it. The problem of how, in the depth of -winter, without materials for a siege, to snatch a place so strong from -under the very eyes of two armies, each stronger than his own, was a -problem which might have taxed the warlike genius of a Cæsar. But -Wellington accomplished it with a combination of subtlety and audacity -simply marvelous. - -He kept the secret of his design so perfectly that his own engineers -never suspected it, and his adjutant-general, Murray, went home on leave -without dreaming anything was going to happen. Wellington collected -artillery ostensibly for the purpose of arming Almeida, but the guns -were transshipped at sea and brought secretly to the mouth of the Douro. -No less than eight hundred mule-carts were constructed without anybody -guessing their purpose. Wellington, while these preparations were on -foot, was keenly watching Marmont and Soult, till he saw that they were -lulled into a state of mere yawning security, and then, in Napier’s -expressive phrase, he “instantly jumped with both feet upon Ciudad -Rodrigo.” - -This famous fortress, in shape, roughly resembles a triangle with the -angles truncated. The base, looking to the south, is covered by the -Agueda, a river given to sudden inundations; the fortifications were -strong and formidably armed; as outworks it had to the east the great -fortified Convent of San Francisco, to the west a similar building -called Santa Cruz; while almost parallel with the northern face rose two -rocky ridges called the Great and Small Teson, the nearest within six -hundred yards of the city ramparts, and crowned by a formidable redoubt -called Francisco. The siege began on January 8. The soil was rocky and -covered with snow, the nights were black, the weather bitter. The men -lacked intrenching tools. They had to encamp on the side of the Agueda -furthest from the city, and ford that river every time the trenches were -relieved. The 1st, 3d, and light divisions formed the attacking force; -each division held the trenches in turn for twenty-four hours. Let the -reader imagine what degree of hardihood it took to wade in the gray and -bitter winter dawn through a half-frozen river, and, without fire or -warm food, and under a ceaseless rain of shells from the enemy’s guns, -to toil in the frozen trenches, or to keep watch, while the icicles -hung from eyebrow and beard, over the edge of the battery for -twenty-four hours in succession. - -Nothing in this great siege is more wonderful than the fierce speed with -which Wellington urged his operations. Massena, who had besieged and -captured the city the year before in the height of summer, spent a month -in bombarding it before he ventured to assault. Wellington broke ground -on January 8, under a tempest of mingled hail and rain; he stormed it on -the night of the 19th. - -He began operations by leaping on the strong work that crowned the Great -Teson the very night the siege began. Two companies from each regiment -of the light division were detailed by the officer of the day, Colonel -Colborne, for the assault. Colborne (afterward Lord Seaton), a cool and -gallant soldier, called his officers together in a group and explained -with great minuteness how they were to attack. He then lanched his men -against the redoubt with a vehemence so swift that, to those who watched -the scene under the light of a wintry moon, the column of redcoats, like -the thrust of a crimson sword-blade, spanned the ditch, shot up the -glacis, and broke through the parapet with a single movement. The -accidental explosion of a French shell burst the gate open, and the -remainder of the attacking party instantly swept through it. There was -fierce musketry fire and a tumult of shouting for a moment or two, but -in twenty minutes from Colborne’s lanching his attack every Frenchman in -the redoubt was killed, wounded, or a prisoner. - -The fashion in which the gate was blown open was very curious. A French -sergeant was in the act of throwing a live shell upon the storming party -in the ditch, when he was struck by an English bullet. The lighted shell -fell from his hands within the parapet, was kicked away by the nearest -French in mere self-preservation; it rolled toward the gate, exploded, -burst it open, and instantly the British broke in. - -For ten days a desperate artillery duel raged between the besiegers and -the besieged. The parallels were resolutely pushed on in spite of rocky -soil, broken tools, bitter weather, and the incessant pelting of the -French guns. The temper of the British troops is illustrated by an -incident which George Napier--the youngest of the three -Napiers--relates. The three brothers were gallant and remarkable -soldiers. Charles Napier in India and elsewhere made history; William, -in his wonderful tale of the Peninsular War, wrote history; and George, -if he had not the literary genius of the one nor the strategic skill of -the other, was a most gallant soldier. “I was a field-officer of the -trenches,” he says, “when a 13-inch shell from the town fell in the -midst of us. I called to the men to lie down flat, and they instantly -obeyed orders, except one of them, an Irishman and an old marine, but a -most worthless drunken dog, who trotted up to the shell, the fuse of -which was still burning, and striking it with his spade, knocked the -fuse out; then taking the immense shell in his hands, brought it to me, -saying, ‘There she is for you, now, yer ’anner. I’ve knocked the life -out of the crater.’” - -The besieged brought fifty heavy guns to reply to the thirty light -pieces by which they were assailed, and day and night the bellow of -eighty pieces boomed sullenly over the doomed city and echoed faintly -back from the nearer hills, while the walls crashed to the stroke of the -bullet. The English fire made up by fierceness and accuracy for what it -lacked in weight; but the sap made no progress, the guns showed signs of -being worn out, and, although two apparent breaches had been made, the -counterscarp was not destroyed. Yet Wellington determined to attack, -and, in his characteristic fashion, to attack by night. The siege had -lasted ten days, and Marmont, with an army stronger than his own, was -lying within four marches. That he had not appeared already on the scene -was wonderful. - -In a general order issued on the evening of the 19th Wellington wrote, -“Ciudad Rodrigo must be stormed this evening.” The great breach was a -sloping gap in the wall at its northern angle, about a hundred feet -wide. The French had crowned it with two guns loaded with grape, the -slope was strewn with bombs, hand-grenades and bags of powder; a great -mine pierced it beneath; a deep ditch had been cut between the breach -and the adjoining ramparts, and these were crowded with riflemen. The -third division, under General Mackinnon, was to attack the breach, its -forlorn hope being led by Ensign Mackie, its storming party by General -Mackinnon himself. The lesser breach was a tiny gap, scarcely twenty -feet wide, to the left of the great breach; this was to be attacked by -the light division, under Craufurd, its forlorn hope of twenty-five men -being led by Gurwood, and its storming party by George Napier. General -Pack, with a Portuguese brigade, was to make a sham attack on the -eastern face, while a fourth attack was to be made on the southern front -by a company of the 83d and some Portuguese troops. In the storming -party of the 83d were the Earl of March, afterward Duke of Richmond; -Lord Fitzroy Somerset, afterward Lord Raglan; and the Prince of -Orange--all volunteers without Wellington’s knowledge! - -At seven o’clock a curious silence fell suddenly on the battered city -and the engirdling trenches. Not a light gleamed from the frowning -parapets, not a murmur arose from the blackened trenches. Suddenly a -shout broke out on the right of the English attack; it ran, a wave of -stormy sound, along the line of the trenches. The men who were to attack -the great breach leaped into the open. In a moment the space between the -hostile lines was covered with the stormers, and the gloomy, half-seen -face of the great fortress broke into a tempest of fire. - -Nothing could be finer than the vehement courage of the assault, unless -it were the cool and steady fortitude of the defense. Swift as was the -upward rush of the stormers, the race of the 5th, 77th, and 94th -regiments was almost swifter. Scorning to wait for the ladders, they -leaped into the great ditch, outpaced even the forlorn hope, and pushed -vehemently up the great breach, while their red ranks were torn by shell -and shot. The fire, too, ran through the tangle of broken stones over -which they climbed; the hand-grenades and powder-bags by which it was -strewn exploded. The men were walking on fire! Yet the attack could not -be denied. The Frenchmen--shooting, stabbing, yelling--were driven -behind their intrenchments. There the fire of the houses commanding the -breach came to their help, and they made a gallant stand. “None would go -back on either side, and yet the British could not get forward, and men -and officers falling in heaps choked up the passage, which from minute -to minute was raked with grape from two guns flanking the top of the -breach at the distance of a few yards. Thus striving, and trampling -alike upon the dead and the wounded, these brave men maintained the -combat.” - -It was the attack on the smaller breach which really carried Ciudad -Rodrigo; and George Napier, who led it, has left a graphic narrative of -the exciting experiences of that dreadful night. The light division was -to attack, and Craufurd, with whom Napier was a favorite, gave him -command of the storming party. He was to ask for one hundred volunteers -from each of the three British regiments--the 43d, 52d, and the rifle -corps--in the division. Napier halted these regiments just as they had -forded the bitterly cold river on their way to the trenches. “Soldiers,” -he said, “I want one hundred men from each regiment to form the storming -party which is to lead the light division to-night. Those who will go -with me come forward!” - -Instantly there was a rush forward of the whole division, and Napier had -to take his three hundred men out of a tumult of nearly one thousand -five hundred candidates. He formed them into three companies, under -Captains Ferguson, Jones, and Mitchell. Gurwood, of the 52d, led the -forlorn hope, consisting of twenty-five men and two sergeants. -Wellington himself came to the trench and showed Napier and Colborne, -through the gloom of the early night, the exact position of the breach. -A staff-officer, looking on, said, “Your men are not loaded. Why don’t -you make them load?” Napier replied, “If we don’t do the business with -the bayonet we shall not do it at all. I shall not load.”--“Let him -alone,” said Wellington; “let him go his own way.” Picton had adopted -the same grim policy with the third division. As each regiment passed -him, filing into the trenches, his injunction was, “No powder! We’ll do -the thing with the _could_ iron.” - -A party of Portuguese carrying bags filled with grass were to run with -the storming party and throw the bags into the ditch, as the leap was -too deep for the men. But the Portuguese hesitated, the tumult of the -attack on the great breach suddenly broke on the night, and the forlorn -hope went running up, leaped into the ditch, a depth of eleven feet, and -clambered up the steep slope beyond, while Napier with his stormers came -with a run behind them. In the dark for a moment the breach was lost, -but found again, and up the steep quarry of broken stone the attack -swept. - -About two-thirds of the way up, Napier’s arm was smashed by a -grape-shot, and he fell. His men, checked for a moment, lifted their -muskets to the gap above them, whence the French were firing vehemently, -and forgetting their pieces were unloaded, snapped them. “Push on with -the bayonet, men!” shouted Napier, as he lay bleeding. The officers -leaped to the front, the men with a stern shout followed; they were -crushed to a front of not more than three or four. They had to climb -without firing a shot in reply up to the muzzles of the French muskets. - -But nothing could stop the men of the light division. A 24-pounder was -placed across the narrow gap in the ramparts; the stormers leaped over -it, and the 43d and 52d, coming up in sections abreast, followed. The -43d wheeled to the right toward the great breach, the 52d to the left, -sweeping the ramparts as they went. - -Meanwhile the other two attacks had broken into the town; but at the -great breach the dreadful fight still raged, until the 43d, coming -swiftly along the ramparts, and brushing all opposition aside, took the -defense in the rear. The British there had, as a matter of fact, at that -exact moment pierced the French defense. The two guns that scourged the -breach had wrought deadly havoc among the stormers, and a sergeant and -two privates of the 88th--Irishmen all, and whose names deserve to be -preserved--Brazel, Kelly, and Swan--laid down their firelocks that they -might climb more lightly, and, armed only with their bayonets, forced -themselves through the embrasure among the French gunners. They were -furiously attacked, and Swan’s arm was hewed off by a saber stroke; but -they stopped the service of the gun, slew five or six of the French -gunners, and held the post until the men of the 5th, climbing behind -them, broke into the battery. - -So Ciudad Rodrigo was won, and its governor surrendered his sword to the -youthful lieutenant leading the forlorn hope of the light division, who, -with smoke-blackened face, torn uniform, and staggering from a dreadful -wound, still kept at the head of his men. - -In the eleven days of the siege Wellington lost one thousand three -hundred men and officers, out of whom six hundred and fifty men and -sixty officers were struck down on the slopes of the breaches. Two -notable soldiers died in the attack--Craufurd, the famous leader of the -light division, as he brought his men up to the lesser breach; and -Mackinnon, who commanded a brigade of the third division, at the great -breach. Mackinnon was a gallant Highlander, a soldier of great promise, -beloved by his men. His “children,” as he called them, followed him up -the great breach till the bursting of a French mine destroyed all the -leading files, including their general. Craufurd was buried in the -lesser breach itself, and Mackinnon in the great breach--fitting graves -for soldiers so gallant. - -Alison says that with the rush of the English stormers up the breaches -of Ciudad Rodrigo “began the fall of the French empire.” That siege, so -fierce and brilliant, was, as a matter of fact, the first of that -swift-following succession of strokes which drove the French in ruin out -of Spain, and it coincided in point of time with the turn of the tide -against Napoleon in Russia. - -But, as already noted, the climax of the war occurred at Vittoria. -Wellington, overtaking the French at that place, inflicted on them a -defeat which drove in utter rout one hundred and twenty thousand veteran -troops from Spain. There is no more brilliant chapter in military -history; and, at its close, to quote Napier’s clarion-like sentences, -“the English general, emerging from the chaos of the Peninsular -struggle, stood on the summit of the Pyrenees a recognized conqueror. -From those lofty pinnacles the clangor of his trumpets pealed clear and -loud, and the splendor of his genius appeared as a flaming beacon to -warring nations.” - -The victory not only freed Spain from its invaders; it restored the -spirit of the allies. The close of the armistice was followed by a union -of Austria with the forces of Prussia and the Czar; and in October a -final overthrow of Napoleon at Leipzig forced the French army to fall -back in rout across the Rhine. The war now hurried to its close. Though -held at bay for a while by the sieges of San Sebastian and Pampeluna, as -well as by an obstinate defense of the Pyrenees, Wellington succeeded in -the very month of the triumph at Leipzig in winning a victory on the -Bidassoa which enabled him to enter France. He was soon followed by the -allies. On the last day of 1813 their forces crossed the Rhine; and a -third of France passed, without opposition, into their hands. For two -months more Napoleon maintained a wonderful struggle with a handful of -raw conscripts against their overwhelming numbers; while in the south, -Soult, forced from his intrenched camp near Bayonne and defeated at -Orthes, fell back before Wellington on Toulouse. Here their two armies -met in April in a stubborn and indecisive engagement. But though neither -leader knew it, the war was even then at an end. The struggle of -Napoleon himself had ended at the close of March with the surrender of -Paris; and the submission of the capital was at once followed by the -abdication of the emperor and the return of Ferdinand. - -After the convulsions it had endured, Spain required a period of firm -but conciliatory government; but the ill-fate of the country gave the -throne at this crisis to the worst of her Bourbon kings. Ferdinand VII. -had never possessed the good qualities which popular credulity had -assigned to him, and he had learned nothing in his four years’ captivity -except an aptitude for lying and intrigue. He had no conception of the -duties of a ruler; his public conduct was regulated by pride and -superstition, and his private life was stained by the grossest sensual -indulgence. - -But Spain was not allowed to work out its own salvation. Europe was -dominated at this time by the Holy Alliance, which disguised a -resolution to repress popular liberties and to maintain despotism under -a pretended zeal for piety, justice and brotherly love. At the Congress -of Verona (October, 1822), France, Austria, Russia and Prussia agreed -upon armed intervention in Spain, in spite of the protest of Canning on -the part of England. Spain was to be called upon to alter her -constitution and to grant greater liberty to the king, and if an -unsatisfactory answer were received France was authorized to take active -measures. The demand was unhesitatingly refused, and a French army, -100,000 strong, at once entered Spain under the Duke of Angouleme -(April, 1823). No effective resistance was made, and Madrid was entered -by the invaders (May 23). The Cortes, however, had carried off the king -to Seville, whence they again retreated to Cadiz. The bombardment of -that city terminated the revolution and Ferdinand was released (October -1). His first act was to revoke everything that had been done since -1819. The Inquisition was not restored, but the secular tribunals took a -terrible revenge upon the leaders of the rebellion. The protest of the -Duke of Angouleme against these cruelties was unheeded. Even the fear of -revolt, the last check upon despotism, was removed by the presence of -the French army, which remained in Spain till 1827. But Spain had to pay -for the restoration of the royal absolutism, as Canning backed up his -protest against the intervention of France by acknowledging the -independence of the Spanish colonies. - -Ferdinand VII. was enabled to finish his worthless and disastrous reign -in comparative peace. In 1829 he married a fourth wife, Maria Christina -of Naples, and at the same time he issued a “Pragmatic Sanction” -abolishing the Salic law in Spain. No one expected any practical results -from this edict, but a formal protest was made against it by the king’s -brothers, Carlos and Francisco, and also by the French and Neapolitan -Bourbons. In the next year, however, the queen gave birth to a daughter, -Isabella, who was proclaimed as queen on her father’s death in 1833, -while her mother undertook the office of regent. - -Don Carlos at once asserted his intention of maintaining the Salic law, -and rallied round him all the supporters of absolutism, especially the -inhabitants of the Basque Provinces. Christina was compelled to rely -upon the Liberals, and to conciliate them by the grant of a -constitution, the estatuto real, which established two chambers chosen -by indirect election. But this constitution, drawn up under the -influence of Louis Philippe of France, failed to satisfy the advanced -Liberals, and the Christinos split into two parties, the Moderados and -Progresistas. In 1836 the latter party extorted from the regent the -revival of the constitution of 1812. All this time the government was -involved in a desperate struggle with the Carlists, who at first gained -considerable successes under Zumalacarregui and Cabrera. But the death -of Zumalacarregui in 1835 and the support of France and England -ultimately gave the regent the upper hand, and in 1839 her general, -Espartoro, forced the Basque Provinces to submit to Isabella. Don Carlos -renounced his claims in favor of his eldest son, another Carlos, and -retired to Trieste, where he died in 1855. - -Christina now tried to sever herself from the Progresistas, and to -govern with the help of the moderate party who enjoyed the patronage of -Louis Philippe. But England, jealous of French influence at Madrid, -threw the weight of her influence on to the side of the Radicals, who -found a powerful leader in Espartero. In 1840, Christina had to retire -to France, and Espartero was recognized as regent by the Cortes. But his -elevation was resented by the other officers, while his subservience to -England made him unpopular, and in 1848 he also had to go into exile. -Isabella was now declared of age. Christina returned to Madrid, and the -Moderados under Narvaez obtained complete control over the government. -This was a great victory for France, and Louis Philippe abused his -success by negotiating the infamous “Spanish marriages.” A husband was -found for Isabella in her cousin, Francis of Assis, whose recommendation -in French eyes was the improbability of his begetting children. On the -same day the queen’s sister, Maria Louisa, was married to Louis -Philippe’s son, the Duke of Montpensier. By this means it was hoped to -secure the reversion of the Spanish throne for the House of Orleans. -The scheme recoiled on the heads of those who framed it. The alienation -of England gave a fatal impulse to the fall of Louis Philippe, while the -subsequent birth of children to Isabella deprived the Montpensier -marriage of all importance. - -Spanish history during the reign of Isabella II. presents a dismal -picture of faction and intrigue. The queen herself sought compensation -for her unhappy marriage in sensual indulgence, and tried to cover the -dissoluteness of her private life by a superstitious devotion to -religion and by throwing her influence to the side of the clerical and -reactionary party. Every now and then the Progresistas and Moderados -forced themselves into office, but their mutual jealousy prevented them -from acquiring any permanent hold upon the government. In 1866, Isabella -was induced to take vigorous measures against the Liberal opposition. -Narvaez was appointed chief minister; and the most prominent Liberals, -Serrano, Prim and O’Donnell, had to seek safety in exile. The Cortes -were dissolved, and many of the deputies were transported to the Canary -Islands. The ascendency of the court party was maintained by a rigorous -persecution, which was continued after Narvaez’s death (April, 1868) by -Gonzales Bravo. - -Common dangers succeeded at last in combining the various sections of -the Liberals for mutual defense, and the people, disgusted by the -scandals of the court and the contemptible camarilla which surrounded -the queen, rallied to their side. In September, 1868, Serrano and Prim -returned to Spain, where they raised the standard of revolt and offered -the people the bribe of universal suffrage. The revolution was speedily -accomplished and Isabella fled to France, but the successful rebels were -at once confronted with the difficulty of finding a successor for her. -During the interregnum Serrano undertook the regency and the Cortes drew -up a now constitution by which a hereditary king was to rule in -conjunction with a senate and a popular chamber. - -As no one of the Bourbon candidates for the throne was acceptable, it -became necessary to look around for some foreign prince. The offer of -the crown to Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen excited the jealousy of -France, and gave Napoleon III. the opportunity of picking a quarrel, -which proved fatal to himself, with the rising state of Prussia. At last -a king was found (1870) in Amadeus of Aosta, the second son of Victor -Emmanuel, who made an honest effort to discharge the difficult office of -a constitutional king in a country which was hardly fitted for -constitutional government. But he found the task too hard and too -distasteful, and resigned in 1878. - -A provisional republic was now formed, of which Castelar was the guiding -spirit. But the Spaniards, trained to regard monarchy with superstitious -reverence, had no sympathy with republican institutions. Don Carlos -seized the opportunity to revive the claim of inalienable male -succession, and raised the standard of revolt in the Basque Provinces, -where his name was still a power. The disorders of the democrats and the -approach of civil war threw the responsibility of government upon the -army. The Cortes were dissolved by a military _coup d’etat_; Castelar -threw up his office in disgust; and the administration was undertaken by -a committee of officers. Anarchy was suppressed with a strong hand, but -it was obvious that order could only be restored by reviving the -monarchy. Foreign princes were no longer thought of, and the crown was -offered to and accepted by Alfonso XII., the young son of the exiled -Isabella (1874). - -His first task was to terminate the Carlist war, which still continued -in the north, and this was successfully accomplished in 1876. Time was -required to restore the prosperity of Spain under a peaceful and orderly -government and to consolidate by prescription the authority of the -restored dynasty. Unfortunately a premature death carried off Alfonso -XII. in 1885, before he could complete the work which circumstances laid -upon him. The regency was intrusted to his widow, Christina of Austria, -and the birth of a posthumous son (May 17, 1886), who is now the titular -king of Spain, has excited a feeling of pitying loyalty which may help -to secure the Bourbon dynasty in the last kingdom which is left to it. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -COLONIAL SPAIN - -COLUMBUS--SIGHTING OF SAN SALVADOR--RETURN OF COLUMBUS--FOUNDING OF AN -EMPIRE--MEXICO AND PERU--THE WEST INDIES--GERMS OF REBELLION - - -In August, 1492, Columbus sailed on his voyage of discovery. In -September, 1898, his remains were conveyed from the New World to the -Old. Between those two dates an empire rose and fell. The causes which -led to the one and the effects which precipitated the other may now be -conveniently considered. - -In earlier years Cadiz was a famous seaport. Her sons were immemorial -explorers. The presentiment of a land across the sea was theirs by -intuition. Constantly they extended their expeditions, and would have -extended them still further had not the Church interfered. The spirit of -enterprise, checked as heretical, revived centuries later in a -neighboring land. It was Portugal that it inspired. There the work of -exploration and discovery was resumed. The island of Madeira was reached -in 1420, the Azores annexed in 1431. But it was along the African coast -that Portuguese effort was mainly directed. Tradition asserted that the -entire continent had been circumnavigated centuries before by voyagers -from Phœnicia; but, as no details were recorded, the adventure was -regarded as something more than dubious. However, the west coast began -now to be systematically explored. Nuno Tristao entered the Senegal -River in 1445; a year later Diniz Dias, a fellow-navigator, sailed as -far as Cape Verd. The equator was not crossed until 1471; the Congo was -revealed in 1484; and in 1486 the crowning feat of all was accomplished, -when Bartholomew Diaz rounded the Stormy Cape, soon to become known as -the Cape of Good Hope, and opened up communication with the East by -water, instead of overland or by the indirect route of the Red Sea, -which necessitated the transshipment of all merchandise conveyed that -way. - -The expedition to the west which Columbus ultimately directed was -conceived by him in 1474, and unfolded to John II., king of Portugal, by -whom, however, it was rejected; whereupon Columbus dispatched his -brother Bartholomew to enter into negotiations with Henry VII. of -England, and after assuring himself that neither Genoa nor Venice was -likely to lend him a willing ear, much less ready help, he repaired to -the south of Spain in 1485. - -Had Bartholomew not fallen into the hands of pirates, and so been -prevented from reaching his destination for several years, it is more -than probable that the credit as well as the profit of the discovery of -America would have fallen at once to England, as Henry had both the -means and the inclination to indulge in some such venture, provided it -was not too costly, and showed any reasonable prospect of success. As it -was, Christopher was left to pursue his pleadings before the Spanish -Court. - -It was an unfortunate time to put forward any proposals calculated to -divert the wealth and strength of the kingdom beyond its own borders; -for Ferdinand and Isabella were then in the very midst of the campaign -which ended in the final overthrow of the Moorish dominion, in the -Peninsula. - -Ultimately, however, after the fall of Granada and eighteen years of -waiting, his proposals were accepted by Isabella and his hopes realized. -A royal edict constituted him perpetual and hereditary admiral and -viceroy of any territories discovered, together with a tenth of any -profits derived therefrom. With this edict and funds advanced by the -receiver of ecclesiastical revenues, Columbus hastened to the port of -Palos. There, two brothers by the name of Pinzon aiding, he got together -a crew of a hundred and twenty men, a scratch armada of three leaky -tubs--the “Santa Maria,” the “Pinta” and the “Nina”--and, on the 3d of -August, 1492, weighed anchor for pastures new. - -Columbus, as admiral of the fleet, commanded the “Santa Maria”; the two -Pinzons, Martin Alonzo and Vicente Yanez, the “Pinta” and “Nina” -respectively. The expressed object of the voyage was to convert the -Grand Khan, supposed to be the great potentate of the Far East, to -Christianity; and Columbus never doubted but that in due course he would -arrive at Japan, or Zipangu, as it had been named by the Venetian -explorer, Marco Polo, who had reached it by an overland route more than -a century before, and had described its wonders, together with those of -Cathay or China, through which he passed on his way. The one condition -imposed was, that the squadron should not touch at any place on the -African continent, claimed to be under Portuguese jurisdiction, as that -would have led to immediate hostilities between the two countries. - -The details of the voyage are sufficiently familiar to dispense with -narration here. It will suffice to note that after seventy days the -island of San Salvador, as it was then named, hove in sight; that on the -28th of October, sixteen days later, Cuba was discovered, and that on -the 6th of December Hayti was reached. - -Several circumstances then made it advisable for Columbus to return to -Spain without further delay. He had seen enough to be convinced that a -much larger force than he had under his command would be necessary to -make the subjugation of these newly acquired territories effective; news -of the discovery might reach Europe before him, and be taken advantage -of by some other sovereign than the one to whom he was devoted; and he -had now sufficient treasure of various kinds to convince the most -skeptical of the complete success of his enterprise. After constructing -a small fort, and leaving a portion of the crew, at their own desire, to -garrison it until he should return, he set sail for home with the “Nina” -on the 4th of January, 1493. - -Reaching Palos on the 13th of March, Columbus was immediately summoned -to Barcelona, where Ferdinand and Isabella were then domiciled, made a -triumphal entry into the city, and, on his arrival at the royal -residence, was welcomed by the king and queen in person, who commanded -him to be seated by their side, while he related the account of his -adventures. - -Meanwhile the report of the discovery had spread. Portugal sought to -take advantage of it through the theory that all heathen countries were -in the gift of the Pope, which gift a Bull had already confirmed. But, -Spain protesting, a subsequent Bull confirmed the Portuguese in their -existing possessions, and granted them all territory that should be -discovered east of a line drawn from north to south, one hundred leagues -west of the Azores, while the Spaniards were to enjoy exclusive dominion -over everything west of it. - -This was regarded as so unsatisfactory by Portugal that, at its -instigation, negotiations between the two countries were opened, and -resulted the following year in the conclusion of the Treaty of -Tordesillas, by which it was agreed to move the line three hundred and -seventy leagues west of the Azores; a most important change, because by -it Portugal subsequently established its claim to the Brazils, a portion -of which was found to fall east of the line of demarcation, while it -could urge the further plea of having been first in the field, through -the accidental deviation of Cabral. At any rate, the whole world outside -Europe was leased in perpetuity to Spain and Portugal; and had the -pretensions of the Holy See in things temporal as well as spiritual -continued to be recognized, neither England, France nor Germany could -to-day own a square yard of territory in the three greatest continents -of the world. - -While the negotiations were in progress, preparations for a second -expedition on a vastly greater scale were rapidly pushed forward. The -direction of them was intrusted to a cleric named Fonseca, a capable man -of business, but who for some reason or other conceived a violent -dislike to Columbus, and threw every obstacle in his way. The eagerness -to embark on this second voyage was far more marked than the reluctance -exhibited in the first, and the best blood of Spain pressed into the -service. The number of adventurers was originally limited to a thousand; -but the applications were so numerous, from those who believed that -fortunes were waiting to be picked up in the New World, that this was -raised to twelve hundred, and fifteen hundred actually sailed in -seventeen vessels from the Bay of Cadiz on the 25th of September, 1493. -All was keen anticipation during the voyage, the disappointments only -commenced at its termination. - -“Into these,” says Mr. R. J. Root, whose account we quote, “there is no -occasion to enter now. The main point of interest is, that a -sufficiently large force of Spaniards had taken part in the enterprise -to confirm the possession of the New World to their country, and defeat -any attempts that Portugal might be likely to make to filch it away. -After establishing a settlement at Isabella on the north of Hayti, or -Hispaniola, as it was then named, Columbus was free to prosecute further -explorations, the principal one being to sail along the southern shores -of Cuba; but, after continuing his voyage to within a few miles of its -western extremity, he arrived at the conclusion that it was the -mainland, and reported to that effect--nor was it until after his death -that it was proved to be an island. Everything was claimed for the -Spanish crown; and, as there were absolutely no competitors, it can well -be understood how the entire group of islands constituting the West -Indies became Spanish colonies. - -“Various causes compelled Columbus to relinquish his exploration and -return, first to Hispaniola and then to Spain. For one thing, the two -vessels with which he set sail were ill-provisioned. With that -confidence in his own judgment which was so characteristic of the man, -he relied upon encountering at no great distance those civilized or at -least semi-civilized, nations of which he had come in search, but -instead he met only the fierce tribes of Cuba and Jamaica, who offered -resistance, not welcome, and arrows in lieu of food. - -“On his return to the colony, affairs were in a most unsatisfactory -condition. The last thing most of the colonists dreamed of when they -left their native shores was work. They had gone out, as they fondly -imagined, to pick up the gold as it lay at their feet, and when they had -accumulated sufficient, meant to return and enjoy it. Though Columbus -had never promised, nor even suggested anything of the sort, his -brilliant descriptions and anticipations were undoubtedly responsible -for the ideas so freely indulged, and the indignation against him rose -just as rapidly as hopes were blasted. Complaints were finding their way -to Spain, and lest he should be prejudiced in the eyes of his -sovereigns, he determined to embark thence and render a personal account -of his stewardship. - -“The voyage home was, if anything, more protracted, and entailed greater -hardships, than the previous one. Columbus arrived at Cadiz on the 1st -June, 1496, and met with a warmer reception than he had dared to hope -for. But intrigue was busy, and his arch-enemy Fonseca, who was by this -time in almost undisputed control of colonial affairs, threw numerous -and persistent obstacles in the way of his fitting out another -expedition. The stories told by returned colonists of the want and -suffering they had endured were not conducive to others volunteering -for the service, and it was only on the 30th May, 1498, that the admiral -was again able to set sail from San Lucar with a small fleet of six -vessels, manned almost entirely by convicts specially released. - -“A more southerly course was taken than on either of the previous -occasions, and the first place touched was the island of Trinidad. -Sailing round it from the southwest, the ships were suddenly caught and -swept along by a mighty current, which Columbus discovered to be of -fresh water, and rightly judged to be poured out of some vast river. He -had, in fact, reached the coast of South America, and was in the waters -of the Orinoco as they rushed to mingle with the ocean. The natives -proved of a more friendly disposition as well as of superior type to -those encountered in many of the islands; and as they possessed gold, -and also something still more precious, pearls, every encouragement was -given them to trade. They were just as eager after the trumpery toys of -the Old World as the inhabitants of San Salvador had been the first time -they were ever exhibited in the New, and we may be sure the bargains -made were very profitable to the Spaniards. Still, these were not the -people Columbus had come in search of, and his inquiries and labors were -diligently directed to the discovery of a passage which should lead him -still further west to the dominions of the Grand Khan. - -“After some time vainly spent in exploring the coast with this object, -an affection of the eyes compelled him to desist and make once more for -Hispaniola, where he had left his brother Bartholomew as governor during -his absence. A strange welcome awaited him, however. In response to the -continued complaints of the colonists, a commissioner had been -dispatched from Spain to inquire into their grievances, and certain -powers were intrusted to him to assume authority in the island in case -of necessity. Deeply impressed with a sense of his own importance, -Francisco Bobadilla, the officer appointed, immediately on his arrival -began to act in the most reckless and arbitrary manner; and the -discoverer of the New World, without any warning, found himself -arrested, loaded with chains, thrown into prison, and finally sent home -to Spain in this ignominious fashion. - -“Great was the public, still greater the royal indignation, when he -arrived in this sorry plight; every effort was made to soothe the -feelings so deeply wounded by this dire insult, and Bobadilla would have -paid dearly for his temerity had he survived to answer for his misdeeds. -But news had reached Spain of the wonderful riches of the Gulf of Paria -some time before the arrival of Columbus, and the malignant and untiring -Fonseca, in direct contravention of the charter conveying the rights to -the admiral, stimulated private enterprise to follow in the track, -taking the utmost possible advantage of whatever information he had -gained in his official capacity, and imparting it to others. An -expedition was fitted out under Alonzo de Ojeda, one of the most -dare-devil adventurers who ever quitted the shores of his own or any -other country, and whose marvelous exploits in Hispaniola had already -excited the wonder and admiration of men long accustomed to feats of -skill and courage. Accompanying him was Amerigo Vespucci, a Venetian -navigator, who strangely enough was destined to give his name to the -whole of the vast continent which he was about to visit for the first -time, though he never accomplished anything of practical importance in -it. Several other ships were fitted out, including a caravel of fifty -tons’ burden by Pedro Alonzo Nino, which performed the most lucrative -voyage of any vessel or squadron equipped up to that time, and returned -home well freighted with pearls and other costly treasure. This was -quite sufficient to stimulate ambition as well as greed, and when -Columbus arrived he had the mortification of learning that others were -actively exploiting his preserves. - -“While these events were happening, another enterprise was undertaken -quite beyond the cognizance of the Spanish authorities. Bartholomew -Columbus, it will be remembered, had proceeded on a mission to Henry -VII. some years previous; and when the English monarch learned that the -most sanguine anticipations had been realized, he was anxious to share -in the results. As early as 1495 he endeavored to equip and dispatch a -squadron of his own, but it was not until two years later that Sebastian -Cabot, despite the existence of the Papal Bull, set sail from Bristol. -Steering a direct westerly course, he struck the coast of Newfoundland, -and leisurely sailed south almost to the extreme point of Florida, ere -he resumed his homeward journey. The Spanish government naturally -protested against this infringement of its rights, and Henry found it -politic to listen, as he was then in close alliance, and engaged in -negotiating the marriage between his son and Katharine of Aragon, which -subsequently proved so pregnant to the religious and ecclesiastical -destinies of England. It was at a later period, and under totally -different circumstances, that the Anglo-Saxon race was to occupy and -overrun the northern continent. - -“Columbus himself was spared to undertake one more voyage, and this time -it was to be confined exclusively to the continent, he being absolutely -forbidden to land at Hispaniola, where Nicolas Ovando, with a force of -all sorts and conditions of men, numbering two thousand five hundred, -had been installed as governor; and so jealous was he of any -interference with his prerogatives that, when the admiral was driven by -stress of weather to take shelter in the harbor of San Domingo, he was -ordered to quit instantly. - -“This proved the most disastrous of all his voyages. After exploring the -coasts of Honduras and Central America generally, in search of the -non-existent channel, until the provisions were in such a state that -they could only be eaten in the dark, it was decided to land, despite -the fierce opposition of the natives, and plant a permanent settlement -under Bartholomew, who accompanied his brother. This, however, had to be -abandoned; and on the way back the only remaining vessel ran aground in -Dry Harbor in Jamaica, and became a total wreck, the most incredible -suffering, aggravated by constant mutiny, being experienced, until the -remnant of the crew was eventually relieved. - -“Columbus having shown the way to the mainland, as well as the islands, -it was left to others to reveal the vast extent and natural wealth of -what he had discovered, and he died on the 20th May, 1506, in complete -ignorance of many of the most important facts which his genius and -tenacity permitted to be made known for the first time to the civilized -world. - -“Columbus and his immediate followers hit upon the most unpromising part -of the American Continent, where the damp, hot atmosphere, with its -resulting rank and profuse vegetation, makes human existence intolerable -if not wellnigh impossible. As the land was known to contain gold, -however, the most persistent efforts were made to settle in it, and two -regular governments were established under Alonzo de Ojeda and Diego de -Nicuessa respectively. Nothing but disaster resulted for many a long -year, and the greatest difficulties were experienced in extending or -enlarging them in any direction but coastwise. - -“Narrow as the isthmus is in the part selected, it appeared -impenetrable, until eventually the magic word gold encouraged a few bold -spirits to overcome every obstacle. Wherever the adventurers went inland -they heard of a great sea and vast abundance of the precious metal in an -unknown land beyond. After incredible hardships, Vasco Nunez de Balboa -and a handful of followers forced their way through the thickets and -swamps, scaled the mountain range which runs like a backbone along the -isthmus, and were rewarded for their pains when they reached the summit -by the sight of the great southern sea lying at their feet. This -occurred on the 26th September, 1513, and on the following day the party -descended the western slopes; Vasco Nunez, as its leader and commander, -taking possession of the Pacific Ocean on behalf of the King of Spain, -with all the ceremonies and formalities customary on those occasions. - -“How to take advantage of it was the question. Far south, beyond where -vision could reach, lay the golden land. They were without ships or -means of conveyance of any sort, and the shore upon which they were now -stranded was dangerous as well as inhospitable. The observant and -ingenious mind of Nunez, inferior only to that of Columbus, evolved the -idea of transporting material across the isthmus for the construction of -a fleet to undertake the subjugation of all countries bordering on the -Southern Sea; and such was the work eventually accomplished, though not -by Nunez, who fell a victim to the jealousy and treachery of Pedrarias -Davila, a new governor dispatched from Spain. It was left to one of his -lieutenants, Francisco Pizarro, to set forth on a definite expedition -more than ten years later; and it was not until nearly twenty years had -elapsed that Peru was discovered, and the rich kingdom of the Incas -added to the spoils of the Castilian monarch. - -“Meanwhile, exploration had been busy on the eastern side of the -continent. Cuba, realized at length to be an island, was regularly -colonized in 1511, and the governor, Diego Velasquez, being an -enterprising and ambitious man, dispatched an expedition westward. The -great peninsula of Yucatan was reached, and the officers of the little -squadron were struck by the much higher state of civilization exhibited -by the natives than by any others hitherto met with either in the -islands or on the mainland. The news of this led to the subsequent -expedition of Cortes, the story of whose conquest of Mexico reads more -like a fairy tale than the narrative of actual events and hard -realities. - -“The years 1519, 1520 and 1521 were occupied by this, the greatest of -all the enterprises undertaken by Spain in the New World. Nor was there -any lack of activity in other directions. Juan Ponce sailed from Porto -Rico, in 1512, in search of a spring whose waters insured perennial -youth to whoever drank of them, and found and annexed Florida instead. -More than one navigator cruised southward as far as the Rio de la Plata, -and in 1520 Magellan reached the extremity of the southern continent, -and passed through the straits which bear his name. Nor was Cortes idle -after he had accomplished his great work. North and south he sought to -add to the territory of New Spain, until all the countries of Central -America on one side, and the peninsula of California on the other, were -brought under its sway. In less than half a century from the day -Columbus first set foot on San Salvador, the entire continent, from -Labrador to Patagonia, had been visited, and by far the greater part of -it annexed to, and nominally ruled by, the Castilian crown. - -“To return, however, to Hispaniola. The rapid exhaustion which -mismanagement produced there, joined to the absence of gold, led to the -creation of other colonies. The discovery of the fisheries, first at -Paria, and then in the islands of the Pacific, opened up an unexpected -source of wealth; but it was not until Montezuma offered his munificent -gifts to Cortes, to induce the latter to quit the shores of Mexico, that -the first great reservoir of the precious metals was tapped. Still, it -must be remembered that the great stores of gold discovered, first in -Mexico, and subsequently in Peru, did not in themselves imply that these -countries were capable of continuing to produce unlimited quantities. -They were the accumulations of many years, possibly of many centuries; -for, as there was no foreign trade, everything produced which could not -be consumed had necessarily to be preserved or destroyed. - -“It may be wondered what value gold possessed in the ideas of these -people. That it was held in nothing like the same esteem as by Europeans -is certain; but in Peru, at any rate, its production and preservation -were assured, from the fact that it was regarded as tears wept by the -sun, which was the god of the people, whose Incas, or rulers, were -called the Children of the Sun. In neither case, then, is it surprising -that the treasure was not clung to with more tenacity. Both Montezuma -and Atahualpa set a higher value upon many other things; and the -quantities seized by Cortes and Pizarro and their respective followers, -vast though it appeared in their eyes, and as it really was in those -days, was parted with, with scarcely a pang of regret. That secured by -Pizarro was by far the greater spoil, and was supposed to be the price -of the freedom of the Inca himself, who offered to fill a room 85 feet -by 17, and as high as a man could reach, with gold plate in exchange for -it. He did not quite succeed, because Pizarro treacherously put him to -death before the task was completed, yet the amount realized for -distribution was equivalent to something like three and a half millions -sterling ($17,500,000) of the money of to-day, and enriched the -commonest foot-soldier beyond the dreams of avarice. - -“It was silver, not gold, moreover, which eventually made both countries -at once the wonder and the envy of the civilized world. The richest -mines were unknown to the Indians, having only been discovered after -the Spanish conquest. Those of Zacotecas in Mexico were first worked in -1532, while the more famous Potosi lode in Peru was laid bare in 1545, -by a native scrambling up the side of a mountain in pursuit of some -llamas which had strayed from his flock, and uprooting the shrubs to -which he clung for support. - -“In the West Indies, meanwhile, the larger islands, like Porto Rico, -Cuba and Jamaica, were gradually colonized, but the smaller ones were -left alone; it can well be understood that in the absence of any proved -deposits of gold they were scarcely worth attention, and it was -sufficient to keep a watch over them to defend them from the incursions -of other nations. With the conquest of Mexico, however, the center of -gravity was moved further west, and still more so when followed by that -of Peru, because the only known route from the latter was by Panama and -across the isthmus. - -“These territories were altogether too great for efficient oversight; -that of Mexico stretching from California in the north to Venezuela in -the south, and including not only the West Indies, but the far removed -Philippines, while that of Lima embraced the whole of South America both -east and west of the Andes. The great territories included in the -present Republics of Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay were looked upon as -of little value, as they contained neither gold nor silver; and as every -attempt made to settle them only seemed to end in failure, little -attention was given to their affairs. They became, indeed, a distinct -source of loss to Spain, as they were found useful for purposes of -contraband trade; and eventually the gold and silver, which could not -be safely smuggled through the ordinary ports of shipment, were conveyed -across the Andes and down the rivers to places of embarkation on the -Amazon or Rio do la Plata, where foreign ships awaited the spoil and -were ready to barter the coveted produce and manufactures of Europe in -exchange. When these two viceroyalties were eventually subdivided, it -was not into east and west, but north and south, and New Granada became -the center of one; while the territories now included in the United -States were separated from Mexico, and constituted the other. - -“In Spain everybody, from the king in his palace to the peasant in his -hut, regarded the colonies simply as a source of revenue and profit to -himself, and when they ceased to be this, they would be useless. The -most stringent regulations were adopted, therefore, against trading or -even communicating among themselves, or of engaging in any industry, -manufacturing or agricultural, which was not indigenous to the country; -indeed, Spain insisted upon supplying everything it could grow or make -which would stand the sea voyage, at its own price. The cultivation of -neither the olive nor the vine was permitted in the New World, and -severe penalties were inflicted upon any one who had the temerity to -disobey. Peru and Chili, however, were specially exempted, owing to -their immense distance, and the damaged condition in which liquids -generally arrived there, but they were not allowed to export the produce -to any neighboring country, and must consume it themselves. The duties -of the colonists were, in fact, strictly limited to obtaining as much -gold and silver as they could, while the Spaniards at home were to take -care that they retained as little of it as possible. For all that, many -fortunes were realized, principally by bullion being smuggled out of the -country; and had there not been some such inducement, few men would have -cared to expatriate themselves, and live amid such uncomfortable -surroundings. - -“Precisely similar principles were observed in all matters relating to -government. Every office of profit under the crown, almost every -emolument, however trivial, was reserved for persons of pure Spanish -birth. As a consequence, the official class was migratory, and remained -in the colonies no longer than was necessary to accumulate a fortune or -a competence, according to the taste of each individual member of it. -Though there were honest and honorable men to be found among them, -notably those filling the most exalted positions, that did not prevent -the vast majority from preying on the colonists, many of whom, by virtue -of the grants of territory they had received, attained to great -influence and wealth. Their descendants were, nevertheless, debarred -from all participation in either the legislative or executive functions -of government, though they might have nothing but the purest Spanish -blood flowing in their veins. Nor could they become dignitaries of the -Church without much difficulty. In the days when the Holy See found it -politic to be on good terms with the Spanish sovereign, the whole -ecclesiastical patronage of the New World was vested in him and his -successors; and though many Popes endeavored to get this privilege back -into their own hands, they always failed, and were compelled to confirm -the nominations of the secular ruler. Both Mexico and Peru were rapidly -overrun with clergy, secular as well as regular, and monastic -establishments sprang up everywhere like mushrooms, yet preferment was -always reserved for their brethren in Spain; and out of nearly four -hundred bishops and archbishops consecrated up to the middle of the -seventeenth century, scarce a dozen were taken from the Spanish-American -community known as Creoles. - -“A system so rigid is bound to break. Federation is all very well and -may accomplish much that is beneficial to all concerned. But its first -condition is elasticity, so that every section within its embrace may -enjoy full freedom of expansion. There must be no jealousies, no -recriminations, and, above everything, no attempts to get all and give -nothing. These conditions are possible under an arrangement entered into -freely by all parties; they are unattainable when imposed by the strong -upon the weak. That is why Spain never won the gratitude of its -colonies, why each and every one eagerly seized the opportunity of -throwing off the yoke, and fought desperately for independence, and why, -to-day, her colonial power is ended.” - - - - -CHAPTER X - -THE FALL OF AN EMPIRE - -THE SUPREMACY OF SPAIN--ENCROACHMENTS OF OTHER NATIONS--CAUSES WHICH LED -TO COLONIAL REVOLT--BIRTH OF THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS--INSURRECTIONS -IN CUBA--ROBAMOS TODOS - - -The population of Hayti at the advent of Columbus was estimated to have -been a million, yet, before many years had elapsed, the colonists were -forcibly depopulating the smaller islands to provide a supply of labor -sufficient for their limited requirements. It was the people of the -mainland who might have been expected and who actually did offer the -stoutest resistance. No more wonderful campaign is recorded in military -history than that conducted by Cortes against the Mexicans, and it may -be doubted whether there was another man living who could have carried -it to a successful issue. - -Conspicuous as a general, he was unmatched as a diplomatist, whether in -dealing with his own soldiers, his allies, or his enemies. Who else in -that age would have dreamed, after defeating the Tlascalans against -fearful odds, of enlisting them against their deadly foes the Aztecs, -and so humoring them that they never swerved in their loyalty? Or who -could have traded on the superstition, of Montezuma, so as to gain -complete control over his mind, and extract his treasures, valued at -something like seven and a half million dollars, without a blow? But -Montezuma once removed, the people, who had long been accustomed to -render him an unquestioned obedience, and to submit themselves to his -slightest command, were free to follow leaders who evinced more spirit; -and the death of that monarch was speedily followed by the _noche -triste_ with all its attendant horrors. To be captured alive, as many of -the Spanish soldiers were, meant the most terrible of all ends, for they -were hurried away to the temples, and their palpitating hearts torn from -their living bodies, to be offered as a propitiation to the national -deities. Yet even this did not disconcert Cortes and his brave -adherents, who began immediately to concert another plan of campaign. -The difficulties they had first encountered were as nothing compared to -those they had still to face, for they had to deal with a victorious and -determined foe, instead of a beaten and depressed one. Every obstacle, -however, was overcome; and with the energetic assistance of allies, who -little dreamed they were sealing their own doom and forever sacrificing -their independence, the powerful and rich kingdom of Mexico was finally -brought into complete subjection to the Castilian crown. - -Of totally different and vastly inferior fiber was the conqueror of -Peru. Pizarro was without either education or address--a rough, -ambitious, and avaricious soldier. He, too, was favored by internal -dissensions, of which he could not possibly have known anything when he -set forth on his errand. After a long period of peaceful and undisputed -sway, the Inca dynasty was split by a feud between two brothers, one of -whom, Atahualpa, had just asserted his superiority by force of arms, -when the European conquerors appeared on the scene. A word from him, and -not a man of them would have escaped alive. But at the critical moment -an unaccountable paralysis overtook him, whether or not arising from a -curiosity to see and interview the strangers it is impossible to say. He -realized his danger too late, for Pizarro, imitating Cortes, seized the -person of the Inca, and the rest was rendered comparatively easy. -Accustomed, like Montezuma, to exact unqualified obedience, he employed -his subjects in collecting his ransom instead of fighting for his -deliverance; and when the debt was almost paid, he found himself doomed -to death instead of released from captivity. The forces of the empire -were then scattered, and without a leader who could assume full -authority. Still, many a desperate bid was subsequently made for -freedom, but each time with less prospect of success, as the conquerors -secured a firmer grip upon the country, until the execution of Tapac -Amara, the last direct descendant of the Incas, in 1571, left that -solitude which Cæsar called peace. - -But after all it was not the opposition of the Indians, whether of the -islands, of Mexico, or Peru, that proved the greatest danger to Spanish -sovereignty. Enmity to Columbus, who was the accredited representative -of the crown and legal governor of the Indies, did not necessarily infer -enmity to the crown itself; indeed, those who rebelled against him were -loud in their protestations of loyalty. Nevertheless, the turbulent -factions fought for their own hand, and would have been equally opposed -to any other governor who sought to place the necessary restraint upon -their license. By permitting, and even compelling, many of the -discontented to return home, as well as by the temporary removal of -Columbus himself, something like quiet was restored; but it is more than -probable that had not the colonists been largely dependent upon Spain -for many necessaries, not excluding food, they would have cut themselves -adrift and refused to submit to the exactions upon their industry, or -rather upon that of the natives from which they profited. More than once -in the early days, the home government had to stop cautiously, and -commissions were dispatched to ascertain where the grievances lay, and -if possible redress them. They were mostly connected with labor; the -majority of the clergy, to their credit be it said, ranging themselves -on the side of humanity, and using all their influence to obtain -ordinances favorable to the natives. This difficulty was smoothed away -to a great extent by the introduction of the African negro, which began -as early as the year 1503. - -The followers of Cortes were remarkably loyal to him in prosperity and -adversity alike; and though for a long time he was unaware how his -proceedings would be received at court, he remained consistent in his -devotion to his sovereign. His dispatches breathe an almost effusive -submission to their will and interests, and only his enemies ever laid -any charges against him, while his own actions too obviously refuted -them. It was only when some of his officers were removed from his -influence and intrusted with commissions of their own that they thought -of kicking over the traces, and then it invariably happened that they -were not in situations where any great harm could result. Mexico once -subdued, long rendered the most willing obedience of any of the -colonies, partly perhaps because under the direct influence of good and -great viceroys, who acted both with intelligence and discretion. - -It was far otherwise in Peru, where the duplicity of Pizarro in -excluding Almagro from his proper share in the governorship roused the -suspicion, then the ire, and finally the opposition of that honest and -gallant soldier. When Pizarro returned from his visit to Spain, he was -either accompanied or immediately followed by several of his brothers, -who, among them, formed a family compact for the protection and -promotion of their own interests. To rid themselves of the rivalry of -Almagro, they obtained for him the governorship of the country which now -comprises the Republic of Chili. This, however, had still to be -conquered, and the obstacles which presented themselves to the -enterprise appeared so insurmountable that Almagro and his followers -abandoned it and returned to Cuzco, the rich capital of Peru, which, the -former maintained, fell within the latitude of the patent granted to -him. This assertion was naturally contested by the Pizarros, and in the -civil war that followed both Francisco Pizarro, the eldest and foremost -of the brothers, and Almagro met with violent deaths. The Indians looked -on with amazement at this strife between the white men, but failed to -profit by it. Had they shown anything like the energy displayed in the -warfare among themselves, or that of their Mexican brothers, they must -inevitably have recaptured their kingdom, which it would have been -extremely difficult to reconquer; but having allowed the golden -opportunity to slip, it never again offered. - -But the most serious menace to the supremacy of Spain in the New World -occurred shortly after the promulgation of the edicts of Charles V. in -1542. The clauses guaranteeing the Indians their freedom, and protecting -them against undue imposition, either of taxation or forced labor, were -so obnoxious to the colonists that something like a general rising was -threatened. The tact of the Mexican viceroy pacified those under his -rule, but Peru experienced the full force of an armed rebellion with all -its evil consequences. The leader in this instance was Gonzales Pizarro, -who had inherited the immense estates conferred upon the family by a -grateful sovereign, and who now undoubtedly aimed at establishing a -separate kingdom with himself its supreme head. Fortunately, the right -man was again sent from Spain to deal effectively with this uprising, -and though a cleric, Vaca de Castro exhibited the skill of a general and -the diplomacy of a statesman. With the execution of Gonzales, the last -of the Pizarro brothers, peace was restored; and by the middle of the -sixteenth century the various governments were so effectively -consolidated that not for upward of a hundred and fifty years did any -revolt, Indian or Creole, meet with more than temporary success. - -It was far otherwise with the Philippines, which have never been free -for any length of time from disturbances of some kind. No effort indeed -has ever been made to thoroughly subdue the turbulent natives; and there -is no similar extent of territory under the control of a European -government, about which so little is known regarding its natural -resources and mineral wealth as the important islands of Luzon and -Mindanao, which embrace half the total area of the archipelago. The -principal ports have been strongly fortified, and reliance placed upon -them to retain possession. The immunities enjoyed by the natives would, -under ordinary circumstances, offer little inducement to revolt, but -unfortunately the Philippines have from the very first been particularly -subject to ecclesiastical influence and jurisdiction, and in its -missionary and persecuting zeal the priesthood has made itself -thoroughly obnoxious. The religious orders were the special object of -animosity in the latest rising, and unless they are either suppressed or -placed under more effective political control, there will be little -prospect of peace in the islands. - -In an epoch when most of the nations of Europe are struggling to add to -their territories in the remotest corners of the earth, it seems almost -incredible that four centuries ago a single one of them should have been -permitted to annex a whole continent unchallenged. It was not so much -the Pope’s Bull that frightened competitors away as the fact that they -were too deeply absorbed in their own affairs. The importunity of -Columbus had to wear itself nearly out before the fortunate completion -of the Moorish conquest won it a more ready ear; and most other -countries were about the same time either engaged in, or just recovering -from, some similar internecine strife. Moreover, it was the energy of -private adventurers rather than of the Spanish crown which won for the -latter a vast empire beyond the seas; nor was it until its value became -plainly apparent that it was thought worth while to go to any great -amount of trouble or expense in its development. - -Similarly, the first external enemies the Spanish colonies had to -encounter were private and unattached adventurers. Piracy was an -institution which had already flourished for many centuries. The Barbary -corsairs were far more feared by the merchants of Venice and Genoa than -the fiercest storms that ever visited the Mediterranean; and they had -their counterpart in the Baltic, where the Hanseatic League carried on -so extensive a commerce. It was only to be expected that they would -sally forth from their inland seas when so much more valuable spoil was -to be secured on the open ocean beyond, but strange to say, with the -rapid decline of the trade which they had so long harried, their -activity slackened, and their principles and profession were largely -inherited by more civilized races. Some excuse was offered for this by -the almost constant warfare that prevailed during the reign of Charles -V., when France and Spain were at perpetual enmity, and England was -found, first on one side, then on the other. The first important loss -that befell Spain was the capture of the vessel conveying home the royal -share of the treasures of Mexico by a French privateer, or pirate, as -the Spaniards always preferred to call the ships which despoiled their -fleets, a designation that was more often than not amply justified. - -To begin with, these pirate ships were content to hang about the Azores, -on the chance of meeting a caravel laden with treasure homeward bound. -They gradually ventured further west, until they actually arrived among -the West Indian Islands, where they were surprised to find that -altogether undreamed-of facilities awaited them for the pursuit of their -nefarious trade. Though the entire archipelago belonged nominally to -Spain, only the larger islands were actually occupied, the smaller not -being regarded as worthy of attention, until the Indian population of -Hispaniola, Cuba and Porto Rico began to fail, and then they were raided -for their inhabitants to supply the vacant places. With a scanty Spanish -population, it would have been utterly impossible to fortify and inhabit -all, even had colonists been found so self-denying as to banish -themselves to places where the only chance of accumulating wealth was by -hard work and steady application to agricultural pursuits. - -For a long time these scattered islands were merely places of call, -where fresh water and fruit could be obtained. No attempt was made at -annexation in the name of any foreign power, and it would have been -folly for any ship’s company, even had they been disposed to relinquish -their buccaneering career, to settle down and defy the Spanish power, -whose forces would quickly have been put in motion to expel them. - -Two events, designed by Philip II. to aggrandize the power of Spain at -the expense of its neighbors, were eventually the means of arousing -enmity against it to such an extent that the opposition of private -adventurers was suddenly backed up by the full weight of the most -rapidly progressing peoples and governments in the Old World. - -Many previous efforts had been made to unite the crowns of Spain and -Portugal, but hitherto all had failed. The heroic death of Sebastian, -however, in 1580, left the throne of Portugal without a direct heir, and -among the numerous claimants was Philip, who overreached all his -competitors. He was probably even then meditating that descent upon the -liberties of England which resulted, eight years later, in the dispatch -of the renowned Armada, and the writing of one of the most brilliant -pages of English history. Success in the one instance, no less than -failure in the other, created the most deadly foes that Spain ever had -to encounter, until the persistent antagonism of Holland and England -reduced it at last to a miserable shadow of its former self. - -Philip’s ruling passion was an intense bigotry, and from the moment he -assumed sway in Spain and the Low Countries, he sought to exterminate -every trace of the Reformed faith. That brought him into conflict with -the Dutch, whose principal port and city of Amsterdam was fast -concentrating within itself the trade that Bruges and Antwerp had once -commanded as the principal marts of the Hanseatic League. As Portugal -extended its conquests in the East, Lisbon displaced Venice and Genoa, -and became the great emporium of all Eastern produce, whence Amsterdam -drew its supplies for distribution throughout northern Europe. With the -object, therefore, of destroying Dutch trade, Philip closed the port of -Lisbon to it in 1594, fondly imagining that that would ruin his -rebellious subjects, and enforce submission to his will. - -He had entirely mistaken Dutch character, however; for in the following -year the services were enlisted of Cornelius Hautmann, who had been a -pilot in the Portuguese service; and he conducted the first Dutch -expedition round the Cape of Good Hope on its way to open up a direct -trade with the Spice Islands and India, which of course had become the -property of Spain along with its own Philippines. Thus modestly was laid -the foundation of the Dutch Empire in the East Indies, and when Portugal -regained its freedom in 1640, under the House of Braganza, it found -itself stripped of most of its former colonies, which were never to be -restored. - -Not content merely with retaining their former trade, the Dutch sought -to extend it in other directions; and the incorporation of their East -India Company in 1602 was followed by that of the West India Company in -1621, the operations of which were to embrace the west coast of Africa -as well as the whole of Spanish America, in which the Brazils had then -to be included. They had been preceded many years earlier by the -English, who commenced operations in good earnest some time before the -date of the Armada; indeed, those two great figures in English naval -history, Sir John Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake, had then already -performed their greatest exploits. As early as 1572, the latter gave a -good account of himself on the Spanish Main, but his most daring feat -was accomplished in 1578, when he sailed through the Straits of Magellan -and appeared off the coast of Peru. Francisco Draques was the terror of -Spanish America, and his was the name used to frighten Spanish-American -children when they were naughty. - -A new danger thus became apparent, as the Spaniards had never dreamed -before of reaching their West Coast possessions by the southern route. -Lest other foreign adventurers should follow in the wake, an expedition -under Pedro Sarmiento was dispatched from Chili to explore the Straits -and the adjoining territory, with the view, if practicable, of founding -a strong colony and erecting substantial fortifications. Sarmiento’s -zeal outran his discretion, and after accomplishing his task he sailed -for Spain, where he gave an exaggerated account, not only of the danger -of leaving the Straits unprotected, but of the ease with which they -could be rendered impregnable to all unfriendly visitors. A colony -consisting of about four hundred souls was actually sent out in 1528, -though from the very first it met with nothing but dire misfortune. - -The captain-general commissioned to take charge of the undertaking, -Diego Flores, disliked the job, and began by chartering the worst ships -he could find. His lieutenant, Sarmiento, was more discreet in the -choice of the embryo colonists, most of whom were skilled mechanics; but -the fleet had scarcely left San Lucar on the outward voyage, when half -of them were shipwrecked and drowned. Though replaced, disaster -continued to follow upon disaster, the voyage being very much a -repetition of the previous one made by Magellan, only in this instance -the commander was himself the leading obstructionist. Eventually, rather -more than two hundred souls sailed from the Bio de la Plata, and -forty-five of these were drowned ere the Straits were reached. All but -eight of the survivors subsequently perished, and the last of them was -taken off in 1589 by the “Delight,” commanded by Sir John Cavendish, who -appropriately named the spot where he found him “Port Famine.” - -The advent of the English and Dutch, followed half a century later by -the French, led to the settlement of some of the unoccupied islands. -They rapidly became something more than mere provisioning depots, though -several of them, and notably the island of Tortuga, were nothing else -than the lairs of desperate crews of pirates, as reckless of their own -lives as of those who were unfortunate fall into their clutches. But -Barbadoes and St. Christopher, St. Eustatius and Curaçoa, Martinique and -Guadalupe, became the center of something more legitimate, if quite as -illegal, as sinking galleons and purloining their treasure, though that -business was never missed either when the opportunity presented itself; -and the Dutch West India Company alone is said to have been responsible -for the capture of between five and six hundred Spanish vessels. - -The English secured their first foothold in the neighborhood by -occupying the Bermudas in 1621, though this hardly brought them into -direct contact with the West Indies. This was speedily followed by -settlements in some of the unoccupied islands further south. Barbadoes -was taken possession of in 1625, and the same year St. Christopher, or -St. Kitts, as it is now called, was divided between the English and -French. The former continued to add to their territory, taking Nevis in -1628, Antigua and Montserrat in 1632; and all these islands are so -essentially English, as to prove conclusively that, although once -nominally owned by Spain, Spanish influence was never exerted in them. - -From 1650 until the period of his death, Oliver Cromwell, having -established his authority at home, pursued an active foreign policy, and -it was only natural that he should find himself in conflict with Spain, -whose maxims of government, both civil and religious, were so utterly -at variance with his. Thus, in 1654, a somewhat formidable fleet, under -the command of the admirals Penn and Venables, sailed for Barbadoes, -where they would be ready for any emergency. Early the following year -they made a descent upon Hispaniola, selecting the capital, San Domingo, -as the object of attack. On the approach of the ships, the inhabitants, -white and black alike, fled inland, but the affair was sadly mismanaged -and somehow miscarried. Not wishing the expedition to prove a complete -failure, the admirals set sail for the adjoining island of Jamaica, -which did not then contain, at the outside, more than fifteen hundred -whites, and perhaps as many blacks. This time, no difficulty was -experienced, and the island was taken formal possession of, this being -the first loss of occupied territory inflicted upon Spain, as well as -the most important acquisition ever made in the West Indies by England. -In 1658 the Spaniards attempted to drive the intruders out but failed, -and in 1670 a treaty was entered into between the two countries, in -which Spain recognized the rights of England both in Jamaica and the -smaller islands of which possession had been previously taken. - -About this time, also, the French West India Company was incorporated, -the brilliant finance minister of Louis XIV., Colbert, not liking to be -without a hand in the game. He began in a more legitimate fashion than -his competitors, and in 1664 purchased the rights of the settlers in -Martinique, Guadalupe, St Lucia, Grenada, and a few other islands for -about a million livres. Spanish tyranny, however, afforded an excuse for -more high-handed proceedings, and the company secured a footing on the -western side of Hispaniola, Spanish interests being concentrated almost -entirely on the eastern. The settlements so established became little -more than a rallying-point and shelter for buccaneers, who, in -consequence of their roving habits, were difficult to eject, until -eventually this intermittent occupation of a portion of the island -induced France to lay claim to the whole, but the cession was only -formally recognized by Spain more than a century later. Thus the four -predominant powers of Europe all had a stake in the Western Hemisphere. - -Nearly a hundred and fifty years elapsed without witnessing any further -important changes. The very vastness of the Spanish-American empire was -its principal protection. Europe was growing thoroughly accustomed to -immense armies, but they could only be moved on land, and there was no -means for transporting them across the sea. What chance was there then -of conquering a territory which extended uninterruptedly from California -to Chili, and from Florida to the Rio de la Plata, even had there been -much inclination? The idea, it is true, occurred more than once, and -especially in 1702, when--the death of Charles II. of Spain having -brought to an end the Hapsburg dynasty, and the Wars of the Spanish -Succession being entered upon--an alliance was formed between England, -Holland and the German Empire for the conquest of the Spanish colonies, -but like others it came to nothing. Again, in 1739, Spain, alarmed at -the growing contraband trade, insisted very justifiably on searching -English ships in American waters, but this was resented and led to war, -in which Porto Bello was captured; and that had something to do with the -permission granted a few years later to trade by the longer, but safer -and more convenient route round Cape Horn. - -Once more, in 1762, what was known as the Family Compact involved the -rest of Europe in hostilities against the Bourbon dynasties in France, -Spain, and Italy, and the war was carried both to the East and West -Indies. Havana and Manila were captured by the English, and might have -become English possessions, had not the Treaty of Paris, concluded in -1763, brought the campaign to an end, and made it a condition that all -colonial conquests were to be restored to their original owners. Minor -changes were frequent and numerous, but they were generally a mere -shuffling of the cards between England, Holland, and France, leaving the -Spanish possessions much as they were. - -The eighteenth century, as it drew to its close, found the Spanish -occupation of America almost as it had been in the first half of the -seventeenth. Then a mighty upheaval was witnessed both in North America -and Europe, and the War of Independence in the United States, together -with the French Revolution, provide the sequel for what followed in -South America. Scarcely a murmur was heard in the principal Spanish -colonies while these great events were changing the destinies of the -civilized world, and an onlooker who had time to think must have been -astonished at their apparent loyalty to the mother country, oppressed -though they had been, and still were, while everywhere else the blow for -freedom was being struck. Perhaps another conclusion might have been -arrived at; namely, that the ancient Spanish stock had so degenerated, -and had become such a mean-spirited race, that it dare not act like its -neighbors further north; but subsequent events disproved this -hypothesis. The Girondists and the Mountain rose and fell; Napoleon -became successively director, dictator, emperor--still no sign of -movement. Then the moment arrived for the arch-disturber of Europe to -overthrow the ancient monarchy of Spain, and to establish a brand-new -one with his brother Joseph at its head. That was the supreme crisis to -make a move, or forever to remain still. Spain almost to a man resented -the affront. Spanish America joined the mother country, and refused to -recognize the upstart dynasty. - -Still, in the midst of this death-like calm, some presages of the coming -storm were discernible. In the first place, France, by the Treaty of -Basle in 1795, secured the cession of the whole of Hispaniola, only, -however, in a few years to lose it again by its declaration of -independence, and the formation of a black republic. In the naval -conflicts so frequent during that disturbed period England both lost and -gained. The Dutch and Spanish were both unwilling confederates of -Napoleon, but their connection with him, nevertheless, exposed their -foreign possessions to the attack of his declared enemies; and England -captured Demerara and Essequibo in Guiana from the former, and the -island of Trinidad from the latter. All these were trivial acquisitions, -compared with the vast extent of Mexico and Central America, Peru, and -New Granada, and the eastern province of Buenos Ayres. Brazil had -reverted to Portugal with the firm establishment of the Braganza -dynasty, and was nearly all there was left of its once great colonial -empire. In March, 1808, the ill fortune of the royal family drove them -from their own kingdom to find refuge beyond the seas, and Brazil became -an independent empire under the fugitive Portuguese sovereign, whose -descendants remained in peaceable and prosperous possession until the -revolution which dethroned the late ill-fated Dom Pedro. - -These changes were due entirely to foreign intervention and not to -domestic unrest. The first sign of this was when Francisco Miranda, a -Spanish-American who had fought under Washington, conceived the idea of -freeing his fellow-countrymen, and took steps toward that end by -founding a “Gran Reunion Americana” in London in 1806. But so -unresponsive were the inhabitants of the Spanish Main that the first -active movement of the league resulted in dead failure. It attracted the -sympathy and support, however, of two active and capable men, Bolivar -and San Martin, who were destined to do so much for the emancipation of -South America from European bondage, and whose advent brought a rapid -change in the feeling of indifference with which the movement was -regarded. - -Still, the loyalty of the colonists might have been proof against their -blandishments had the government of Ferdinand VII., established at Cadiz -in opposition to that of Joseph Bonaparte, shown itself in any way -conciliatory toward them. Loyal though the Spaniards at home were to the -Bourbon dynasty, they were only willing to rally round it on condition -of the carrying out of many important reforms in consonance with the -spirit of the age; and the colonists likewise demanded that, as the -price of their adhesion, they should be put upon an equality with Spain, -and be accorded perfect liberty in their agricultural and manufacturing -industries; that trade should be thrown open between all the countries -on the American Continent and with the Philippines; and that all -restrictions and monopolies should be abolished, and fixed duties -substituted in their place. Reasonable though these demands now appear, -they were indignantly rejected, and with one consent nearly every -country in Spanish America was ablaze with revolution. - -One of the earliest outbreaks was in Mexico, the near proximity of the -United States having perhaps inspired in that country a more intense -longing for freedom than elsewhere. A small band of patriots had for -some time been watching an opportunity for asserting themselves, and -with Hidalgo and Allende at their head, took the extreme step of issuing -a declaration of independence on the 16th of September, 1810. Spanish -influence was still strong; and in less than a year the outbreak was -suppressed, and the leaders executed. Others rose to take their places, -and just three years after the declaration of independence, the first -Mexican Congress was summoned to meet at the town of Chilpantzongo, -which was in the hands of the insurgents. Morelos, the principal actor -at this stage of the drama, was captured and shot in December, 1815; but -that only imposed a temporary check on the movement. In the delusive -hope of regaining full control, Ferdinand, then firmly re-established on -his throne, offered concessions in 1820, but it was too late, and they -failed to effect a pacification. Independence was once more declared in -1821, but this time at the instigation of a dictator who aimed at -founding an empire for himself, and who did for a short period sway the -destinies of his country as the Emperor Iturbide I. His reign was -brief, and a republic was definitely established on the 16th of -December, 1823, the subsequent career of which has been so checkered -until quite recent times. Having been recognized by the principal courts -of Europe, Spain itself accredited an embassador in 1839, and made no -further efforts to reassert its former title. - -Elsewhere the struggle was less prolonged, though, while it lasted, -quite as exciting. At the instigation of Bolivar, Venezuela proclaimed -its independence in July, 1811, and several years later united with New -Granada as the Republic of Colombia. Buenos Ayres established a junta in -1810, a Constituent Assembly was called in January, 1813, and entire -independence of Spain was declared, July, 1816. The insurrection in -Chili likewise began in 1810, when a National Congress was summoned to -meet at Santiago; but the Spanish interest was strong on the west coast, -and it was not until San Martin crossed the Andes from La Plata in 1817 -that independence was made good. Material assistance was afforded by the -famous Admiral Cochrane (Lord Dundonald), who, driven in disgrace from -his native country, placed his services at the disposal of the revolting -Chilians, and gave them that naval pre-eminence in South America which -they have ever since retained. - -Peru proved an even tougher job, but the combined forces of San Martin -and Cochrane proved irresistible, and both Lima and Callao were taken in -1821. Lima, however, was recaptured by the Spaniards in 1823, but -Bolivar, marching against it from Colombia, was appointed dictator, and -gained so decisive a victory in 1824 that the Spanish army was forced -to capitulate, and by 1826 the connection with the mother country was -completely and finally severed. Spain had vainly striven against these -successive misfortunes, and in 1815 sent out a considerable force under -Marshal Morillo, who gained a few temporary successes; but his cruelties -and atrocious conduct only exasperated the colonists, and instigated -them to greater exertions. The various countries of Central America were -quietly federated into the Republic of Guatemala in 1823, in the absence -of any Spanish troops to oppose; and thus, from the northern borders of -Mexico to the southern confines of Chili and La Plata, the conquerors of -the New World were forever ejected. England was the first to recognize -the South American republics, and entered into commercial treaties with -several of them in 1825, after which date Spain can no longer be said to -have been able to claim ownership of a single acre on the American -Continent. - -Meanwhile of a once vast colonial empire but Cuba and Porto Rico -remained. What were the forces at work which there prevented secession? - -The political economist Mr. R. J. Root, to whom and to whose work on -this subject we are already much indebted, states that the conditions -were different. The predominant feature of the islands was negro -slavery, whereas the wealth of the Spanish-American colonist lay in -lands which, if subject to alienation, were at least impossible of -removal. The Cuban planter reckoned as his most precious possession the -flesh and blood attached to his estates, and the very words “freedom” -and “independence” stank in his nostrils. Whatever inconvenience, -therefore, he suffered from his political connection with an effete -monarchy and a decaying or decayed empire, he at least felt that, while -he clung to it, it would afford him protection for his property. - -A steady flood of immigration from the mother country maintained this -connection down to the recent war. The wealthiest merchants and planters -have invariably been of pure Spanish blood, and their contempt for the -Cuban Creoles, though many of them are as pure-blooded as themselves, -and have no taint whatever of the “tar-brush,” has helped to maintain -them as a separate class, regarded as intruders by all of Cuban birth, -and hated accordingly. They have of necessity invoked Spanish aid and -relied on Spanish authority, and have, for nearly a hundred years, -provided the basis for Spanish rule in the island. Many of them made -their fortunes and returned home, leaving room for others to follow. -Some made Cuba their permanent domicile, but invariably with fatal -effects upon their offspring, for Cuban birth is almost synonymous with -Cuban sympathies, and, in any rising, the father, who has been on the -side of the crown, has witnessed his sons throwing in their lot with the -rebels. - -Ever since the emancipation of the Spanish Main, Cuba has been in a -state of political unrest. Various secret societies have been -constituted, and have received advice and assistance from Mexicans, -Chilians, and others who had already succeeded in throwing off their own -fetters. In 1823 the Society of Soles struck a blow for liberty; six -years later it was the Company of the Black Eagle which attempted -success where its predecessor had failed. Both were essentially Creole -risings, and although those who participated in them freely gave -expression to their abhorrence of slavery, no assistance was either -asked or received from the negroes. For these unfortunates, however, -failure meant the tightening of their bonds; and it is not surprising to -find that, in 1844, goaded to despair by their sufferings, they tried an -insurrection on their own account, though of course it ended -disastrously. - -These outbreaks were all more or less localized, and it was not until -1868 that a revolution broke out, destined to involve the entire island, -and to occupy long and weary years in suppressing, if, indeed, the -smoking embers can be said ever to have been quenched. It was -undoubtedly instigated by the American Civil War, which had ended in the -uncompromising abolition of slavery, and so raised the hopes of the -friends of liberty in Cuba. Though the planters and slave-owners ranged -themselves, as was natural, on the side of law and order, their -enthusiasm was no longer of the keenest. They realized that the -institution to which they clung so tenaciously was doomed, and it became -a question with them of doing the best they could for themselves. -Emancipation in the British West Indies had for a time added enormously -to their prosperity, until the value of slaves underwent so great an -appreciation that it no longer became profitable to purchase them, and -only actual owners derived any benefit. For, it must be remembered, -there was a distinct difference between the slave-trade and slavery, and -long after public opinion revolted against, and prohibited the -kidnapping and traffic in human flesh, it continued to tolerate its -ownership, and recognized natural increase as legitimate property. That -African negroes were smuggled into Cuba is tolerably certain; -nevertheless, the numbers were too small to prevent the gradual increase -in value of an able-bodied male slave from $250 to something like $1,750 -or $2,000. This was the surest means of eventual abolition; for while -this high price set upon the black made him valuable property, and -insured his better treatment, it tended to make the luxury too costly, -and one that could eventually no longer be indulged in, as the point -must be reached where free labor would become cheaper. - -About the time of the rebellion, the number of slaves in Cuba was -between 350,000 and 400,000, and their value on paper was simply -enormous. The $100,000,000 voted by the British Parliament as -compensation to the disinherited slave-owners in the British West Indies -would have been but a drop in the ocean in any scheme for Cuban -emancipation by purchase. Indeed, to do the planters justice, they never -expected anything of the sort, and all the more practical of them asked, -was to be let down gently. This was effected by the proclamation of what -was known as the Moret Law in 1870, which at once declared free all -slaves over sixty years of age, and decreed that every child born after -that year should be free likewise. In the first instance, the planters -registered a distinct gain, as they got rid of a number of old and -decrepit dependants no longer fit for work; but this was offset by the -compulsory maintenance, until their eighteenth year, of all the free -offspring of their slaves. Under this law, the odious institution -perished in something like twenty years, because its burdens gradually -outweighed its benefits, until the low wage for which the free negro is -willing to work became the more economical method of production. - -Thus the strongest tie between Spain and Cuba was snapped, and the party -of independence gained force, as many planters found no longer any -advantage in supporting the authority of the crown. The rebellion -dragged on; the Spanish troops continually poured in having to encounter -the guerrilla warfare, for which the division of the island afforded so -many opportunities. For, considerable though the population is, -two-thirds of it has always been concentrated in the western corner, of -which Havana is the capital, the remaining districts being very sparsely -peopled. It is in these rebellion always throve; and the policy adopted -by General Weyler, when in supreme command, was to make them a desert by -destroying all sustenance, and forcibly removing the inhabitants, who, -under the name of Reconcentrados, aroused so much sympathy. - -Though the outbreak of 1868 was eventually suppressed, it left a legacy -of bitter memories and still bitterer exactions. For, true to its policy -of four centuries, Spain determined that it at least would not be a -loser, and saddled the entire cost of the military operations, and -nobody knows what else besides, on the unfortunate island, in the form -of a debt amounting to about four hundred million dollars. Even this -might have been tolerated had any attempt been made to establish an -equitable system of government, because an era of prosperity set in -which culminated in 1891, when the total exports were valued at no less -than $100,000,000, and there was ample margin for interest on an -inflated debt. But the rapacity of Catalan manufacturers, no less than -of government officials, upset everything; and from the captain-general -down to the humblest trader in Barcelona, all expected to pocket -something out of the spoils of Cuba. Nor was the plunder limited to -Spaniards. Despite the restrictions against trading by foreigners, -adventurers of all nationalities managed to get a foothold in Havana, -and corruption preyed on corruption. No one, in fact, was expected to be -honest, and a stranger remarking upon the rascality prevailing in high -places, would as likely as not be met with a shrug of the shoulders and -the reply, Robamos todos, “We are all thieves.” - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -THE PHILIPPINES - -THE FIRST JOURNEY ROUND THE WORLD--FERDINAND MAGELLAN--THE MOLUCCAS--THE -ISLANDS OF THE PAINTED FACES--MANILA AND THE CHINESE--THE BRITISH -INVASION--SPANISH RULE - - -While Spain was actively engaged in exploration and annexation in the -west, Portugal was equally busy in the east. Though the Cape of Good -Hope had been doubled by Diaz in 1486, it was not until 1497, five years -after the discovery of America, that Vasco da Gama proved the -possibility of reaching India by that route. Rapid progress, for those -days at any rate, was made from that time. The actual neighborhood of -the Cape apparently offered no attractions; the advantages of its -situation were left to be realized by the Dutch a century later; and it -was not until Natal was reached on Christmas day, whence its name, that -there were any thoughts of annexation or settlement. It was the East -Coast of Africa which seemed to offer the greatest facilities for -communication and trading with the opposite shores of India, and claimed -attention accordingly; and as numerous pilots were to be found there, -skilled in navigating vessels across the Indian Ocean, it was there -colonies were first established, one of which at least, and the only -important one remaining to Portugal, Lorenzo Marques, has been the -object of envy, and the source of much contention in recent years. - -From the Malabar coast in the south to Karachi in the north of India, -Portuguese traders grew active, but, owing to the fierceness and -determination of the natives, it was found impossible for some years to -permanently occupy any territory, until Goa was established in 1510, as -the center of Portuguese interests. A year earlier than this, Malacca -had been subjugated, and the exploration of Sumatra undertaken; while -three years later, Francisco Serrao discovered the Moluccas, the -far-famed islands from which Venice and Genoa had so long drawn their -stores of valuable spices by the overland route through India and -Persia, or by the Red Sea and Isthmus of Suez. To divert this traffic -round the Cape of Good Hope, expeditions were fitted out against Muscat -and Ormuz in the Persian Gulf, and Aden at the entrance to the Red Sea. -While, then, the Spanish colonists were searching for gold in sufficient -quantities to make the enterprise pay, much less realize fortunes, the -Portuguese tapped the source of wealth of the great mercantile -communities of the Middle Ages; and, monopolizing it themselves, -rendered their country for a time the richest in the world. - -Of the numerous governors dispatched by Portugal to the east, the Duke -of Albuquerque was the most active, and accomplished the greatest -results. Serving under him in various capacities was Ferrao Magalhaes, -or Maghallanes, a young nobleman who sought on every possible occasion -to distinguish himself. Returning home, he did not receive the reward he -considered his due; and though he continued to agitate at court, and to -urge his claims, on the further ground that since his arrival from the -east he had taken part in an African campaign, and been permanently -lamed, he was either repulsed or put off with some trifling concession. -This rankling in his mind, he determined to divest himself of his -nationality, and offer his services to Spain, the patron of all foreign -adventurers. - -By the Papal Bull, Spain was debarred from undertaking any enterprise in -the East. This was, of course, well known to Magalhaes, or Ferdinand -Magellan, as he now chose to call himself, but he had carefully thought -the matter out, and arrived at a conclusion of his own. He had heard -much of the ideas which led to the discovery of America, and though -other and more important matters then engaged the attention of Spain -than the discovery of Japan and China by the western route, he still -considered the plan feasible. He intimated to the Emperor Charles V., -then king of Spain, his desire to be intrusted with an expedition, with -which he would undertake to reach the Moluccas from the west, and so -prove that they belonged by right to Spain. - -News of this treachery reached Portugal, where it was heard with the -greatest indignation, and an angry correspondence passed between the two -courts. Charles’s ambitions, however, lay in European aggrandizement, -for which the demands upon his exchequer were heavier than he well knew -how to meet. His great possessions in the New World had hitherto been a -drain upon his scanty resources, as they had been upon those of his -grandfather before him; and although Ferdinand lived for a quarter of a -century after the discovery of America, he left hardly sufficient money -in his coffers to pay his funeral expenses. Charles, therefore, listened -eagerly to the proposition by which he might acquire the teeming riches -of the Spice Islands, and, notwithstanding protests and warnings alike, -terms were finally agreed to in March, 1518, which placed five ships, -and a full complement of men, at the disposal of Magellan. Failing any -other means of putting an end to the enterprise, a plot was formed for -the assassination of Magellan, but miscarried; and he weighed anchor on -the 10th of August, 1519, though delayed in his actual departure until -the 20th of September following. - -Instructions were sent to the Brazils, already occupied by Portugal, to -waylay Magellan, and at all costs prevent the continuance of his voyage; -and in case he eluded the vigilance of the governor of that settlement, -a strict watch was to be kept at the Moluccas, and no quarter given him -if he ever reached there, as he was declared a traitor to the crown of -Portugal. He arrived at the Rio de la Plata unmolested, and entered that -river, of great width at its mouth and for some distance along its -course, with the idea that it offered the long-sought passage to the -West. The increasing freshness of the water convinced him that it was -but a river, and he returned and moved his course southward. And now his -real difficulties began. Winter was setting in with all its rigor, and -the further south he proceeded the more severe became the weather. His -crew was most cosmopolitan in character and nationality, and included a -number of Portuguese, some of whom, it began to be suspected,--had been -bribed to mutiny, if not indeed to murder their commander. Dissensions -broke out among the captains of the different vessels on petty points of -precedence and discipline; and only the most determined stand by -Magellan himself, who did not hesitate to hang several of the crew as an -example to the rest, prevented the total ruin of his hopes and plans. - -To make matters worse, scarcity of provisions began to be experienced, -and it was then decided to winter in the shelter of the river St. -Julian. It was in October, 1520, before a fresh start could be made, and -on the 21st of that month a channel was discovered, the careful -navigation of which for thirty-eight days, amid shoals and innumerable -islands, brought them, amid great rejoicing, once more into the open -sea, proving the theory maintained by Columbus to his dying day to be so -far, at any rate, correct. - -But Magellan, like all his predecessors, sadly miscalculated the -distance between the remote East and the far West, and after taking in -such supplies of provisions as were obtainable, renewed his voyage with -a light heart, and in full expectation of reaching land in a week or two -at longest. Days grew into weeks, and the weeks passed into months, and -still no break on the monotonous horizon. The sufferings of the crew -were horrible, as food and water became gradually exhausted, and they -had to subsist at last by gnawing anything into which they could get -their teeth. To turn back was certain destruction, as they could not -possibly last out the time necessary to cover the distance already -traversed. To go forward, therefore, was their only chance of salvation; -and after a passage of ninety-eight days land was sighted on March 18, -and the most dreaded of their dangers passed. They had sailed into a -group of islands, not the Moluccas as they had anticipated, but the -Islas de las Pintados; so called from the custom of the natives of -painting or tattooing their naked bodies, and subsequently re-christened -the Philippines, in honor of the heir to the Spanish throne, who -afterward reigned as Philip II. - -Magellan was not destined to reap the fruits of his enterprise, nor to -suffer the punishment subsequently inflicted on some of the survivors. -He found the natives among whom he first landed friendly disposed, but -rightly suspected them of treachery. Desirous, however, of conciliating -them as far as possible, he entered into their quarrel with a tribe in a -neighboring island, and, in the attack which he led against it, was -slain. - -Disputes arose as to who should succeed to the command; and what was -left of the fleet, after many adventures and the loss of a considerable -number of the crew, arrived at the island of Tidor in the Moluccas on -the 8th of November, 1521. There it was decided that the “Victoria” -should load a cargo of spices and make its way to Spain by the Cape of -Good Hope, in direct defiance of the rights of the Portuguese, while the -“Trinidad” should return the way she came. A valuable cargo, consisting -of about twenty-six tons of cloves, with parcels of cinnamon, sandal -wood, and nutmegs, was shipped, and after being nearly captured by the -Portuguese off the African coast, and again at the Canaries, arrived in -the harbor of San Lucar, as was supposed, on the 6th of September, 1522, -having sailed round the world in three years all but a few days. -Through all their troubles, a careful record of dates had been kept, and -the officers were surprised to find that what they imagined to be the -6th was actually the 7th of September in Seville; and they were at a -loss to know how the one day had been missed, being of course unaware -that this is the invariable result of circumnavigating the world from -East to West. - -Of the total number of two hundred and eighty hands originally shipped, -only a remnant remained, of whom seventeen, together with the captain, -Juan Sebastian Elcano, were on board the “Victoria.” - -The city of Seville received them with acclamation; but their first act -was to walk barefooted, in procession, holding lighted candles in their -hands, to the church, to give thanks to the Almighty for their safe -deliverance from the hundred dangers which they had encountered. -Clothes, money, and all necessaries were supplied to them by royal -bounty, and Elcano and the most intelligent of his companions were cited -to appear at court to narrate their adventures. His Majesty received -them with marked deference. Elcano was rewarded with a life pension of -five hundred ducats (worth at that date about five hundred and sixty -dollars), and as a lasting remembrance of his unprecedented feat, his -royal master knighted him and conceded to him the right of using on his -escutcheon a globe bearing the motto: “Primus circundedit me.” - -Two of Elcano’s officers, Miguel de Rodas and Francisco Alva, were each -awarded a life pension of fifty thousand maravedis (worth at that time -about seventy dollars), while the king ordered one-fourth of that fifth -part of the cargo, which by contract with Maghallanes belonged to the -State Treasury, to be distributed among the crew, including those -imprisoned in Santiago Island. - -Meanwhile the “Trinidad” was repaired in Tidor and on her way to Panama, -when continued tempests and the horrible sufferings of the crew -determined them to retrace their course to the Moluccas. In this -interval Portuguese ships had arrived there, and a fort was being -constructed to defend Portuguese interests against the Spaniards, whom -they regarded as interlopers. The “Trinidad” was seized, and the -captain, Espinosa, with the survivors of his crew, were afforded a -passage to Lisbon, which place they reached five years after they had -set out with Maghallanes. - -The enthusiasm of King Charles was equal to the importance of the -discoveries which gave renown to his subjects and added glory to his -crown. Notwithstanding a protracted controversy with the Portuguese -court, which claimed the exclusive right of trading with the Spice -Islands, he ordered another squadron of six ships to be fitted out for a -voyage to the Moluccas. The supreme command was confided to Garcia Yofre -de Loaisa, Knight of St. John, while Sebastian Elcano was appointed -captain of one of the vessels. After passing through the Magellan -Straits, the commander, Loaisa, succumbed to the fatigues and privations -of the stormy voyage. Elcano succeeded him, but only for four days, when -he too expired. The expedition, however, arrived safely at the Molucca -Islands, where they found the Portuguese in full possession and strongly -established; but the long series of combats, struggles and altercations -which ensued between the rival powers, in which Captain Andres de -Urdaneta prominently figured, left no decisive advantage to either -nation. - -But the king was in no way disheartened. A third expedition--the last -under his auspices--was organized and dispatched from the Pacific coast -of Mexico by the viceroy, by royal mandate. It was composed of two -ships, two transports and one galley, well manned and armed, chosen from -the fleet of Pedro Alvarado, late governor of Guatemala. Under the -leadership of Ruy Lopez do Villalobos it sailed on the 1st of November, -1542; discovered many small islands in the Pacific; lost the galley on -the way, and anchored off an island about twenty miles in circumference, -which was named Antonia. They found its inhabitants very hostile. A -fight ensued, but the natives finally fled, leaving several Spaniards -wounded, of whom six died. Villalobos then announced his intention of -remaining here some time, and ordered his men to plant maize. At first -they demurred, saying that they had come to fight, not to till land, but -at length necessity urged them to obedience, and a small but -insufficient crop was reaped in due season. Hard pressed for food, they -lived principally on cats, rats, lizards, snakes, dogs, roots and wild -fruit, and several died of disease. In this plight a ship was sent to -Mindanao Island, commanded by Bernado de la Torre, to seek provisions. -The voyage was fruitless. The party was opposed by the inhabitants, who -fortified themselves, but were dislodged and slain. Then a vessel was -commissioned to Mexico with news and to solicit re-enforcements. On the -way, Volcano Island (of the Ladrone Islands group) was discovered on the -6th of August, 1543. A most important event followed. A galiot was -built and dispatched to the islands (it is doubtful which), named by -this expedition the Philippine Islands in honor of Philip, Prince of -Asturias, the son of King Charles I., heir apparent to the throne of -Castile, to which he ascended in 1555 under the title of Philip II., on -the abdication of his father. - -The craft returned from the Philippine Islands laden with abundance of -provisions, with which the ships were enabled to continue the voyage. - -By the royal instructions, Ruy Lopez de Villalobos was strictly enjoined -not to touch at the Molucca Islands, peace having been concluded with -Portugal. Heavy gales forced him, nevertheless, to take refuge at -Gilolo. The Portuguese, suspicious of his intentions in view of the -treaty, arrayed their forces against his, inciting the king of the -island also to discard all Spanish overtures and refuse assistance to -Villalobos. The discord and contentions between the Portuguese and -Spaniards were increasing; nothing was being gained by either party. -Villalobos personally was sorely disheartened in the struggle, fearing -all the while that his opposition to the Portuguese in contravention of -the royal instructions would only excite the king’s displeasure and lead -to his own downfall. Hence he decided to capitulate with his rival and -accepted a safe conduct for himself and party to Europe in Portuguese -ships. They arrived at Amboina Island, where Villalobos, already crushed -by grief, succumbed to disease. The survivors of the expedition, among -whom were several priests, continued the journey home via Malacca, -Cochin-China and Goa, where they embarked for Lisbon, arriving there in -1549. - -In 1558, King Charles was no more, but the memory of his ambition -outlived him. His son Philip, equally emulous and unscrupulous, was too -narrow-minded and subtly cautious to initiate an expensive enterprise -encompassed by so many hazards--as materially unproductive as it was -devoid of immediate political importance. Indeed the basis of the first -expedition was merely to discover a western route to the rich Spice -Islands, already known to exist; the second went there to attempt to -establish Spanish empire; and the third to search for and annex to the -Spanish crown lands as wealthy as those claimed by and now yielded to -the Portuguese. - -But the value of the Philippine Islands, of which the possession was but -recent and nominal, was thus far a matter of doubt. - -One of the most brave and intrepid captains of the Loaisa -expedition--Andres de Urdaneta--returned to Spain in 1536. In former -years he had fought under King Charles I., in his wars in Italy, when -the study of navigation served him as a favorite pastime. Since his -return from the Moluccas his constant attention was given to the project -of a new expedition to the Far West, for which he unremittingly -solicited the royal sanction and assistance. But the king had grown old -and weary of the world, and, while he did not openly discourage -Urdaneta’s pretensions, he gave him no effective aid. At length in 1553, -two years before Charles abdicated, Urdaneta, convinced of the futility -of his importunity at the Spanish court, and equally unsuccessful with -his scheme in other quarters, retired to Mexico, where he took the habit -of an Augustine monk. Ten years afterward, King Philip, inspired by the -religious sentiment which pervaded his whole policy, urged his viceroy -in Mexico to fit out an expedition to conquer and Christianize the -Philippine Islands. Urdaneta, now a priest, was not overlooked. -Accompanied by five priests of his order, he was intrusted with the -spiritual care of the races to be subdued by an expedition composed of -four ships and one frigate well armed, carrying four hundred soldiers -and sailors, commanded by a Basque navigator, Miguel Lopez de Legaspi. -This remarkable man was destined to acquire the fame of having -established Spanish dominion in these islands. He was of noble birth and -a native of the province of Guipuzcoa in Spain. Having settled in the -City of Mexico, of which place he was elected mayor, he there practiced -as a notary. Of undoubted piety, he enjoyed a reputation for his justice -and loyalty, hence he was appointed general of the forces equipped for -the voyage. - -The favorite desire to possess the valuable Spice Islands still lurked -in the minds of many Spaniards--among them was Urdaneta, who labored in -vain to persuade the viceroy of the superior advantages to be gained by -annexing New Guinea instead of the Philippines--whence the conquest of -the Moluccas would be but a facile task. However, the viceroy was -inexorable and resolved to fulfill the royal instructions to the letter; -so the expedition set sail from the Mexican port of Navidad for the -Philippine Islands on the 21st of November, 1564. - -The Ladrone Islands were passed on the 9th of January, 1565, and on the -13th of the following month the Philippines were sighted. A call for -provisions was made at several small islands, including Camiguin, whence -the expedition sailed to Bojol Island. A boat dispatched to the port of -Butuan returned in a fortnight with the news that there was much gold, -wax and cinnamon in that district. A small vessel was also sent to Cebu, -and on its return reported that the natives showed hostility, having -decapitated one of the crew while he was bathing. - -Nevertheless, General Legaspi resolved to put in at Cebu, which was a -safe port; and on the way there the ships anchored off Limasana Island -(to the south of Leyte). Thence, running S.W., the port of Dapitan -(Mindanao Island) was reached. - -Prince Pagbuaya, who ruled there, was astonished at the sight of such -formidable ships, and commissioned one of his subjects, specially chosen -for his boldness, to take note of their movements and report to him. His -account was uncommonly interesting. He related that enormous men with -long pointed noses, dressed in fine robes, ate stones (hard biscuits), -drank fire and blew smoke out of their mouths and through their -nostrils. Their power was such that they commanded thunder and lightning -(discharge of artillery), and that at meal times they sat down at a -clothed table. From their lofty port, their bearded faces and rich -attire, they might have been the very gods manifesting themselves to the -natives; so the prince thought it wise to accept the friendly overtures -of such marvelous strangers. Besides obtaining ample provisions in -barter for European wares, Legaspi procured from this chieftain much -useful information respecting the condition of Cebu. He learned that it -was esteemed a powerful kingdom, of which the magnificence was much -vaunted among the neighboring states; that the port was one of great -safety and the most favorably situated among the islands of the painted -faces. - -The general resolved therefore to filch it from its native king and -annex it to the crown of Castile. - -He landed in Cebu on the 27th of April, 1565, and negotiations were -entered into with the natives of that island. Remembering how -successfully they had rid themselves of Maghallanes’ party, they -naturally opposed this renewed menace to their independence. The -Spaniards occupied the town by force and sacked it, but for months were -so harassed by the surrounding tribes that a council was convened to -discuss the prudence of continuing the occupation. The general decided -to remain, and, little by little, the natives yielded to the new -condition of things, and thus the first step toward the final conquest -was achieved. The natives were declared Spanish subjects, and hopeful -with the success thus far attained, Legaspi determined to send -dispatches to the king by the priest Urdaneta, who safely arrived at -Navidad on the 3d of October, 1565, and proceeded thence to Spain. - -The pacification of Cebu and the adjacent islands was steadily and -successfully pursued by Legaspi; the confidence of the natives was -assured, and their dethroned king Tupas accepted Christian baptism, -while his daughter married a Spaniard. - -In the midst of the invaders’ felicity, the Portuguese arrived to -dispute the possession, but they were compelled to retire. A fortress -was constructed and plots of land were marked out for the building of -the Spanish settlers’ residences, and finally, in 1570, Cebu was -declared a city, after Legaspi had received from his royal master the -title of governor-general of all the lands which he might be able to -conquer. - -In May, 1570, Captain Juan Salcedo, Legaspi’s grandson, was dispatched -to the Island of Luzon to reconnoiter the territory and bring it under -Spanish dominion. - -The history of these early times is very confused, and there are many -contradictions in the authors of the Philippine chronicles, none of -which seems to have been written contemporaneously with the first -events. It appears, however, that Martin de Goiti and a few soldiers -accompanied Salcedo to the north. They were well received by the native -chiefs or petty kings Lacandola, rajah of Tondo (known as Rajah Matanda, -which means in native dialect the aged rajah), and his nephew, the young -Rajah Soliman of Manila. - -The sight of a body of European troops, armed as was the custom in the -sixteenth century, must have profoundly impressed and overawed these -chieftains, otherwise it seems almost incredible that they should have -consented, without protest, or attempt at resistance, to (forever) give -up their territory, yield their independence, pay tribute,[8] and become -the tools of invading foreigners with which to conquer their own race, -without recompense whatsoever. - -A treaty of peace was signed and ratified by an exchange of drops of -blood between the parties thereto. Soliman, however, soon repented of -his poltroonery, and raised the war-cry among some of his tribes. To -save his capital (then called Maynila) falling into the hands of the -invaders he set fire to it. Lacandola remained passively watching the -issue. Soliman was completely routed by Salcedo, and pardoned on his -again swearing fealty to the King of Spain. Goiti remained in the -vicinity of Manila with his troops, while Salcedo fought his way to the -Bombon Lake (Taal) district. The present Batangas Province was subdued -by him and included in the jurisdiction of Mindoro Island. During the -campaign, Salcedo was severely wounded by an arrow and returned to -Manila. - -Legaspi was in the Island of Panay when Salcedo (some writers say Goiti) -arrived to advise him of what had occurred in Luzon. They at once -proceeded together to Cavite, where Lacandola visited Legaspi on board, -and, prostrating himself, averred his submission. Then Legaspi continued -his journey to Manila, and was received there with acclamation. He took -formal possession of the surrounding territory, declared Manila to be -the capital of the archipelago, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the -King of Spain over the whole group of islands. Gaspar de San Augustin, -writing of this period, says: “He (Legaspi) ordered them (the natives) -to finish the building of the fort in construction at the mouth of the -river (Pasig), so that his majesty’s artillery might be mounted therein -for the defense of the port and the town. Also he ordered them to build -a large house inside the battlement walls for Legaspi’s own -residence--another large house and church for the priests, etc.... -Besides these two large houses he told them to erect one hundred and -fifty dwellings of moderate size for the remainder of the Spaniards to -live in. All this they promptly promised to do, but they did not obey, -for the Spaniards were themselves obliged to terminate the work of the -fortifications.” - -The City Council of Manila was constituted on the 24th of June, 1571. On -the 20th of August, 1572, Miguel Lopez de Legaspi succumbed to the -fatigues of his arduous life, leaving behind him a name which will -always maintain a prominent place in Spanish colonial history. He was -buried in Manila in the Augustine Chapel of San Fausto, where hung the -royal standard and the hero’s armorial bearings until the British troops -occupied the city in 1763. - - “Death makes no conquest of this conqueror, - For now he lives in fame, though not in life.” - --“Richard III.,” Act 3, Sc. 1. - -In the meantime Salcedo continued his task of subjecting the tribes in -the interior The natives of Taytay, and Cainta, in the present military -district of Morong, submitted to him on the 15th of August, 1571. He -returned to the Laguna de Bay to pacify the villagers, and penetrated as -far as Camarines Norte to explore the Bicol River. Bolinao and the -provinces of Pangasinan and Ilocos yielded to his prowess, and in this -last province he had well established himself when the defense of the -capital obliged him to return to Manila. - -At the same time, Martin de Goiti was actively employed in overrunning -the Pampanga territory, with the double object of procuring supplies for -the Manila camp and coercing the inhabitants on his way to acknowledge -their now liege lord. It is recorded that in this expedition Goiti was -joined by the rajahs of Tondo and Manila. Yet Lacandola appears to have -been regarded more as a servant of the Spaniards _nolens volens_ than as -a free ally; for, because he absented himself from Goiti’s camp “without -license from the Maestre de Campo,” he was suspected by some writers of -having favored opposition to the Spaniards’ incursions in the Marshes of -Hagonoy (Pampanga coast, northern boundary of Manila Bay). - -The district which constituted the ancient province of Taal y Balayan, -subsequently denominated Province of Batangas, was formerly governed by -a number of caciques, the most notable of which were Gatpagil and -Gatjinlintan. They were usually at war with their neighbors. -Gatjinlintan, the cacique of the Batangas River at the time of the -conquest, was famous for his valor. Gatsungayan, who ruled on the other -side of the river, was celebrated as a hunter of deer and wild boar. -These men were half-castes of Borneo and Aeta extraction, who formed a -distinct race called by the natives Daghagang. None of them would -submit to the King of Spain or become Christians, hence their -descendants were offered no privileges. - -On the death of General Legaspi, the government of the colony was -assumed by the royal treasurer, Guido de Lavezares, in conformity with -the sealed instructions from the Supreme Court of Mexico, which were now -opened. During this period, the possession of the islands was -unsuccessfully disputed by a rival expedition under the command of a -Chinaman, Li-ma-hong, whom the Spaniards were pleased to term a pirate, -forgetting, perhaps, that they themselves had only recently wrested the -country from its former possessors by virtue of might against right. - -On the coasts of his native country he had indeed been a pirate. For the -many depredations committed by him against private traders and property, -the Celestial Emperor, failing to catch him by cajolery, outlawed him. - -Born in the port of Tiuchiu, Li-ma-hong at an early age evinced a -martial spirit and joined a band of corsairs, which for a long time had -been the terror of the China coasts. On the demise of his chief he was -unanimously elected leader of the buccaneering cruisers. At length, -pursued in all directions by the imperial ships of war, he determined to -attempt the conquest of the Philippines. Presumably the same incentives -which impelled the Spanish mariners to conquer lands and overthrow -dynasties--the vision of wealth, glory and empire--awakened a like -ambition in the Chinese adventurer. It was the spirit of the age.[9] In -his sea-wanderings he happened to fall in with a Chinese trading-junk -returning from Manila with the proceeds of her cargo sold there. This he -seized, and the captive crew were constrained to pilot his fleet toward -the capital of Luzon. From them he learned how easily the natives had -been plundered by a handful of foreigners--the probable extent of the -opposition he might encounter--the defenses established--the wealth and -resources of the district and the nature of its inhabitants. - -His fleet consisted of sixty-two warships or armed junks, well found, -having on board two thousand sailors, two thousand soldiers, one -thousand five hundred women, a number of artisans, and all that could be -conveniently carried with which to gain and organize his new kingdom. On -its way the squadron cast anchor off the province of Ilocos Sur, where a -few troops were sent ashore to get provisions. While returning to the -junks, they sacked the village and set fire to the huts. The news of -this outrage was hastily communicated to Juan Salcedo, who had been -pacifying the northern provinces since July, 1572, and was at the time -in Villa Fernandina (now called Vigan). Li-ma-hong continued his course -until calms compelled his ships to anchor in the roads of Caoayan -(Ilocos coast), where a few Spanish soldiers were stationed under the -orders of Juan Salcedo, who still was in the immediate town of Vigan. -Under his direction, preparations were made to prevent the enemy -entering the river, but such was not Li-ma-hong’s intention. He again -set sail; while Salcedo, naturally supposing his course would be toward -Manila, also started at the same time for the capital with all the -fighting men he could collect, leaving only thirty men to garrison Vigan -and protect the State interests there. - -On the 29th of November, 1574, the squadron arrived in the Bay of -Manila, and Li-ma-hong sent forward his lieutenant, Sioco--a -Japanese--at the head of six hundred fighting men, to demand the -surrender of the Spaniards. A strong gale, however, destroyed several of -his junks, in which about two hundred men perished. - -With the remainder he reached the coast at Paranaque, a village a few -miles south of Manila. Thence, with towlines, the four hundred soldiers -hauled their junks up to the beach of the capital. - -Already at the village of Malate the alarm was raised, but the Spaniards -could not give credit to the reports, and no resistance was offered -until the Chinese were within the gates of the city. Martin de Goiti, -the Maestre de Campo, second in command to the governor, was the first -victim of the attack. - -The flames and smoke arising from his burning residence were the first -indications which the governor received of what was going on. The -Spaniards took refuge in the fort of Santiago, which the Chinese were on -the point of taking by storm, when their attention was drawn elsewhere -by the arrival of fresh troops led by a Spanish sub-lieutenant. Under -the mistaken impression that these were the vanguard of a formidable -corps, Sioco sounded the retreat. A bloody hand-to-hand combat -followed, and with great difficulty the Chinese collected their dead and -regained their junks. - -In the meantime Li-ma-hong, with the reserved forces, was lying in the -roadstead of Cavite, and Sioco hastened to report to him the result of -the attack, which had cost the invader over one hundred dead and more -than that number wounded. Thereupon Li-ma-hong resolved to rest his -troops and renew the conflict in two days’ time under his personal -supervision. The next day Juan Salcedo arrived by sea with -re-enforcements from Vigan, and preparations were unceasingly made for -the expected encounter. Salcedo having been appointed to the office of -Maestre de Campo, vacant since the death of Goiti, the organization of -the defense was intrusted to his immediate care. - -By daybreak on the 3d of December, the enemy’s fleet hove-to off the -capital, where Li-ma-hong harangued his troops, while the cornets and -drums of the Spaniards were sounding the alarm for their fighting men to -assemble in the fort. - -Then fifteen hundred chosen men, well armed, were disembarked under the -leadership of Sioco, who swore to take the place or die in the attempt. -Sioco separated his forces into three divisions. The city was set fire -to, and Sioco advanced toward the fort, into which hand-grenades were -thrown, while Li-ma-hong supported the attack with his ships’ cannon. - -Sioco, with his division, at length entered the fort, and a hand-to-hand -fight ensued. For a while the issue was doubtful. Salcedo fought like a -lion. Even the aged governor was well at the front to encourage the -deadly struggle for existence. The Spaniards finally gained the -victory; the Chinese were repulsed with great slaughter; and their -leader having been killed, they fled in complete disorder. Salcedo, -profiting by the confusion, now took the offensive and followed up the -enemy, pursuing them along the sea-shore, where they were joined by the -third division, which had remained inactive. The panic of the Chinese -spread rapidly, and Li-ma-hong, in despair, landed another contingent of -about five hundred men, while he still continued afloat; but even with -this re-enforcement the morale of his army could not be regained. - -The Chinese troops therefore, harassed on all sides, made a precipitate -retreat on board the fleet, and Li-ma-hong set sail again for the west -coast of the island. Foiled in the attempt to possess himself of Manila, -Li-ma-hong determined to set up his capital in other parts. In a few -days he arrived at the mouth of the Agno River, in the province of -Pangasinan, where he proclaimed to the natives that he had gained a -signal victory over the Spaniards. The inhabitants there, having no -particular choice between two masters, received Li-ma-hong with welcome, -and he thereupon set about the foundation of his new capital some four -miles from the mouth of the river. - -Months passed before the Spaniards came in force to dislodge the -invader. Feeling themselves secure in their new abode, the Chinese had -built many dwellings, a small fortress, a pagoda, etc. At length an -expedition was dispatched under the command of Juan Salcedo. This was -composed of about two hundred and fifty Spaniards and one thousand six -hundred natives well equipped with small arms, ammunition and -artillery. The flower of the Spanish colony, accompanied by two priests -and the Rajah of Tondo, set out to expel the formidable foe. Li-ma-hong -made a bold resistance and refused to come to terms with Salcedo. In the -meantime, the Viceroy of Fokien, having heard of Li-ma-hong’s daring -exploits, had commissioned a ship of war to discover the whereabout of -his imperial master’s old enemy. The envoy was received with delight by -the Spaniards, who invited him to accompany them to Manila to interview -the governor. - -Li-ma-hong still held out, but perceiving that an irresistible onslaught -was being projected against him by Salcedo’s party, he very cunningly -and quite unexpectedly gave them the slip, and sailed out of the river -with his ships by one of the mouths unknown to his enemies.[10] In order -to divert the attention of the Spaniards, Li-ma-hong ingeniously feigned -an assault in an opposite quarter. Of course, on his escape, he had to -abandon the troops employed in this maneuver. These, losing all hope, -and having, indeed, nothing but their lives to fight for, fled to the -mountains. Hence, it is popularly supposed that from these fugitives -descends the race of people in that province still distinguishable by -their oblique eyes and known by the name of Igorrote-Chinese. - -“Aide toi et Dieu t’aidera” is an old French maxim, but the Spaniards -chose to attribute their deliverance from their Chinese rival to the -friendly intervention of Saint Andrew. This saint was declared -thenceforth to be the patron saint of Manila, and in his honor High Mass -is celebrated in the Cathedral at 8 A.M. on the 30th of each November. -It is a public holiday and gala-day, when all the highest civil, -military and religious authorities attend the “Funcion votiva de San -Andrés.” This opportunity to assert the supremacy of ecclesiastical -power was not lost to the Church, and for many years it was the custom, -after hearing Mass, to spread the Spanish national flag on the floor of -the Cathedral for the metropolitan archbishop to walk over it. It has -been asserted, however, that a few years ago the governor-general -refused to witness this antiquated formula, which, in public at least, -no longer obtains. Now it is the practice to carry the royal standard -before the altar. Both before and after the Mass, the bearer (Alférez -Real), wearing his hat and accompanied by the mayor of the city, stands -on the altar-floor, raises his hat three times, and three times dips the -flag before the Image of Christ, then, facing the public, he repeats -this ceremony. On Saint Andrew’s eve, the royal standard is borne in -procession from the Cathedral through the principal streets of the city, -escorted by civil functionaries and followed by a band of music. This -ceremony is known as the “Paseo del Real Pendon.” - -According to Juan de la Concepcion, the Rajahs[11] Soliman and Lacandola -took advantage of these troubles to raise a rebellion against the -Spaniards. The natives too of Mindoro Island revolted and maltreated -the priests, but all these disturbances were speedily quelled by a -detachment of soldiers. - -The governor willingly accepted the offer of the commander of the -Chinese man-of-war to convey embassadors to his country to visit the -viceroy and make a commercial treaty. Therefore two priests, Martin Rada -and Geronimo Martin, were commissioned to carry a letter of greeting and -presents to this personage, who received them with great distinction, -but objected to their residing in the country. - -After the defeat of Li-ma-hong, Juan Salcedo again repaired to the -northern provinces of Luzon Island, to continue his task of reducing the -natives to submission. On the 11th of March, 1576, he died of fever near -Vigan (then called Villa Fernandina), capital of the province of Ilocos -Sur. A year afterward, what could be found of his bones were placed in -the ossuary of his illustrious grandfather, Legaspi, in the Augustine -Chapel of Saint Fausto, Manila. His skull, however, which had been -carried off by the natives of Ilocos, could not be recovered in spite of -all threats and promises. In Vigan there is a small monument raised to -commemorate the deeds of this famous warrior, and there is also a street -bearing his name. - -For several years following these events, the question of prestige in -the civil affairs of the colony was acrimoniously contested by the -governor-general, the supreme court and the ecclesiastics. - -The governor was censured by his opponents for alleged undue exercise of -arbitrary authority. The supreme court, established on the Mexican -model, was reproached with seeking to overstep the limits of its -functions. Every legal quibble was adjusted by a dilatory process, -impracticable in a colony yet in its infancy, where summary justice was -indispensable for the maintenance of order imperfectly understood by the -masses. But the fault lay less with the justices than with the -constitution of the court itself. Nor was this state of affairs improved -by the growing discontent and immoderate ambition of the clergy, who -unremittingly urged their pretensions to immunity from State control, -affirming the supramundane condition of their office. - -An excellent code of laws, called the Leyes de Indias, in force in -Mexico, was adopted here, but modifications in harmony with the special -conditions of this colony were urgently necessary, while all the -branches of government called for reorganization or reform. Under these -circumstances, the bishop of Manila, Domingo Salazar, took the -initiative in commissioning a priest, Fray Alonso Sanchez, to repair -first to the viceroy of Mexico and afterward to the King of Spain, to -expose the grievances of his party. - -Alonso Sanchez left the Philippines with his appointment as -procurator-general for the Augustine order of monks. As the execution of -the proposed reforms, which he was charged to lay before his majesty, -would, if conceded, be intrusted to the government of Mexico, his first -care was to seek the partisanship of the viceroy of that colony; and in -this he succeeded. Thence he continued his journey to Seville, where the -court happened to be, arriving there in September, 1587. He was at once -granted an audience by the king, to present his credentials and -memorials relative to Philippine affairs in general; and ecclesiastical -judicial, military and native matters in particular. The king promised -to peruse all the documents, but suffering from gout, and having so many -and distinct State concerns to attend to, the negotiations were greatly -delayed. Finally, Sanchez sought a minister who had easy access to the -royal apartments, and this personage obtained from the king permission -to examine the documents and hand to him a succinct resumé of the whole -for his majesty’s consideration. A commission was then appointed, -including Sanchez, and the deliberations lasted five months. - -At this period, public opinion in the Spanish universities was very -divided with respect to Catholic missions in the Indies. - -Some maintained that the propaganda of the faith ought to be purely -Apostolic, such as Jesus Christ taught to his disciples, inculcating -doctrines of humility and poverty without arms or violence, and if, -nevertheless, the heathens refused to welcome this mission of peace, the -missionaries should simply abandon them in silence without further -demonstration than that of shaking the dust off their feet. - -Others opined, and among them was Sanchez, that such a method was -useless and impracticable, and that it was justifiable to force their -religion upon primitive races at the point of the sword if necessary, -using any violence to enforce its acceptance. - -Much ill-feeling was aroused in the discussion of these two and distinct -theories. Juan Volante, a Dominican friar of the Convent of Our Lady of -Atocha, presented a petition against the views of the Sanchez faction, -declaring that the idea of ingrafting religion with the aid of arms was -scandalous. Fray Juan Volante was so importunate, that he had to be -heard in council, but neither party yielded. At length, the intervention -of the bishops of Manila, Macao and Malacca and several captains and -governors in the Indies influenced the king to put an end to the -controversy, on the ground that it would lead to no good. - -The king retired to the Monastery of the Escorial, and Sanchez was cited -to meet him there to learn the royal will. About the same time the news -reached the king of the loss of the so-called Invincible Armada, sent -under the command of the incompetent Duke of Medina Sidonia to annex -England. Notwithstanding this severe blow to the vain ambition of -Philip, the affairs of the Philippines were delayed but a short time. On -the basis of the recommendation of the junta, the royal assent was given -to an important decree, of which the most significant articles are the -following, namely:--The tribute was fixed by the king at ten reales per -annum, payable by the natives in gold, silver, or grain, or part in one -commodity and part in the other. Of this tribute, eight reales were to -be paid to the treasury, one half real to the bishop and clergy, and one -real and a half to be applied to the maintenance of the soldiery. Full -tribute was not to be exacted from the natives still unsubjected to the -crown. Until their confidence and loyalty should be gained by friendly -overtures, they were to pay a small recognition of vassalage, and -subsequently the tribute in common with the rest. - -Instead of one-fifth value of gold and hidden treasure due to his -majesty (real quinto), he would henceforth receive only one-tenth of -such value, excepting that of gold, which the natives would be permitted -to extract free of rebate. - -A customs duty of 3 per cent ad valorem was to be paid on merchandise -sold, and this duty was to be spent on the army. - -Export duty was to be paid on goods shipped to New Spain (Mexico), and -this impost was also to be exclusively spent on the armed forces. - -The number of European troops in the colony was fixed at four hundred -men-at-arms, divided into six companies, each under a captain, a -sub-lieutenant, a sergeant, and two corporals. Their pay was to be as -follows, namely: Captain thirty-five dollars, sub-lieutenant twenty -dollars, sergeant ten dollars, corporal seven dollars, rank and file six -dollars per month; besides which, an annual gratuity of ten thousand -dollars was to be proportionately distributed to all. - -Recruits from Mexico were not to enlist under the age of fifteen years. - -The captain-general was to have a body-guard of twenty-four men -(halberdiers), with the pay of those of the line, under the immediate -command of a captain to be paid fifteen dollars per month. - -Salaries due to State employés were to be punctually paid when due; and -when funds were wanted for that purpose they were to be supplied from -Mexico. - -The king made a donation of twelve thousand dollars, which, with another -like sum to be contributed by the Spaniards themselves, would serve to -liquidate the debts incurred on their first occupation of the islands. - -The governor and bishop were recommended to consider the project of a -refuge for young Spanish women arrived from Spain, and to study the -question of dowries for native women married to poor Spaniards. - -The offices of secretaries and notaries were no longer to be sold, but -conferred on persons who merited such appointments. - -The governors were instructed not to make grants of land to their -relations, servants or friends, but solely to those who should have -resided at least three years in the islands, and have worked the lands -so conceded. Any grants which might have already been made to the -relations of the governors or magistrates were to be canceled. - -The rent paid by the Chinese for the land they occupied was to be -applied to the necessities of the capital. - -The governor and bishop were to enjoin the judges not to permit costly -lawsuits, but to execute summary justice verbally, and, so far as -possible, fines were not to be inflicted. - -The city of Manila was to be fortified in a manner to insure it against -all further attacks or risings. - -Four penitentiaries were to be established in the islands in the most -convenient places, with the necessary garrisons, and six to eight -galleys and frigates well armed and ready for defense against the -English corsairs which might come by way of the Moluccas. - -In the most remote and unexplored parts of the islands, the governor was -to have unlimited powers to act as he should please, without consulting -his majesty; but projected enterprises of conversion, pacification, -etc., at the expense of the royal treasury, were to be submitted to a -council, comprising the bishop, the captains, etc. The governor was -authorized to capitulate and agree with the captains and others who -might care to undertake conversions and pacifications on their own -account, and to concede the title of Maestre de Campo to such persons, -on condition that such capitulations should be forwarded to his majesty -for ratification. - -Only those persons domiciled in the islands would be permitted to trade -with them. - -A sum of one thousand dollars was to be taken from the tributes paid -into the royal treasury for the foundation of the hospital for the -Spaniards, and the annual sum of six hundred dollars, appropriated by -the governor for its support, was confirmed. Moreover, the royal -treasury of Mexico was to send clothing to the value of four hundred -ducats for the hospital use. - -The hospital for the natives was to receive an annual donation of six -hundred dollars for its support, and an immediate supply of clothing -from Mexico to the value of two hundred dollars. - -Slaves held by Spaniards were to be immediately set at liberty. No -native was thenceforth to be enslaved. All new-born natives were -declared free. The bondage of all existing slaves from ten years of age -was to cease on their attaining twenty years of age. Those above twenty -years of age were to serve five years longer, and then become free. At -any time, notwithstanding the foregoing conditions, they would be -entitled to purchase their liberty, the price of which was to be -determined by the governor and the bishop.[12] - -There being no tithes payable to the church by Spaniards or natives, the -clergy were to receive for their maintenance the half real above -mentioned in lieu thereof, from the tribute paid by each native -subjected to the crown. When the Spaniards should have crops, they were -to pay tithes to the clergy. - -A grant was made of twelve thousand ducats for the building and -ornaments of the Cathedral, and an immediate advance of two thousand -ducats, on account of this grant, was made from the funds to be remitted -from Mexico. - -Forty Austin friars were to be sent at once to the Philippines, to be -followed by missionaries from other corporations. The king allowed five -hundred dollars to be paid against the one thousand dollars’ passage -money for each priest, the balance to be defrayed out of the common -funds of the clergy, derived from their share of the tribute. - -Missionaries in great numbers had already flocked to the Philippines and -roamed wherever they thought fit, without license from the bishop, whose -authority they utterly repudiated. - -Affirming that they had the direct consent of his holiness the Pope, -they menaced with excommunication whosoever attempted to impede them in -their free peregrination. Five years after the foundation of Manila, the -city and environs were infested with niggardly mendicant friars, whose -slothful habits placed their supercilious countrymen in ridicule before -the natives. They were tolerated but a short time in the islands; not -altogether because of the ruin they would have brought to European moral -influence on the untutored tribes, but because the bishop was highly -jealous of all competition against the Augustine order to which he -belonged. Consequent on the representations of Fray Alonso Sanchez, his -majesty ordained that all priests who went to the Philippines were, in -the first place, to resolve never to quit the islands without the -bishop’s sanction, which was to be conceded with great circumspection -and only in extreme cases, while the governor was instructed not to -afford them means of exit on his sole authority. - -Neither did the bishop regard with satisfaction the presence of the -commissary of the Inquisition, whose secret investigations, shrouded -with mystery, curtailed the liberty of the loftiest functionary, sacred -or civil. At the instigation of Fray Alonso Sanchez, the junta -recommended the king to recall the commissary and extinguish the office, -but he refused to do so. In short, the chief aims of the bishop were to -enhance the power of the friars, raise the dignity of the colonial -miter, and secure a religious monopoly for the Augustine order. - -Gomez Perez Dasmarinas was the next governor appointed to these islands, -on the recommendation of Fray Alonso Sanchez. In the royal instructions -which he brought with him were embodied all the above mentioned civil, -ecclesiastical and military reforms. - -At the same time, King Philip abolished the supreme court. He wished to -put an end to the interminable lawsuits so prejudicial to the -development of the colony. Therefore the president and magistrates were -replaced by justices of the peace, and the former returned to Mexico in -1591. This measure served only to widen the breach between the bishop -and the civil government. Dasmarinas compelled him to keep within the -sphere of his sacerdotal functions, and tolerated no rival in State -concerns. There was no appeal on the spot against the governor’s -authority. This restraint irritated and disgusted the bishop to such a -degree, that at the age of seventy-eight years he resolved to present -himself at the Spanish court. On his arrival there, he manifested to the -king the impossibility of one bishop attending to the spiritual wants of -a people dispersed over so many islands. For seven years after the -foundation of Manila, as capital of the archipelago, its principal -church was simply a parish church. In 1578 it was raised to the dignity -of a cathedral, at the instance of the king. Three years after this date -the Cathedral of Manila was solemnly declared to be a “Suffragan -Cathedral of Mexico, under the Advocation of Our Lady of the Immaculate -Conception”; Domingo Salazar being the first bishop consecrated. He now -proposed to raise the Manila see to an archbishopric, with three -suffragan bishops. The king gave his consent, subject to approval from -Rome, and, this following in due course, Salazar was appointed first -archbishop of Manila; but he died before the Papal Bull arrived, dated -the 14th of August, 1595, officially authorizing his investiture. - -In the meantime, Alonso Sanchez had proceeded to Rome in May, 1589. -Among many other Pontifical favors conceded to him, he obtained the -right for himself, or his assigns, to use a die or stamp of any form -with one or more images; to be chosen by the holder, and to contain also -the figure of Christ, the Very Holy Virgin, or the Saint--Peter or Paul. -On the reverse was to be engraven a bust portrait of His Holiness with -the following indulgences attached thereto, viz.:-“To him who should -convey the word of God to the infidels, or give them notice of the holy -mysteries--each time 300 years’ indulgence. To him who, by industry, -converted any one of these, or brought him to the bosom of the -Church--full indulgence for all sins.” A number of minor indulgences -were conceded for services to be rendered to the Pontificate, and for -the praying so many Pater Nosters and Ave Marias. This Bull was dated in -Rome the 28th of July, 1591. - -Popes Gregory XIV. and Innocent IX. granted other Bulls relating to the -rewards for using beads, medals, crosses, pictures, blessed images, -etc., with which one could gain nine plenary indulgences every day or -rescue nine souls from purgatory; and each day, twice over, all the full -indulgences yet given in and out of Rome could be obtained for living -and deceased persons. - -Sanchez returned to Spain (where he died), bringing with him the body of -Saint Policarp, a relic of Saint Potenciana, and one hundred and -fifty-seven martyrs; among them, twenty-seven popes, for remission to -the Cathedral of Manila. - -The supreme court was re-established with the same faculties as those of -Mexico and Lima in 1598, and since then, on seven occasions, when the -governorship has been vacant, it has acted pro tem. The following -interesting account of the pompous ceremonial attending the reception of -the Royal Seal, restoring this court, is given by Concepcion.[13] He -says: “The Royal Seal of office was received from the ship with the -accustomed solemnity. It was contained in a chest covered with purple -velvet and trimmings of silver and gold, over which hung a cloth of -purple and gold. It was escorted by a majestic accompaniment, marching -to the sounds of clarions and cymbals and other musical instruments. The -cortege passed through the noble city with rich vestments and leg -trimmings and uncovered heads. Behind these followed a horse, gorgeously -caparisoned and girthed, for the president to place the coffer -containing the Royal Seal upon its back. The streets were beautifully -adorned with exquisite drapery. The high bailiff, magnificently robed, -took the reins in hand to lead the horse under a purple velvet pall -bordered with gold. The magistrates walked on either side; the aldermen -of the city, richly clad, carried their staves of office in the august -procession, which concluded with a military escort, standard-bearers, -etc., and proceeded to the Cathedral, where it was met by the dean, -holding a Cross. As the company entered the sacred edifice, the Te Deum -was intoned by a band of music.” - -In 1886 a supreme court, exactly similar to, and independent of, that of -Manila, was established in the city of Cebu. The question of precedence -in official acts having been soon after disputed between the president -of the court and the brigadier-governor of Visayas, it was decided in -favor of the latter, on appeal to the governor-general. In the meantime, -the advisability of abolishing the supreme court of Cebu was debated by -the public. - -Consequent on the union of the crowns of Portugal and Spain (1581 to -1640), the feuds, as between nations, diplomatically subsided, although -the individual antagonism was as rife as ever. - -Spanish and Portuguese interests in the Moluccas, as elsewhere, were -thenceforth officially mutual. In the Moluccas group, the old contests -between the then rival kingdoms had estranged the natives from their -forced alliances. Anti-Portuguese and Philo-Portuguese parties had -sprung up among the petty sovereignties, but the Portuguese fort and -factory established in Ternate Island were held for many years, despite -all contentions. But another rivalry, as formidable and more detrimental -than that of the Portuguese in days gone by, now menaced Spanish -ascendency. - -From the close of the sixteenth century up to the year of the “Family -Compact” wars (1763), Holland and Spain were relentless foes. To recount -the numerous combats between their respective fleets during this period -would itself require a volume. It will suffice here to show the bearing -of these political conflicts upon the concerns of the Philippine -colony. The Treaty of Antwerp, which was wrung from the Spaniards in -1609, twenty-eight years after the union of Spain and Portugal, broke -the scourge of their tyranny, while it failed to assuage the mutual -antipathy. One of the consequences of the “Wars of the Flanders,” which -terminated with this treaty, was that the Dutch were obliged to seek in -the Far East the merchandise which had hitherto been supplied to them -from the Peninsula. The short-sighted policy of the Spaniards in closing -to the Dutch the Portuguese markets, which were now theirs, brought upon -themselves the destruction of the monopolies which they had gained by -the union. The Dutch were now free, and their old tyrant’s policy -induced them to independently establish their own trading headquarters -in the Molucca Islands, whence they could obtain directly the produce -forbidden to them in the home ports. Hence, from those islands, the -ships of a powerful Netherlands Trading Company sallied forth from time -to time to meet the Spanish galleons from Mexico with silver and -manufactured goods. - -Previous to this, and during the Wars of the Flanders, Dutch corsairs -hovered about the waters of the Moluccas, to take reprisals from the -Spaniards. These encounters frequently took place at the eastern -entrance of the San Bernadino Straits, where the Dutch were accustomed -to hove-to in anticipation of the arrival of their prizes. - -In this manner, constantly roving about the Philippine waters, they -enriched themselves at the expense of their detested adversary, and, in -a small degree, avenged themselves of the bloodshed and oppression -which for over sixty years had desolated the Low Countries. - -The Philippine colony lost immense sums in the seizure of its galleons -from Mexico, upon which it almost entirely depended for subsistence. -Being a dependency of New Spain, its whole intercourse with the -civilized world, its supplies of troops and European manufactured -articles, were contingent upon the safe arrival of the galleons. Also -the dollars with which they annually purchased cargoes from the Chinese -for the galleons came from Mexico. - -Consequently, the Dutch usually took the aggressive in these -sea-battles, although they were not always victorious. When there were -no ships to meet, they bombarded the ports where others were being -built. The Spaniards, on their part, from time to time fitted out -vessels to run down to the Moluccas to attack the enemy in his own -waters. - -During the governorship of Gomez Perez Dasmarinas (1590-1593), the -native king of Siao Island--one of the Moluccas group--came to Manila to -offer homage and vassalage to the representative of the King of Spain -and Portugal, in return for protection against the incursions of the -Dutch and the raids of the Ternate natives. Dasmarinas received him and -the Spanish priests who accompanied him with affability, and, being -satisfied with his credentials, he prepared a large expedition to go to -the Moluccas to set matters in order. The fleet was composed of several -frigates, one ship, six galleys and one hundred small vessels, all well -armed. The fighting men numbered one hundred Spaniards, four hundred -Pampanga and Tagalog arquebusiers, one thousand Visayas archers and -lancers, besides one hundred Chinese to row the galleys. This -expedition, which was calculated to be amply sufficient to subdue all -the Moluccas, sailed from Cavite on the 6th of October, 1593. The -sailing ships having got far ahead of the galleys, they hove-to off -Punta de Azufre (N. of Maricaban Island) to wait for them. The galleys -arrived; and the next day they were able to start again in company. -Meanwhile a conspiracy was formed by the Chinese galleymen to murder all -the Spaniards. Assuming these Chinese to be volunteers, their action -would appear most wanton and base. If, however, as is most probable, -they were pressed into this military service to foreigners, it seems -quite natural that, being forced to bloodshed without alternative, they -should first fight for their own liberty. - -All but the Chinese were asleep, and they fell upon the Spaniards in a -body. Eighteen of the troops and four slaves escaped by jumping into the -sea. The governor was sleeping in his cabin, but awoke on hearing the -noise. He supposed the ship had grounded, and was coming up the -companion en deshabille, when a Chinaman cleaved his head with a -cutlass. The governor reached his stateroom, and taking his missal and -the Image of the Virgin in his hand, he died in six hours. The Chinese -did not venture below, where the priests and armed soldiers were hidden. -They cleared the decks of all their opponents, made fast the hatches and -gangways, and waited three days, when, after putting ashore those who -were still alive, they escaped to Cochin-China, where the king and -mandarins seized the vessel and all she carried. On board were found -twelve thousand dollars in coin, some silver, and jewels belonging to -the governor and his suite. - -Thus the expedition was brought to an untimely end. The King of Siao, -and the missionaries accompanying him, had started in advance for Otong -(Panay Island) to wait for the governor, and there they received the -news of the disaster. - -Among the most notable of the successful expeditions of the Spaniards -was that of Pedro Bravo de Acuna, in 1606, which consisted of nineteen -frigates, nine galleys and eight small craft, carrying a total of about -two thousand men and provisions for a prolonged struggle. The result -was, that they subdued a petty sultan friendly to the Dutch, and -established a fortress on his island. - -About the year 1607, the supreme court (the governorship being vacant -from 1606 to 1608) hearing that a Dutch vessel was hovering off Ternate, -sent a ship against it, commanded by Pedro de Heredia. A combat ensued. -The Dutch commander was taken prisoner with several of his men, and -lodged in the fort at Ternate, but was ransomed on payment of fifty -thousand dollars to the Spanish commander. Heredia returned joyfully to -Manila, where, much to his surprise, he was prosecuted by the supreme -court for exceeding his instructions, and expired of melancholy. The -ransomed Dutch leader was making his way back to his headquarters in a -small ship, peacefully, and without hostilizing the Spaniards in any -way, when the supreme court treacherously sent a galley and a frigate -after him to make him prisoner a second time. Overwhelmed by numbers -and arms, and little expecting such perfidious conduct of the Spaniards, -he was at once arrested and brought to Manila. The Dutch returned -twenty-two Spanish prisoners of war to Manila to ransom him; but while -these were retained, the Dutch commander was, nevertheless, imprisoned -for life. - -Some years afterward, a Dutch squadron anchored off the south point of -Bataan Province, not far from Punta Marivelez, at the entrance to Manila -Bay. Juan de Silva, the governor (from 1609 to 1616), was in great -straits. Several ships had been lost by storms, others were away, and -there was no adequate floating armament with which to meet the enemy. -However, the Dutch lay-to for five or six months, waiting to seize the -Chinese and Japanese traders’ goods on their way to the Manila market. -They secured immense booty, and were in no hurry to open hostilities. -This delay gave Silva time to prepare vessels to attack the foe. In the -interval, he dreamed that Saint Mark had offered to help him defeat the -Dutch. On awaking, he called a priest, whom he consulted about the -dream, and they agreed that the nocturnal vision was a sign from Heaven -denoting a victory. The priest went (from Cavite) to Manila to procure a -relic of this glorious intercessor, and returned with his portrait to -the governor, who adored it. In haste the ships and armament were -prepared. On Saint Mark’s day, therefore, the Spaniards sallied forth -from Cavite with six ships, carrying seventy guns, and two galleys and -two launches also well armed, besides a number of small light vessels, -to assist in the formation of line of battle. - -All the European fighting men in Manila and Cavite embarked--over one -thousand Spaniards--the flower of the colony, together with a large -force of natives, who were taught to believe that the Dutch were -infidels. On the issue of this day’s events perchance depended the -possession of the colony. Manila and Cavite were garrisoned by -volunteers. Orations were offered in the churches. The Miraculous Image -of Our Lady of the Guide was taken in procession from the Hermit, and -exposed to public view in the Cathedral. The saints of the different -churches and sanctuaries were adored and exhibited daily. The governor -himself took the supreme command, and dispelled all wavering doubt in -his subordinates by proclaiming Saint Mark’s promise of intercession. On -his ship he hoisted the royal standard, on which was embroidered the -Image of the Holy Virgin, with the motto: “Mostrate esse Matrem,” and -over a beautifully calm sea he led the way to battle. - -A shot from the Spanish heavy artillery opened the bloody combat. The -Dutch were completely vanquished, after a fierce struggle which lasted -six hours. Their three ships were destroyed, and their flags, artillery, -and plundered merchandise to the value of three hundred thousand dollars -were seized. This famous engagement was thenceforth known as the battle -of Playa Honda. - -Again in 1611, under Silva, a squadron sailed to the Moluccas and -defeated the Dutch off Giolo Island. - -In 1617, the Spaniards had a successful engagement off the Zambales -coast with the Dutch, who lost three of their ships. - -In July, 1620, three Mexican galleons were met by three Dutch vessels -off Cape Espiritu Santo (Samar Island), at the entrance of the San -Bernadino Straits, but managed to escape in the dark. Two ran ashore and -broke up; the third reached Manila. After this the governor-general, -Alonzo Fajardo de Tua, ordered the course of the State ships to be -varied on each voyage. - -In 1625, the Dutch again appeared off the Zambales coast, and Geronimo -de Silva went out against them. The Spaniards, having lost one man, -relinquished the pursuit of the enemy, and the commander was brought to -trial by the supreme court. - -In 1626, at the close of the governorship of Fernando de Silva, a -Spanish colony was founded on Formosa Island, but no supplies were sent -to it, and consequently in 1642 it surrendered to the Dutch, who held it -for twenty years, until they were driven out by the Chinese adventurer -Keuseng. And thus for over a century and a half the strife continued, -until the Dutch concentrated their attention in the development of their -Eastern colonies, which the power of Spain, growing more and more -effete, was incompetent to impede. - -In 1761, King George III. had just succeeded to the throne of England, -and the protracted contentions with France had been suspended for a -while. It was soon evident, however, that efforts were being employed to -extinguish the power and prestige of Great Britain, and with this object -a convention had been entered into between France and Spain known as the -“Family Compact.” It was so called because it was an alliance made by -the three branches of the House of Bourbon; namely, Louis XV. of France, -Charles III. of Spain, and his son Ferdinand, who, in accordance with -the Treaty of Vienna, had ascended the throne of Naples. Spain engaged -to unite her forces with those of France against England on the 1st of -May, 1762, if the war still lasted, in which case France would restore -Minorca to Spain. Pitt was convinced of the necessity of meeting the -coalition by force of arms, but he was unable to secure the support of -his Ministry to declare war, and he therefore retired from the -premiership. The succeeding Cabinet was, nevertheless, compelled to -adopt his policy, and, after having lost many advantages by delaying -their decision, war was declared against France and Spain. - -The British were successful everywhere. In the West Indies, the -Caribbean Islands and Havana were captured, with great booty, by Rodney -and Monckton, while a British fleet was dispatched to the Philippine -Islands with orders to take Manila. - -There are many versions of this event given by different historians, and -among them there is not wanting an author who, following the Spanish -custom, has accounted for defeat by alleging treason. - -On the 14th of September, 1762, a British vessel arrived in the Bay of -Manila, refused to admit Spanish officers on board, and after taking -soundings she sailed again out of the harbor. - -In the evening of the 22d of September, the British squadron, composed -of thirteen ships, under the command of Admiral Cornish, entered the -bay, and the next day two British officers were deputed to demand the -surrender of the citadel, which was refused. - -Brigadier-general Draper thereupon disembarked his troops, and again -called upon the city to yield. This citation being defied, the -bombardment commenced the next day. The fleet anchored in front of a -powder-magazine, took possession of the churches of Malate, Hermita, San -Juan de Bagumbayan and Santiago. Two picket guards made an unsuccessful -sortie against them. The whole force in Manila at the time was the -king’s regiment, which mustered about six hundred men, and eighty pieces -of artillery. The British forces consisted of one thousand five hundred -European troops (one regiment of infantry and two companies of -artillery), three thousand seamen, eight hundred Sepoy fusileers and one -thousand four hundred Sepoy pioneers, making a total of six thousand -eight hundred and thirty men. - -There was no governor-general here at the time, and the only person with -whom the British commander could treat was the acting-governor, the -Archbishop Manuel Antonio Rojo, who was willing to yield. His authority -was, however, set aside by a rebellious war party, who placed themselves -under the leadership of a magistrate of the supreme court named Simon de -Anda y Salazar. This individual, instead of leading them to battle, fled -to the province of Bulacan, the day before the capture of Manila, in a -prahu with a few natives, carrying with him some money and half a ream -of official stamped paper. He knew perfectly well that he was defying -the legal authority of the acting-governor, and was, in fact, in open -rebellion against his mandate. It was necessary, therefore, to give an -official color to his acts by issuing his orders and proclamations on -government-stamped paper, so that their validity might be recognized if -he subsequently succeeded in justifying his action at court. - -On the 24th of September the Spanish batteries of San Diego and San -Andres opened fire, but with little effect. A richly laden galleon--the -“Philipino”--was known to be on her way from Mexico to Manila, but the -British ships which were sent in quest of her fell in with another -galleon--the “Trinidad”--and brought their prize to Manila. Her treasure -amounted to about two million five hundred thousand dollars. - -A Frenchman resident in Manila, Monsieur Faller, made an attack on the -British, who forced him to retire, and he was then accused by the -Spaniards of treason. Artillery fire was kept up on both sides. The -archbishop’s nephew was taken prisoner, and an officer was sent with him -to hand him over to his uncle. However, a party of natives fell upon -them and murdered them all. The officer’s head having been cut off, it -was demanded by General Draper. Excuses were made for not giving it up, -and the general determined thenceforth to continue the warfare with -vigor and punish this atrocity. The artillery was increased by another -battery of three mortars, placed behind the Church of Santiago, and the -bombardment continued. - -Five thousand native recruits arrived from the provinces, and out of -this number two thousand Pampangos were selected. They were divided into -three columns, in order to advance by different routes and attack -respectively the Church of Santiago, Malate and Hermita, and the troops -on the beach. At each place they were driven back. The leader of the -attack on Malate and Hermita--Don Santiago Orendain--was declared a -traitor. The first two columns were dispersed with great confusion and -loss. The third column retreated before they had sustained or inflicted -any loss. The natives fled to their villages in dismay, and on the 5th -of October the British entered the walled city. After a couple of hours’ -bombardment the forts of San Andres and San Eugenio were demolished, the -artillery overturned, and the enemy’s fusileers and sappers were killed. - -A council of war was now held by the Spaniards. General Draper sustained -the authority of the archbishop against the war-party, composed chiefly -of civilians, who determined to continue the defense in spite of the -opinion of the military men, who argued that a capitulation was -inevitable. But matters were brought to a crisis by the natives, who -refused to repair the fortifications, and the Europeans were unable to -perform such hard labor. Great confusion reigned in the city--the clergy -fled through the Puerto del Parian, where there was still a native -guard. According to Zuniga, the British spent twenty thousand cannon -balls and five thousand shells in the bombardment of the city. - -Major Fell entered the city at the head of his troops and General Draper -followed, leading his column unopposed, with two field pieces in the -van, while a constant musketry fire cleared the Calle Real as they -advanced. The people fled before the enemy. The gates being closed, they -scrambled up the walls and got into boats or swam off. - -Colonel Monson was sent by Draper to the archbishop-governor to say that -he expected immediate surrender. This was disputed by the archbishop, -who presented a paper purporting to be terms of capitulation. The -colonel refused to take it, and demanded an unconditional surrender. -Then the archbishop, a colonel of the Spanish troops and Colonel Monson -went to interview the general, whose quarters were in the palace. The -archbishop, offering himself as a prisoner, presented the terms of -capitulation, which provided for the free exercise of their religion; -security of private property; free trade to all the inhabitants of the -islands, and the continuation of the powers of the supreme court to keep -order among the ill-disposed. These terms were granted, but General -Draper, on his part, stipulated for an indemnity of four millions of -dollars, and it was agreed to pay one-half of this sum in specie and -valuables and the other half in treasury bills on Madrid. The -capitulation, with these modifications, was signed by Draper and the -archbishop-governor. The Spanish colonel took the document to the fort -to have it countersigned by the magistrates, which was at once done; the -fort was delivered up to the British, and the magistrates retired to the -palace to pay their respects to the conqueror. - -When the British flag was seen floating from the fort of Santiago there -was great cheering from the British fleet. The archbishop stated that -when Draper reviewed the troops more than one thousand men were missing, -including sixteen officers. Among these officers were a major, fatally -wounded by an arrow on the first day of the assault, and the -vice-admiral, who was drowned while coming ashore in a boat. - -The natives who had been brought from the provinces to Manila were -plundering and committing excesses in the city, so Draper had them all -driven out. Guards were placed at the doors of the nunneries and -convents to prevent outrages on the women, and then the city was given -up to the victorious troops for pillage during three hours. Zuniga, -however, remarks that the European troops were moderate, but that the -Indian contingents were insatiable. They are said to have committed many -atrocities, and, reveling in bloodshed, even murdered the inhabitants. -They ransacked the suburbs of Santa Cruz and Binondo, and, acting like -savage victorious tribes, they ravished women, and even went into the -highways to murder and rob those who fled. The three hours expired, and -the following day a similar scene was permitted. The archbishop -thereupon besought the general to put a stop to it, and have compassion -on the city. The general complied with this request, and restored order -under pain of death for disobedience--some Chinese were in consequence -hanged. General Draper himself killed one whom he found in the act of -stealing, and he ordered that all church property should be restored, -but only some priests’ vestments were recovered. - -Draper demanded the surrender of Cavite, which was agreed to by the -archbishop and magistrates, but the commanding officer refused to -comply. The major of that garrison was sent with a message to the -commander, but on the way he talked with such freedom about the -surrender to the British, that the natives quitted their posts and -plundered the arsenal. The commander, rather than face humiliation, -retired to a ship, and left all further responsibility to the major. - -Measures were now taken to pay the agreed indemnity. Heavy contributions -were levied upon the inhabitants, which, however, together with the -silver from the pious establishments, church ornaments, plate, the -archbishop’s rings and breast-cross, only amounted to five hundred and -forty-six thousand dollars. The British then proposed to accept one -million at once and draw the rest from the cargo of the galleon -“Philipino,” if it resulted that she had not been seized by the British -previous to the day the capitulation was signed--but the one million was -not forthcoming. The day before the capture of Manila, a royal messenger -had been sent off with one hundred and eleven thousand dollars, with -orders to secure it in some place in the Laguna de Bay. The archbishop -now ordered its return to Manila, and issued a requisition to that -effect; but the Franciscan friars were insubordinate, and armed the -natives, whom they virtually ruled, and the treasure was secreted in -Majayjay Convent. Thence, on receipt of the archbishop’s message, it was -carried across country to a place in North Pampanga, bordering on -Cagayan and Pangasinan. The British, convinced that they were being -duped, insisted on their claim. Thomas Backhouse, commanding the troops -stationed at Pasig, went up to the Laguna de Bay with eighty mixed -troops, to intercept the bringing of the “Philipino” treasure. He -attacked Tunasan, Vinan and Santa Rosa, and embarked for Pagsanjan, -which was then the capital of the Lake Province. The inhabitants, after -firing the convent and church, fled. Backhouse returned to Calamba, -entered the Province of Batangas, overran it, and made several Austin -friars prisoners. In Lipa he seized three thousand dollars, and there he -established his quarters, expecting that the “Philipino” treasure would -be carried that way; but on learning that it had been transported by -sea to a Pampanga coast town, Backhouse withdrew to Pasig. - -In the capitulation, the whole of the Archipelago was surrendered to the -British, but Simon de Anda determined to appeal to arms. Draper used -stratagem, and issued a proclamation commiserating the fate of the -natives who paid tribute to Spaniards, and assuring them that the King -of England would not exact it. The archbishop, as governor, became -Draper’s tool, sent messages to the Spanish families persuading them to -return, and appointed an Englishman, married in the country, to be -alderman of Tondo. Despite the strenuous opposition of the supreme -court, the archbishop, at the instance of Draper, convened a council of -native headmen and representative families, and proposed to them the -cession of all the islands to the King of England. Draper clearly saw -that the ruling powers in the colony, judging from their energy and -effective measures, were the friars, so he treated them with great -respect. The Frenchman Faller, who unsuccessfully opposed the British -assault, was offered troops to go and take possession of Zamboanga and -accept the government there, but he refused, as did also a Spaniard -named Sandoval. - -Draper returned to Europe; Major Fell was left in command of the troops, -while Drake assumed the military government of the city, with Smith and -Brock as council, and Brereton in charge of Cavite. Draper, on leaving, -gave orders for two frigates to go in search of the “Philipino” -treasure. The ships got as far as Capul Island and put into harbor. They -were detained there by a ruse on the part of a half-caste pilot, and -the treasure was got away in the meantime. - -Simon de Anda, from his provincial retreat, proclaimed himself -governor-general. He declared that the archbishop and the magistrates, -as prisoners of war, were dead in the eye of the law; and that his -assumption of authority was based upon old laws. None of his countrymen -disputed his authority, and he established himself in Bacolor. The -British council then convened a meeting of the chief inhabitants, at -which Anda was declared a seditious person and deserving of capital -punishment, together with the Marquis of Monte Castro, who had violated -his parole d’honneur, and the provincial of the Austin friars, who had -joined the rebel party. All the Austin friars were declared traitors for -having broken their allegiance to the archbishop’s authority. The -British still pressed for the payment of the one million, while the -Spaniards declared they possessed no more. The Austin friars were -ordered to keep the natives peaceable if they did not wish to provoke -hostilities against themselves. At length, the British, convinced of the -futility of decrees, determined to sally out with their forces; and five -hundred men under Thomas Backhouse went up the Pasig River to secure a -free passage for supplies to the camp. While opposite Maybonga, Bustos, -with his Cagayan troops, fired on them. The British returned the fire, -and Bustos fled to Mariquina. The British passed the river, and sent an -officer with a white flag of truce to summon surrender. Bustos was -insolent, and threatened to hang the officer if he returned. Backhouse’s -troops then opened fire and placed two field pieces which completely -scared the natives, who fled in such great confusion that many were -drowned in the river. Thence the British pursued their enemy “as if they -were a flock of goats,” and reached the Bamban River, where the Sultan -of Sulu resided with his family. The sultan, after a feigned resistance, -fell a prisoner to the British, who fortified his dwelling, and occupied -it during the whole of the operations. There were subsequent skirmishes -on the Pasig River banks with the armed insurgents, who were driven as -far as the Antipolo Mountains. - -Meanwhile, Anda collected troops; and Bustos, as his lieutenant-general, -vaunted the power of his chief through the Bulacan and Pampanga -provinces. A Franciscan and an Austin friar, having led troops to -Masilo, about seven miles from Manila, the British went out to dislodge -them, but on their approach most of the natives feigned they were dead, -and the British returned without any loss in arms or men. - -The British, believing that the Austin friars were conspiring against -them in connivance with those inside the city, placed these friars in -confinement, and subsequently shipped away eleven of them to Europe. For -the same reason, they at last determined to enter the St. Augustine -Convent, and on ransacking it they found that the priests had been lying -to them all the time. Six thousand dollars in coin were found hidden in -the garden, and large quantities of wrought silver elsewhere. The whole -premises were then searched and all the valuables were seized. A British -expedition went out to Bulacan, sailing across the bay and up the -Hagonoy River, where they disembarked at Malolos on the 19th of January, -1763. The troops, under Captain Eslay, of the Grenadiers, numbered six -hundred men, many of whom were Chinese volunteers. As they advanced from -Malolos, the natives and Spaniards fled. On the way to Bulacan, Bustos -advanced to meet them, but retreated into ambush on seeing they were -superior in numbers. Bulacan Convent was fortified with three small -cannon. As soon as the troops were in sight of the convent, a desultory -fire of case-shot made great havoc in the ranks of the Chinese forming -the British vanguard. At length the British brought their field pieces -into action, and pointing at the enemy’s cannon, the first discharge -carried off the head of their artilleryman Ybarra. The panic-stricken -natives decamped; the convent was taken by assault; there was an -indiscriminate fight and general slaughter. The alcalde and a Franciscan -friar fell in action; one Austin friar escaped, and another was seized -and killed to avenge the death of the British soldiers. The invading -forces occupied the convent, and some of the troops were shortly sent -back to Manila. Bustos reappeared near the Bulacan convent with eight -thousand native troops, of which six hundred were cavalry, but they -dared not attack the British. Bustos then maneuvered in the neighborhood -and made occasional alarms. Small parties were sent out against him with -so little effect that the British commander headed a body in person, and -put the whole of Bustos’ troops to flight like mosquitoes before a gust -of wind, for Bustos feared they would be pursued into Pampanga. After -clearing away the underwood, which served as a covert for the natives, -the British reoccupied the convent; but Bustos returned to his position, -and was a second time as disgracefully routed by the British, who then -withdrew to Manila. - -At the same time, it was alleged that a conspiracy was being organized -among the Chinese in the Province of Pampanga with the object of -assassinating Anda and his Spanish followers. The Chinese cut trenches -and raised fortifications, avowing that their bellicose preparations -were only to defend themselves against the possible attack of the -British; while the Spaniards saw in all this a connivance with the -invaders. The latter, no doubt, conjectured rightly. Anda, acting upon -the views of his party, precipitated matters by appearing with fourteen -Spanish soldiers and a crowd of native bowmen to commence the slaughter -in the town of Guagua. The Chinese assembled there in great numbers, and -Anda endeavored in vain to induce them to surrender to him. He then sent -a Spaniard, named Miguel Garces, with a message, offering them pardon in -the name of the King of Spain if they would lay down their arms; but -they killed the emissary, and Anda therefore commenced the attack. The -result was favorable for Anda’s party, and great numbers of the Chinese -were slain. Many fled to the fields, where they were pursued by the -troops, while those who were captured were hanged. Such was the -inveterate hatred which Anda entertained for the Chinese, that he issued -a general decree declaring all the Chinese traitors to the Spanish flag, -and ordered them to be hanged wherever they might be found in the -provinces. Thus thousands of Chinese were executed who had taken no part -whatever in the events of this little war. - -Admiral Cornish, having decided to return to Europe, again urged for -the payment of the two millions of dollars. The archbishop was in great -straits; he was willing to do anything, but his colleagues opposed him, -and Cornish was at length obliged to content himself with a bill on the -Madrid treasury. Anda appointed Bustos alcalde of Bulacan, and ordered -him to recruit and train troops, as he still nurtured the hope of -confining the British to Manila--perhaps even of driving them out of the -colony. - -The British in the city were compelled to adopt the most rigorous -precautions against a rising of the population within the walls, and -several Spanish residents were arrested for intriguing against them in -concert with those outside. - -Several French prisoners from Pondicherry deserted from the British; and -some Spanish regular troops, who had been taken prisoners, effected -their escape. The fiscal of the supreme court and a Senor Villa Corta -were found conspiring. The latter was caught in the act of sending a -letter to Anda, and was sentenced to be hanged and quartered--the -quarters to be exhibited in public places. The archbishop, however, -obtained Villa Corta’s pardon, on the condition that Anda should -evacuate the Pampanga Province; and Villa Corta wrote to Anda, begging -him to accede to this, but Anda absolutely refused to make any sacrifice -to save his friend’s life; and at the same time he wrote a disgraceful -letter to the archbishop, couched in such insulting terms that the -British commander burned it without letting the archbishop see it. Villa -Corta was finally ransomed by the payment of three thousand dollars. - -The treasure brought by the “Philipino” served Anda to organize a -respectable force of recruits. Spaniards who were living there in -misery, and a crowd of natives always ready for pay, enlisted. These -forces, under Lieutenant-general Bustos, encamped at Malinta, about five -miles from Manila. The officers lodged in a house belonging to the -Austin friars, around which the troops pitched their tents--the whole -being defended by redoubts and palisades raised under the direction of a -French deserter, who led a company. From this place Bustos constantly -caused alarm to the British troops, who once had to retreat before a -picket guard sent to get the church bells of Quiapo. The British, in -fact, were much molested by Bustos’ Malinta troops, who forced the -invaders to withdraw to Manila and reduce the extension of their -outposts. This measure was followed up by a proclamation, in which the -British commander alluded to Bustos’ troops as “canaille and robbers,” -and offered a reward of five thousand dollars for Anda’s head; declaring -him and his party rebels and traitors to their majesties the kings of -Spain and England. Anda, chafing at his impotence to combat the invading -party by force of arms, gave vent to his feelings of rage and -disappointment by issuing a decree, dated from Bacolor the 19th of May, -1763, of which the translated text reads as follows: - -“Royal Government Tribunal of these Islands for His Catholic Majesty: -Whereas the Royal Government Tribunal, Supreme Government and -Captain-Generalship of His Catholic Majesty in these Islands are gravely -offended at the audacity and blindness of those men, who, forgetting all -humanity, have condemned as rebellious and disobedient to both their -Majesties, him, who as a faithful vassal of His Catholic Majesty, and in -conformity with the law, holds the Royal Tribunal, Government and -Captain-Generalship; and having suffered by a reward being offered by -order of the British Governor in council to whomsoever shall deliver me -alive or dead; and by their having placed the arms captured in Bulacan -at the foot of the gallows--seeing that instead of their punishing and -reproaching such execrable proceedings, the spirit of haughtiness and -pride is increasing, as shown in the Proclamation published in Manila on -the 17th instant, in which the troops of His Majesty are infamously -calumniated--treating them as blackguards and disaffected to their -service--charging them with plotting to assassinate the English officers -and soldiers, and with having fled when attacked--the whole of these -accusations being false: Now therefore by these presents, be it known to -all Spaniards and true Englishmen that Messrs. Drake, Smith and Brock, -who signed the Proclamation referred to, must not be considered as -vassals of His Britannic Majesty, but as tyrants and common enemies -unworthy of human society, and therefore, I order that they be -apprehended as such, and I offer ten thousand dollars for each one of -them alive or dead. At the same time, I withdraw the order to treat the -vassals of his Britannic Majesty with all the humanity which the rights -of war will permit, as has been practiced hitherto with respect to the -prisoners and deserters.” - -Anda had by this time received the consent of his king to occupy the -position which he had usurped, and the British commander was thus -enabled to communicate officially with, him, if occasion required it; -and Drake replied to this proclamation, recommending Anda to carry on -the war with greater moderation and humanity. - -On the 27th of June, 1763, the British made a sortie from the city to -dislodge Bustos, who still occupied Malinta. The attacking party -consisted of three hundred and fifty fusileers, fifty horsemen, a mob of -Chinese, and a number of guns and ammunition. The British took up -quarters on one side of the river, while Bustos remained on the other. -The opposing parties exchanged fire, but neither cared nor dared to -cross the waterway. The British forces retired in good order to Masilo, -and remained there until they heard that Bustos had burned Malinta House -and removed his camp to Meycauayan. Then the British withdrew to Manila -in the evening. On the Spanish side there were two killed, five mortally -wounded and two slightly wounded. The British losses were six mortally -wounded and seven disabled. This was the last encounter in open warfare. -Chinamen occasionally lost their lives through their love of plunder in -the vicinity occupied by the British. - -During these operations, the priesthood taught the ignorant natives to -believe that the invading troops were infidels--and a holy war was -preached. - -The friars, especially those of the Augustine order,[14] abandoned their -mission of peace for that of the sword, and the British met with a -slight reverse at Masilo, where a religious fanatic of the Austin -friars had put himself at the head of a small hand lying in ambush. - -On the 23d of July, 1763, a British frigate brought news from Europe of -an armistice--and the preliminaries of peace, by virtue of which Manila -was to be evacuated (Peace of Paris, 10th of February, 1763), were -received by the British commander on the 27th of August following, -and communicated by him to the archbishop-governor for the -“commander-in-chief” of the Spanish arms. Anda stood on his dignity and -protested that he should be addressed directly, and be styled -captain-general. On this plea he declined to receive the communication. -Drake replied by a manifesto, dated 19th of September, to the effect -that the responsibility of the blood which might be spilled, in -consequence of Anda’s refusal to accept his notification, would rest -with him. Anda published a counter manifesto, dated 28th of September, -in Bacolor (Pampanga), protesting that he had not been treated with -proper courtesy. - -Greater latitude was allowed to the prisoners, and Villa Corta effected -his escape dressed as a woman. He fled to Anda--the co-conspirator who -had refused to save his life--and their superficial friendship was -renewed. Villa Corta was left in charge of business in Bacolor during -Anda’s temporary absence. Meanwhile the archbishop fell ill; and it was -discussed who should be his successor in the government in the event of -his death. Villa Corta argued that it fell to him as senior magistrate. -The discussion came to the knowledge of Anda, and seriously aroused his -jealousy. Fearing conspiracy against his ambitious projects, he left his -camp at Polo, and hastened to interrogate Villa Corta, who explained -that he had only made casual remarks in the course of conversation. -Anda, however, was restless on the subject of the succession, and sought -the opinion of all the chief priests and bishops. Various opinions -existed. Some urged that the decision be left to the supreme -court--others were in favor of Anda--while many abstained from -expressing their views. Anda was so nervously anxious about the matter, -that he even begged the opinion of the British commander, and wrote him -on the subject from Bacolor on the 2d of November, 1763. - -Major Fell seriously quarreled with Drake about the Frenchman Faller, -whom Admiral Cornish had left under sentence of death for having written -a letter to Java accusing him of being a pirate and a robber. Drake -protected Faller, while Fell demanded the execution of the prisoner; and -the dispute became so heated that Fell was about to slay Drake with a -bayonet, but was prevented by some soldiers. Fell then went to London to -complain of Drake, hence Anda’s letter was addressed to Backhouse, who -took Fell’s place. Anda, who months since had refused to negotiate or -treat with Drake, still insisted upon being styled captain-general. -Backhouse replied that he was ignorant of the Spaniards’ statutes or -laws, but that he knew the governor was the archbishop. Anda thereupon -spread the report that the British commander had forged the -preliminaries of peace because he could no longer hold out in warfare. -The British necessarily had to send to the provinces to purchase -provisions, and Anda caused their forage parties to be attacked, so that -the war really continued, in spite of the news of peace, until the 30th -of January, 1764. On this day the archbishop died, sorely grieved at the -situation, and weighed down with cares. He had engaged to pay four -millions of dollars and surrender the islands, but could he indeed have -refused any terms? The British were in possession; and these conditions -were dictated at the point of the bayonet. - -Immediately after the funeral of the archbishop, Anda received -dispatches from the King of Spain, by way of China, confirming the news -of peace to his governor at Manila. Then the British acknowledged Anda -as governor, and proceeded to evacuate the city; but rival factions were -not so easily set aside, and fierce quarrels ensued between the -respective parties of Anda, Villa Corta and Ustariz, as to who should be -governor and receive the city officially from the British. Anda, being -actually in command of the troops, had the game in his hands. The -conflict was happily terminated by the arrival at Marinduque of the -newly appointed governor-general from Spain--Don Francisco de la Torre. -A galley was sent there by Anda to bring his excellency to Luzon, and he -arrived at Bacolor, where Anda resigned the government to him on the -17th of March, 1764. - -La Torre sent a message to Backhouse and Brereton--the commanding -officers at Manila and Cavite--stating that he was ready to take over -the city in due form. La Torre thereupon took up his residence in Santa -Cruz, placed a Spanish guard with sentinels from that ward as far as the -Great Bridge (Puente de Barcas, now called Puente de España), where the -British advance guard was, and friendly communication took place. -Governor Drake was indignant at being ignored in all these proceedings, -and ordered the Spanish governor to withdraw his guards, under threat of -appealing to force. Backhouse and Brereton resented this rudeness, and -ordered the troops under arms to arrest Drake, whose hostile action, due -to jealousy, they declared unwarrantable. Drake, being apprised of their -intentions, escaped from the city with his suite, embarked on board a -frigate, and sailed off. - -La Torre was said to be indisposed on the day appointed for receiving -the city. Some assert that he feigned his indisposition, as he did not -wish to arouse Anda’s animosity, and desired to afford him an -opportunity of displaying himself as a delegate at least of the highest -local authority by receiving the city from the British, while he -pampered his pride by allowing him to enter triumphantly into it. As the -city exchanged masters, the Spanish flag was hoisted once more on the -fort of Santiago amid the hurrahs of the populace and artillery salutes. - -Before embarking, Brereton offered to do justice to any claims which -might be legitimately established against the British authorities. Hence -a sloop loaned to Drake, valued at four thousand dollars, was paid for -to the Jesuits, and the three thousand dollars paid to ransom Villa -Corta’s life was returned; Brereton remarking that, if the sentence -against him were valid, it should have been executed at the time, but it -could not be commuted by money payment. At the instance of the British -authorities, a free pardon was granted and published to the Chinese, few -of whom, however, confided in it, and many left with the retiring army. -Brereton, with his forces, embarked for India, after dispatching a -packet-boat to restore the Sultan of Sulu to his throne. - -During this convulsed period, great atrocities were committed. -Unfortunately the common felons were released by the English from their -prisons, and used their liberty to perpetrate murders and robbery in -alliance with those always naturally bent that way. So great did this -evil become, so bold were the marauders, that in time they formed large -parties, infested highways, attacked plantations, and the poor peasantry -had to flee, leaving their cattle and all their belongings in their -power. Several avenged themselves of the friars for old scores, others -settled accounts with those Europeans who had tyrannized them of old. -The Chinese, whether so-called Christians or pagans, declared for and -aided the British. - -The proceedings of the choleric Simon de Anda y Salazar were approved by -his sovereign, but his impetuous disposition drove from him his best -counselors, while those who were bold enough to uphold their opinions -against his were accused of connivance with the British. Communications -with Europe were scant indeed in those days, but Anda could not have -been altogether ignorant of the causes of the war, which terminated with -the Treaty of Paris. - -On his return to Spain, after the appointment of La Torre as -governor-general, he succeeded in retaining the favor of the king, who -conferred several honors on him, making him Councilor of Castile, etc. -In the meantime Jose Raon, who replaced La Torre, had fallen into -disgrace, and Anda was appointed to the governor-generalship of the -islands. - -There is perhaps no imperiousness so intolerant as that of an official -who vaunts his authority by the reflected light of his powerful patron. -Anda on his arrival avenged himself of his opposers in all directions. -He imprisoned his predecessor, several judges, military officials and -others; some he sent back to Spain, others he banished from the capital. -Thus he brought trouble upon himself. From all sides hostile resistance -increased. He quarreled with the clergy; but when his irascible temper -had exhausted itself in the course of six years, he retired to a convent -of the Austin friars, where he expired in 1776, much to the relief of -his numerous adversaries. - -Consequent on the troubled state of the colony, a serious rebellion -arose in Ylogan (Cagayan Province), among the Timava natives, who -flogged the commandant, and declared they would no longer pay tribute to -the Spaniards. The revolt spread to Ilocos and Pangasinan, but the -ringleaders were caught, and tranquillity was restored by the gallows. - -A rising far more important occurred in Ilocos Sur. The alcalde was -deposed, and escaped after he had been forced to give up his staff of -office. The leader of this revolt was a cunning and cute Manila native, -named Diego de Silan, who persuaded the people to cease paying tribute, -and declare against the Spaniards, who, he pointed out, were unable to -resist the English. The city of Vigan was in great commotion. The -vicar-general parleyed with the natives; and then, collecting his -troops, the rebels were dispersed, while some were taken prisoners; but -the bulk of the rioters rallied and attacked, and burned down part of -the city. The loyal natives fled before the flames. The vicar-general’s -house was taken, and the arms in it were seized. All the Austin friars -within a large surrounding neighborhood had to ransom themselves by -money payments. Silan was then acknowledged as chief over a large -territory north and south of Vigan. He appointed his lieutenants, and -issued a manifesto declaring Jesus of Nazareth to be captain-general of -the place, and that he was his alcalde for the promotion of the Catholic -religion and dominion of the King of Spain. His manifesto was wholly -that of a religious fanatic. He obliged the natives to attend mass, to -confess, and to see that their children went to school. In the midst of -all this pretended piety, he robbed cattle and exacted ransoms for the -lives of all those who could pay them; he levied a tax of one hundred -dollars on each friar. Under the pretense of keeping out the British, he -placed sentinels in all directions to prevent news reaching the terrible -Simon de Anda. But Anda, though fully informed by an Austin friar of -what transpired, had not sufficient troops to march north. He sent a -requisition to Silan to present himself within nine days, under penalty -of arrest as a traitor. While this order was published, vague reports -were intentionally spread that the Spaniards were coming to Ilocos in -great force. Many deserted Silan, but he contrived to deceive even the -clergy and others by his feigned piety. Silan sent presents to Manila -for the British, acknowledging the King of England to be his legitimate -sovereign. The British governor sent, in return, a vessel bearing -dispatches to Silan, appointing him alcalde mayor. Elated with pride, -Silan at once made this public. The natives were undeceived, for they -had counted on him to deliver them from the British; now, to their -dismay, they saw him the authorized magistrate of the invader. He gave -orders to make all the Austin friars prisoners, saying that the British -would send other clergy in their stead. The friars surrendered -themselves without resistance and joined their bishop near Vigan, -awaiting the pleasure of Silan. The bishop excommunicated Silan, and -then he released some of the priests. The Christian natives having -refused to slay the friars, a secret compact was being made, with this -object, with the mountain tribes, when a half-caste named Vicos obtained -the bishop’s benediction to go and kill Silan; and the rebellion, which -had lasted from December 14, 1762, to May 28, 1763, ended. - -Not until a score of little battles had been fought were the numerous -riots in the provinces quelled. The loyal troops were divided into -sections, and marched north in several directions, until peace was -restored by March, 1765. Zuniga says that the Spaniards lost in these -riots about seventy Europeans and one hundred and forty natives, while -they cost the rebels quite ten thousand men. - -Space will not permit us to cite all the revolutionary protests which -ensued. In the time of Legaspi the submission of the Manila and Tondo -chiefs was of but local and temporary importance. Since then, and in -fact since the very beginning up to the present time, the natives have -only yielded to a force which they have repeatedly tried to overthrow. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -THE HISPANO-AMERICAN WAR - -THE “MAINE”--THE COURT OF INQUIRY--THE PRESIDENT’S MESSAGE--DEWEY AT -MANILA--HOBSON AND THE “MERRIMAC”--CERVERA’S RUN TO RUIN--THE -CAPITULATION OF SANTIAGO--THE MISSION OF PEACE - - -When General Weyler assumed command in Cuba he issued, October 21, 1896, -the following proclamation: - - “I order and command: - - First--All the inhabitants of the country now outside of the line - of fortifications of the towns shall within the period of eight - days concentrate themselves in the towns so occupied by the troops. - Any individual who after the expiration of this period is found in - the uninhabited parts will be considered a rebel and tried as - such.” - -At the time when the order was issued there was living within the -western province a population of four hundred thousand men, women and -children. The result of the order was to sweep them from their homes and -fields and confine them in open-air prisons. No food whatever was -supplied to them. As a result more than half of them died. - -The indignation aroused became widespread. Weyler was recalled. At the -time, especially in Havana among the officials who had been his -adherents and who resented his recall, there was an expressed hatred of -the United States. That hatred it is generally understood resulted, on -the night of February 15, 1898, in the blowing up of the “Maine.” - -The dispatch of this vessel to Cuban waters was a friendly act arranged -by our government and that of Spain as one of a series of visits to be -paid by the ironclads of the two countries to each other’s harbors. -While the “Viscaya” was en route for New York the “Maine” went to -Havana. The harbor there was subsequently shown to have been sown with -explosives. - -The findings of the Court of Inquiry, which was then held, as embodied -in the report of the Foreign Relations Committee, set forth that the -destruction of the “Maine” was either compassed by the official act of -the Spanish authorities, or was made possible by negligence on their -part so willful and gross as to be equivalent to criminal culpability. - -The line of argument is as follows: It is established that the “Maine” -was destroyed by the explosion of a submarine mine in position under her -in a Spanish harbor, at a place where she had been moored to a buoy by -the express direction and guidance of the Spanish authorities. - -The report of the Spanish board of inquiry, which reported, after the -most inadequate examination, that the explosion was due to the fault of -the officers of the “Maine,” and took place within the vessel itself, -was declared to be manifestly false, and calculated to induce public -opinion to prejudge the question. Taking this together with the fact of -the duplicity, treachery, and cruelty of the Spanish character, the -Senate concluded that the Spanish authorities must be held responsible -for the crime, either as its direct authors or as contributors thereto -by willful and gross negligence. - -Spain offered to refer the question as to the cause of the loss of the -“Maine” and their responsibility for the catastrophe to arbitration. The -President made no reply. - -On April 11, anterior circumstances already sufficiently recited, joined -to the findings of the American Commissioners, resulted in the President -sending a message to Congress, in which he said: - - “The long trial has proved that the object for which Spain has - waged the war cannot be attained. The fire of insurrection may - flame or may smolder with varying seasons, but it has not been, and - it is plain that it cannot be, extinguished by present methods. The - only hope of relief and repose from a condition which can no longer - be endured is the enforced pacification of Cuba. - - “In the name of humanity, in the name of civilization, in behalf of - endangered American interests which give us the right and the duty - to speak and to act, the war in Cuba must stop. - - “In view of these facts and of these considerations, I ask the - Congress to authorize and empower the President to take measures to - secure a full and final termination of hostilities between the - government of Spain and the people of Cuba, and to secure in the - island the establishment of a stable government capable of - maintaining order and observing its international obligations, - insuring peace and tranquillity, and the security of its citizens - as well as our own, and to use the military and naval forces of the - United States as may be necessary for these purposes. - - “_William McKinley._” - - - -On April 19, Congress passed the following: - - - - _Joint resolution for the recognition of the independence of the - people of Cuba, demanding that the government of Spain - relinquish its authority and government in the island of - Cuba, and to withdraw its land and naval forces from - Cuba and Cuban waters, and directing the President of - the United States to use the land and naval forces of the - United States to carry these resolutions into effect._ - - “_Whereas_, The abhorrent conditions which have existed for more - than three years in the island of Cuba, so near our own borders, - have shocked the moral sense of the people of the United States, - have been a disgrace to Christian civilization, culminating, as - they have, in the destruction of a United States battleship, with - two hundred and sixty of its officers and crew, while on a friendly - visit in the harbor of Havana, and cannot longer be endured, as has - been set forth by the President of the United States in his message - to Congress of April 11, 1898, upon which the action of Congress - was invited; therefore be it resolved, - - “First--That the people of the island of Cuba are, and of right - ought to be, free and independent. - - “Second--That it is the duty of the United States to demand, and - the government of the United States does hereby demand, that the - government of Spain at once relinquish its authority and government - in the island of Cuba, and withdraw its land and naval forces from - Cuba and Cuban waters. - - “Third--That the President of the United States be, and he hereby - is, directed and empowered to use the entire land and naval forces - of the United States, and to call into the actual service of the - United States the militia of the several States to such an extent - as may be necessary to carry these resolutions into effect. - - “Fourth--That the United States hereby disclaims any disposition or - intention to exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction or control over - said island, except for the pacification thereof, and asserts its - determination when that is accomplished to leave the government and - control of the island to its people.” - -The ultimatum embodied in the foregoing being rejected by Spain, -diplomatic relations were severed and hostilities ensued. - -On May 1, at daybreak, the Asiatic squadron, commanded by Commodore -Dewey, arrived at Manila from Hong Kong. At Cavite, within the harbor, -protected by four batteries, lay the Spanish fleet. It was commanded by -Admiral Patricio Montojo. The squadron proceeded up the bay unmolested -and made for the naval station. Two mines were exploded, but -ineffectively. At five o’clock and ten minutes the Spaniards opened -fire. Commodore Dewey set the signals, and his entire squadron advanced -to short range. The squadron consisted of the following cruisers and -gunboats: “Olympia,” “Baltimore,” “Boston,” “Raleigh,” “Concord,” -“Petrel,” and “McCulloch.” - -At 5.30 the “Olympia’s” 8-inch guns opened, and the squadron swung in -front of the Spanish ships and forts in single file, firing their port -guns. Then, wheeling, they passed back, firing their starboard guns. -This maneuver was repeated five times, the entire American fleet -passing all the Spanish ships and batteries at each maneuver, and each -time drawing in closer and closer and delivering fire at more deadly -range. During two hours and a half there was tremendous resistance by -the Spaniards. They had eleven ships and five land batteries in full -play, against six American warships. But the American marksmanship was -faultless. Every shot seemed to count against ship or shore battery, -while most of the Spanish powder was burned in vain. At 7.45 A.M. the -American fleet withdrew to ascertain damages and permit the smoke to -clear. It was seen then that several Spanish ships were crippled or -burning, and it was found that the American vessels had suffered hardly -at all. Admiral Dewey called his captains into consultation and -arrangements were made for another attack. At 10.40 the attack was -renewed, the “Baltimore” leading. She advanced right upon the enemy, -shelling them constantly, and the other Americans followed, working -their guns as rapidly as they could load and fire. The effect of this -assault was terrific. Ship after ship of the Spaniards sunk or was run -ashore to keep them from sinking or falling into American hands. At -12.45 P.M. the Spaniards struck their colors in token of surrender. -Admiral Patricio Montojo fled to Manila, and most of the survivors fled -with him. This ended the work of May 1. - -On May 2, Commodore Dewey landed a force of marines at Cavite. They -completed the destruction of the Spanish fleet and batteries and -established a guard for the protection of the Spanish hospitals. The -resistance of the forts was weak. The “Olympia” turned a few guns on -the Cavite arsenal, and its magazine at once exploded, killing some and -wounding many. This practically ended the fire from the batteries, the -Spanish artillerists fearing to face the American gunners. “Remember the -‘Maine’!” was the word continually passed between the ships, and every -American officer, every “Jackie,” was eager to do his utmost. - -After Manila and the defeat of Admiral Montojo, the successive and -concluding events of the Hispano-American war include Admiral Sampson’s -bombardment of San Juan; Hobson’s heroic experiment with the “Merrimac”; -General Shafter’s campaign; the destruction of Cervera’s squadron; the -capitulation of Santiago; General Miles’s tour in Porto Rico, and the -overtures for peace. These events may be conveniently summarized as -follows: - -The bombardment of San Juan was the result of a reconnaissance. The -Spanish fleet, under command of Admiral Cervera, which it was the -purpose of the Americans to capture or destroy, subsequently sought and -found shelter within the harbor of Santiago, the entrance to which -Admiral Sampson then proceeded to invest. There, while waiting to engage -the enemy, it was thought wise to attempt to block the harbor and so -prevent a possible escape. The plan originated with Lieutenant Hobson, -and its execution was left to him. On the night of June 3, with a picked -crew of seven volunteers, he steamed up in the collier “Merrimac” to the -harbor’s entrance and sank her. From the fleet the progress of the -“Merrimac” was eagerly followed. - -At 3.15 the first Spanish shot was fired, coming from one of the guns on -the hill to the west of the entrance. The shot was seen to splash -seaward from the “Merrimac,” having passed over her. The firing became -general very soon afterward, being especially fierce and rapid from the -batteries inside on the left of the harbor, probably from batteries on -Smith Cay. The flashes and reports were apparently those of rapid-fire -guns, ranging from small automatic guns to four-inch or larger. For -fifteen minutes a perfect fusillade was kept up. Then the fire -slackened, and by 3.30 had almost ceased. There was a little desultory -firing until about 3.45, when all became quiet. Daylight came at about -five o’clock. - -At about 5.15 A.M., a launch, which, under Cadet Powell, had followed -the “Merrimac,” in order if possible to rescue Hobson and his men, was -seen steaming from west to east, near or across the mouth of the harbor. -She steamed back from east to west and began skirting the coast to the -west of the entrance. The battery on the hill to the left opened fire on -her, but did not make good practice. The launch continued her course as -far westward as a small cove and then headed for the “Texas,” steaming -at full speed. Several shots were fired at her from the battery on the -left as she steamed out. - -It was broad daylight by this time. Cadet Powell came alongside the -“Texas” and reported that “No one had come out of the entrance of the -harbor.” His words sounded like the death knell of all who had gone in -on the “Merrimac.” It seemed incredible, almost impossible, any of them -could have lived through the awful fire that was directed at the ship. -Cadet Powell said that he had followed behind the ship at a distance of -four or five hundred yards. Hobson missed the entrance of the harbor at -first, having gone too far to the westward; he almost ran aground. The -launch picked up the entrance and directed the “Merrimac” in. From the -launch the collier was seen until she rounded the bend of the channel -and until the helm had been put to port to swing her into position -across the channel. There was probably no one in the fleet who did not -think that all seven of the men had perished. In the afternoon, much to -the surprise of every one, a tug flying a flag of truce was seen coming -out of the entrance. The “Vixen,” flying a tablecloth at the fore, went -to meet the tug. A Spanish officer went aboard the “Vixen” from the tug -and was taken aboard the flagship. Not long afterward a signal was made -that Murphy of the “Iowa” was saved and was a prisoner of war. About -four o’clock another signal was made from the flagship: “Collier’s crew -prisoners of war; two slightly wounded. All well.” - -It can be easily imagined what relief this signal brought to all hands, -who had been mourning the death of all these men. The Spanish officer -said also that the prisoners were confined in Morro Castle. He said -further that Admiral Cervera considered the attempt to run in and sink -the “Merrimac” across the channel an act of such great bravery and -desperate daring that he (the Admiral) thought it very proper that our -naval officers should be notified of the safety of these men. Whatever -the motive for sending out the tug with the flag of truce, the act was a -most graceful one, and one of most chivalrous courtesy. The Spanish -officer is reported to have said: “You have made it more difficult, but -we can still get out.” - -The daring evinced by Hobson was instantly recognized, but the -importance of his achievement was not appreciated until July 3, when -Cervera’s desperate attempt to escape, would, in all likelihood, have -been partly successful but for the fact that his vessels were obliged to -leave the harbor in single file. - -Let us, however, recapitulate in their order the events which followed -the sinking of the “Merrimac,” news whereof was received on June 4. On -June 5, a bombardment of the Morro Castle, commanding the mouth of -Santiago Harbor, took place, but no serious impression seems to have -been made upon the fortress at that time, although some neighboring -earthworks were destroyed. Two days later, there was a more effective -bombardment of the harbor fortifications by Admiral Sampson, but the -Morro Castle still held out and protected the entrance to the port by -its ability to deliver a plunging fire. On June 9, it was known that -twelve thousand men, or about half of our regular army, together with a -number of volunteer regiments, under General Shafter, had set sail from -Tampa, and, on the following day, the Spaniards began preparations for a -vigorous defense of Santiago against a land force by means of carefully -planned intrenchments. On June 11, a body of United States marines -landed at Guantanamo Bay, and, on the three ensuing days, sustained -successfully determined assaults by the Spaniards. On June 15, the -“Vesuvius,” carrying a pneumatic gun, which discharges a tube loaded -with dynamite, arrived off Santiago, and fully justified the -expectations of her inventor by the efficient part which she took in the -bombardment. Since June 7, the Spaniards had attempted to repair the -Santiago forts, and had, to some extent, succeeded in doing so; -consequently, on June 16, Admiral Sampson ordered the ships to open fire -on them again, and, in this assault, is said to have discharged five -hundred thousand pounds of metal. - -It was not until June 22, or thirteen days after his departure from -Tampa, that General Shafter landed his troops at Baiquiri, a point on -the coast some miles southwest of Santiago. There was furious fighting -during the three following days, and there was a grievous loss of life -on the American side, infantry and dismounted cavalry having been -ordered or allowed to attack intrenchments without artillery support. -The necessity of heavy siege guns was at once clear to professional -soldiers, but these could not be moved from the transports to the shore, -because only one lighter had been brought from Tampa, and even that one -had been lost. This loss could have been quickly repaired, had not -General Shafter refused to take with him from Tampa the signal train -that had been made ready for him, on the ground that he “only wanted men -who could carry muskets.” The result of this indifference to a branch of -the service which constitutes the eyes, ears and voice of a modern army, -was that it required two days to transmit a request from Shafter’s -headquarters to the point where the cable could be used. On June 29, not -having, as yet, any heavy siege guns in position, and not having so -surrounded the city as to prevent the re-enforcement or escape of its -garrison, General Shafter telegraphed to Washington: “I can take -Santiago in forty-eight hours.” On July 1 and 2, General Shafter made -resolute assaults upon the Spanish intrenchments and carried many of -them, advancing his own lines very much nearer the city. The advantage -thus gained, however, had cost him a considerable fraction of his force. -The whole number of Americans killed, wounded and missing during the -land operations reached ten per cent of the number with which General -Shafter landed on June 22. Of these land engagements the most notable -were those of Aguadores, El Caney and San Juan. - -The battle of San Juan is described as follows: - -The dawn of July 1 found the troops of Wheeler’s division bivouacked on -the eminence of El Pozo. Kent’s division bivouacked near the road back -of El Pozo. Grimes’s battery went into position about two hundred and -fifty yards west of the ruined buildings of El Pozo soon after sunrise -and prepared gun pits. Grimes’s battery opened fire against San Juan a -little before 8 A.M. The troops of the cavalry division were scattered -about on El Pozo Hill in the rear and around the battery, without order -and with no view to their protection from the Spanish fire. This -condition rectified itself when the Spaniards, after five or six shots -by the American battery, replied with shrapnel fire at correct range and -with accurately adjusted fuses, killing two men at the first shot After -some firing soon after 9 A.M. Wheeler’s division was put in march toward -Santiago. Crossing Aguadores stream, it turned to the right, under -General Sumner, who was in command at that time owing to General -Wheeler’s illness. Scattering shots were fired by the Spaniards before -the arrival of the first troops at the crossing, but their volley -firing did not commence until the dismounted cavalry went into position, -crossing open ground. Kent’s division followed Wheeler’s, moving across -the stream, and advanced along the road in close order under a severe -enfilading fire. After advancing some distance, it turned off to the -left. Lieutenant Ord (killed in battle) made a reconnaissance from a -large tree on the banks of the stream. - -At about one o’clock, after a delay of nearly two hours’ waiting for the -troops to reach their positions, the whole force advanced, charged, and -carried the first line of intrenchments. They were afterward formed on -the crest and there threw up intrenchments facing the second line at a -distance of from five hundred to one thousand yards. - -We pass to the memorable naval combat of July 3, which annihilated -Cervera’s squadron, and dealt the deathblow to Spain’s hope of making -head against America on the sea. There is, of course, no foundation for -the report that Admiral Cervera resolved to fly because he knew that -Santiago would be immediately taken. The truth is that, on July 2, he -received peremptory orders from Madrid to leave Santiago at once, no -matter what might be the consequences; to engage the American fleet, and -to make his way, if possible, to Havana, where he would raise the -blockade. These orders he did his best to execute on the morning of July -3, having been informed by signal that Admiral Sampson’s flagship, the -“New York,” and a large part of the American fleet, were lying at some -distance toward the east, and that only the “Brooklyn,” “Texas” and -“Iowa” would have to be encountered if the escaping ships moved -westward. There was a mistake in this computation, for the “Oregon” also -took an important part in the action, and so did the little -“Gloucester,” a converted yacht, which did not hesitate, single-handed, -to engage both of the torpedo-boat destroyers. With such information as -he could procure, however, Admiral Cervera believed that his ships could -outsail all of those blockading the mouth of the harbor, except the -“Brooklyn,” and that, if the “Brooklyn” could be disabled, some, at -least, of his vessels could escape. Accordingly, orders were issued by -the Spanish admiral to proceed at full speed to the westward after -clearing the entrance, and to concentrate fire upon the “Brooklyn.” In -the attempt to carry out this programme, the four warships, “Maria -Teresa,” “Almirante Oquendo,” “Vizcaya” and “Cristobal Colon,” followed -by the torpedo-boat destroyers “Pluton” and “Furor,” in the order named -and in single file, pushed with all steam up through the narrow passage -which had been left by the sunken “Merrimac.” The concerted endeavor to -disable the “Brooklyn” failed, and it turned out that both the “Oregon” -and “Texas” were faster than the “Cristobal Colon,” which was much the -swiftest of the Spanish squadron. The “Maria Teresa,” the “Almirante -Oquendo” and the “Vizcaya” were successively riddled and put _hors de -combat_ by the rapid and accurate firing of the American ships, and were -beached by their officers to avoid, not so much surrender, as the danger -of explosion. The “Cristobal Colon” succeeded in reaching a point about -fifty miles from Santiago, when it was headed off not only by the -protected cruiser “Brooklyn,” but also by the ironclads “Oregon” and -“Texas.” From that moment, escape was seen to be impossible, so the -commander beached his ship and hauled down his flag. This closing -incident of the battle took place at 1.20 P.M., almost exactly four -hours after the leading vessel of the escaping column, the “Maria -Teresa,” had passed the Morro. Meanwhile, the little “Gloucester,” under -Commander Richard Wainwright, had stopped both of the torpedo-boat -destroyers, received their fire, and detained them until an ironclad -came up. - -It will be observed that the Spanish squadron did not have to contend -with the whole of the American fleet, but that, on the contrary, the -forces engaged were, on paper, much more nearly equal than is generally -understood. The Americans had the first-class battleships “Oregon” and -“Iowa,” the second-class battleship “Texas,” the protected cruiser -“Brooklyn,” and the converted yacht “Gloucester.” The Spaniards, on -their part, had one armored cruiser, three protected cruisers, and two -torpedo-boat destroyers. It is certainly a remarkable fact, and one -almost without a parallel in naval annals, if we except Dewey’s -achievement at Manila, that not a single one of the Spanish vessels -should have managed to escape. The honor of the almost unique victory at -Santiago belongs, beyond a doubt, to Commodore Schley, for, at the -beginning of the action, Admiral Sampson, in his flagship, the “New -York,” was out of sight, and he remained out of signal distance until -almost the end. - -Almost immediately after these incidents an expedition under command of -General Miles proceeded to Porto Rico, where, on the southwest coast, at -the little village of Guanica, a landing was effected on July 25. - -Twenty-four hours later, the Spanish Government, through M. Jules -Cambon, the French Embassador at Washington, made a formal proposal for -ending the war and arranging terms of peace. - -As a basis for peace negotiations it was stipulated that Spain should -first relinquish her sovereignty over any part of the Western -Hemisphere, that the Spanish forces in Porto Rico and Cuba should be -withdrawn unassisted by the United States, and that Manila should be -surrendered to the American forces. - -The aggressive operations of the American forces in Porto Rico and in -the Philippines hastened the acceptance of these terms by Spain. The -severest engagement of the campaign in Porto Rico was fought at Coamo on -August 9. Here the Spanish commanding officer, Major Rafael M. Yllesca, -was killed, after having defended his critical position with great -bravery. From all sides the Americans now advanced upon San Juan de -Porto Rico, the most important stronghold of the island. - -In the Philippines, likewise, events were nearing a crisis. On August 7 -Captain-General Augustin was served with a joint note from Admiral Dewey -and General Merritt, commanding the American forces around Manila, -advising him to remove all non-combatants in anticipation of attack. -General Augustin refused to accept the responsibility of either -defending or surrendering Manila, and accordingly resigned his command. -General Fernain Jaudenes, who succeeded him, declined to remove his -non-combatants in view of the threatening attitude of the Filipinos -around Manila, and resolutely prepared for the worst. - -On August 12 the home government in Spain gave in, and authorized the -French Embassador in Washington to sign the peace protocol agreed upon -in behalf of Spain. The instrument was formally executed during the -afternoon of the same day. Its exact text was as follows: - - _Protocol of agreement between the United States and Spain, - embodying the terms of a basis for the establishment of peace - between the two countries_: - -William R. Day, Secretary of State of the United States, and his -Excellency Jules Cambon, Embassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of -the Republic of France at Washington, respectively possessing for this -purpose full authority from the Government of the United States and the -Government of Spain, have concluded and signed the following articles, -embodying the terms on which the two Governments have agreed in respect -to the matters hereinafter set forth, having in view the establishment -of peace between the two countries, that is to say: - -Article I. Spain will relinquish all claim of sovereignty over and title -to Cuba. - -Article II. Spain will cede to the United States the island of Porto -Rico and other islands now under Spanish sovereignty in the West Indies, -and also an island in the Ladrones, to be selected by the United States. - -Article III. The United States will occupy and hold the city, bay, and -harbor of Manila pending the conclusion of the treaty of peace, which -shall determine the control, disposition, and government of the -Philippines. - -Article IV. Spain will immediately evacuate Cuba, Porto Rico, and other -islands now under Spanish sovereignty in the West Indies; and to this -end each Government will, within ten days after the signing of this -protocol, appoint Commissioners, and the Commissioners so appointed -shall, within thirty days after the signing of this protocol, meet at -Havana for the purpose of arranging and carrying out the details of the -aforesaid evacuation of Cuba and the adjacent Spanish islands, and each -Government will, within ten days after the signing of this protocol, -appoint other Commissioners, who shall, within thirty days after the -signing of this protocol, meet at San Juan, in Porto Rico, for the -purpose of arranging and carrying out the details of the aforesaid -evacuation of Porto Rico and other islands now under Spanish sovereignty -in the West Indies. - -Article V. The United States and Spain will each appoint not more than -five Commissioners to treat of peace, and the Commissioners so appointed -shall meet at Paris not later than October 1, 1898, and proceed to the -negotiation and conclusion of a treaty of peace, which treaty shall be -subject to ratification according to the respective constitutional forms -of the two countries. - -Article VI. Upon the conclusion and signing of this protocol hostilities -between the two countries shall be suspended, and notice to that effect -shall be given as soon as possible by each Government to the commanders -of its military and naval forces. - -Done at Washington, in duplicate, in English and in French, by the -undersigned, who have hereunto set their hands and seals, the 12th day -of August, 1898. - -(Seal.) WILLIAM R. DAY. - -(Seal.) JULES CAMBON. - -An armistice was declared at once, and mutual orders were issued to -cease hostilities. The blockade of Cuba was raised. Owing to delay in -the transmission of these orders the war in the Philippines was -continued for twenty-four hours. On August 13, General Fernain Jaudenes, -who had succeeded Governor-General Augustin, succumbed to a combined -attack of the American army and navy forces, and signed a formal -capitulation with all the honors of war. The last battle of the war was -a naval engagement off Caibarien, in Cuba, between the Spanish gunboat -“Herman Cortes” and the American gunboat “Mangrove.” While the two -vessels were still engaged the news of the suspension of hostilities was -signaled from shore. - -On September 15 the Queen-Regent approved the appointment of the -following Peace Commissioners: Eugenio Montero Rios, President of the -Senate; Buenaventura Abarzuza, Senator; Wenceslao Ramirez de -Villa-Urrutia, Embassador to Belgium; General Rafael Cerero y Saluz, and -José de Garnica, Associate Judge of the Supreme Court. Senor Ojeda -served as secretary. The American Peace Commissioners were William R. -Day, ex-Secretary of State; Senators Cushman K. Davis, William P. Frye, -and George Gray, with Whitelaw Reid, American Embassador to France. The -joint sessions of the two bodies at Paris began on October 1, and ended -with the signing of a conclusive peace treaty on December 10. - -The full text of the peace treaty was as follows: - - The United States of America and her Majesty the Queen-Regent of - Spain, in the name of her august son, Don Alfonso XIII., desiring - to end the state of war now existing between the two countries, - have for that purpose appointed as plenipotentiaries: - - The President of the United States: - - William R. Day, Cushman K. Davis, William P. Frye, George Gray, and - Whitelaw Reid, citizens of the United States; - - And her Majesty the Queen-Regent of Spain: - - Don Eugenio Montero Rios, President of the Senate; Don Buenaventura - de Abarzuza, Senator of the Kingdom and ex-Minister of the Crown; - Don José de Garnica, Deputy to the Cortes and Associate Justice of - the Supreme Court; Don Wenceslao Ramirez de Villa-Urrutia, Envoy - Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary at Brussels, and Don - Rafael Cerero, General of Division. - - Who, having assembled in Paris and having exchanged their full - powers, which were found to be in due and proper form, have, after - discussion of the matters before them, agreed upon the following - articles: - - - ARTICLE I. - - Spain relinquishes all claim of sovereignty over and title to Cuba. - - And as the island is, upon its evacuation by Spain, to be occupied - by the United States, the United States will, so long as such - occupation shall last, assume and discharge the obligations that - may under international law result from the fact of its occupation - for the protection of life and property. - - - ARTICLE II. - - Spain cedes to the United States the island of Porto Rico and other - islands now under Spanish sovereignty in the West Indies, and the - island of Guam, in the Mariannes or Ladrones. - - - ARTICLE III. - - Spain cedes to the United States the archipelago known as the - Philippine Islands, and comprehending the islands lying within the - following lines: - - A line running from west to east along or near the twentieth - parallel of north latitude, and through the middle of the navigable - channel of Bachti, from the one hundred and eighteenth to the one - hundred and twenty-seventh degree meridian of longitude east of - Greenwich, thence along the one hundred and twenty-seventh degree - meridian of longitude east of Greenwich to the parallel of four - degrees and forty-five minutes north latitude, thence along the - parallel of four degrees and forty-five minutes north latitude to - its intersection with the meridian of longitude one hundred and - nineteen degrees and thirty-five minutes east of Greenwich, thence - along the meridian of longitude one hundred and nineteen degrees - and thirty-five minutes east of Greenwich to the parallel of - latitude seven degrees and forty minutes north, thence along the - parallel of latitude seven degrees and forty minutes north to its - intersection with the one hundred and sixteenth degree meridian of - longitude east of Greenwich, thence by a direct line to the - intersection of the tenth degree parallel of north latitude with - the one hundred and eighteenth degree meridian of longitude east of - Greenwich, and thence along the one hundred and eighteenth degree - meridian of longitude east of Greenwich to the point of beginning. - - The United States will pay to Spain the sum of $20,000,000 within - three months after the exchange of the ratifications of the present - treaty. - - - ARTICLE IV. - - The United States will, for ten years from the date of exchange of - ratifications of the present treaty, admit Spanish ships and - merchandise to the ports of the Philippine Islands on the same - terms as ships and merchandise of the United States. - - - ARTICLE V. - - The United States will, upon the signature of the present treaty, - send back to Spain, at its own cost, the Spanish soldiers taken as - prisoners of war on the capture of Manila by the American forces. - The arms of the soldiers in question shall be restored to them. - - Spain will, upon the exchange of the ratifications of the present - treaty, proceed to evacuate the Philippines, as well as the island - of Guam, on terms similar to those agreed upon by the Commissioners - appointed to arrange for the evacuation of Porto Rico and other - islands in the West Indies under the protocol of August 12, 1898, - which is to continue in force till its provisions are completely - executed. - - The time within which the evacuation of the Philippine Islands and - Guam shall be completed shall be fixed by the two Governments. - Stands of colors, uncaptured war vessels, small arms, guns of all - calibers, with their carriages and accessories, powder, ammunition, - live stock, and materials and supplies of all kinds belonging to - the land and naval forces of Spain in the Philippines and Guam - remain the property of Spain. Pieces of heavy ordnance, exclusive - of field artillery, in the fortifications and coast defenses shall - remain in their emplacements for the term of six months, to be - reckoned from the exchange of ratifications of the treaty; and the - United States may in the meantime purchase such material from Spain - if a satisfactory agreement between the two Governments on the - subject shall be reached. - - - ARTICLE VI. - - Spain will, upon the signature of the present treaty, release all - prisoners of war and all persons detained or imprisoned for - political offenses in connection with the insurrections in Cuba and - the Philippines and the war with the United States. - - Reciprocally the United States will release all persons made - prisoners of war by the American forces, and will undertake to - obtain the release of all Spanish prisoners in the hands of the - insurgents in Cuba and the Philippines. - - The Government of the United States will at its own cost return to - Spain, and the Government of Spain will at its own cost return to - the United States, Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines, according - to the situation of their respective homes, prisoners released or - caused to be released by them, respectively, under this article. - - - ARTICLE VII. - - The United States and Spain mutually relinquish all claims for - indemnity, national and individual, of every kind, of either - Government, or of its citizens or subjects, against the other - Government, which may have arisen since the beginning of the late - insurrection in Cuba and prior to the exchange of ratifications of - the present treaty, including all claims for indemnity for the cost - of the war. The United States will adjudicate and settle the claims - of its citizens against Spain relinquished in this article. - - - ARTICLE VIII. - - In conformity with the provisions of Articles I., II. and III. of - this treaty, Spain relinquishes in Cuba and cedes in Porto Rico and - other islands in the West Indies, in the island of Guam, and in the - Philippine Archipelago all the buildings, wharves, barracks, forts, - structures, public highways, and other immovable property which in - conformity with law belong to the public domain and as such belong - to the Crown of Spain. - - And it is hereby declared that the relinquishment or cession, as - the case may be, to which the preceding paragraph refers, cannot in - any respect impair the property or rights which by law belong to - the peaceful possession of property of all kinds of provinces, - municipalities, public or private establishments, ecclesiastical or - civic bodies, or any other associations having legal capacity to - acquire and possess property in the aforesaid territories, - renounced or ceded, or of private individuals, of whatsoever - nationality such individuals may be. - - The aforesaid relinquishment or cession, as the case may be, - includes all documents exclusively referring to the sovereignty - relinquished or ceded that may exist in the archives of the - Peninsula. Where any document in such archives only in part relates - to said sovereignty a copy of such part will be furnished whenever - it shall be requested. Like rules shall be reciprocally observed in - favor of Spain in respect of documents in the archives of the - islands above referred to. - - In the aforesaid relinquishment or cession, as the case may be, are - also included such rights as the Crown of Spain and its authorities - possess in respect of the official archives and records, executive - as well as judicial, in the islands above referred to, which relate - to said islands or the rights and property of their inhabitants. - Such archives and records shall be carefully preserved, and private - persons shall, without distinction, have the right to require, in - accordance with the law, authenticated copies of the contracts, - wills, and other instruments forming part of notarial protocols or - files, or which may be contained in the executive or judicial - archives, be the latter in Spain or in the islands aforesaid. - - - ARTICLE IX. - - Spanish subjects, natives of the Peninsula, residing in the - territory over which Spain by the present treaty relinquishes or - cedes her sovereignty, may remain in such territory or may remove - therefrom, retaining in either event all their rights of property, - including the right to sell or dispose of such property or of its - proceeds; and they shall also have the right to carry on their - industry, commerce, and professions, being subject in respect - thereof to such laws as are applicable to other foreigners. In case - they remain in the territory they may preserve their allegiance to - the Crown of Spain by making, before a court of record, within a - year from the date of the exchange of ratifications of this treaty, - a declaration of their decision to preserve such allegiance; in - default of which declaration they shall be held to have renounced - it and to have adopted the nationality of the territory in which - they may reside. - - The civil rights and political status of the native inhabitants of - the territories hereby ceded to the United States shall be - determined by the Congress. - - - ARTICLE X. - - The inhabitants of the territories over which Spain relinquishes or - cedes her sovereignty shall be secured in the free exercise of - their religion. - - - ARTICLE XI. - - The Spaniards residing in the territories over which Spain by this - treaty cedes or relinquishes her sovereignty shall be subject in - matters civil as well as criminal to the jurisdiction of the courts - of the country wherein they reside, pursuant to the ordinary laws - governing the same; and they shall have the right to appear before - such courts and to pursue the same course as citizens of the - country to which the courts belong. - - - ARTICLE XII. - - Judicial proceedings pending at the time of the exchange of - ratifications of this treaty in the territories over which Spain - relinquishes or cedes her sovereignty shall be determined according - to the following rules: - - First--Judgments rendered either in civil suits between private - individuals, or in criminal matters, before the date mentioned, and - with respect to which there is no recourse or right of review under - the Spanish law, shall be deemed to be final, and shall be executed - in due form by competent authority in the territory within which - such judgments should be carried out. - - Second--Civil suits between private individuals which may on the - date mentioned be undetermined shall be prosecuted to judgment - before the court in which they may then be pending, or in the court - that may be substituted therefor. - - Third--Criminal actions pending on the date mentioned before the - Supreme Court of Spain against citizens of the territory which by - this treaty ceases to be Spanish shall continue under its - jurisdiction until final judgment; but, such judgment having been - rendered, the execution thereof shall be committed to the competent - authority of the place in which the case arose. - - - ARTICLE XIII. - - The rights of property secured by copyrights and patents acquired - by Spaniards in the island of Cuba, and in Porto Rico, the - Philippines, and other ceded territories, at the time of the - exchange of the ratifications of this treaty, shall continue to be - respected. Spanish scientific, literary and artistic works not - subversive of public order in the territories in question shall - continue to be admitted free of duty into such territories for the - period of ten years, to be reckoned from the date of the exchange - of the ratifications of this treaty. - - - ARTICLE XIV. - - Spain shall have the power to establish consular officers in the - ports and places of the territories the sovereignty over which has - either been relinquished or ceded by the present treaty. - - - ARTICLE XV. - - The Government of each country will, for the term of ten years, - accord to the merchant vessels of the other country the same - treatment in respect to all port charges, including entrance and - clearance dues, light dues and tonnage duties, as it accords to its - own merchant vessels not engaged in the coastwise trade. - - This article may at any time be terminated on six months’ notice - given by either Government to the other. - - - ARTICLE XVI. - - It is understood that any obligations assumed in this treaty by the - United States with respect to Cuba are limited to the time of its - occupancy thereof; but it will upon the termination of such - occupancy advise any Government established in the island to assume - the same obligations. - - - ARTICLE XVII. - - The present treaty shall be ratified by the President of the United - States, by and with the consent of the Senate thereof, and by Her - Majesty the Queen Regent of Spain; and the ratifications shall be - exchanged at Washington within six months from the date hereof, or - earlier if possible. - - In faith whereof we, the respective plenipotentiaries, have signed - this treaty, and have hereunto affixed our seals. - - Done in duplicate at Paris the tenth day of December, in the year - of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and ninety-eight. - -In pursuance of these terms the evacuation of Porto Rico, Cuba and of -the Philippine Islands was carried to a successful end, under the -supervision of the Evacuation Commissioners appointed by Spain. - -After the peace treaty had been ratified by the American Senate and -signed by President McKinley, on February 10, it received the signature -of the Queen Regent on March 17, the Cortes having been prorogued. - -In a Red Book on the peace treaty issued by the Government later in the -year, Senor Rios thus explained Spain’s predicaments: - -“The prostration and bloodless indifference of the public mind -constantly alluded to in the press, the want of well meditated -exposition of a high plane in the discussion and defense of Spain, -especially those which related to the colonial debts, perhaps the most -important which she had to assert in the conference; the multiplicity of -opinions constantly manifested during these negotiations on the other -points to be determined in the treaty; the eagerness apparent from the -first day on the part of this press that the Philippine Archipelago -should be abandoned, its preservation being considered incompatible with -the national interests; the incessant excitation of another part of the -press for this Commission to promptly terminate in any way whatever its -labors, giving way at once to the exigencies of the Federal Government, -and many other things which converted the Spanish press into a subject -for the preferred attention of the American Commissioners, weakened the -moral influence of this Commission and the force of its demands and of -the reasons on which it founded them. Would to God that they may not -also have strengthened the spirit of the American Commission to uphold -and amplify its exactions! - -“The Spanish Commission, considering the narrow limits in which it could -move and which had been irrevocably fixed for Spain in the preliminaries -of peace signed at Washington on August 12 last, during these -negotiations constantly drew inspiration for its acts in the purpose to -save from the ruin of the colonial empire of Spain such remnants as were -possible, however lacking in importance these remnants might be, and, -above all, in its unconquerable resolve to never consent that the honor -and the dignity of the fatherland should become stained. - -“As regards the question of the ‘Maine,’ the truth is that above all -precedents there weighed upon the American Commission the inability of -giving any satisfactory reply to the Spanish protest, because of the -action of the President of the Union--violative of the most elementary -dictates of generosity and prudence--on recalling, with language -offensive to Spain, the ‘Maine’ incident on the most solemn occasion in -the public life of the United States, and when the negotiations for the -re-establishment of peace were on the point of terminating. - -“The Commission believes, then, that it has done its duty. It -understands the treaty concluded is the least prejudicial for Spain that -it was possible to obtain in view of the foreign circumstances, which -could not but inevitably bear down their heavy weight upon her. It -trusts that the coming time will demonstrate this, and it entertains the -hope that, despite the solution imposed on the terrible crisis through -which the nation has just passed, it may soon recover its strength and -grandeur, and it believes, finally, that the honor and the dignity of -the fatherland have been saved in these painful negotiations as the most -precious remnants of the wreck of the old Spanish colonial empire.” - -The subsequent Bale of the Caroline and Ladrone Islands to Germany, for -the sum of 5,000,000 pesos, disposed of the last remnants of the Spanish -colonial empire. The Ministry of Colonies was abolished. Then followed a -series of military and naval courts-martial of the various commanding -officers implicated in the capitulations of Manila and Santiago de Cuba, -notably Admirals Montojo, Cervera and Generals Augustin, Jaudenes, -Linares and Toral. The officers laid the responsibility for their -actions at the door of the Ministry of Marine. Minister d’Aunon had to -resign. - -Another Cabinet crisis resulted in a new Ministry composed of the -following members--President of Council and Minister Foreign Affairs, -Senor Silvela; War, General Azcarraga; Marine, Admiral Gomez Imaz; -Interior, Senor Dato; Finance, Senor Villaverde; Public Works, Marquis -Pidel; Justice, Senor Bas. - -Later Count Torreanaz succeeded Senor Bas in the Ministry of Justice, -and General Weyler became Minister of War. - -Weyler’s most formidable rival, Marshal Arsenio Martinez de Campos, -former Captain-General of Spain and Cuba, died in 1900 at Zarauz. With -Jovellar, he issued the pronunciamiento of Sagoote, through which -Alfonso reached the throne. Placed in full command of the Spanish forces -by young Alfonso, he ended the civil war by defeating Don Carlos at Pena -de la Plata in 1876. Despatched to Cuba, he succeeded in putting a stop -to the ten years’ war there by his liberal concessions to the -insurgents. Later he was once more sent to Cuba to cope with the final -insurrection in that island. But his measures were held to be too -conciliatory, and he was recalled in 1895, without having accomplished -his task. Campos never recovered from this disgrace. - -The accession of King Alfonso XIII. to the throne, as actual ruler, was -set for his sixteenth birthday, May 17, 1902. Accordingly his mother -delivered her last speech from the throne as Queen-Regent in June of the -preceding year. - -The complete list of titles falling to the little king upon his -accession are in themselves an epitome of Spain’s former historic -grandeur. King Alfonso’s full royal titles are: “His Most Catholic -Majesty, Alfonso, King of Spain, Castile and Léon, Aragon, the Two -Sicilies, Jerusalem, the Canary Islands, the East and West Indies, -India, the Oceanic Continent, and King of Gibraltar.” - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -SPANISH ART, LITERATURE, AND SPORT - - -I - -_PAINTING AND ARCHITECTURE_ - -Early Spanish paintings are feeble imitations of Italian and Flemish -art. They lack the simplicity of the one and the realism of the other. -In color they are somber and monotonous--two qualities which -characterize the whole Spanish school. The value of this school has been -curiously overrated. Comparatively speaking of brief existence, it has -produced but two great painters--Velasquez and Murillo. Their -contemporaries, Zurbaran, Del Mazo, Ribera, Alonso Cano, Herrera and -Roelas, were men of ability, no doubt, but they were not masters. - -Excellent examples of Velasquez and of Murillo are to be found to-day in -the Museum of the Prado at Madrid, and in the Art Gallery of Seville. -The cathedrals and churches generally contain works of the principal -painters, both of the early and later times; but placed, as a rule, in -“Retablos” or altar-pieces, they are poorly exposed and difficult to -view. - - * * * * * - -DON DIEGO VELASQUEZ DE SILVA, or simply VELASQUEZ, the greatest painter -that Spain has produced, was born at Seville, in 1599, of parents of -Portuguese origin, and died at Madrid in 1660. He married in his youth -the daughter of FRANCISCO PACHECO, a painter of inferior merit, but a -learned writer on art, from whose advice and instruction he derived much -advantage. Velasquez showed from his childhood a genius for painting. He -began by copying carefully from nature, still life, and living models, -forming himself upon the study of pictures by Ribera and by Italian -masters of the Naturalistic school, which had been brought from Italy to -Spain. The best examples of his first manner are “The Adoration of the -Kings” and his famous “Borrachos,” or drunkards, in the Madrid Gallery. -In them the influence of Caravaggio and Ribera is very evident. In the -twenty-third year of his age he went to Madrid, and, attracting the -notice of influential persons, was soon taken into the service of Philip -IV.--an enthusiastic lover of art, and himself a painter. He remained -there for the rest of his life, and his pictures were almost exclusively -painted for his royal patron and for the grandees of the Spanish court. -A friendship with Rubens, who was in Madrid as embassador from the King -of England, in 1628, and two visits to Italy, in 1629 and 1648, led him -to modify his early manner. From the study at Venice of the masterpieces -of Titian and Tintoret, he acquired a greater harmony and transparency -of color, and a freer and firmer touch, without departing from that -truthful representation of nature which he always sought to attain. On -his second visit to Italy he chiefly studied in Rome. He again changed -his style: his coloring became more what the Italians term “sfumato,” or -hazy; and he returned, to some extent, to his early general soberness of -tone, rarely introducing bright colors into his last pictures. -Velasquez’s second and third manners, as well as his first, are fully -represented in the Madrid Gallery, which contains no less than sixty of -his pictures, or almost the whole of his genuine works. The “Borrachos” -have already been mentioned as an example of his first manner. The fine -portrait of the Infante Don Carlos, second son of Philip III., is -another. In his second manner are the “Surrender of Breda,” perhaps the -finest representation and treatment of a contemporary historical event -in the world; the magnificent portrait of the Count of Benavente, and -the four Dwarfs. In his third, the “Meninas,” and the “Hilanderas.” By -studying these pictures the student will soon be able to distinguish -between the three manners of the painter, and to decide for himself as -to the genuineness of the many pictures which pass for Velasquez’s in -the public and private galleries of Europe. - -It was principally as a portrait-painter that Velasquez excelled. -Although he wanted the imagination of Titian, and gave less dignity and -refinement than that great master to his portraits, yet in a marvelous -power of rendering nature, and in truthfulness of expression, he was not -his inferior. In the imaginative faculties he was singularly deficient, -as his “Forge of Vulcan,” the “Coronation of the Virgin,” and other -works of that class in the Madrid Gallery, are sufficient to prove. -However, the “Crucifixion,” in the same collection, is a grand and -solemn conception, which has excited the enthusiastic admiration of some -critics. Velasquez was essentially a “naturalistic” painter. In the -representation of animals, especially dogs, and of details such as -armor, drapery, and objects of still life, he is almost without a rival. -His freedom of touch and power of producing truthful effects by the -simplest means are truly wonderful. His aerial perspective his light and -shade, his gradations of tone and color, are all equally excellent, and -have excited the admiration of Wilkie, and of the best judges of art. - -The high offices which Velasquez held at court gave him but little time -to paint. The number of his pictures is, therefore, comparatively small. -They were principally executed for the royal palaces; those which have -escaped the fires that destroyed so many great works have been removed -to the Madrid Museum. The portraits which are attributed to him in many -public and private collections out of Spain are, for the most part, by -his pupils, or imitators and copyists. One of the most skillful of the -latter was a certain Lucas, who, not many years ago, succeeded in -deceiving many collectors. - -Among his best scholars were: JUAN BAUTISTA DEL MAZO (d. 1667), his -son-in-law. How nearly he approached his master may be seen by his -admirable portrait of D. Tiburcio de Redin, and the view of Saragossa, -in which the figures have even been attributed to Velasquez, in the -Madrid Gallery. PAREJA, his half-caste slave, and afterward freedman (d. -1670), who imitated his master in his portraits, but not in his -religious and other subjects, in which he followed the Dutch and Italian -painters of the time; as in his “Calling of St. Mark,” in the same -gallery. CARRENO, a member of a noble family (b. 1614; d. 1685), who -succeeded Velasquez as court painter, and who is chiefly known by his -portraits of the idiot king (Charles II.), his mother, Mariana of -Austria, Don John of Austria (not the hero of Lepanto), and other royal -and courtly persons of the period. Spanish writers on art rank him with -Vandyke, to whom, however, he was greatly inferior. His coloring is -generally insipid, and wanting in vigor. - -BARTOLOME ESTEBAN MURILLO was born at Seville in 1616. He studied under -Juan del Castillo, a very indifferent painter, but formed his style, -like Velasquez, on the works of Ribera and the Italian naturalistic -painters. Like that great master, too, he modified his “manner” three -times, as he gained in experience and knowledge. From his boyhood he -painted pictures which were sold in the market-place of his native city, -and bought by dealers; chiefly, it is said, for exportation to the -Spanish colonies in America. After obtaining a considerable reputation -at Seville, he went to Madrid to improve himself by the study of the -works of the great Italian masters in the royal collection. Their -influence led him to modify his first style, called by the Spaniards -_frio_ (cold), in which he had imitated the brown tints, dark shadows, -and conventional treatment of drapery of Ribera; but he did not abandon -it altogether. It may still be traced in his second, or _calido_ (warm) -manner, as in the celebrated “Holy Family,” called “Del Pajarito,” in -the Madrid Gallery. The advice of Velasquez, who treated him with great -kindness, and the works of Titian and Rubens, led him to adopt a warm, -harmonious and transparent coloring, and a more truthful rendering of -nature; at the same time his drawing became more free, if not more -correct. His third manner is termed by the Spaniards _vaporoso_ (misty), -from a gradual and almost imperceptible fusion of tints, producing a -kind of hazy effect. In it are painted, for the most part, his -well-known “Miraculous Conceptions,” the Virgin standing on the crescent -moon attended by angels. The three manners of Murillo are neither so -well defined nor so easily recognized as those of Velasquez. He never -completely abandoned one of them for the other, and in his last pictures -he frequently returned to the calido style. As a painter of portraits -and landscapes, he was inferior to Velasquez. It was only in religious -subjects, and especially in his Holy Families, that he surpassed him. -His Virgins are taken from the common type of Andalusian beauty, -slightly idealized; but he gives to them an expression of youthful -innocence and religious sentiment which makes him the most popular of -Spanish painters. The Spaniards are naturally proud of him. They believe -that he unites the best qualities of the greatest masters, and surpasses -them all. All other critics place him second to Velasquez, who -unquestionably possessed a more original genius. Comparisons between -these two great painters are, however, more than usually pointless and -misleading, the two men being essentially different in feeling, taste, -and manner. - -Returning to Seville, after his first and only visit to Madrid, Murillo -established himself there for the rest of his life, painting, with the -help of scholars, many pictures for churches and convents in Spain and -her colonies. In the Peninsula, his best works are now only found at -Madrid and in his native city. The French invaders and the -picture-dealers carried the greater number away. Among those most worthy -of note at Madrid are the “St. Elizabeth of Hungary tending the Sick,” -and the “Patrician’s Dream,” now in the Academy of San Fernando, and the -two “Immaculate Conceptions” in the Gallery: at Seville, “St. Thomas of -Villanueva distributing Alms to the Poor,” in the public Museum; the -“St. Anthony of Padua” in the Cathedral; and the pictures in the -Caridad. Of his well-known sunburned beggar-boys and girls there are -none, that we know of, in Spain; many of those in European collections -are probably by his favorite pupil, VILLAVICENCIO, in whose arms he died -at Seville in 1682. There is a picture by this painter, who was of a -noble family, and rather an amateur than an artist, in the Madrid -Gallery, representing a group of boys at play. It has no great merit, -but shows how he attempted to imitate his master in this class of -subject. He was born in 1635, and died in 1700. The imitations and -copies of Murillo by TOBAR (d. 1758) are so successful that they -frequently pass for originals. The same may be said of some by MENESES, -who died early in the 18th century. - -Among the contemporaries of Murillo was IRIARTE (b. 1620; d. 1685), one -of the few landscape-painters that Spain has produced. His landscapes -were much esteemed by Murillo, but they are not entitled to rank with -the works of any of the great masters in this branch of the art. The -Madrid Gallery contains five examples of them. - -The following painters may be mentioned among the best and most -characteristic of the second class in the Spanish school: FRANCISCO DE -ZURBARAN, born in Estremadura in 1598, died at Madrid 1662, was -essentially a religious painter, and his somber coloring and the -subjects of his pictures are characteristic of Spanish bigotry and of -the Inquisition. In Spain he is chiefly known by his altar-pieces for -churches and convents; out of Spain by his monks and friars. A few -figures of female saints prove that he was not insensible to grace of -form and beauty of color. But he is usually mannered, and without -dignity. A disagreeable reddish hue pervades his larger pictures. He -formed himself, like his contemporaries, on the study of the Italian -painters of the Naturalistic school. Philip IV. is said to have named -him “Painter of the King, and King of Painters.” He enjoyed the first -title, but did not merit the second. His best work in Spain is, perhaps, -the “Apotheosis of St. Thomas Aquinas,” in the Seville Museum. It is a -grand, but somewhat stiff and unpleasing composition. Zurbaran is badly -represented in the Madrid Gallery. The “Christ Sleeping on the Cross” is -the most popular in it. One or two of his works are to be found in the -Academy of San Fernando. - -ALONSO CANO (born at Granada, 1601; died there, 1667) enjoys the highest -reputation in Spain after Zurbaran. He was painter, sculptor, and -architect, and, moreover, carved and painted wooden figures of the -Virgin and Saints, an art in which he attained great success and renown. -Many examples of his skill may be seen at Granada. One of the most -celebrated is the statuette of St. Francis in the sacristy of the -Cathedral of Toledo. Cano was a violent, but not unkindly man, -constantly engaged in quarrels and lawsuits. He ended by becoming a -canon of the Cathedral of Granada, after narrowly escaping from the -clutches of the Inquisition. His drawing is carefully studied, but is -frequently exaggerated, and wants ease and flow; his coloring -conventional and somewhat weak; but there is a delicacy of expression -and refinement in his works which have earned him the praise of some -critics. The Madrid Gallery contains a few of his pictures: among them a -“Dead Christ”; but he is best seen at Granada. - -FRANCISCO HERRERA EL VIEJO, or the elder (b. 1576; d. 1656). His -principal works are at Seville and out of Spain. The Madrid Gallery -contains nothing by him. Spanish writers on art attribute to him the -introduction into Spain of a new style of painting, characteristic of -the national genius. It was vigorous, but coarse, and has little to -recommend it even to those who admire the Italian eclectic school. Like -Cano, he was a man of hot temper, quarreled with his pupils, among whom -was Velasquez, and was thrown into prison on a charge of coining false -money. He was released by Philip IV. on account of his merits as a -painter. His best work in Spain is the “Last Judgment,” in the church of -St. Bernardo at Seville, which is praised for its composition and the -correct anatomy of the human form. Herrera painted in fresco, for which -he was well fitted from his bold and rapid execution; but his works in -that material have mostly perished. - -FRANCISCO HERRERA EL MOZO, or the younger (b. 1622; d. 1685), son of the -former, studied at Rome, where he was chiefly known for his pictures of -dead animals and still life. The Italians nicknamed him “Lo Spagnuolo -dei pesci,” from his clever representations of fish. He was a painter of -small merit; weak and affected in his drawing, color, and composition. -The Madrid Gallery contains but one of his pictures--the “Triumph of St. -Hermenegildo.” Like his father, he painted frescoes, some of which are -still preserved in the churches of Madrid. He was also an architect, and -made the plans for the “Virgen del Pilar” at Saragossa. - -JUAN DE LAS ROELAS, commonly known in Spain as “El Clerigo Roelas,” was -born at Seville about 1558, and died in 1625. He studied at Venice; -hence the richness and brilliancy of color in his best works, as in the -fine picture of the “Martyrdom of St. Andrew,” in the Museum of Seville. -In the churches of that city are some altar-pieces by him worthy of -notice. He is scarcely known out of Spain, or, indeed, out of Seville, -although he may be ranked among the best of the Spanish painters of the -second rank. The picture in the Madrid Gallery attributed to him, if -genuine, is a very inferior work. - -JUAN DE VALDÉS LEAL--born at Cordova in 1630, died at Seville 1691--was -a painter of considerable ability, but of a hasty and jealous temper, -which he especially displayed toward Murillo, the superiority of whose -work he would not acknowledge. His pictures are rare, and are best seen -at Seville. The Caridad in that city contains two, representing the -“Triumph of Death,” which are powerful, but coarse. He was also an -engraver of skill. - -FRANCISCO RIZZI, the son of a Bolognese painter who had settled in -Spain, was born at Madrid in 1608, and died there in 1685. He was a -rapid and not unskillful painter, and was employed to decorate in -fresco, in the Italian fashion, the churches and royal palaces of the -capital. His well-known picture in the Madrid Gallery representing the -“Auto da Fé” held in the Plaza Mayor before Charles II. and his queen, -Marie Luisa of Orleans, in 1680, although awkward and formal in -composition, is cleverly painted. - -CLAUDIO COELLO, died 1693, was chiefly employed by the Spanish court in -portrait-painting and in decorating the royal palaces for triumphs and -festivities. His best known and most important picture, in the sacristy -of the Escorial, is the “Santa Forma,” or “Removal of the Miraculous -Wafer of Gorcum,” in which he has introduced portraits of Charles II. -and of the officers of his court. It is crowded and unskillful in -composition, but has merits which show that he had preserved the best -traditions of the Spanish school of painters, of whom he was almost the -last. - -The history of Spanish painting closes with the seventeenth century. -During the eighteenth there appeared a few feeble painters who imitated, -but were even immeasurably behind the Luca Giordanos, Tiepolos, and -other Italians whom the Bourbon kings invited to Madrid to decorate the -new royal palace, and to make designs for the royal manufactory of -tapestries. The first who attempted to revive Spanish art was FRANCISCO -GOYA (born in 1746), a vigorous but eccentric painter and etcher in aqua -fortis, not wanting in genius. He studied at Rome, and returning to -Spain executed frescoes, with little success, in churches at Madrid and -elsewhere. He became “pintor de camara,” or court painter, to the weak -Charles IV. and vicious Ferdinand VII. In numerous portraits of these -kings and of members of the Spanish Bourbon family he made them, perhaps -with deliberate malice--for in politics he was an ardent liberal--even -more hideous than they were. His large picture of Charles IV. and his -family in the Madrid Gallery is the best, but by no means an attractive -example of his skill, and is in parts, especially in the details of -costume, not altogether unworthy of Velasquez, whom he sought to -imitate. But his genius was chiefly shown in his etchings, in which, in -a grotesque, and not always decent way, he lashed the vices and -corruption of his country, and vented his hatred against its French -invaders. The Spaniards are very proud of Goya. The author of the “Guide -to the Madrid Gallery” discovers in his works a union of the best -qualities of Rembrandt, Titian, Paul Veronese, Watteau, and Lancret! He -was, no doubt, a powerful and original painter, and his touch is often -masterly; but he was incorrect in his drawing, and his color is -frequently exaggerated and unnatural. His designs for the tapestries in -the royal palaces are generally weak and ill-drawn; but they are -interesting as representations of national manners and costume. Goya -died in voluntary exile at Bordeaux in 1828, having left Spain disgusted -with the political reaction which set in on the restoration of the -Bourbons, and with the persecution of the best and most enlightened of -his countrymen. His works have of late years been much sought after, -especially in France. His etchings, consisting chiefly of political -caricatures (caprichos), scenes in the bull-ring, the horrors of war, -etc., are rare. A new edition has recently been published of the -“Caprichos” from the worn-out plates. - -Goya may be considered the founder of the modern Spanish school of -painting, which has produced Fortuny, Madrazo, Plamaroli, and a number -of other clever painters who have achieved a European reputation. It is -not, however, in Spain, but in the private collections of London, Paris, -and New York, that their principal works are to be found. Spaniards have -little love or knowledge of art, and the high prices it is now the -fashion to pay for Spanish pictures are beyond their means. - - * * * * * - -The history of architecture in Spain is similar to that of France and -other countries of northern Europe, with, however, the essential -difference that Moorish art in the Middle Ages attained in Spain as -great an importance as in the East, and when combined with Christian -art, a new style was formed, known by the name of Morisco or Mudejar, -which is not met with out of the Spanish Peninsula, and is of great -interest. - -Spanish architecture may be divided, after the prehistoric period, and -invasions of the Phœnicians and Carthaginians, in the following manner: - -1. Roman period, until the invasions of the Goths. - -2. Latin Byzantine style, fifth to end of tenth century. - -3. Moorish architecture, eighth to fifteenth century. - -4. Romanesque style, eleventh, twelfth, and part of thirteenth century. - -5. Pointed architecture, thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth, and part of -sixteenth century. - -6. Mudejar style, thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth, and part of -sixteenth century. - -7. Renaissance or Plateresque style, Græco-Roman, and Churrigueresque. - -Several of the inscriptions which have come down to us of the Roman -period (see “Corpus Inscrip.,” Vol. II., Emil Hübner) mention different -buildings of public utility and adornment which were in course of -construction in Spain. The number which still remains is very great, and -may be found in almost every province; many have, however, been sadly -mutilated. The finest are undoubtedly the aqueduct at Segovia -(constructed of huge stones, and still used for carrying water to the -town), the Bridge of Alcantara (Estremadura), with its triumphal arch in -the center and temple at one end, and the walls of Lugo and Astorga. The -general structure of these monuments and their ornamentation are the -same as those of ancient Rome: it is well known that the Romans imposed -their art on the countries which came under their dominion. - -Two remarkable specimens exist of the Visigothic period: the church of -San Roman de Hornija (near Toro), 646, and San Juan de Banos (near Venta -de Banos), 661. Although these churches have suffered much from later -additions, they still retain a great part of their construction and part -of the primitive building. A great number of fragments remain in Spain -of this period. They must be examined in order to judge this -architecture. Some are capitals of columns in the Cathedral of Cordova -and some churches at Toledo, and different friezes and fragments which -have been applied to different uses at Toledo and Merida. The votive -crowns found at Guarrazar, now at Cluny (Paris) and armory of Madrid, -give an excellent idea of the ornamentation of the Visigoths. Several -examples of architecture remain posterior to the Visigoths, and anterior -to the Romanesque style of the eleventh century. The most important are -the churches of Sta. Maria Naranco and St. Miguel de Lino, near Oviedo, -Sta. Christina de Lena (Asturias), a very remarkable specimen of -Byzantine construction, and the churches of San Pedro and San Pablo, -Barcelona. - -The invasion of the Arabs in 711 caused their architecture to extend -itself in the Peninsula. Its adaptation to churches and other buildings -of the Christians created a new style, known as Mudejar. The finest -specimen of Oriental architecture in Spain is the mosque at Cordova -(ninth century). Byzantine models were copied there in the same manner -as at Jerusalem, Damascus, and Cairo. The small mosque at Toledo (Cristo -de la Luz) is of the same period, and part of the church of Santiago de -Peñalva (Vierzo), the only example which is known of a Christian church -built in the Moorish style. - -During the eleventh and twelfth centuries this architecture underwent -radical modifications in Spain, in the same manner as in the East, and -a new style arose which is very different to the earlier one. No writers -on this subject have explained this transformation in the East in a -satisfactory manner: it is not easy to study this transition in Spain, -for it coincides with the time in which the Spanish Moors were not rich -or powerful enough to build large constructions, as they did in the -thirteenth century, after the kings of Granada had settled there. At -this period of their art the forms of capitals, which partook of a -Byzantine and classical form, changed. Tiles are used to decorate the -walls, which are covered with an ornamentation in relief in stucco, in -which are introduced inscriptions in Cufic and African characters; the -ceilings are decorated with inlaid woodwork and stalactical pendentives -in stucco. This style ends with the conquest of Granada, 1492. The -Alhambra is the most important example of this architecture, and -following it the Alcazar of Seville. - -Owing to the gradual conquests by the Christians of towns belonging to -the Muhammadans, several of them continued to be inhabited by Moors, who -kept their customs and religion. They were called Moriscos or Mudejares. -The chief industries of the country were in their hands, and several -churches and other buildings of importance were built by them. They -accommodated their architecture to European or Christian necessities, -and created a new style (Mudejar), a mixture of Christian and Moorish -art, which is only to be found in the Spanish Peninsula. The finest -specimens are of the fourteenth century. The religious constructions of -this period are remarkable for their brickwork in towers and apses, and -fine wooden ceilings, artesonados. Examples exist at Toledo, Seville, -and Granada. The interesting synagogues built by Moriscos are at Toledo -and Segovia. As specimens of civil architecture, the finest are Casa de -Pilatos (Seville), Palace of Mendoza (Guadalajara), Archbishop’s Palace -(Alcalá), Casa de Mesa (Toledo). This style continued in vogue during -the greater part of the sixteenth century, although late Gothic was -everywhere predominant. A most striking example in which the three -styles--Moorish, Flamboyant, and Renaissance--are combined, is to be -found in a chapel of the cathedral of Sigüenza. - -The Romanesque style of architecture was imported in the eleventh and -twelfth centuries from France, even more directly than in other -countries, owing to the immense influence exercised by a large number of -prelates and priests, who came from Cluny and Cister, and the French -princes and families who settled in Spain. The general features of this -architecture are similar to those of France: the differences exist -chiefly in the general plan of the churches rather than in their -construction and ornamentation. The choirs in Spanish cathedrals are -placed in the central nave, a traditional remembrance of the early -basilica. In some localities, Segovia, Avila, and Valladolid, some of -these churches have external cloisters, an Oriental or Italian -modification, which never occurs in France or the north of Europe. -Romanesque examples are very numerous in Spain. Some, such as the -doorway of the Cathedral of Santiago (Galicia), and the Old Cathedral -(Salamanca), are not surpassed by any similar buildings in Europe. -Specimens are only found in the northern provinces, as the south was not -conquered from the Moors until the thirteenth century. Interesting -examples exist in Asturias, Galicia, Castile, Aragon, and Cataluña. The -cloisters of Gerona and Tarragona are unrivaled. Of the many striking -examples of Transition from Romanesque to Early Pointed, the finest are -the old cathedral of Lerida, the cathedrals of Tarragona and Santiago, -and the collegiate church of Tudela. - -The specimens of Pointed style in Spain present no other variety than -the choirs in the centers of the cathedrals. Although this style was -imported from France early in the thirteenth century, in the same manner -as in Germany, Romanesque churches continued to be built, and Pointed -architecture was only finally adopted at the end of the century. The -finest cathedrals in Spain of this architecture are those of Toledo, -Leon, and Burgos. A great number of civil and religious buildings of -this style are to be met with in Spain, in which the art-student will -find constant elements of study: it underwent the same modifications in -Spain as in other countries, until it reached, in the fifteenth century, -its latest period, the Flamboyant style. This style lasts longer in -Spain than in other countries, and acquires great importance. The -cathedrals of Salamanca (la nueva) and Segovia, both built in late -Gothic, were begun in the sixteenth century, when in other parts of -Europe and even in Spain itself Italian Renaissance models were largely -imported. Spanish cathedrals are undoubtedly, with the exception of -Italy, the most interesting in Europe; for although they cannot compete -in architectural details with those of France, they are vastly superior -in regard to the objects they contain of ecclesiastical furniture of -every kind--iron railings, carved stalls, monstrances, church-plate, -vestments, pictures, and sepulchers. Toledo and Seville cathedrals are -museums in their way. - -Italian models were copied in Spain from the end of the fifteenth -century. The portals of Santa Cruz at Valladolid and Toledo are of this -period. Gothic architecture continued, however, for several years to -alternate with this style. The combination of these styles produced an -important series of models known in Spain by the name of Plateresco. - -The revival of the fine arts coincided in Spain with the greatest power -and richness of the country. The marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella -united Castile, Aragon, and the kingdom of Naples. The conquest of -Granada completed the political unity of the country: the discoveries of -Columbus, Cortes, and Pizarro brought riches from a new world, and the -union with the House of Austria, the Flemish States, an immense power, -which it enjoyed during the reign of the Emperor Charles V. Renaissance -architecture is better represented in Spain than in any other country -except Italy. In almost all towns of importance admirable examples of -this style will be found. The finest are at Salamanca: the University, -Santo Domingo, Casa de las Conchas, and Salinas, San Marcos (Leon), Casa -de Ayuntamiento (Seville), Valladolid, Saragossa, Burgos, etc. - -The cathedral and palace of Charles V. (Granada) may be quoted as an -example of pure Græco-Roman style. Part of the Alcazar at Toledo belongs -to this same period. The tendency to copy classical models increased -daily. The Monastery of the Escorial may be considered the most -important specimen of this school. In the seventeenth century the -Borromenisco style was imported from Italy. The Pantheon at the Escorial -is a good example. This architectural decay increased in Spain with -great rapidity, and in no country did it reach to such an extravagant -point. It lasted during the seventeenth and part of the eighteenth -centuries. In Spain this style is called Churrigueresque, after the -architect Churriguera. Examples will be found everywhere. The -Transparente (Cathedral of Toledo), retablos of San Esteban (Salamanca), -Cartuja (Granada), and façade of Hospicio (Madrid), may be considered -the most remarkable. - -The creation of the Academy of San Fernando, the French architects who -accompanied Philip V., and the efforts of Charles III. to favor -classical studies, produced the same pretentious and classical reaction -as in the rest of Europe. The Palace and Convent of Salesas (Madrid) are -specimens of the first movement. The Museo and Observatory of Madrid -belong to the end of the last and beginning of the present century. - - -II - -_SPANISH LITERATURE_ - -The history of Spanish literature commences at the end of the eleventh -or beginning of the twelfth century, when the dialect emerged from the -corrupted Latin, and became an independent language capable of producing -literary works. - -The origin of the language may be traced to the writers of the sixth, -seventh, to the eleventh century. They wrote in the more or less -barbarous Latin of the period. The most important authors of this time -were San Isidoro and his pupils, St. Eugenio, St. Ildefonso, St. -Eulogio, Alvaro, Sansom, Pero Alonso, and Oliva. The writers of the -Roman period, Porcio Latro, Seneca, Lucan, Martial, Pomponius Mela, -Collumela, Silius Italicus, and Quintillian, though born in Spain, must -be numbered among classical authors. The Spanish language is derived in -a direct manner from the Latin, though it has been enriched by a great -number of words belonging to the different nations which have occupied -the whole or part of the Peninsula. Iberian, Punic, Greek, Visigothic, -Hebrew, and Arabic words are met with in large numbers. The abundance of -these last has induced some critics to infer that the origin of the -language is Semitic, but its grammatical structure is undoubtedly Latin. -The abundance of Oriental words does not influence its organization, or -produce any further result than to add nouns to the language. - -Spanish literature is generally divided into three groups--twelfth -century to end of fifteenth; sixteenth to seventeenth; eighteenth to the -present day. - -It is highly probable that Spanish poetry began by commemorating the -heroic deeds of Pelayo and other heroes who fought against the Moors; -but we can trace nothing to that period. The earliest compositions which -have reached us are, a “Charter of Oviedo,” 1145 (the “Charter of -Aviles,” 1155, has been proved to be a forgery), and two poems on the -Cid, the favorite hero of popular Spanish poetry, 1040-1099. The best of -these poems is the one beginning: El mio Cid (vide Ticknor). Though -incomplete, it constitutes a real epic poem, and if examined in detail -appears to have been written at the beginning of the twelfth century. -Three contemporary works have reached us: “La Vida de Santa Maria -Egipciaca,” “El Libro de los tres reyes d’Orient,” and “Los tres reyes -magos.” The first two were evidently written under a French influence; -“Los tres reyes magos” was written for recital in a church. - -The same intellectual development appears in Spain in the thirteenth -century as in Italy and France. The universities of Palencia and -Salamanca contributed toward it. The tendency of the writers of this -period is to imitate classic authors. A priest, Gonzalo de Berceo, is -the first poet of any importance in the thirteenth century, 1230: he -wrote a large number of verses on religious subjects. His poem to the -Virgin contains some poetical passages. Two poems appeared shortly -afterward, “El Libro de Apollonio” and “El Libro de Alexandre,” by J. -Lorenzo Segura, adapted from the history of Alexandre Le Grand, by -Chatillon. The poem “Fernan Gonzalez” is of the same period: it is free -from foreign influence. Prose is improved at the beginning of the -century by the translation from Latin of the “Fuero Juzgo,” and other -historical and didactical works. - -Don Alonso el Sabio, 1221-1284, absorbs the scientific and literary life -of Spain during his time: the most eminent of his countrymen, Spaniards, -Jews and Moors, gathered round him. So many works have appeared under -his name that it is incredible they should all have been written by him. -Probably only the poems, “Las Querellas,” written in the Castilian -dialect, are his. An extensive Universal History, the first written in -Europe in a vernacular language; the “Leyes de Partidas,” a series of -legal works; “El Saber de Astronomia,” a cyclopedia of this science as -it stood at that time; the “Cantigas,” a poem containing upward of four -hundred compositions to the Virgin, written in the Galician dialect and -in the Provençal style, and several other works, have passed hitherto as -proceeding from his pen. - -Don Sancho el Bravo, a son of Don Alonso, wrote the “Lucidario” and -“Libro de los Castigos,” a moral treatise dedicated to his son. The -“Libro del Tesoro” and “La Gran Conquista de Ultramar” were translated -at his instigation from the Latin. The Infante, Don Juan Manuel, 1282, a -nephew of Don Alonso, wrote several works on different subjects. The -finest is the interesting collection of fables, “El Conde Lucanor.” They -are earlier than the Decameron or Canterbury Tales. - -Spanish poetry revived in the fourteenth century. The archpriest of -Hita, 1330-1343, wrote thousands of verses on different subjects. Rabbi -Don Santob, 1850, a Spanish Jew, dedicated to his friend, King Peter -the Cruel, his principal poetical works. The best is on the “Danza de la -Muerte,” a favorite subject of that time. Pero Lopez de Ayala, -1372-1407, who wrote the “Rimado de Palacio,” and Rodrigo Yanez, the -author of the “Poema de Alonso XI.,” end the series of poets of the -fourteenth century. Romances of chivalry became popular in Spain in the -fifteenth century: their popularity lasted until the sixteenth, when -Cervantes published his “Don Quixote.” “Amadis de Gaula” was the first -work of importance of this kind; “Palmerin de Oliva,” etc., follow it. -The Coronicas belong to this period. They are semi-historical -narratives, in which the leading events of each reign are described. - -Provençal style was introduced into Spain early in the fifteenth -century. It became very popular owing to the patronage of Don Juan II., -1407-1454. The most important courtiers imitated the king’s example, and -poems have reached us by Don Alvaro de Luna, Don Alonso de Cartagena and -others. The Marquis of Villena and Macias belong to this period. Fernan -Perez de Guzman wrote at this time his “Livros de los claros varones de -España,” and Juan de Mena, an excellent poet, his “Laberynto” and -“Dialogo de los siete Pecados mortales.” The last poet of the reign of -Don Juan II. is the Marquis of Santillana. Several wrote late in the -century: the most excellent among them being Jorge Manrique, whose -“Coplas” on the death of his father are admirable. Novels begin at this -time, generally copied from Italian models. The finest is “La -Celestina,” written in acts like a drama, one of the best works in -Spanish literature. - -Romances or ballads are the most original form of Spanish poetry. They -constitute the popular epic poem, and are the most spontaneous -productions of the Spanish language. - -The revival of literature coincides in Spain with the period of its -greatest power and prosperity. The early part of the sixteenth century -is called “el Siglo de oro.” An Italian influence is predominant. -Castillejo keeps to the earlier style in his charming compositions: -“Dialogo entre el autor y su pluma,” and “Sermones de Amores.” Boscan -and Garcilaso were the first to introduce the Italian measure into -Spanish verse. Some poets wrote in both these styles. Gregorio Sylvestre -is among the best of them; an excellent poet, but very little known. - -Garcilaso was the earliest lyrical poet, 1503-1536. His verses are pure -in style, in the manner of Virgil and Horace. His life is interesting: -he fought by the side of Charles V., and was killed at the assault of -the fortress of Frejus (Nice). One of his contemporaries, Hurtado de -Mendoza, a soldier and statesman, popularized classical studies. His -best works are the “Rebellion de los Moriscos” and the well-known -“Lazarillo de Tormes.” The classical style is now universally adopted in -Spain. Fray Luis de Leon was undoubtedly the best poet of this period. -His ode on the “Ascension” and his “Poema a la Virgen” may certainly be -reckoned among the best compositions in the language. Several poets of -an inferior order belong to the sixteenth century. Cesina, Acuna, -Figueroa, Medrano, La Torre, Mesa and Alcazar are among the best. Their -works are clever in parts, but are generally unequal. This -characteristic becomes a leading feature in Spanish poetry. At the end -of the seventeenth century lyrics began to decay, but no author carried -affectation and exaggeration to such a height as Gongora, 1561-1627: a -gifted poet, full of charm in his simple compositions (vide -translations by Archdeacon Churton), though most obscure in his -“Soledades” and “Polifemo.” This style was called in Spain culteranismo, -and not even the best dramatic authors of the seventeenth century were -free from its defects. The imitators of Gongora continued until the -eighteenth century, although here and there a poet like Rioja tried to -check the movement. - -Epic poetry in Spain is inferior to the dramatic and lyrical styles. The -specimens which exist are old and devoid of inspiration. “El -Monserrate,” by Virues; “La Cristiada,” by Hojeda; “La Vida de San -Jose,” by Valdivieso, and “El Bernardo,” by Balbuena, may be quoted as -examples. “La Araucana,” by Ercilla, contains some poetical passages, -but in general is hardly more than a historical narrative. “La -Gatomaquia,” by Lope de Vega, though a burlesque, is considered by many -critics the best epic poem in the Spanish language. - -Dramatic literature unites, perhaps, the highest conditions of -originality and power. Its earliest productions are the liturgical -representations of the Middle Ages, “Misterios” or “Autos.” Although -works of this kind are mentioned as early as the thirteenth century, the -first which have a distinct dramatic character are the “Coplas de Mingo -Revulgo” and “El Dialogo entre el Amor y un viejo.” These compositions -were written under the reign of Henry IV. At the latter part of the -fifteenth century a series of dramatic works already existed. Juan de la -Encina began the history of the Spanish drama. Lucas Fernandez was a -contemporary writer, and shortly afterward Gil Vicente. Torres Naharro, -1517, published his “Propaladia,” which contains eight comedies. Lope de -Rueda founded the modern school, and he is imitated and improved by his -followers. The drama does not attain its highest importance until Lope -de Vega (1562-1635), the most prolific of Spanish poets. He tells us he -had written fifteen hundred plays, without counting “Autos” and -“Entremeses.” Cervantes says that forty companies of actors existed at -this time in Madrid alone, consisting of no less than one thousand -actors. In 1636, three hundred companies of actors appeared in different -parts of Spain. Lope de Vega is rather unequal as a dramatic author; -but “El mejor Alcalde el rey,” “La Estrella de Sevilla,” “La dama boba,” -and “La moza de cantaro,” entitle him to rank among the best European -dramatists. Three authors share Lope’s glory, Tirso, Calderon and -Alarcon. - -No Spanish dramatist has surpassed Tirso in his facility of treating the -most varied subjects in admirable versification. His comedy of “Don Gil -de las calzas verdes” is as good as his dramas of “El Rey Don Pedro en -Madrid,” “El condenado por desconfiado,” or “El convidado de piedra.” -The popular type of Don Juan is taken from this drama. Alarcon is -undoubtedly the most philosophical Spanish dramatist. His comedy, “Las -paredes oyen,” is admirable, and “La verdad sospechosa,” so much admired -by Corneille, as he tells us himself, when he took the plot for his -“Menteur.” Calderon is the most popular dramatic author. He idealizes -more than his predecessors, and his genius embraces the most varied -subjects. His comedies are charming; as examples, “La dama duende” and -“Casa con dos puertas” are among the best. “El medico de su honra” is -full of dramatic power, and nothing can be more poetical than “La Vida -es sueno” (vide MacCarthy’s translations). The best imitators of the -great dramatists are Rojas and Moreto: “Garcia del Castanar,” by the -former, and “Desden con el Desden” of the latter, are equal to the -dramas of the great masters. - -The earliest Spanish novels are “Lazarillo de Tonnes,” by Hurtado de -Mendoza, and the “Diana Enamorada,” by Monte Mayor. They are followed by -“El Picaro Guzman de Alfarache” and “El Escudero Marcos de Obregon,” by -Aleman and Espinel. A great number of novels were written in the -following century, but were all eclipsed by Cervantes’ “Don Quixote,” -which is too well known to need any comment. - -Several authors in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries cultivated -different literary styles. Quevedo is the most remarkable of them. He -was the quaintest and most original of humorists. He wrote a number of -works of real merit, none of which has been so popular as his “Satiras” -in prose and verse. - -Political and moralist writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth -centuries are very numerous. Of these Guevara, Sta. Teresa, Fray Luis de -Granada, Gracian, Saavedra Fajardo, Mariana, Morales, Zurita, and Solis -are the most remarkable. - -The end of the seventeenth century was the worst period of Spanish -literature. Philip V., the first king of the House of Bourbon, 1700, did -his utmost to improve the intellectual culture of the country. The -Biblioteca Real was founded in 1711, and the Academias de la Lengua, -Historia, and Bellas Artes in 1714; several literary reviews also -appeared. The best poets of this period are Antonio de Toledo and -Gerardo Lobo. The only productions, however, of any literary merit are -the critical works of Flores, Masdeu, Mayans and others. During the -reign of Charles III., 1759-1788, Melendez wrote some tolerable verses. -He is followed by Fr. Diego Gonzalez, Cienfuegos, Nicolas de Moratin -and others. The most original writers of the end of the eighteenth -century are, however, undoubtedly Leandro Moratin and Ramon. The two -comedies, “El Si de las ninas” and “El Cafe,” by the former, are -charming, and the “Sainetes,” by De la Cruz, in the manner of Plautus, -continue to be very popular in Spain. - -Spanish literature of the present century possesses no definite -character, although several writers can bear comparison with the best -Spanish authors of other periods. Every school and style has been -copied: Byron, Schiller, Goethe, Victor Hugo, and Dumas. The earliest -author of any importance is Quintana, a correct and inspired poet. His -odes on “La Imprenta,” “Panteon del Escorial,” and “Batalla de -Trafalgar” are very good. Martinez de la Rosa, Lista, and Nicasio -Gallegos form a group of able versifiers. Espronceda is a constant -imitator of Byron, although his legend of “El Estudiante de Salamanca” -is original, and a very fine composition. Zorrilla is the best -representative of the romantic school of 1830-40: his works are -sometimes unequal, and his legends are his best lyrical compositions. -His finest dramas are “Don Juan Tenorio” and “El Zapatero y el Rey.” The -“Romances” and drama of “Don Alvaro de Luna,” by the Duke of Rivas, have -been very popular; but no author is so deservingly so as Breton de los -Herreres, an excellent writer, who has left behind nearly one hundred -comedies, some of which, “Marcela,” “Muerete y veras,” “El pelo de la -dehesa,” etc., are perfect in their way. - - -III - -_SPORT_ - -The Bull-fight, or rather Bull Feast (Fiesta de Toros), is a modern -sport. Bulls were killed in ancient amphitheaters, but the present modus -operandi is modern, and, however based on Roman institutions, is -indubitably a thing devised by the Moors of Spain, for those in Africa -have neither the sport, the ring, nor the recollection. The principle -was the exhibition of horsemanship, courage and dexterity with the -lance; for in the early bull-fight the animal was attacked by gentlemen -armed only with the Rejon, a short projectile spear about four feet -long. This was taken from the original Iberian spear, the Sparus of Sil. -Ital. (viii. 523), the Lancea of Livy (xxxiv. 15), and is seen in the -hands of the horsemen of the old Romano-Iberian coinage. To be a good -rider and lancer was essential to the Spanish Caballero. This original -form of bull-fight (now only given on grand occasions) is called a -Fiesta Real. Such a one Philip IV. exhibited on the Plaza Mayor of -Madrid before Charles I. of England; Ferdinand VII. in 1833, at the -ratification of the Juramento, the swearing allegiance to Isabella II.; -and Alfonso XII., on his marriages, January 23, 1878, and November 29, -1879. - -These Fiestas Reales form the coronation ceremonial of Spain, and the -Caballeros en Plaza represent our champions. Bulls were killed, but no -beef eaten; as a banquet was never a thing of Iberia. - -The final conquest of the Moors, and the subsequent cessation of the -border chivalrous habits of Spaniards, and especially the accession of -Philip V., proved fatal to this ancient usage of Spain. The spectacle, -which had withstood the influence of Isabella the Catholic, and had -beaten the Pope’s Bulls, bowed before the despotism of fashion, and by -becoming the game of professionals instead of that of gentlemen it was -stripped of its chivalrous character, and degenerated into the vulgar -butchery of low mercenary bull-fighters, just as did the rings and -tournaments of chivalry into those of ruffian pugilists. - -The Spanish bulls have been immemorially famous. Hercules, that renowned -cattle-fancier, was lured into Spain by the lowing of the herds of -Geryon, the ancestor (se dice) of the Duque de Osuna. The best bulls in -Andalusia are bred by Cabrera at Utrera, in the identical pastures where -Geryon’s herds were pastured and “lifted” by the demigod, whence, -according to Strabo (iii. 169), they were obliged, after fifty days’ -feeding, to be driven off from fear of bursting from fat. Some of the -finest Castilian bulls, such as appear at Madrid, are bred on the -Jarama, near Aranjuez. - -Bull-fights are extremely expensive, costing from one thousand five -hundred dollars to two thousand dollars apiece; accordingly, except in -the chief capitals and Andalusia, they are only got up now and then, on -great church festivals and upon royal and public rejoicings. As -Andalusia is the headquarters of the ring, and Seville the capital, the -alma mater of the tauromachists of the Peninsula, the necessity of -sending to a distance for artists and animals increases the expense. The -prices of admittance, compared to the wages of labor in Spain, are high. - -The profits of the bull-fight are usually destined for the support of -hospitals, and, certainly, the fever and the frays subsequent to the -show provide patients as well as funds. The Plaza is usually under the -superintendence of a society of noblemen and gentlemen, called -Maestranzas, instituted in 1562, by Philip II., in the hope of improving -the breed of Spanish horses and men-at-arms. - -The first thing is to secure a good place beforehand, by sending for a -Boletin de Sombra, a “ticket in the shade.” The prices of the seats vary -according to position; the best places are on the northern side, in the -shade. The transit of the sun over the Plaza, the zodiacal progress into -Taurus, is certainly not the worst calculated astronomical observation -in Spain: the line of shadow defined on the arena is marked by a -gradation of prices. The sun of torrid, tawny Spain, on which it once -never set, is not to be trifled with, and the summer season is selected, -because pastures are plentiful, which keep the bulls in good condition, -and the days are longer. The fights take place in the afternoon, when -the sun is less vertical. The different seats and prices are detailed in -the bills of the play, with the names of the combatants, and the colors -and breeds of the bulls. - -The day before the fight the bulls destined for the spectacle are -brought to a site outside the town. No amateur should fail to ride out -to the pastures from whence the cattle (ganado) are selected. The -encierro, the driving them from this place to the arena, is a service of -danger, but is extremely picturesque and national. No artist or -aficionado should omit attending it The bulls are enticed by tame oxen, -cabestros, into a road which is barricaded on each side, and then are -driven full speed by the mounted conocedores into the Plaza. It is so -exciting a spectacle that the poor who cannot afford to go to the -bull-fight risk their lives and cloaks in order to get the front places, -and the best chance of a stray poke en passant. - -The next afternoon (Sunday is usually the day) all the world crowds to -the Plaza de toros; nothing, when the tide is full, can exceed the -gayety and sparkle of a Spanish public going, eager and dressed in their -best, to the fight. All the streets or open spaces near the outside of -the arena are a spectacle. The bull-fight is to Madrid what a review is -to Paris, and the Derby to London. Sporting men now put on all their -majo-finery; the distinguished ladies wear on these occasions white lace -mantillas; a fan, abanico, is quite necessary, as it was among the -Romans. The aficionados and “the gods” prefer the pit, tendido, the -lower range, in order, by being nearer, that they may not lose the nice -traits of tauromaquia. The Plaza has a language to itself, a dialect -peculiar to the ring. The coup d’œil on entrance is unique; the -classical scene bursts on the foreigner in all the glory of the south, -and he is carried back to the Coliseum under Commodus. The president -sits in the center box. The proceedings open with the procession of the -performers, the mounted spearmen, picadores; then follow the chulos, the -attendants on foot, who wear their silk cloaks, capas de durancillo, in -a peculiar manner, with the arms projecting in front; and, lastly, the -slayers, the espadas, and the splendid mule-team, el tiro, which is -destined to carry off the slain. The profession of bull-fighter is very -low-caste in Spain, although the champions are much courted by some -young nobles, like the British blackguard boxers, and are the pride and -darlings of all the lower classes. Those killed on the spot were -formerly denied the burial rites, as dying without confession, but a -priest is now in attendance with Su Magestad (the consecrated Host), -ready to give always spiritual assistance to a dying combatant. - -When all the bull-fighting company have advanced and passed the -president, a trumpet sounds; the president throws the key of the cell of -the bull to the alguacil or policeman, which he ought to catch in his -feathered hat. The different performers now take their places as -fielders do at a cricket match. The bull-fight is a tragedy in three -acts, lasts about twenty minutes, and each consists of precisely the -same routine. From six to eight bulls are usually killed during each -“funcion”; occasionally another is conceded to popular clamor, which -here will take no denial. - -When the door of the cell is opened, the public curiosity to see the -first rush out is intense; and as none knows whether the bull will -behave well or ill, all are anxious to judge of his character from the -way he behaves upon first entering the ring. The animal, turned from his -dark cell into glare and crowd, feels the novelty of his position; but -is happily ignorant of his fate, for die he must, however skillful or -brave his fight. This death does not diminish the sustained interest of -the spectators as the varied chances in the progress of the acts offer -infinite incidents and unexpected combinations. In the first of the -three acts the picadores are the chief performers; three of them are now -drawn up, one behind the other, to the right, at the tablas, the barrier -between the arena and spectators; each sits bolt upright on his -Rosinante, with his lance in rest, and as valiant as Don Quixote. They -wear the broad-brimmed Thessalian hat; their legs are cased with iron -and leather, which gives a heavy look; and the right one, which is -presented to the bull, is the best protected. This greave is termed la -mona--the more scientific name is gregoriana, from the inventor, Don -Gregorio Gallo--just as we say a spencer, from the noble earl. The -spear, garrocha, is defensive rather than offensive; the blade ought not -to exceed one inch; the sheathing is, however, pushed back when the -picador anticipates an awkward customer. When the bull charges, the -picador, holding the lance under his right arm, pushes to the right, and -turns his horse to the left; the bull, if turned, passes on to the next -picador. This is called recibir, to receive the point. If a bull is -turned at the first charge, he seldom comes up well again. A bold bull -is sometimes cold and shy at first, but grows warmer by being punished. -Those who are very active, those who paw the ground, are not much -esteemed; they are hooted by the populace, and execrated as goats, -little calves, cows, which is no compliment to a bull; and, however -unskilled in bucolics, all Spaniards are capital judges of bulls in the -ring. Such animals as show the white feather are loathed, as depriving -the public of their just rights, and are treated with insult, and, -moreover, soundly beaten as they pass near the tablas, by forests of -sticks, la cachiporra. The stick of the elegant majo, when going to the -bull-fight, is sui generis, and is called la chivata; taper, and between -four and five feet long, it terminates in a lump or knob, while the top -is forked, into which the thumb is inserted. This chivata is peeled, -like the rods of Laban, in alternate rings, black and white or red. The -lower classes content themselves with a common shillalah; one with a -knob at the end is preferred, as administering a more impressive whack. -While a slow bull is beaten and abused, a murderous bull, duro chocante -carnicero y pegajoso, who kills horses, upsets men, and clears the -plaza, becomes deservedly a universal favorite; the conquering hero is -hailed with “Viva toro! viva toro! bravo toro!” Long life is wished to -the poor beast by those who know he must be killed in ten minutes. - -The horses destined for the plaza are of no value; this renders -Spaniards, who have an eye chiefly to what a thing is worth, indifferent -to their sufferings. If you remark how cruel it is to “let that poor -horse struggle in death’s agonies,” they will say, “Ah que! na vale na” -(“Oh! he is worth nothing”). When his tail quivers in the last -death-struggle, the spasm is remarked as a jest, mira que cola! The -torture of the horse is the blot of the bull-fight: no lover of the -noble beast can witness his sufferings without disgust; the fact of -these animals being worth nothing in a money point of view increases the -danger to the rider; it renders them slow, difficult to manage, and very -unlike those of the ancient combats, when the finest steeds were chosen, -quick as lightning, turning at touch, and escaping the deadly rush: the -eyes of these poor animals, who would not otherwise face the bull, are -bound with a handkerchief like criminals about to be executed; thus they -await blindfold the fatal rip which is to end their life of misery. If -only wounded, the gash is sewed up and stopped with tow, as a leak! and -life is prolonged for new agonies. When the poor brute is dead at last, -his carcass is stripped as in a battle. The high-class Spaniard admits -and regrets the cruelty to the horses, but justifies it as a necessity. -The bull, says he, is a tame, almost a domestic animal, and would never -fight at all unless first roused by the sight of blood. The wretched -horse is employed for this purpose as a corpus vile; and the bull, -having gored him once or twice, becomes “game.” - -The picadores are subject to hair-breadth escapes and severe falls: few -have a sound rib left. The bull often tosses horse and rider in one run; -and when the victims fall on the ground, exhausts his rage on his -prostrate enemies, till lured away by the glittering cloaks of the -chulos, who come to the assistance of the fallen picador. These horsemen -often show marvelous skill in managing to place their horses as a -rampart between them and the bull. When these deadly struggles take -place, when life hangs on a thread, the amphitheater is peopled with -heads. Every expression of anxiety, eagerness, fear, horror, and delight -is stamped on speaking countenances. These feelings are wrought up to a -pitch when the horse, maddened with wounds and terror, plunging in the -death-struggle, the crimson streams of blood streaking his -sweat-whitened body, flies from the infuriated bull, still pursuing, -still goring: then is displayed the nerve, presence of mind, and -horsemanship of the undismayed picador. It is, in truth, a piteous sight -to see the poor dying horses treading out their entrails, yet saving -their riders unhurt. The miserable steed, when dead, is dragged out, -leaving a bloody furrow on the sand. The picador, if wounded, is carried -out and forgotten--los muertos y idos, no tienen amigos (the dead and -absent have no friends)--a new combatant fills the gap, the battle -rages, he is not missed, fresh incidents arise, and no time is left for -regret or reflection. The bull bears on his neck a ribbon, la devisa; -this is the trophy which is most acceptable to the querida of a buen -torero. The bull is the hero of the scene, yet, like Milton’s Satan, he -is foredoomed and without reprieve. Nothing can save him from the -certain fate which awaits all, whether brave or cowardly. The poor -creatures sometimes endeavor in vain to escape, and leap over the -barrier (barrera) into the tendido, among the spectators, upsetting -sentinels, water-sellers, etc., and creating a most amusing hubbub. The -bull which shows this craven turn--un tunante cobarde picaro--is not -deemed worthy of a noble death, by the sword. He is baited, pulled down, -and stabbed in the spine. A bull that flinches from death is scouted by -all Spaniards, who neither beg for their own life nor spare that of a -foe. - -At the signal of the president, and sound of a trumpet, the second act -commences with the chulos. This word chulo signifies, in the Arabic, a -lad, a clown, as at our circus. They are picked young men, who commence -in these parts their tauromachian career. The duty of this light -division is to draw off the bull from the picador when endangered, which -they do with their colored cloaks; their address and agility are -surprising, they skim over the sand like glittering humming-birds, -scarcely touching the earth. They are dressed, á lo majo, in short -breeches, and without gaiters, just like Figaro in the opera of the -“Barbiere de Sevilla.” Their hair is tied into a knot behind, mono, and -inclosed in the once universal silk net, the redecilla--the identical -reticulum--of which so many instances are seen on ancient Etruscan -vases. No bull-fighter ever arrives at the top of his profession without -first excelling as a chulo (apprentice); then he begins to be taught how -to entice the bull, llamar al toro, and to learn his mode of attack, -and how to parry it. The most dangerous moment is when these chulos -venture out into the middle of the plaza, and are followed by the bull -to the barrier, in which there is a small ledge, on which they place -their foot and vault over, and a narrow slit in the boarding, through -which they slip. Their escapes are marvelous; they seem really -sometimes, so close is the run, to be helped over the fence by the -bull’s horns. Occasionally some curious suertes are exhibited by chulos -and expert toreros, which do not strictly belong to the regular drama; -such as the suerte de la capa, where the bull is braved with no other -defense but a cloak; another, the salto tras cuerno, when the performer, -as the bull lowers his head to toss him, places his foot between his -horns and is lifted over him. The chulos, in the second act, are the -sole performers; another exclusive part is to place small barbed darts, -banderillas, which are ornamented with cut paper of different colors, on -each side of the neck of the bull. The banderilleros go right up to him, -holding the arrows at the shaft’s end, and pointing the barbs at the -bull; just when the animal stoops to toss them, they dart them into his -neck and slip aside. The service appears to be more dangerous than it -is, but it requires a quick eye, a light hand and foot. The barbs should -be placed exactly on each side--a pretty pair, a good match--buenos -pares. Sometimes these arrows are provided with crackers, which, by -means of a detonating powder, explode the moment they are affixed in the -neck, banderillas de fuego. The agony of the tortured animal frequently -makes him bound like a kid, to the frantic delight of the people. A very -clever banderillero will sometimes seat himself in a chair, wait for -the bull’s approach, plant the arrows in his neck, and slip away, -leaving the chair to be tossed into the air. This feat is uncommon, and -gains immense applause. - -The last trumpet now sounds; the arena is cleared for the third act; the -espada, the executioner, the man of death, stands before his victim -alone, and thus concentrates in himself an interest previously frittered -among the number of combatants. On entering, he addresses the president, -and throws his montera, his cap, to the ground, and swears he will do -his duty. In his right hand he holds a long straight Toledan blade, la -spada; in his left he waves the muleta, the red flag, the engano, the -lure, which ought not (so Romero laid down) to be so large as the -standard of a religious brotherhood (cofradia), nor so small as a lady’s -pocket-handkerchief (panuelito de senorita): it should be about a yard -square. The color is red, because that best irritates the bull and -conceals blood. There is always a spare matador, in case of accidents, -which may happen in the best regulated bull-fights; he is called media -espada, or sobresaliente. The espada (el diestro, the cunning in fence -in olden books) advances to the bull, in order to entice him toward -him--citarlo á la suerte, á la jurisdiccion del engano--to subpœna him, -to get his head into chancery, as our ring would say; he next rapidly -studies his character, plays with him a little, allows him to run once -or twice on the muleta, and then prepares for the coup de grace. There -are several sorts of bulls--levantados, the bold and rushing; parados, -the slow and sly; aplomados, the heavy and leaden. The bold are the -easiest to kill; they rush, shutting their eyes, right on to the lure or -flag. The worst of all are the sly bulls; when they are marrajos, -cunning and not running straight, when they are revueltos, when they -stop in their charge and run at the man instead of the flag, they are -most dangerous. The espada who is long killing his bull, or shows the -white feather, is insulted by the jeers of the impatient populace; he -nevertheless remains cool and collected, in proportion as the spectators -and bull are mad. There are many suertes or ways of killing the bull; -the principal is la suerte de frente--the espada receives the charge on -his sword, lo mato de un recibido. The volapie, or half-volley, is -beautiful, but dangerous; the matador takes him by advancing, -corriendoselo. A firm hand, eye, and nerve form the essence of the art; -the sword enters just between the left shoulder and the blade. In -nothing is the real fancy so fastidious as in the exact nicety of the -placing this death-wound; when the thrust is true--buen estoque--death -is instantaneous, and the bull, vomiting forth blood, drops at the feet -of his conqueror, who, drawing the sword, waves it in triumph over the -fallen foe. It is indeed the triumph of knowledge over brute force; all -that was fire, fury, passion, and life, falls in an instant, still -forever. - -The team of mules now enter, glittering with flags, and tinkling with -bells, whose gay decorations contrast with the stern cruelty and blood; -the dead bull is carried off at a rapid gallop, which always delights -the populace. The espada wipes the hot blood from his sword, and bows -with admirable sangfroid to the spectators, who throw their hats into -the arena, a compliment which he returns by throwing them back again. - -When a bull will not run at all at the picador, or at the muleta, he is -called a toro abanto, and the media luna, the half-moon, is called for; -this is the cruel ancient Oriental mode of houghing the cattle (Joshua -xi. 6). The instrument is the Iberian bident--a sharp steel crescent -placed in a long pole. The cowardly blow is given from behind; and when -the poor beast is crippled, an assistant, the cachetero, pierces the -spinal marrow with his cachete--puntilla, or pointed dagger--with a -traitorous stab from behind. This is the usual method of slaughtering -cattle in Spain. To perform all these operations (el desjarretar) is -considered beneath the dignity of the matadores or espadas; some of -them, however, will kill the bull by plunging the point of their sword -in the vertebræ, el descabellar--the danger gives dignity to the -difficult feat. The identical process obtains in each of the fights that -follow. After a short collapse, a fresh object raises a new desire, and -the fierce sport is renewed through eight repetitions; and not till -darkness covers the heavens do the mob retire to sacrifice the rest of -the night to Bacchus and Venus, with a passing homage to the knife. - - - - -APPENDIX - -CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES - - -NO. I - -Carthaginian Domination in Spain 238 to 200 B.C. -Roman Domination 200 B.C. to 414 A.D. -Visigothic Domination 414 A.D. to 711 A.D. - - -_Visigothic Kings_ - - A.D. -Ataulfo 414, D. 417 -Sigerico 417 -Walia 420 -Teodoredo 451 -Turismundo 454 -Teodorico 466 -Eurico 483 - - This king, after conquering the Suevi and other races, is - considered he founder of the monarchy. - -Alarico D. 505 -Gesaleico 510 -Amalarico 531 -Teudis 548 -Teudiselo 549 -Agila 554 -Atanagildo 567 -Liuva I. 572 -Leovigildo 586 - - After destroying the barbarians that still remained in the country, - he was the first king who ruled over the whole of the Peninsula. - -Recaredo I. 601 - - Summoned the 3d Council of Toledo, renounced Arianism, and became - the first Catholic king of Spain. - -Liuva II. 603 -Witerico 610 -Gundemaro 612 -Sisebuto 621 -Recaredo II. 621 -Suintila 631 -Sisenando 635 -Tulga 640 -Chindasvinto 650 -Recesvinto 672 -Wamba 680 -Ervigio 687 -Egica 701 -Witiza 709 -Don Rodrigo 711 - - The Moors entered Spain and defeated Don Rodrigo at the battle of - Guadalete, who disappeared there. The Moors occupied in the two - following years almost the whole of the Peninsula, and governed - under the dependence of the Caliphs of Damascus. - - -_Moorish Rulers in Spain_ - -Emirs dependent on the - Caliphs of Damascus 711-715 -Independent Caliphate established - by the Ommeyah - family, the capital being - Cordova 755-1009 -Kings of Taifas, governors - of the provinces which declared - themselves independent - during the last - Caliphate, Hischen II. 1009-1090 -The Almoravides from Africa - established themselves - in the Moorish territory - of the Peninsula 1090-1157 -The Almohades conquered - the Almoravides 1157-1212 -Kings of Granada. The - Moorish domination is - reduced to the kingdom - of Granada 1226-1492 - - The rule of the Moors in Spain ends in 1492, at the conquest of - Granada. - - -_Kings of Asturias, Leon, and Castile_ - -Pelayo (the re-conquest begins) 718, D. 737 -Favila 739 -Alonso I., el Catolico 757 -Favila I. (fixes his Court at Oviedo) 768 -Aurelio 774 -Silo 783 -Mauregato 788 -Bermudo I., el Diacono 795 -Alonso II., el Casto 843 -Ramiro I. 850 -Ordoño I. 865 -Alonso III., el Magno 910 - - Divided the kingdom of Galicia, Leon, and Asturias, among his sons, - the three following kings. - -Garcia 913 -Ordoño II. 923 -Fruela II. 924 - - Ordoño fixed his Court at Leon, and here end the named kings or - Asturias. - -Alonso IV., el Monge 930 -Ramiro II. 950 -Ordoño III. 955 -Sancho I., el Craso 967 -Ramiro III. 982 -Bermudo II. 999 -Alonso V., el Noble 1028 -Bermudo III. 1037 - - The territory of Castile, which formed a separate state, governed - by _Condes_, passed to Dona Sancha and Don Fernando I., who - entitled themselves Kings of Castile and Leon. - -Fernando I. and Dona Sancha 1065 -Sancho II., el Fuerte 1073 -Alfonso VI. 1108 - (Conquered Toledo in 1085.) -Dona Urraca 1126 -Alfonso VII., el Emperador 1157 - - At his death the kingdoms of Castile and Leon are divided among the - six following kings: - -Sancho III. (Castilla) 1158 -Fernando II. (Leon) 1188 -Alfonso VIII. (Castilla) 1214 -Alfonso IX. (Leon) 1230 -Enrique I. (Castilla) 1217 - - Dona Berenguela, who abdicated the crown of Castile in favor of her - son, Fernando III., who inherited also the crown of Leon from his - father, Alfonso IX. - -Fernando III., King of Castile - and Leon 1252 - - He conquered Cordova, Jaen, and Seville. - -Alonso X., el Sabio 1284 -Sancho IV., el Bravo 1295 -Fernando IV., el Emplazado 1312 -Alonso XI. 1350 -Pedro I., el Cruel 1369 -Enrique II., el Bastardo 1379 -Juan I. 1390 -Enrique III., el Doliente 1407 -Juan II. 1454 -Enrique IV., el Impotente 1474 -Dona Isabel, la Catolica 1504 -Fernando V. de Aragon 1516 -Dona Juana, la loca 1555 -Felipe I., el Hermoso, first king - of the house of Austria 1505 -Carlos V., Emperador 1558 -Felipe II. 1598 -Felipe III. 1621 -Felipe IV. 1665 -Carlos II. 1700 -Felipe V. (first king of the house - of Bourbon) abdicated in 1724 -Luis I. 1724 -Felipe V. 1746 -Fernando VI. 1759 -Carlos III. 1788 -Carlos IV., abdicated 1808 -Fernando VII. 1833 -Isabel II., dethroned 1868 -Gobierno Provisional 1871 -Amadeo de Saboya abdicated 1873 -Spanish Republic 1874 -Alfonso XII died 1886 - - -_Kings of Navarre._ - - The inhabitants of Navarre began the re-conquest from the middle of - the 8th century. Their rulers were called condes, or kings, until - Sancho Abarca widened the territory; from that time they are always - called kings of Navarre. - -Sancho Abarca 980-994 -Garcia III. 1000 -Sancho III., el Mayor 1038 -Garcia IV. 1057 -Sancho IV. 1076 -Sancho Ramirez V. 1092 - - This king, and the two that followed, were likewise kings of - Aragon. - -Pedro I. 1106 -Alfonso, el Batallador 1134 -Garcia Ramirez IV. 1150 -Sancho VI., el Sabio 1194 -Sancho VII., el Fuerte 1234 - - Here begin the kings of the House of Champagne. - -Teobaldo I. 1253 -Teobaldo II. 1270 -Enrique I. 1273 -Juana I. 1304 - - On her marriage with Philip le Bel, Navarre passed to the house of - France. - -Luis Hutin 1316 -Felipe le Long 1320 -Carlos I. de Navarra, IV. - de Francia 1329 -Juana II. 1343 -Carlos II. d’Evreux 1387 -Carlos III. 1425 -Dona Blanca y Juan I. 1479 -Francisco Febo 1483 -Catalina 1512 - - Fernando V. of Navarre took possession in 1512 of Navarre, and it - was then incorporated with Castile. - - -_Kings of Aragon._ - - Aragon belonged to the kingdom of Navarre until Sancho III. gave it - to his son Ramiro. - -Ramiro I. 1035, D. 1063 -Sancho I. 1094 -Pedro I. 1104 -Alfonso I., el Batallador 1134 -Ramiro II., el Monge 1137 - - Aragon and Cataluña are united. - -Petronila 1162 -Alfonso II. 1196 -Pedro II. 1213 -Jaime I., el Conquistador 1276 -Pedro III. 1285 - - Sicily is united to Aragon. - -Alfonso III. 1291 -Jaime II. 1327 -Alfonso IV. 1336 -Pedro IV. 1387 -Juan I. 1395 -Martin 1410 -Fernando, el de Antequera 1416 -Alfonso V. 1458 -Juan II. 1470 -Fernando el Catolico. - - Aragon passes to the crown of Castile. - - -_Counts of Barcelona._ - - In the 8th and 9th centuries Cataluña belonged to Charlemagne and - his successors. Wilfredo was the first independent Conde. - -Wilfredo el Belloso 864-898 -Borrell I. 912 -Suniario 917 -Borrell II. and his brother Miron 992 -Ramon Borrell 1018 -Ramon Berenguer I. 1025 -Ramon Berenguer II. 1077 -Berenguer and Ramon Berenguer III. 1113 -Ramon Berenguer IV. 1131 - - Ramon Berenguer V. married Dona Petronila de Aragon, and this - kingdom was incorporated with the Condado de Cataluña. - - -NO. II - -_Contemporary Sovereigns_ - -The periods have been selected during which leading events in Spanish -history have occurred. - -A.D. Spain. England. France. Rome. - 800 Alonso II. el Casto Egbert Charlemagne Leo III. - 877 Alonso III. el Magno Alfred Louis II. John VII. - 996 Ramiro III. Ethelred II. Hugh Capet Gregory V. -1075 Sancho II. William the Philip I. Gregory VII. - Conqueror -1155 Alfonso VII. Henry II. Louis VII. { Adrian IV. - { Breakspeare -1245 San Fernando Henry III. St. Louis Innocent IV. -1345 Alfonso XI. Edward III. Philip VI. Benedict VI. -1360 Pedro el Cruel Edward III. John II. Innocent VI. -1485 Isabel la Catolica Henry VII. Charles VIII. Innocent VIII. -1515 Fernando de Aragon Henry VIII. Francis I. Leo X. -1550 Carlos V. Edward VI. Henry II. Paul III. -1560 Felipe II. Elizabeth Charles IX. Pius IV. -1644 Felipe IV. Charles I. Louis XIV. Innocent X. -1705 Felipe V. Anne Louis XIV. Clement XI. -1760 Carlos III. George III. Louis XV. Clement XIII. -1808 Fernando VII. George III. Napoleon I. Pius VII. -1840 Isabel II. } { Louis Philippe { Gregory XVI. - } { Napoleon III. { and Pius IX. -1877 Alfonso XII. } Victoria French Republic Leo XIII. -1886 Cristina, } - queen-regent } -1886 Alfonso XIII. } - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] “Historia general de España,” by Juan de Mariana. 9 vols., -Valencia, 1783-96. - -[2] _Al Manzor al Allah_: “The Victor of God; or, Victorious by the -Grace of God.” - -[3] _Mas Moros mas ganancia_, “The more the Moors, the greater the -booty,” was one of his sayings, and it has passed into a well-known -national proverb. - -[4] Having kicked to pieces the splendid furniture and beaten the Papal -chamberlain, he proceeded to threaten to caparison his horse with the -rich hangings of the chapel, if the Pope refused him instant Absolution! - - Si no me absolveis, el Papa, - Seriaos mal contado - Que do vuestras ricas ropas - Cubriré yo mi caballo! - --Wolf and Hofmann, “Cid Ballads.” - - -[5] Muley is an Arabic word meaning “my lord.” - -[6] Certainly in 1480, possibly not five-and-twenty years later. From -curious criminal proceedings instituted against the Corregidor of -Medina del Campo, we learn that that high judicial authority had not -hesitated to declare that the soul of Isabella had gone direct to hell -for her cruel oppression of her subjects, and that King Ferdinand -was a thief and a robber, and that all the people round Medina and -Valladolid, where the queen was best known, had formed the same -judgment of her. “Arch. Gen. Simancas,” Estado, Legajo i., folio 192; -“Calendar of State Papers” (Spain), Supplement to i. and ii. (1868), p. -27. - -[7] From January, 1493, till October, 1497. - -[8] Legaspi and Guido Lavezares, under oath, made promises of rewards -to the Lacandola family and a remission of tribute in perpetuity, -but they were not fulfilled. In the following century--year 1660--it -appears that the descendants of the rajah Lacandola still upheld the -Spanish authority, and having become sorely impoverished thereby, the -heir of the family petitioned the governor (Sabiniano Manrique de -Lara) to make good the honor of his first predecessors. Eventually -the Lacandolas were exempted from the payment of tribute and poll tax -forever, as recompense for the filching of their domains. - -In 1884, when the fiscal reforms were introduced which abolished the -tribute and established in lieu thereof a document of personal identity -(cedula personal), for which a tax is levied, the last vestige of -privilege disappeared. - -Descendants of Lacandola are still to be met with in several villages -near Manila. They do not seem to have materially profited by their -transcendent ancestry--one of them was serving as a waiter in a French -restaurant in the capital in 1885. - -[9] Guido de Lavezares deposed a sultan in Borneo, in order to aid -another to the throne, and even asked permission of King Philip II. to -conquer China, which of course was not conceded to him. _Vide_ also the -history of the destruction of the Aztec (Mexican) and Incas (Peruvian) -dynasties by the Spaniards. - -[10] According to Juan de la Concepcion, in his “Hist. Gen. de -Philipinas,” Vol I., page 431, Li-ma-hong made his escape by cutting a -canal for his ships to pass through, but this appears highly improbable -under the circumstances. - -[11] Other authors assert that only Soliman rebelled. - -[12] Bondage in the Philippines was apparently not so necessary for -the interests of the Church as it was in Cuba, where a commission of -friars, appointed soon after the discovery of the island to deliberate -on the policy of partially permitting slavery there, reported “that -the Indians would not labor without compulsion, and that, unless they -labored, they could not be brought into communication with the whites, -nor be converted to Christianity.” Vide W. H. Prescott’s “Hist. of the -Conquest of Mexico.” - -[13] “Hist. Gen. de Philipinas,” by Juan de la Concepcion Vol. III., -Chap. IX., page 365, pub. Manila, 1788. - -[14] So tenacious was the opposition brought by the Austin friars both -in Manila and the provinces that the British appear to have regarded -them as their special foes. - - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Spain and Her Colonies (World's Best -Histories), by Archibald Wilberforce - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SPAIN AND HER COLONIES *** - -***** This file should be named 62786-0.txt or 62786-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/2/7/8/62786/ - -Produced by D A Alexander, Chuck Greif, Natrona County -Public Library System, in Casper, Wyoming, for generously -donating the books in this project to PG and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Spain and Her Colonies (World's Best Histories) - Compiled from the Best Authorities - -Author: Archibald Wilberforce - -Release Date: July 30, 2020 [EBook #62786] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SPAIN AND HER COLONIES *** - - - - -Produced by D A Alexander, Chuck Greif, Natrona County -Public Library System, in Casper, Wyoming, for generously -donating the books in this project to PG and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<p class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/cover.jpg"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" height="550" alt="[Image of -the book's cover unavailable.]" /></a> -</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="" -style="border: 2px black solid;margin:auto auto;max-width:50%; -padding:1%;"> -<tr><td> - -<p class="c"><a href="#CONTENTS">Contents.</a><br /> -<a href="#map">Map of Spain and Portugal</a><br /> -<a href="#APPENDIX">Chronological Tables</a></p> -<p class="nind">(etext transcriber's note: The various spellings of Spanish words -and names have not been corrected or normalized.)</p></td></tr> -</table> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/alfonso.jpg"> -<img src="images/alfonso.jpg" height="550" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">ALFONSO XIII., KING OF SPAIN</span> -</div> - -<p class="c">THE WORLD’S BEST HISTORIES</p> - -<h1> -SPAIN<br /><small><small> -AND HER COLONIES</small></small></h1> - -<p class="c"><small>COMPILED FROM THE BEST AUTHORITIES</small><br /> -BY ARCHIBALD WILBERFORCE<br /> -<br /><br /> -<i>WITH FRONTISPIECE</i><br /> -<br /><br /> -<br /><br /> -THE CO-OPERATIVE PUBLICATION SOCIETY<br /> -NEW YORK AND LONDON<br /></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_1" id="page_1">{1}</a></span> </p> - -<p class="cb"><big>SPAIN</big><br /> -AND HER COLONIES</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_2" id="page_2">{2}</a></span> </p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_3" id="page_3">{3}</a></span> </p> - -<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> - -<tr><th colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="smcap" colspan="2">Spain in Antiquity</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_7">7</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="smcap" colspan="2">The Caliphate of Cordova</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_16">16</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="smcap" colspan="2">Medieval Spain</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_30">30</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="smcap" colspan="2">Moorish Spain</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_61">61</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="smcap" colspan="2">The Inquisition</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_83">83</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="smcap" colspan="2">Their Catholic Majesties</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_100">100</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="smcap" colspan="2">United Spain</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_140">140</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="smcap" colspan="2">Modern Spain</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_162">162</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th colspan="3"><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_4" id="page_4">{4}</a></span> -<a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="smcap" colspan="2">Colonial Spain</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_206">206</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="smcap" colspan="2">The Fall of an Empire</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_225">225</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="smcap" colspan="2">The Philippines</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_251">251</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="smcap" colspan="2">The Hispano-American War</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_320">320</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII</a></th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="smcap" colspan="2">Spanish Art, Literature, and Sport</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_351">351</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#I">I.</a> </td><td valign="top">Painting and Architecture</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_351">351</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#II">II.</a></td><td valign="top"> Spanish Literature</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_370">370</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#III">III.</a></td><td valign="top"> Sport</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_379">379</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top" class="smcap" colspan="2"><a href="#APPENDIX">Appendix</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_393">393</a></td></tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_5" id="page_5">{5}</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_6" id="page_6">{6}</a></span> </p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_7" id="page_7">{7}</a></span> </p> - -<h2><a name="THE_HISTORY_OF_SPAIN_HISTORY_OF_SPAIN" -id="THE_HISTORY_OF_SPAIN_HISTORY_OF_SPAIN"></a>THE HISTORY OF SPAIN</h2> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I<br /><br /> -<span class="chead">SPAIN IN ANTIQUITY</span></h2> -<p class="chead2">THE FIRST LAWS AND THE FIRST INVADERS—GREEKS, PHŒNICIANS, ROMANS AND -GOTHS</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hispania</span> was the name by which the Romans called the peninsula which is -made up of Spain and Portugal. The origin of the name is disputed. To -the Greeks the country was known as Hesperia—the Land of the Setting -Sun. According to Mariana,<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> Spain is called after its founder, -Hispanus, a son or grandson of Hercules. But, for reasons hereinafter -related, better authorities derive it from the Phœnician <i>Span</i>.</p> - -<p>There is a legend which Mariana recites, to the effect that the primal -laws of Spain were written in verse, and framed six thousand years -before the beginning of Time. To medieval makers of chronicles, Tubal, -fifth son of Japhet, was the first to set foot on its shore. But earlier -historians, ignorant of Noah’s descendant, and, it may be, better -informed, hold that after the episodes connected with the Golden Fleece, -the Argonauts, guided by Her<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_8" id="page_8">{8}</a></span>cules, sailed the seas and loitered a while -in Spain, where they were joined by refugees escaping from the totter -and fall of Troy. Black was their national color. It has been retained -in the mantillas of to-day. After the Greek adventurers came the -Phœnicians. The latter, a peaceful people, born traders, as are all of -Semitic origin, founded a colony at Gaddir (Cadiz). In a remoter era -they had established themselves at Canaan, where they built Bylos, Sidon -and Tyre. From Tyre emigrants moved to Africa. Their headquarters was -Kartha-Hadath, literally Newtown, that Carthage in whose ruins Marius -was to weep. The Phœnicians, as has been noted, were a peaceful people. -Under a burning sun their younger brothers developed into tigers. They -had the storm for ally. They ravaged the coast like whirlwinds. They -took Sicily, then Sardinia. Presently there was a quarrel at Gaddir. It -was only natural that the Phœnicians should ask aid of their relatives. -The Carthaginians responded, and, finding the country to their taste, -took possession of it on their own account. To the Romans, with whom -already they had crossed swords, they said nothing of this new -possession. It seemed wiser to leave it unmentioned than to guard it -with protecting, yet disclosive, treaties. More than once they scuttled -their triremes—suspicious sails were following them to its shore. From -this vigilance the name of Spain is derived. In Punic, <i>Span</i> signifies -hidden.</p> - -<p>The hiding of Spain was possible when the Romans were still in the -nursery. But when the Romans grew up, when they had conquered Greece, -and all of Italy was theirs, their enterprises developed. Up to this -time the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_9" id="page_9">{9}</a></span> two nations had been almost allies. At once they were open -rivals. It was a question between them as to whom the world should -belong.</p> - -<p>The arguments on this subject, known as the Punic Wars, were three in -number. The first resulted in a loss of Sicily and Sardinia. In the -second, Spain went. In the third, Carthage was razed to the ground.</p> - -<p>It was with the conquest of Sagentum—a conquest not achieved until the -surviving inhabitants of that beleaguered city had committed -suicide—that annexation began. Then, slowly, at one time advancing, at -another retreating, now defeated, now defeating, the Romans promenaded -their eagles down the coast. Scipio came and watched the -self-destruction of the Numantians, as Hannibal had watched the -Sagentums fall. Pompey, boasting that he had made the Republic mistress -of a thousand towns, came too; and after him Cæsar, who, long before, as -simple quæstor, had wept at Cadiz because of Alexander, who at his age -had conquered the world—Cæsar, his face blanched with tireless -debauches, came back and gave the land its <i>coup de grace</i>. In this -fashion, with an unhealed wound in every province, Spain crawled down to -Augustus’s feet. A toga was thrown over her. When it was withdrawn the -wounds had healed. She was a Roman province, the most flourishing, -perhaps, and surely the most fair.</p> - -<p>The fusion of the two peoples was immediate. The native soldiery were -sent off to bleed in the four corners of the globe, to that Ultima Thule -where the Britons lived and which it took years to reach, or nearer home -in Gaul, or else far to the north among the Teuton States; and, in the -absence of an element which might have turned ugly,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_10" id="page_10">{10}</a></span> the Romans found it -easy work to open school. They had always been partial to Greek -learning, and they inculcated it on the slightest pretext. They imported -their borrowed Pantheon, their local Hercules, all the metamorphosed and -irritable gods, and with becoming liberality added to them those -divinities whom their adopted children most revered. It was in this way -that the fusion of the two races came about. When Augustus assumed the -purple, throughout the entire peninsula Latin was generally in use. It -was not of the purest, to be sure. It had been beaten in with the sword, -the accent was rough and the construction bristled with barbarisms; but -still it was Latin, and needed only a generation of sandpaper to become -polished and refined. But perhaps the least recognized factor in the -fusion of the two peoples was a growing and common taste for polite -literature. Such as the Romans possessed was, like their architecture, -their science, philosophy and religion, borrowed outright from the -Greeks. They were hungry for new ideas. These the Spaniards undertook to -provide. They had descended from a race whose fabulous laws were written -in verse, and something of that legendary inspiration must have -accompanied them through ages of preceding strife, for suddenly Boetica -was peopled with poets. In connection with this it may be noted that, -apart from the crop of Augustan rhymsters and essayists, almost -everything in the way of literature which Rome subsequently produced is -the work of Spaniards. Lucan and the Senecas were Boeticans—Martial, -Florus, Quintillian, Pomponius Mila were all of that race. J’en passe et -des meilleurs. The Romans, trained by the Greeks, were, it is true, the -teachers. Under their heavy hand the young An<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_11" id="page_11">{11}</a></span>dalusians lost their way -among the clouds of Aristophanes, just as we have done ourselves; they -spouted the <i>Tityre tu</i>, and the <i>arma virum</i>, they followed the Odyssey -and learned that, in ages as remote to them as they are to us, Ulysses -had visited their coast. Indeed the Romans did what they could, and if -their pupils surpassed them it was owing to the lack-luster of their own -imaginations. But the education of backward Spain was not limited to -Greek poets and Augustan bores. Lessons in drawing were given, not as an -extra, but as part of the ordinary curriculum. The sciences, too, were -taught, the blackboard was brought into use, and Euclid—another -Greek—was expounded on the very soil that under newer conquerors was to -produce the charms and seductions of Algebra. Added to this, industry -was not neglected. The Romans got from them not poets alone, but -woolens, calicoes, and barbers too, emperors even. Trajan was an -Andalou, so was Hadrian, and so also was that sceptered misanthrope -Marcus Aurelius. As for arms, it is written in blood that the Romans -would have no others than those which came from Spain. The plebs dressed -themselves there. Strabo says that all the ready-made clothing came from -Tarragona. From Malaga, which in a fair wind was but six days’ sail from -the Tiber’s mouth, came potted herring, fat, black grapes that stained -the chin, and wax yellow as amber. From Cadiz came the rarest purple, -wine headier than Falernian, honey sweeter than that of Hymettus, and -jars of pale, transparent oil. To Iviça the Romans sent their togas; -there was a baphia there, a dyeing establishment, which, to be simply -charming, needed but the signboard <i>Morituri te salutamus</i>. And from the -banks of the Betis<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_12" id="page_12">{12}</a></span> there came for the lupanars girls with the Orient in -their eyes, and lips that said “Drink me.” In this pleasant fashion -Rome, after conquering Spain, sat down to banquet on her products. The -Imperial City then was not unlike a professional pugilist who is unable -to find a worthy opponent; possible rivals had been slugged into -subjection. Perhaps she was weary, too. However great the future of a -combatant may be, there comes an hour when contention palls and peace -has charms. In any event, Rome at that time was more occupied in -assimilating her dominions than in extending the wonders of her sway. -And it was during this caprice that Spain found her fifty races fused in -one. On the distant throne was a procession of despots, terribly -tyrannical, yet doing what good they could. In return for flowers, -fruits and pretty girls, they gave roads, aqueducts, arenas, games and -vice. Claud introduced new fashions; Nero, the saturnalia. Each of the -emperors did what he was able, even to Hadrian, who increased the number -of Jews. It was during his reign that were felt the first tremors of -that cataclysm in which antiquity was to disappear. Rome was so -thoroughly mistress of the world that to master her Nature had to -produce new races. The parturitions, as we know, were successful. -Already the blue victorious eyes of Vandal and of Goth were peering down -at Rome; already they had whispered together, and over the hydromel had -drunk to her fall.</p> - -<p>The Goths were a wonderful people. When they first appear in history -their hair was tossed and tangled by the salt winds of the Baltic. -Later, when in tattered furs they issued from the fens of the Danube, -they startled the hardiest warriors of the world, the descendants of -that nursling<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_13" id="page_13">{13}</a></span> of the gaunt she-wolf. Little by little from vagabond -herders they consolidated first into tribes, then into a nation, finally -into an army that beat at the gates of Rome. There they loitered a -moment, a century at most. When they receded again with plunder and with -slaves they left an emperor behind. Soon they were more turbulent than -ever. They swept over antiquity like a tide, their waves subsiding only -to rise anew. And just as the earth was oscillating beneath their -weight, from the steppes of Tartary issued cyclones of Huns. Where they -passed, the plains remained forever bare. In the shock of their -onslaught the empire of the Goths was sundered. Some of them, the -Ostrogoths, went back to their cattle, others, the Visigoths, went down -to have another word with Rome. It was then that their cousins the -Vandals got their fingers on her throat and frightened the world with -her cries. In the strain of incessant shrieks the Imperial City fell. -From out the ruins a mitered prelate dragged a throne. Paganism had been -strangled; antiquity was dead; new creeds and new races were -refurbishing the world. Among the latter the Goths still prowled. In the -advance through the centuries, in the journey from the Baltic to the -Mediterranean, in the friction with the Attic refinement which the -Romans had acquired, the Goths left some of their barbarism on the -road—not much, however. Historians have it that when they took -possession of Spain they manifested a love of art, a desire for culture, -and that they affected the manners and usages of polite society. But -historians are privileged liars. The majority of those who have treated -the subject admired the Goths because they fancied them Christians, and -in the admiration they placed them in flat<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_14" id="page_14">{14}</a></span>tering contrast to their -predecessors who were pagans, and to their successors who were -Muhammadans. As a matter of fact—one that is amply attested in local -chronicles—they were coarse, illiterate and stupid as carps; moreover, -they were not Christians, they were Arians, and they were Arians -precisely as they were Goths—they were born so. To the dogma of the -Trinity and the consubstantiability or non-consubstantiability of Jesus -the Christ they were as ignorant as of the formation of the earth. -Throughout Europe at that time not a thread of light was discernible. -The dark ages had begun. In the general obscurity the Goths were not a -bit more brilliant than their neighbors. Under their hand civilization -disappeared; in return they gave the Spanish nothing but gutturals and a -taste for chicanery. In ninety and nine cases, the specimens of -architecture which cheap-trippers admire as due to them are of Saracen -workmanship. The monuments which they did erect are not disproportioned -perhaps; yet, whatever the casuist may affirm, there is still a margin -between the commonplace and the beautiful. In brief, to the Visigoths -the world owes less than nothing. They let Andalusia retrograde for -three hundred years, and delayed the discovery and development of -America. Previous to their coming Cadiz had been a famous seaport. The -Romans called it The Ship of Stone. Its sons had been immemorial -explorers. The presentiment of another land across the sea was theirs by -intuition. They were constantly extending their expeditions. They were -in love with the sunset, they sailed as near it as they could, returned -for more provisions, and sailed again; nearer, and ever nearer that way. -To the Church the theory of the antipodes was an abominable her<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_15" id="page_15">{15}</a></span>esy. It -was taught that the earth was a flat parallelogram, its extremities -walled by mountains that supported the skies. Lactance was particularly -vehement on this point, so too was St. Jerome. Vergilius in asserting -the contrary threw Christendom into indignant convulsions. It may be -remembered that the most serious obstacle which Columbus subsequently -encountered lay in the decisions of the Fathers. Now Cadiz had been more -or less converted before the advent of the Visigoths, but it had not for -that reason put aside its habits and customs. It continued to be -essentially maritime; but when the Visigoths came, navigation -languished, the Ship of Stone no longer turned to the west, it foundered -in a sea of ignorance which was then undiked, and the possible discovery -of America was indefinitely postponed. By way of compensation, the -Visigoths framed a code of laws the spirit of which still survives, and -which is serviceable in showing that the framers possessed two distinct -traits, a love of agriculture and a hatred of Jews. Traits which are -significant when it is understood that it was through agriculture they -were supported and through the Jews they were overthrown. It was the -Jews that beckoned the Berbers and their masters the Arabs—the Moors, -as those Arabs were called who had deserted the deserts for the African -Riviera.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_16" id="page_16">{16}</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II<br /><br /> -<span class="chead">THE CALIPHATE OF CORDOVA</span></h2> -<p class="chead2">THE CRESCENT AND THE CROSS—CORDOVA IN THE MIDDLE AGES—THE GLORIES OF -AZ ZAHRA—THE RISE OF ALMANZOR</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">It</span> was in 712 that Spain, after remaining for nearly three centuries in -the possession of the Visigoths, fell under the yoke of the Saracens. -For some time past, from a palace at Tandjah (Tangiers), a Mussulman -emir had been eyeing the strip of blue water which alone separated him -from that Andalusia which, like the other parts of this world and all of -the next, had been promised to the followers of Muhammad. The invasion -that ensued was singularly pacific. The enthusiasm which distinguished -the youthful period of Muhammadism might account for the conquest which -followed, even if we could not assign additional causes—the factions -into which the Goths had become divided, the resentment of disappointed -pretenders to the throne, the provocations of one Count Julian, whose -daughter, seduced by Roderic, the last of the Gothic kings, caused him, -it is said, to urge the Moors to come over. It is more surprising that a -remnant of this ancient monarchy should not only have preserved its -national liberty and name in the northern mountains, but waged for some -centuries a successful, and generally an offensive, warfare against the -conquerors, till the balance was completely turned in its favor<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_17" id="page_17">{17}</a></span> and the -Moors were compelled to maintain almost as obstinate and protracted a -contest for a small portion of the peninsula. But the Arabian monarchs -of Cordova found in their success and imagined security a pretext for -indolence; even in the cultivation of science and contemplation of the -magnificent architecture of their mosques and palaces they forgot their -poor but daring enemies in the Asturias; while, according to the nature -of despotism, the fruits of wisdom or bravery in one generation were -lost in the follies and effeminacy of the next. Their kingdom was -dismembered by successful rebels, who formed the states of Toledo, -Huesca, Saragossa, and others less eminent; and these, in their own -mutual contests, not only relaxed their natural enmity toward the -Christian princes, but sometimes sought their alliance.</p> - -<p>Be that as it may, of all who had entered Spain, whether Greek, -Phœnician, Vandal or Goth, the Moors were the most tolerant. The worship -of God was undisturbed. The temples were not only preserved, new ones -were built. In every town they entered, presto! a mosque and a school, -and mosques and schools that were entrancing as song. On the banks of -the Betis, renamed the Great River, Al-Ouad-al-Kebyr (Guadalquivir), -twelve hundred villages bloomed like roses in June. From three hundred -thousand filigreed pulpits the glory of Allah, and of Muhammad his -prophet, was daily proclaimed.</p> - -<p>They were superb fellows, these Moors. In earlier ages the restless -Bedouins, their ancestors, were rather fierce, and when the degenerate -Sabaism they professed was put aside for the lessons of Muhammad, they -were not only fierce, they were fanatic as well. A drop of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_18" id="page_18">{18}</a></span> blood shed -for Allah, equaled, they were taught, whole months of fasting and of -prayer. Thereafter, they preached with the scimiter. But in time, that -great emollient, they grew less dogmatic. In the ninth century the court -of Haroûn al Raschid was a free academy in which all the arts were -cultivated and enjoyed. Under the Moors, Cordova surpassed Bagdad.</p> - -<p>In the tenth century it was the most beautiful and most civilized city -of Europe. Concerning it Burke, in his “History of Spain”—a work to -which we are much indebted—writes as follows:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>There was the Caliph’s Palace of Flowers, his Palace of -Contentment, his Palace of Lovers, and, most beautiful of all, the -Palace of Damascus. Rich and poor met in the Mezquita, the noblest -place of worship then standing in Europe, with its twelve hundred -marble columns, and its twenty brazen doors; the vast interior -resplendent with porphyry and jasper and many-colored precious -stones, the walls glittering with harmonious mosaics, the air -perfumed with incense, the courtyards leafy with groves of orange -trees—showing apples of gold in pictures of silver. Throughout the -city, there were fountains, basins, baths, with cold water brought -from the neighboring mountains, already carried in the leaden pipes -that are the highest triumph of the modern plumber.</p></div> - -<p>But more wonderful even than Cordova itself was the suburb and palace of -Az Zahra. For five-and-twenty years the Caliph Abdur Rahman devoted to -the building of this royal fancy one-third of the revenues of the -State;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_19" id="page_19">{19}</a></span> and the work, on his death, was piously continued by his son, -who devoted the first fifteen years of his reign to its completion. For -forty years ten thousand workmen are said to have toiled day by day, and -the record of the refinement as well as the magnificence of the -structure, as it approached completion, almost passes belief. It is said -that in a moment of exaltation the Caliph gave orders for the removal of -the great mountain at whose foot the fairy city was built, as the dark -shade of the forests that covered its sides overshadowed the gilded -palace of his creation.</p> - -<p>Convinced of the impossibility of his enterprise, An Nasir was content -that all the oaks and beech trees that grew on the mountain side should -be rooted up; and that fig trees, and almonds, and pomegranates should -be planted in their place; and thus the very hills and forests of Az -Zahra were decked with blossom and beauty.</p> - -<p>Travelers from distant lands, men of all ranks and professions, princes, -embassadors, merchants, pilgrims, theologians and poets, all agreed that -they had never seen in the course of their travels anything that could -be compared with Az Zahra, and that no imagination, however fertile, -could have formed an idea of its beauties. Of this marvelous creation of -Art and Fancy not one stone remains upon another—not a vestige to mark -the spot on which it stood; and it is hard to reconstruct from the dry -records of Arab historians the fairy edifice of which we are told no -words could paint the magnificence. According to these authors the -inclosing wall of the palace was four thousand feet in length from east -to west, and two thousand two hundred feet from north<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_20" id="page_20">{20}</a></span> to south. The -greater part of this space was occupied by gardens, with their marble -fountains, kiosks and ornaments of various kinds, not inferior in beauty -to the more strictly architectural parts of the building.</p> - -<p>Four thousand three hundred columns of the rarest and most precious -marbles supported the roof of the palace; of these some were brought -from Africa, some from Rome, and many were presented by the Emperor at -Constantinople to Abdur Rahman. The halls were paved with marble, -disposed in a thousand varied patterns. The walls were of the same -material, and ornamented with friezes of the most brilliant colors. The -ceilings, constructed of cedar, were enriched with gilding on an azure -ground, with damasked work and interlacing designs. Everything, in -short, that the wealth and resources of the Caliph could command was -lavished on this favorite retreat, and all that the art of -Constantinople and Bagdad could contribute to aid the taste and -executive skill of the Spanish Arabs was enlisted to make it the most -perfect work of its age. Did this palace of Zahra now remain to us, says -Mr. Fergusson, we could afford to despise the Alhambra and all the other -works of the declining ages of Moorish art.</p> - -<p>It was here that Abdur Rahman and Nasir received Sancho the Fat, and -Theuda, queen of Navarre, the envoys from Charles the Simple of France, -and the embassadors from the Emperor Constantine at Constantinople. The -reception of these imperial visitors is said to have been one of the -most magnificent ceremonies of that magnificent court. The orator who -had been at first intrusted with the speech of ceremonial greeting was -act<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_21" id="page_21">{21}</a></span>ually struck dumb by the grandeur of the scene, and his place was -taken by a less impressionable rhetorician.</p> - -<p>Nor was it only material splendor that was to be found at Cordova. At a -time when Christian Europe was steeped in ignorance and barbarism, in -superstition and prejudice, every branch of science was studied under -the favor and protection of the Ommeyad Caliphs. Medicine, surgery, -botany, chemistry, poetry, the arts, philosophy, literature, all -flourished at the court and city of Cordova. Agriculture was cultivated -with a perfection, both theoretical and practical, which is apparent -from the works of contemporary Arab writers. The Silo, so lately -introduced into England as a valuable agricultural novelty, is not only -the invention of the Arabs, but the very name is Arabic, as is that of -the Azequia and of the Noria of modern Spain. Both the second and the -third Abdur Rahman were passionately fond of gardening and -tree-planting; and seeds, roots and cuttings were brought from all parts -of the world and acclimatized in the gardens at Cordova. A pomegranate -of peculiar excellence, the Safari, which was introduced by the second -Abdur Rahman from Damascus, still maintains its superiority, and is -known in Spain to the present day as the Granada Zafari.</p> - -<p>Thus, in small things as in great, the Arabs of Cordova stood -immeasurably above every other people or any other government in Europe. -Yet their influence unhappily was but small. They surpassed, but they -did not lead. The very greatness of their superiority rendered their -example fruitless. Medieval chivalry, indeed, was largely the result of -their influence in Spain. But chivalry as an institution had itself -decayed long before a new-born Europe had at<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_22" id="page_22">{22}</a></span>tained to the material and -moral perfection of the great Emirs of Cordova. Their political -organization was unadapted to the needs or the aspirations of Western -Europe, and contained within itself the elements, not of development, -but of decay. Their civilization perished, and left no heirs behind -it—and its place knows it no more.</p> - -<p>The reign of Hakam II., the son and successor of the great Caliph, was -tranquil, prosperous and honorable, the golden age of Arab literature in -Spain. The king was above all things a student, living the life almost -of a recluse in his splendid retreat at Az Zahra, and concerning himself -rather with the collection of books for his celebrated library at -Cordova than with the cares of State and the excitements of war. He sent -agents to every city in the East to buy rare manuscripts and bring them -back to Cordova. When he could not acquire originals he procured copies, -and every book was carefully catalogued and worthily lodged. Hakam not -only built libraries, but, unlike many modern collectors, he is said to -have read and even to have annotated the books that they contained; but -as their number exceeded four hundred thousand, he must have been a -remarkably rapid student.</p> - -<p>The peaceful disposition of the new Caliph emboldened his Christian -neighbors and tributaries to disregard the old treaties and to assert -their independence of Cordova. But the armies of Hakam were able to make -his rights respected, and the treaties were reaffirmed and observed. -Many were the embassies that were received at Cordova from rival -Christian chiefs; and Sancho of Leon, Fernan Gonzalez of Castile, Garcia -of Navarre, Rodrigo Velasquez<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_23" id="page_23">{23}</a></span> of Galicia, and finally Ordoño the Bad, -Pretender to the crown of Leon, were all represented at the court of Az -Zahra.</p> - -<p>The reign of this royal scholar was peaceful and prosperous; but kingly -power tends to decline in libraries, and when Hakam ceased to build and -to annotate, and his kingdom devolved upon his son, the royal authority -passed not into the hands of the young Hisham, who was only nine years -of age at the time of his father’s death, but into those of the Sultana -Sobeyra and of her favorite, Ibn-abu-amir, who is known to later -generations by the proud title of Almanzor.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> - -<p>Ibn-abu-amir began his career as a poor student at the University of -Cordova. Of respectable birth and parentage, filled with noble ambition, -born for empire and command, the youth became a court scribe, and, -attracting the attention of the all-powerful Sobeyra by the charm of his -manner and his nobility of bearing, he soon rose to power and -distinction in the palace; and as Master of the Mint, and afterward as -Commander of the City Guard, he found means to render himself -indispensable, as he had always been agreeable, to the harem. Nor was -the young courtier less acceptable to the Caliph. Intrusted by him on a -critical occasion with the supremely difficult mission of comptrolling -the expenditure of the army in Africa, where the general-in-chief had -proved over-prodigal or over-rapacious, Ibn-abu-amir acquitted himself -with such extraordinary skill and tact that he won the respect and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_24" id="page_24">{24}</a></span> -admiration, not only of the Caliph whose treasury he protected, but of -the general whose extravagance he checked, and even of the common -soldiers of the army, who are not usually drawn to a civilian -superintendent, or to a reforming treasury official from headquarters. -The expenses were curtailed; but the campaign was successful, and the -victorious general and the yet more victorious Cadi shared on equal -terms the honor of a triumphal entry into the capital.</p> - -<p>On the death of Hakam, in September, 976, Ibn-abu-amir showed no less -than his usual tact and vigor in suppressing a palace intrigue and -placing the young Hisham on the throne of his father. The Caliph was but -twelve years of age, and his powerful guardian, supported by the harem, -beloved by the people, and feared by the vanquished conspirators, took -upon himself the entire administration of the kingdom, repealed some -obnoxious taxes, reformed the organization of the army, and sought to -confirm and establish his power by a war against his neighbors in the -north. The peace which had so long prevailed between Moor and Christian -was thus rudely broken, and the Moslem once more carried his arms across -the northern frontier. The campaign was eminently successful. -Ibn-abu-amir, who contrived not only to vanquish his enemies but to -please his friends, became at once the master of the palace and of the -army. The inevitable critic was found to say that the victor was a -diplomatist and a lawyer rather than a great general; but he was -certainly a great leader of men, and if he was at any time unskilled in -the conduct of a battle, he owned from the first that higher skill of -knowing whom to trust with command. Nor was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_25" id="page_25">{25}</a></span> he less remarkable for his -true military virtue of constant clemency to the vanquished.</p> - -<p>In two years after the death of Hakam, Almanzor had attained the -position of the greatest of the <i>maires du palais</i> of early France, and -he ruled all Muhammadan Spain in the name of young Hisham, whose throne -he forbore to occupy and whose person was safe in his custody. But if -Almanzor was not a dilettante like Abdur Rahman II., nor a collector of -MSS. like Hakam, he was no vulgar fighter like the early kings of Leon -or of Navarre. A library of books accompanied him in all his campaigns; -literature, science, and the arts were munificently patronized at court; -a university or high school was established at Cordova, where the great -mosque was enlarged for the accommodation of an increasing number of -worshipers. Yet in one thing did he show his weakness. He could afford -to have no enemies.</p> - -<p>Though the idol of the army, the lover of the queen, the prefect of the -city, the guardian of the person of the Caliph, Almanzor yet found it -necessary to conciliate the theologians; and the theologians were only -conciliated by the delivery of the great library of Hakam into the hands -of the Ulema. The shelves were ransacked for works on astrology and -magic, on natural philosophy, and the forbidden sciences, and after an -inquisition as formal and as thorough and probably no more intelligent -than that which was conducted by the curate and the barber in the house -of Don Quixote, tens of thousands of priceless volumes were publicly -committed to the flames.</p> - -<p>Nor did Almanzor neglect the more practical or more direct means of -maintaining his power. The army was -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_26" id="page_26">{26}</a></span>filled with bold recruits from Africa, and renegades from the Christian -provinces of the north. The organization and equipment of the regiments -was constantly improved; and the troops were ever loyal to their -civilian benefactor. Ghalib, the Commander-in-chief, having sought to -overthrow the supreme administrator of the kingdom, was vanquished and -slain in battle (981). The Caliph was practically a prisoner in his own -palace, and was encouraged by his guardian and his friends, both in the -harem and in the mosque, to devote himself entirely to a religious life, -and abandon the administration of his kingdom to the Hájib, who now, -feeling himself entirely secure at home, turned his arms once more -against the Christians on the northern frontiers; and it was on his -return to Cordova, after his greeted with the well-known title of -Almanzor.</p> - -<p>In 984 he compelled Bermudo II. of Leon to become his tributary. In 985 -he turned his attention to Catalonia, and after a brief but brilliant -campaign he made himself master of Barcelona. Two years later (987), -Bermudo having dismissed his Moslem guards and thrown off his allegiance -to Cordova, Almanzor marched into the northwest, and after sacking -Coimbra, overran Leon, entirely destroyed the capital city, and -compelled the Christian king to take refuge in the wild fastnesses of -the Asturias.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile, at Cordova, the power of Almanzor became year by year more -complete. Victorious in Africa as well as in Spain, this heaven-born -general was as skillful in the council chamber as be was in the field. -The iron hand was ever clad in a silken glove. His ambition was content -with the substance of power, and with the gradual assumption</p> - -<div class="figcenter"><br /><a name="map" id="map"></a> -<a href="images/map.jpg"> -<img src="images/map.jpg" width="550" alt="[Image unavailble.]" /></a><br /> -<span class="nonvis"> -[<a href="images/map.jpg">View larger size map.</a>]<br /> -[<a href="images/map_lg.jpg">View largest size map.</a>] -</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_27" id="page_27">{27}</a></span></p> - -<p class="nind">of any external show of supreme authority in the State. In 991 he -abandoned the office and title of Hajib to his son, Abdul Malik. In 992 -his seal took the place of that of the monarch on all documents of -State. In 993 he assumed the royal cognomen of Mowayad. Two years later -he arrogated to himself alone the title of Said; and in 996 he ventured -a step further, and assumed the title of Malik Karim, or king.</p> - -<p>But in 996 Almanzor was at length confronted by a rival. Sobeyra, the -Navarrese Sultana, once his mistress, was now his deadly enemy, and she -had determined that the queen, and not the minister, should reign -supreme in the palace. Almanzor was to be destroyed. Hakam, a feeble and -effeminate youth, was easily won over by the harem, who urged him to -show the strength that he was so far from possessing, by espousing the -cause of his mother against his guardian. The queen was assured of -victory. The treasury was at the disposal of the conspirators. A -military rival was secretly summoned from Africa. The minister was -banished from the royal presence. The palace was already jubilant.</p> - -<p>But the palace reckoned without Almanzor. Making his way into Hakam’s -chamber, more charming, more persuasive, more resolute than ever, -Almanzor prevailed upon the Caliph not only to restore him to his -confidence, but to empower him, by a solemn instrument under the royal -sign-manual, to assume the government of the kingdom. Sobeyra, defeated -but unharmed by her victorious and generous rival, retired to a -cloister; and Almanzor, contemptuously leaving to one of his lieutenants -the task of vanquishing his subsidized rival in Africa, set forth upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_28" id="page_28">{28}</a></span> -the most memorable of all his many expeditions against Christian Spain -(July 3, 997).</p> - -<p>Making his way, at the head of an army, through Lusitania into far away -Galicia, he took Corunna, and destroyed the great Christian church and -city of Santiago de Compostella, the most sacred spot in all Spain, and -sent the famous bells which had called so many Christian pilgrims to -prayer and praise to be converted into lamps to illuminate the Moslem -worshipers in the mosque at Cordova.</p> - -<p>Five years later, in 1002, after an uncertain battle, Almanzor died in -harness, if not actually in the ranks, bowed down by mortal disease, -unhurt by the arm of the enemy. The relief of the Christians at his -death was unspeakable; and is well expressed, says Mr. Poole, in the -simple comment of the Monkish annalist, “In 1002 died Almanzor, and was -buried in Hell.”</p> - -<p>In force of character, in power of persuasion, in tact, in vigor, in -that capacity for command that is only found in noble natures, Almanzor -has no rival among the Regents of Spain. His rise is a romance; his -power a marvel; his justice a proverb. He was a brilliant financier; a -successful favorite; a liberal patron; a stern disciplinarian; a -heaven-born courtier; an accomplished general; and no one of the great -commanders of Spain, not Gonsalvo de Aguilar himself, was more uniformly -successful in the field than this lawyer’s clerk of Cordova.</p> - -<p>Hisham, in confinement at Az Zahra, was still the titular Caliph of the -West, but Almanzor was succeeded as commander-in-chief and virtual ruler -of the country by his favorite son, his companion-in-arms, and the hero -of an African campaign, Abdul Malik Almudaffar, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_29" id="page_29">{29}</a></span> Hajib of 991. But -the glory of Cordova had departed. Abdul Malik indeed ruled in his -father’s place for six years. But on his death, in 1008, he was -succeeded by his half-brother, Abdur Rahman, who, as the son of a -Christian princess, was mistrusted both by the palace and by the people; -and the country became a prey to anarchy.</p> - -<p>Cordova was sacked. The Caliph was imprisoned; rebellions, poisonings, -crucifixions, civil war, bigotry and skepticism, the insolence of -wealth, the insolence of power, a Mahdi and a Wahdi, Christian alliance, -Berber domination, Slav mutineers, African interference, puppet princes, -all these things vexed the Spanish Moslems for thirty disastrous years; -while a number of weak but independent sovereignties arose on the ruins -of the great Caliphate of the West.</p> - -<p>The confused annals of the last thirty years of the rule of the -Ommeyades are mere records of blood and of shame, a pitiful story of -departed greatness.</p> - -<p>On the death of Hisham II., the Romulus Augustulus of Imperial Cordova, -Moslem Spain was divided into a number of petty kingdoms, Malaga, -Algeciras, Cordova, Seville, Toledo, Badajoz, Saragossa, the Balearic -Islands, Valencia, Murcia, Almeria, and Granada. And each of these -cities and kingdoms made unceasing war one upon another.</p> - -<p>From the death of Hisham, if not from the death of Almanzor, the centre -of interest in the history of Spain is shifted from Cordova to Castile.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_30" id="page_30">{30}</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III<br /><br /> -<span class="chead">MEDIEVAL SPAIN</span></h2> -<p class="chead2">THE FOUNDERS OF MODERN SPAIN—THE KINGDOMS OF THE ASTURIAS AND OF -LEON—THE DEFEAT AT RONCESVALLES—THE CID CAMPEADOR</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Crescent had conquered, but the Cross endured. The refuge of the -latter was in the Asturias, There—eight or ten years after the death of -the last of the Gothic kings—Pelayo, one of the early heroes of Spanish -history, was reigning over refugees from Moslem rule. It was these -refugees who laid the foundation of modern Spain, and it is related that -in their fastness at Covadonga, thirty of them, with Pelayo at their -head, actually routed, if they did not destroy, an entire army of four -hundred thousand Moslem besiegers.</p> - -<p>The story is of course mythological, but the good fortune of Pelayo did -much to kindle the national spirit by which ultimately Spain was -conquered for the Spaniards, and thus the story, if critically false, -becomes metaphorically true.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p>Nor [says Burke] do the Arabs seem to have made any attempt to retrieve -or avenge the fortunes of the day. Well satisfied, no doubt, with their -unopposed dominion over the rich plains of the genial south country, -they were<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_31" id="page_31">{31}</a></span> willing to abandon the bleak and inhospitable mountains to -their wild inhabitants and the emboldened refugees whom they sheltered. -Be the reason what it may, Pelayo seems to have had peace all the days -of his life after his victory at Covadonga in 718. Prudently confining -his attention to the development of his little kingdom, he reigned, it -is said, for nineteen years at Cangas, and, dying in 737, was peacefully -succeeded by his son Favila.</p> - -<p>Pelayo, no doubt, was but a robber chieftain, a petty mountain prince, -and the legends of his royal descent are of later date, and of obviously -spurious manufacture; but Pelayo needs no tinsel to adorn his crown. He -was the founder of the Spanish monarchy.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile, in the recesses of the Pyrenees, a second Christian kingdom, -that of Navarre, had been founded by Garcias Iniguez, which, together -with Catalonia and Aragon, Charlemagne a little later (778) entered and -subdued. In repassing the Pyrenees, however, the Navarrese, led by -Fortun Garcias, fell upon the Frankish troops and cut to pieces the -rearguard, and even, it is said, the main body of the army.</p> - -<p>How far the Spanish Christians were aided, as it has been stated they -were, by the Moors, it is impossible to discover. The fact of such an -alliance, in itself sufficiently improbable, is quite unnecessary to -explain the ever-famous defeat at Roncesvalles.</p> - -<p>Nor can we speak with much greater confidence of the prowess or even of -the existence of the equally famous Roland, in the ranks of the invading -or evading army; or of that of the no less celebrated Bernardo del -Carpio in the ranks of the pursuers.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_32" id="page_32">{32}</a></span></p> - -<p>Taillefer, who sang the song of Roland upon the battlefield of Hastings, -and Terouldes, whose thirteenth century epic suggested the poems of -Pulci, of Boiardo, and of greatest Ariosto, all these have made Roland -one of the favorite heroes of the Middle Ages. But in the story, as it -is told in the Spanish ballads, it is Bernardo del Carpio, the nephew of -the chaste but pusillanimous Alfonso, who is the true hero of -Roncesvalles, and who not only repulsed the host of Charlemagne, but -caught up the invulnerable Roland in his arms, and squeezed him to death -before his army. No carpet knight or courtier was Bernardo, but a true -Cantabrian mountaineer.</p> - -<p>In 790 Alfonso II., the great-grandson of the great Pelayo, then king of -Oviedo, repulsed the Mussulman army with great slaughter, and abolished -the ignominious tribute of one hundred virgins, an annual tribute paid -to the Muhammadan ruler, fifty virgins being of noble and fifty of base -or ignoble birth. From this circumstance is derived, by some historians, -his surname of the Chaste; attributed by others to his having made a -solemn vow of virginity, and observed it, even in marriage. This vow, -and the austere temper in which it probably originated, had considerable -influence over Alfonso’s life. He so deeply resented his sister Ximena’s -private marriage with a subject, the Count of Saldanha, that he shut her -up in a convent; and putting out her husband’s eyes, sentenced him to -perpetual imprisonment.</p> - -<p>The royal line of Navarre or Sobrarve was at this time extinct, Ximenes -Garcias, the grandson of Fortun Garcias, having died without children. -The nobles availed themselves of the opportunity to establish the famous -code en<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_33" id="page_33">{33}</a></span>titled “Los Fueros de Sobrarve”—the laws of Sobrarve—which -subsequently became the groundwork of the liberties of Aragon. Navarre -was soon afterward recovered by the Moors, and Sobrarve included in the -Spanish March.</p> - -<p>Alfonso ruled upward of fifty years. Incessant wars now followed between -the followers of the Cross and the Crescent, and a frenzy for martyrdom -on the part of the Christians had to be repressed by a Christian -archbishop at the solemn request of the Cadis.</p> - -<p>Garcia of Oviedo died without children shortly after his accession; when -his brother Ordoño II. reunited the whole of his father’s dominions. He -transferred the seat of government to Leon, and altered the title of -King of Oviedo into that of King of Leon.</p> - -<p>This Ordoño abandoned the peaceful policy of his greater father, and -undertook many expeditions with varying and uncertain success against -the Arabs. He plundered Merida in 917, and routed the Berbers in -Southern Spain in 918. Yet three years later, at Val de Junqueras (921), -near Pamplona, the Christians suffered disastrous defeat. The usual -rebellion at home was appeased by the treacherous execution or murder of -no less than four counts of Castile in 922, and was followed by the -king’s death in 923.</p> - -<p>Of Fruela II. (923-925), Alfonso IV. (925-930), and Ramiro II. -(930-950), little need be said, but that they lived and reigned as kings -of Leon.</p> - -<p>To Ramiro, however, is due, at least, the honor of an authentic victory -over the Moslem forces of the great Caliph, Abdur Rahman an Nasir (939), -at Simancas, and afterward in the same year at Alhandega.</p> - -<p>Ramiro, after the usual rebellion, abdicated, in 950,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_34" id="page_34">{34}</a></span> in favor of his -son Ordoño—who had married Urraca, daughter of the principal rebel of -the day, Fernan Gonzalez, count of Castile—and who succeeded his father -as Ordoño III.</p> - -<p>But decapitation was a far more certain way of suppressing rebellion -than matrimony; and Fernan Gonzalez lived to intrigue against his -daughter and her royal husband in favor of Sancho, a younger brother of -the king. Ordoño, however, held his own against his brother, and -revenged himself on his father-in-law, by repudiating his wife; who, -with her personal and family grievances, was promptly <i>acquired</i> by -Sancho, who succeeded, on his brother’s death, to the crown of which he -had failed to possess himself by force. But even as a legitimate -sovereign, Sancho, surnamed the Fat, was not allowed to reign in peace. -He was driven from his kingdom by that most versatile rebel, Count -Fernan Gonzalez, and sought refuge at the court of his uncle Garcia of -Navarre at Pamplona. Thence, in company with Garcia, and his mother -Theuda, he journeyed to the court of the Caliph at Cordova, where the -distinguished visitors were received with great show of welcome by Abdur -Rahman at Az Zahra; and where Hasdai, the Jew, the most celebrated -physician of the day, succeeded in completely curing Sancho of the -distressing malady—a morbid and painful corpulency—which incapacitated -him from the active discharge of his royal duties.</p> - -<p>The study and practice of medicine were alike disregarded by the rude -dwellers in Leon; but the Cordovan doctor, surpassing in his success, if -not in his skill, the most celebrated physicians of the present day, -contrived to reduce the king’s overgrown bulk to normal proportions,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_35" id="page_35">{35}</a></span> -and restored him to his former activity and vigor, both of body and -mind. Nor was the skill of Hasdai confined to the practice of medicine. -An accomplished diplomatist, he negotiated a treaty with his Christian -patient, by which Sancho bound himself to give up ten frontier -fortresses to the Caliph, on his restoration to the crown of Leon, while -Don Garcia and Dona Theuda undertook to invade Castile in order to -divert the attention of the common foe, the ever-ready Fernan Gonzalez.</p> - -<p>In due time Sancho, no longer the fat, but the hale, returned to Leon at -the head of a Moslem army, placed at his disposal by his noble host at -Cordova, drove out the usurper, Ordoño the Bad, and reigned in peace in -his Christian dominions. The visit of this dispossessed Ordoño to the -court of the Caliph Hakam at Cordova, in 962, is an interesting specimen -of the international politics or policy of his age and country.</p> - -<p>As Sancho had recovered his throne, by the aid of Abdur Rahman, so -Ordoño sought to dethrone him and make good his own pretensions by the -aid of Hakam. The Caliph, already harassed by Fernan Gonzalez, and -doubting the honesty of King Sancho, was not ill-pleased to have another -pretender in hand, and Ordoño was invited to Cordova, and received by -Hakam in the palace at Az Zahra with the utmost pomp and display. The -Leonese prince craved in humble language the assistance of the Moslem, -and professed himself his devoted friend, ally, and vassal; and he was -permitted to remain at the Court of Hakam, to await the issue of events -in the north. Some few days afterward a treaty was solemnly signed -between the Caliph and the Pretender, and once<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_36" id="page_36">{36}</a></span> more the glories of Az -Zahra were displayed to the eyes of the astonished barbarian from Leon.</p> - -<p>Nor did the fame of these splendid ceremonies fail to reach Sancho in -the northwest; and his spirit of independence was considerably cooled by -the prospect of a Moslem army, headed by his cousin Ordoño, making its -appearance before his ill-defended frontiers. The maneuver was -sufficiently familiar; and the reigning monarch lost no time in -disassociating himself from the hostile proceedings of Fernan Gonzalez; -and sending an important embassy to Hakam at Cordova, to assure him of -his unwavering loyalty, he hastened to announce his readiness to carry -out to the letter all the provisions of his recent treaty with the -Caliph. Hakam was satisfied. Ordoño languished disregarded at Cordova, -despised alike by Moslem and Christian, but unharmed and in safety as -the guest of the Arab. Sancho reigned in peace until 967, when he was -poisoned by the rebel count of the day, Sanchez of Galicia. His son, who -was known as Ramiro III., an unwise and incapable monarch, reigned at -Leon from 967 to 982, without extending the possessions or the influence -of the Christians in Spain; and Bermudo II., who usurped the throne, was -no match for the fiery Almanzor, who ravaged his kingdom, took -possession of his capital, and compelled the Christian Court to take -refuge in the wild mountains of the Asturias, and once more to pay -tribute to the Moslem at Cordova.</p> - -<p>Bermudo died in 999; and on the death of Almanzor, three years later, -the Christian fortunes under the young Alfonso V., who had succeeded his -father Bermudo, at the age of only five, began to mend. Cordova was -given<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_37" id="page_37">{37}</a></span> up to anarchy. The Moslem troops retired from Northern Spain. -Leon became once more the abode of the king and his court, and though -Alfonso gave his sister in marriage to Mohammed, an Emir or Vali of -Toledo, he extended his Christian dominion in more than one foray -against the declining power of the Moslem.</p> - -<p>Alfonso V., who is known in Spanish history as the Restorer of Leon, -sought to consolidate his own power, as he certainly exalted that of his -clergy, by the summoning of a Council, after the manner of the -Visigothic Councils of Toledo. The Council met at the city of Leon on -the 1st of August, 1020, in the Cathedral Church of St. Mary. The king -and his queen Elvira presided, and all the bishops and the principal -abbots and nobles of the kingdom took their seats in the assembly. And -if there was no Leander, nor Isidore, nor Julian to impose his will upon -king or council, the interests of the Church were not entirely -overlooked. Of the fifty-eight decrees and canons of this Council, the -first seventeen relate exclusively to matters ecclesiastical, the next -twenty are laws for the government of the kingdom, the remaining -thirty-one are municipal ordinances for the city of Leon.</p> - -<p>But Alfonso V. was not exempted from the usual rebellions, and -marriages, and assassinations, and executions, which constituted the -politics of the day. Garcia, the last Count of Castile, was -treacherously slain in 1026; and Alfonso was himself more honorably -killed in an attack upon a Moslem town in Lusitania in 1027.</p> - -<p>The life of Fernan Gonzalez, the Warwick of medieval Spain, is almost as -much overlaid with romantic<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_38" id="page_38">{38}</a></span> legends as that of Roderic or Roland. The -lives and deeds of his ancestors, and the origin of his ever-celebrated -County of Castile, are involved in the utmost confusion and obscurity; -but Fernan Gonzalez himself is at least a historical personage. He -married Sancha, daughter of Sancho Abarca of Navarre, and their son, -Garcia Fernandez, succeeded him as hereditary Count of Castile.</p> - -<p>As early as the year 905, Sancho, a Christian chief of whose ancestors -and predecessors much has been written, much surmised, and nothing is -certainly known, was king or ruler of the little border state of -Navarre. A prudent as well as a warlike sovereign, he fortified his -capital city of Pamplona, and when his son, in alliance with Ordoño II. -of Leon, was defeated by the Moslems at Val de Junquera, the Navarrese -not only made good their retreat to that celebrated fortress, but -succeeded in course of a short time in driving the Moslems out of their -country. The grandson of this successful general was Sancho El Mayor—or -the Great—the most powerful of the Christian princes in Spain -(970-1035). Besides Navarre and Sobrarve he held the lordship of Aragon; -in 1026, in right of his wife, Muña Elvira, he became king or count of -Castile; while his successful interference in the affairs of Leon made -him virtual master of all Christian Spain outside the limits of the -quasi Frankish county of Catalonia.</p> - -<p>Sancho the Great died in 1035, when his territories were divided, -according to his will, among his four sons; and from this time forth the -history of Navarre, so far as it is not included in the history of -Aragon, of Castile,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_39" id="page_39">{39}</a></span> and of France, is a confused and dreary record of -family quarrels, of plots and assassinations, of uncertain alliances, of -broken treaties. The marriage of the Princess Berengaria with Richard I. -of England, in 1191, failed to secure for Sancho V. the influence that -he had hoped to secure: and with Sancho VI., who died in 1234, the male -line of the house of Sancho Iniguez or Inigo, the founder of Navarre, -was extinct. A French prince was chosen by the Navarrese to rule over -them. And from the death of Sancho VI., in 1234, to the death of Charles -the Bad, in 1387—one hundred and fifty years—the history of Navarre is -that of France.</p> - -<p>Bermudo III., who succeeded, on the death of his father, Alfonso V., in -1027, as king of Leon, was at once attacked by his powerful neighbors, -and the little States were distracted by family quarrels and civil war -until the death of Bermudo in battle, in 1037, when the male line of the -house of Leon became extinct.</p> - -<p>On the death of Bermudo III. in 1037, Ferdinand I., king of Castile, the -second son of Sancho the Great, succeeded to the kingdom of Leon, and -became, after over twenty years of civil war (1058), the most powerful -monarch in all Spain. The Moslems offered but an uncertain and -half-hearted resistance to his arms. For while the Christians were -growing strong, the Moslem empire was already declining to its fall. And -the decay of the Caliphate of Cordova, and the internal dissensions of -the Arabs, enabled Ferdinand not only to recover all the territory that -had been conquered by Almanzor, but to pursue the disheartened Moslem as -far as Valencia, Toledo, and Coimbra. Ferdinand confirmed the Fueros of -Al<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_40" id="page_40">{40}</a></span>fonso V., and summoned a council at Coyanza (Valencia de Don Juan), -over which, with his Queen Sancha, he presided in 1050. All the bishops -and abbots, together with a certain number of lay nobles thus assembled -<i>ad restaurationem nostræ Christianitatis</i>, proceeded to make decrees or -canons, after the manner of the Councils of Toledo, of which the first -seven were devoted to matters ecclesiastical, and the remainder -connected with the civil government of the country. With territories -thus recovered and augmented, with cities restored and fortified, -Ferdinand determined to excel all his Christian predecessors, and to -emulate the noble example of the Arab, by enriching his dominion, not -with treasures of art or literature, with schools, with palaces, with -manuscripts—but with the bones of as many martyrs as he could collect.</p> - -<p>An army was raised for this sacred purpose, and the country of the Moors -was once more invaded and harried by the Christian arms. Ibn Obeid of -Seville, learning the objects of the invasion, offered Ferdinand every -facility for research in his city; and a solemn commission of bishops -and nobles were admitted within the walls to seek the body of Justus, -one of the martyrs of Diocletian. But in spite of all the diligence of -the Christians, and all the goodwill of the Arabs, the sacred remains -could nowhere be found. At length the spirit of Saint Isidore removed -the difficulty by appearing miraculously before the Commission, and -offering his own bones in the place of those of Justus, which were -destined, said he, to remain untouched at Seville. The Commission was -satisfied. And the body of the great Metropolitan, “fra<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_41" id="page_41">{41}</a></span>grant with -balsamic odors,” was immediately removed to the Church of St. John the -Baptist at Leon—to the great satisfaction of both Christians and Moors, -in 1063.</p> - -<p>It was on the occasion of the return of these blessed relics to the -Christian capital that Ferdinand proclaimed the future division of his -kingdom. For after all the success that had attended the Union of the -dominions of Leon and Castile under the sole authority of Ferdinand, who -rather perhaps for his sanctity than for his wisdom had earned the title -of the Great, the king made the same grievous mistake that his father -had done before him, in dividing his united territories at his death -(1065) among his sons and daughters. To Sancho, the eldest son, he left -the kingdom of Castile; to Alfonso, Leon and the Asturias; to Garcia, -Galicia; to his younger daughter, Elvira, the town and district of Toro, -and to her elder sister Urraca the famous border city of Zamora, the -most debatable land in all Spain, and a strange heritage for a young -lady. Thus Castile and Leon were once more separated; and the usual -civil wars and family intrigues naturally followed. Alfonso, though not -at first the most successful, survived all his rivals, and was at length -proclaimed king of Leon and Castile.</p> - -<p>But the successes and glories of Alfonso VI., such as they were, are -overshadowed by the prowess of a Castilian hero, whose exploits form one -of the most favorite chapters in the national history of Spain—the -Christian knight with the Moslem title—Ruy Diaz, <span class="smcap">The Cid</span>.</p> - -<p>Two years before William of Normandy landed at Hastings, a Castilian -knight, a youth who had already won for<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_42" id="page_42">{42}</a></span> himself the proud title of The -Challenger, from his reckless bravery and his success in single combat, -is found leading the royal armies of Sancho of Castile against the -enemy. The knight was Ruy Diaz de Bivar. The enemy was Alfonso VI. of -Leon, the brother of Sancho, who was endeavoring to reunite the -inheritance divided by his father, in the good old medieval fashion in -Spain.</p> - -<p>Of noble birth and parentage, a Castilian of the Castilians, Roderic or -Ruy Diaz was born at Bivar, near Burgos, about the year 1040. His -position in the army of Sancho was that of Alferez, in title the -Standard-bearer, in effect the major-general or second in command, if -not commander-in-chief of the king’s army.</p> - -<p>For seven years Alfonso of Leon and Sancho of Castile had been at war, -each seeking to destroy the other; and at length at Golpejara, near -Carrion, on the eve of what promised to be a decisive battle, a solemn -engagement was entered into by the brothers that whichever of the two -was worsted in the encounter should resign his kingdom to the other -without further bloodshed. The Castilians, in spite of Sancho and his -famous Champion, were defeated at Golpejara; and Alfonso of Leon, -foolishly trusting his brother’s word, took no heed to improve his -victory, and his unsuspecting army was overwhelmed the next day by the -Castilian troops under Ruy Diaz de Bivar, the author of this exceedingly -characteristic, if not entirely authentic piece of treachery.</p> - -<p>It is scarcely surprising that the Cid was not trusted by Alfonso of -Leon, when he, in his turn, succeeded to the crown of Castile. But for -the moment Alfonso was not only deprived of his throne and of his -liberty by his more<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_43" id="page_43">{43}</a></span> successful brother, but he was compelled to -purchase his life by a promise to enter the monastery of Sahagun. -Disregarding this vow, and making good his escape to Toledo, the royal -refugee was received with the usual hospitality of the Arab by El Mamun, -the Moslem ruler of the city, who sheltered and entertained him, as he -himself admitted, “like a son.”</p> - -<p>Sancho meanwhile had turned his arms against his brother Garcia, whom he -dispossessed of his territories; against his sister Elvira, who met with -a similar fate, and, lastly, against his sister Urraca, who withstood -him boldly in her city of Zamora. And not only did this time-honored -fortress resist the attack of Sancho and his wily major-general, but the -king was slain outside the walls of the city by one of his sister’s -knights. Alfonso thus not only recovered his own kingdom of Leon, but, -swearing perpetual friendship with El Mamun of Toledo, he was elected -king of Castile by the Commons assembled at Burgos; and the defeated -refugee of 1071 found himself, in less than two years, the greatest -prince in Christian Spain; Alfonso the Sixth of Leon and of Castile.</p> - -<p>Yet the legend runs that Alfonso was compelled to undergo the indignity -of a public examination, and a triple oath before the knights and nobles -assembled at Burgos, to the effect that he had had no share in the -murder of King Sancho; and the oath was administered by Ruy Diaz of -Bivar, the companion in arms of the Castilian king, sometime the -faithless enemy of Carrion, but now the acknowledged leader of the -Castilian nobility.</p> - -<p>Alfonso of Leon may have forgiven the treachery in the field, but he -never forgot the insult in the Council. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_44" id="page_44">{44}</a></span> restrained his indignation, -however, and was even induced by reasons of State to grant to the bold -Castilian lord the hand of his cousin Ximena in marriage, and to intrust -him with the command of an expedition into Andalusia. But the royal -favor was of brief duration; and in 1081 we find that Roderic, partly -owing to the intrigues of Garcia Ordonez, and partly to the enduring -enmity of the king, was banished from the Christian dominions.</p> - -<p>Of all the petty sovereignties that came into existence on the breaking -up of the Ommeyad Caliphate of Cordova, that of Moctadir, the chief of -the Ben-i-hud of Saragossa, was the most powerful in Northern or Central -Spain; and at the Moslem court of Saragossa, Ruy Diaz, with his fame and -his followers, was warmly welcomed (1081) by Moctadir as a Said or -Cid—a lord or leader of the Arabs. He had been driven out of Castile by -Alfonso. He found a home and honorable command at Saragossa. So long as -he could make war upon his neighbors, all countries were alike to -Roderic of Bivar. Nor was it long before his prowess brought honor and -profit to Moctadir, or, rather, to his son and successor, Motamin.</p> - -<p>Ramon Berenguer III., count of Barcelona, was engaged, like other -Christian princes of his time, in chronic warfare with his Moslem -neighbors; and Motamin, with his Castilian Cid, marching against the -Catalans, defeated the Christians with great slaughter at Almenara, near -Lerida, and brought Ramon Berenguer a prisoner to Saragossa (1081), -where the victorious Cid was loaded with presents by the grateful -Motamin, and invested with an authority in the kingdom subordinate only -to that of the king himself. Two years later (1083) an expedition was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_45" id="page_45">{45}</a></span> -undertaken by the Moslems, under Roderic, against their Christian -neighbors in Aragon. King Sancho Ramirez was completely defeated by the -Castilian champion, who returned once more to Saragossa loaded with -booty and renown. In 1084 the Cid seems to have paid a friendly visit to -the court of Alfonso VI. But although he was apparently well received, -he suspected treachery, and, returning to the court of the Moslem, once -more took service under the delighted Motamin. His next campaign, -undertaken in the following year, was not against any Christian power, -but against the hostile Moslems of northern Valencia, and was crowned -with the usual success. Motamin died in 1085, but the Cid remained in -the service of his son and successor, Mostain, fighting against -Christian and Moslem as occasion offered, partly for the King of -Saragossa, but chiefly for the personal advantage of Ruy Diaz of Bivar. -A stranger national hero it is hard to imagine! Nor were his subsequent -proceedings in any degree less strange.</p> - -<p>Al Mamun, the host and protector of Alfonso VI., had died in 1075, -leaving, his grandson, Cadir, to succeed him as sovereign of Toledo. -Abdulaziz, the viceroy of the subject city of Valencia, took advantage -of the weakness of the young prince to declare himself independent, and -placing himself under the protection of the Christians, undertook to pay -a large subsidy to Alfonso VI. in return for his recognition and -support. The subsidy was punctually paid, and, in spite of a present of -no less than a hundred thousand pieces of gold handed over by Moctadir -of Saragossa to Alfonso as the price of Valencia, Abdulaziz retained his -hold of the city until his death in 1085. On<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_46" id="page_46">{46}</a></span> this, numerous pretenders -to the government immediately arose, including Moctadir of Saragossa, a -purchaser for value, and the two sons of Abdulaziz; while Alfonso took -advantage of the confusion that ensued to persuade Cadir to surrender -Toledo, much coveted by the Christian king, and to accept, or, more -exactly, to retain, for himself the sovereignty of Valencia, under the -humiliating protection of Castile. Alfonso cared nothing that Toledo was -the inheritance of his youthful ally, the home of his old protector, -when he himself was a hunted refugee. He cared nothing that the -Valencians were hostile to Cadir, and that powerful neighbors were -prepared to dispute his possession. He cared nothing that Moctadir, who -had actually purchased the city from Alfonso himself, was on the way to -make good his claim. A treaty was forced upon Cadir by which Toledo was -surrendered to Alfonso VI. (1085), and the Christian king was bound to -place and maintain the unhappy prince in possession of his own -subordinate city of Valencia.</p> - -<p>Toledo thus became the capital of Christian Spain; and the evicted -sovereign, escorted by a large force of Castilian troops under Alvar -Fanez, made his sad and solemn entry into Valencia, despised at once by -the citizens of Toledo, whom he had abandoned to the Christian -sovereign, and by the citizens of Valencia, where his power was -maintained by Christian lances. And costly indeed was this Christian -maintenance. Six hundred pieces of gold is said to have been the daily -allowance of the army of Castilian mercenaries; and the taxes that were -necessitated by their presence only added to the unpopularity of the -government. Many of Cadir’s Moslem subjects fled from the city; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_47" id="page_47">{47}</a></span> -their place was taken by his Christian supporters or pensioners, whose -rapacity was, if possible, exceeded by their cruelty. But the coming of -the Almoravides gave a new turn to the fortunes of the city. Alvar Fanez -and his knights were recalled by Alfonso, and after the defeat of the -Christians at Zalaca, in October, 1086, Cadir found himself threatened -with immediate expulsion by his own citizens, supported by Mondhir of -Lerida, the uncle of Mostain of Saragossa. In this difficulty he once -more sought the protection of Christian lances, and applied for aid to -the Cid, who immediately advanced on Valencia.</p> - -<p>An intriguer, at all times and places, Roderic promised his support to -Cadir in return for admission within the walls. He entered into a formal -treaty with Mostain that the city should be his, if all the booty were -handed over to the Campeador; and he sent envoys to Alfonso to assure -him that in all these forays and alliances he thought only of the -advantage of Christendom and the honor of Castile. Mondhir, overawed by -the appearance of the allied army from Saragossa, hastily retired from -before Valencia, where Mostain and his Christian Said were welcomed as -deliverers by Cadir.</p> - -<p>But although the Cid imposed a tribute upon the unhappy Valencians, he -failed to give over the city to Mostain, and assuring Cadir of his -constant support, as long as a monthly allowance of ten thousand golden -dinars was punctually paid, he withdrew himself from the remonstrances -of the disappointed Mostain—to whom he continued to protest his -continued devotion—on the plea of a necessary visit to his Christian -sovereign in Castile, to explain or excuse his position, and to engage -some Cas<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_48" id="page_48">{48}</a></span>tilian troops for his army. Mostain, during his absence, -perceiving that he could not count upon so versatile and so ambitious a -Said in the matter of the handing over of Valencia, entered into an -alliance with his old enemy, Ramon Berenguer, of Barcelona; and the -Catalans had actually laid siege to the city when the return of the Cid -induced them to abandon their trenches and retire to Barcelona.</p> - -<p>If the Cid was a hero of romance, he did not wield his sword without the -most magnificent remuneration. At this period of his career (1089-92), -in addition to the eighty thousand golden pieces received from Ramon -Berenguer, he is said to have drawn fifty thousand from the son of -Mondhir, one hundred and twenty thousand from Cadir of Valencia, ten -thousand from Albarracin, ten thousand from Alpuente, six thousand from -Murviedro, six thousand from Segorbe, four thousand from Jerica, and -three thousand from Almenara.</p> - -<p>With such an amount of personal tribute, the Cid cannot, says Lafuente, -have been greatly inconvenienced by the action of Alfonso VI. in -despoiling him of his estates. Supporting his army of seven thousand -chosen followers on the rich booty acquired in his daily forays upon -Eastern Spain, from Saragossa to Alicante; regardless of Christian -rights, but the special scourge of the Moslems; no longer a Saragossan -general, but a private adventurer, the Cid could afford to quarrel at -once with Mostain and with Alfonso, and to defy the combined forces of -Mondhir and Ramon Berenguer.</p> - -<p>The rivalry between the Cid and the Catalan was ever fierce in Eastern -Spain. The opposing armies met at Tebar<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_49" id="page_49">{49}</a></span> del Pinar in 1090, and although -the Cid was wounded in the battle, his army was completely successful. -Mondhir fled from the field; and Ramon Berenguer was once more a -prisoner in the hands of Roderic. Nor was the Christian count released -from a confinement more harsh than was generous or necessary until he -had given good security for the payment of the enormous ransom of eighty -thousand marks of gold.</p> - -<p>It is not easy, nor would it be fruitful, to follow the various -movements of the Cid at this period of his career. His quarrels and his -intrigues with Alfonso of Castile, with Cadir of Valencia, with the -various parties at the court of Saragossa, with Ramon Berenguer at -Barcelona, and even with the Genoese and Pisans, are neither easy nor -interesting to follow. But his principal objective was the rich city of -Valencia. Alfonso of Leon, ever jealous of his great and most -independent subject, resolved to thwart him in his design; and having -secured the co-operation of the Pisans and Genoese, who had arrived with -a fleet of four hundred vessels to assist the Cid, the king took -advantage of the absence of his rival on some foray to the north of -Saragossa to advance upon Valencia, and to push forward his operations -to the very walls of the city. Ruy Diaz riposted after his fashion.</p> - -<p>Leaving the Valencians to make good the defense of their own city, he -carried fire and sword into Alfonso’s peaceful dominions of Najera and -Calahorra, destroying all the towns, burning all the crops, slaughtering -the Christian inhabitants; and razing the important city of Logrono to -the ground. This savagery was completely successful, and met with no -reproach. The Cid is one of those fortu<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_50" id="page_50">{50}</a></span>nate heroes to whom all things -are permitted. His excesses are forgotten; his independence admired; his -boldness and his success are alone remembered. Alfonso, thus rudely -summoned to the north of the Peninsula, abruptly raised the siege of -Valencia.</p> - -<p>Nor was the king’s action at Valencia without a favorable influence upon -the fortunes of the Cid. Far from wresting the city from the grasp of -Roderic, Alfonso had rather precipitated the crisis which was ultimately -to lead to his triumphal entry as the independent ruler of the city. -Cadir was murdered by a hostile faction within the walls; and the Cid, -advancing with his usual prudence, spent some time in possessing himself -of the suburbs and the approaches to the city, before the siege was -commenced in good earnest, in July, 1093.</p> - -<p>The operations were carried on in the most ferocious fashion by the -attacking force. Roderic burned his prisoners alive from day to day -within the sight of the walls, or caused them to be torn in pieces by -his dogs under the very eyes of their fellow-townsmen.</p> - -<p>The blockaded city was soon a prey to the utmost horrors of famine. -Negotiation was fruitless. Succor came not. Neither Christian nor -Moslem, neither Alfonso the Castilian, nor Yusuf the Almoravide, nor -Mostain of Saragossa, appearing to defend or to relieve the city, -Valencia capitulated on the 15th of June, 1094.</p> - -<p>The Moslem commander, Ibn Jahaf, was burned alive. The Moslem -inhabitants were treated with scant consideration, and the Cid, as might -have been supposed, proclaimed himself sovereign of Valencia, -independent of either Christian Alfonso or Moorish Mostain; and at -Valencia he lived<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_51" id="page_51">{51}</a></span> and reigned until the day of his death, but five -years afterward, in 1099. His rule was often threatened by the -Almoravides; but as long as the champion lived they could effect no -entry within the walls of his city.</p> - -<p>For full three years after his death, moreover, his widow Ximena, and -his cousin Alvar Fanez, maintained a precarious sovereignty at Valencia. -At length, unsupported by Alfonso of Leon, and unable to stand alone in -the midst of the Moslems, they retired to Burgos, carrying with them the -body of the Cid embalmed in precious spices, borne, as of old, on his -faithful steed Babieca, to its last resting place in Castile. Valencia -was immediately occupied by the Almoravides, and became once more a -Moslem stronghold; nor did it finally pass into Christian hands until it -was taken by James the First of Aragon in 1238. The Cid was buried in -the Monastery of Cardena, near Burgos; and the body of his heroic wife, -Dona Ximena, who died in 1104, was laid by his side in the tomb.</p> - -<p>The legend of the marriage of the Cid’s daughters with the Infantes of -Carrion, of their desertion, and of the vengeance of the Cid upon their -unworthy husbands, is undoubtedly an invention of the Castilian -minstrels.</p> - -<p>The legend of the death of the Cid’s son at the battle of Consuegra is -certainly fallacious. There is no evidence that a son was ever born to -him at all. But he had undoubtedly two daughters, one of whom, -Christina, married Ramiro, Infante of Navarre, and the other, Maria, -became the countess of Ramon Berenguer III. of Barcelona. The issue of -Ramon Berenguer III. was a daughter who died childless, but a -granddaughter of Ramiro of Navarre mar<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_52" id="page_52">{52}</a></span>ried Sancho III. of Castile, -whose son, Alfonso VIII., was the grandfather both of St. Ferdinand and -of St. Louis. And thus in a double stream, through the royal houses of -Spain and of France, the blood of the Cid is found to flow in the veins -of his Majesty Alfonso XIII., the reigning king of Spain.</p> - -<p>To understand or appreciate the position that is occupied by the Cid in -Spanish history is at the present day supremely difficult. A medieval -condottiere in the service of the Moslem, when he was not fighting to -fill his own coffers with perfect impartiality against Moor or -Christian: banished as a traitor by his Castilian sovereign, and -constantly leading the forces of the Infidel against Aragon, against -Catalonia, and even against Castile, he has become the national hero of -Spain. Warring against the Moslem of Valencia, whom he pitilessly -despoiled, with the aid of the Moslem of Saragossa, whose cause he -cynically betrayed, while he yet owned a nominal allegiance to Alfonso -of Castile, whose territories he was pitilessly ravaging; retaining -conquered Valencia for his personal and private advantage, in despite of -Moslem or Christian kings, he has become the type of Christian loyalty -and Christian chivalry in Europe. Avaricious, faithless, cruel and bold, -a true soldier of fortune, the Cid still maintains a reputation which is -one of the enigmas of history.</p> - -<p>The three favorites of medieval Spanish romance, says Senor Lafuente, -Bernardo del Carpio, Fernan Gonzalez, and the Cid, have this at least in -common, that they were all at war with their lawful sovereigns, and -fought their battles independently of the crown. Hence their popularity -in Spain. The Castilians of the Middle Ages were so<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_53" id="page_53">{53}</a></span> devoted to their -independence, so proud of their Fueros, such admirers of personal -prowess, that they were disposed to welcome with national admiration -those heroes who sprang from the people, who defied and were ill-treated -by their kings.</p> - -<p>The theory is both ingenious and just, yet it by no means solves the -difficulty. Ruy Diaz of Bivar, who was one of the proudest nobles of -Castile, can scarcely be said to have sprung from the people, nor do we -clearly perceive why his long service under Moslem kings, even though he -was a rebel against his own sovereign, should have endeared him to the -Christian Spaniards, however independent or however democratic. Yet we -may learn at least from the character of the hero, ideal though it be, -that the medieval Castilians were no bigots, and that they were slaves -neither to their kings nor to their clergy.</p> - -<p>The people of Aragon no doubt held their king in a more distinctly -constitutional subjection. No Castilian chief-justice was found to call -the sovereign to order: no Privilege of Union legalized a popular war in -defense of popular liberties. But Roderic took the place of the -justiciary in legend, if not in history, when he administered the oath -to Alfonso at Burgos; and he invested himself with the privilege of -warring against an aggressive king, when he routed Alfonso’s forces, and -burned his cities, to requite him for his attack upon Valencia.</p> - -<p>It is this rebellious boldness which contributed no doubt very largely -to endear the Cid to his contemporaries. It is one of the most constant -characteristics of his career; one of the features that is portrayed -with equal clearness by the chroniclers and the ballad-makers of Spain. -For the Cid<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_54" id="page_54">{54}</a></span> is essentially a popular hero. His legendary presentment is -a kind of poetic protest against arbitrary regal power. The Cid ballads -are a pæan of triumphant democracy. The ideal Cid no doubt was evolved -in the course of the twelfth century; and by the end of the fifteenth -century, when the rule of kings and priests had become harder and -heavier in Spain, an enslaved people looked back with an envious -national pride to the Castilian hero who personified the freedom of -bygone days.</p> - -<p>The Cid is the only knight-errant that has survived the polished satire -of Cervantes. For his fame was neither literary nor aristocratic; but, -like the early Spanish proverbs, in which it is said he took so great a -delight, it was embedded deep in the hearts of the people.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> And -although the memory of his religious indifference may not have added to -his popularity in the sixteenth century in Spain, it is a part of his -character which must be taken into account in gauging the public opinion -of earlier days.</p> - -<p>From the close of the eighth century to the close of the fifteenth, the -Spanish people, Castilians and Aragonese, were, if anything, less -bigoted than the rest of Europe. The influence of their neighbors the -Moors, and of their Arab toleration, could not be without its effect -upon a people naturally free, independent, and self-reliant, and the -Cid, who was certainly troubled with no religious scruples in the course -of his varied career, and who, according to a popular legend, affronted -and threatened the Pope on his<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_55" id="page_55">{55}</a></span> throne in St Peter’s, on account of some -fancied slight,<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> could never have been the hero of a nation of bigots. -The degenerate Visigoths from the time of Reccared the Catholic to the -time of Roderic the Vanquished could never have produced a Cid. Yet, -even in the dark days of Erwig and Egica, there was found a Julian, who -boldly maintained the national independence against the pretensions of -the Pope of Rome. For a thousand years after the landing of St. -Paul—if, indeed, he ever landed upon the coast—the Spanish Church was, -perhaps, the most independent in Europe. The royal submission to the -Papal authority, first by Sancho I. of Aragon, in 1071, and afterward by -Alfonso VI. of Leon, in 1085, in the matter of the Romish Ritual, was -distinctly unpopular. Peter II. found no lack of recruits for the army -that he led against the Papal troops in Languedoc, and King James I., -the most popular of the kings of Aragon, cut out the tongue of a -meddlesome bishop who had presumed to interfere in his private affairs -(1246). It was not until the Inquisition was forced upon United Spain by -Isabella the Catholic, and the national lust for the plunder of -strangers was aroused by the destruction of Granada, that the Spaniard -became a destroyer of heretics. It was not until the spoliation<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_56" id="page_56">{56}</a></span> and the -banishment of Jews and Moriscos, and the opening of a new world of -heathen treasure on the discovery of America, that the Castilian, who -had always been independent himself, became intolerant of the -independence of others. Then, indeed, he added the cruelty of the priest -to the cruelty of the soldier, and wrapping himself in the cloak of a -proud and uncompromising national orthodoxy, became the most ferocious -bigot in two unhappy worlds.</p> - -<p>But in the beginning it was not so. And if the Cid could possibly have -been annoyed by Torquemada, his knights would have hanged the Inquisitor -upon the nearest tree. No priests’ man, in good sooth, was Roderic of -Bivar, nor, save in that he was a brave and determined soldier, had the -great Castilian Free Lance anything in common with the more conventional -heroes of United Spain.</p> - -<p>If history affords no reasonable explanation of his unrivaled renown -beyond that which has already been suggested, we find but little in the -early poetry to assist us. The Cid ballads impress us “more by their -number than their light.” They are neither very interesting in -themselves, nor are they even very suggestive. Only thirty-seven ballads -are considered by Huber to be older than the sixteenth century. “La -plupart de ces romances,” says M. Dozy, “accusent leur origine moderne”; -and, according to Mr. Ormsby, they do but little toward the illustration -of the Cid, either as a picturesque hero of romance or as a -characteristic feature of medieval history.</p> - -<p>The great French dramatist scarcely touches the true history of his -hero. The scene of the play is laid at Se<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_57" id="page_57">{57}</a></span>ville, where no Christian king -set his foot for a hundred and fifty years after the death of Roderic. -The title which he accepted from his employer, Mostain of Saragossa, is -said to have been granted by Alfonso of Leon, after the capture of two -imaginary Moorish kings, unknown to history, in an impossible battle on -the banks of the Guadalquivir, which was never seen by the Cid. The -whole action of the play turns upon the moral and psychological -difficulties arising from the purely legendary incident of the killing -of Chimene’s father by her lover, avenging an insult offered to his own -sire, and of the somewhat artificial indignation of the lady, until she -is appeased by a slaughter of Moors. Corneille’s drama abounds in noble -sentiments expressed in most admirable verse; but it does not assist us -to understand the character of the Cid, nor the reasons of his -popularity in his own or in any other country. But certain at least it -is that from the earliest times the story of his life and his career -took a strong hold upon the popular imagination in Spain, and his -virtues and his vices, little as they may seem to us to warrant the -popular admiration, were understood and appreciated in the age in which -he lived, an age of force and fraud, of domestic treason and foreign -treachery, when religion preached little but battle and murder, and -patriotism was but a pretext for plunder and rapine. Admired thus, even -in his lifetime, as a gallant soldier, an independent chieftain, and an -ever successful general, fearless, dexterous, and strong, his free -career became a favorite theme with the jongleurs and troubadours of the -next generation; and from the Cid of history was evolved a Cid of -legendary song.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_58" id="page_58">{58}</a></span></p> - -<p>It is most difficult at the present day to know exactly where serious -history ends and where poetry and legend begin. Yet the Cid as -represented to us by M. Dozy, one of the most acute of modern -investigators of historic truth, is not so very different from the Cid -represented by Southey, or even by earlier and less critical poets, but -that we may form a reasonable estimate, from what is common to both -history and tradition, of what manner of man he was. The Cid of the -twelfth century legends, indeed, though he may be more marvelous, is by -no means more moral than the Cid of history. It was reserved for the -superior refinement of succeeding generations, and more especially for -the anonymous author of the poem of the thirteenth century to evolve a -hero of a gentler and nobler mold; a creature conforming to a higher -ideal of knightly perfection. From this time forward we have a glorified -Cid, whose adventures are no more historically false, perhaps, than -those of the unscrupulous and magnificent Paladin of the legends and -romances of the twelfth century, but whose character possesses all the -dignity and all the glory with which he could be invested by a generous -medieval imagination. And it is this refined and idealized hero; -idealized, yet most real; refined, yet eminently human, that has been -worshiped by nineteen generations of Spaniards as the national hero of -Spain.</p> - -<p>Ruy Diaz—as he lived and died—was probably no worse a man than any of -his neighbors. Far better than many of them he was, and undoubtedly -bolder and stronger, more capable, more adroit, and more successful.</p> - -<p>Seven of the Christian princes of Spain at this period<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_59" id="page_59">{59}</a></span> fell in battle -warring against their own near relations, or were murdered by their -hands in cold blood. Garcia of Castile was slain by the sword of the -Velas. Bermudo III. of Leon and Garcia Sanchez of Navarre died fighting -against their brother, Ferdinand of Castile. Sancho II. of Castile was -assassinated by order of his sister Urraca, besieged by him in her city -of Zamora. Among the Christian kings of the century immediately before -him, Garcia of Galicia was strangled in prison by the hands of his -brothers, Sancho and Alfonso; Sancho Garcia of Navarre was assassinated -by his brother Ramon, at Peñalva; Ramon Berenguer II. of Barcelona died -by the dagger of his brother Berenguer Ramon; Sancho the Fat, in 967, -was poisoned at a friendly repast by Gonzalo Sanchez; Ruy Velasquez of -Castile, in 986, murdered his seven nephews, the unfortunate Infantes de -Lara; Sancho of Castile, in 1010, poisoned his mother, who had -endeavored to poison him. At the wedding festivities at Leon, in 1026, -Garcia, Count of Castile, was assassinated at the church door, and the -murderers were promptly burned alive by his friends; Garcia of Navarre, -in 1030, as an incident in a family dispute about a horse, accused his -mother of adultery. Such was the standard of the eleventh century in the -north of the Peninsula.</p> - -<p>To judge the Cid, even as we now know him, according to any code of -modern ethics, is supremely unreasonable. To be sure, even now, that we -know him as he was, is supremely presumptuous. But that Ruy Diaz was a -great man, and a great leader of men, a knight who would have shocked -modern poets, and a free lance who would have laughed at modern heroes, -we can have no<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_60" id="page_60">{60}</a></span> manner of doubt. That he satisfied his contemporaries -and himself; that he slew Moors and Christians as occasion required, -with equal vigor and absolute impartiality; that he bearded the King of -Leon in his Christian council, and that he cozened the King of Saragossa -at the head of his Moslem army; that he rode the best horse and -brandished the best blade in Spain; that his armies never wanted for -valiant soldiers, nor his coffers for gold pieces; that he lived my Lord -the Challenger, the terror of every foe, and that he died rich and -respected in the noble city that had fallen to his knightly spear—of -all this at least we are certain; and, if the tale is displeasing to our -nineteenth century refinement, we must be content to believe that it -satisfied the aspirations of medieval Spain.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_61" id="page_61">{61}</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV<br /><br /> -<span class="chead">MOORISH SPAIN</span></h2> -<p class="chead2">THE LAST OF THE CALIPHS—THE RISE AND FALL OF GRANADA—FERDINAND AND -ISABELLA—THE GREAT CAPTAIN</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Moslem</span> rule in Spain may be conveniently summarized as -consisting—first, in the Caliphs of Cordova; second, in the dynasty of -the Almoravides; third, in that of the Almohades; and, finally, the -kings of Granada.</p> - -<p>Concerning the first it may be noted that in the long reign of the last -Abdur Rahman were the seeds of its dissolution. Brooking no rival during -his lifetime, at his death he found no successor. Then upon the ruins of -the great Caliphate twenty independent and hostile dynasties surged. -Meanwhile Alfonso was eyeing them from his citadel. At the gates of -Valencia was the Cid. For common safety the Moslem rivals looked for a -common defender. In Africa that defender was found in Yusuf, the Berber -chief of a tribe of religious soldiers known as the Almoravides.</p> - -<p>Invited to Spain, he crossed over, and, meeting Alfonso at Zalaca, near -Badajoz, on the 23d of October, 1086, he routed him with great and -historic slaughter.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p>Yusuf [says Burke] had come as a Moslem defender, but he remained as a -Moslem master. And once more<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_62" id="page_62">{62}</a></span> in Spanish history, the over-powerful ally -turned his victorious arms against those who had welcomed him to their -shores. Yet Yusuf was no vulgar traitor. He had sworn to the envoys of -the Spanish Moslems that he would return to Africa, in the event of -victory, without the annexation to his African empire of a field or a -city to the north of the Straits. And his vow was religiously kept. -Retiring empty-handed to Mauritania, after the great battle at Zalaca, -he returned once more to Spain, unfettered on this new expedition by any -vow, and set to work with his usual vigor to make himself master of the -Peninsula. Tarifa fell in December. The next year saw the capture of -Seville, and of all of the principal cities of Andalusia. An army sent -by Alfonso VI., under his famous captain, Alvar Fanez, was completely -defeated, and all Southern Spain lay at the feet of the Berber, save -only Valencia, which remained impregnable so long as the Cid lived to -direct the defense. In 1102, after the hero’s death, Valencia succumbed, -and all Spain to the south of the Tagus became a province of the great -African empire of the Almoravides.</p> - -<p>The rule of these hardy bigots was entirely unlike that of the Ommeyad -Caliphs of the West. Moslem Spain had no longer even an independent -existence. The sovereign resided not at Cordova, but at Morocco. The -poets and musicians were banished from court. The beauties of Az Zahra -were forgotten. Jews and Christians were alike persecuted. The kingdom -was governed with an iron hand. But if the rule of the stranger was not -generous, it was just, and for the moment it possessed the crowning -merit that it was efficient. The laws were once more respected. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_63" id="page_63">{63}</a></span> -people once more dreamed of wealth and happiness. But it was little more -than a dream.</p> - -<p>On the death of Yusuf in 1107 the scepter passed into the hands of his -son Ali, a more sympathetic but a far less powerful ruler. In 1118 the -great city of Saragossa, the last bulwark of Islam in the north of the -Peninsula, was taken by Alfonso I. of Aragon, who carried his victorious -arms into Southern Spain, and fulfilled a rash vow by eating a dinner of -fresh fish on the coast of Granada.</p> - -<p>Yet it was by no Christian hand that the empire of the Almoravides was -to be overthrown.</p> - -<p>Mohammed Ibn Abdullah, a lamplighter in the mosque at Cordova, had made -his way to remote Bagdad to study at the feet of Abu Hamid Algazali, a -celebrated doctor of Moslem law. The strange adventures, so -characteristic of his age and nation, by which the lowly student became -a religious reformer—a Mahdi—and a conqueror in Africa, and at length -overthrew the Almoravides, both to the north and the south of the -Straits of Gibraltar, forms a most curious chapter in the history of -Islam; but in a brief sketch of the fortunes of medieval Spain, it must -suffice to say that having established his religious and military power -among the Berber tribes of Africa, Ibn Abdullah, the Mahdi, landed at -Algeciras in 1145, and possessed himself in less than four years of -Malaga, Seville, Granada, and Cordova. The empire of the Almoravides was -completely destroyed; and, before the close of the year 1149, all Moslem -Spain acknowledged the supremacy of the Almohades.</p> - -<p>These more sturdy fanatics were still African rather than Spanish -sovereigns. Moslem Spain was adminis<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_64" id="page_64">{64}</a></span>tered by a Vali deputed from -Morocco; and Cordova, shorn of much of its former splendor, was the -occasional abode of a royal visitor from Barbary. For seventy years the -Almohades retained their position in Spain. But their rule was not of -glory but of decay. One high feat of arms indeed shed a dying luster on -the name of the Berber prince who reigned for fifteen years (1184-99) -under the auspicious title of Almanzor, and his great Moslem victory -over Alfonso II. at Alarcon in 1195 revived for the time the drooping -fortunes of the Almohades. But their empire was already doomed, -decaying, disintegrated, wasting away. And at length the terrible defeat -of the Moslem forces by the united armies of the three Christian kings -at the Navas do Tolosa in 1212, at once the most crushing and the most -authentic of all the Christian victories of medieval Spain, gave a final -and deadly blow to the Moslem dominion of the Peninsula. Within a few -years of that celebrated battle, Granada alone was subject to the rule -of Islam.</p> - -<p>It was in the year 1228 that a descendant of the old Moorish kings of -Saragossa rebelled against the Almohades and succeeded in making himself -master not merely of Granada, but of Cordova, Seville, Algeciras, and -even of Ceuta, and, obtaining a confirmation of his rights from Bagdad, -assumed the title of Amir ul Moslemin—Commander of the Moslems—and Al -Mutawakal—the Protected of God.</p> - -<p>But a rival was not slow to appear. Mohammed Al Ahmar, the Fair or the -Ruddy, defeated, dethroned, and slew Al Mutawakal, and reigned in his -stead in Andalusia. Despoiled in his turn of most of his possessions by -St. Ferdi<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_65" id="page_65">{65}</a></span>nand of Castile, Al Ahmar was fain at length to content -himself with the rich districts in the extreme south of the Peninsula, -which are known to fame, wherever the Spanish or the English language is -spoken, as the Kingdom of Granada. And thus it came to pass that the -city on the banks of the Darro, the home of the proud and highly -cultivated Syrians of Damascus, the flower of the early Arab invaders of -Spain, became also the abiding place of the later Arab civilization, -overmastered year after year, and destroyed, by the Christian armies -ever pressing on to the southern sea. Yet, in the middle of the -thirteenth century, the flood tide of reconquest had for the moment -fairly spent itself. The Christians were not strong enough to conquer, -and above all they were not numerous enough to occupy, the districts -that were still peopled by the Moor; and for once a wise and highly -cultivated Christian shared the supreme power in the Peninsula with a -generous and honorable Moslem. Alfonso X. sought not to extend his -frontiers, but to educate his people, not to slaughter his neighbors, -but to give laws to his subjects, not to plunder frontier cities, but to -make Castile into a kingdom, with a history, a civilization, and a -language of her own. If the reputation of Alfonso is by no means -commensurate with his true greatness, the statesmanship of Mohammed Al -Ahmar, the founder of the ever famous Kingdom of Granada, is -overshadowed by his undying fame as an architect. Yet is Al Ahmar worthy -of remembrance as a king and the parent of kings in Spain. The loyal -friend and ally of his Christian neighbor, the prudent administrator of -his own dominions, he collected at his Arab court a great part of the -wealth, the science, and the intelligence of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_66" id="page_66">{66}</a></span> Spain. His empire has long -ago been broken up; the Moslem has been driven out; there is no king nor -kingdom of Granada. But their memory lives in the great palace fortress -whose red towers still rise over the sparkling Darro, and whose fairy -chambers are still to be seen in what is, perhaps, the most celebrated -of the wonder works of the master builders of the world.</p> - -<p>After his long and glorious reign of forty-two years, Mohammed the Fair -was killed by a fall from his horse near Granada, and was succeeded by -his son, Mohammed II., in the last days of the year 1272. Al Ahmar had -ever remained at peace with Alfonso X., but his son, taking advantage of -the king’s absence in quest of an empire in Germany, sought the -assistance of Yusuf, the sovereign or emperor of Morocco, and invaded -the Christian frontiers.</p> - -<p>Victory was for some time on the side of the Moors. The Castilians were -defeated at Ecija in 1275, and their leader, the Viceroy Don Nunez de -Lara, was killed in battle, as was also Don Sancho, Infante of Aragon -and Archbishop of Toledo, after the rout of his army at Martos, near -Jaen, on the 21st of October, 1275; and the victorious Yusuf ravaged -Christian Spain to the very gates of Seville.</p> - -<p>In the next year, 1276, the Castilian armies were again twice defeated, -in February at Alcoy and in the following July at Lucena. To add to -their troubles, King James of Aragon died at Valencia in 1276. Sancho of -Castile sought to depose his father Alfonso, at Valladolid. All was in -confusion among the Christians; and had it not been for the defection of -Yusuf of Morocco, the tide of fortune might have turned in favor of -Islam. As it was, the Af<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_67" id="page_67">{67}</a></span>rican monarch not only abandoned his cousin of -Granada, but he was actually persuaded to send one hundred thousand -ducats to his Christian rival at Seville in 1280.</p> - -<p>The value of this assistance was soon felt. Tarifa was taken in 1292, -and the progress of the Moor was checked forever in Southern Spain. -Mohammed II. died in 1302, and was succeeded by his son, Mohammed III., -who was usually considered by the Moslem historians to have been the -ablest monarch of his house. But he reigned for only seven years, and he -was unable to defend Gibraltar from the assaults of his Christian -rivals.</p> - -<p>From this time the court of Granada became a sort of city of refuge for -the disaffected lords and princes of Castile, who sometimes, but rarely, -prevailed upon their Moslem hosts to assist them in expeditions into -Christian Spain, but who were always welcomed with true Arab hospitality -at the Moslem capital. To record their various intrigues would be a vain -and unpleasing task. The general course of history was hardly affected -by passing alliances. The Christian pressed on—with ever-increasing -territory behind him—on his road to the southern sea.</p> - -<p>In 1319, Abdul Walid or Ismail I. of Granada defeated and slew Don Pedro -and Don Juan, Infantes of Castile, at a place near Granada, still known -as the Sierra de los Infantes. But no important consequences followed -the victory.</p> - -<p>In the reign of Yusuf (1333-54) was fought the great battle of the -Salado (1340), when the Christians, under Alfonso XI., were completely -successful; and the capitulation of Algeciras three years later deprived -the Moslems of an important harbor and seaport. Day by day—almost hour -by hour<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_68" id="page_68">{68}</a></span>—the Christians encroached upon Granada, even while cultivating -the political friendship and accepting the private hospitality of the -Moslem. Their treacherous intervention reached its climax in 1362, when -Peter the Cruel decoyed the King Abu Said, under his royal safe-conduct, -to the palace at Seville, and slew him with his own hand.</p> - -<p>With Mohammed or Maulai al Aisar, or the Left-handed, the affairs of -Granada became more intimately connected with the serious history of -Spain. Al Hayzari, proclaimed king in 1423, and dethroned soon after by -his cousin, another Mohammed, in 1427 sought and found refuge at the -court of John II., by whose instrumentality he was restored to his -throne at the Alhambra in 1429. Yet within four years a rival sovereign, -Yusuf, had secured the support of the fickle Christian, and Muley the -Left-handed was forced a second time to fly from his capital. Once -again, by the sudden death of the new usurper, he returned to reign at -Granada, and once again for the third time he was supplanted by a more -fortunate rival, who reigned as Mohammed IX. for nearly ten years -(1445-54). At the end of this period, however, another pretender was -dispatched from the Christian court, and after much fighting and -intrigue, Mohammed Ibn Ismail, a nephew of Maulai or Muley the -Left-handed, drove out the reigning sovereign and succeeded him as -Mohammed X.</p> - -<p>Yet were the dominions of this Christian ally unceasingly ravaged by his -Christian neighbors. Gibraltar, Archidona, and much surrounding -territory were taken by the forces of Henry IV. and his nobles; and a -treaty was at length concluded in 1464, in which it was agreed that -Mohammed of Granada should hold his kingdom under the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_69" id="page_69">{69}</a></span> protection of -Castile, and should pay an annual subsidy or tribute of twelve thousand -gold ducats. It was thus, on the death, in 1466, of this Mohammed Ismail -of Granada, that a vexed and harassed throne was inherited by his son -Muley Abul Hassan, ever famous in history and romance as “The old -king”—the last independent sovereign of Granada.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile, Henry’s only daughter Joanna being regarded as the fruit of -the queen’s adultery, he was deposed, but restored after acknowledging -as his heiress his sister Isabella, who subsequently, through her -marriage with Ferdinand of Aragon, joined the two most powerful of -Spanish kingdoms into one yet more powerful State.</p> - -<p>To return now to Muley Abul Hassan.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> For many years after his -accession he observed with his Christian neighbors the treaties that had -been made, nor did he take advantage of the civil war which arose by -reason of Joanna’s pretensions to add to the difficulties already -existing, and in the spring of 1476 sought a formal renewal of the old -Treaty of Peace.</p> - -<p>Ferdinand, however, made his acceptance of the king’s proposal -contingent upon the grant of an annual tribute; and he sent an envoy to -the Moslem court to negotiate the terms of payment. But the reply of -Abul Hassan was decisive. “Steel,” said he, “not gold, was what -Ferdinand should have from Granada!” Disappointed of their subsidy, and -unprepared for war, the Christian sovereigns were content to renew the -treaty, with a mental reservation that as soon as a favorable -opportunity should<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_70" id="page_70">{70}</a></span> present itself they would drive every Moslem not -only out of Granada, but out of Spain.</p> - -<p>For five years there was peace between Abul Hassan and the Catholic -sovereigns. The commencement of hostilities was the capture of Zahara by -the Moslems at the close of the year 1481; which was followed early in -next year, 1482, by the conquest of the far more important Moorish -stronghold of Alhama, not by the troops of Ferdinand and Isabella, but -by the followers of Ponce de Leon, the celebrated Marquis of Cadiz. -Alhama was not merely a fortress. It was a treasure-house and a -magazine; and it was but five or six leagues from Granada. The town was -sacked with the usual horrors. The Marquis of Cadiz, having made good -his position within the walls, defied all the attacks of Abul Hassan, -and at the same time sent messengers to every Christian lord in -Andalusia to come to his assistance—to all save one, his hereditary -enemy, the Duke of Medina Sidonia, chief of the great family of the -Guzmans. Yet it was this generous rival, who, assembling all his -chivalry and retainers, was the first to appear before the walls of -Alhama, and relieve the Christians from the threatened assault of the -Moslem. The days of civil discord had passed away in Castile; and -against united Christendom, Islam could not long exist in Spain.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile, Ferdinand, seeing that war had finally broken out, started -from Medina del Campo, and marched with all speed to Cordova, where he -was joined by Isabella early in April, 1482. The Inquisition had now -been for over a year in full blast at Seville. The fires of persecution -had been fairly lighted. The reign of bigotry<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_71" id="page_71">{71}</a></span> had begun, and the king -and queen were encouraged to proceed from the plunder of the Jews or New -Christians to the plunder of the Moslems. Ferdinand accordingly repaired -in person to Alhama, with a large train of prelates and ecclesiastics of -lower degree. The city was solemnly purified. Three mosques were -consecrated by the Cardinal of Spain for Christian worship. Bells, -crosses, plate, altar cloths were furnished without stint; and Alhama -having been thus restored to civilization, Ferdinand descended upon the -fruitful valley or Vega of Granada, destroyed the crops, cut down the -fruit trees, uprooted the vines, and, without having encountered a -single armed enemy in the course of his crusade, returned in triumph to -Cordova. A more arduous enterprise in the following July was not -attended with the same success, when Ferdinand attacked the important -town of Loja, and was repulsed with great loss of Christian life. An -expedition against Malaga, later in the year, undertaken by Alfonso de -Cardenas, Grand Master of Santiago, and the Marquis of Cadiz, was even -more disastrous, for a small body of Moors in the mountain defiles of -the Axarquia fell upon the Christian marauders, and no less than four -hundred “persons of quality” are said to have perished in the retreat, -including thirty commanders of the great military order of Santiago. The -Grand Master, the Marquis of Cadiz, and Don Alfonso de Aguilar escaped -as by a miracle, and the survivors straggled into Loja and Antequera and -Malaga, leaving Abul Hassan and his brother Al Zagal, or the Valiant, -with all the honors of war.</p> - -<p>But the successes of the Moor in the field were more<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_72" id="page_72">{72}</a></span> than -counterbalanced by treason in the palace. By Zoraya, a lady of Christian -ancestry, Muley Abul Hassan had a son, Abu Abdallah, who has earned a -sad notoriety under the more familiar name of Boabdil. Jealous of some -rival, or ambitious of greater power, the Sultana and her son intrigued -against their sovereign, and having escaped from the State prison, in -which they were at first prudently confined, raised the standard of -revolt, and compelled Abul Hassan, who was thenceforth more usually -spoken of as the Old King, to seek refuge on the sea-coast at Malaga.</p> - -<p>Boabdil, jealous of the success of his father and his undo at Loja and -in the Axarquia, and anxious to confirm his power by some striking -victory over the Christians, took the field and confronted the forces of -the Count of Cabra, near Lucena. The battle was hotly contested, but -victory remained with the Christians. Ali Atar, the bravest of the -Moorish generals, was slain by the hand of Alfonso de Aguilar, and -Boabdil himself was taken prisoner by a common soldier, Hurtado by name, -and fell into the hands of the victorious Count of Cabra.</p> - -<p>The captivity of Boabdil, the Little King, el Rey Chico, as he was -called by the Castilians, was the turning point in the history of the -Moorish dominion in Spain. Released on payment of a magnificent ransom -provided by his mother Zoraya, and bound to his Christian captors by a -humiliating treaty, he returned to Granada, disgraced and dishonored, as -the ally of the enemies of his country. Driven out of the capital by the -forces of his father, who had returned to occupy the great -palace-fortress of Alhambra, Boabdil and his mother retired to Almeria, -the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_73" id="page_73">{73}</a></span> second city in the kingdom; and the whole country was distracted by -civil war.</p> - -<p>Yet for four years the Castilians refrained from any important -expedition against Granada. Their tactics were rather those of Scipio at -Numantia. For Delay was all in favor of Disintegration.</p> - -<p>Yet the merciless devastation of fields and crops was carried on with -systematic and dreadful completeness. Thirty thousand destroyers of -peaceful homesteads, granaries, farmhouses, and mills were constantly at -work, and ere long there was scarce a vineyard or an oliveyard, scarce -an orchard or an orange-grove existing within reach of the Christian -borders. Under cover of the treaty with Boabdil, this devilish enginery -of destruction was steadily pushed forward, while the old king and his -more vigorous brother El Zagal were prevented by domestic treason from -making any effectual defense of their fatherland. Some of the border -towns, moreover, fell into the hands of the Christians, and many forays -were undertaken which produced rich booty for the marauders. Ferdinand -in the meantime occupied himself rather with the affairs of the -Inquisition and of foreign policy, while Isabella was personally -superintending the enormous preparations for a final attack on Granada. -Artillery was cast in large quantities, and artificers imported from -France and Italy; large stores of ammunition were procured from -Flanders. Nothing was hurried; nothing was spared; nothing was forgotten -by Isabella. A camp hospital, the first, it is said, in the history of -warfare, was instituted by the queen, whose energy was indefatigable, -whose powers of organization were boundless, and whose determination was -inflexible. To represent<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_74" id="page_74">{74}</a></span> her as a tender and a timid princess is to -turn her true greatness into ridicule. But her vigor, her prudence, and -her perseverance are beyond the vulgar praise of history.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile, Granada was gradually withering away. The “pomegranate,” as -Ferdinand had foreseen and foretold, was losing one by one the seeds of -which the rich and lovely fruit had once been all compact. The old king, -defeated but not disgraced, blind, infirm, and unfortunate, was -succeeded too late by his more capable brother, El Zagal, a gallant -warrior, a skillful commander, and a resolute ruler. But if “the valiant -one” might hardly have held his own against the enormous resources of -the Christians in Europe, he was powerless against the combination of -foreign vigor and domestic treachery. The true conqueror of Granada is -Boabdil, the rebel and the traitor, who has been euphemistically -surnamed the Unlucky (El Zogoibi). Innocent, perchance, of the massacre -of the brave Abencerrages, he is guilty of the blood of his country.</p> - -<p>The capture of Velez Malaga by Ferdinand, already well supplied with a -powerful train of artillery, in April, 1487—while El Zagal was fighting -for his life against Boabdil in Granada—was soon followed by the -reduction, after a most heroic defense, of the far more important city -of Malaga in August, 1487. But the heroism of the Moslem woke no -generous echo in the hearts of either Ferdinand or Isabella. The entire -population of the captured city, men, women, and children—some fifteen -thousand souls—was reduced to slavery, and distributed not only over -Spain, but over Europe.</p> - -<p>A hundred choice warriors were sent as a gift to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_75" id="page_75">{75}</a></span> Pope. Fifty of the -most beautiful girls were presented to the Queen of Naples, thirty more -to the Queen of Portugal, others to the ladies of her court, and the -residue of both sexes were portioned off among the nobles, the knights, -and the common soldiers of the army, according to their rank and -influence.</p> - -<p>For the Jews and renegades a more dreadful doom was reserved; and the -flames in which they perished were, in the words of a contemporary -ecclesiastic, “the illuminations most grateful to the Catholic piety of -Ferdinand and Isabella.” The town was repeopled by Christian immigrants, -to whom the lands and houses of the Moslem owners were granted with -royal liberality by the victors. The fall of Malaga, the second seaport -and the third city of the kingdom of Granada, was a grievous loss to the -Moors; and the Christian blockade was drawn closer both by land and by -sea. Yet an invasion of the eastern provinces, undertaken by Ferdinand -himself in 1488, was repulsed by El Zagal; and the Christian army was -disbanded as usual at the close of the year, without having extended the -Christian dominions.</p> - -<p>But in the spring of 1489 greater efforts were made. The Castilians sat -down before the town of Baza, not far from Jaen, and after a siege which -lasted until the following December, the city surrendered, not, as in -the case of Malaga, without conditions, but upon honorable terms of -capitulation, which the assailants, who had only been prevented by the -arrival of Isabella from raising the siege, were heartily glad to -accept. The fall of Baza was of more than passing importance, for it was -followed by the capitulation of Almeria, the second city in the kingdom, -and by<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_76" id="page_76">{76}</a></span> the submission of El Zagal, who renounced as hopeless the double -task of fighting against his nephew at the Alhambra, and resisting the -Christian sovereigns who had already overrun his borders. The fallen -monarch passed over to Africa, where he died in indigence and misery, -the last of the great Moslem rulers of Spain.</p> - -<p>In the spring of 1490, Ferdinand, already master of the greater part of -the Moorish kingdom, sent a formal summons to his bondman, Boabdil, to -surrender to him the city of Granada; and that wretched and most foolish -traitor, who had refrained from action when action might have saved his -country, now defied the victorious Christians, when his defiance could -only lead to further suffering and greater disaster.</p> - -<p>Throughout the summer of 1490, Ferdinand, in person, devoted himself to -the odious task of the devastation of the entire Vega of Granada, and -the depopulation of the town of Guadix. But in the spring of the next -year, Isabella, who was ever the life and soul of the war, took up her -position within six miles of the city, and pitched her camp at Ojos de -Huescar at the very gate of Granada.</p> - -<p>And here was found assembled, not only all the best blood of Castile, -but volunteers and mercenary troops from various countries in Europe. -France, England, Italy, and even Germany, each provided their -contingent; and a body of Swiss soldiers of fortune showed the gallant -cavaliers of the Christian army the power and the value of a well -disciplined infantry. Among the foreigners who had come over to Spain in -1486 was an English lord, the Earl of Rivers, known by the Spaniards as -El Conde de Escalas,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_77" id="page_77">{77}</a></span> from his family name of Scales, whose magnificence -attracted the admiration of all, even at the magnificent court of -Isabella.</p> - -<p>But the destruction of Granada was not brought about by these gilded -strangers, nor even by the brilliant knights and nobles of Spain. It was -not due to skillful engineers nor to irresistible commanders. The gates -were opened by no victory. The walls were scaled by no assault. The -Christian success was due to the patient determination of Isabella, to -the decay and disintegration of the Moorish Commonwealth, and, to some -extent, to the skillful negotiation and diplomatic astuteness of a young -soldier whose early influence upon the fortunes of Spain has been -overshadowed by the greatness of his later achievements.</p> - -<p>For among all the splendid knights and nobles who assembled in the camp -of Isabella, the chroniclers wellnigh overlooked a gay cavalier of -modest fortune, the younger brother of Alfonso de Aguilar, distinguished -rather as a fop than a warrior—Gonsalvo Hernandez of Cordova, whose -fame was destined to eclipse that of all his companions in arms, and who -has earned an undying reputation in the history of three countries as -“The Great Captain.”</p> - -<p>The life of Gonsalvo de Cordova is interesting as being the history of a -brave soldier and an accomplished general, who flourished at a very -important period of the history of Europe. But it is further and much -more interesting as being the history of a man who united in himself -many of the characteristics of ancient and of modern times. His bravery -was the bravery of an old Castilian knight, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_78" id="page_78">{78}</a></span> although he had many -splendid rivals, he was pronounced by common consent to be their -superior. Yet his individual courage was the least remarkable of his -qualities. He was a general such as the Western world had not known for -a thousand years, and he was the first diplomatist of modern Europe. In -personal valor, in knightly courtesy, in brave display, he was of his -own time. In astute generalship, and in still more astute diplomacy, he -may be said to have inaugurated a new era; and although greater -commanders have existed after him, as well as before him, he will always -be known as “The Great Captain.”</p> - -<p>The conquest of Granada marks an epoch, not only in the history of -Spain, but in the history of Europe; and Gonsalvo was the hero of -Granada. The expedition of Charles VIII. into Italy is a subject of -almost romantic interest, very nearly preferred by Gibbon to his own -immortal theme; and Gonsalvo in Italy was the admired of all French and -Italian admirers. The succeeding expedition of Louis XII. was scarcely -less interesting, and the part played by Gonsalvo was even more -remarkable. At his birth artillery was almost unknown. At his death it -had become the most formidable arm of offense; it had revolutionized the -rules and manner of warfare; and it was employed by The Great Captain in -both his Italian campaigns with marked skill and success.</p> - -<p>Gonsalvo Hernandez was born at Montilla, near Cordova, in 1453, of the -noble and ancient family of the Aguilars. After a boyhood and youth -devoted, not only to every manly sport and pursuit, and to the practice -of arms, but to the study of letters, and more especially<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_79" id="page_79">{79}</a></span> of the Arabic -language, he made his first appearance in serious warfare on the field -of Olmedo, fighting under the banner of the Marquis of Villena. On the -death of Prince Alfonso, Gonsalvo returned to Cordova. His father had -already died; and according to the Spanish law of primogeniture the -whole of the rich estates of the family of Aguilar passed, on the death -of Don Pedro, to his eldest son Alfonso, while nothing but a little -personal property, a great name, a fine person, and “the hope of what he -might gain by his good fortune or his valor” was inherited by Alfonso’s -younger brother.</p> - -<p>Cordova was obviously too small a field for Gonsalvo de Aguilar; and in -the course of the eventful year 1474, having just arrived at man’s -estate, he proceeded to Segovia, and distinguished himself among the -young nobles who crowded to the Court of Isabella, by his prowess at -tournaments and all warlike games and exercises; and he soon became -celebrated for his personal beauty as well as for his valor, -distinguished for his fascinating manners, and, above all, by an -eloquence rarely found in a young soldier of two-and-twenty. He was -generally known as “the Prince of the Youth”; and he supported the -character by an almost royal liberality and ostentatious expenditure -entirely incompatible with his modest fortune.</p> - -<p>In the war of succession between Isabella and her niece, Gonsalvo served -under Alfonso de Cardenas, Grand Master of Santiago, in command of a -troop of one hundred and twenty horsemen; and he particularly -distinguished himself at the battle of Albuera.</p> - -<p>And now, in the camp before Granada, he was well<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_80" id="page_80">{80}</a></span> pleased once more to -sun himself in the smiles of his queen and patroness, whose presence in -the camp inspired every soldier with enthusiasm. Isabella appeared on -the field superbly mounted and dressed in complete armor, and -continually visited the different quarters, and held reviews of the -troops. On one occasion she expressed a desire to have a nearer view of -the city, and a picked body of men, among whom was Gonsalvo de Cordova, -commanded by the Marquis Duke of Cadiz, escorted her to the little -village of Zubia, within a short distance of Granada. The citizens, -indignant at the near approach of so small a force, sallied out and -attacked them. The Christians, however, stood their ground so bravely, -and performed such prodigies of valor under the very eyes of Isabella -herself, that no less than two thousand Moslems are said to have fallen -in that memorable affray.</p> - -<p>It happened one night, about the middle of July, that the drapery of the -tent or pavilion in which Isabella was lodged took fire, and the -conflagration was not extinguished until several of the neighboring -tents had been consumed. The queen and her attendants escaped unhurt, -but a general consternation prevailed throughout the camp, until it was -discovered that no more serious loss had been experienced than that of -the queen’s wardrobe.</p> - -<p>Gonsalvo, however, who on more than one occasion showed himself at least -as practical a courtier as Sir Walter Raleigh, immediately sent an -express to Illora, and obtained such a supply of fine clothes from his -wife, Doña Maria Manrique, that the queen herself was amazed,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_81" id="page_81">{81}</a></span> as much -at their magnificence as at the rapidity with which they had been -obtained.</p> - -<p>But this incident led to even more important results than the amiable -pillage of Doña Maria’s wardrobe; for in order to guard against a -similar disaster, as well as to provide comfortable winter quarters for -the troops, Isabella determined to construct a sufficient number of -houses of solid masonry to provide quarters for the besieging army, a -design which was carried out in less than three months. This martial and -Christian town, which received the appropriate name of Santa Fe, may be -still seen by the traveler in the Vega of Granada, and is pointed out by -good Catholics as the only town in Andalusia that has never been -contaminated by the Moslem.</p> - -<p>But in spite of the attractions of all these feats of arms and -exhibitions of magnificence, and of all the personal display and rash -adventure which savors so much more of medieval chivalry than of modern -warfare, Gonsalvo was more seriously engaged in the schemes and -negotiations which contributed almost as much as the prowess of the -Christian arms to the fall of Granada. He had spies everywhere. He knew -what was going on in Granada better than Boabdil. He knew what was going -on in the camp better than Ferdinand. His familiarity with Arabic -enabled him to maintain secret communications with recreant Moors, -without the dangerous intervention of an interpreter. He kept up -constant communications with Illora, and having obtained the allegiance -or friendship of the Moorish chief, Ali Atar, he gained possession of -the neighboring fortress of Mondejar. He sent pres<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_82" id="page_82">{82}</a></span>ents, in truly -Oriental style, to many of the Moorish leaders in Granada who favored -the party of Boabdil, and he was at length chosen by Isabella as the -most proper person to conduct the negotiations that led to the treaty of -capitulation, which was signed on the 25th of November, 1491.</p> - -<p>The nature and the effect of this Convention are well known. The -triumphal entry of the Christians into the old Moslem capital; “the last -sigh of the Moor,” and the setting up of the Cross in the palace-citadel -of Alhambra, not only form one of the most glowing pages in the romance -of history, but they mark an epoch in the annals of the world.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_83" id="page_83">{83}</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V<br /><br /> -<span class="chead">THE INQUISITION</span></h2> -<p class="chead2">TORQUEMADA AND ISABELLA—THE NEW TRIBUNAL—THE PENALTY OF UNSOUND -OPINIONS—THREE CENTURIES OF SHAME</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> history of Spain assumed a new phase when, at the fall of Granada, -the attention of potentates and people ceased to be absorbed by the -excitement of a great religious war. Then the past and the romance of it -ended and the history of modern Spain began.</p> - -<p>Before proceeding with the latter, a name and a tribunal detain -attention. The one is Torquemada. The other is the Inquisition. Burke -has described them both, as follows:</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p>The Inquisition, established in Italy by Honorius III. in 1231, and in -France by St. Louis in 1233, was formally introduced into Spain by -Gregory IX. in 1235, by a Rescript of April 30th, addressed to Mongriu, -Archbishop-Administrator of Tarragona, confirming and explaining -previous Briefs and Bulls upon the subject of the repression of heresy; -and prescribing the issue of certain Instructions which had been -prepared at the desire of his holiness by a Spanish saint, the Dominican -Raymond of Penafort. From this time forward, Bulls on the subject<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_84" id="page_84">{84}</a></span> of -the Inquisition into heresy were frequently issued; and the followers of -Dominic were ever the trusted agents of the Holy See.</p> - -<p>The first suggestion of the serious introduction of the Tribunal of the -Holy Office into Castile, at the end of the fifteenth century, is said -to have come from Sicily. An Italian friar bearing the suggestive name -of Dei Barberi, Inquisitor-general at Messina, paid a visit to his -sovereign Ferdinand at Seville in 1477, in order to procure the -confirmation of a privilege accorded to the Sicilian Dominicans by the -Emperor Frederic II., in 1233, by virtue of which the Inquisitors -entered into possession of one-third of the goods of the heretic whom -they condemned. This dangerous charter was confirmed in due course by -Ferdinand on the 2d of September, 1477, and by Isabella on the 18th of -October; and very little argument was required on the part of the -gratified envoy to convince his sovereign of the various temporal and -spiritual advantages that would follow the introduction of the Tribunal, -that had so long existed in an undeveloped form in Sicily and in Aragon, -into the dominions of his pious consort, Isabella of Castile.</p> - -<p>In the middle of the year 1480 there was as yet no court of the Holy -Inquisition established in Spain. At length, pressed by the Papal -Nuncio, by the Dominicans, by her confessor, most of all by her husband, -Isabella gave her consent; and at length, in August, 1483, the -Inquisition was established as a permanent tribunal. Tomas de Torquemada -was appointed Inquisitor-general of both Castile and Aragon. Subordinate -tribunals were constituted; new and more stringent regulations were -made; the victims<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_85" id="page_85">{85}</a></span> smoked from day to day on the great stone altar of -the Quemadero.</p> - -<p>The life of Tomas de Torquemada is the history of contemporary Spain. -Born of a noble family, already distinguished in the Church by the -reputation of the cardinal his uncle, Tomas early assumed the habit of a -Dominican, and was in course of time appointed prior of an important -monastery at Segovia, and confessor to the young Princess Isabella. His -influence upon that royal lady was naturally great; his piety pleased -her; his austerity affected her; and his powerful will directed, if it -could not subdue, a will as powerful as his own. Brought up far away -from a court whose frivolities had no charm for her, and where, under -any circumstances, she would have been considered as a rival if not a -pretender, the counsels of her confessor, both sacred and secular, were -the most authoritative that she could expect to obtain. It has been -constantly asserted that the friar obtained from the princess a promise -that, in the event of her elevation to the throne of Castile, she would -devote herself to the destruction of heretics and the increase of the -power of the Church. Such a promise would have been but one of many -which such a confessor would have obtained from such a penitent, and -would have been but the natural result of his teaching. Nor is it -surprising that in the intrigues that preceded the death of Henry IV., -and the War of Succession that immediately followed it, the whole -influence of the priesthood should have been cast on the side of -Isabella and against her niece Joanna. For ten years, says the -biographer of his Order, the skillful hand of Torquemada cultivated the -intellect of Isabella; and in due<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_86" id="page_86">{86}</a></span> course the propitious marriage with -Ferdinand of Aragon, far from removing his pupil from his sacerdotal -influence, brought him a new and an equally illustrious penitent. -Torquemada became the confessor of the king as well as of the queen.</p> - -<p>If the establishment of the Inquisition was the fulfillment of -Isabella’s vow, and the realization of the aspirations of her tutor, his -appointment as Inquisitor-general, although it necessitated the choice -of another confessor, did not by any means withdraw him from his old -sphere of influence. He ceased not to preach the destruction of the -Moslem, even as he was employed about the destruction of the Jew; and if -Isabella was the active patroness of the war in Granada, there was a -darker spirit behind the throne, ever preaching the sacred duty of the -slaughter of the infidel and the heretic of every race and nation.</p> - -<p>Torquemada was at once a politician and an enthusiast; rigid, austere, -uncompromising; unbounded in his ambition, yet content to sacrifice -himself to the cause that made him what he was. His moral superiority to -the Innocents and Alexanders at Rome, his intellectual superiority to -the Carrillos and the fighting bishops of Spain, gave him that enormous -influence over both queen and king which his consuming bigotry and his -relentless tenacity of purpose induced him to use with such dreadful -effect. Aggressive even in his profession of humility, Torquemada was -insolent, not only to his unhappy victims, but to his colleagues, to his -sovereigns, to his Holy Father at Rome. He was, perhaps, the only man in -Europe who was more masterful than Isabella, more bloodthirsty than -Alexander; and he was able to impose his own will on both queen and -pope.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_87" id="page_87">{87}</a></span> Rejecting in his proud humility every offer of the miter, he -asserted and maintained his ecclesiastical supremacy even over the -Primate of Spain. Attended by a body-guard of noble youths who were glad -to secure at once the favor of the queen and immunity from -ecclesiastical censure by assuming the habit of the Familiars of the -Holy Office, the great destroyer lived in daily dread of the hand of the -assassin.</p> - -<p>Fifty horsemen and two hundred foot-guards always attended him. Nor was -it deemed inconsistent with the purity of his own religious faith that -he should carry about with him a talisman, in the shape of the horn of -some strange animal, invested with the mysterious power of preventing -the action of poison.</p> - -<p>On the death of Torquemada in September, 1498, Don Diego Deza was -promoted to the office of Inquisitor-general of Spain. Yet the activity -of the Ecclesiastical Tribunal was rather increased than diminished by -the change of masters, and an attempt was made soon afterward to extend -its operations to Naples. But Gonsalvo de Cordova, who was then acting -as viceroy, took upon himself to disregard not only the demands of the -Inquisitors, but the orders of Ferdinand (June 30, 1504), and to -postpone the introduction of the new tribunal into the country that he -so wisely and so liberally governed. After the recall of his great -representative, some six years later, Ferdinand himself made another -attempt to establish the hated Tribunal in Italy in 1510. But even -Ferdinand did not prevail; and Naples retained the happy immunity which -it owed to the Great Captain.</p> - -<p>If no error is more gross than to suppose that the estab<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_88" id="page_88">{88}</a></span>lishment of the -Inquisition was due to popular feeling in Spain, it is almost equally -false to assert that it was the work of the contemporary popes. Rome was -bad enough at the end of the fifteenth century; but her vast load of -wickedness need not be increased by the burden of sins that are not her -own. The everlasting shame of the Spanish Inquisition is that of the -Catholic kings. It is not difficult to understand why the poor and -rapacious Ferdinand of Aragon should welcome the establishment of an -instrument of extortion which placed at his disposal the accumulated -savings of the richest citizens of Castile. It is yet easier to -comprehend that Isabella, who was not of a temper to brook resistance to -authority in Church or State, should have consented to what her husband -so earnestly desired. The queen, moreover, was at least sincerely -religious, after the fashion of the day; and was constrained to follow -the dictates of her confessor in matters judged by him to be within his -spiritual jurisdiction, even while she was, as a civil ruler, -withstanding the Pope himself on matters of temporal sovereignty.</p> - -<p>It is the height of folly to brand Isabella as a hypocrite, because we -are unable to follow the workings of a medieval mind, or to appreciate -the curious religious temper—by no means confined to the men and women -of the fifteenth century—that can permit or compel the same person to -be devoted to Popery and to be at war with the Pope, and find in the -punctilious observance of ceremonial duty excuse or encouragement for -the gratification of any vice and the commission of any crime. But that -the nobility and people of Castile should have permitted the crown to -impose upon them a foreign and an ecclesiastical des<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_89" id="page_89">{89}</a></span>potism, is at first -sight much harder to understand. No one reason, but an unhappy -combination of causes, may perhaps be found to explain it.</p> - -<p>The influence of the queen was great. Respected as well as feared by the -nobles, she was long admired and beloved by the mass of the people.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> -The great success of her administration, which was apparent even by the -end of 1480; her repression of the nobility; her studied respect for the -Cortes; all these things predisposed the Castilians, who had so long -suffered under weak and unworthy sovereigns, to trust themselves not -only to the justice but to the wisdom of the queen. The influence of the -clergy, if not so great as it was in France or Italy, was no doubt -considerable, and, as a rule, though not always, it was cast on the side -of the Inquisition. Last and most unhappy reason of all, the nobility -and the people were divided; and, if not actually hostile, were at least -ever at variance in Castile.</p> - -<p>The first efforts of the new tribunal, too, were directed either against -the converted Jews, of whose prosperity the Christians were already -jealous, and for whose interested tergiversations no one could feel any -respect; or against<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_90" id="page_90">{90}</a></span> the more or less converted Moslems, toward whom -their neighbors still maintained a certain hereditary antipathy. The New -Christians alone were to be haled before the new tribunal. The Old -Christians might trust in the queen, if not in their own irreproachable -lineage, to protect them from hurt or harm.</p> - -<p>The number of subordinate or subsidiary tribunals of the Holy Office was -at first only four; established at Seville, Cordova, Jaen, and Ciudad -Real. The number was gradually increased, during the reign of the -Catholic kings, to thirteen; and over all these Ferdinand erected, in -1483, a court of supervision under the name of the Council of the -Supreme, consisting of the Grand Inquisitor as President, and three -other subordinate ecclesiastics, well disposed to the crown, and ready -to guard the royal interests in confiscated property.</p> - -<p>One of the first duties of this tremendous Council was the preparation -of a code of rules or Instructions, based upon the Inquisitor’s Manual -of Eymeric, which had been promulgated in Aragon in the fourteenth -century. The new work was promptly and thoroughly done; and twenty-eight -comprehensive sections left but little to be provided for in the future.</p> - -<p>The prosecution of unorthodox Spanish bishops by Torquemada on the -ground of the supposed backslidings of their respective fathers is -sufficiently characteristic of the methods of the Inquisition to be -worthy of a passing notice. Davila, bishop of Segovia, and Aranda, -bishop of Calahorra, were the sons of Jews who had been converted and -baptized by St. Vincent Ferrer. No suspicion existed as to the orthodoxy -of the prelates, both of whom were<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_91" id="page_91">{91}</a></span> men distinguished for their learning -and their piety. But it was suggested that their fathers had relapsed -into Judaism before they died. They had each, indeed, left considerable -fortunes behind them: and it was sought to exhume and burn their mortal -remains, and to declare the property—long in the enjoyment of their -heirs and successors—forfeited to the crown; and, in spite of a brief -of Innocent VIII., of the 25th of September, 1487, the attempt was made -by the Spanish Inquisitors. Both prelates sought refuge and protection -by personal recourse to Rome (1490). Bishop Davila, in spite of the -urgent remonstrances of Isabella herself, ultimately secured the -protection of Alexander VI. and was invested with additional dignities -and honors. Bishop Aranda was less fortunate. He was stripped of his -office and possessions, and died a prisoner in the castle of St. Angelo -in 1497.</p> - -<p>It was not only living or dying heretics who paid the penalty of their -unsound opinions. Men long dead, if they were represented by rich -descendants, were cited before the Tribunal, judged, condemned, and the -lands and goods that had descended to their heirs passed into the -coffers of the Catholic kings. The scandal was so great that Isabella -actually wrote to the Bishop of Segovia to defend herself against an -accusation that no one had ever presumed to formulate. “I have,” said -the queen, “caused great calamities, I have depopulated towns and -provinces and kingdoms, for the love of Christ and of His Holy Mother, -but I have never touched a maravedi of confiscated property; and I have -employed the money in educating and dowering the children of the -condemned.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_92" id="page_92">{92}</a></span>”</p> - -<p>This strange apology, which seems to have to some extent imposed upon -Prescott, is shown, by more recent examination of the State papers to be -a most deliberate and daring falsehood, and would go far to justify the -suggestion of Bergenroth that if Ferdinand never scrupled to tell direct -untruths and make false promises whenever he thought it expedient, Queen -Isabella excelled her husband in “disregard of veracity.”</p> - -<p>If the Holy Office had existed in Aragon in an undeveloped state from -the thirteenth to the fifteenth century, and if it was actually -introduced into Castile at the suggestion of an Inquisitor of the -Aragonese island of Sicily, the old independence of the inhabitants once -more asserted itself when the time arrived for the introduction of the -brand-new Castilian Tribunal into the old kingdom that is watered by the -Ebro. Saragossa, indeed, may be nearer to Rome than Toledo; but the -Catalan has ever been less submissive than his brother or cousin in -Castile; less obedient to authority; more impatient of royal and -ecclesiastical oppression. Yet Aragon, which had defied Innocent at -Muret, and vanquished Martin at Gerona, was no match for the inquisitors -of Ferdinand the Catholic.</p> - -<p>The Inquisition, as we have seen, had once before been established in -Aragon; but in one most important particular the new institution -differed from the old. In former days, even in the rare cases when the -heretic paid the penalty of his heterodoxy with his life, his property -passed to his heirs. The ecclesiastical tribunal of Ferdinand was not -only more efficient in the matter of burning or otherwise disposing of -accused persons; but the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_93" id="page_93">{93}</a></span> property of all doubtful Catholics, even of -those who were graciously permitted to live after their trial, was -absolutely forfeit to the crown. And the number of rich men, not only -converted Jews but prosperous Christians, whose orthodoxy failed to come -up to the new standard, was even in those days considered remarkable.</p> - -<p>Ferdinand at all times hated popular assemblies. He spent the greater -part of his time in Castile; and he saw as little as possible of the -people of Aragon. But in April, 1484, he summoned a Cortes at Saragossa, -and decreed by royal ordinance the establishment of the new tribunal. -The old constitutional spirit of the Aragonese seems to have evaporated; -and a degenerate justiciary was found to swear to support the -jurisdiction of the Inquisitors. Yet envoys and delegates of the Commons -of Aragon were dispatched to Castile, whither Ferdinand had promptly -retired, and also to Rome, to remonstrate against the new Institution, -and more especially against the new provisions for the forfeiture of the -property of the convicted. If these provisions, contrary to the laws of -Aragon, were repealed or suspended, the deputies “were persuaded,” and -there was a grim humor in the suggestion, “that the Tribunal itself -would soon cease to exist.”</p> - -<p>But the repression of heresy was far too profitable an undertaking to be -lightly abandoned; nor was Ferdinand of Aragon the man to abandon it; -and the envoys returned from an unsuccessful mission to Valladolid to -find a Quemadero already blazing at Saragossa.</p> - -<p>Yet the Aragonese were not at once reduced to subjection. A popular -conspiracy led to the assassination of the Inquisitor-general, Pedro de -Arbues, in spite of his steel<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_94" id="page_94">{94}</a></span> cap and coat of mail, as he stood one day -at matins in the Cathedral of Saragossa (15th September, 1457); but this -daring crime served only to enrage Ferdinand and to strengthen the power -of the Inquisition. A most rigorous and indefatigable inquiry, which was -extended from Saragossa into every part of Aragon, was at once -undertaken; and an immense number of victims, chosen not only from among -the people, but from almost every noble family in Aragon, if it did not -appease the vengeance of the Inquisitors, gratified at least the avarice -of Ferdinand. Among the accused, indeed, was Don Jayme of Navarre, a -nephew of the King of Aragon—a son of Eleanor, queen of Navarre, and -her husband, Gaston de Foix—who was actually arrested and imprisoned by -the Holy Office; and discharged only after having done public penance, -as convicted of having in some way sympathized with the assassination of -Arbues. But it may be noted that the young prince was anything but a -favorite with his uncle, to whom this bit of ecclesiastical discipline -was no doubt very gratifying.</p> - -<p>But it was not only at Saragossa that opposition was offered to the -establishment of the new Tribunal. In every part of Aragon and of -Valencia; at Lerida, at Teruel, at Barcelona, the people rose against -this new exhibition of royal and priestly tyranny. And it was not for -fully two years, and after the adoption of the most savage measures of -repression both royal and ecclesiastical, that the Inquisition was -finally accepted in the kingdom of Aragon, and that Torquemada, -fortified by no less than two special Bulls, made his triumphal entry as -Inquisitor-general into Barcelona on the 27th of October, 1488.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_95" id="page_95">{95}</a></span></p> - -<p>Among all the tens of thousands of innocent persons who were tortured -and done to death by the Inquisition in Spain, it is instructive to turn -to the record of one man at least who broke through the meshes of the -ecclesiastical net that was spread abroad in the country; for the mode -of his escape is sufficiently instructive. Ready money at command, but -not exposed to seizure, was the sole shield and safeguard against the -assaults of Church and State. Don Alfonso de la Caballeria was a Jew by -race, and a man who was actually concerned in the murder of the -Inquisitor Arbues; but his great wealth enabled him to purchase not only -one but two Briefs from Rome, and to secure the further favor of -Ferdinand. He was accused and prosecuted in vain by the Holy Office of -Aragon. He not only escaped with his life, but he rose to a high -position in the State, and eventually mingled his Jewish and heretic -blood with that of royalty itself.</p> - -<p>Various attempts were made by the Commons of Aragon to abate the powers -of the Inquisition; and at the Cortes of Monzon, in 1510, so vigorous a -remonstrance was addressed to Ferdinand that he was unable to do more -than avoid a decision by a postponement on the ground of desiring fuller -information; and two years later, at the same place, he was compelled to -sanction a declaration or ordinance, by which the authority assumed by -the Holy Office, in defiance of the Constitution of Aragon, was -specifically declared to be illegal; and the king swore to abolish the -privileges and jurisdiction of the Inquisition. Within a few months, -however, he caused himself to be absolved from this oath by a Papal -Brief; and the Inquisition remained unreformed and triumphant. But the -Aragonese<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_96" id="page_96">{96}</a></span> had not yet entirely lost their independence, and a popular -rising compelled the king not only to renounce the Brief, so lately -received, but to solicit from the Pope a Bull (May 12, 1515), -exonerating him from so doing, and calling upon all men, lay and -ecclesiastical, to maintain the authority of the Cortes. Aragon was -satisfied. And the people enjoyed for a season the blessings of -comparative immunity from persecution.</p> - -<p>To recall the manifold horrors of the actual working of the Inquisition -in Spain would be a painful and an odious task. To record them in any -detail is surely superfluous; even though they are entirely denied by -such eminent modern writers as Hefele, in Germany, or Menendez Pelayo, -in Spain. The hidden enemy, the secret denunciation, the sudden arrest, -the unknown dungeon, the prolonged interrogatory, the hideous torture, -the pitiless judge, the certain sentence, the cruel execution, the -public display of sacerdotal vengeance, the plunder of the survivors, -innocent even of ecclesiastical offense—all these things are known to -every reader of every history. All other considerations apart, it is an -abuse of language to speak of the proceedings before the Inquisition as -a trial, for the tribunal was nothing but a Board of Conviction. One -acquittal in two thousand accusations was, according to Llorente, who -had access to all the records of the Holy Office in Spain, about the -proportion that was observed in their judicial findings.</p> - -<p>Statistics, as a rule, are not convincing, and figures are rarely -impressive; yet it may be added that, according to Llorente’s cautious -estimate, over ten thousand persons were burned alive during the -eighteen years of Torquemad<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_97" id="page_97">{97}</a></span>a’s supremacy alone; that over six thousand -more were burned in effigy either in their absence or after their death, -and their property acquired by the Holy Office; while the number of -those whose goods were confiscated, after undergoing less rigorous -punishments, is variously computed at somewhat more or somewhat less -than one hundred thousand. But it is obvious that even these terrible -figures give but a very feeble idea of the vast sum of human suffering -that followed the steps of this dreadful institution. For they tell no -tale of the thousands who died, and the tens of thousands who suffered, -in the torture chamber. They hardly suggest the anguish of the widow and -the orphan of the principal victims, who were left, bereaved and -plundered, to struggle with a hard and unsympathetic world, desolate, -poor, and disgraced.</p> - -<p>Nor does the most exaggerated presentment of human suffering tell of the -disastrous effects of the entire system upon religion, upon morals, upon -civil society at large. The terrorism, the espionage, the daily and -hourly dread of denunciation, in which every honest man and woman must -have lived, the boundless opportunities for extortion and for the -gratification of private vengeance and worldly hatred, must have -poisoned the whole social life of Spain. The work of the Inquisition, -while it tended, no doubt, to make men orthodox, tended also to make -them false, and suspicious, and cruel. Before the middle of the -sixteenth century, the Holy Office had profoundly affected the national -character; and the Spaniard, who had been celebrated in Europe during -countless centuries for every manly virtue, became, in the new world -that had been given to him, no less notorious for a cruelty beyond the -imagination<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_98" id="page_98">{98}</a></span> of a Roman emperor, and a rapacity beyond the dreams of a -republican proconsul.</p> - -<p>Torquemada and Ferdinand may have burned their thousands and plundered -their ten thousands in Spain. Their disciples put to death millions of -the gentlest races of the earth, and ravaged without scruple or pity the -fairest and most fertile regions of the new Continent which had been -given to them to possess.</p> - -<p>As long as the Inquisition confined its operations to the Jews and the -Moors, the Old Christians were injured and depraved by the development -of those tendencies to cruelty and rapacity that lie dormant in the -heart of every man. But this was not the end. For when Spain at length -sheltered no more aliens to be persecuted and plundered in the name of -religion, and murder and extortion were forced to seek their easy prey -in the new world beyond the Atlantic Ocean, the Holy Office turned its -attention to domestic heresy; and the character of the Spaniard in -Europe became still further demoralized and perverted. Every man was -suspected. Every man became suspicious. The lightest word might lead to -the heaviest accusation. The nation became somber and silent. Religious -life was but a step removed from heresy. Religion died. Original thought -was above all things dangerous. The Spaniard took refuge in Routine. -Social intercourse was obviously full of peril. A prudent man kept -himself to himself, and was glad to escape the observation of his -neighbors. Castile became a spiritual desert. The Castilian wrapped -himself in his cloak, and sought safety in dignified abstraction.</p> - -<p>The Holy Office has done its work in Spain. A rapa<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_99" id="page_99">{99}</a></span>cious government, an -enslaved people, a hollow religion, a corrupt Church, a century of -blood, three centuries of shame, all these things followed in its wake. -And the country of Viriatus and Seneca, of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius, -where Ruy Diaz fought, and Alfonso studied, and where two warrior kings -in two successive centuries defied Rome temporal and Rome spiritual, and -all the crusaders of Europe—Spain, hardly conquered by Scipio or by -Cæsar, was enslaved by the dead hand of Dominic.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_100" id="page_100">{100}</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI<br /><br /> -<span class="chead">THEIR CATHOLIC MAJESTIES</span></h2> -<p class="chead2">THE BANISHMENT OF THE JEWS—INTERNATIONAL NEGOTIATIONS—THE SPANIARDS IN -ITALY—THE VICTORIES OF GONSALVO—THE BEGINNING OF A NEW ERA</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> fall of Granada left the Catholic sovereigns free to turn their -attention more completely to the domestic affairs of the kingdom; and it -seems moreover to have increased the bigotry both of the Church and of -the Court, and to have added new zeal to the fury of the Inquisition.</p> - -<p>The conquest of the Moorish kingdom was said by pious ecclesiastics to -be a special sign or manifestation of the approval by Heaven of the -recent institution of the Holy Office. The knights and nobles, proud of -their military successes, may have attributed the victory to causes more -flattering to their valor, their skill, and their perseverance. The -common people, as yet not demoralized, but gorged with plunder, and -invited to occupy without purchase the fairest province in the -Peninsula, were little disposed to quarrel with the policy of Ferdinand; -and far from feeling any pity for the sufferings of the vanquished -Moors, they sighed for new infidels to pillage. And new infidels were -promptly found.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_101" id="page_101">{101}</a></span></p> - -<p>The Inquisition so far had troubled itself but little with Christian -heretics. The early Spanish Protestantism of the thirteenth century had -died away. The later Spanish Protestantism of the sixteenth century had -not yet come into existence. Few men had done more than Averroes of -Cordova and Ramon Lull of Palma to awaken religious thought in Medieval -Europe; yet speculative theology has never been popular among the -Spanish people. It was against the Jews, renegade or relapsed, even more -than the avowedly unconverted, that the Holy Office directed all its -exertions until the end of the fifteenth century. By April, 1492, -although a great number of the unfortunate Hebrews had already found -their way to the Quemadero, there was still a very large Jewish -population in Spain, the most industrious, the most intelligent, the -most orderly, but, unhappily for themselves, the most wealthy of all the -inhabitants of the Peninsula.</p> - -<p>The Spanish Jews, as we have seen, were treated on the arrival of the -Arab conquerors not only with consideration, but with an amount of favor -that was not extended to them under any other government in the world; -nor was this wise liberality, as time went on, displayed only by the -Moslem in Spain. At the Christian courts of Leon, of Castile, and of -Catalonia, the Jews were welcomed as lenders of money and as healers of -diseases, and as men skilled in many industrial arts; and they supplied -what little science was required in northern Spain, while their brethren -shared in the magnificent culture and extended studies of Cordova. When -the rule of the Arab declined, and Alfonso el Sabio held his court at -southern Seville, the learned Jews were his chosen companions. They -certainly<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_102" id="page_102">{102}</a></span> assisted him in the preparation of his great astronomical -tables. They probably assisted him in his translation of the Bible.</p> - -<p>Nor does this court favor appear to have caused any serious jealousy -among Christian Spaniards. The fellow-student of Alfonso X., the trusted -treasurer of Peter the Cruel, the accommodating banker of many a king -and many a noble—the Jew was for some time a personage of importance -rather than a refugee in the Peninsula. And during the whole of the -thirteenth century, while the Jews were exposed throughout western -Europe to the most dreadful and systematic persecutions, they enjoyed in -Spain not only immunity, but protection, not only religious freedom, but -political consideration.</p> - -<p>Under Alfonso XI. they were particularly regarded, and even under Peter -the Cruel, who, though he tortured and robbed his Hebrew treasurer, did -not at any time display his natural ferocity in any form of religious -persecution. Yet, as we are told that his rival and successor, Henry of -Trastamara, sought popular favor by molesting the Jews, it would seem -that already by the end of the fourteenth century they were becoming -unpopular in Castile. But on the whole, throughout the Peninsula, from -the time of James I. of Aragon, who is said to have studied ethics under -a Jewish professor, to the time of John II. of Castile, who employed a -Jewish secretary in the compilation of a national “Cancionero,” or -ballad book, the Jews were not only distinguished, but encouraged, in -literature and abstract science, as they had always been in the more -practical pursuits of medicine and of commerce.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_103" id="page_103">{103}</a></span></p> - -<p>But in less than a century after the death of Alfonso X. the tide of -fortune had turned. Their riches increased overmuch in a disturbed and -impoverished commonwealth, and public indignation began to be displayed, -rather at their un-Christian opulence than at their Jewish faith. -Inquisition was made rather into their strongboxes than into their -theology; and it was their debtors and their rivals, rather than any -religious purists, who, toward the end of the fourteenth century, and -more especially in Aragon, stirred up those popular risings against -their race that led to the massacres and the wholesale conversions of -1391. The first attack that was made upon the persons and property of -the Jews was in 1388, and it was no doubt provoked by the preaching of -the fanatic archdeacon Hernando Martinez at Seville. But it was in -nowise religious in its character, and was aimed chiefly at the -acquisition and destruction of the property of the rich and prosperous -Hebrews. The outbreaks which took place almost simultaneously in all -parts of Spain were disapproved both by kings and councils. Special -judges were sent to the disturbed cities, and a considerable amount of -real protection was extended to the plundered people. No one said a word -about conversion; or at least the conversion was that of ancient Pistol, -the conversion of the property of the Jews into the possession of the -Christians. When the Jewish quarter of Barcelona was sacked by the -populace, and an immense number of Hebrews were despoiled and massacred -throughout the country, John of Aragon, indolent though he was, used his -utmost endeavors to check the slaughter. He punished the aggressors, and -he even caused a res<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_104" id="page_104">{104}</a></span>titution of goods to be made to such of the victims -as survived.</p> - -<p>The preaching of St. Vincent Ferrer, during the early part of the -fifteenth century, was addressed largely to the Jews in Spain, but -little or no religious persecution seems to have been directed against -them in consequence of his harangues. On the contrary, we read of -friendly conferences or public disputations between Jewish and Christian -doctors in Aragon, where the Inquisition was, at least, nominally -established. Such conferences could hardly be expected to convince or -convert the advocates of either faith, but they tell at least of an -amount of toleration on the part of the Christian authorities of the day -that was certainly not to be found in Spain at the close of the century; -and there is no doubt that they were followed by a very large number of -conversions of the more malleable members of the Hebrew community. But -it is a far cry from St. Vincent Ferrer to the uncanonized Tomas de -Torquemada.</p> - -<p>Yet, even in outward conformity to the established religion, the Jews, -as time went on, found no permanent safety from persecution and plunder. -John II. indeed had little of the bigot in his composition; it was -Politics and not Persecution that, under his successor, engrossed the -attention of clergy and laity in Castile; but, as soon as the power of -Isabella was formally established, the destruction of all that was not -orthodox, Catholic, and Spanish became the keynote of the domestic -policy of the new government of Spain.</p> - -<p>The earliest efforts of the Spanish Inquisition were directed, as we -have seen, almost exclusively against<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_105" id="page_105">{105}</a></span> those converted Jews, or the sons -and daughters of converts, who were known by the expressive name of New -Christians, a title applied also to Christianized Moslems, and which -distinguished both classes from the Old Christians or Cristianos Viejos, -who could boast of a pure Castilian ancestry. These New Christians, as a -whole, at the end of the fifteenth century, were among the richest, the -most industrious, and the most intelligent of the population, and they -were regarded with considerable envy by their poorer neighbors, whose -blue blood did not always bring with it either wealth or fortune. The -Rules and Regulations for the guidance of the Inquisitors were therefore -specially framed to include every possible act or thought that might -bring the members of the classes specially aimed at within the deadly -category of the Relapsed. If the “New Christian” wore a clean shirt, or -spread clean table-linen on a Saturday (Art. 4), if he ate meat in Lent -(7), observed any of the Jewish fasts (8-17), or sat at table with any -Jew of his acquaintance (19); if he recited one of the Psalms of David -without the addition of the Doxology (20), if he caused his child to be -baptized under a Hebrew name (23), he was to be treated as a renegade -and condemned to the flames.</p> - -<p>With every act of his life thus at the mercy of spies and informers, his -last end was not unobserved by the Dominicans and the Familiars of the -Holy Office. If in the article of death he turned his weary face (31) to -the wall of his chamber, he was adjudged relapsed, and all his -possessions were forfeit; or if the sorrowing children of even the most -unexceptionable convert had washed his dead body with warm water (32) -they were to be treated<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_106" id="page_106">{106}</a></span> as apostates and heretics, and were at least -liable to suffer death by fire, after their goods had been appropriated -by the Holy Office or by the Crown.</p> - -<p>In the sentences which condemned to the stake, to confiscation, and to -penances which were punishments of the severest description, we find -enumerated such offenses as the avoiding the use of fat, and especially -of lard; preparing amive, a kind of broth much appreciated by the Jews; -or eating “Passover bread”; reading, or even possessing, a Hebrew Bible; -ignorance of the Pater noster and the Creed; saying that a good Jew -could be saved, and a thousand other equally harmless deeds or words.</p> - -<p>But with the professed and avowed Jew, unpopular as he may have been -with his neighbors, and exposed at times to various forms of civil and -religious outrage, the Holy Office did not directly concern itself. The -Hebrew, like the Moslem, was outside the pale even of Christian inquiry.</p> - -<p>There is no doubt that it was the success of the operations against the -Moors of Granada that suggested to Ferdinand and Isabella the -undertaking of a campaign, easier by far, and scarcely less lucrative, -against the unhappy descendants of Abraham who had made their home in -Spain.</p> - -<p>The annual revenue that was derived by the Catholic sovereigns from the -confiscations of the Inquisition amounted to a considerable income; and -the source as yet showed no signs of drying up. Yet cupidity, marching -hand in hand with intolerance—the Devil, as the Spanish proverb has it, -ever lurking behind the Cross<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_107" id="page_107">{107}</a></span>—the sovereigns resolved upon the -perpetration of an act of State more dreadful than the most -comprehensive of the Autos da Fe.</p> - -<p>The work of the Holy Office was too slow. The limits of the Quemadero -were too small. Half a million Jews yet lived unbaptized in Spain. They -should be destroyed at a single blow. The Inquisition might be left to -reckon with the New Christians whose conversion was unsatisfactory.</p> - -<p>As soon as the Spanish Jews obtained an intimation of what was -contemplated against them, they took steps to propitiate the sovereigns -by the tender of a donative of thirty thousand ducats, toward defraying -the expenses of the Moorish war; and an influential Jewish leader is -said to have waited upon Ferdinand and Isabella, in their quarters at -Santa Fe, to urge the acceptance of the bribe. The negotiations, -however, were suddenly interrupted by Torquemada, who burst into the -apartment where the sovereigns were giving audience to the Jewish -deputy, and drawing forth a crucifix from beneath his mantle, held it -up, exclaiming, “Judas Iscariot sold his master for thirty pieces of -silver; Your Highnesses would sell him anew for thirty thousand; here he -is, take him and barter him away.” The extravagant presumption of the -Inquisitor-general would not perhaps have been as successful as it was -had it not been obvious to the rapacious Ferdinand that thirty thousand -ducats was a trifle compared with the plunder of the entire body of Jews -in Spain. Yet the action of Torquemada was no doubt calculated to affect -the superstitious mind of Isabella, and even the colder spirit of -Ferdinand.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_108" id="page_108">{108}</a></span></p> - -<p>Whatever may have been the scruples of the Spanish sovereigns, the -fanaticism of the Spanish people had been at this critical juncture -stirred up to an unusual pitch of fury by the proceedings and reports of -the Holy Office in a case which has attracted an amount of attention so -entirely disproportionate to its apparent importance that it merits -something more than a passing notice.</p> - -<p>In June, 1490, a converted Jew of the name of Benito Garcia, on his way -back from a pilgrimage to Compostella, was waylaid and robbed near -Astorga, by some of the Christian inhabitants. A Jew, converted or -otherwise, was a legitimate object of plunder. The contents of his -knapsack not being entirely satisfactory, and the ecclesiastical -authorities sniffing sacrilege in what was supposed to be a piece of the -consecrated wafer, Garcia, and not the robbers, was arrested, subjected -to incredible tortures, and finally handed over to the local -inquisitors.</p> - -<p>His case was heard with that of other Conversos; first at Segovia and -afterward at Avila. Tortures were repeated. Spies were introduced in -various guises and disguises, but no confession could be extorted.</p> - -<p>At length, after a year and a half of such practices, the endurance of -one of the accused gave way—the dreadful story affords some slight -notion of the methods of the Inquisition—and the unhappy man invented a -tale in accordance with what was demanded of him; the crucifixion of a -Christian child; the tearing out of his heart, the theft of the Host -from a Christian Church, and a magical incantation over the dreadful -elements, directed against Christianity, and more particularly against -the Holy<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_109" id="page_109">{109}</a></span> Office. The Tribunal having been thus satisfied of the guilt -of the accused, a solemn Auto da Fe was held at Avila, on the 16th of -November, 1491, when two of the convicts were torn to death with red-hot -pincers; three who had been more mercifully permitted to die under the -preliminary tortures were burned in effigy; while the remaining -prisoners were visited only with the slight punishment of strangulation -before their consignment to the inevitable fire. That no boy, with or -without a heart, could be found or invented, by the most rigorous -examination; that no Christian child had disappeared from the -neighborhood of the unhappy Jews at the time of their arrest—this -surprised no one. In matters of Faith such evidences were wholly -superfluous. Secura judícat Ecclesia.</p> - -<p>That these poor Hebrews should have suffered torture and death for an -imaginary sacrilege upon the person of an imaginary boy was indeed a -thing by no means unexampled in the history of religious fanaticism. But -the sequel is certainly extraordinary. With a view of exciting the -indignation of the sovereigns and of the people against the Jews at an -important moment, Torquemada devoted much attention to the publication -throughout Spain of the dreadful story of the murdered boy, the Niño of -La Guardia, the village where the crime is supposed to have taken place. -As to the name of the victim, the authorities did not agree. Some -maintained that it was Christopher, while others declared for John. But -the recital of the awful wickedness of the Jews lost none of its force -by adverse criticism. The legend spread from altar to altar throughout -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_110" id="page_110">{110}</a></span>the country. The Niño de la Guardia at once became a popular hero, in -course of time a popular saint; miracles were freely worked upon the -spot where his remains had not been found, and something over a century -later (1613) his canonization was demanded at Rome.</p> - -<p>His remains, it was asserted by Francisco de Quevedo, could not be found -on earth, only because his body as well as his soul had been -miraculously carried up to heaven, where it was the most powerful -advocate and protector of the Spanish monarchy. The story, moreover, has -been twice dramatized—once by Lope de Vega—and no less than three -admiring biographies of this imaginary martyr have been published in -Spain within the last forty years of this nineteenth century.</p> - -<p>At length from conquered Granada, on the 30th of March, 1492, the -dreadful edict went forth. By the 30th of July not a Jew was to be left -alive in Spain. Sisenand, indeed, nine hundred years before, had -promulgated such an edict. But the Visigoth had been too tender-hearted -to enforce it. Isabella, whose gentleness and goodness historians are -never tired of applauding, was influenced by no such considerations, and -the sentence was carried out to the letter. With a cruel irony, the -banished people were permitted to sell their property, yet forbidden to -carry the money out of the kingdom, a provision which has obtained the -warm approval of more than one modern Spanish historian, by whom it is -accepted as a conclusive proof that this wholesale depopulation did not -and could not diminish the wealth of Spain!</p> - -<p>Thus two hundred thousand Spaniards, men, women, and children of tender -years, rich and poor, men of refinement and of position, ladies reared -in luxury, the aged, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_111" id="page_111">{111}</a></span> sick, the infirm, all were included in one -common destruction, and were driven, stripped of everything, from their -peaceful homes, to die on their way to some less savage country. For the -sentence was carried out with the most relentless ferocity. Every road -to the coast, we read, was thronged with the unhappy fugitives, -struggling to carry off some shred of their ruined homes. To succor them -was death; to pillage them was piety. At every seaport, rapacious -shipmasters exacted from the defenseless travelers the greater part of -their remaining possessions, as the price of a passage to some -neighboring coast; and in many cases the passenger was tossed overboard -ere the voyage was completed, and his goods confiscated to the crew. A -rumor having got abroad that the fugitives were in the habit of -swallowing jewels and gold pieces in order to evade the royal decree, -thousands of unhappy beings were ripped up by the greedy knife of the -enemy, on land or sea, on the chance of discovering in their mutilated -remains some little store of treasure.</p> - -<p>And thus, north, south, east, and west, the Jews straggled and struggled -over Spain; and undeterred by the manifold terrors of the sea, a vast -multitude of exiles, whose homes in Spain once lay in sunny Andalusia, -sought and found an uncertain abiding place in neighboring Africa.</p> - -<p>Of all Christian countries, it was in neighboring Portugal that the -greatest number of the exiles found refuge and shelter; until, after -five brief years of peace and comparative prosperity, the heavy hand of -Castilian intolerance once more descended upon them, and they were -driven out of the country, at the bidding of Isabella<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_112" id="page_112">{112}</a></span> and her too -dutiful daughter, the hope of Portugal and of Castile.</p> - -<p>But to every country in Europe the footsteps of some of the sufferers -were directed. Not a few were permitted to abide in Italy and Southern -France; some of the most distinguished found a haven in England; many -were fortunate enough to reach the Ottoman dominions, where, under the -tolerant government of the Turk, they lived and prospered, and where -their descendants, at many of the more important seaports of the Levant, -are still found to speak the Castilian of their forefathers.</p> - -<p>That the edict of banishment was meant to be, as it so constantly was, a -doom of death, and not merely a removal of heretics, is clear from the -action of the Spanish sovereigns, who, at the instigation of Torquemada, -procured from the pliant Innocent VIII. a Bull enjoining the authorities -of every country in Christian Europe to arrest and send back to Spain -all <i>fugitive</i> Jews under penalty of the Greater Excommunication.</p> - -<p>More than once, indeed, the demand for extradition was made. But save in -the case of the Portuguese Jews, on the second marriage of the Princess -Isabella to the reigning sovereign of that country, no foreign prince -appears to have paid any heed to this savage edict. Nor was it, as a -rule, of any material advantage, either at Rome or at Seville, that it -should be put in force.</p> - -<p>Avarice was perhaps the besetting sin of Rome in the fifteenth century; -nor was bigotry unknown throughout Western Europe. But in Spain, as the -century drew to a close, avarice and bigotry joined hand in hand, and -flourished under royal and noble patronage, preached by religion,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_113" id="page_113">{113}</a></span> -practiced by policy, and applauded by patriotism. It was not strange -that, under such teaching, the people of Castile should have rapidly -become demoralized, and that the great race should have begun to develop -that sordid and self-satisfied savagery which disgraced the name of the -Spaniard, in the heartless and short-sighted plunder of the new world -that lay before him.</p> - -<p>Yet in all human affairs there is something that too often escapes our -observation, to explain, if not to excuse, what may seem the most -dreadful aberrations of the better nature of man. And it may be that the -uncompromising religious spirit, which has had so enormous an influence -for evil and for good upon the Spanish people, is to some extent the -result of their Semitic environment of eight hundred years.</p> - -<p>Religious controversy indeed, between rival branches of the Christian -Church in the days of the Visigoths, developed religious animosities -before the first Moslem landed at Tarifa; yet the Arab and the Moor, -fired with the enthusiasm of a new and living faith, brought into their -daily life in Spain, in peace and in war, a deep and all-pervading -religious spirit—an active recognition of the constant presence of one -true God—unknown to the Roman or the Visigoth, which must have had an -enormous influence upon the grave and serious Spaniards who lived under -the rule of the Arab.</p> - -<p>Nor was the Moslem the only factor in this medieval development. In no -other country in Europe was the Jew, as we have seen, more largely -represented, and more powerful, for the first fifteen centuries of our -era, than in Spain, whether under Christian or Moslem mas<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_114" id="page_114">{114}</a></span>ters. But the -direct and simple monotheism of the Hebrew and the Arab, while it had so -great a direct influence upon Spanish Christianity, provoked as part of -the natural antagonism to the methods of the rival and the enemy, the -counter development of an excessive Hagiolatry, Mariolatry, and -Sacerdotalism.</p> - -<p>It would be strange enough if the religious fervor which doomed to death -and torment so many tens of thousands of Semites in Spain should be -itself of Semitic suggestion. It is hardly less strange that the Greek -Renaissance, which revolutionized the Christian world, and whose -anti-Semitic influence to the present day is nowhere more marked than in -every department of religious thought, should by the irony of fate have -been forestalled by a writer, at once Spanish and Semitic; and when, by -the sixteenth century, the rest of modern Europe had been led by the -teaching of Averroes to accept the philosophy of Aristotle, Spain, the -earliest home of Hellenism, new born in Europe, had already turned again -to a religious Philistinism or Phariseeism of the hardest and most -uncompromising type, Semitic in its thoroughness, Greek only in its -elaborate accessories, and Spanish in its uncompromising rigor.</p> - -<p>Thus it was that the Arab and the Jew, parents, in some sense, of the -religious spirit of Ximenez and of Torquemada, became themselves the -objects of persecution more bitter than is to be found in the annals of -any other European nation. The rigors of the Spanish Inquisition, and -the policy that inspired and justified it, are not to be fully explained -by the rapacity of Ferdinand, the bigotry of Isabella, the ambition of -Ximenez, or the cruelty of Torquemada. They were in a manner the -rebellion or<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_115" id="page_115">{115}</a></span> outbreak of the old Semitic spirit against the Semite, the -ignorant jealousy of the wayward disciple against the master whose -teaching has been but imperfectly and unintelligently -assimilated—perverted, distorted, and depraved by the human or devilish -element which is to be found in all religions, and which seems ever -striving to destroy the better, and to develop the worser part of the -spiritual nature of man.</p> - -<p>We now enter upon a period of European history which is but feebly -characterized by the term interesting, and which has been too accurately -chronicled and too severely investigated to be called romantic; when a -well-founded jealousy, or fear of the growing power of France, alone -supplies the key to the ever-changing foreign policy of the sovereigns -of Spain. Genuine State papers of the fifteenth century are by no means -numerous. In such of them, however, as are still extant, we find the -fear expressed over and over again that the kings of France would render -themselves “masters of the world,” would “establish a universal empire,” -or “subject the whole of Christendom to their dictation.” The best means -to avert such a danger appeared to contemporary statesmen to be the -foundation of another European State as a counterpoise. Ferdinand the -Catholic, ambitious, diplomatic, and capable, was the first prince who -undertook the enterprise.</p> - -<p>Within less than three years after the Inquisition had been established -at Seville, Louis XI. of France, the old rival and colleague of John II. -of Aragon, had died in Paris, August 30, 1483. He was succeeded by his -son Charles VIII., a young prince whose ignorance was only equaled by -his vanity, and was if possible exceeded by his<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_116" id="page_116">{116}</a></span> presumption. With such -an antagonist, Ferdinand of Aragon was well fitted to deal, with -advantage to himself and to Spain. To win over the Duchess of Bourbon, -who had virtually succeeded to the government of France on the death of -Louis XI., and to marry his eldest daughter Isabella to the young King -Charles VIII., were accordingly the first objects of his negotiations. -But in spite of all the flattery lavished on the duchess, Ferdinand did -not succeed in obtaining the crown for the Infanta. A more richly -dowered bride was destined for the King of France, to whom the -acquisition of the province of Brittany was of far greater importance -than the doubtful friendship of Spain; and after much public and private -negotiation, the Spanish embassador was reluctantly withdrawn from Paris -in the summer of 1487 (29th of July).</p> - -<p>Disappointed in his dealing with the court of France, the ever-watchful -and persistent Ferdinand turned his eyes to England; and in the last -days of the year 1487 an embassador from the Spanish sovereigns, -Roderigo de Puebla, doctor of canon and civil law, arrived at the court -of London. Henry VII., who greatly desired to establish a closer -alliance with Spain, succeeded in flattering the new envoy, and -rendering him almost from the first subservient to his personal -interests. Yet the King of England and the Spanish embassador together -were no match for Ferdinand of Aragon. The negotiations between the -sovereigns were prolonged for two years, and in the end Henry was -worsted at every point. He had signed a treaty of offensive alliance -with Spain against France, with which power he wisely desired to -maintain friendly relations, and he had been prevailed upon to send some -English troops into Brittany to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_117" id="page_117">{117}</a></span> co-operate with a Spanish contingent -which never arrived, in the expulsion of the French from that country. -He had concluded further treaties of friendship and alliance with the -King of the Romans, who was actually encouraging Perkin Warbeck to -assert his claim to the crown of England, and with the Archduke Philip, -whom he personally and independently hated. And he had been forced to -content himself with the promise of a very modest dowry with the Spanish -princess who was affianced to his son Arthur, Prince of Wales.</p> - -<p>Relatively too, as well as positively, he had been falsely borne in -hand. Maximilian, who had been no less ready than Henry with his -promises to Ferdinand, did not send a single soldier into Brittany, but -endeavored to overreach Henry, Charles, and Ferdinand by a hasty -marriage—by proxy—with the young duchess, without the consent or -knowledge of either England or Spain. Yet this diplomatic victory over -the very astute Englishman did not satisfy Ferdinand and Isabella, who, -fearful lest they should “become the victims of their honesty” if they -permitted Maximilian to surpass them in political perfidy, immediately -renewed secret negotiations with France, and declared themselves ready -to abandon the king, the duchess, and the emperor. Charles, they -promised, should obtain what he wished, without risking the life of a -single soldier, if only he would marry a Spanish Infanta. And they -offered him, not Isabella, their eldest born, but their second daughter, -Joanna.</p> - -<p>Charles, however, had other views, and finding no cohesion or certainty -in Ferdinand’s league against him, strengthened his cause and his -kingdom by marrying<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_118" id="page_118">{118}</a></span> the Duchess Anne of Brittany himself, and uniting -her hereditary dominions forever to the crown of France, a fair stroke -of policy for a foolish sovereign in the midst of crafty and -unscrupulous adversaries. (December 13, 1491.)</p> - -<p>Ferdinand replied by calling on Henry VII. to fulfill his engagements -and invade France. Henry accordingly, on the 1st of October, 1492, -landed an army at Calais, and marched on Boulogne; while Ferdinand, -without striking a blow either for Spain or for England, took advantage -of the English expedition to extort from the fears and folly of Charles -VIII. the favorable conditions of peace and alliance that were embodied -in the celebrated Convention which was signed at Barcelona on the 19th -of January, 1493. By this instrument it was provided that each of the -high contracting parties should mutually aid each other against all -enemies, the Vicar of Christ alone excepted, that the Spanish sovereigns -should not enter into an alliance with any other power, to the prejudice -of the interests of France, and finally, that the coveted provinces of -Roussillon and Cerdagne, whose recovery had long been one of the chief -objects of Ferdinand’s ambition, should be immediately handed over to -Spain.</p> - -<p>The services of England being no longer needed by the peninsular -sovereigns, Ferdinand abruptly broke off all further negotiations with -Henry VII.; the signatures of Ferdinand and Isabella to the treaty which -had already been ratified were disposed of by the simple but effective -expedient of cutting them out of the parchment with a pair of scissors; -and the contract of marriage between Arthur, Prince of Wales, and the -Infanta Catharine—hav<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_119" id="page_119">{119}</a></span>ing served its immediate diplomatic purpose—was -removed, for the time being,<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> from the sphere of practical politics.</p> - -<p>It is sufficiently characteristic of both parties, that in the treaty of -Barcelona, between Charles and Ferdinand, Naples, the true objective of -the young king of France, was not even mentioned. Ferdinand, well -content with the immediate advantages obtained by the treaty, was by no -means imposed upon by such vain reticence, while Charles, pluming -himself upon the success of his diplomacy in his treaties with England, -with Spain, and with the empire, looked forward to establishing himself -without opposition on the throne of Naples, on his way to assume the -Imperial purple at Constantinople.</p> - -<p>The kingdom of Naples, on the death of Alfonso the Magnanimous of -Aragon, had passed, we have already seen, to his illegitimate son -Ferdinand, who proved to be a tyrant of the worst Italian type, -worthless, contemptible and uninteresting. To expel this hated monarch, -for whom not one of his Neapolitan subjects would have been found to -strike a blow in anger, seemed but a chivalrous and agreeable pastime to -the vain and ignorant youth who had succeeded Louis XI. upon the throne -of France. His more experienced neighbors indeed smiled with some -satisfaction at his presumption. Yet, strange to say, the judgment of -the vain and ignorant youth was just; and the wise men, who ridiculed -his statesmanship, and scoffed at his military ineptitude, were doomed -to great and astounding disappointment.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_120" id="page_120">{120}</a></span></p> - -<p>Before the French preparations for the invasion of Italy were fairly -completed, in the early spring of 1494, Ferdinand of Naples died, and -was succeeded by his son Alfonso I., the cousin-german of Ferdinand of -Aragon. This change of rulers altered in no way the wild schemes of -Charles of France, nor, although the new king of Naples was far less -odious than his father had been in his own dominions, did it make any -important change in the condition of Italian politics. By the month of -June, 1494, the French preparations were so far advanced that Charles -judged it opportune to acquaint his Spanish allies with his designs on -Naples, and to solicit their active co-operation in his undertaking.</p> - -<p>That Ferdinand should, under any possible circumstances, have been found -to spend the blood and treasure of Spain in assisting any neighbor, -stranger, or ally, in any enterprise, without direct advantage to -himself, was a supposition entirely extravagant. But that he should -assist a feather-headed Frenchman to dispossess a son of Aragon of a -kingdom from which his own ancestors had thrice driven a French -pretender, and where, if any change were to be made in the sovereignty, -his own rights of succession were far superior to the shadowy claims -derived from the hated Angevins: this was a thing so grotesquely -preposterous that it is hard to suppose that even Charles of France -should have regarded it as being within the bounds of possibility. -Ferdinand contented himself for the moment with expressions of -astonishment and offers of good advice, while Charles pushed forward his -preparations for the invasion of Italy. Don Alfonso de Silva, dispatched -by the court of Spain as a special envoy, came up with the French army<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_121" id="page_121">{121}</a></span> -at Vienne, on the Rhone, toward the end of June, 1494. But he was -instructed rather to seek, than to convey, intelligence of any sort; nor -was it to be supposed that his grave remonstrances or his diplomatic -warnings should have had much effect upon the movements of an army that -was already on the march.</p> - -<p>In August, 1494, thirty thousand men, hastily equipped, yet well -provided with the new and dreadful weapon that was then first spoken of -as a cannon, crossed the Alps, and prepared to fight their way to -Naples. But no enemy appeared to oppose their progress. The various -States of Italy, jealous of one another, if not actually at war, were -unable or unwilling to combine against the invader; the roads were -undefended; the troops fled; the citizens of the isolated cities opened -their gates, one after the other, at the approach of the strange and -foreign invader. The French army, in fine, after a leisurely promenade -militaire through the heart of Italy, marched unopposed into Rome on the -last day of the year 1494.</p> - -<p>Ferdinand and Isabella had, in the first instance, offered no serious -opposition to the French enterprise, which appeared to them to be -completely impracticable; and they had awaited with diplomatic -equanimity the apparently inevitable disaster, which, without the loss -of a single Spanish soldier or the expenditure of a single maravedi, -would at once have served all the purposes of Ferdinand, and permitted -him to maintain his reputation for goodwill toward Charles, which might -have been useful in future negotiations. The astonishing success of the -French invasion took the Spanish sovereigns completely by surprise, and -it became necessary for Ferdinand to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_122" id="page_122">{122}</a></span> adopt, without haste, but with -prudent promptitude, a new policy at once toward France and toward the -various parties in Italy.</p> - -<p>The boldest and the most capable of all the sovereigns of Italy, in -these trying times, was the Spanish Pontiff, who by a singular fate has -been made, as it were, the whipping boy for the wickedness of nineteen -centuries of popes at Rome, and who is known to every schoolboy and -every scribbler as the infamous Alexander VI. Roderic Lenzuoli, or -Llançol, was the son of a wealthy Valencian gentleman, by Juana, a -sister of the more distinguished Alfonso Borja, bishop of his native -city of Valencia.</p> - -<p>Born at Valencia about 1431, Roderic gave evidence from his earliest -years of a remarkable strength of character, and of uncommon -intellectual powers. While still a youth, he won fame and fortune as an -advocate. But his impatient nature chafed at the moderate restraint of a -lawyer’s gown; and he was on the point of adopting a military career, -when the election of his uncle to the Supreme Pontificate as Calixtus -III. in 1455 opened for him the way to a more glorious future. At the -instance of the new Pope, Roderic adopted his mother’s name, in the -Italian form already so well known and distinguished at the court of -Rome, and taking with him his beautiful mistress, Rosa Vanozza, whose -mother he had formerly seduced, he turned his back upon his native -Valencia, and sought the fortune that awaited him at the capital of the -world.</p> - -<p>Unusually handsome in person, vigorous in mind and body, masterful, -clever, eloquent, unscrupulous, absolutely regardless of all laws, human -or divine, in the gratification of his passions and the accomplishment -of his designs, Rod<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_123" id="page_123">{123}</a></span>eric, the Pope’s nephew, was a man made for success -in the society in which he was to find himself at Rome. On his arrival -at the Papal court in 1456 he was received with great kindness by his -uncle, and was soon created Archbishop of Valencia, Cardinal of St. -Nicholas <i>in Carcere Tulliano</i>, and Vice-Chancellor of the Holy Roman -Church. On the death of Calixtus in 1458, the Cardinal Roderic Borgia -sank into comparative insignificance; and during the reigns of Pius II., -Paul II., Sixtus IV. and Innocent VIII. we hear little of him but that -he was distinguished for his amours, for his liberality in the disposal -of his fortune, and for his attention to public business. Having thus -secured the goodwill of many of the cardinals and the affection of the -Roman people, he had no difficulty, on the death of Innocent VIII. in -July, 1492, in making a bargain with a majority of the members of the -Sacred College, in accordance with which he was elected Pope, and took -the title of Alexander VI. on the 26th of August, 1492.</p> - -<p>His election was received by the Roman people with the utmost -satisfaction, and celebrated with all possible demonstrations of joy. -His transcendent abilities and his reckless methods could not fail to -render him obnoxious to his companions and his rivals in Italy; but it -is due rather to his foreign origin, his Valencian independence of -character, and above all his insolent avoidance of hypocrisy in the -affairs of his private life, that he has been made a kind of -ecclesiastical and Papal scapegoat, a Churchman upon whose enormous -vices Protestant controversialists are never tired of dilating, and -whose private wickedness is ingenuously admitted by Catholic apologists -as valuable for the purposes of casuistic illustration, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_124" id="page_124">{124}</a></span> the one -instance of a divinely infallible judge whose human nature yet remained -mysteriously impure, and whose personal or individual actions may be -admitted to have been objectively blamable.</p> - -<p>To measure the relative depths of human infamy is an impossible as well -as an ungrateful task. It is not given to mortals to know the secrets of -the heart. But bad as Alexander undoubtedly was, he was possibly no -worse than many of his contemporaries in the Consistory, less wicked -than some of his predecessors at the Vatican. The guilt of greater and -more vigorous natures passes for superlative infamy with the crowd; but -when dispassionately compared with that of his immediate predecessors, -Sixtus IV. and Innocent VIII., the character of Alexander VI. is in -almost every respect less flagitious and more admirable.</p> - -<p>So unblushing was the venality of the Holy See in the fourteenth century -that sacred dialecticians and jurists of high authority were found -seriously to argue that the Pope was not subjectively capable of -committing the offense of Simony. It might have been contended with -equal justice that in every other respect he was at once above, or -without, the scope of the entire moral law. Nor can it be said that the -fifteenth century brought any serious amendment.</p> - -<p>From the death of Benedict XI., in 1303, to the death of Alexander VI., -in 1503, the night was dark before the inevitable dawn; and in every -phase of human depravity, in every development of human turpitude, in -arrogance, in venality, in cruelty, in licentiousness, medieval Popes -may be found pre-eminent among contemporary potentates.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_125" id="page_125">{125}</a></span> Thus, if the -wickedness of Alexander was extravagant, it was by no means -unparalleled, even among the Popes of a single century. His cruelty was -no greater than that of Urban VI., or of Clement VII., or of John XXII. -His immorality was, at least, more human than that of Paul II. and of -Sixtus IV., nor were his amours more scandalous than those of Innocent -VIII. His sacrilege was less dreadful than that of Sixtus IV. His -covetousness could hardly have exceeded that of Boniface IX.; his -arrogance was less offensive than that of Boniface VIII. If he was -unduly subservient to Ferdinand and Isabella in his toleration of the -enormities of Torquemada, his necessities as an Italian sovereign -rendered the Spanish alliance a matter of capital importance. As a civil -potentate and as a politician, he was not only wiser, but far less -corrupt than Sforza, less rapacious than Ferdinand, more constant than -Maximilian of Germany, less reckless than Charles of France. His -administrative ability, his financial enlightenment, his energy as -regards public works, were no less remarkable than his personal -liberality, his affability, and his courage. His division of the New -World by a stroke of the pen was an assumption of imperial power which -was at least justified by the magnitude of its success. As he sat in his -palace on the Mons Vaticanus, he was the successor, not of Caligula, but -of Tiberius—not of Commodus, but of Diocletian.</p> - -<p>Of the misfortunes of his eldest son, created by Ferdinand Duke of -Gandia; of the wickedness of his second son, the fifteenth century -Cæsar, who succeeded his father as Cardinal Archbishop of Valencia; of -the profligacy of his daughter, so unhappily named Lucretia; of the -mar<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_126" id="page_126">{126}</a></span>riage of his youngest son Geoffrey to a daughter of Alfonso of -Naples, as a part of the treaty of alliance between the kingdom of the -Two Sicilies and the States of the Church, in 1494; of the alliance -between Alexander and Bajazet, and the poisoning of the Sultan’s -brother, Zem, after thirteen years’ captivity, on receipt of an -appropriate fee; of the elevation of a facile envoy to the full rank of -Cardinal, to please the Grand Turk; of all these things nothing need be -said in this place.</p> - -<p>We are more immediately concerned to know that on New Year’s Day, 1495, -Pope Alexander VI., a refugee, if not actually a prisoner, in the Castle -of St. Angelo, was fain to accept the terms that were imposed upon him -by the victorious Frenchmen—masters for the nonce of Italy and of Rome.</p> - -<p>As Charles VIII. was marching through Italy, and was approaching, all -unopposed, the sacred city of Rome, Alexander VI., anxious at all -hazards to obtain the assistance of his countrymen in the hour of -danger, had sent an envoy to the Spanish court representing the critical -state of affairs in Italy, assuring the king and queen of his constant -goodwill, in spite of certain disputes as to the Papal authority in -Spain, and conveying to them, with other less substantial favors, the -grant of the Tercias, or two-ninths of the tithes throughout all the -dominions of Castile, an impost which, until the middle of the present -century, formed a part of the revenues of the Spanish monarchy. He also -conceded to the Spanish crown the right of dominion over the whole of -northern Africa, except Fez, which had been given to the King of -Portugal.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_127" id="page_127">{127}</a></span></p> - -<p>A projected marriage between the Duke of Calabria, eldest son of the -King of Naples, and the Infanta Maria, daughter of Ferdinand and -Isabella, served to give the King of Spain an opportunity for -negotiating with the Neapolitan court; and Ferdinand at the same time -dispatched the celebrated Garcilaso de la Vega as his embassador, with -instructions to return the most comforting assurances to the Pope at -Rome. Yet he refrained from making any definite promises, or from -committing himself to any definite policy. He was not a man to do -anything rashly; and he preferred to await the course of events. -Meanwhile, having sent a second mission from Guadalajara to the French -court or camp, with good advice for his young friend and ally Charles -VIII., Ferdinand betook himself with Isabella to Madrid, where the -Spanish sovereigns devoted themselves to the preparation and equipment -of an army to be dispatched at an opportune moment to any part of Italy -where subsequent events might render its presence necessary. As, for -various reasons, it was impossible that either Ferdinand or Isabella -should accompany their army abroad, it became necessary to select a -general. Among all the skillful leaders and gallant knights who had -signalized themselves in the wars of Granada, it was somewhat difficult -to decide upon a commander. But Isabella had never lost sight of -Gonsalvo de Cordova, in whom she discerned traces of rare military -talent; and from the moment the Sicilian expedition was planned she -determined that he should be captain-general of the royal forces. The -greater experience and apparently superior claims of many who had -distinguished themselves in battle against the Moors were urged by -Ferdi<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_128" id="page_128">{128}</a></span>nand without avail. The command was given to Gonsalvo de Cordova.</p> - -<p>But while the Spanish fleet, under the gallant Count of Trivento, was -riding at anchor at Alicante, and Gonsalvo was preparing to embark his -army on board the ships in that harbor, the Spanish sovereigns -dispatched a final embassy to Charles in Italy. On the 28th of January, -1495, as the king was leaving Rome on his way toward Naples, the -embassadors, Juan de Albion and Antonio de Fonseca, arrived at the -Vatican. They found Pope Alexander smarting under the humiliation of his -recent treaty with the invader, and willing to assist them in any scheme -for his discomfiture. They accordingly followed the French army with all -speed, overtook it within a few miles of Rome, and immediately demanded -an audience of Charles, even before his troops had come to a halt. They -delivered up to him their credentials as he was riding along, and -peremptorily required him to proceed no further toward Naples. The -haughty tone of the Spaniards, as may be supposed, excited the greatest -indignation in the breast of Charles and those who surrounded him; high -words arose on both sides, and finally Fonseca, giving way to a -simulated transport of rage, produced a copy of the once prized treaty -of Barcelona, tore it to pieces, and threw down the fragments at -Charles’s feet. Paul Jove seems to think that this violent and -unjustifiable conduct on the part of the Spanish embassador was entirely -unpremeditated; but it is certain that the whole scene had been -preconcerted with either Ferdinand or the Pope. Zurita and the other -chroniclers are silent on the point, but Peter Martyr in one of his<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_129" id="page_129">{129}</a></span> -letters affirms that the mutilation of the treaty in Charles’s presence -was included in the secret instructions given to Fonseca by Ferdinand.</p> - -<p>The envoys, as was expected, were promptly ordered to quit the French -camp; and retiring with all speed to Rome, they hastened to transmit to -Spain the earliest intelligence of the success of their mission. They -were also permitted to inform their sovereigns of the new honor that had -been conferred upon them by his Holiness Alexander VI., in the shape of -the grant to them and to their heirs forever on the throne of Spain of -the title of “Catholic Kings.”</p> - -<p>Meanwhile Charles VIII. had reached Naples, which had at once opened its -gates to the invaders, and the Castel Nuovo and the Castel d’Uovo were -reduced to submission by their well-served artillery. King Alfonso -abdicated the crown, and Fabricio Colonna ravaged the whole kingdom of -Naples to the very gates of Brindisi, dispersing the little band of -troops that had been collected by Don Cæsar of Aragon, illegitimate -brother of the king; while Perron dei Baschi and Stuart d’Aubigny -overran the whole country almost without striking a blow; and the -greater part of the Neapolitan nobility gave their adhesion to the -French. Nothing, however, could be more impolitic or more ungrateful -than the manner in which Charles made use of his unexpectedly acquired -authority, and it soon became evident that the new state of affairs in -Naples would not be of very long duration. The moment for the judicious -interference of Ferdinand of Aragon had not been long in arriving.</p> - -<p>The conduct of the French at Naples showed pretty<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_130" id="page_130">{130}</a></span> clearly to the -Italian States the mistake they had made in permitting Charles to enter -the country, and they were not slow to accept the suggestions of the -Spanish embassador, Don Lorenzo Suarez de Mendoza y Figueras, that they -should form a league with the object of expelling the French from Italy. -The attitude of the Duke of Orleans, who had remained at Asti, toward -the duchy of Milan, and the favorable reception accorded by Charles to -Giovanni Trivulzio, Cardinal Fregosi, and Hybletto dei Fieschi, the -chiefs of the banished nobles, and the sworn enemies of Ludovico Sforza, -showed that prince how little he had to expect from the French alliance; -and the conduct of Charles toward the Florentines, and indeed toward -every government whose dominion he had traversed throughout Italy, -terrified and enraged every statesman from Milan to Syracuse.</p> - -<p>The envoys of the various states assembled at Venice. The deliberations -in the council chamber were brief and decisive; and such was the secrecy -with which the negotiations were conducted that the astute statesman and -historian Philip de Commines, who then represented France at the court -of Venice, remained ignorant that any league or convention was even -contemplated by the various powers, until he was informed by the Doge -Agostino Barberigo, on the morning of the 1st of April, 1495, that the -treaty had been signed on the previous day. The avowed objects of this -Most Holy League, which was entered into by Spain, Austria, Venice, -Milan and the Court of Rome, were the recovery of Constantinople from -the Turks, and the protection of the interests of the Church; but the -secret articles of the treaty, as may be supposed, went much<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_131" id="page_131">{131}</a></span> further, -and provided that Ferdinand should employ the Spanish armament, now on -its way to Sicily, in re-establishing his kinsman on the throne of -Naples; that a Venetian fleet of forty galleys should attack the French -positions on the Neapolitan coasts, that the Duke of Milan, the original -summoner, should expel the French from Asti, and blockade the passage of -the Alps, so as to prevent the arrival of further re-enforcements, and -that the Emperor and the King of Spain should invade France on their -respective frontiers, while the expense of all these warlike operations -should be defrayed by subsidies from the allies. The Sultan Bajazet II., -though not included in the League, offered, and was permitted, to assist -the Venetians both by sea and land against the French. Thus we see the -strange spectacle of the Pope and the Grand Turk—the Prince of -Christendom and the Prince of Islam—united against the first Christian -Power of Europe, under the leadership of The Most Christian King.</p> - -<p>Within six weeks of the signature of this important treaty, Charles -VIII. of France had caused himself to be crowned at Naples, with -extraordinary pomp, not only as king, but as emperor; and, having thus -gratified his puerile vanity, he abandoned his fantastic empire, and -flying from the dangers that threatened him in Italy he returned to -Paris. His army in Naples was intrusted to his cousin, Gilbert de -Bourbon, Duc de Montpensier, who was invested with the title of viceroy, -and instructed by the fugitive king to maintain his position in the -country against all opponents.</p> - -<p>It is not within the scope of this history to give any detailed account -of the retreat of the French through<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_132" id="page_132">{132}</a></span> Italy, of the wonderful passage of -the Apennines at Pontremoli, and the still more wonderful victory of -Fornovo on the Taro, when the French, whose entire force did not exceed -ten thousand soldiers, completely routed the Italian army of thirty-five -thousand men, under the command of Gonzago, marquis of Mantua. The -French forces that remained in southern Italy were doomed to a very -different fate. The command of the French army had been intrusted to the -celebrated Stuart d’Aubigny, a knight of Scottish ancestry, who had been -invested by Charles VIII. with the dignity of Constable of France, and -who was accounted one of the most capable officers in Europe. But a -greater captain than D’Aubigny was already on his way from Castile, who -was in a single campaign to restore the reputation of the Spanish -infantry to the proud position which they had once occupied in the -armies of ancient Rome.</p> - -<p>Landing at Reggio in Calabria, on the 26th of May, 1495, with a force of -all arms not exceeding five thousand fighting men, Gonsalvo de Cordova -speedily possessed himself of that important base of operations, -established himself on the coast, captured several inland towns, was -victorious in many skirmishes, and would soon have overrun the whole of -Calabria, had not the rashness of Frederic, the young king of Naples, -who had succeeded but a few months before to the crown which Alfonso had -abdicated after a reign of less than one year, led to a disastrous check -at Seminara. But Gonsalvo rapidly reorganized his army, and showing -himself, like a great general, no less admirable in repairing a defeat -than in taking advantage of a victory, he<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_133" id="page_133">{133}</a></span> had kept D’Aubigny so -completely in check that he had been unable even to go to the assistance -of Montpensier, who was in sore straits in Naples. The citizens soon -opened their gates to their lawful sovereign, and Montpensier retreated -with his remaining forces to Avella, on the banks of the Lagni, twenty -miles northeast of the city of Naples, whither Gonsalvo promptly marched -to besiege him. Having received intelligence in the course of his -march—Gonsalvo was ever well informed—that a strong body of French, -with some Angevin knights and nobles, were on their way to effect a -junction with D’Aubigny, he surprised them by a night attack in the -fortified town of Lino, where he captured every one of the Angevin -lords, no less than twenty in number, and immediately marching off to -Avella with his spoils and prisoners, and an immense booty, he arrived -at Frederic’s camp early in July, just thirteen months after their -separation on the disastrous field of Seminara.</p> - -<p>On hearing of Gonsalvo’s approach, the king marched out to meet him, -accompanied by Cæsar Borgia, the Papal Legate, and many of the principal -Neapolitan nobles and commanders, who greeted the victorious Castilian -with the proud title of “The Great Captain,” by which he was already -known to some of his contemporaries, and by which he has ever since been -distinguished by posterity. At Avella he found a re-enforcement of five -hundred Spanish soldiers, a welcome addition to his small force, which -amounted on his arrival to only two thousand one hundred men, of whom -six hundred were cavalry. With such an army, less numerous than a modern -German regiment, did Gonsalvo overrun Calabria, out-general<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_134" id="page_134">{134}</a></span> the most -renowned French commanders, and defeat their gallant and -well-disciplined forces, emboldened by uninterrupted success.</p> - -<p>The siege operations at Avella, which had been conducted without energy -by the Neapolitans, received a new impetus from the presence of the -Spaniard, who displayed such skill and vigor that in a few days the -French, defeated at every point, were glad to sue for terms, and on the -21st of July, 1496, signed a capitulation which virtually put an end to -the war. It was meet that Gonsalvo should now pay a visit to his -countryman at the Vatican, and having, on his way to Rome, delivered the -town of Ostia from the dictatorship of a Basque adventurer of the name -of Guerri, the last remaining hope of the French in Italy, he was -received by Alexander VI. with such splendor that his entry into the -city is said to have resembled rather the <i>triumph</i> of a victorious -general into ancient Rome than the visit of a modern grandee.</p> - -<p>The streets were lined with enthusiastic crowds, the windows were filled -with admiring spectators, the very tops of the houses were covered with -lookers-on, as Gonsalvo marched into and through the city, preceded by -bands of music, and accompanied by his victorious army. The entire -garrison of Ostia, with Manuel Guerri at their head, mounted on a -wretched horse, was led captive to the Vatican, where Roderic Borgia, in -the full splendor of his tiara and pontifical robes, and surrounded by -his cardinals, sat on his throne awaiting the coming of his victorious -countryman. When Gonsalvo reached the foot of the throne, he knelt down -to receive the pontifical<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_135" id="page_135">{135}</a></span> benediction, but Alexander raised him in his -arms, and presented to him the Golden Rose, the highest and most -distinguished honor that a layman could receive from the hands of the -sovereign Pontiff.</p> - -<p>The Great Captain now returned to Naples, into which city he made an -entry scarcely less splendid than that into Rome; and he received at the -hands of Frederic more substantial honors than those of a golden rose, -in the shape of the dukedom of Santangelo, with a fief of two towns and -seven dependent villages in the Abruzzo. From Naples the new duke sailed -for Sicily, which was then in a state of open insurrection, in -consequence of the oppressive rule of Giovanni di Nuccia, the Neapolitan -viceroy. By the intervention of Gonsalvo, the inhabitants were satisfied -to return to their allegiance; and order was restored without the -shedding of a single drop of blood. After some further services to the -state, and to the cause of peace, services both diplomatic and military, -in Naples, in Sicily and in Calabria, adding in every case to his -reputation as a soldier and a statesman, and above all as a great -Castilian gentleman, Gonsalvo returned to his native Spain, where he was -received with the applause and respect that is not always granted to -great men by their own sovereigns, or even by their own countrymen.</p> - -<p>His last service to King Frederic and his people, ere he quitted the -country, was no less honorable than wise. Frederic was engaged in the -siege of the last city in the kingdom of Naples that refused to -recognize the dominion of Aragon, the ancient and noble city of Diano, -whose inhabitants, vassals of that Prince of Salerno who was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_136" id="page_136">{136}</a></span> attached -to the Angevin cause, refused to listen to the terms which were -proposed. Gonsalvo took charge of the operations; and the citizens, -convinced of the hopelessness of holding out any longer against so -vigorous a commander, surrendered a few days afterward at discretion. -Gonsalvo, whether touched at their bravery and their forlorn condition, -or merely being adverse from severity for which he saw no reason, -obtained from the king favorable terms for the garrison.</p> - -<p>The expulsion of the French from Naples put an end, as might have been -supposed, to The Most Holy League. For the high contracting parties, -finding themselves secure from immediate danger, conceived themselves no -longer bound by its provisions. Maximilian, ever penniless and generally -faithless, had made no attempt to engage in any operations on the French -frontier, nor had any one of the allies contributed to defray the heavy -charges incurred by the Spanish sovereigns in fulfilling their part of -the agreement. The Venetians were rather occupied in securing for -themselves as much of the Neapolitan territory as they could acquire, by -way of indemnification for their own expenses. The Duke of Milan had -already made a separate treaty with Charles VIII. Each member of the -league, in fact, after the first alarm had subsided, had shown himself -ready to sacrifice the common cause to his own private advantage; and -Ferdinand of Aragon, who had already suspended his operations on the -frontiers of Spain in October, 1496, had no difficulty in agreeing to a -further truce as regarded Naples and Italy, which was signed on the 5th -of March, 1497.</p> - -<p>The Spaniards had borne the entire burden of the late<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_137" id="page_137">{137}</a></span> war. They had -been virtually abandoned by their allies, and their unassisted -operations had led to the deliverance of Naples, to the safety of the -Italian States, and the humiliation and the defeat of the French. Their -immediate objects having been thus happily accomplished, Ferdinand and -Isabella proposed to Charles VIII., without shame or hesitation, that -the French and Spaniards should enter into an immediate treaty of -alliance, with a view to drive out the reigning sovereign of Naples, and -divide his kingdom between themselves! Meanwhile the Castilian envoy to -the Holy See endeavored to induce Alexander VI. to withhold the -investiture of his kingdom from Frederic, the new sovereign of Naples, -on the ground that he was friendly to the Angevin party in Italy, the -hereditary enemies of Spain. But Alexander paid no heed to Garcilaso de -la Vega. Charles showed himself not only willing but eager to treat with -Fernando de Estrada; but unwilling at once to abandon all his claims to -Italian sovereignty, he offered to cede Navarre to Ferdinand, and keep -all Naples to himself. Proposals and counter proposals thus passed -between France and Spain; but before any definite programme had been -agreed to, the negotiations were cut short by the sudden death of the -French monarch, in the tennis court at Amboise, on the eve of Easter, -1498.</p> - -<p>The success of the Spanish arms under Gonsalvo de Cordova in Italy was -but the beginning of a long career of triumph. From the great victory at -Seminara, in 1503, to the great defeat of Rocroy, in 1643, the Spanish -infantry remained unconquered in Europe. The armies of Castile had been, -indeed, as Prescott has it, “cooped up<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_138" id="page_138">{138}</a></span> within the narrow limits of the -Peninsula, uninstructed and taking little interest in the concerns of -the rest of Europe.” But the soldiers and sailors of Aragon and -Catalonia had fought with distinction, not only in Italy and in Sicily, -but in the furthest east of Europe, for two hundred years before the -Great Captain of the United Kingdom set foot on the shores of Calabria. -Yet the victories of Gonsalvo were the beginning of a new era, and his -life is interesting, not only as that of a brave soldier and an -accomplished general, who flourished at a very important period of the -history of Europe; but it is further and much more interesting as being -the history of a man who united in himself many of the characteristics -of ancient and modern civilization, and who himself appears as a sort of -middle term between medieval and modern times.</p> - -<p>In personal valor, in knightly courtesy, in gaudy display, he was of his -own time. In astute generalship, and in still more astute diplomacy, an -envoy not an adventurer, the servant and not the rival of kings, he -belongs to a succeeding age, when the leader of a victorious army is -prouder to be a loyal subject than a rash rebel. The Castilian lords of -earlier days had ever been brave knights; their followers had ever been -hardy and untiring combatants. But Gonsalvo was not only a tactician, -but a strategist. The men whom he commanded were soldiers. Newly armed -and admirably disciplined, the regiments were no longer the followers of -some powerful nobleman; they formed a part of the national army of -Spain. The short sword of their Celtiberian ancestors was once more -found in their hands. The long lances of the Swiss mercenaries<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_139" id="page_139">{139}</a></span> were -adopted with conspicuous success. The drill-sergeant took the place of -the minstrel in the camp.</p> - -<p>Nor was this revolution in the art of war confined to the conduct of the -Spanish troops in the field. Before the close of the campaign a national -militia, or rather a standing army, had taken the place of the brave but -irregular levies of medieval Spain. A royal ordinance regulated the -equipment of every individual, according to his property. A man’s arms -were declared free from seizure for debt, even by the Crown, and smiths -and other artificers were restricted, under severe penalties, from -working up weapons of war into articles of more pacific use. In 1426 a -census was taken of all persons capable of bearing arms; and by an -ordinance issued at Valladolid, on February 22d of the same year, it was -provided that one out of every twelve inhabitants, between twenty and -forty-five years of age, should be enlisted for the service of the -State, whether in the conduct of a foreign war or the suppression of -domestic disorder.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_140" id="page_140">{140}</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII<br /><br /> -<span class="chead">UNITED SPAIN</span></h2> -<p class="chead2">THE DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD—VASCO DA GAMA—THE ROYAL -MARRIAGES—DREAMS OF EMPIRE—THE DEATH OF ISABELLA—FERDINAND’S END</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> reign of Ferdinand and Isabella was made immemorial through Columbus -and his discovery. The man and the event will, in subsequent chapters, -be considered at length. For the present it will suffice to note that on -his return from the New World, after being loaded with honors, a -question arose as to Isabella’s right to confer the dignities thus -bestowed—Portugal claiming the territory by reason of an anterior grant -from the Pope, who, in common with all other parties, believed it to be -part of India.</p> - -<p>The question was referred to a Junta of learned men of both nations, at -the same time that application was made to the reigning Pope, Alexander -VI., concerning it. The junta decided that the discoveries of Columbus -were not included in the Portuguese grant; and his Holiness finally, as -he conceived, terminated the dispute by drawing a line across the -Atlantic, from pole to pole, and adjudging all lands discovered on the -east of that line to Portugal, all on the west to Castile.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_141" id="page_141">{141}</a></span></p> - -<p>In connection with this it should be noted that, in 1497, Manuel of -Portugal sent Vasco da Gama with three ships to double the Cape of Good -Hope, with a view to tapping India. In the month of November, Gama -successfully doubled the formidable Cape, and sailed up the eastern -coast of Africa, as far as Mozambique. Here he found a Moor from Fez, -who, acting as interpreter between him and the natives, facilitated the -conclusion of a treaty, in virtue of which the King of Mozambique was to -furnish the adventurous navigators with pilots well acquainted with the -course to India. But, while they were taking in wood and water, a -quarrel arose with the natives, to whom the fault is of course imputed. -The pilots made their escape, and hostilities ensued. They did not last -long; the terrors of the Portuguese firearms soon compelling the -Africans to submit. Another, and, as the king assured Gama, a better -pilot was supplied, and on the 1st of April, 1498, he sailed from -Mozambique.</p> - -<p>The new pilot proved quite as ill-disposed as his predecessors, -endeavoring to betray the fleet into the power of his countrymen at -Mombaza; and being alarmed with apprehensions of detection, by the -bustle apparent in the crew of Gama’s ship, which had accidentally -grounded, he also made his escape. It was not till they reached Melinda -that they found really friendly natives. From that port Gama at last -obtained a pilot who steered him right across the gulf to the coast of -Malabar.</p> - -<p>The first place in India made by the Portuguese was Calecut. Here Gama -announced himself as an embassador sent by the King of Portugal to -negotiate a treaty of alli<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_142" id="page_142">{142}</a></span>ance with the sovereign, the zamorin of -Calecut, one of the most powerful princes of that part of Hindustan, to -establish commercial relations, and to convert the natives to -Christianity. How far this last object of his mission was agreeable to -the bigoted Hindus, or the equally bigoted Muhammadan conquerors, who -were then the masters of those wealthy regions, we are not distinctly -told by the Portuguese historians; but the zamorin appears in the first -instance to have received Gama well, and been upon the whole pleased -with his visit. This friendly intercourse was interrupted, as we are -assured, by the intrigues of the Moors or Arabs, who, being in -possession of the pepper trade, and indeed of the whole spice trade, -were jealous of interlopers. Quarrels arose, and some acts of violence -were committed. They ended, however, in Gama’s gaining the advantage, -and friendship was restored between him and the zamorin. He reached -Portugal in July, 1499, after a two years’ voyage, and was, like -Columbus in Spain, loaded with honors.</p> - -<p>We may now return to Ferdinand and Isabella. This was the brightest -period of their lives. The repulse of Charles VIII., and the victories -of Gonsalvo, added fresh luster to their reign. Moreover, through -measures then undertaken, the unconverted Moors were subdued, and the -French provinces were regained; but, over and above all, a new world had -been discovered, and marriages, seemingly the most fortunate, were -concluded: Ferdinand and Isabella’s son and heir, Don John, having -married the daughter of the Emperor Maximilian; their second daughter -Joanna, Philip, the son and heir of that monarch, by Mary of Burgundy, -and already, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_143" id="page_143">{143}</a></span> right of his deceased mother, sovereign of the rich and -fertile Netherlands; the third, Katharine, was affianced to Arthur, -Prince of Wales; and Manuel, duke of Beja, having succeeded to his -cousin John II. of Portugal, despite all intrigues in favor of the -illegitimate Don George, solicited and obtained the hand of the eldest -Infanta, the widow of the Prince of Portugal.</p> - -<p>The first to be celebrated of all these royal marriages was that of the -Princess Isabella with Alfonso, the heir to the crown of Portugal, which -took place in the autumn of the year 1490, and which was apparently -calculated to lead to the happiest results. But the magnificent wedding -festivities at Lisbon were scarce concluded when the bridegroom died, -and the widowed princess returned disconsolate to her mother (January, -1491).</p> - -<p>The marriage of John, prince of Asturias, was the next, and apparently -the most important alliance that engaged the attention of his parents; -and, moved by many considerations of policy and prestige, they turned -their thoughts to far-away Flanders. Maximilian of Hapsburg, the titular -sovereign of the Holy Roman Empire, had, by his first wife, Mary, a -daughter of Charles the Bold, and in her own right Duchess of Burgundy, -been made the father of two children, Philip, born in 1478, and -Margaret, in 1480. Their mother, the beautiful empress, died in 1482; -and Philip, on attaining his legal majority at the age of sixteen, -assumed, in her right, the government of the Low Countries in 1494. It -was with this youthful sovereign, the heir to yet more splendid -possessions, that the Catholic sovereigns desired to unite their younger -daughter in marriage, while the hand of his sister Margaret was sought -for<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_144" id="page_144">{144}</a></span> the Prince of Asturias. The advantages to Spain of such a double -marriage were enormous.</p> - -<p>If Prince John were to marry the Archduchess Margaret, the only daughter -of the emperor, he would inherit, in the event of the death of the -Archduke Philip without issue, the great possessions of the Hapsburgs, -Austria, Flanders, and Burgundy, with a claim to the empire that had -eluded his great ancestor, Alfonso X. That the Archduke Philip should in -his turn espouse, not Isabella, the eldest, but Joanna, the second -daughter of the Catholic king, would prevent Spain from passing under -the dominion of Austria, even in the unlikely event of the death of -Prince John without issue, inasmuch as Isabella of Portugal would, in -such a case, inherit the Spanish crown, to the prejudice of her younger -sister in Flanders. And finally, if all the young wives and husbands -should live to a reasonable age, and should leave children behind them -at their death, one grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella would wear the -imperial purple as lord of Central Europe, and another would sit upon -the throne of a great united Peninsular kingdom of Castile, Portugal, -and Aragon.</p> - -<p>In the early autumn of 1496 (August 22), a splendid fleet set out from -Laredo, a little port between Bilbao and Santander, which carried Joanna -in safety to her expectant bridegroom. The archduke and the princess for -whom so sad a fate was reserved were married at Lille with the usual -rejoicings; and the Spanish admiral, charged a second time with a -precious freight of marriageable royalty, brought back the Lady Margaret -of Hapsburg with all honor to Spanish Santander, early in March, 1497. -The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_145" id="page_145">{145}</a></span> marriage of the heir apparent took place at Burgos, on the 3d of -April; and on the 4th of October of the same year, the gentle and -accomplished Prince of Asturias had passed away from Spain, and from the -world.</p> - -<p>Yet, once again, and for a few months, there lived an heir to United -Spain, whose brief existence is scarce remembered in history. Isabella, -the widowed queen of John II. of Portugal, had been persuaded or -constrained by her parents to contract a second marriage with her -husband’s cousin and successor Emmanuel; but the price of her hand was -the price of blood. For it was stipulated that the Jews, who, by the -liberality of the late king, had been permitted to find a home in his -dominions, should be driven out of the country after the stern Castilian -fashion of 1492, ere the widowed Isabella should wed her cousin on the -throne of Portugal.</p> - -<p>Whether the princess was an apt pupil, or merely the slave of her mother -and the Inquisitor that lurked behind the throne, we cannot say, but the -Portuguese lover consented to the odious bargain. The marriage was -solemnized at Valencia de Alcantara, in the early days of the month of -August, 1497, and the stipulated Tribute to Bigotry was duly paid. But -before ever the bridal party had left the town, an express had arrived -with the news of the mortal illness of the bride’s only brother; and in -little more than a year the young queen herself, on the 23d of August, -1498, expired in giving birth to a son. The boy received the name of -Miguel, and lived for nearly two years—the heir apparent of Portugal, -of Aragon, and of Castile—until he too was involved in the general -destruction.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_146" id="page_146">{146}</a></span></p> - -<p>But some time before the death, or even before the birth of Miguel, -another royal marriage had been concluded, whose results throughout all -time were no less remarkable and scarce less important than that which -handed over Spain to a Flemish emperor. For after infinite negotiations -and more than one rupture, after some ten years’ huxtering about dowry, -and a dozen changes of policy on the part of the various sovereigns -interested in the alliance, Katharine, the youngest daughter of -Ferdinand and Isabella, more familiarly known as Katharine of Aragon, -had been married to Arthur, Prince of Wales, and the first act had been -concluded of that strange and fateful drama that led to the Reformation -in England.</p> - -<p>The dignified sadness of her story as Queen Katharine—insulted, -divorced, and abandoned—the unwilling heroine of the great tragic drama -that was played in the reign of Henry VIII. of England, is known to all -men, who extend to her, with one consent, their pity and their respect. -But those only who know something of the seven dreary and disgraceful -years that she spent in the palace of her father-in-law, before she was -permitted to know, even for a season, the happiness of a husband’s love, -or to enjoy the great position of Queen of England, may alone understand -the fullness of the measure of her wretchedness.</p> - -<p>In June, 1504, Isabella, who had for some time been ailing, and who -seems to have suffered from some nervous disease, was struck down -suddenly by fever. She had lived a hard life. She had never spared -herself, or others. The unhappy marriages of her children had cast<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_147" id="page_147">{147}</a></span> a -dark shadow over her life. But hers was not the nature to repine. -Diligent, abstemious, resolute, she had borne pain and suffering, and -she was not afraid to face death. Unable at length to rise from her -couch, as the autumn drew to a close, she continued to transact her -accustomed business, gave audience to embassadors, chatted with -privileged visitors, and, in the words of an astonished stranger, -governed the world from her bed.</p> - -<p>At last, on the 26th of November, 1504, as the church bells of Medina -del Campo were ringing out the hour of noon, the spirit of Isabella of -Castile flitted away from this world; and her mortal remains were -conducted by a mournful company to their last resting place under the -shadow of the red towers of Alhambra. Through storm and tempest, amid -earthquake and inundation, across mountain and river, the affrighted -travelers wended their way. For the sun was not seen by day nor the -stars by night, during three long and weary weeks, as if the very forces -of nature were disturbed at the death of a giant among the princes of -the earth.</p> - -<p>The character of Isabella has suffered to an uncommon extent from an -ignorant glorification of virtues that she was far from possessing, and -the concealment of those transcendent powers that made her not only one -of the greatest rulers of Spain, but one of the greatest women in the -history of the world. Until the opening of the treasure-house at -Simancas displayed her correspondence to the world, she was only known -from the extravagant but somewhat colorless panegyrics of contemporary -chroniclers, who recognized at least that she was a royal lady, -compelling their gallant admiration, and that she was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_148" id="page_148">{148}</a></span> immensely -superior to her husband, whom it was necessary also to glorify, as the -last Spanish sovereign of Spain.</p> - -<p>Isabella was one of the most remarkable characters in history. Not only -was she the most masterful, and, from her own point of view, by far the -most successful ruler that ever sat upon the throne of Spain, or of any -of the kingdoms of the Peninsula; she stands in the front rank of the -great sovereigns of Europe, and challenges comparison with the greatest -women who have ever held sway in the world. A reformer and a zealot, an -autocrat and a leader of men, with a handsome face and a gracious -manner, scarce concealing the iron will that lay beneath, Isabella was -patient in adversity, dignified in prosperity, at all times quiet, -determined, thorough.</p> - -<p>In one particular she stands alone among the great ruling women, the -conquerors and empresses of history. She is the only royal lady, save, -perhaps, Maria Theresa of Hungary, who maintained through life the -incongruous relations of a masterful sovereign and a devoted wife, and -shared not only her bed but her throne with a husband whom she -respected—a fellow-sovereign whom she neither feared nor disregarded. -To command the obedience of a proud and warlike people is given to few -of the great men of history. To do the bidding of another with vigor and -with discretion is a task that has been but rarely accomplished by a -heaven-born minister. But to conceive and carry out great designs, with -one hand in the grasp of even the most loyal of companions, is a -triumphant combination of energy with discretion, of the finest tact -with the most indomitable resolution, that<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_149" id="page_149">{149}</a></span> stamps Isabella of Spain as -a being more vigorous than the greatest men, more discreet than the -greatest women of history. Semiramis, Zenobia, Boadicea, Elizabeth of -England, Catherine of Russia, not one of them was embarrassed by a -partner on the throne. The partner of Isabella was not only a husband -but a king, jealous, restless, and untrustworthy. It is in this respect, -and in the immense scope of her political action, that the great Queen -of Castile is comparable with the bold Empress-King of Hungary rather -than with any other of the great queens and royal ladies of history.</p> - -<p>The husband of Zenobia indeed enjoyed the title of Augustus; but it was -only after his assassination that the lady earned her fame as a ruler. -Catherine caused her imperial consort to be executed as a preliminary to -her vigorous reign in Russia; Boadicea was the successor and not the -colleague of Prasutagus; and Semiramis, though herself somewhat a -mythical personage, is said to have slain both her husband and his -rival, in her assertion of her absolute power. Yet Isabella -revolutionized the institutions of her country, religious, political, -military, financial, she consolidated her dominions, humiliated her -nobles, cajoled her Commons, defied the Pope, reformed the clergy; she -burned some ten thousand of her subjects; she deported a million more; -and of the remnant she made a great nation; she brooked no man’s -opposition, in a reign of thirty years, and she died in the arms of the -king, her husband!</p> - -<p>Ferdinand of Aragon was no hero. But he was a strong man; a capable -ruler; a clever if a treacherous diplomatist. And to this husband and -consort was Isa<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_150" id="page_150">{150}</a></span>bella faithful through life, not merely in the grosser -sense of the word, to which Ferdinand for himself paid so little heed; -but in every way and walk of life. She supported him in his policy; she -assisted him in his intrigues; she encouraged him in his ambitious -designs; she lied for him, whenever prudence required it; she worked for -him at all times, as she worked for Spain. For his policy, his -intrigues, his designs were all her own. Whenever the views of the king -and queen were for a moment discordant, Isabella prevailed, without -apparent conflict of authority. In her assumption of supremacy in the -marriage contract; in her nomination of Gonsalvo de Cordova to the -command of the army; in her choice of Ximenez as the Primate of Spain, -she carried her point, not by petulance or even by argument, but by -sheer force of character; nor did she strain for one moment, even in -these manifestations of her royal supremacy, the friendly and even -affectionate relations that ever subsisted between herself and her -husband.</p> - -<p>The love and devotion of Isabella was a thing of which the greatest of -men might have well been proud. And though Ferdinand the Catholic may -not fairly be counted among the greatest, he was a man wise enough to -appreciate the merits of his queen, and to accept and maintain the -anomalous position in which he found himself as her consort.</p> - -<p>In war at least it might have been supposed that the queen would occupy -a subordinate position. Yet in no department of State did Isabella show -to greater advantage than as the organizer of victorious armies; not as -a batallador after the fashion of her distinguished ancestors<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_151" id="page_151">{151}</a></span> in -Castile and in Aragon; but as the originator of an entirely new system -of military administration.</p> - -<p>Before her time, in Spain, war had been waged by the great nobles and -their retainers in attendance upon the king. There was no such thing as -uniformity of action or preparation, no central organization of any -kind. Each man went into battle to fight and to forage as opportunity -offered. Each commander vied with his fellow nobles in deeds of bravery, -and accorded to them such support as he chose. The sovereign exercised a -general authority, and assumed the active command of the united -multitude of soldiers, on rare and important occasions. If victory -followed, as at the Navas de Tolosa, the soldiers were rewarded with the -plunder, and took possession of the property of the enemy. If the -Christians were defeated, the army melted away; and the king betook -himself to the nearest shelter.</p> - -<p>But Isabella had no sooner assumed the title of Queen of Castile, than -she was called upon to maintain her pretensions in the field. With no -experience but that of a country palace, with no training but that of a -country cloister, she set herself to work to organize an army. On the -1st of May, 1474, five hundred horsemen represented the entire forces of -the fair usurper. By the 19th of July she had collected over forty -thousand men, had armed and equipped them ready for the field, and had -sent them forward under the command of Ferdinand to the frontier. -Although she was at the time in delicate health, she was constantly in -the saddle, riding long distances from fortress to fortress, hurrying up -recruits all day, dictating letters all night, giving her zealous -personal<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_152" id="page_152">{152}</a></span> attention to every detail of armory and equipment, showing -from the first that quiet energy and that natural aptitude for command -that ever so constantly distinguished her. That her levies were not -victorious in no way daunted her determination. A second army was raised -by her, within a few weeks after the first had melted away under -Ferdinand; nor would she listen to any offers of negotiation, until the -enemy had been driven out of Castile.</p> - -<p>In the conduct of the war of Granada, with time and money at her -command, her preparations were upon a very different scale. The most -skillful artificers were summoned from every part of Europe to assist in -the work of supplying the army with the necessary material of war. -Artillery, then almost unknown to the military art, was manufactured in -Spain according to the best designs. Model cannon were imported, and the -necessary ammunition collected from abroad. Sword-blades were forged at -home. Not only a commissariat, but a field hospital—institutions till -then unheard of in Spanish warfare—were organized and maintained under -the personal supervision of the queen. The presence of a lady on the day -of battle would, as a rule, as she rightly judged, have been rather a -hinderance than a help; but she was very far from being a mere -commissioner of supply. A first-rate horsewoman, she was constantly seen -riding about the camp, encouraging, inspecting, directing; and in the -last days of the siege of Granada, when the spirits of the troops had -begun to flag, she appeared daily in complete armor, and showed herself -upon more than one occasion in a post of danger on the field. The armies -with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_153" id="page_153">{153}</a></span> which Gonsalvo de Cordova overran Calabria, and annihilated the -French at Cerignola, were prepared and dispatched by Isabella; and if, -in a subsequent campaign, the Great Captain was left without supplies or -re-enforcements, it was that the queen was already sickening to her -death, broken down and worn out by her constant and enormous exertions.</p> - -<p>But with all her aptitude for military organization, Isabella had no -love for war. Her first campaign was undertaken to make good her -pretensions to the crown. The extermination of the Moslems was a matter -of religious feeling and patriotic pride, rather than an object of -military glory; but she refused to pursue her conquest across the -Straits of Gibraltar. The expeditions to Italy were a part of -Ferdinand’s diplomacy, though the honor of victory must be shared -between Isabella and her Great Captain. But the queen’s ambition lay not -in conquest abroad. On the contrary, as soon as the last province in -Spain had been delivered from the foreign yoke of the Moor, she turned -her attention to the peaceful development of the kingdom; and, -unlettered warrior as she was, she bestowed her royal patronage upon -students and studies, rather than upon the knights and nobles who had -fought her battles before Granada.</p> - -<p>The old foundations of the Universities, the new art of printing, -scholarship, music, architecture found in her a generous patron, not so -much from predilection as from policy. Men of letters and men of -learning were welcomed at her court, not only from every part of Spain, -but from every part of Europe. For herself she had little appreciation -of literature. She neither knew nor cared<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_154" id="page_154">{154}</a></span> what influence her beloved -Inquisition would have upon science. But as long as the queen lived, -learning was honored in Spain.</p> - -<p>In this, as in all other things, her judgment of men was unerring. The -queen who made Gonsalvo the commander-in-chief of her armies, and -Ximenez the president of her council, who selected Torquemada as her -grand inquisitor, and Talavera as her archbishop of Granada, made no -mistake when she invited Peter Martyr to instruct her son in polite -letters, and commissioned Lebrija to compose the first Castilian Grammar -for the use of her court.</p> - -<p>Her beauty of face and form are familiar. Yet vanity was unknown to her -nature. Simple and abstemious in her daily life, and despising pomp for -its own sake, no one could make a braver show on fitting occasions; and -the richness of her apparel, the glory of her jewels, and the noble -dignity of her presence, have been celebrated by subjects and strangers.</p> - -<p>At the death of Isabella, Ferdinand, in accordance with the provisions -of her will, caused his daughter, Joanna, to be proclaimed queen and -himself regent. Philip, archduke of Austria, the husband of Joanna, -having disputed the rights of his father-in-law and threatened an appeal -to arms, the latter in disgust, with the view of again separating the -crowns of Aragon and Castile, entered into negotiations with Louis XII., -married Germaine de Foix, the niece of Louis (1505), and shortly -afterward resigned the regency of Castile. On the death of Philip, in -1506, he resumed the administration, though not without opposition, and -retained it till his death. In 1508 he joined the League of Cambray for -the partition of Venice, and thus<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_155" id="page_155">{155}</a></span> without any trouble became master of -five important Neapolitan cities.</p> - -<p>In the following year (1509) the African expedition of Cardinal Ximenez -was undertaken, which resulted in the conquest of Oran. In 1511 -Ferdinand joined Venice and Pope Julius II. in a “holy league” for the -expulsion of the French from Italy. This gave a pretext for invading -Navarre, which had entered into alliance with France, and been laid -under Papal interdict in consequence. Aided by his son-in-law Henry -VIII. of England, who sent a squadron under the Marquis of Dorset to -co-operate in the descent on Guienne, Ferdinand became master of Navarre -in 1513; and on June 15, 1515, by a solemn act in Cortes held at Burgos, -he incorporated it with the kingdom of Castile.</p> - -<p>The League of Cambray, which was signed on the 10th of December, 1508, -between Louis XII., the Emperor Maximilian, and Ferdinand of Aragon, at -the instance of the warlike Pope Julius II., was nominally directed -against the Turks, but was in reality a coalition for the destruction -and partition among the confiscators of the rich State of Venice. If -anything was wanted to make this league of public plunderers more -corrupt and more odious than it would under any circumstances have been, -it was that the kings of France and of Aragon, in order to secure the -adhesion of the Medicis, sacrificed their faithful allies, the Pisans, -after solemn assurances of protection and support, and actually sold -that ancient city to the Florentines, their hereditary enemies, for a -hundred thousand ducats.</p> - -<p>But all their bad faith and covetousness was displayed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_156" id="page_156">{156}</a></span> in vain. The -perfidious leaguers could not even trust one another; and the success of -the French arms at Agnadel, in May, 1509, so seriously alarmed both -Julius and Ferdinand that a second treaty was concluded in October, -1511, when the Pope and the King of Aragon invited the Venetian -Republic, for whose destruction they had leagued themselves together -with Louis XII. not three years before, to assist them in driving the -French out of Italy.</p> - -<p>Of the consummate skill with which Ferdinand, from the middle of 1509 to -the end of 1511, played off his allies and rivals one against the other, -until he had accomplished the central object of his diplomacy in the -great Confederation against Louis XII., we may read in the history of -France and of Italy, of England and of Germany, rather than in the -Chronicles of Aragon. For King Ferdinand pulled the strings that moved -the puppets, while he remained wellnigh hidden himself. But by the end -of 1511 the showman was compelled to make his own appearance upon the -stage of European warfare; and Ferdinand was ever less successful as an -actor than as an impresario. His policy for the past two years had been -the formation of a league against his dearly-beloved uncle-in-law, Louis -XII., by the aid of his dearly-beloved son-in-law, Henry VIII. Queen -Katharine, who had already played the part of embassador to her English -father-in-law, was to make use of her influence over her English -husband; and if the queen should refuse to advise King Henry to go to -war with France, her confessor was to tell her that she was bound as a -good Christian to do so.</p> - -<p>To coerce the confessor, Ferdinand applied to the Pope;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_157" id="page_157">{157}</a></span> and to control -the Pope, he betrayed to him, in secret, the whole scheme of King Louis -XII. as regarded the plunder of the States of the Church. It is easy to -understand what an effect the communication of the French king’s plans -of spoliation produced upon the excitable and irascible Julius. When he -had learned that he was not only to be robbed of his temporalities, but -that he was to be deposed and imprisoned in case he should prove -spiritually intractable, he hastened, in spite of his age and his -infirmities, to traverse the snow-covered mountains, that he might meet -his enemy in the field.</p> - -<p>The King of Aragon was a diplomatist who left nothing to chance. He -trusted no man. And if no man trusted him, he never deceived himself by -supposing that any one was simple enough to do so. No detail, however -trifling, was neglected by him in his negotiations. No contingency, -however remote, was left out of sight in his intrigues. And however -little we may respect his character, which was perhaps not much worse -than that of some of his rivals, we cannot refuse to admire his -transcendent skill, his infinite perseverance, his forethought, and his -keen appreciation of every shade of political development. A little -honesty would have made him a great man, a little generosity would have -made him a great king. His policy, moreover, toward the close of his -life, is at least worthy of an admiration which has rarely been extended -to it. It was a policy which embraced all Europe in its scope; and -although it had no direct relation to Spain or the Spanish people, it -would be ill to conclude even a brief survey of the history of Spain -without referring to the imperial dreams of the great Spaniard, first of -modern diplomatists, and of his<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_158" id="page_158">{158}</a></span> early endeavors to solve more than one -of those questions that still embarrass the foreign policy of modern -States: the establishment of a kingdom of Italy; the alliance between -Italy and Germany, to withstand a dreaded power beyond the Danube and -the Carpathians; the entanglement of England in a central European -league; and the treatment of the Pope of Rome.</p> - -<p>The Turks, the medieval bugbear in the East—for the Middle Ages had -also their Eastern Question—were at this time rapidly encroaching upon -Christian Europe; and it was obviously desirable to form a powerful -empire, as a bulwark of Christendom, on the banks of the Danube. The -opportunity of founding a great empire in central Europe actually -existed. Ladislaus II., king of Bohemia and of Hungary, had only one -son, Louis, who was of so delicate a constitution that no issue could be -expected of his marriage. In case he should die without children, his -sister, the Princess Anne, was the heiress of both his kingdoms; and if -her father could be persuaded to marry her to the heir of the Austrian -principalities, Bohemia, Austria, and Hungary, thus united with the -heritage of the Hapsburgs, would form by no means a contemptible State, -which might itself be but the nucleus of a greater and more ambitious -empire.</p> - -<p>Naples, which had so lately been added to the Spanish dominions, was -still exposed to the attacks of the French, who claimed one-half, and -were always ready to appropriate to themselves the whole of the kingdom. -Naples was separated from France, indeed, by a considerable extent of -territory in Italy; but the smaller Italian States were too weak to -render any serious resistance, and too<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_159" id="page_159">{159}</a></span> fickle to be counted upon as -friends or as foes by any Spanish sovereign. The best way to render -Naples secure was, in the eyes of Ferdinand, the foundation of a great -kingdom in northern Italy, powerful enough to prevent the French from -marching their armies to the south. The formation of such a kingdom -moreover would have greatly facilitated a peaceful division of the great -Austro-Spanish inheritance between Prince Charles and his brother, the -Infante Ferdinand.</p> - -<p>If Charles could be provided not only with the kingdom of Spain, but -with the possessions of Maximilian and Ladislaus and the Princess Anne, -and the empire of central Europe, his younger brother Ferdinand might -content himself with a kingdom to be made up of all the States of Italy, -protected against the encroachments of France by Spanish infantry and -German landsknechts, and ready to drive the Turk out of the -Mediterranean in support of the Christian empire on the Danube.</p> - -<p>The kingdom of Italy, thus designed for his younger grandson by the -far-seeing Ferdinand of Aragon, was to consist of Genoa, Pavia, Milan, -and the Venetian territories on the mainland. The country of the Tyrol, -being the most southern of the Austrian dominions, could, without -sensibly weakening the projected empire, be separated from it and added -to the new kingdom in Italy. Thus stretching from the Mediterranean to -the Adriatic, and from the Gulf of Spezia to the Lake of Constance, this -sixteenth century kingdom of Italy, with the whole power of the Holy -Roman Empire to support it, would have been a splendid endowment for a -younger son of the greatest family on earth. There was also a reasonable -prospect that it<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_160" id="page_160">{160}</a></span> might afterward be still further enlarged by the -addition of Naples, and the smaller Italian States would easily have -fallen a prey to their powerful neighbor. But in addition to all this, -Ferdinand thought that he would render a notable service to the Catholic -religion and to the peace of Europe if the Church were thoroughly -reformed. What Rome herself has lost by Ferdinand’s failure it is not -given even to the Infallible to know. What the king’s reforms were to -be, we can only shrewdly surmise; and although they would most assuredly -not have been Protestant, they would with equal certainty have been by -no means palatable to the Vatican. For it is reasonably probable that if -either Louis XII. or Ferdinand the Catholic had been permitted to carry -out their designs, the Pope of Rome would have found himself deprived of -his temporal power, and Garibaldi, nay, perchance Luther, would have -been forestalled. It was the reforms of Ximenez that to a large extent -prevented Luther in Spain. The reforms of Ferdinand might possibly have -prevented him in Italy.</p> - -<p>It was in 1516 that Ferdinand died. Seven years previous Queen Germaine -had been delivered of a son, who received from his parents the name of -John. But the curse that lay upon the children of Ferdinand was not yet -spent; and the rival of Charles V., the heir of Aragon, Sardinia, -Naples, and Sicily, was permitted to gladden the envious heart of his -father by but a few hours of life. As years passed on there seemed -little chance of any further issue of the King and Queen of Aragon. The -unity of Spain at length appeared to be secure. But the ambition of -Ferdinand was even surpassed by his jealousy. Childless, vindictive, and -obstinate, he chafed at the ill-success of his<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_161" id="page_161">{161}</a></span> personal schemes; and -rather than suffer the crown of united Spain to pass over to his -daughter’s son and heir, he sought, at the hands of some medical -impostor, the powers that were denied to his old age. The drug that was -to have renewed his youth destroyed his constitution, and his death was -the direct result of one of the least creditable of the many -developments of his jealousy, his obstinacy, and his selfishness.</p> - -<p>At length came the inevitable end; and at the wretched hamlet of -Madrigalejo, near Guadalupe, in the mountains of Estremadura, on the 23d -of January of the new year 1516, Ferdinand died; and Spain was at length -a United Kingdom.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_162" id="page_162">{162}</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII<br /><br /> -<span class="chead">MODERN SPAIN</span></h2> -<p class="chead2">THE HOUSE OF HAPSBURG—PHILIP II.—DEFEAT OF THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA—A -BOURBON AMONG THEM—THE PENINSULAR WAR—ALFONSO XIII.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">With</span> the death of Ferdinand begins the period of uninterrupted Hapsburg -rule in Spain, which lasted for nearly two centuries. In the course of -this period, the monarchy obtained absolute authority, and Spain, after -rising for a time to be the foremost State in Europe, sank to the -position of a second-rate power, from which it has never since emerged. -Aragon and Castile were distinct kingdoms, and the former was again -divided into the three provinces of Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia, -each of which had its own Cortes, its own privileges, and the most -warmly-cherished traditions of independence. The foreign possessions of -the two crowns were a source of weakness rather than of strength. France -stood ready at the earliest opportunity to contest the possession of -Navarre with Castile, and that of Naples with Aragon.</p> - -<p>The difficulties of domestic government were increased by the fact that -the prospective ruler was a youthful foreigner, who had never visited -Spain, and who was completely ignorant of the customs and even of the -language of the country. Charles—the son of Philip, archduke of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_163" id="page_163">{163}</a></span> -Austria, and of Jane, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella—had been born -and educated in the Netherlands, of which he had been nominal ruler ever -since the death of his father in 1506. All his friends and advisers were -Flemings, who cared nothing for Spanish interests, and had already -acquired an evil reputation for selfish greed. The first symptom of -discontent in Spain was excited by Charles’s demand to be recognized as -king, in utter disregard of his mother. In Aragon the demand was -unhesitatingly refused, but in Castile the vigorous measures of the -famous Cardinal Ximenez secured Charles’s proclamation.</p> - -<p>The regent, however, had great difficulties to face. The nobles, -delighted to be rid of the strong government of Ferdinand, wished to -utilize the opportunity to regain the privileges and independence they -had lost. In this crisis the loyal devotion of Ximenez saved the -monarchy. Throwing himself upon the support of the citizen class, he -organized a militia which overawed the nobles and maintained order. A -French invasion of Navarre was repulsed, and to avoid any danger from -the discontent of the inhabitants, all the fortresses of the province, -with the single exception of Pamplona, were dismantled. These -distinguished services were rewarded with more than royal ingratitude by -Charles, who came to Spain in 1517, and who allowed the aged cardinal to -die on November 8th, without even granting him an interview.</p> - -<p>Charles’s enormous inheritance was increased by the successes of Cortes -in Mexico and of Pizarro in Peru, by his own annexation of the Milanese, -and by his conquests in northern Africa.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_164" id="page_164">{164}</a></span></p> - -<p>The glory of Spain was then at its apogee. After his death, which -occurred in 1558, the decline set in. From this time also the House of -Hapsburg became divided into its contemporary branches.</p> - -<p>Charles was succeeded by Philip II., his only legitimate son. The -administration of the latter, while successful at home, was a failure -abroad. During his reign a claim to the throne of Portugal was -successfully asserted, and the unity of the Peninsula was completed. -Moreover, colonial possessions were greatly extended. Yet his religious -intolerance excited the revolt of the Netherlands, which resulted in a -loss of the seven northern provinces. His effort to obtain a -preponderant influence over France was dexterously foiled by the -succession and triumph of Henry IV. But his great and historical defeat -was that which he experienced with the Armada.</p> - -<p>Besides the Spanish crown, Philip succeeded to the kingdoms of Naples -and Sicily, the Duchy of Milan, Franche-Comte, and the Netherlands. In -Africa he possessed Tunis, Oran, the Cape Verd, and the Canary Islands; -and in Asia, the Philippine and Sunda Islands, and a part of the -Moluccas. Beyond the Atlantic he was lord of the most splendid portions -of the New World. The empires of Peru and Mexico, New Spain, and Chili, -with their abundant mines of the precious metals, Hispaniola and Cuba, -and many other of the American islands, were provinces of the sovereign -of Spain.</p> - -<p>Philip had also the advantage of finding himself at the head of a large -standing army in a perfect state of discipline and equipment, in an age -when, except some few insignificant corps, standing armies were unknown -to Chris<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_165" id="page_165">{165}</a></span>tendom. The renown of the Spanish troops was justly high, and -the infantry in particular was considered the best in the world. His -fleet, also, was far more numerous, and better appointed, than that of -any other European power; and both his soldiers and his sailors had the -confidence in themselves and their commanders which a long career of -successful warfare alone can create.</p> - -<p>One nation only had been his active, his persevering, and his successful -foe. England had encouraged his revolted subjects in Flanders against -him, and given them the aid in men and money without which they must -soon have been humbled in the dust. English ships had plundered his -colonies; had defied his supremacy in the New World, as well as the Old; -they had inflicted ignominious defeats on his squadrons; they had -captured his cities, and burned his arsenals on the very coasts of -Spain. The English had made Philip himself the object of personal -insult. He was held up to ridicule in their stage plays and masks, and -these scoffs at the man had (as is not unusual in such cases) excited -the anger of the absolute king, even more vehemently than the injuries -inflicted on his power. Personal as well as political revenge urged him -to attack England. Were she once subdued, the Dutch must submit; France -could not cope with him, the empire would not oppose him; and universal -dominion seemed sure to be the result of the conquest of that malignant -island.</p> - -<p>For some time the destination of an enormous armament which he had long -been preparing was not publicly announced. Only Philip himself, the Pope -Sixtus, the Duke of Guise, and Philip’s favorite minister, Mendoza,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_166" id="page_166">{166}</a></span> at -first knew its real object. Rumors were sedulously spread that it was -designed to proceed to the Indies to realize vast projects of distant -conquest. Sometimes hints were dropped by Philip’s embassadors in -foreign courts that their master had resolved on a decisive effort to -crush his rebels in the Low Countries. But Elizabeth and her statesmen -could not view the gathering of such a storm without feeling the -probability of its bursting on their own shores. As early as the spring -of 1587, Elizabeth sent Sir Francis Drake to cruise off the Tagus. Drake -sailed into the Bay of Cadiz and the Lisbon Roads, and burned much -shipping and military stores, causing thereby an important delay in the -progress of the Spanish preparations. Drake called this “Singeing the -king of Spain’s beard.” Elizabeth also increased her succors of troops -to the Netherlanders, to prevent the Prince of Parma from overwhelming -them, and from thence being at full leisure to employ his army against -her dominions.</p> - -<p>Philip had an ally in France who was far more powerful than the French -king. This was the Duke of Guise, the chief of the League, and the idol -of the fanatic partisans of the Romish faith. Philip prevailed on Guise -openly to take up arms against Henry III. (who was reviled by the -Leaguers as a traitor to the true Church, and a secret friend to the -Huguenots); and thus prevent the French king from interfering in favor -of Queen Elizabeth. “With this object, the commander, Juan Iniguez -Moreo, was dispatched by him in the early part of April to the Duke of -Guise at Soissons. He met with complete success. He offered the Duke of -Guise, as soon as he took the field against Henry III., three hundred -thousand crowns, six<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_167" id="page_167">{167}</a></span> thousand infantry, and twelve hundred pikemen, on -behalf of the king, his master, who would, in addition, withdraw his -embassador from the court of France, and accredit an envoy to the -Catholic party. A treaty was concluded on these conditions, and the Duke -of Guise entered Paris, where he was expected by the Leaguers, and -whence he expelled Henry III. on the 12th of May, by the insurrection of -the barricades. A fortnight after this insurrection, which reduced Henry -III. to impotence, and, to use the language of the Prince of Parma, did -not even ‘permit him to assist the Queen of England with his tears, as -he needed them all to weep over his own misfortunes,’ the Spanish fleet -left the Tagus and sailed toward the British isles.”</p> - -<p>Meanwhile in England, from the sovereign on the throne to the peasant in -the cottage, all hearts and hands made ready to meet the imminent deadly -peril. A camp was formed at Tilbury; and there Elizabeth rode through -the ranks, encouraging her captains and her soldiers by her presence and -her words.</p> - -<p>The ships of the royal navy at this time amounted to no more than -thirty-six; but the most serviceable merchant vessels were collected -from all the ports of the country; and the citizens of London, Bristol, -and the other great seats of commerce, showed as liberal a zeal in -equipping and manning vessels as the nobility and gentry displayed in -mustering forces by land. The seafaring population of the coast, of -every rank and station, was animated by the same ready spirit; and the -whole number of seamen who came forward to man the English fleet was -17,472. The number of the ships that were collected was 191; and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_168" id="page_168">{168}</a></span> -total amount of their tonnage 31,985. There was one ship in the fleet -(the “Triumph”) of 1,100 tons, one of 1,000, one of 900, two of 800 -each, three of 600, five of 500, five of 400, six of 300, six of 250, -twenty of 200, and the residue of inferior burden. Application was made -to the Dutch for assistance: and, as Stowe expresses it, “The Hollanders -came roundly in, with threescore sail, brave ships of war, fierce and -full of spleen, not so much for England’s aid, as in just occasion for -their own defense; these men foreseeing the greatness of the danger that -might ensue, if the Spaniards should chance to win the day and get the -mastery over them; in due regard whereof their manly courage was -inferior to none.”</p> - -<p>The equipment of the Spanish forces consisted of 130 ships (besides -caravels), 3,165 cannon, 8,050 sailors, 2,088 galley-slaves, 18,973 -soldiers, 1,382 noblemen, gentlemen, and attendants, 150 monks, with -Martin Alarco, vicar of the Inquisition—the whole under the command of -the Duke of Medina Sidonia.</p> - -<p>While this huge armada was making ready in the southern ports of the -Spanish dominions, the Prince of Parma, with almost incredible toil and -skill, collected a squadron of warships at Dunkirk, and his flotilla of -other ships and of flat-bottomed boats for the transport to England of -the picked troops, which were designed to be the main instruments in -subduing England. Thousands of workmen were employed, night and day, in -the construction of these vessels, in the ports of Flanders and Brabant.</p> - -<p>One hundred of the kind called hendes, built at Antwerp, Bruges, and -Ghent, and laden with provisions<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_169" id="page_169">{169}</a></span> and ammunition, together with sixty -flat-bottomed boats, each capable of carrying thirty horses, were -brought, by means of canals and fosses, dug expressly for the purpose, -to Nieuport and Dunkirk. One hundred smaller vessels were equipped at -the former place, and thirty-two at Dunkirk, provided with twenty -thousand empty barrels, and with materials for making pontoons, for -stopping up the harbors, and raising forts and intrenchments. The army -which these vessels were designed to convey to England amounted to -thirty thousand strong, besides a body of four thousand cavalry, -stationed at Courtroi, composed chiefly of the ablest veterans of -Europe; invigorated by rest (the siege of Sluys having been the only -enterprise in which they were employed during the last campaign), and -excited by the hopes of plunder and the expectation of certain conquest.</p> - -<p>Philip had been advised by the deserter, Sir William Stanley, not to -attack England in the first instance, but first to effect a landing and -secure a strong position in Ireland; his admiral, Santa Cruz, had -recommended him to make sure, in the first instance, of some large -harbor on the coast of Holland or Zealand, where the Armada, having -entered the Channel, might find shelter in case of storm, and whence it -could sail without difficulty for England; but Philip rejected both -these counsels, and directed that England itself should be made the -immediate object of attack; and on the 20th of May the Armada left the -Tagus, in the pomp and pride of supposed invincibility, and amid the -shouts of thousands, who believed that England was already conquered. -But steering to the northward, and before it was clear of the coast of -Spain,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_170" id="page_170">{170}</a></span> the Armada was assailed by a violent storm, and driven back with -considerable damage to the ports of Biscay and Galicia. It had, however, -sustained its heaviest loss before it left the Tagus, in the death of -the veteran admiral Santa Cruz, who had been destined to guide it -against England.</p> - -<p>This experienced sailor, notwithstanding his diligence and success, had -been unable to keep pace with the impatient ardor of his master. Philip -II. had reproached him with his dilatoriness, and had said with -ungrateful harshness, “You make an ill return for all my kindness to -you.” These words cut the veteran’s heart, and proved fatal to Santa -Cruz. Overwhelmed with fatigue and grief, he sickened and died. Philip -II. had replaced him by Alonzo Perez de Gusman, duke of Medina Sidonia, -one of the most powerful of the Spanish grandees, but wholly unqualified -to command such an expedition. He had, however, as his lieutenants, two -seamen of proved skill and bravery, Juan de Martinez Recalde of Biscay, -and Miguel Orquendo of Guipuzcoa.</p> - -<p>On the 12th of July the Armada, having completely refitted, sailed again -for the Channel, and reached it without obstruction or observation by -the English.</p> - -<p>The design of the Spaniards was, that the Armada should give them, at -least for a time, the command of the sea, and that it should join the -squadron which Parma had collected off Calais. Then, escorted by an -overpowering naval force, Parma and his army were to embark in their -flotilla, and cross the sea to England, where they were to be landed, -together with the troops which the Armada brought from the ports of -Spain. The scheme<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_171" id="page_171">{171}</a></span> was not dissimilar to one formed against England a -little more than two centuries afterward.</p> - -<p>The orders of King Philip to the Duke of Medina Sidonia were, that he -should, on entering the Channel, keep near the French coast, and, if -attacked by the English ships, avoid an action, and steer on to Calais -Roads, where the Prince of Parma’s squadron was to join him. The hope of -surprising and destroying the English fleet in Plymouth led the Spanish -admiral to deviate from these orders, and to stand across to the English -shore; but, on finding that Lord Howard was coming out to meet him, he -resumed the original plan, and determined to bend his way steadily -toward Calais and Dunkirk, and to keep merely on the defensive against -such squadrons of the English as might come up with him.</p> - -<p>It was on Saturday, the 20th of July, that Lord Effingham came in sight -of his formidable adversaries. The Armada was drawn up in form of a -crescent, which from horn to horn measured some seven miles. There was a -southwest wind; and before it the vast vessels sailed slowly on. The -English let them pass by; and then, following in the rear, commenced an -attack on them. A running fight now took place, in which some of the -best ships of the Spaniards were captured; many more received heavy -damage; while the English vessels, which took care not to close with -their huge antagonists, but availed themselves of their superior -celerity in tacking and maneuvering, suffered little comparative loss.</p> - -<p>The Spanish admiral showed great judgment and firmness in following the -line of conduct that had been traced out for him; and on the 27th of -July he brought his fleet<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_172" id="page_172">{172}</a></span> unbroken, though sorely distressed, to anchor -in Calais Roads. The Armada lay off Calais, with its largest ships -ranged outside, “like strong castles fearing no assault; the lesser -placed in the middle ward.” The English admiral could not attack them in -their position without great disadvantage, but on the night of the 29th -he sent eight fire-ships among them, with almost equal effect to that of -the fire-ships which the Greeks so often employed against the Turkish -fleets in their war of independence. The Spaniards cut their cables and -put to sea in confusion. One of the largest galeasses ran foul of -another vessel and was stranded. The rest of the fleet was scattered -about on the Flemish coast, and when the morning broke, it was with -difficulty and delay that they obeyed their admiral’s signal to range -themselves round him near Gravelines. Now was the golden opportunity for -the English to assail them, and prevent them from ever letting loose -Parma’s flotilla against England; and nobly was that opportunity used. -Drake and Fenner were the first English captains who attacked the -unwieldy leviathans: then came Fenton, Southwell, Burton, Cross, Raynor, -and then the lord-admiral, with Lord Thomas Howard and Lord Sheffield. -The Spaniards only thought of forming and keeping close together, and -were driven by the English past Dunkirk, and far away from the Prince of -Parma, who, in watching their defeat from the coast, must, as Drake -expressed it, have chafed like a bear robbed of her whelps. This was -indeed the last and the decisive battle between the two fleets.</p> - -<p>Many of the largest Spanish ships were sunk or captured in the action of -this day. And at length the Span<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_173" id="page_173">{173}</a></span>ish admiral, despairing of success, -fled northward with a southerly wind, in the hope of rounding Scotland, -and so returning to Spain without a further encounter with the English -fleet. Lord Effingham left a squadron to continue the blockade of the -Prince of Parma’s armament; but that wise general soon withdrew his -troops to more promising fields of action. Meanwhile the lord-admiral -himself and Drake chased the vincible Armada, as it was now termed, for -some distance northward; and then, when it seemed to bend away from the -Scotch coast toward Norway, it was thought best, in the words of Drake, -“to leave them to those boisterous and uncouth northern seas.”</p> - -<p>The sufferings and losses which the unhappy Spaniards sustained in their -flight round Scotland and Ireland are well known. Of their whole Armada -only fifty-three shattered vessels brought back their beaten and wasted -crews to the Spanish coast which they had quitted in such pageantry and -pride.</p> - -<p>At the death of Philip, which occurred on September 13, 1598, he left to -his son and successor, Philip III., an empire nominally undiminished, -but unwieldy and internally exhausted. Resources had been squandered. -The attention of the masses had been turned from industry to war. The -soldiery once regarded as invincible had lost their prestige in the -Netherland swamps. Enormous taxes, from which nobles and clergy were -exempt, were multiplied on the people. That being insufficient, Philip -III. proved his orthodoxy by completing the work. In 1609 the Moors, or -Moriscoes, as they were called, were ordered to quit the Peninsula -within three days, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_174" id="page_174">{174}</a></span> penalty of death was decreed against all who -failed to obey, and against any Christians who should shelter the -recalcitrants.</p> - -<p>The edict was obeyed, but it was the ruin of Spain. The Moriscoes were -the backbone of the industrial population, not only in trade and -manufactures, but also in agriculture. The haughty and indolent -Spaniards had willingly left what they considered degrading employments -to their inferiors. The Moors had introduced into Spain the cultivation -of sugar, cotton, rice and silk. They had established a system of -irrigation which had given fertility to the soil. The province of -Valencia in their hands had become a model of agriculture to the rest of -Europe. In manufactures and commerce they had shown equal superiority to -the Christian inhabitants, and many of the products of Spain were -eagerly sought for by other countries. All these advantages were -sacrificed to an insane desire for religious unity.</p> - -<p>The resources of Spain, already exhausted, never recovered from this -terrible blow. Philip III. died in March, 1621. His reign had not been -glorious or advantageous to Spain, but it contrasts favorably with those -of his successors. Spanish literature and art, which had received a -great impulse from the intercourse with foreign countries under previous -rulers, reached their zenith during his lifetime. Three writers have -obtained European fame—Cervantes, who produced the immortal “Don -Quixote” between 1605 and 1613, and two of the most fertile of romantic -dramatists, Lope de Vega and Calderon. In the domain of art, Spain -produced two of the greatest<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_175" id="page_175">{175}</a></span> masters of the seventeenth century, -Velasquez and Murillo.</p> - -<p>Philip II. was succeeded by Philip III. After him came Philip IV. and -then Charles II. Of these monarchs Mignet said: “Philip II. was merely a -king. Philip III. and Philip IV. were not kings, and Charles II. was not -even a man.” The death of the latter precipitated the War of the -Succession, the military operations of which were rendered famous by the -military exploits of Eugene and Marlborough. But this is not the place -to recite them. The chief scenes of hostilities were the Netherlands, -Germany and Italy, and their narration belongs more properly to the -histories of these lands. Suffice it to say that by the Treaty of -Utrecht war was concluded in 1711, and Philip V., a Bourbon, second -grandson of Louis XIV., was, in accordance with the will of Charles II., -acknowledged King of Spain. By the same treaty England gained Gibraltar, -while the Spanish Netherlands, Milan, Naples and Sardinia were ceded to -Austria.</p> - -<p>With the accession of a Bourbon, Spain entered into a new period of -history, during which it once more played a part in the politics of -Europe, as also in its wars; those, for instance, of the Polish and -Austrian successions—the country meanwhile being additionally embroiled -with England.</p> - -<p>Philip V. was succeeded by Ferdinand VI., and the latter by Charles -III., whose death, together with the accession of Charles IV., were -contemporary with the French Revolution. The execution of Louis XVI. -made a profound impression on a country where loyalty was a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_176" id="page_176">{176}</a></span> -superstition. Charles IV. was roused to demand vengeance for the insult -to his family. Godoy, the Prime Minister, could but follow the national -impulse; and Spain became a member of the first coalition against -France. But the two campaigns which ensued provoked the contempt of -Europe. They form a catalogue of defeats. Under the circumstances it is -no wonder that Spain followed the example of Prussia and concluded a -treaty of peace.</p> - -<p>The next event of importance was Napoleon’s famous coup de main—the -seizure of the Spanish royal family at Bayonne—the jugglery which he -performed with the crown, its transference by him from Ferdinand VII. -(son of Charles IV.) to Joseph Bonaparte, and the revolt of the South -American colonies which that act produced.</p> - -<p>Then came the restoration of Spanish independence through England’s aid; -Wellington’s famous campaign; the battles of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajos; -the entry into Madrid; the retreat of Joseph to Valencia; Napoleon’s -crushing defeat at Leipzig, and Ferdinand’s return from captivity at -Valençay.</p> - -<p>The circumstances through which these last-mentioned events were induced -or precipitated, and which are collectively known as the Peninsular War, -originated at the moment when Napoleon was practically master of Europe. -Its whole face was changed. Prussia was occupied by French troops. -Holland was changed into a monarchy by a simple decree of the French -emperor, and its crown bestowed on his brother Louis. Another brother, -Jerome, became King of Westphalia, a new realm built up out of the -electorates<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_177" id="page_177">{177}</a></span> of Hesse-Cassel and Hanover. A third brother, Joseph, was -made King of Naples; while the rest of Italy, and even Rome itself, was -annexed to the French empire. It was the hope of effectually crushing -the world-power of Britain which drove him to his worst aggression, the -aggression upon Spain.</p> - -<p>Napoleon acted with his usual subtlety. In October, 1807, France and -Spain agreed to divide Portugal between them; and on the advance of -their forces the reigning House of Braganza fled helplessly from Lisbon -to a refuge in Brazil. But the seizure of Portugal was only a prelude to -the seizure of Spain. Charles IV., whom a riot in his capital drove at -this moment to abdication, and his son, Ferdinand VII., were drawn to -Bayonne in May, 1808, and forced to resign their claims to the Spanish -crown; while a French army entered Madrid and proclaimed Napoleon’s -brother Joseph king of Spain.</p> - -<p>This high-handed act of aggression was hardly completed when Spain rose -as one man against the stranger; and desperate as the effort of its -people seemed, the news of the rising was welcomed throughout England -with a burst of enthusiastic joy. “Hitherto,” cried Sheridan, a leader -of the Whig opposition, “Bonaparte has contended with princes without -dignity, numbers without ardor, or peoples without patriotism. He has -yet to learn what it is to combat a people who are animated by one -spirit against him.” Tory and Whig alike held that “never had so happy -an opportunity existed in Britain to strike a bold stroke for the rescue -of the world”; and Canning at once resolved to change the system of -desultory de<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_178" id="page_178">{178}</a></span>scents on colonies and sugar islands for a vigorous warfare -in the Peninsula.</p> - -<p>The furious and bloody struggle which ensued found its climax at -Vittoria, but it would be difficult to find in the whole history of war -a more thrilling chapter than that which tells of the six great -campaigns of which the war itself was composed.</p> - -<p>The Peninsular War was perhaps the least selfish conflict ever waged. It -was not a war of aggrandizement or of conquest. It was fought to deliver -Europe from the despotism of Napoleon. At its close the fleets of Great -Britain rode triumphant, and in the Peninsula between 1808-14 her land -forces fought and won nineteen pitched battles, made or sustained ten -fierce and bloody sieges, took four great fortresses, twice expelled the -French from Portugal and once from Spain. Great Britain expended in -these campaigns more than one hundred million pounds sterling on her own -troops, besides subsidizing the forces of Spain and Portugal. This -“nation of shopkeepers” proved that when kindled to action it could wage -war on a scale and in a fashion that might have moved the wonder of -Alexander or of Cæsar, and from motives too lofty for either Cæsar or -Alexander so much as to comprehend. It is worth while to tell afresh the -story of some of the more picturesque incidents in that great strife.</p> - -<p>On April 6, 1812, Badajos was stormed by Wellington; and the story forms -one of the most tragical and splendid incidents in the military history -of the world. Of “the night of horrors at Badajos,” Napier says, -“posterity can scarcely be expected to credit the tale.” No tale, -however, is better authenticated, or, as an example of what disci<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_179" id="page_179">{179}</a></span>plined -human valor is capable of achieving, better deserves to be told. -Wellington was preparing for his great forward movement into Spain, the -campaign which led to Salamanca, the battle in which “forty thousand -Frenchmen were beaten in forty minutes.” As a preliminary he had to -capture, under the vigilant eyes of Soult and Marmont, the two great -border fortresses, Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajos. He had, to use Napier’s -phrase, “jumped with both feet” on the first-named fortress, and -captured it in twelve days with a loss of twelve hundred men and ninety -officers.</p> - -<p>But Badajos was a still harder task. The city stands on a rocky ridge -which forms the last spur of the Toledo range, and is of extraordinary -strength. The river Rivillas falls almost at right angles into the -Guadiana, and in the angle formed by their junction stands Badajos, oval -in shape, girdled with elaborate defenses, with the Guadiana, five -hundred yards wide, as its defense to the north, the Rivillas serving as -a wet ditch to the west, and no less than five great fortified -outposts—Saint Roque, Christoval, Picurina, Pardaleras, and a fortified -bridge-head across the Guadiana—as the outer zone of its defenses. -Twice the English had already assailed Badajos, but assailed it in vain. -It was now held by a garrison five thousand strong, under a soldier, -General Phillipson, with a real genius for defense, and the utmost art -had been employed in adding to its defenses. On the other hand, -Wellington had no means of transport and no battery train, and had to -make all his preparations under the keen-eyed vigilance of the French. -Perhaps the strangest collection of artillery ever employed in a great -siege was that which Wellington<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_180" id="page_180">{180}</a></span> collected from every available quarter -and used at Badajos. Of the fifty-two pieces, some dated from the days -of Philip II. and the Spanish Armada, some were cast in the reign of -Philip III., others in that of John IV. of Portugal, who reigned in -1640; there were 24-pounders of George II.’s day, and Russian naval -guns; the bulk of the extraordinary medley being obsolete brass engines -which required from seven to ten minutes to cool between each discharge.</p> - -<p>Wellington, however, was strong in his own warlike genius and in the -quality of the troops he commanded. He employed eighteen thousand men in -the siege, and it may well be doubted whether—if we put the question of -equipment aside—a more perfect fighting instrument than the force under -his orders ever existed. The men were veterans, but the officers on the -whole were young, so there was steadiness in the ranks and fire in the -leading. Hill and Graham covered the siege, Picton and Barnard, Kempt -and Colville led the assaults. The trenches were held by the third, -fourth, and fifth divisions, and by the famous light division. Of the -latter it has been said that the Macedonian phalanx of Alexander the -Great, the Tenth Legion of Cæsar, the famous Spanish infantry of Alva, -or the iron soldiers who followed Cortes to Mexico, did not exceed it in -warlike quality. Wellington’s troops, too, had a personal grudge against -Badajos, and had two defeats to avenge. Perhaps no siege in history, as -a matter of fact, ever witnessed either more furious valor in the -assault, or more of cool and skilled courage in the defense. The siege -lasted exactly twenty days, and cost the besiegers five thousand men, or -an average loss of two hundred and fifty per<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_181" id="page_181">{181}</a></span> day. It was waged -throughout in stormy weather, with the rivers steadily rising, and the -tempests perpetually blowing; yet the thunder of the attack never paused -for an instant.</p> - -<p>Wellington’s engineers attacked the city at the eastern end of the oval, -where the Rivillas served it as a gigantic wet ditch; and the Picurina, -a fortified hill, ringed by a ditch fourteen feet deep, a rampart -sixteen feet high, and a zone of mines, acted as an outwork. Wellington, -curiously enough, believed in night attacks, a sure proof of his faith -in the quality of the men he commanded; and on the eighth night of the -siege, at nine o’clock, five hundred men of the third division were -suddenly flung on the Picurina. The fort broke into a ring of flame, by -the light of which the dark figures of the stormers were seen leaping -with fierce hardihood into the ditch and struggling madly up the -ramparts, or tearing furiously at the palisades. But the defenses were -strong, and the assailants fell literally in scores.</p> - -<p>Napier tells how “the axmen of the light division, compassing the fort -like prowling wolves,” discovered the gate at the rear, and so broke -into the fort. The engineer officer who led the attack declares that -“the place would never have been taken had it not been for the coolness -of these men” in absolutely walking round the fort to its rear, -discovering the gate, and hewing it down under a tempest of bullets. The -assault lasted an hour, and in that period, out of the five hundred men -who attacked, no less than three hundred, with nineteen officers, were -killed or wounded! Three men out of every<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_182" id="page_182">{182}</a></span> five in the attacking force, -that is, were disabled, and yet they won!</p> - -<p>There followed twelve days of furious industry, of trenches pushed -tirelessly forward through mud and wet, and of cannonading that only -ceased when the guns grew too hot to be used. Captain MacCarthy, of the -Fiftieth Regiment, has left a curious little monograph on the siege, -full of incidents, half tragic and half amusing, but which show the -temper of Wellington’s troops. Thus he tells how an engineer officer, -when marking out the ground for a breaching-battery very near the wall, -which was always lined with French soldiers in eager search of human -targets, “used to challenge them to prove the perfection of their -shooting by lifting up the skirts of his coat in defiance several times -in the course of his survey; driving in his stakes and measuring his -distances with great deliberation, and concluding by an extra shake of -his coat-tails and an ironical bow before he stepped under shelter!”</p> - -<p>On the night of April 6, Wellington determined to assault. No less than -seven attacks were to be delivered. Two of them—on the bridge-head -across the Guadiana and on the Pardaleras—were mere feints. But on the -extreme right Picton with the third division was to cross the Rivillas -and escalade the castle, whose walls rose, time-stained and grim, from -eighteen to twenty-four feet high. Leith with the fifth division was to -attack the opposite or western extremity of the town, the bastion of San -Vincente, where the glacis was mined, the ditch deep, and the scarp -thirty feet high. Against the actual breaches Colville and Andrew -Barnard were to lead the light division<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_183" id="page_183">{183}</a></span> and the fourth division, the -former attacking the bastion of Santa Maria and the latter the Trinidad. -The hour was fixed for ten o’clock, and the story of that night attack, -as told in Napier’s immortal prose, is one of the great battle-pictures -of literature; and any one who tries to tell the tale will find himself -slipping insensibly into Napier’s cadences.</p> - -<p>The night was black; a strange silence lay on rampart and trench, broken -from time to time by the deep voices of the sentinels that proclaimed -all was well in Badajos. “Sentinelle garde à vous,” the cry of the -sentinels, was translated by the British private as “All’s well in -Badahoo!” A lighted carcass thrown from the castle discovered Picton’s -men standing in ordered array, and compelled them to attack at once. -MacCarthy, who acted as guide across the tangle of wet trenches and the -narrow bridge that spanned the Rivillas, has left an amusing account of -the scene. At one time Picton declared MacCarthy was leading them wrong, -and, drawing his sword, swore he would cut him down. The column reached -the trench, however, at the foot of the castle walls, and was instantly -overwhelmed with the fire of the besieged. MacCarthy says we can only -picture the scene by “supposing that all the stars, planets, and meteors -of the firmament, with innumerable moons emitting smaller ones in their -course, were descending on the heads of the besiegers.” MacCarthy -himself, a typical and gallant Irishman, addressed his general with the -exultant remark, “<span class="lftspc">’</span>Tis a glorious night, sir—a glorious night!” and, -rushing forward to the head of the stormers, shouted, “Up with the -ladders!” The five ladders were raised, the troops swarmed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_184" id="page_184">{184}</a></span> up, an -officer leading, but the first files were at once crushed by cannon -fire, and the ladders slipped into the angle of the abutments. “Dreadful -their fall,” records MacCarthy of the slaughtered stormers, “and -appalling their appearance at daylight.” One ladder remained, and, a -private soldier leading, the eager red-coated crowd swarmed up it. The -brave fellow leading was shot as soon as his head appeared above the -parapet; but the next man to him—again a private—leaped over the -parapet, and was followed quickly by others, and this thin stream of -desperate men climbed singly, and in the teeth of the flashing musketry, -up that solitary ladder, and carried the castle.</p> - -<p>In the meanwhile the fourth and light divisions had flung themselves -with cool and silent speed on the breaches. The storming party of each -division leaped into the ditch. It was mined, the fuse was kindled, and -the ditch, crowded with eager soldiery, became in a moment a sort of -flaming crater, and the storming parties, five hundred strong, were in -one fierce explosion dashed to pieces. In the light of that dreadful -flame the whole scene became visible—the black ramparts, crowded with -dark figures and glittering arms, on the one side; on the other, the red -columns of the British, broad and deep, moving steadily forward like a -stream of human lava. The light division stood at the brink of the -smoking ditch for an instant, amazed at the sight. “Then,” says Napier, -“with a shout that matched even the sound of the explosion,” they leaped -into it and swarmed up to the breach. The fourth division came running -up and descended with equal fury but the ditch opposite the Trinidad was -filled with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_185" id="page_185">{185}</a></span> water; the head of the division leaped into it, and, as -Napier puts it, “about one hundred of the fusiliers, the men of Albuera, -perished there.” The breaches were impassable. Across the top of the -great slope of broken wall glittered a fringe of sword-blades, -sharp-pointed, keen-edged on both sides, fixed in ponderous beams -chained together and set deep in the ruins. For ten feet in front the -ascent was covered with loose planks, studded with sharp iron points. -Behind the glittering edge of sword-blades stood the solid ranks of the -French, each man supplied with three muskets, and their fire scourged -the British ranks like a tempest.</p> - -<p>Hundreds had fallen, hundreds were still falling; but the British clung -doggedly to the lower slopes, and every few minutes an officer would -leap forward with a shout, a swarm of men would instantly follow him, -and, like leaves blown by a whirlwind, they swept up the ascent. But -under the incessant fire of the French, the assailants melted away. One -private reached the sword-blades, and actually thrust his head beneath -them till his brains were beaten out, so desperate was his resolve to -get into Badajos. The breach, as Napier describes it, “yawning and -glittering with steel, resembled the mouth of a huge dragon belching -forth smoke and flame.” But for two hours, and until two thousand men -had fallen, the stubborn British persisted in their attacks. Currie, of -the 52d, a cool and most daring soldier, found a narrow ramp beyond the -Santa Maria breach only half-ruined; he forced his way back through the -tumult and carnage to where Wellington stood watching the scene, -obtained an unbroken battalion from the reserve, and led it toward<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_186" id="page_186">{186}</a></span> the -broken ramp. But his men were caught in the whirling madness of the -ditch and swallowed up in the tumult. Nicholas, of the engineers, and -Shaw of the 43d, with some fifty soldiers, actually climbed into the -Santa Maria bastion, and from thence tried to force their way into the -breach. Every man was shot down except Shaw, who stood alone on the -bastion. “With inexpressible coolness he looked at his watch, said it -was too late to carry the breaches,” and then leaped down! The British -could not penetrate the breach; but they would not retreat. They could -only die where they stood. The buglers of the reserve were sent to the -crest of the glacis to sound the retreat; the troops in the ditch would -not believe the signal to be genuine, and struck their own buglers who -attempted to repeat it. “Gathering in dark groups, and leaning on their -muskets,” says Napier, “they looked up in sullen desperation at -Trinidad, while the enemy, stepping out on the ramparts, and aiming -their shots by the light of fire-balls, which they threw over, asked as -their victims fell, ‘Why they did not come into Badajos.’<span class="lftspc">”</span></p> - -<p>All this while, curiously enough, Picton was actually in Badajos, and -held the castle securely, but made no attempt to clear the breach. On -the extreme west of the town, however, at the bastion of San Vincente, -the fifth division made an attack as desperate as that which was failing -at the breaches. When the stormers actually reached the bastion, the -Portuguese battalions, who formed part of the attack, dismayed by the -tremendous fire which broke out on them, flung down their ladders and -fled. The British, however, snatched the ladders up,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_187" id="page_187">{187}</a></span> forced the -barrier, jumped into the ditch, and tried to climb the walls. These were -thirty feet high, and the ladders were too short. A mine was sprung in -the ditch under the soldiers’ feet; beams of wood, stones, broken -wagons, and live shells were poured upon their heads from above. Showers -of grape from the flank swept the ditch.</p> - -<p>The stubborn soldiers, however, discovered a low spot in the rampart, -placed three ladders against it, and climbed with reckless valor. The -first man was pushed up by his comrades; he, in turn, dragged others up, -and the unconquerable British at length broke through and swept the -bastion. The tumult still stormed and raged at the eastern breaches, -where the men of the light and fourth division were dying sullenly, and -the men of the fifth division marched at speed across the town to take -the great eastern breach in the rear. The streets were empty, but the -silent houses were bright with lamps. The men of the fifth pressed on; -they captured mules carrying ammunition to the breaches, and the French, -startled by the tramp of the fast-approaching column, and finding -themselves taken in the rear, fled. The light and fourth divisions broke -through the gap hitherto barred by flame and steel, and Badajos was won!</p> - -<p>In that dreadful night assault the English lost three thousand five -hundred men. “Let it be considered,” says Napier, “that this frightful -carnage took place in the space of less than a hundred yards -square—that the slain died not all suddenly, nor by one manner of -death—that some perished by steel, some by shot, some by water; that -some were crushed and mangled by heavy weights,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_188" id="page_188">{188}</a></span> some trampled upon, -some dashed to atoms by the fiery explosions—that for hours this -destruction was endured without shrinking, and the town was won at last. -Let these things be considered, and it must be admitted a British army -bears with it an awful power. And false would it be to say the French -were feeble men. The garrison stood and fought manfully and with good -discipline, behaving worthily. Shame there was none on any side. Yet who -shall do justice to the bravery of the British soldiers or the noble -emulation of the officers?... No age, no nation, ever sent forth braver -troops to battle than those who stormed Badajos.”</p> - -<p>In addition to Badajos, the siege of Ciudad Rodrigo and of San Sebastian -deserve mention. The annals of strife nowhere record assaults more -daring than those which raged in turn around these three great -fortresses. Of them all that of Badajos was the most picturesque and -bloody; that of San Sebastian the most sullen and exasperating; that of -Ciudad Rodrigo the swiftest and most brilliant. A great siege tests the -fighting quality of an army as nothing else can test it. In the night -watches in the trenches, in the dogged toil of the batteries, and the -crowded perils of the breach, all the frippery and much of the real -discipline of an army dissolves. The soldiers fall back upon what may be -called the primitive fighting qualities—the hardihood of the individual -soldier, the daring with which the officers will lead, the dogged -loyalty with which the men will follow. As an illustration of the -warlike qualities in a race by which empire has been achieved, nothing -better can be desired than the story of how the breaches were won at -Ciudad Rodrigo.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_189" id="page_189">{189}</a></span></p> - -<p>At the end of 1811 the English and the French were watching each other -jealously across the Spanish border. The armies of Marmont and of Soult, -sixty-seven thousand strong, lay within touch of each other, barring -Wellington’s entrance into Spain. Wellington, with thirty-five thousand -men, of whom not more than ten thousand men were British, lay within -sight of the Spanish frontier. It was the winter time. Wellington’s army -was wasted by sickness, his horses were dying of mere starvation, his -men had received no pay for three months, and his muleteers none for -eight months. He had no siege train, his regiments were ragged and -hungry, and the French generals confidently reckoned the British army -as, for the moment at least, une quantite negligeable.</p> - -<p>And yet at that precise moment, Wellington, subtle and daring, was -meditating a leap upon the great frontier fortress of Ciudad Rodrigo, in -the Spanish province of Salamanca. Its capture would give him a safe -base of operations against Spain; it was the great frontier place -d’armes for the French; the whole siege equipage and stores of the army -of Portugal were contained in it. The problem of how, in the depth of -winter, without materials for a siege, to snatch a place so strong from -under the very eyes of two armies, each stronger than his own, was a -problem which might have taxed the warlike genius of a Cæsar. But -Wellington accomplished it with a combination of subtlety and audacity -simply marvelous.</p> - -<p>He kept the secret of his design so perfectly that his own engineers -never suspected it, and his adjutant-general, Murray, went home on leave -without dreaming anything was going to happen. Wellington collected -artillery<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_190" id="page_190">{190}</a></span> ostensibly for the purpose of arming Almeida, but the guns -were transshipped at sea and brought secretly to the mouth of the Douro. -No less than eight hundred mule-carts were constructed without anybody -guessing their purpose. Wellington, while these preparations were on -foot, was keenly watching Marmont and Soult, till he saw that they were -lulled into a state of mere yawning security, and then, in Napier’s -expressive phrase, he “instantly jumped with both feet upon Ciudad -Rodrigo.”</p> - -<p>This famous fortress, in shape, roughly resembles a triangle with the -angles truncated. The base, looking to the south, is covered by the -Agueda, a river given to sudden inundations; the fortifications were -strong and formidably armed; as outworks it had to the east the great -fortified Convent of San Francisco, to the west a similar building -called Santa Cruz; while almost parallel with the northern face rose two -rocky ridges called the Great and Small Teson, the nearest within six -hundred yards of the city ramparts, and crowned by a formidable redoubt -called Francisco. The siege began on January 8. The soil was rocky and -covered with snow, the nights were black, the weather bitter. The men -lacked intrenching tools. They had to encamp on the side of the Agueda -furthest from the city, and ford that river every time the trenches were -relieved. The 1st, 3d, and light divisions formed the attacking force; -each division held the trenches in turn for twenty-four hours. Let the -reader imagine what degree of hardihood it took to wade in the gray and -bitter winter dawn through a half-frozen river, and, without fire or -warm food, and under a ceaseless rain of shells from the enemy’s guns, -to toil in the frozen trenches, or to keep<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_191" id="page_191">{191}</a></span> watch, while the icicles -hung from eyebrow and beard, over the edge of the battery for -twenty-four hours in succession.</p> - -<p>Nothing in this great siege is more wonderful than the fierce speed with -which Wellington urged his operations. Massena, who had besieged and -captured the city the year before in the height of summer, spent a month -in bombarding it before he ventured to assault. Wellington broke ground -on January 8, under a tempest of mingled hail and rain; he stormed it on -the night of the 19th.</p> - -<p>He began operations by leaping on the strong work that crowned the Great -Teson the very night the siege began. Two companies from each regiment -of the light division were detailed by the officer of the day, Colonel -Colborne, for the assault. Colborne (afterward Lord Seaton), a cool and -gallant soldier, called his officers together in a group and explained -with great minuteness how they were to attack. He then lanched his men -against the redoubt with a vehemence so swift that, to those who watched -the scene under the light of a wintry moon, the column of redcoats, like -the thrust of a crimson sword-blade, spanned the ditch, shot up the -glacis, and broke through the parapet with a single movement. The -accidental explosion of a French shell burst the gate open, and the -remainder of the attacking party instantly swept through it. There was -fierce musketry fire and a tumult of shouting for a moment or two, but -in twenty minutes from Colborne’s lanching his attack every Frenchman in -the redoubt was killed, wounded, or a prisoner.</p> - -<p>The fashion in which the gate was blown open was very<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_192" id="page_192">{192}</a></span> curious. A French -sergeant was in the act of throwing a live shell upon the storming party -in the ditch, when he was struck by an English bullet. The lighted shell -fell from his hands within the parapet, was kicked away by the nearest -French in mere self-preservation; it rolled toward the gate, exploded, -burst it open, and instantly the British broke in.</p> - -<p>For ten days a desperate artillery duel raged between the besiegers and -the besieged. The parallels were resolutely pushed on in spite of rocky -soil, broken tools, bitter weather, and the incessant pelting of the -French guns. The temper of the British troops is illustrated by an -incident which George Napier—the youngest of the three -Napiers—relates. The three brothers were gallant and remarkable -soldiers. Charles Napier in India and elsewhere made history; William, -in his wonderful tale of the Peninsular War, wrote history; and George, -if he had not the literary genius of the one nor the strategic skill of -the other, was a most gallant soldier. “I was a field-officer of the -trenches,” he says, “when a 13-inch shell from the town fell in the -midst of us. I called to the men to lie down flat, and they instantly -obeyed orders, except one of them, an Irishman and an old marine, but a -most worthless drunken dog, who trotted up to the shell, the fuse of -which was still burning, and striking it with his spade, knocked the -fuse out; then taking the immense shell in his hands, brought it to me, -saying, ‘There she is for you, now, yer ’anner. I’ve knocked the life -out of the crater.’<span class="lftspc">”</span></p> - -<p>The besieged brought fifty heavy guns to reply to the thirty light -pieces by which they were assailed, and day<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_193" id="page_193">{193}</a></span> and night the bellow of -eighty pieces boomed sullenly over the doomed city and echoed faintly -back from the nearer hills, while the walls crashed to the stroke of the -bullet. The English fire made up by fierceness and accuracy for what it -lacked in weight; but the sap made no progress, the guns showed signs of -being worn out, and, although two apparent breaches had been made, the -counterscarp was not destroyed. Yet Wellington determined to attack, -and, in his characteristic fashion, to attack by night. The siege had -lasted ten days, and Marmont, with an army stronger than his own, was -lying within four marches. That he had not appeared already on the scene -was wonderful.</p> - -<p>In a general order issued on the evening of the 19th Wellington wrote, -“Ciudad Rodrigo must be stormed this evening.” The great breach was a -sloping gap in the wall at its northern angle, about a hundred feet -wide. The French had crowned it with two guns loaded with grape, the -slope was strewn with bombs, hand-grenades and bags of powder; a great -mine pierced it beneath; a deep ditch had been cut between the breach -and the adjoining ramparts, and these were crowded with riflemen. The -third division, under General Mackinnon, was to attack the breach, its -forlorn hope being led by Ensign Mackie, its storming party by General -Mackinnon himself. The lesser breach was a tiny gap, scarcely twenty -feet wide, to the left of the great breach; this was to be attacked by -the light division, under Craufurd, its forlorn hope of twenty-five men -being led by Gurwood, and its storming party by George Napier. General -Pack, with a Portuguese brigade, was to make a sham attack<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_194" id="page_194">{194}</a></span> on the -eastern face, while a fourth attack was to be made on the southern front -by a company of the 83d and some Portuguese troops. In the storming -party of the 83d were the Earl of March, afterward Duke of Richmond; -Lord Fitzroy Somerset, afterward Lord Raglan; and the Prince of -Orange—all volunteers without Wellington’s knowledge!</p> - -<p>At seven o’clock a curious silence fell suddenly on the battered city -and the engirdling trenches. Not a light gleamed from the frowning -parapets, not a murmur arose from the blackened trenches. Suddenly a -shout broke out on the right of the English attack; it ran, a wave of -stormy sound, along the line of the trenches. The men who were to attack -the great breach leaped into the open. In a moment the space between the -hostile lines was covered with the stormers, and the gloomy, half-seen -face of the great fortress broke into a tempest of fire.</p> - -<p>Nothing could be finer than the vehement courage of the assault, unless -it were the cool and steady fortitude of the defense. Swift as was the -upward rush of the stormers, the race of the 5th, 77th, and 94th -regiments was almost swifter. Scorning to wait for the ladders, they -leaped into the great ditch, outpaced even the forlorn hope, and pushed -vehemently up the great breach, while their red ranks were torn by shell -and shot. The fire, too, ran through the tangle of broken stones over -which they climbed; the hand-grenades and powder-bags by which it was -strewn exploded. The men were walking on fire! Yet the attack could not -be denied. The Frenchmen—shooting, stabbing, yelling—were driven -be<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_195" id="page_195">{195}</a></span>hind their intrenchments. There the fire of the houses commanding the -breach came to their help, and they made a gallant stand. “None would go -back on either side, and yet the British could not get forward, and men -and officers falling in heaps choked up the passage, which from minute -to minute was raked with grape from two guns flanking the top of the -breach at the distance of a few yards. Thus striving, and trampling -alike upon the dead and the wounded, these brave men maintained the -combat.”</p> - -<p>It was the attack on the smaller breach which really carried Ciudad -Rodrigo; and George Napier, who led it, has left a graphic narrative of -the exciting experiences of that dreadful night. The light division was -to attack, and Craufurd, with whom Napier was a favorite, gave him -command of the storming party. He was to ask for one hundred volunteers -from each of the three British regiments—the 43d, 52d, and the rifle -corps—in the division. Napier halted these regiments just as they had -forded the bitterly cold river on their way to the trenches. “Soldiers,” -he said, “I want one hundred men from each regiment to form the storming -party which is to lead the light division to-night. Those who will go -with me come forward!”</p> - -<p>Instantly there was a rush forward of the whole division, and Napier had -to take his three hundred men out of a tumult of nearly one thousand -five hundred candidates. He formed them into three companies, under -Captains Ferguson, Jones, and Mitchell. Gurwood, of the 52d, led the -forlorn hope, consisting of twenty-five men and two sergeants. -Wellington himself came to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_196" id="page_196">{196}</a></span> trench and showed Napier and Colborne, -through the gloom of the early night, the exact position of the breach. -A staff-officer, looking on, said, “Your men are not loaded. Why don’t -you make them load?” Napier replied, “If we don’t do the business with -the bayonet we shall not do it at all. I shall not load.”—“Let him -alone,” said Wellington; “let him go his own way.” Picton had adopted -the same grim policy with the third division. As each regiment passed -him, filing into the trenches, his injunction was, “No powder! We’ll do -the thing with the <i>could</i> iron.”</p> - -<p>A party of Portuguese carrying bags filled with grass were to run with -the storming party and throw the bags into the ditch, as the leap was -too deep for the men. But the Portuguese hesitated, the tumult of the -attack on the great breach suddenly broke on the night, and the forlorn -hope went running up, leaped into the ditch, a depth of eleven feet, and -clambered up the steep slope beyond, while Napier with his stormers came -with a run behind them. In the dark for a moment the breach was lost, -but found again, and up the steep quarry of broken stone the attack -swept.</p> - -<p>About two-thirds of the way up, Napier’s arm was smashed by a -grape-shot, and he fell. His men, checked for a moment, lifted their -muskets to the gap above them, whence the French were firing vehemently, -and forgetting their pieces were unloaded, snapped them. “Push on with -the bayonet, men!” shouted Napier, as he lay bleeding. The officers -leaped to the front, the men with a stern shout followed; they were -crushed to a front of not more than three or four. They had to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_197" id="page_197">{197}</a></span> climb -without firing a shot in reply up to the muzzles of the French muskets.</p> - -<p>But nothing could stop the men of the light division. A 24-pounder was -placed across the narrow gap in the ramparts; the stormers leaped over -it, and the 43d and 52d, coming up in sections abreast, followed. The -43d wheeled to the right toward the great breach, the 52d to the left, -sweeping the ramparts as they went.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile the other two attacks had broken into the town; but at the -great breach the dreadful fight still raged, until the 43d, coming -swiftly along the ramparts, and brushing all opposition aside, took the -defense in the rear. The British there had, as a matter of fact, at that -exact moment pierced the French defense. The two guns that scourged the -breach had wrought deadly havoc among the stormers, and a sergeant and -two privates of the 88th—Irishmen all, and whose names deserve to be -preserved—Brazel, Kelly, and Swan—laid down their firelocks that they -might climb more lightly, and, armed only with their bayonets, forced -themselves through the embrasure among the French gunners. They were -furiously attacked, and Swan’s arm was hewed off by a saber stroke; but -they stopped the service of the gun, slew five or six of the French -gunners, and held the post until the men of the 5th, climbing behind -them, broke into the battery.</p> - -<p>So Ciudad Rodrigo was won, and its governor surrendered his sword to the -youthful lieutenant leading the forlorn hope of the light division, who, -with smoke-blackened face, torn uniform, and staggering from a dreadful -wound, still kept at the head of his men.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_198" id="page_198">{198}</a></span></p> - -<p>In the eleven days of the siege Wellington lost one thousand three -hundred men and officers, out of whom six hundred and fifty men and -sixty officers were struck down on the slopes of the breaches. Two -notable soldiers died in the attack—Craufurd, the famous leader of the -light division, as he brought his men up to the lesser breach; and -Mackinnon, who commanded a brigade of the third division, at the great -breach. Mackinnon was a gallant Highlander, a soldier of great promise, -beloved by his men. His “children,” as he called them, followed him up -the great breach till the bursting of a French mine destroyed all the -leading files, including their general. Craufurd was buried in the -lesser breach itself, and Mackinnon in the great breach—fitting graves -for soldiers so gallant.</p> - -<p>Alison says that with the rush of the English stormers up the breaches -of Ciudad Rodrigo “began the fall of the French empire.” That siege, so -fierce and brilliant, was, as a matter of fact, the first of that -swift-following succession of strokes which drove the French in ruin out -of Spain, and it coincided in point of time with the turn of the tide -against Napoleon in Russia.</p> - -<p>But, as already noted, the climax of the war occurred at Vittoria. -Wellington, overtaking the French at that place, inflicted on them a -defeat which drove in utter rout one hundred and twenty thousand veteran -troops from Spain. There is no more brilliant chapter in military -history; and, at its close, to quote Napier’s clarion-like sentences, -“the English general, emerging from the chaos of the Peninsular -struggle, stood on the summit of the Pyrenees a recognized conqueror. -From those lofty<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_199" id="page_199">{199}</a></span> pinnacles the clangor of his trumpets pealed clear and -loud, and the splendor of his genius appeared as a flaming beacon to -warring nations.”</p> - -<p>The victory not only freed Spain from its invaders; it restored the -spirit of the allies. The close of the armistice was followed by a union -of Austria with the forces of Prussia and the Czar; and in October a -final overthrow of Napoleon at Leipzig forced the French army to fall -back in rout across the Rhine. The war now hurried to its close. Though -held at bay for a while by the sieges of San Sebastian and Pampeluna, as -well as by an obstinate defense of the Pyrenees, Wellington succeeded in -the very month of the triumph at Leipzig in winning a victory on the -Bidassoa which enabled him to enter France. He was soon followed by the -allies. On the last day of 1813 their forces crossed the Rhine; and a -third of France passed, without opposition, into their hands. For two -months more Napoleon maintained a wonderful struggle with a handful of -raw conscripts against their overwhelming numbers; while in the south, -Soult, forced from his intrenched camp near Bayonne and defeated at -Orthes, fell back before Wellington on Toulouse. Here their two armies -met in April in a stubborn and indecisive engagement. But though neither -leader knew it, the war was even then at an end. The struggle of -Napoleon himself had ended at the close of March with the surrender of -Paris; and the submission of the capital was at once followed by the -abdication of the emperor and the return of Ferdinand.</p> - -<p>After the convulsions it had endured, Spain required a period of firm -but conciliatory government; but the ill<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_200" id="page_200">{200}</a></span>-fate of the country gave the -throne at this crisis to the worst of her Bourbon kings. Ferdinand VII. -had never possessed the good qualities which popular credulity had -assigned to him, and he had learned nothing in his four years’ captivity -except an aptitude for lying and intrigue. He had no conception of the -duties of a ruler; his public conduct was regulated by pride and -superstition, and his private life was stained by the grossest sensual -indulgence.</p> - -<p>But Spain was not allowed to work out its own salvation. Europe was -dominated at this time by the Holy Alliance, which disguised a -resolution to repress popular liberties and to maintain despotism under -a pretended zeal for piety, justice and brotherly love. At the Congress -of Verona (October, 1822), France, Austria, Russia and Prussia agreed -upon armed intervention in Spain, in spite of the protest of Canning on -the part of England. Spain was to be called upon to alter her -constitution and to grant greater liberty to the king, and if an -unsatisfactory answer were received France was authorized to take active -measures. The demand was unhesitatingly refused, and a French army, -100,000 strong, at once entered Spain under the Duke of Angouleme -(April, 1823). No effective resistance was made, and Madrid was entered -by the invaders (May 23). The Cortes, however, had carried off the king -to Seville, whence they again retreated to Cadiz. The bombardment of -that city terminated the revolution and Ferdinand was released (October -1). His first act was to revoke everything that had been done since -1819. The Inquisition was not restored, but the secular tribunals took a -terrible revenge upon the leaders of the re<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_201" id="page_201">{201}</a></span>bellion. The protest of the -Duke of Angouleme against these cruelties was unheeded. Even the fear of -revolt, the last check upon despotism, was removed by the presence of -the French army, which remained in Spain till 1827. But Spain had to pay -for the restoration of the royal absolutism, as Canning backed up his -protest against the intervention of France by acknowledging the -independence of the Spanish colonies.</p> - -<p>Ferdinand VII. was enabled to finish his worthless and disastrous reign -in comparative peace. In 1829 he married a fourth wife, Maria Christina -of Naples, and at the same time he issued a “Pragmatic Sanction” -abolishing the Salic law in Spain. No one expected any practical results -from this edict, but a formal protest was made against it by the king’s -brothers, Carlos and Francisco, and also by the French and Neapolitan -Bourbons. In the next year, however, the queen gave birth to a daughter, -Isabella, who was proclaimed as queen on her father’s death in 1833, -while her mother undertook the office of regent.</p> - -<p>Don Carlos at once asserted his intention of maintaining the Salic law, -and rallied round him all the supporters of absolutism, especially the -inhabitants of the Basque Provinces. Christina was compelled to rely -upon the Liberals, and to conciliate them by the grant of a -constitution, the estatuto real, which established two chambers chosen -by indirect election. But this constitution, drawn up under the -influence of Louis Philippe of France, failed to satisfy the advanced -Liberals, and the Christinos split into two parties, the Moderados and -Progresistas. In 1836 the latter party extorted from the regent the -re<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_202" id="page_202">{202}</a></span>vival of the constitution of 1812. All this time the government was -involved in a desperate struggle with the Carlists, who at first gained -considerable successes under Zumalacarregui and Cabrera. But the death -of Zumalacarregui in 1835 and the support of France and England -ultimately gave the regent the upper hand, and in 1839 her general, -Espartoro, forced the Basque Provinces to submit to Isabella. Don Carlos -renounced his claims in favor of his eldest son, another Carlos, and -retired to Trieste, where he died in 1855.</p> - -<p>Christina now tried to sever herself from the Progresistas, and to -govern with the help of the moderate party who enjoyed the patronage of -Louis Philippe. But England, jealous of French influence at Madrid, -threw the weight of her influence on to the side of the Radicals, who -found a powerful leader in Espartero. In 1840, Christina had to retire -to France, and Espartero was recognized as regent by the Cortes. But his -elevation was resented by the other officers, while his subservience to -England made him unpopular, and in 1848 he also had to go into exile. -Isabella was now declared of age. Christina returned to Madrid, and the -Moderados under Narvaez obtained complete control over the government. -This was a great victory for France, and Louis Philippe abused his -success by negotiating the infamous “Spanish marriages.” A husband was -found for Isabella in her cousin, Francis of Assis, whose recommendation -in French eyes was the improbability of his begetting children. On the -same day the queen’s sister, Maria Louisa, was married to Louis -Philippe’s son, the Duke of Montpensier. By this means it was hoped to -secure the reversion of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_203" id="page_203">{203}</a></span> Spanish throne for the House of Orleans. -The scheme recoiled on the heads of those who framed it. The alienation -of England gave a fatal impulse to the fall of Louis Philippe, while the -subsequent birth of children to Isabella deprived the Montpensier -marriage of all importance.</p> - -<p>Spanish history during the reign of Isabella II. presents a dismal -picture of faction and intrigue. The queen herself sought compensation -for her unhappy marriage in sensual indulgence, and tried to cover the -dissoluteness of her private life by a superstitious devotion to -religion and by throwing her influence to the side of the clerical and -reactionary party. Every now and then the Progresistas and Moderados -forced themselves into office, but their mutual jealousy prevented them -from acquiring any permanent hold upon the government. In 1866, Isabella -was induced to take vigorous measures against the Liberal opposition. -Narvaez was appointed chief minister; and the most prominent Liberals, -Serrano, Prim and O’Donnell, had to seek safety in exile. The Cortes -were dissolved, and many of the deputies were transported to the Canary -Islands. The ascendency of the court party was maintained by a rigorous -persecution, which was continued after Narvaez’s death (April, 1868) by -Gonzales Bravo.</p> - -<p>Common dangers succeeded at last in combining the various sections of -the Liberals for mutual defense, and the people, disgusted by the -scandals of the court and the contemptible camarilla which surrounded -the queen, rallied to their side. In September, 1868, Serrano and Prim -returned to Spain, where they raised the standard of revolt<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_204" id="page_204">{204}</a></span> and offered -the people the bribe of universal suffrage. The revolution was speedily -accomplished and Isabella fled to France, but the successful rebels were -at once confronted with the difficulty of finding a successor for her. -During the interregnum Serrano undertook the regency and the Cortes drew -up a now constitution by which a hereditary king was to rule in -conjunction with a senate and a popular chamber.</p> - -<p>As no one of the Bourbon candidates for the throne was acceptable, it -became necessary to look around for some foreign prince. The offer of -the crown to Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen excited the jealousy of -France, and gave Napoleon III. the opportunity of picking a quarrel, -which proved fatal to himself, with the rising state of Prussia. At last -a king was found (1870) in Amadeus of Aosta, the second son of Victor -Emmanuel, who made an honest effort to discharge the difficult office of -a constitutional king in a country which was hardly fitted for -constitutional government. But he found the task too hard and too -distasteful, and resigned in 1878.</p> - -<p>A provisional republic was now formed, of which Castelar was the guiding -spirit. But the Spaniards, trained to regard monarchy with superstitious -reverence, had no sympathy with republican institutions. Don Carlos -seized the opportunity to revive the claim of inalienable male -succession, and raised the standard of revolt in the Basque Provinces, -where his name was still a power. The disorders of the democrats and the -approach of civil war threw the responsibility of government upon the -army. The Cortes were dissolved by a military <i>coup d’etat</i>; Cas<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_205" id="page_205">{205}</a></span>telar -threw up his office in disgust; and the administration was undertaken by -a committee of officers. Anarchy was suppressed with a strong hand, but -it was obvious that order could only be restored by reviving the -monarchy. Foreign princes were no longer thought of, and the crown was -offered to and accepted by Alfonso XII., the young son of the exiled -Isabella (1874).</p> - -<p>His first task was to terminate the Carlist war, which still continued -in the north, and this was successfully accomplished in 1876. Time was -required to restore the prosperity of Spain under a peaceful and orderly -government and to consolidate by prescription the authority of the -restored dynasty. Unfortunately a premature death carried off Alfonso -XII. in 1885, before he could complete the work which circumstances laid -upon him. The regency was intrusted to his widow, Christina of Austria, -and the birth of a posthumous son (May 17, 1886), who is now the titular -king of Spain, has excited a feeling of pitying loyalty which may help -to secure the Bourbon dynasty in the last kingdom which is left to it.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_206" id="page_206">{206}</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX<br /><br /> -<span class="chead">COLONIAL SPAIN</span></h2> -<p class="chead2">COLUMBUS—SIGHTING OF SAN SALVADOR—RETURN OF COLUMBUS—FOUNDING OF AN -EMPIRE—MEXICO AND PERU—THE WEST INDIES—GERMS OF REBELLION</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> August, 1492, Columbus sailed on his voyage of discovery. In -September, 1898, his remains were conveyed from the New World to the -Old. Between those two dates an empire rose and fell. The causes which -led to the one and the effects which precipitated the other may now be -conveniently considered.</p> - -<p>In earlier years Cadiz was a famous seaport. Her sons were immemorial -explorers. The presentiment of a land across the sea was theirs by -intuition. Constantly they extended their expeditions, and would have -extended them still further had not the Church interfered. The spirit of -enterprise, checked as heretical, revived centuries later in a -neighboring land. It was Portugal that it inspired. There the work of -exploration and discovery was resumed. The island of Madeira was reached -in 1420, the Azores annexed in 1431. But it was along the African coast -that Portuguese effort was mainly directed. Tradition asserted that the -entire continent had been circumnavigated centuries before by voyagers -from Phœnicia; but, as no details were recorded, the adventure was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_207" id="page_207">{207}</a></span> -regarded as something more than dubious. However, the west coast began -now to be systematically explored. Nuno Tristao entered the Senegal -River in 1445; a year later Diniz Dias, a fellow-navigator, sailed as -far as Cape Verd. The equator was not crossed until 1471; the Congo was -revealed in 1484; and in 1486 the crowning feat of all was accomplished, -when Bartholomew Diaz rounded the Stormy Cape, soon to become known as -the Cape of Good Hope, and opened up communication with the East by -water, instead of overland or by the indirect route of the Red Sea, -which necessitated the transshipment of all merchandise conveyed that -way.</p> - -<p>The expedition to the west which Columbus ultimately directed was -conceived by him in 1474, and unfolded to John II., king of Portugal, by -whom, however, it was rejected; whereupon Columbus dispatched his -brother Bartholomew to enter into negotiations with Henry VII. of -England, and after assuring himself that neither Genoa nor Venice was -likely to lend him a willing ear, much less ready help, he repaired to -the south of Spain in 1485.</p> - -<p>Had Bartholomew not fallen into the hands of pirates, and so been -prevented from reaching his destination for several years, it is more -than probable that the credit as well as the profit of the discovery of -America would have fallen at once to England, as Henry had both the -means and the inclination to indulge in some such venture, provided it -was not too costly, and showed any reasonable prospect of success. As it -was, Christopher was left to pursue his pleadings before the Spanish -Court.</p> - -<p>It was an unfortunate time to put forward any proposals calculated to -divert the wealth and strength of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_208" id="page_208">{208}</a></span> kingdom beyond its own borders; -for Ferdinand and Isabella were then in the very midst of the campaign -which ended in the final overthrow of the Moorish dominion, in the -Peninsula.</p> - -<p>Ultimately, however, after the fall of Granada and eighteen years of -waiting, his proposals were accepted by Isabella and his hopes realized. -A royal edict constituted him perpetual and hereditary admiral and -viceroy of any territories discovered, together with a tenth of any -profits derived therefrom. With this edict and funds advanced by the -receiver of ecclesiastical revenues, Columbus hastened to the port of -Palos. There, two brothers by the name of Pinzon aiding, he got together -a crew of a hundred and twenty men, a scratch armada of three leaky -tubs—the “Santa Maria,” the “Pinta” and the “Nina”—and, on the 3d of -August, 1492, weighed anchor for pastures new.</p> - -<p>Columbus, as admiral of the fleet, commanded the “Santa Maria”; the two -Pinzons, Martin Alonzo and Vicente Yanez, the “Pinta” and “Nina” -respectively. The expressed object of the voyage was to convert the -Grand Khan, supposed to be the great potentate of the Far East, to -Christianity; and Columbus never doubted but that in due course he would -arrive at Japan, or Zipangu, as it had been named by the Venetian -explorer, Marco Polo, who had reached it by an overland route more than -a century before, and had described its wonders, together with those of -Cathay or China, through which he passed on his way. The one condition -imposed was, that the squadron should not touch at any place on the -African continent, claimed to be under Portuguese<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_209" id="page_209">{209}</a></span> jurisdiction, as that -would have led to immediate hostilities between the two countries.</p> - -<p>The details of the voyage are sufficiently familiar to dispense with -narration here. It will suffice to note that after seventy days the -island of San Salvador, as it was then named, hove in sight; that on the -28th of October, sixteen days later, Cuba was discovered, and that on -the 6th of December Hayti was reached.</p> - -<p>Several circumstances then made it advisable for Columbus to return to -Spain without further delay. He had seen enough to be convinced that a -much larger force than he had under his command would be necessary to -make the subjugation of these newly acquired territories effective; news -of the discovery might reach Europe before him, and be taken advantage -of by some other sovereign than the one to whom he was devoted; and he -had now sufficient treasure of various kinds to convince the most -skeptical of the complete success of his enterprise. After constructing -a small fort, and leaving a portion of the crew, at their own desire, to -garrison it until he should return, he set sail for home with the “Nina” -on the 4th of January, 1493.</p> - -<p>Reaching Palos on the 13th of March, Columbus was immediately summoned -to Barcelona, where Ferdinand and Isabella were then domiciled, made a -triumphal entry into the city, and, on his arrival at the royal -residence, was welcomed by the king and queen in person, who commanded -him to be seated by their side, while he related the account of his -adventures.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile the report of the discovery had spread. Portugal sought to -take advantage of it through the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_210" id="page_210">{210}</a></span> theory that all heathen countries were -in the gift of the Pope, which gift a Bull had already confirmed. But, -Spain protesting, a subsequent Bull confirmed the Portuguese in their -existing possessions, and granted them all territory that should be -discovered east of a line drawn from north to south, one hundred leagues -west of the Azores, while the Spaniards were to enjoy exclusive dominion -over everything west of it.</p> - -<p>This was regarded as so unsatisfactory by Portugal that, at its -instigation, negotiations between the two countries were opened, and -resulted the following year in the conclusion of the Treaty of -Tordesillas, by which it was agreed to move the line three hundred and -seventy leagues west of the Azores; a most important change, because by -it Portugal subsequently established its claim to the Brazils, a portion -of which was found to fall east of the line of demarcation, while it -could urge the further plea of having been first in the field, through -the accidental deviation of Cabral. At any rate, the whole world outside -Europe was leased in perpetuity to Spain and Portugal; and had the -pretensions of the Holy See in things temporal as well as spiritual -continued to be recognized, neither England, France nor Germany could -to-day own a square yard of territory in the three greatest continents -of the world.</p> - -<p>While the negotiations were in progress, preparations for a second -expedition on a vastly greater scale were rapidly pushed forward. The -direction of them was intrusted to a cleric named Fonseca, a capable man -of business, but who for some reason or other conceived a violent -dislike to Columbus, and threw every obstacle in his way. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_211" id="page_211">{211}</a></span> eagerness -to embark on this second voyage was far more marked than the reluctance -exhibited in the first, and the best blood of Spain pressed into the -service. The number of adventurers was originally limited to a thousand; -but the applications were so numerous, from those who believed that -fortunes were waiting to be picked up in the New World, that this was -raised to twelve hundred, and fifteen hundred actually sailed in -seventeen vessels from the Bay of Cadiz on the 25th of September, 1493. -All was keen anticipation during the voyage, the disappointments only -commenced at its termination.</p> - -<p>“Into these,” says Mr. R. J. Root, whose account we quote, “there is no -occasion to enter now. The main point of interest is, that a -sufficiently large force of Spaniards had taken part in the enterprise -to confirm the possession of the New World to their country, and defeat -any attempts that Portugal might be likely to make to filch it away. -After establishing a settlement at Isabella on the north of Hayti, or -Hispaniola, as it was then named, Columbus was free to prosecute further -explorations, the principal one being to sail along the southern shores -of Cuba; but, after continuing his voyage to within a few miles of its -western extremity, he arrived at the conclusion that it was the -mainland, and reported to that effect—nor was it until after his death -that it was proved to be an island. Everything was claimed for the -Spanish crown; and, as there were absolutely no competitors, it can well -be understood how the entire group of islands constituting the West -Indies became Spanish colonies.</p> - -<p>“Various causes compelled Columbus to relinquish his exploration and -return, first to Hispaniola and then to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_212" id="page_212">{212}</a></span> Spain. For one thing, the two -vessels with which he set sail were ill-provisioned. With that -confidence in his own judgment which was so characteristic of the man, -he relied upon encountering at no great distance those civilized or at -least semi-civilized, nations of which he had come in search, but -instead he met only the fierce tribes of Cuba and Jamaica, who offered -resistance, not welcome, and arrows in lieu of food.</p> - -<p>“On his return to the colony, affairs were in a most unsatisfactory -condition. The last thing most of the colonists dreamed of when they -left their native shores was work. They had gone out, as they fondly -imagined, to pick up the gold as it lay at their feet, and when they had -accumulated sufficient, meant to return and enjoy it. Though Columbus -had never promised, nor even suggested anything of the sort, his -brilliant descriptions and anticipations were undoubtedly responsible -for the ideas so freely indulged, and the indignation against him rose -just as rapidly as hopes were blasted. Complaints were finding their way -to Spain, and lest he should be prejudiced in the eyes of his -sovereigns, he determined to embark thence and render a personal account -of his stewardship.</p> - -<p>“The voyage home was, if anything, more protracted, and entailed greater -hardships, than the previous one. Columbus arrived at Cadiz on the 1st -June, 1496, and met with a warmer reception than he had dared to hope -for. But intrigue was busy, and his arch-enemy Fonseca, who was by this -time in almost undisputed control of colonial affairs, threw numerous -and persistent obstacles in the way of his fitting out another -expedition. The stories told by returned colonists of the want and -suffering they<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_213" id="page_213">{213}</a></span> had endured were not conducive to others volunteering -for the service, and it was only on the 30th May, 1498, that the admiral -was again able to set sail from San Lucar with a small fleet of six -vessels, manned almost entirely by convicts specially released.</p> - -<p>“A more southerly course was taken than on either of the previous -occasions, and the first place touched was the island of Trinidad. -Sailing round it from the southwest, the ships were suddenly caught and -swept along by a mighty current, which Columbus discovered to be of -fresh water, and rightly judged to be poured out of some vast river. He -had, in fact, reached the coast of South America, and was in the waters -of the Orinoco as they rushed to mingle with the ocean. The natives -proved of a more friendly disposition as well as of superior type to -those encountered in many of the islands; and as they possessed gold, -and also something still more precious, pearls, every encouragement was -given them to trade. They were just as eager after the trumpery toys of -the Old World as the inhabitants of San Salvador had been the first time -they were ever exhibited in the New, and we may be sure the bargains -made were very profitable to the Spaniards. Still, these were not the -people Columbus had come in search of, and his inquiries and labors were -diligently directed to the discovery of a passage which should lead him -still further west to the dominions of the Grand Khan.</p> - -<p>“After some time vainly spent in exploring the coast with this object, -an affection of the eyes compelled him to desist and make once more for -Hispaniola, where he had left his brother Bartholomew as governor during -his absence. A strange welcome awaited him, however. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_214" id="page_214">{214}</a></span> response to the -continued complaints of the colonists, a commissioner had been -dispatched from Spain to inquire into their grievances, and certain -powers were intrusted to him to assume authority in the island in case -of necessity. Deeply impressed with a sense of his own importance, -Francisco Bobadilla, the officer appointed, immediately on his arrival -began to act in the most reckless and arbitrary manner; and the -discoverer of the New World, without any warning, found himself -arrested, loaded with chains, thrown into prison, and finally sent home -to Spain in this ignominious fashion.</p> - -<p>“Great was the public, still greater the royal indignation, when he -arrived in this sorry plight; every effort was made to soothe the -feelings so deeply wounded by this dire insult, and Bobadilla would have -paid dearly for his temerity had he survived to answer for his misdeeds. -But news had reached Spain of the wonderful riches of the Gulf of Paria -some time before the arrival of Columbus, and the malignant and untiring -Fonseca, in direct contravention of the charter conveying the rights to -the admiral, stimulated private enterprise to follow in the track, -taking the utmost possible advantage of whatever information he had -gained in his official capacity, and imparting it to others. An -expedition was fitted out under Alonzo de Ojeda, one of the most -dare-devil adventurers who ever quitted the shores of his own or any -other country, and whose marvelous exploits in Hispaniola had already -excited the wonder and admiration of men long accustomed to feats of -skill and courage. Accompanying him was Amerigo Vespucci, a Venetian -navigator, who strangely enough was destined to give his name to the -whole of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_215" id="page_215">{215}</a></span> vast continent which he was about to visit for the first -time, though he never accomplished anything of practical importance in -it. Several other ships were fitted out, including a caravel of fifty -tons’ burden by Pedro Alonzo Nino, which performed the most lucrative -voyage of any vessel or squadron equipped up to that time, and returned -home well freighted with pearls and other costly treasure. This was -quite sufficient to stimulate ambition as well as greed, and when -Columbus arrived he had the mortification of learning that others were -actively exploiting his preserves.</p> - -<p>“While these events were happening, another enterprise was undertaken -quite beyond the cognizance of the Spanish authorities. Bartholomew -Columbus, it will be remembered, had proceeded on a mission to Henry -VII. some years previous; and when the English monarch learned that the -most sanguine anticipations had been realized, he was anxious to share -in the results. As early as 1495 he endeavored to equip and dispatch a -squadron of his own, but it was not until two years later that Sebastian -Cabot, despite the existence of the Papal Bull, set sail from Bristol. -Steering a direct westerly course, he struck the coast of Newfoundland, -and leisurely sailed south almost to the extreme point of Florida, ere -he resumed his homeward journey. The Spanish government naturally -protested against this infringement of its rights, and Henry found it -politic to listen, as he was then in close alliance, and engaged in -negotiating the marriage between his son and Katharine of Aragon, which -subsequently proved so pregnant to the religious and ecclesiastical -destinies of England. It was at a later<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_216" id="page_216">{216}</a></span> period, and under totally -different circumstances, that the Anglo-Saxon race was to occupy and -overrun the northern continent.</p> - -<p>“Columbus himself was spared to undertake one more voyage, and this time -it was to be confined exclusively to the continent, he being absolutely -forbidden to land at Hispaniola, where Nicolas Ovando, with a force of -all sorts and conditions of men, numbering two thousand five hundred, -had been installed as governor; and so jealous was he of any -interference with his prerogatives that, when the admiral was driven by -stress of weather to take shelter in the harbor of San Domingo, he was -ordered to quit instantly.</p> - -<p>“This proved the most disastrous of all his voyages. After exploring the -coasts of Honduras and Central America generally, in search of the -non-existent channel, until the provisions were in such a state that -they could only be eaten in the dark, it was decided to land, despite -the fierce opposition of the natives, and plant a permanent settlement -under Bartholomew, who accompanied his brother. This, however, had to be -abandoned; and on the way back the only remaining vessel ran aground in -Dry Harbor in Jamaica, and became a total wreck, the most incredible -suffering, aggravated by constant mutiny, being experienced, until the -remnant of the crew was eventually relieved.</p> - -<p>“Columbus having shown the way to the mainland, as well as the islands, -it was left to others to reveal the vast extent and natural wealth of -what he had discovered, and he died on the 20th May, 1506, in complete -ignorance of many of the most important facts which his<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_217" id="page_217">{217}</a></span> genius and -tenacity permitted to be made known for the first time to the civilized -world.</p> - -<p>“Columbus and his immediate followers hit upon the most unpromising part -of the American Continent, where the damp, hot atmosphere, with its -resulting rank and profuse vegetation, makes human existence intolerable -if not wellnigh impossible. As the land was known to contain gold, -however, the most persistent efforts were made to settle in it, and two -regular governments were established under Alonzo de Ojeda and Diego de -Nicuessa respectively. Nothing but disaster resulted for many a long -year, and the greatest difficulties were experienced in extending or -enlarging them in any direction but coastwise.</p> - -<p>“Narrow as the isthmus is in the part selected, it appeared -impenetrable, until eventually the magic word gold encouraged a few bold -spirits to overcome every obstacle. Wherever the adventurers went inland -they heard of a great sea and vast abundance of the precious metal in an -unknown land beyond. After incredible hardships, Vasco Nunez de Balboa -and a handful of followers forced their way through the thickets and -swamps, scaled the mountain range which runs like a backbone along the -isthmus, and were rewarded for their pains when they reached the summit -by the sight of the great southern sea lying at their feet. This -occurred on the 26th September, 1513, and on the following day the party -descended the western slopes; Vasco Nunez, as its leader and commander, -taking possession of the Pacific Ocean on behalf of the King of Spain, -with all the ceremonies and formalities customary on those occasions.</p> - -<p>“How to take advantage of it was the question. Far<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_218" id="page_218">{218}</a></span> south, beyond where -vision could reach, lay the golden land. They were without ships or -means of conveyance of any sort, and the shore upon which they were now -stranded was dangerous as well as inhospitable. The observant and -ingenious mind of Nunez, inferior only to that of Columbus, evolved the -idea of transporting material across the isthmus for the construction of -a fleet to undertake the subjugation of all countries bordering on the -Southern Sea; and such was the work eventually accomplished, though not -by Nunez, who fell a victim to the jealousy and treachery of Pedrarias -Davila, a new governor dispatched from Spain. It was left to one of his -lieutenants, Francisco Pizarro, to set forth on a definite expedition -more than ten years later; and it was not until nearly twenty years had -elapsed that Peru was discovered, and the rich kingdom of the Incas -added to the spoils of the Castilian monarch.</p> - -<p>“Meanwhile, exploration had been busy on the eastern side of the -continent. Cuba, realized at length to be an island, was regularly -colonized in 1511, and the governor, Diego Velasquez, being an -enterprising and ambitious man, dispatched an expedition westward. The -great peninsula of Yucatan was reached, and the officers of the little -squadron were struck by the much higher state of civilization exhibited -by the natives than by any others hitherto met with either in the -islands or on the mainland. The news of this led to the subsequent -expedition of Cortes, the story of whose conquest of Mexico reads more -like a fairy tale than the narrative of actual events and hard -realities.</p> - -<p>“The years 1519, 1520 and 1521 were occupied by this,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_219" id="page_219">{219}</a></span> the greatest of -all the enterprises undertaken by Spain in the New World. Nor was there -any lack of activity in other directions. Juan Ponce sailed from Porto -Rico, in 1512, in search of a spring whose waters insured perennial -youth to whoever drank of them, and found and annexed Florida instead. -More than one navigator cruised southward as far as the Rio de la Plata, -and in 1520 Magellan reached the extremity of the southern continent, -and passed through the straits which bear his name. Nor was Cortes idle -after he had accomplished his great work. North and south he sought to -add to the territory of New Spain, until all the countries of Central -America on one side, and the peninsula of California on the other, were -brought under its sway. In less than half a century from the day -Columbus first set foot on San Salvador, the entire continent, from -Labrador to Patagonia, had been visited, and by far the greater part of -it annexed to, and nominally ruled by, the Castilian crown.</p> - -<p>“To return, however, to Hispaniola. The rapid exhaustion which -mismanagement produced there, joined to the absence of gold, led to the -creation of other colonies. The discovery of the fisheries, first at -Paria, and then in the islands of the Pacific, opened up an unexpected -source of wealth; but it was not until Montezuma offered his munificent -gifts to Cortes, to induce the latter to quit the shores of Mexico, that -the first great reservoir of the precious metals was tapped. Still, it -must be remembered that the great stores of gold discovered, first in -Mexico, and subsequently in Peru, did not in themselves imply that these -countries were capable of continuing to produce unlimited quantities. -They were the accumulations of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_220" id="page_220">{220}</a></span> many years, possibly of many centuries; -for, as there was no foreign trade, everything produced which could not -be consumed had necessarily to be preserved or destroyed.</p> - -<p>“It may be wondered what value gold possessed in the ideas of these -people. That it was held in nothing like the same esteem as by Europeans -is certain; but in Peru, at any rate, its production and preservation -were assured, from the fact that it was regarded as tears wept by the -sun, which was the god of the people, whose Incas, or rulers, were -called the Children of the Sun. In neither case, then, is it surprising -that the treasure was not clung to with more tenacity. Both Montezuma -and Atahualpa set a higher value upon many other things; and the -quantities seized by Cortes and Pizarro and their respective followers, -vast though it appeared in their eyes, and as it really was in those -days, was parted with, with scarcely a pang of regret. That secured by -Pizarro was by far the greater spoil, and was supposed to be the price -of the freedom of the Inca himself, who offered to fill a room 85 feet -by 17, and as high as a man could reach, with gold plate in exchange for -it. He did not quite succeed, because Pizarro treacherously put him to -death before the task was completed, yet the amount realized for -distribution was equivalent to something like three and a half millions -sterling ($17,500,000) of the money of to-day, and enriched the -commonest foot-soldier beyond the dreams of avarice.</p> - -<p>“It was silver, not gold, moreover, which eventually made both countries -at once the wonder and the envy of the civilized world. The richest -mines were unknown to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_221" id="page_221">{221}</a></span> the Indians, having only been discovered after -the Spanish conquest. Those of Zacotecas in Mexico were first worked in -1532, while the more famous Potosi lode in Peru was laid bare in 1545, -by a native scrambling up the side of a mountain in pursuit of some -llamas which had strayed from his flock, and uprooting the shrubs to -which he clung for support.</p> - -<p>“In the West Indies, meanwhile, the larger islands, like Porto Rico, -Cuba and Jamaica, were gradually colonized, but the smaller ones were -left alone; it can well be understood that in the absence of any proved -deposits of gold they were scarcely worth attention, and it was -sufficient to keep a watch over them to defend them from the incursions -of other nations. With the conquest of Mexico, however, the center of -gravity was moved further west, and still more so when followed by that -of Peru, because the only known route from the latter was by Panama and -across the isthmus.</p> - -<p>“These territories were altogether too great for efficient oversight; -that of Mexico stretching from California in the north to Venezuela in -the south, and including not only the West Indies, but the far removed -Philippines, while that of Lima embraced the whole of South America both -east and west of the Andes. The great territories included in the -present Republics of Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay were looked upon as -of little value, as they contained neither gold nor silver; and as every -attempt made to settle them only seemed to end in failure, little -attention was given to their affairs. They became, indeed, a distinct -source of loss to Spain, as they were found useful for purposes of -contraband trade; and eventually the gold and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_222" id="page_222">{222}</a></span> silver, which could not -be safely smuggled through the ordinary ports of shipment, were conveyed -across the Andes and down the rivers to places of embarkation on the -Amazon or Rio do la Plata, where foreign ships awaited the spoil and -were ready to barter the coveted produce and manufactures of Europe in -exchange. When these two viceroyalties were eventually subdivided, it -was not into east and west, but north and south, and New Granada became -the center of one; while the territories now included in the United -States were separated from Mexico, and constituted the other.</p> - -<p>“In Spain everybody, from the king in his palace to the peasant in his -hut, regarded the colonies simply as a source of revenue and profit to -himself, and when they ceased to be this, they would be useless. The -most stringent regulations were adopted, therefore, against trading or -even communicating among themselves, or of engaging in any industry, -manufacturing or agricultural, which was not indigenous to the country; -indeed, Spain insisted upon supplying everything it could grow or make -which would stand the sea voyage, at its own price. The cultivation of -neither the olive nor the vine was permitted in the New World, and -severe penalties were inflicted upon any one who had the temerity to -disobey. Peru and Chili, however, were specially exempted, owing to -their immense distance, and the damaged condition in which liquids -generally arrived there, but they were not allowed to export the produce -to any neighboring country, and must consume it themselves. The duties -of the colonists were, in fact, strictly limited to obtaining as much -gold and silver as they could, while the Spaniards at home were to take<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_223" id="page_223">{223}</a></span> -care that they retained as little of it as possible. For all that, many -fortunes were realized, principally by bullion being smuggled out of the -country; and had there not been some such inducement, few men would have -cared to expatriate themselves, and live amid such uncomfortable -surroundings.</p> - -<p>“Precisely similar principles were observed in all matters relating to -government. Every office of profit under the crown, almost every -emolument, however trivial, was reserved for persons of pure Spanish -birth. As a consequence, the official class was migratory, and remained -in the colonies no longer than was necessary to accumulate a fortune or -a competence, according to the taste of each individual member of it. -Though there were honest and honorable men to be found among them, -notably those filling the most exalted positions, that did not prevent -the vast majority from preying on the colonists, many of whom, by virtue -of the grants of territory they had received, attained to great -influence and wealth. Their descendants were, nevertheless, debarred -from all participation in either the legislative or executive functions -of government, though they might have nothing but the purest Spanish -blood flowing in their veins. Nor could they become dignitaries of the -Church without much difficulty. In the days when the Holy See found it -politic to be on good terms with the Spanish sovereign, the whole -ecclesiastical patronage of the New World was vested in him and his -successors; and though many Popes endeavored to get this privilege back -into their own hands, they always failed, and were compelled to confirm -the nominations of the secular ruler. Both Mexico and Peru were<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_224" id="page_224">{224}</a></span> rapidly -overrun with clergy, secular as well as regular, and monastic -establishments sprang up everywhere like mushrooms, yet preferment was -always reserved for their brethren in Spain; and out of nearly four -hundred bishops and archbishops consecrated up to the middle of the -seventeenth century, scarce a dozen were taken from the Spanish-American -community known as Creoles.</p> - -<p>“A system so rigid is bound to break. Federation is all very well and -may accomplish much that is beneficial to all concerned. But its first -condition is elasticity, so that every section within its embrace may -enjoy full freedom of expansion. There must be no jealousies, no -recriminations, and, above everything, no attempts to get all and give -nothing. These conditions are possible under an arrangement entered into -freely by all parties; they are unattainable when imposed by the strong -upon the weak. That is why Spain never won the gratitude of its -colonies, why each and every one eagerly seized the opportunity of -throwing off the yoke, and fought desperately for independence, and why, -to-day, her colonial power is ended.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_225" id="page_225">{225}</a></span>”</p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X<br /><br /> -<span class="chead">THE FALL OF AN EMPIRE</span></h2> -<p class="chead2">THE SUPREMACY OF SPAIN—ENCROACHMENTS OF OTHER NATIONS—CAUSES WHICH LED -TO COLONIAL REVOLT—BIRTH OF THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS—INSURRECTIONS -IN CUBA—ROBAMOS TODOS</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> population of Hayti at the advent of Columbus was estimated to have -been a million, yet, before many years had elapsed, the colonists were -forcibly depopulating the smaller islands to provide a supply of labor -sufficient for their limited requirements. It was the people of the -mainland who might have been expected and who actually did offer the -stoutest resistance. No more wonderful campaign is recorded in military -history than that conducted by Cortes against the Mexicans, and it may -be doubted whether there was another man living who could have carried -it to a successful issue.</p> - -<p>Conspicuous as a general, he was unmatched as a diplomatist, whether in -dealing with his own soldiers, his allies, or his enemies. Who else in -that age would have dreamed, after defeating the Tlascalans against -fearful odds, of enlisting them against their deadly foes the Aztecs, -and so humoring them that they never swerved in their loyalty? Or who -could have traded on<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_226" id="page_226">{226}</a></span> the superstition, of Montezuma, so as to gain -complete control over his mind, and extract his treasures, valued at -something like seven and a half million dollars, without a blow? But -Montezuma once removed, the people, who had long been accustomed to -render him an unquestioned obedience, and to submit themselves to his -slightest command, were free to follow leaders who evinced more spirit; -and the death of that monarch was speedily followed by the <i>noche -triste</i> with all its attendant horrors. To be captured alive, as many of -the Spanish soldiers were, meant the most terrible of all ends, for they -were hurried away to the temples, and their palpitating hearts torn from -their living bodies, to be offered as a propitiation to the national -deities. Yet even this did not disconcert Cortes and his brave -adherents, who began immediately to concert another plan of campaign. -The difficulties they had first encountered were as nothing compared to -those they had still to face, for they had to deal with a victorious and -determined foe, instead of a beaten and depressed one. Every obstacle, -however, was overcome; and with the energetic assistance of allies, who -little dreamed they were sealing their own doom and forever sacrificing -their independence, the powerful and rich kingdom of Mexico was finally -brought into complete subjection to the Castilian crown.</p> - -<p>Of totally different and vastly inferior fiber was the conqueror of -Peru. Pizarro was without either education or address—a rough, -ambitious, and avaricious soldier. He, too, was favored by internal -dissensions, of which he could not possibly have known anything when he -set forth on his errand. After a long period of peaceful and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_227" id="page_227">{227}</a></span> undisputed -sway, the Inca dynasty was split by a feud between two brothers, one of -whom, Atahualpa, had just asserted his superiority by force of arms, -when the European conquerors appeared on the scene. A word from him, and -not a man of them would have escaped alive. But at the critical moment -an unaccountable paralysis overtook him, whether or not arising from a -curiosity to see and interview the strangers it is impossible to say. He -realized his danger too late, for Pizarro, imitating Cortes, seized the -person of the Inca, and the rest was rendered comparatively easy. -Accustomed, like Montezuma, to exact unqualified obedience, he employed -his subjects in collecting his ransom instead of fighting for his -deliverance; and when the debt was almost paid, he found himself doomed -to death instead of released from captivity. The forces of the empire -were then scattered, and without a leader who could assume full -authority. Still, many a desperate bid was subsequently made for -freedom, but each time with less prospect of success, as the conquerors -secured a firmer grip upon the country, until the execution of Tapac -Amara, the last direct descendant of the Incas, in 1571, left that -solitude which Cæsar called peace.</p> - -<p>But after all it was not the opposition of the Indians, whether of the -islands, of Mexico, or Peru, that proved the greatest danger to Spanish -sovereignty. Enmity to Columbus, who was the accredited representative -of the crown and legal governor of the Indies, did not necessarily infer -enmity to the crown itself; indeed, those who rebelled against him were -loud in their protestations of loyalty. Nevertheless, the turbulent -factions fought for<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_228" id="page_228">{228}</a></span> their own hand, and would have been equally opposed -to any other governor who sought to place the necessary restraint upon -their license. By permitting, and even compelling, many of the -discontented to return home, as well as by the temporary removal of -Columbus himself, something like quiet was restored; but it is more than -probable that had not the colonists been largely dependent upon Spain -for many necessaries, not excluding food, they would have cut themselves -adrift and refused to submit to the exactions upon their industry, or -rather upon that of the natives from which they profited. More than once -in the early days, the home government had to stop cautiously, and -commissions were dispatched to ascertain where the grievances lay, and -if possible redress them. They were mostly connected with labor; the -majority of the clergy, to their credit be it said, ranging themselves -on the side of humanity, and using all their influence to obtain -ordinances favorable to the natives. This difficulty was smoothed away -to a great extent by the introduction of the African negro, which began -as early as the year 1503.</p> - -<p>The followers of Cortes were remarkably loyal to him in prosperity and -adversity alike; and though for a long time he was unaware how his -proceedings would be received at court, he remained consistent in his -devotion to his sovereign. His dispatches breathe an almost effusive -submission to their will and interests, and only his enemies ever laid -any charges against him, while his own actions too obviously refuted -them. It was only when some of his officers were removed from his -influence and intrusted with commissions of their own that they thought<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_229" id="page_229">{229}</a></span> -of kicking over the traces, and then it invariably happened that they -were not in situations where any great harm could result. Mexico once -subdued, long rendered the most willing obedience of any of the -colonies, partly perhaps because under the direct influence of good and -great viceroys, who acted both with intelligence and discretion.</p> - -<p>It was far otherwise in Peru, where the duplicity of Pizarro in -excluding Almagro from his proper share in the governorship roused the -suspicion, then the ire, and finally the opposition of that honest and -gallant soldier. When Pizarro returned from his visit to Spain, he was -either accompanied or immediately followed by several of his brothers, -who, among them, formed a family compact for the protection and -promotion of their own interests. To rid themselves of the rivalry of -Almagro, they obtained for him the governorship of the country which now -comprises the Republic of Chili. This, however, had still to be -conquered, and the obstacles which presented themselves to the -enterprise appeared so insurmountable that Almagro and his followers -abandoned it and returned to Cuzco, the rich capital of Peru, which, the -former maintained, fell within the latitude of the patent granted to -him. This assertion was naturally contested by the Pizarros, and in the -civil war that followed both Francisco Pizarro, the eldest and foremost -of the brothers, and Almagro met with violent deaths. The Indians looked -on with amazement at this strife between the white men, but failed to -profit by it. Had they shown anything like the energy displayed in the -warfare among themselves, or that of their Mexican brothers, they<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_230" id="page_230">{230}</a></span> must -inevitably have recaptured their kingdom, which it would have been -extremely difficult to reconquer; but having allowed the golden -opportunity to slip, it never again offered.</p> - -<p>But the most serious menace to the supremacy of Spain in the New World -occurred shortly after the promulgation of the edicts of Charles V. in -1542. The clauses guaranteeing the Indians their freedom, and protecting -them against undue imposition, either of taxation or forced labor, were -so obnoxious to the colonists that something like a general rising was -threatened. The tact of the Mexican viceroy pacified those under his -rule, but Peru experienced the full force of an armed rebellion with all -its evil consequences. The leader in this instance was Gonzales Pizarro, -who had inherited the immense estates conferred upon the family by a -grateful sovereign, and who now undoubtedly aimed at establishing a -separate kingdom with himself its supreme head. Fortunately, the right -man was again sent from Spain to deal effectively with this uprising, -and though a cleric, Vaca de Castro exhibited the skill of a general and -the diplomacy of a statesman. With the execution of Gonzales, the last -of the Pizarro brothers, peace was restored; and by the middle of the -sixteenth century the various governments were so effectively -consolidated that not for upward of a hundred and fifty years did any -revolt, Indian or Creole, meet with more than temporary success.</p> - -<p>It was far otherwise with the Philippines, which have never been free -for any length of time from disturbances of some kind. No effort indeed -has ever been made to thoroughly subdue the turbulent natives; and there -is no<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_231" id="page_231">{231}</a></span> similar extent of territory under the control of a European -government, about which so little is known regarding its natural -resources and mineral wealth as the important islands of Luzon and -Mindanao, which embrace half the total area of the archipelago. The -principal ports have been strongly fortified, and reliance placed upon -them to retain possession. The immunities enjoyed by the natives would, -under ordinary circumstances, offer little inducement to revolt, but -unfortunately the Philippines have from the very first been particularly -subject to ecclesiastical influence and jurisdiction, and in its -missionary and persecuting zeal the priesthood has made itself -thoroughly obnoxious. The religious orders were the special object of -animosity in the latest rising, and unless they are either suppressed or -placed under more effective political control, there will be little -prospect of peace in the islands.</p> - -<p>In an epoch when most of the nations of Europe are struggling to add to -their territories in the remotest corners of the earth, it seems almost -incredible that four centuries ago a single one of them should have been -permitted to annex a whole continent unchallenged. It was not so much -the Pope’s Bull that frightened competitors away as the fact that they -were too deeply absorbed in their own affairs. The importunity of -Columbus had to wear itself nearly out before the fortunate completion -of the Moorish conquest won it a more ready ear; and most other -countries were about the same time either engaged in, or just recovering -from, some similar internecine strife. Moreover, it was the energy of -private adventurers rather than of the Spanish crown which won for the -latter a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_232" id="page_232">{232}</a></span> vast empire beyond the seas; nor was it until its value became -plainly apparent that it was thought worth while to go to any great -amount of trouble or expense in its development.</p> - -<p>Similarly, the first external enemies the Spanish colonies had to -encounter were private and unattached adventurers. Piracy was an -institution which had already flourished for many centuries. The Barbary -corsairs were far more feared by the merchants of Venice and Genoa than -the fiercest storms that ever visited the Mediterranean; and they had -their counterpart in the Baltic, where the Hanseatic League carried on -so extensive a commerce. It was only to be expected that they would -sally forth from their inland seas when so much more valuable spoil was -to be secured on the open ocean beyond, but strange to say, with the -rapid decline of the trade which they had so long harried, their -activity slackened, and their principles and profession were largely -inherited by more civilized races. Some excuse was offered for this by -the almost constant warfare that prevailed during the reign of Charles -V., when France and Spain were at perpetual enmity, and England was -found, first on one side, then on the other. The first important loss -that befell Spain was the capture of the vessel conveying home the royal -share of the treasures of Mexico by a French privateer, or pirate, as -the Spaniards always preferred to call the ships which despoiled their -fleets, a designation that was more often than not amply justified.</p> - -<p>To begin with, these pirate ships were content to hang about the Azores, -on the chance of meeting a caravel laden with treasure homeward bound. -They gradually ventured<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_233" id="page_233">{233}</a></span> further west, until they actually arrived among -the West Indian Islands, where they were surprised to find that -altogether undreamed-of facilities awaited them for the pursuit of their -nefarious trade. Though the entire archipelago belonged nominally to -Spain, only the larger islands were actually occupied, the smaller not -being regarded as worthy of attention, until the Indian population of -Hispaniola, Cuba and Porto Rico began to fail, and then they were raided -for their inhabitants to supply the vacant places. With a scanty Spanish -population, it would have been utterly impossible to fortify and inhabit -all, even had colonists been found so self-denying as to banish -themselves to places where the only chance of accumulating wealth was by -hard work and steady application to agricultural pursuits.</p> - -<p>For a long time these scattered islands were merely places of call, -where fresh water and fruit could be obtained. No attempt was made at -annexation in the name of any foreign power, and it would have been -folly for any ship’s company, even had they been disposed to relinquish -their buccaneering career, to settle down and defy the Spanish power, -whose forces would quickly have been put in motion to expel them.</p> - -<p>Two events, designed by Philip II. to aggrandize the power of Spain at -the expense of its neighbors, were eventually the means of arousing -enmity against it to such an extent that the opposition of private -adventurers was suddenly backed up by the full weight of the most -rapidly progressing peoples and governments in the Old World.</p> - -<p>Many previous efforts had been made to unite the crowns of Spain and -Portugal, but hitherto all had failed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_234" id="page_234">{234}</a></span> The heroic death of Sebastian, -however, in 1580, left the throne of Portugal without a direct heir, and -among the numerous claimants was Philip, who overreached all his -competitors. He was probably even then meditating that descent upon the -liberties of England which resulted, eight years later, in the dispatch -of the renowned Armada, and the writing of one of the most brilliant -pages of English history. Success in the one instance, no less than -failure in the other, created the most deadly foes that Spain ever had -to encounter, until the persistent antagonism of Holland and England -reduced it at last to a miserable shadow of its former self.</p> - -<p>Philip’s ruling passion was an intense bigotry, and from the moment he -assumed sway in Spain and the Low Countries, he sought to exterminate -every trace of the Reformed faith. That brought him into conflict with -the Dutch, whose principal port and city of Amsterdam was fast -concentrating within itself the trade that Bruges and Antwerp had once -commanded as the principal marts of the Hanseatic League. As Portugal -extended its conquests in the East, Lisbon displaced Venice and Genoa, -and became the great emporium of all Eastern produce, whence Amsterdam -drew its supplies for distribution throughout northern Europe. With the -object, therefore, of destroying Dutch trade, Philip closed the port of -Lisbon to it in 1594, fondly imagining that that would ruin his -rebellious subjects, and enforce submission to his will.</p> - -<p>He had entirely mistaken Dutch character, however; for in the following -year the services were enlisted of Cornelius Hautmann, who had been a -pilot in the Portuguese service; and he conducted the first Dutch -expedition<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_235" id="page_235">{235}</a></span> round the Cape of Good Hope on its way to open up a direct -trade with the Spice Islands and India, which of course had become the -property of Spain along with its own Philippines. Thus modestly was laid -the foundation of the Dutch Empire in the East Indies, and when Portugal -regained its freedom in 1640, under the House of Braganza, it found -itself stripped of most of its former colonies, which were never to be -restored.</p> - -<p>Not content merely with retaining their former trade, the Dutch sought -to extend it in other directions; and the incorporation of their East -India Company in 1602 was followed by that of the West India Company in -1621, the operations of which were to embrace the west coast of Africa -as well as the whole of Spanish America, in which the Brazils had then -to be included. They had been preceded many years earlier by the -English, who commenced operations in good earnest some time before the -date of the Armada; indeed, those two great figures in English naval -history, Sir John Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake, had then already -performed their greatest exploits. As early as 1572, the latter gave a -good account of himself on the Spanish Main, but his most daring feat -was accomplished in 1578, when he sailed through the Straits of Magellan -and appeared off the coast of Peru. Francisco Draques was the terror of -Spanish America, and his was the name used to frighten Spanish-American -children when they were naughty.</p> - -<p>A new danger thus became apparent, as the Spaniards had never dreamed -before of reaching their West Coast possessions by the southern route. -Lest other foreign adventurers should follow in the wake, an expedition -under<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_236" id="page_236">{236}</a></span> Pedro Sarmiento was dispatched from Chili to explore the Straits -and the adjoining territory, with the view, if practicable, of founding -a strong colony and erecting substantial fortifications. Sarmiento’s -zeal outran his discretion, and after accomplishing his task he sailed -for Spain, where he gave an exaggerated account, not only of the danger -of leaving the Straits unprotected, but of the ease with which they -could be rendered impregnable to all unfriendly visitors. A colony -consisting of about four hundred souls was actually sent out in 1528, -though from the very first it met with nothing but dire misfortune.</p> - -<p>The captain-general commissioned to take charge of the undertaking, -Diego Flores, disliked the job, and began by chartering the worst ships -he could find. His lieutenant, Sarmiento, was more discreet in the -choice of the embryo colonists, most of whom were skilled mechanics; but -the fleet had scarcely left San Lucar on the outward voyage, when half -of them were shipwrecked and drowned. Though replaced, disaster -continued to follow upon disaster, the voyage being very much a -repetition of the previous one made by Magellan, only in this instance -the commander was himself the leading obstructionist. Eventually, rather -more than two hundred souls sailed from the Bio de la Plata, and -forty-five of these were drowned ere the Straits were reached. All but -eight of the survivors subsequently perished, and the last of them was -taken off in 1589 by the “Delight,” commanded by Sir John Cavendish, who -appropriately named the spot where he found him “Port Famine.”</p> - -<p>The advent of the English and Dutch, followed half a century later by -the French, led to the settlement of some<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_237" id="page_237">{237}</a></span> of the unoccupied islands. -They rapidly became something more than mere provisioning depots, though -several of them, and notably the island of Tortuga, were nothing else -than the lairs of desperate crews of pirates, as reckless of their own -lives as of those who were unfortunate fall into their clutches. But -Barbadoes and St. Christopher, St. Eustatius and Curaçoa, Martinique and -Guadalupe, became the center of something more legitimate, if quite as -illegal, as sinking galleons and purloining their treasure, though that -business was never missed either when the opportunity presented itself; -and the Dutch West India Company alone is said to have been responsible -for the capture of between five and six hundred Spanish vessels.</p> - -<p>The English secured their first foothold in the neighborhood by -occupying the Bermudas in 1621, though this hardly brought them into -direct contact with the West Indies. This was speedily followed by -settlements in some of the unoccupied islands further south. Barbadoes -was taken possession of in 1625, and the same year St. Christopher, or -St. Kitts, as it is now called, was divided between the English and -French. The former continued to add to their territory, taking Nevis in -1628, Antigua and Montserrat in 1632; and all these islands are so -essentially English, as to prove conclusively that, although once -nominally owned by Spain, Spanish influence was never exerted in them.</p> - -<p>From 1650 until the period of his death, Oliver Cromwell, having -established his authority at home, pursued an active foreign policy, and -it was only natural that he should find himself in conflict with Spain, -whose maxims<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_238" id="page_238">{238}</a></span> of government, both civil and religious, were so utterly -at variance with his. Thus, in 1654, a somewhat formidable fleet, under -the command of the admirals Penn and Venables, sailed for Barbadoes, -where they would be ready for any emergency. Early the following year -they made a descent upon Hispaniola, selecting the capital, San Domingo, -as the object of attack. On the approach of the ships, the inhabitants, -white and black alike, fled inland, but the affair was sadly mismanaged -and somehow miscarried. Not wishing the expedition to prove a complete -failure, the admirals set sail for the adjoining island of Jamaica, -which did not then contain, at the outside, more than fifteen hundred -whites, and perhaps as many blacks. This time, no difficulty was -experienced, and the island was taken formal possession of, this being -the first loss of occupied territory inflicted upon Spain, as well as -the most important acquisition ever made in the West Indies by England. -In 1658 the Spaniards attempted to drive the intruders out but failed, -and in 1670 a treaty was entered into between the two countries, in -which Spain recognized the rights of England both in Jamaica and the -smaller islands of which possession had been previously taken.</p> - -<p>About this time, also, the French West India Company was incorporated, -the brilliant finance minister of Louis XIV., Colbert, not liking to be -without a hand in the game. He began in a more legitimate fashion than -his competitors, and in 1664 purchased the rights of the settlers in -Martinique, Guadalupe, St Lucia, Grenada, and a few other islands for -about a million livres. Spanish tyranny, however, afforded an excuse for -more high-handed proceedings, and the company secured a footing<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_239" id="page_239">{239}</a></span> on the -western side of Hispaniola, Spanish interests being concentrated almost -entirely on the eastern. The settlements so established became little -more than a rallying-point and shelter for buccaneers, who, in -consequence of their roving habits, were difficult to eject, until -eventually this intermittent occupation of a portion of the island -induced France to lay claim to the whole, but the cession was only -formally recognized by Spain more than a century later. Thus the four -predominant powers of Europe all had a stake in the Western Hemisphere.</p> - -<p>Nearly a hundred and fifty years elapsed without witnessing any further -important changes. The very vastness of the Spanish-American empire was -its principal protection. Europe was growing thoroughly accustomed to -immense armies, but they could only be moved on land, and there was no -means for transporting them across the sea. What chance was there then -of conquering a territory which extended uninterruptedly from California -to Chili, and from Florida to the Rio de la Plata, even had there been -much inclination? The idea, it is true, occurred more than once, and -especially in 1702, when—the death of Charles II. of Spain having -brought to an end the Hapsburg dynasty, and the Wars of the Spanish -Succession being entered upon—an alliance was formed between England, -Holland and the German Empire for the conquest of the Spanish colonies, -but like others it came to nothing. Again, in 1739, Spain, alarmed at -the growing contraband trade, insisted very justifiably on searching -English ships in American waters, but this was resented and led to war, -in which Porto Bello was captured; and that had something to do with the -permission granted a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_240" id="page_240">{240}</a></span> few years later to trade by the longer, but safer -and more convenient route round Cape Horn.</p> - -<p>Once more, in 1762, what was known as the Family Compact involved the -rest of Europe in hostilities against the Bourbon dynasties in France, -Spain, and Italy, and the war was carried both to the East and West -Indies. Havana and Manila were captured by the English, and might have -become English possessions, had not the Treaty of Paris, concluded in -1763, brought the campaign to an end, and made it a condition that all -colonial conquests were to be restored to their original owners. Minor -changes were frequent and numerous, but they were generally a mere -shuffling of the cards between England, Holland, and France, leaving the -Spanish possessions much as they were.</p> - -<p>The eighteenth century, as it drew to its close, found the Spanish -occupation of America almost as it had been in the first half of the -seventeenth. Then a mighty upheaval was witnessed both in North America -and Europe, and the War of Independence in the United States, together -with the French Revolution, provide the sequel for what followed in -South America. Scarcely a murmur was heard in the principal Spanish -colonies while these great events were changing the destinies of the -civilized world, and an onlooker who had time to think must have been -astonished at their apparent loyalty to the mother country, oppressed -though they had been, and still were, while everywhere else the blow for -freedom was being struck. Perhaps another conclusion might have been -arrived at; namely, that the ancient Spanish stock had so degenerated, -and had become such a mean<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_241" id="page_241">{241}</a></span>-spirited race, that it dare not act like its -neighbors further north; but subsequent events disproved this -hypothesis. The Girondists and the Mountain rose and fell; Napoleon -became successively director, dictator, emperor—still no sign of -movement. Then the moment arrived for the arch-disturber of Europe to -overthrow the ancient monarchy of Spain, and to establish a brand-new -one with his brother Joseph at its head. That was the supreme crisis to -make a move, or forever to remain still. Spain almost to a man resented -the affront. Spanish America joined the mother country, and refused to -recognize the upstart dynasty.</p> - -<p>Still, in the midst of this death-like calm, some presages of the coming -storm were discernible. In the first place, France, by the Treaty of -Basle in 1795, secured the cession of the whole of Hispaniola, only, -however, in a few years to lose it again by its declaration of -independence, and the formation of a black republic. In the naval -conflicts so frequent during that disturbed period England both lost and -gained. The Dutch and Spanish were both unwilling confederates of -Napoleon, but their connection with him, nevertheless, exposed their -foreign possessions to the attack of his declared enemies; and England -captured Demerara and Essequibo in Guiana from the former, and the -island of Trinidad from the latter. All these were trivial acquisitions, -compared with the vast extent of Mexico and Central America, Peru, and -New Granada, and the eastern province of Buenos Ayres. Brazil had -reverted to Portugal with the firm establishment of the Braganza -dynasty, and was nearly all there was left of its once great colonial -empire. In March, 1808, the ill<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_242" id="page_242">{242}</a></span> fortune of the royal family drove them -from their own kingdom to find refuge beyond the seas, and Brazil became -an independent empire under the fugitive Portuguese sovereign, whose -descendants remained in peaceable and prosperous possession until the -revolution which dethroned the late ill-fated Dom Pedro.</p> - -<p>These changes were due entirely to foreign intervention and not to -domestic unrest. The first sign of this was when Francisco Miranda, a -Spanish-American who had fought under Washington, conceived the idea of -freeing his fellow-countrymen, and took steps toward that end by -founding a “Gran Reunion Americana” in London in 1806. But so -unresponsive were the inhabitants of the Spanish Main that the first -active movement of the league resulted in dead failure. It attracted the -sympathy and support, however, of two active and capable men, Bolivar -and San Martin, who were destined to do so much for the emancipation of -South America from European bondage, and whose advent brought a rapid -change in the feeling of indifference with which the movement was -regarded.</p> - -<p>Still, the loyalty of the colonists might have been proof against their -blandishments had the government of Ferdinand VII., established at Cadiz -in opposition to that of Joseph Bonaparte, shown itself in any way -conciliatory toward them. Loyal though the Spaniards at home were to the -Bourbon dynasty, they were only willing to rally round it on condition -of the carrying out of many important reforms in consonance with the -spirit of the age; and the colonists likewise demanded that, as the -price of their adhesion, they should be put upon an equality with Spain, -and be accorded perfect liberty in their agricultural and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_243" id="page_243">{243}</a></span> manufacturing -industries; that trade should be thrown open between all the countries -on the American Continent and with the Philippines; and that all -restrictions and monopolies should be abolished, and fixed duties -substituted in their place. Reasonable though these demands now appear, -they were indignantly rejected, and with one consent nearly every -country in Spanish America was ablaze with revolution.</p> - -<p>One of the earliest outbreaks was in Mexico, the near proximity of the -United States having perhaps inspired in that country a more intense -longing for freedom than elsewhere. A small band of patriots had for -some time been watching an opportunity for asserting themselves, and -with Hidalgo and Allende at their head, took the extreme step of issuing -a declaration of independence on the 16th of September, 1810. Spanish -influence was still strong; and in less than a year the outbreak was -suppressed, and the leaders executed. Others rose to take their places, -and just three years after the declaration of independence, the first -Mexican Congress was summoned to meet at the town of Chilpantzongo, -which was in the hands of the insurgents. Morelos, the principal actor -at this stage of the drama, was captured and shot in December, 1815; but -that only imposed a temporary check on the movement. In the delusive -hope of regaining full control, Ferdinand, then firmly re-established on -his throne, offered concessions in 1820, but it was too late, and they -failed to effect a pacification. Independence was once more declared in -1821, but this time at the instigation of a dictator who aimed at -founding an empire for himself, and who did for a short period sway the -destinies of his<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_244" id="page_244">{244}</a></span> country as the Emperor Iturbide I. His reign was -brief, and a republic was definitely established on the 16th of -December, 1823, the subsequent career of which has been so checkered -until quite recent times. Having been recognized by the principal courts -of Europe, Spain itself accredited an embassador in 1839, and made no -further efforts to reassert its former title.</p> - -<p>Elsewhere the struggle was less prolonged, though, while it lasted, -quite as exciting. At the instigation of Bolivar, Venezuela proclaimed -its independence in July, 1811, and several years later united with New -Granada as the Republic of Colombia. Buenos Ayres established a junta in -1810, a Constituent Assembly was called in January, 1813, and entire -independence of Spain was declared, July, 1816. The insurrection in -Chili likewise began in 1810, when a National Congress was summoned to -meet at Santiago; but the Spanish interest was strong on the west coast, -and it was not until San Martin crossed the Andes from La Plata in 1817 -that independence was made good. Material assistance was afforded by the -famous Admiral Cochrane (Lord Dundonald), who, driven in disgrace from -his native country, placed his services at the disposal of the revolting -Chilians, and gave them that naval pre-eminence in South America which -they have ever since retained.</p> - -<p>Peru proved an even tougher job, but the combined forces of San Martin -and Cochrane proved irresistible, and both Lima and Callao were taken in -1821. Lima, however, was recaptured by the Spaniards in 1823, but -Bolivar, marching against it from Colombia, was appointed dictator, and -gained so decisive a victory in 1824 that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_245" id="page_245">{245}</a></span> Spanish army was forced -to capitulate, and by 1826 the connection with the mother country was -completely and finally severed. Spain had vainly striven against these -successive misfortunes, and in 1815 sent out a considerable force under -Marshal Morillo, who gained a few temporary successes; but his cruelties -and atrocious conduct only exasperated the colonists, and instigated -them to greater exertions. The various countries of Central America were -quietly federated into the Republic of Guatemala in 1823, in the absence -of any Spanish troops to oppose; and thus, from the northern borders of -Mexico to the southern confines of Chili and La Plata, the conquerors of -the New World were forever ejected. England was the first to recognize -the South American republics, and entered into commercial treaties with -several of them in 1825, after which date Spain can no longer be said to -have been able to claim ownership of a single acre on the American -Continent.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile of a once vast colonial empire but Cuba and Porto Rico -remained. What were the forces at work which there prevented secession?</p> - -<p>The political economist Mr. R. J. Root, to whom and to whose work on -this subject we are already much indebted, states that the conditions -were different. The predominant feature of the islands was negro -slavery, whereas the wealth of the Spanish-American colonist lay in -lands which, if subject to alienation, were at least impossible of -removal. The Cuban planter reckoned as his most precious possession the -flesh and blood attached to his estates, and the very words “freedom” -and “independence” stank in his nostrils. Whatever inconvenience, -therefore, he suf<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_246" id="page_246">{246}</a></span>fered from his political connection with an effete -monarchy and a decaying or decayed empire, he at least felt that, while -he clung to it, it would afford him protection for his property.</p> - -<p>A steady flood of immigration from the mother country maintained this -connection down to the recent war. The wealthiest merchants and planters -have invariably been of pure Spanish blood, and their contempt for the -Cuban Creoles, though many of them are as pure-blooded as themselves, -and have no taint whatever of the “tar-brush,” has helped to maintain -them as a separate class, regarded as intruders by all of Cuban birth, -and hated accordingly. They have of necessity invoked Spanish aid and -relied on Spanish authority, and have, for nearly a hundred years, -provided the basis for Spanish rule in the island. Many of them made -their fortunes and returned home, leaving room for others to follow. -Some made Cuba their permanent domicile, but invariably with fatal -effects upon their offspring, for Cuban birth is almost synonymous with -Cuban sympathies, and, in any rising, the father, who has been on the -side of the crown, has witnessed his sons throwing in their lot with the -rebels.</p> - -<p>Ever since the emancipation of the Spanish Main, Cuba has been in a -state of political unrest. Various secret societies have been -constituted, and have received advice and assistance from Mexicans, -Chilians, and others who had already succeeded in throwing off their own -fetters. In 1823 the Society of Soles struck a blow for liberty; six -years later it was the Company of the Black Eagle which attempted -success where its predecessor had failed. Both were essentially Creole -risings, and although those who<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_247" id="page_247">{247}</a></span> participated in them freely gave -expression to their abhorrence of slavery, no assistance was either -asked or received from the negroes. For these unfortunates, however, -failure meant the tightening of their bonds; and it is not surprising to -find that, in 1844, goaded to despair by their sufferings, they tried an -insurrection on their own account, though of course it ended -disastrously.</p> - -<p>These outbreaks were all more or less localized, and it was not until -1868 that a revolution broke out, destined to involve the entire island, -and to occupy long and weary years in suppressing, if, indeed, the -smoking embers can be said ever to have been quenched. It was -undoubtedly instigated by the American Civil War, which had ended in the -uncompromising abolition of slavery, and so raised the hopes of the -friends of liberty in Cuba. Though the planters and slave-owners ranged -themselves, as was natural, on the side of law and order, their -enthusiasm was no longer of the keenest. They realized that the -institution to which they clung so tenaciously was doomed, and it became -a question with them of doing the best they could for themselves. -Emancipation in the British West Indies had for a time added enormously -to their prosperity, until the value of slaves underwent so great an -appreciation that it no longer became profitable to purchase them, and -only actual owners derived any benefit. For, it must be remembered, -there was a distinct difference between the slave-trade and slavery, and -long after public opinion revolted against, and prohibited the -kidnapping and traffic in human flesh, it continued to tolerate its -ownership, and recognized natural increase as legitimate property. That -African negroes were smuggled into Cuba<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_248" id="page_248">{248}</a></span> is tolerably certain; -nevertheless, the numbers were too small to prevent the gradual increase -in value of an able-bodied male slave from $250 to something like $1,750 -or $2,000. This was the surest means of eventual abolition; for while -this high price set upon the black made him valuable property, and -insured his better treatment, it tended to make the luxury too costly, -and one that could eventually no longer be indulged in, as the point -must be reached where free labor would become cheaper.</p> - -<p>About the time of the rebellion, the number of slaves in Cuba was -between 350,000 and 400,000, and their value on paper was simply -enormous. The $100,000,000 voted by the British Parliament as -compensation to the disinherited slave-owners in the British West Indies -would have been but a drop in the ocean in any scheme for Cuban -emancipation by purchase. Indeed, to do the planters justice, they never -expected anything of the sort, and all the more practical of them asked, -was to be let down gently. This was effected by the proclamation of what -was known as the Moret Law in 1870, which at once declared free all -slaves over sixty years of age, and decreed that every child born after -that year should be free likewise. In the first instance, the planters -registered a distinct gain, as they got rid of a number of old and -decrepit dependants no longer fit for work; but this was offset by the -compulsory maintenance, until their eighteenth year, of all the free -offspring of their slaves. Under this law, the odious institution -perished in something like twenty years, because its burdens gradually -outweighed its benefits, until the low wage for which the free negro is -willing to work became the more economical method of production.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_249" id="page_249">{249}</a></span></p> - -<p>Thus the strongest tie between Spain and Cuba was snapped, and the party -of independence gained force, as many planters found no longer any -advantage in supporting the authority of the crown. The rebellion -dragged on; the Spanish troops continually poured in having to encounter -the guerrilla warfare, for which the division of the island afforded so -many opportunities. For, considerable though the population is, -two-thirds of it has always been concentrated in the western corner, of -which Havana is the capital, the remaining districts being very sparsely -peopled. It is in these rebellion always throve; and the policy adopted -by General Weyler, when in supreme command, was to make them a desert by -destroying all sustenance, and forcibly removing the inhabitants, who, -under the name of Reconcentrados, aroused so much sympathy.</p> - -<p>Though the outbreak of 1868 was eventually suppressed, it left a legacy -of bitter memories and still bitterer exactions. For, true to its policy -of four centuries, Spain determined that it at least would not be a -loser, and saddled the entire cost of the military operations, and -nobody knows what else besides, on the unfortunate island, in the form -of a debt amounting to about four hundred million dollars. Even this -might have been tolerated had any attempt been made to establish an -equitable system of government, because an era of prosperity set in -which culminated in 1891, when the total exports were valued at no less -than $100,000,000, and there was ample margin for interest on an -inflated debt. But the rapacity of Catalan manufacturers, no less than -of government officials, upset everything; and from the captain-general -down to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_250" id="page_250">{250}</a></span> humblest trader in Barcelona, all expected to pocket -something out of the spoils of Cuba. Nor was the plunder limited to -Spaniards. Despite the restrictions against trading by foreigners, -adventurers of all nationalities managed to get a foothold in Havana, -and corruption preyed on corruption. No one, in fact, was expected to be -honest, and a stranger remarking upon the rascality prevailing in high -places, would as likely as not be met with a shrug of the shoulders and -the reply, Robamos todos, “We are all thieves.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_251" id="page_251">{251}</a></span>”</p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI<br /><br /> -<span class="chead">THE PHILIPPINES</span></h2> -<p class="chead2">THE FIRST JOURNEY ROUND THE WORLD—FERDINAND MAGELLAN—THE MOLUCCAS—THE -ISLANDS OF THE PAINTED FACES—MANILA AND THE CHINESE—THE BRITISH -INVASION—SPANISH RULE</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">While</span> Spain was actively engaged in exploration and annexation in the -west, Portugal was equally busy in the east. Though the Cape of Good -Hope had been doubled by Diaz in 1486, it was not until 1497, five years -after the discovery of America, that Vasco da Gama proved the -possibility of reaching India by that route. Rapid progress, for those -days at any rate, was made from that time. The actual neighborhood of -the Cape apparently offered no attractions; the advantages of its -situation were left to be realized by the Dutch a century later; and it -was not until Natal was reached on Christmas day, whence its name, that -there were any thoughts of annexation or settlement. It was the East -Coast of Africa which seemed to offer the greatest facilities for -communication and trading with the opposite shores of India, and claimed -attention accordingly; and as numerous pilots were to be found there, -skilled in navigating vessels across the Indian Ocean, it was there -colonies were first established, one of which at<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_252" id="page_252">{252}</a></span> least, and the only -important one remaining to Portugal, Lorenzo Marques, has been the -object of envy, and the source of much contention in recent years.</p> - -<p>From the Malabar coast in the south to Karachi in the north of India, -Portuguese traders grew active, but, owing to the fierceness and -determination of the natives, it was found impossible for some years to -permanently occupy any territory, until Goa was established in 1510, as -the center of Portuguese interests. A year earlier than this, Malacca -had been subjugated, and the exploration of Sumatra undertaken; while -three years later, Francisco Serrao discovered the Moluccas, the -far-famed islands from which Venice and Genoa had so long drawn their -stores of valuable spices by the overland route through India and -Persia, or by the Red Sea and Isthmus of Suez. To divert this traffic -round the Cape of Good Hope, expeditions were fitted out against Muscat -and Ormuz in the Persian Gulf, and Aden at the entrance to the Red Sea. -While, then, the Spanish colonists were searching for gold in sufficient -quantities to make the enterprise pay, much less realize fortunes, the -Portuguese tapped the source of wealth of the great mercantile -communities of the Middle Ages; and, monopolizing it themselves, -rendered their country for a time the richest in the world.</p> - -<p>Of the numerous governors dispatched by Portugal to the east, the Duke -of Albuquerque was the most active, and accomplished the greatest -results. Serving under him in various capacities was Ferrao Magalhaes, -or Maghallanes, a young nobleman who sought on every possible occasion -to distinguish himself. Returning home, he did not receive the reward he -considered his due; and though<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_253" id="page_253">{253}</a></span> he continued to agitate at court, and to -urge his claims, on the further ground that since his arrival from the -east he had taken part in an African campaign, and been permanently -lamed, he was either repulsed or put off with some trifling concession. -This rankling in his mind, he determined to divest himself of his -nationality, and offer his services to Spain, the patron of all foreign -adventurers.</p> - -<p>By the Papal Bull, Spain was debarred from undertaking any enterprise in -the East. This was, of course, well known to Magalhaes, or Ferdinand -Magellan, as he now chose to call himself, but he had carefully thought -the matter out, and arrived at a conclusion of his own. He had heard -much of the ideas which led to the discovery of America, and though -other and more important matters then engaged the attention of Spain -than the discovery of Japan and China by the western route, he still -considered the plan feasible. He intimated to the Emperor Charles V., -then king of Spain, his desire to be intrusted with an expedition, with -which he would undertake to reach the Moluccas from the west, and so -prove that they belonged by right to Spain.</p> - -<p>News of this treachery reached Portugal, where it was heard with the -greatest indignation, and an angry correspondence passed between the two -courts. Charles’s ambitions, however, lay in European aggrandizement, -for which the demands upon his exchequer were heavier than he well knew -how to meet. His great possessions in the New World had hitherto been a -drain upon his scanty resources, as they had been upon those of his -grandfather before him; and although Ferdinand lived<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_254" id="page_254">{254}</a></span> for a quarter of a -century after the discovery of America, he left hardly sufficient money -in his coffers to pay his funeral expenses. Charles, therefore, listened -eagerly to the proposition by which he might acquire the teeming riches -of the Spice Islands, and, notwithstanding protests and warnings alike, -terms were finally agreed to in March, 1518, which placed five ships, -and a full complement of men, at the disposal of Magellan. Failing any -other means of putting an end to the enterprise, a plot was formed for -the assassination of Magellan, but miscarried; and he weighed anchor on -the 10th of August, 1519, though delayed in his actual departure until -the 20th of September following.</p> - -<p>Instructions were sent to the Brazils, already occupied by Portugal, to -waylay Magellan, and at all costs prevent the continuance of his voyage; -and in case he eluded the vigilance of the governor of that settlement, -a strict watch was to be kept at the Moluccas, and no quarter given him -if he ever reached there, as he was declared a traitor to the crown of -Portugal. He arrived at the Rio de la Plata unmolested, and entered that -river, of great width at its mouth and for some distance along its -course, with the idea that it offered the long-sought passage to the -West. The increasing freshness of the water convinced him that it was -but a river, and he returned and moved his course southward. And now his -real difficulties began. Winter was setting in with all its rigor, and -the further south he proceeded the more severe became the weather. His -crew was most cosmopolitan in character and nationality, and included a -number of Portuguese, some of whom, it began to be sus<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_255" id="page_255">{255}</a></span>pected,—had been -bribed to mutiny, if not indeed to murder their commander. Dissensions -broke out among the captains of the different vessels on petty points of -precedence and discipline; and only the most determined stand by -Magellan himself, who did not hesitate to hang several of the crew as an -example to the rest, prevented the total ruin of his hopes and plans.</p> - -<p>To make matters worse, scarcity of provisions began to be experienced, -and it was then decided to winter in the shelter of the river St. -Julian. It was in October, 1520, before a fresh start could be made, and -on the 21st of that month a channel was discovered, the careful -navigation of which for thirty-eight days, amid shoals and innumerable -islands, brought them, amid great rejoicing, once more into the open -sea, proving the theory maintained by Columbus to his dying day to be so -far, at any rate, correct.</p> - -<p>But Magellan, like all his predecessors, sadly miscalculated the -distance between the remote East and the far West, and after taking in -such supplies of provisions as were obtainable, renewed his voyage with -a light heart, and in full expectation of reaching land in a week or two -at longest. Days grew into weeks, and the weeks passed into months, and -still no break on the monotonous horizon. The sufferings of the crew -were horrible, as food and water became gradually exhausted, and they -had to subsist at last by gnawing anything into which they could get -their teeth. To turn back was certain destruction, as they could not -possibly last out the time necessary to cover the distance already -traversed. To go forward, therefore, was their only chance of salvation; -and after<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_256" id="page_256">{256}</a></span> a passage of ninety-eight days land was sighted on March 18, -and the most dreaded of their dangers passed. They had sailed into a -group of islands, not the Moluccas as they had anticipated, but the -Islas de las Pintados; so called from the custom of the natives of -painting or tattooing their naked bodies, and subsequently re-christened -the Philippines, in honor of the heir to the Spanish throne, who -afterward reigned as Philip II.</p> - -<p>Magellan was not destined to reap the fruits of his enterprise, nor to -suffer the punishment subsequently inflicted on some of the survivors. -He found the natives among whom he first landed friendly disposed, but -rightly suspected them of treachery. Desirous, however, of conciliating -them as far as possible, he entered into their quarrel with a tribe in a -neighboring island, and, in the attack which he led against it, was -slain.</p> - -<p>Disputes arose as to who should succeed to the command; and what was -left of the fleet, after many adventures and the loss of a considerable -number of the crew, arrived at the island of Tidor in the Moluccas on -the 8th of November, 1521. There it was decided that the “Victoria” -should load a cargo of spices and make its way to Spain by the Cape of -Good Hope, in direct defiance of the rights of the Portuguese, while the -“Trinidad” should return the way she came. A valuable cargo, consisting -of about twenty-six tons of cloves, with parcels of cinnamon, sandal -wood, and nutmegs, was shipped, and after being nearly captured by the -Portuguese off the African coast, and again at the Canaries, arrived in -the harbor of San Lucar, as was supposed, on the 6th of September, 1522, -having sailed round the world in three<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_257" id="page_257">{257}</a></span> years all but a few days. -Through all their troubles, a careful record of dates had been kept, and -the officers were surprised to find that what they imagined to be the -6th was actually the 7th of September in Seville; and they were at a -loss to know how the one day had been missed, being of course unaware -that this is the invariable result of circumnavigating the world from -East to West.</p> - -<p>Of the total number of two hundred and eighty hands originally shipped, -only a remnant remained, of whom seventeen, together with the captain, -Juan Sebastian Elcano, were on board the “Victoria.”</p> - -<p>The city of Seville received them with acclamation; but their first act -was to walk barefooted, in procession, holding lighted candles in their -hands, to the church, to give thanks to the Almighty for their safe -deliverance from the hundred dangers which they had encountered. -Clothes, money, and all necessaries were supplied to them by royal -bounty, and Elcano and the most intelligent of his companions were cited -to appear at court to narrate their adventures. His Majesty received -them with marked deference. Elcano was rewarded with a life pension of -five hundred ducats (worth at that date about five hundred and sixty -dollars), and as a lasting remembrance of his unprecedented feat, his -royal master knighted him and conceded to him the right of using on his -escutcheon a globe bearing the motto: “Primus circundedit me.”</p> - -<p>Two of Elcano’s officers, Miguel de Rodas and Francisco Alva, were each -awarded a life pension of fifty thousand maravedis (worth at that time -about seventy dollars), while the king ordered one-fourth of that fifth -part of the cargo, which by contract with Maghallanes<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_258" id="page_258">{258}</a></span> belonged to the -State Treasury, to be distributed among the crew, including those -imprisoned in Santiago Island.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile the “Trinidad” was repaired in Tidor and on her way to Panama, -when continued tempests and the horrible sufferings of the crew -determined them to retrace their course to the Moluccas. In this -interval Portuguese ships had arrived there, and a fort was being -constructed to defend Portuguese interests against the Spaniards, whom -they regarded as interlopers. The “Trinidad” was seized, and the -captain, Espinosa, with the survivors of his crew, were afforded a -passage to Lisbon, which place they reached five years after they had -set out with Maghallanes.</p> - -<p>The enthusiasm of King Charles was equal to the importance of the -discoveries which gave renown to his subjects and added glory to his -crown. Notwithstanding a protracted controversy with the Portuguese -court, which claimed the exclusive right of trading with the Spice -Islands, he ordered another squadron of six ships to be fitted out for a -voyage to the Moluccas. The supreme command was confided to Garcia Yofre -de Loaisa, Knight of St. John, while Sebastian Elcano was appointed -captain of one of the vessels. After passing through the Magellan -Straits, the commander, Loaisa, succumbed to the fatigues and privations -of the stormy voyage. Elcano succeeded him, but only for four days, when -he too expired. The expedition, however, arrived safely at the Molucca -Islands, where they found the Portuguese in full possession and strongly -established; but the long series of combats, struggles and altercations -which ensued between the rival powers, in which Captain Andres<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_259" id="page_259">{259}</a></span> de -Urdaneta prominently figured, left no decisive advantage to either -nation.</p> - -<p>But the king was in no way disheartened. A third expedition—the last -under his auspices—was organized and dispatched from the Pacific coast -of Mexico by the viceroy, by royal mandate. It was composed of two -ships, two transports and one galley, well manned and armed, chosen from -the fleet of Pedro Alvarado, late governor of Guatemala. Under the -leadership of Ruy Lopez do Villalobos it sailed on the 1st of November, -1542; discovered many small islands in the Pacific; lost the galley on -the way, and anchored off an island about twenty miles in circumference, -which was named Antonia. They found its inhabitants very hostile. A -fight ensued, but the natives finally fled, leaving several Spaniards -wounded, of whom six died. Villalobos then announced his intention of -remaining here some time, and ordered his men to plant maize. At first -they demurred, saying that they had come to fight, not to till land, but -at length necessity urged them to obedience, and a small but -insufficient crop was reaped in due season. Hard pressed for food, they -lived principally on cats, rats, lizards, snakes, dogs, roots and wild -fruit, and several died of disease. In this plight a ship was sent to -Mindanao Island, commanded by Bernado de la Torre, to seek provisions. -The voyage was fruitless. The party was opposed by the inhabitants, who -fortified themselves, but were dislodged and slain. Then a vessel was -commissioned to Mexico with news and to solicit re-enforcements. On the -way, Volcano Island (of the Ladrone Islands group) was discovered on the -6th of August, 1543. A most important event followed. A<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_260" id="page_260">{260}</a></span> galiot was -built and dispatched to the islands (it is doubtful which), named by -this expedition the Philippine Islands in honor of Philip, Prince of -Asturias, the son of King Charles I., heir apparent to the throne of -Castile, to which he ascended in 1555 under the title of Philip II., on -the abdication of his father.</p> - -<p>The craft returned from the Philippine Islands laden with abundance of -provisions, with which the ships were enabled to continue the voyage.</p> - -<p>By the royal instructions, Ruy Lopez de Villalobos was strictly enjoined -not to touch at the Molucca Islands, peace having been concluded with -Portugal. Heavy gales forced him, nevertheless, to take refuge at -Gilolo. The Portuguese, suspicious of his intentions in view of the -treaty, arrayed their forces against his, inciting the king of the -island also to discard all Spanish overtures and refuse assistance to -Villalobos. The discord and contentions between the Portuguese and -Spaniards were increasing; nothing was being gained by either party. -Villalobos personally was sorely disheartened in the struggle, fearing -all the while that his opposition to the Portuguese in contravention of -the royal instructions would only excite the king’s displeasure and lead -to his own downfall. Hence he decided to capitulate with his rival and -accepted a safe conduct for himself and party to Europe in Portuguese -ships. They arrived at Amboina Island, where Villalobos, already crushed -by grief, succumbed to disease. The survivors of the expedition, among -whom were several priests, continued the journey home via Malacca, -Cochin-China and Goa, where they embarked for Lisbon, arriving there in -1549.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_261" id="page_261">{261}</a></span></p> - -<p>In 1558, King Charles was no more, but the memory of his ambition -outlived him. His son Philip, equally emulous and unscrupulous, was too -narrow-minded and subtly cautious to initiate an expensive enterprise -encompassed by so many hazards—as materially unproductive as it was -devoid of immediate political importance. Indeed the basis of the first -expedition was merely to discover a western route to the rich Spice -Islands, already known to exist; the second went there to attempt to -establish Spanish empire; and the third to search for and annex to the -Spanish crown lands as wealthy as those claimed by and now yielded to -the Portuguese.</p> - -<p>But the value of the Philippine Islands, of which the possession was but -recent and nominal, was thus far a matter of doubt.</p> - -<p>One of the most brave and intrepid captains of the Loaisa -expedition—Andres de Urdaneta—returned to Spain in 1536. In former -years he had fought under King Charles I., in his wars in Italy, when -the study of navigation served him as a favorite pastime. Since his -return from the Moluccas his constant attention was given to the project -of a new expedition to the Far West, for which he unremittingly -solicited the royal sanction and assistance. But the king had grown old -and weary of the world, and, while he did not openly discourage -Urdaneta’s pretensions, he gave him no effective aid. At length in 1553, -two years before Charles abdicated, Urdaneta, convinced of the futility -of his importunity at the Spanish court, and equally unsuccessful with -his scheme in other quarters, retired to Mexico, where he took the habit -of an Augustine monk. Ten years afterward, King Philip, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_262" id="page_262">{262}</a></span>spired by the -religious sentiment which pervaded his whole policy, urged his viceroy -in Mexico to fit out an expedition to conquer and Christianize the -Philippine Islands. Urdaneta, now a priest, was not overlooked. -Accompanied by five priests of his order, he was intrusted with the -spiritual care of the races to be subdued by an expedition composed of -four ships and one frigate well armed, carrying four hundred soldiers -and sailors, commanded by a Basque navigator, Miguel Lopez de Legaspi. -This remarkable man was destined to acquire the fame of having -established Spanish dominion in these islands. He was of noble birth and -a native of the province of Guipuzcoa in Spain. Having settled in the -City of Mexico, of which place he was elected mayor, he there practiced -as a notary. Of undoubted piety, he enjoyed a reputation for his justice -and loyalty, hence he was appointed general of the forces equipped for -the voyage.</p> - -<p>The favorite desire to possess the valuable Spice Islands still lurked -in the minds of many Spaniards—among them was Urdaneta, who labored in -vain to persuade the viceroy of the superior advantages to be gained by -annexing New Guinea instead of the Philippines—whence the conquest of -the Moluccas would be but a facile task. However, the viceroy was -inexorable and resolved to fulfill the royal instructions to the letter; -so the expedition set sail from the Mexican port of Navidad for the -Philippine Islands on the 21st of November, 1564.</p> - -<p>The Ladrone Islands were passed on the 9th of January, 1565, and on the -13th of the following month the Philippines were sighted. A call for -provisions was made at several small islands, including Camiguin, whence -the ex<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_263" id="page_263">{263}</a></span>pedition sailed to Bojol Island. A boat dispatched to the port of -Butuan returned in a fortnight with the news that there was much gold, -wax and cinnamon in that district. A small vessel was also sent to Cebu, -and on its return reported that the natives showed hostility, having -decapitated one of the crew while he was bathing.</p> - -<p>Nevertheless, General Legaspi resolved to put in at Cebu, which was a -safe port; and on the way there the ships anchored off Limasana Island -(to the south of Leyte). Thence, running S.W., the port of Dapitan -(Mindanao Island) was reached.</p> - -<p>Prince Pagbuaya, who ruled there, was astonished at the sight of such -formidable ships, and commissioned one of his subjects, specially chosen -for his boldness, to take note of their movements and report to him. His -account was uncommonly interesting. He related that enormous men with -long pointed noses, dressed in fine robes, ate stones (hard biscuits), -drank fire and blew smoke out of their mouths and through their -nostrils. Their power was such that they commanded thunder and lightning -(discharge of artillery), and that at meal times they sat down at a -clothed table. From their lofty port, their bearded faces and rich -attire, they might have been the very gods manifesting themselves to the -natives; so the prince thought it wise to accept the friendly overtures -of such marvelous strangers. Besides obtaining ample provisions in -barter for European wares, Legaspi procured from this chieftain much -useful information respecting the condition of Cebu. He learned that it -was esteemed a powerful kingdom, of which the magnificence was much -vaunted among the neighboring states; that the port was one of great -safety<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_264" id="page_264">{264}</a></span> and the most favorably situated among the islands of the painted -faces.</p> - -<p>The general resolved therefore to filch it from its native king and -annex it to the crown of Castile.</p> - -<p>He landed in Cebu on the 27th of April, 1565, and negotiations were -entered into with the natives of that island. Remembering how -successfully they had rid themselves of Maghallanes’ party, they -naturally opposed this renewed menace to their independence. The -Spaniards occupied the town by force and sacked it, but for months were -so harassed by the surrounding tribes that a council was convened to -discuss the prudence of continuing the occupation. The general decided -to remain, and, little by little, the natives yielded to the new -condition of things, and thus the first step toward the final conquest -was achieved. The natives were declared Spanish subjects, and hopeful -with the success thus far attained, Legaspi determined to send -dispatches to the king by the priest Urdaneta, who safely arrived at -Navidad on the 3d of October, 1565, and proceeded thence to Spain.</p> - -<p>The pacification of Cebu and the adjacent islands was steadily and -successfully pursued by Legaspi; the confidence of the natives was -assured, and their dethroned king Tupas accepted Christian baptism, -while his daughter married a Spaniard.</p> - -<p>In the midst of the invaders’ felicity, the Portuguese arrived to -dispute the possession, but they were compelled to retire. A fortress -was constructed and plots of land were marked out for the building of -the Spanish settlers’ residences, and finally, in 1570, Cebu was -declared a city, after Legaspi had received from his royal master the -title<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_265" id="page_265">{265}</a></span> of governor-general of all the lands which he might be able to -conquer.</p> - -<p>In May, 1570, Captain Juan Salcedo, Legaspi’s grandson, was dispatched -to the Island of Luzon to reconnoiter the territory and bring it under -Spanish dominion.</p> - -<p>The history of these early times is very confused, and there are many -contradictions in the authors of the Philippine chronicles, none of -which seems to have been written contemporaneously with the first -events. It appears, however, that Martin de Goiti and a few soldiers -accompanied Salcedo to the north. They were well received by the native -chiefs or petty kings Lacandola, rajah of Tondo (known as Rajah Matanda, -which means in native dialect the aged rajah), and his nephew, the young -Rajah Soliman of Manila.</p> - -<p>The sight of a body of European troops, armed as was the custom in the -sixteenth century, must have profoundly impressed and overawed these -chieftains, otherwise it seems almost incredible that they should have -consented, without protest, or attempt at resistance, to (forever) give -up their territory, yield their independence, pay tribute,<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> and become -the tools of invading for<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_266" id="page_266">{266}</a></span>eigners with which to conquer their own race, -without recompense whatsoever.</p> - -<p>A treaty of peace was signed and ratified by an exchange of drops of -blood between the parties thereto. Soliman, however, soon repented of -his poltroonery, and raised the war-cry among some of his tribes. To -save his capital (then called Maynila) falling into the hands of the -invaders he set fire to it. Lacandola remained passively watching the -issue. Soliman was completely routed by Salcedo, and pardoned on his -again swearing fealty to the King of Spain. Goiti remained in the -vicinity of Manila with his troops, while Salcedo fought his way to the -Bombon Lake (Taal) district. The present Batangas Province was subdued -by him and included in the jurisdiction of Mindoro Island. During the -campaign, Salcedo was severely wounded by an arrow and returned to -Manila.</p> - -<p>Legaspi was in the Island of Panay when Salcedo (some writers say Goiti) -arrived to advise him of what had occurred in Luzon. They at once -proceeded together to Cavite, where Lacandola visited Legaspi on board, -and, prostrating himself, averred his submission. Then Legaspi continued -his journey to Manila, and was received there with acclamation. He took -formal possession of the sur<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_267" id="page_267">{267}</a></span>rounding territory, declared Manila to be -the capital of the archipelago, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the -King of Spain over the whole group of islands. Gaspar de San Augustin, -writing of this period, says: “He (Legaspi) ordered them (the natives) -to finish the building of the fort in construction at the mouth of the -river (Pasig), so that his majesty’s artillery might be mounted therein -for the defense of the port and the town. Also he ordered them to build -a large house inside the battlement walls for Legaspi’s own -residence—another large house and church for the priests, etc.... -Besides these two large houses he told them to erect one hundred and -fifty dwellings of moderate size for the remainder of the Spaniards to -live in. All this they promptly promised to do, but they did not obey, -for the Spaniards were themselves obliged to terminate the work of the -fortifications.”</p> - -<p>The City Council of Manila was constituted on the 24th of June, 1571. On -the 20th of August, 1572, Miguel Lopez de Legaspi succumbed to the -fatigues of his arduous life, leaving behind him a name which will -always maintain a prominent place in Spanish colonial history. He was -buried in Manila in the Augustine Chapel of San Fausto, where hung the -royal standard and the hero’s armorial bearings until the British troops -occupied the city in 1763.</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“Death makes no conquest of this conqueror,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">For now he lives in fame, though not in life.”<br /></span> -<span class="i8">—“Richard III.,” Act 3, Sc. 1.<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>In the meantime Salcedo continued his task of subjecting the tribes in -the interior The natives of Tay<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_268" id="page_268">{268}</a></span>tay, and Cainta, in the present military -district of Morong, submitted to him on the 15th of August, 1571. He -returned to the Laguna de Bay to pacify the villagers, and penetrated as -far as Camarines Norte to explore the Bicol River. Bolinao and the -provinces of Pangasinan and Ilocos yielded to his prowess, and in this -last province he had well established himself when the defense of the -capital obliged him to return to Manila.</p> - -<p>At the same time, Martin de Goiti was actively employed in overrunning -the Pampanga territory, with the double object of procuring supplies for -the Manila camp and coercing the inhabitants on his way to acknowledge -their now liege lord. It is recorded that in this expedition Goiti was -joined by the rajahs of Tondo and Manila. Yet Lacandola appears to have -been regarded more as a servant of the Spaniards <i>nolens volens</i> than as -a free ally; for, because he absented himself from Goiti’s camp “without -license from the Maestre de Campo,” he was suspected by some writers of -having favored opposition to the Spaniards’ incursions in the Marshes of -Hagonoy (Pampanga coast, northern boundary of Manila Bay).</p> - -<p>The district which constituted the ancient province of Taal y Balayan, -subsequently denominated Province of Batangas, was formerly governed by -a number of caciques, the most notable of which were Gatpagil and -Gatjinlintan. They were usually at war with their neighbors. -Gatjinlintan, the cacique of the Batangas River at the time of the -conquest, was famous for his valor. Gatsungayan, who ruled on the other -side of the river, was celebrated as a hunter of deer and wild boar. -These men were half-castes of Borneo and Aeta extraction, who formed a -dis<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_269" id="page_269">{269}</a></span>tinct race called by the natives Daghagang. None of them would -submit to the King of Spain or become Christians, hence their -descendants were offered no privileges.</p> - -<p>On the death of General Legaspi, the government of the colony was -assumed by the royal treasurer, Guido de Lavezares, in conformity with -the sealed instructions from the Supreme Court of Mexico, which were now -opened. During this period, the possession of the islands was -unsuccessfully disputed by a rival expedition under the command of a -Chinaman, Li-ma-hong, whom the Spaniards were pleased to term a pirate, -forgetting, perhaps, that they themselves had only recently wrested the -country from its former possessors by virtue of might against right.</p> - -<p>On the coasts of his native country he had indeed been a pirate. For the -many depredations committed by him against private traders and property, -the Celestial Emperor, failing to catch him by cajolery, outlawed him.</p> - -<p>Born in the port of Tiuchiu, Li-ma-hong at an early age evinced a -martial spirit and joined a band of corsairs, which for a long time had -been the terror of the China coasts. On the demise of his chief he was -unanimously elected leader of the buccaneering cruisers. At length, -pursued in all directions by the imperial ships of war, he determined to -attempt the conquest of the Philippines. Presumably the same incentives -which impelled the Spanish mariners to conquer lands and overthrow -dynasties—the vision of wealth, glory and empire—awakened a like -ambition in the Chinese adventurer. It was the spirit of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_270" id="page_270">{270}</a></span> age.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> In -his sea-wanderings he happened to fall in with a Chinese trading-junk -returning from Manila with the proceeds of her cargo sold there. This he -seized, and the captive crew were constrained to pilot his fleet toward -the capital of Luzon. From them he learned how easily the natives had -been plundered by a handful of foreigners—the probable extent of the -opposition he might encounter—the defenses established—the wealth and -resources of the district and the nature of its inhabitants.</p> - -<p>His fleet consisted of sixty-two warships or armed junks, well found, -having on board two thousand sailors, two thousand soldiers, one -thousand five hundred women, a number of artisans, and all that could be -conveniently carried with which to gain and organize his new kingdom. On -its way the squadron cast anchor off the province of Ilocos Sur, where a -few troops were sent ashore to get provisions. While returning to the -junks, they sacked the village and set fire to the huts. The news of -this outrage was hastily communicated to Juan Salcedo, who had been -pacifying the northern provinces since July, 1572, and was at the time -in Villa Fernandina (now called Vigan). Li-ma-hong continued his course -until calms compelled his ships to anchor in the roads of Caoayan -(Ilocos coast), where a few Spanish soldiers were stationed under the -orders of Juan Salcedo, who still was in the immediate town of Vigan. -Under his direction,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_271" id="page_271">{271}</a></span> preparations were made to prevent the enemy -entering the river, but such was not Li-ma-hong’s intention. He again -set sail; while Salcedo, naturally supposing his course would be toward -Manila, also started at the same time for the capital with all the -fighting men he could collect, leaving only thirty men to garrison Vigan -and protect the State interests there.</p> - -<p>On the 29th of November, 1574, the squadron arrived in the Bay of -Manila, and Li-ma-hong sent forward his lieutenant, Sioco—a -Japanese—at the head of six hundred fighting men, to demand the -surrender of the Spaniards. A strong gale, however, destroyed several of -his junks, in which about two hundred men perished.</p> - -<p>With the remainder he reached the coast at Paranaque, a village a few -miles south of Manila. Thence, with towlines, the four hundred soldiers -hauled their junks up to the beach of the capital.</p> - -<p>Already at the village of Malate the alarm was raised, but the Spaniards -could not give credit to the reports, and no resistance was offered -until the Chinese were within the gates of the city. Martin de Goiti, -the Maestre de Campo, second in command to the governor, was the first -victim of the attack.</p> - -<p>The flames and smoke arising from his burning residence were the first -indications which the governor received of what was going on. The -Spaniards took refuge in the fort of Santiago, which the Chinese were on -the point of taking by storm, when their attention was drawn elsewhere -by the arrival of fresh troops led by a Spanish sub-lieutenant. Under -the mistaken impression that these were the vanguard of a formidable -corps, Sioco sounded<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_272" id="page_272">{272}</a></span> the retreat. A bloody hand-to-hand combat -followed, and with great difficulty the Chinese collected their dead and -regained their junks.</p> - -<p>In the meantime Li-ma-hong, with the reserved forces, was lying in the -roadstead of Cavite, and Sioco hastened to report to him the result of -the attack, which had cost the invader over one hundred dead and more -than that number wounded. Thereupon Li-ma-hong resolved to rest his -troops and renew the conflict in two days’ time under his personal -supervision. The next day Juan Salcedo arrived by sea with -re-enforcements from Vigan, and preparations were unceasingly made for -the expected encounter. Salcedo having been appointed to the office of -Maestre de Campo, vacant since the death of Goiti, the organization of -the defense was intrusted to his immediate care.</p> - -<p>By daybreak on the 3d of December, the enemy’s fleet hove-to off the -capital, where Li-ma-hong harangued his troops, while the cornets and -drums of the Spaniards were sounding the alarm for their fighting men to -assemble in the fort.</p> - -<p>Then fifteen hundred chosen men, well armed, were disembarked under the -leadership of Sioco, who swore to take the place or die in the attempt. -Sioco separated his forces into three divisions. The city was set fire -to, and Sioco advanced toward the fort, into which hand-grenades were -thrown, while Li-ma-hong supported the attack with his ships’ cannon.</p> - -<p>Sioco, with his division, at length entered the fort, and a hand-to-hand -fight ensued. For a while the issue was doubtful. Salcedo fought like a -lion. Even the aged governor was well at the front to encourage the -deadly<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_273" id="page_273">{273}</a></span> struggle for existence. The Spaniards finally gained the -victory; the Chinese were repulsed with great slaughter; and their -leader having been killed, they fled in complete disorder. Salcedo, -profiting by the confusion, now took the offensive and followed up the -enemy, pursuing them along the sea-shore, where they were joined by the -third division, which had remained inactive. The panic of the Chinese -spread rapidly, and Li-ma-hong, in despair, landed another contingent of -about five hundred men, while he still continued afloat; but even with -this re-enforcement the morale of his army could not be regained.</p> - -<p>The Chinese troops therefore, harassed on all sides, made a precipitate -retreat on board the fleet, and Li-ma-hong set sail again for the west -coast of the island. Foiled in the attempt to possess himself of Manila, -Li-ma-hong determined to set up his capital in other parts. In a few -days he arrived at the mouth of the Agno River, in the province of -Pangasinan, where he proclaimed to the natives that he had gained a -signal victory over the Spaniards. The inhabitants there, having no -particular choice between two masters, received Li-ma-hong with welcome, -and he thereupon set about the foundation of his new capital some four -miles from the mouth of the river.</p> - -<p>Months passed before the Spaniards came in force to dislodge the -invader. Feeling themselves secure in their new abode, the Chinese had -built many dwellings, a small fortress, a pagoda, etc. At length an -expedition was dispatched under the command of Juan Salcedo. This was -composed of about two hundred and fifty Spaniards and one thousand six -hundred natives well equipped<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_274" id="page_274">{274}</a></span> with small arms, ammunition and -artillery. The flower of the Spanish colony, accompanied by two priests -and the Rajah of Tondo, set out to expel the formidable foe. Li-ma-hong -made a bold resistance and refused to come to terms with Salcedo. In the -meantime, the Viceroy of Fokien, having heard of Li-ma-hong’s daring -exploits, had commissioned a ship of war to discover the whereabout of -his imperial master’s old enemy. The envoy was received with delight by -the Spaniards, who invited him to accompany them to Manila to interview -the governor.</p> - -<p>Li-ma-hong still held out, but perceiving that an irresistible onslaught -was being projected against him by Salcedo’s party, he very cunningly -and quite unexpectedly gave them the slip, and sailed out of the river -with his ships by one of the mouths unknown to his enemies.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> In order -to divert the attention of the Spaniards, Li-ma-hong ingeniously feigned -an assault in an opposite quarter. Of course, on his escape, he had to -abandon the troops employed in this maneuver. These, losing all hope, -and having, indeed, nothing but their lives to fight for, fled to the -mountains. Hence, it is popularly supposed that from these fugitives -descends the race of people in that province still distinguishable by -their oblique eyes and known by the name of Igorrote-Chinese.</p> - -<p>“Aide toi et Dieu t’aidera” is an old French maxim,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_275" id="page_275">{275}</a></span> but the Spaniards -chose to attribute their deliverance from their Chinese rival to the -friendly intervention of Saint Andrew. This saint was declared -thenceforth to be the patron saint of Manila, and in his honor High Mass -is celebrated in the Cathedral at 8 <small>A.M.</small> on the 30th of each November. -It is a public holiday and gala-day, when all the highest civil, -military and religious authorities attend the “Funcion votiva de San -Andrés.” This opportunity to assert the supremacy of ecclesiastical -power was not lost to the Church, and for many years it was the custom, -after hearing Mass, to spread the Spanish national flag on the floor of -the Cathedral for the metropolitan archbishop to walk over it. It has -been asserted, however, that a few years ago the governor-general -refused to witness this antiquated formula, which, in public at least, -no longer obtains. Now it is the practice to carry the royal standard -before the altar. Both before and after the Mass, the bearer (Alférez -Real), wearing his hat and accompanied by the mayor of the city, stands -on the altar-floor, raises his hat three times, and three times dips the -flag before the Image of Christ, then, facing the public, he repeats -this ceremony. On Saint Andrew’s eve, the royal standard is borne in -procession from the Cathedral through the principal streets of the city, -escorted by civil functionaries and followed by a band of music. This -ceremony is known as the “Paseo del Real Pendon.”</p> - -<p>According to Juan de la Concepcion, the Rajahs<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> Soliman and Lacandola -took advantage of these troubles to raise a rebellion against the -Spaniards. The natives too<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_276" id="page_276">{276}</a></span> of Mindoro Island revolted and maltreated -the priests, but all these disturbances were speedily quelled by a -detachment of soldiers.</p> - -<p>The governor willingly accepted the offer of the commander of the -Chinese man-of-war to convey embassadors to his country to visit the -viceroy and make a commercial treaty. Therefore two priests, Martin Rada -and Geronimo Martin, were commissioned to carry a letter of greeting and -presents to this personage, who received them with great distinction, -but objected to their residing in the country.</p> - -<p>After the defeat of Li-ma-hong, Juan Salcedo again repaired to the -northern provinces of Luzon Island, to continue his task of reducing the -natives to submission. On the 11th of March, 1576, he died of fever near -Vigan (then called Villa Fernandina), capital of the province of Ilocos -Sur. A year afterward, what could be found of his bones were placed in -the ossuary of his illustrious grandfather, Legaspi, in the Augustine -Chapel of Saint Fausto, Manila. His skull, however, which had been -carried off by the natives of Ilocos, could not be recovered in spite of -all threats and promises. In Vigan there is a small monument raised to -commemorate the deeds of this famous warrior, and there is also a street -bearing his name.</p> - -<p>For several years following these events, the question of prestige in -the civil affairs of the colony was acrimoniously contested by the -governor-general, the supreme court and the ecclesiastics.</p> - -<p>The governor was censured by his opponents for alleged undue exercise of -arbitrary authority. The supreme court,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_277" id="page_277">{277}</a></span> established on the Mexican -model, was reproached with seeking to overstep the limits of its -functions. Every legal quibble was adjusted by a dilatory process, -impracticable in a colony yet in its infancy, where summary justice was -indispensable for the maintenance of order imperfectly understood by the -masses. But the fault lay less with the justices than with the -constitution of the court itself. Nor was this state of affairs improved -by the growing discontent and immoderate ambition of the clergy, who -unremittingly urged their pretensions to immunity from State control, -affirming the supramundane condition of their office.</p> - -<p>An excellent code of laws, called the Leyes de Indias, in force in -Mexico, was adopted here, but modifications in harmony with the special -conditions of this colony were urgently necessary, while all the -branches of government called for reorganization or reform. Under these -circumstances, the bishop of Manila, Domingo Salazar, took the -initiative in commissioning a priest, Fray Alonso Sanchez, to repair -first to the viceroy of Mexico and afterward to the King of Spain, to -expose the grievances of his party.</p> - -<p>Alonso Sanchez left the Philippines with his appointment as -procurator-general for the Augustine order of monks. As the execution of -the proposed reforms, which he was charged to lay before his majesty, -would, if conceded, be intrusted to the government of Mexico, his first -care was to seek the partisanship of the viceroy of that colony; and in -this he succeeded. Thence he continued his journey to Seville, where the -court happened to be, arriving there in September, 1587. He was at once -granted an audience by the king, to present his cre<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_278" id="page_278">{278}</a></span>dentials and -memorials relative to Philippine affairs in general; and ecclesiastical -judicial, military and native matters in particular. The king promised -to peruse all the documents, but suffering from gout, and having so many -and distinct State concerns to attend to, the negotiations were greatly -delayed. Finally, Sanchez sought a minister who had easy access to the -royal apartments, and this personage obtained from the king permission -to examine the documents and hand to him a succinct resumé of the whole -for his majesty’s consideration. A commission was then appointed, -including Sanchez, and the deliberations lasted five months.</p> - -<p>At this period, public opinion in the Spanish universities was very -divided with respect to Catholic missions in the Indies.</p> - -<p>Some maintained that the propaganda of the faith ought to be purely -Apostolic, such as Jesus Christ taught to his disciples, inculcating -doctrines of humility and poverty without arms or violence, and if, -nevertheless, the heathens refused to welcome this mission of peace, the -missionaries should simply abandon them in silence without further -demonstration than that of shaking the dust off their feet.</p> - -<p>Others opined, and among them was Sanchez, that such a method was -useless and impracticable, and that it was justifiable to force their -religion upon primitive races at the point of the sword if necessary, -using any violence to enforce its acceptance.</p> - -<p>Much ill-feeling was aroused in the discussion of these two and distinct -theories. Juan Volante, a Dominican friar of the Convent of Our Lady of -Atocha, presented<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_279" id="page_279">{279}</a></span> a petition against the views of the Sanchez faction, -declaring that the idea of ingrafting religion with the aid of arms was -scandalous. Fray Juan Volante was so importunate, that he had to be -heard in council, but neither party yielded. At length, the intervention -of the bishops of Manila, Macao and Malacca and several captains and -governors in the Indies influenced the king to put an end to the -controversy, on the ground that it would lead to no good.</p> - -<p>The king retired to the Monastery of the Escorial, and Sanchez was cited -to meet him there to learn the royal will. About the same time the news -reached the king of the loss of the so-called Invincible Armada, sent -under the command of the incompetent Duke of Medina Sidonia to annex -England. Notwithstanding this severe blow to the vain ambition of -Philip, the affairs of the Philippines were delayed but a short time. On -the basis of the recommendation of the junta, the royal assent was given -to an important decree, of which the most significant articles are the -following, namely:—The tribute was fixed by the king at ten reales per -annum, payable by the natives in gold, silver, or grain, or part in one -commodity and part in the other. Of this tribute, eight reales were to -be paid to the treasury, one half real to the bishop and clergy, and one -real and a half to be applied to the maintenance of the soldiery. Full -tribute was not to be exacted from the natives still unsubjected to the -crown. Until their confidence and loyalty should be gained by friendly -overtures, they were to pay a small recognition of vassalage, and -subsequently the tribute in common with the rest.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_280" id="page_280">{280}</a></span></p> - -<p>Instead of one-fifth value of gold and hidden treasure due to his -majesty (real quinto), he would henceforth receive only one-tenth of -such value, excepting that of gold, which the natives would be permitted -to extract free of rebate.</p> - -<p>A customs duty of 3 per cent ad valorem was to be paid on merchandise -sold, and this duty was to be spent on the army.</p> - -<p>Export duty was to be paid on goods shipped to New Spain (Mexico), and -this impost was also to be exclusively spent on the armed forces.</p> - -<p>The number of European troops in the colony was fixed at four hundred -men-at-arms, divided into six companies, each under a captain, a -sub-lieutenant, a sergeant, and two corporals. Their pay was to be as -follows, namely: Captain thirty-five dollars, sub-lieutenant twenty -dollars, sergeant ten dollars, corporal seven dollars, rank and file six -dollars per month; besides which, an annual gratuity of ten thousand -dollars was to be proportionately distributed to all.</p> - -<p>Recruits from Mexico were not to enlist under the age of fifteen years.</p> - -<p>The captain-general was to have a body-guard of twenty-four men -(halberdiers), with the pay of those of the line, under the immediate -command of a captain to be paid fifteen dollars per month.</p> - -<p>Salaries due to State employés were to be punctually paid when due; and -when funds were wanted for that purpose they were to be supplied from -Mexico.</p> - -<p>The king made a donation of twelve thousand dollars, which, with another -like sum to be contributed by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_281" id="page_281">{281}</a></span> Spaniards themselves, would serve to -liquidate the debts incurred on their first occupation of the islands.</p> - -<p>The governor and bishop were recommended to consider the project of a -refuge for young Spanish women arrived from Spain, and to study the -question of dowries for native women married to poor Spaniards.</p> - -<p>The offices of secretaries and notaries were no longer to be sold, but -conferred on persons who merited such appointments.</p> - -<p>The governors were instructed not to make grants of land to their -relations, servants or friends, but solely to those who should have -resided at least three years in the islands, and have worked the lands -so conceded. Any grants which might have already been made to the -relations of the governors or magistrates were to be canceled.</p> - -<p>The rent paid by the Chinese for the land they occupied was to be -applied to the necessities of the capital.</p> - -<p>The governor and bishop were to enjoin the judges not to permit costly -lawsuits, but to execute summary justice verbally, and, so far as -possible, fines were not to be inflicted.</p> - -<p>The city of Manila was to be fortified in a manner to insure it against -all further attacks or risings.</p> - -<p>Four penitentiaries were to be established in the islands in the most -convenient places, with the necessary garrisons, and six to eight -galleys and frigates well armed and ready for defense against the -English corsairs which might come by way of the Moluccas.</p> - -<p>In the most remote and unexplored parts of the islands, the governor was -to have unlimited powers to act<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_282" id="page_282">{282}</a></span> as he should please, without consulting -his majesty; but projected enterprises of conversion, pacification, -etc., at the expense of the royal treasury, were to be submitted to a -council, comprising the bishop, the captains, etc. The governor was -authorized to capitulate and agree with the captains and others who -might care to undertake conversions and pacifications on their own -account, and to concede the title of Maestre de Campo to such persons, -on condition that such capitulations should be forwarded to his majesty -for ratification.</p> - -<p>Only those persons domiciled in the islands would be permitted to trade -with them.</p> - -<p>A sum of one thousand dollars was to be taken from the tributes paid -into the royal treasury for the foundation of the hospital for the -Spaniards, and the annual sum of six hundred dollars, appropriated by -the governor for its support, was confirmed. Moreover, the royal -treasury of Mexico was to send clothing to the value of four hundred -ducats for the hospital use.</p> - -<p>The hospital for the natives was to receive an annual donation of six -hundred dollars for its support, and an immediate supply of clothing -from Mexico to the value of two hundred dollars.</p> - -<p>Slaves held by Spaniards were to be immediately set at liberty. No -native was thenceforth to be enslaved. All new-born natives were -declared free. The bondage of all existing slaves from ten years of age -was to cease on their attaining twenty years of age. Those above twenty -years of age were to serve five years longer, and then become free. At -any time, notwithstanding the foregoing conditions, they would be -entitled to purchase their liberty, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_283" id="page_283">{283}</a></span> price of which was to be -determined by the governor and the bishop.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p> - -<p>There being no tithes payable to the church by Spaniards or natives, the -clergy were to receive for their maintenance the half real above -mentioned in lieu thereof, from the tribute paid by each native -subjected to the crown. When the Spaniards should have crops, they were -to pay tithes to the clergy.</p> - -<p>A grant was made of twelve thousand ducats for the building and -ornaments of the Cathedral, and an immediate advance of two thousand -ducats, on account of this grant, was made from the funds to be remitted -from Mexico.</p> - -<p>Forty Austin friars were to be sent at once to the Philippines, to be -followed by missionaries from other corporations. The king allowed five -hundred dollars to be paid against the one thousand dollars’ passage -money for each priest, the balance to be defrayed out of the common -funds of the clergy, derived from their share of the tribute.</p> - -<p>Missionaries in great numbers had already flocked to the Philippines and -roamed wherever they thought fit, without license from the bishop, whose -authority they utterly repudiated.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_284" id="page_284">{284}</a></span></p> - -<p>Affirming that they had the direct consent of his holiness the Pope, -they menaced with excommunication whosoever attempted to impede them in -their free peregrination. Five years after the foundation of Manila, the -city and environs were infested with niggardly mendicant friars, whose -slothful habits placed their supercilious countrymen in ridicule before -the natives. They were tolerated but a short time in the islands; not -altogether because of the ruin they would have brought to European moral -influence on the untutored tribes, but because the bishop was highly -jealous of all competition against the Augustine order to which he -belonged. Consequent on the representations of Fray Alonso Sanchez, his -majesty ordained that all priests who went to the Philippines were, in -the first place, to resolve never to quit the islands without the -bishop’s sanction, which was to be conceded with great circumspection -and only in extreme cases, while the governor was instructed not to -afford them means of exit on his sole authority.</p> - -<p>Neither did the bishop regard with satisfaction the presence of the -commissary of the Inquisition, whose secret investigations, shrouded -with mystery, curtailed the liberty of the loftiest functionary, sacred -or civil. At the instigation of Fray Alonso Sanchez, the junta -recommended the king to recall the commissary and extinguish the office, -but he refused to do so. In short, the chief aims of the bishop were to -enhance the power of the friars, raise the dignity of the colonial -miter, and secure a religious monopoly for the Augustine order.</p> - -<p>Gomez Perez Dasmarinas was the next governor appointed to these islands, -on the recommendation of Fray<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_285" id="page_285">{285}</a></span> Alonso Sanchez. In the royal instructions -which he brought with him were embodied all the above mentioned civil, -ecclesiastical and military reforms.</p> - -<p>At the same time, King Philip abolished the supreme court. He wished to -put an end to the interminable lawsuits so prejudicial to the -development of the colony. Therefore the president and magistrates were -replaced by justices of the peace, and the former returned to Mexico in -1591. This measure served only to widen the breach between the bishop -and the civil government. Dasmarinas compelled him to keep within the -sphere of his sacerdotal functions, and tolerated no rival in State -concerns. There was no appeal on the spot against the governor’s -authority. This restraint irritated and disgusted the bishop to such a -degree, that at the age of seventy-eight years he resolved to present -himself at the Spanish court. On his arrival there, he manifested to the -king the impossibility of one bishop attending to the spiritual wants of -a people dispersed over so many islands. For seven years after the -foundation of Manila, as capital of the archipelago, its principal -church was simply a parish church. In 1578 it was raised to the dignity -of a cathedral, at the instance of the king. Three years after this date -the Cathedral of Manila was solemnly declared to be a “Suffragan -Cathedral of Mexico, under the Advocation of Our Lady of the Immaculate -Conception”; Domingo Salazar being the first bishop consecrated. He now -proposed to raise the Manila see to an archbishopric, with three -suffragan bishops. The king gave his consent, subject to approval from -Rome, and, this following in due course, Salazar was appointed first -archbishop of Manila;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_286" id="page_286">{286}</a></span> but he died before the Papal Bull arrived, dated -the 14th of August, 1595, officially authorizing his investiture.</p> - -<p>In the meantime, Alonso Sanchez had proceeded to Rome in May, 1589. -Among many other Pontifical favors conceded to him, he obtained the -right for himself, or his assigns, to use a die or stamp of any form -with one or more images; to be chosen by the holder, and to contain also -the figure of Christ, the Very Holy Virgin, or the Saint—Peter or Paul. -On the reverse was to be engraven a bust portrait of His Holiness with -the following indulgences attached thereto, viz.:-“To him who should -convey the word of God to the infidels, or give them notice of the holy -mysteries—each time 300 years’ indulgence. To him who, by industry, -converted any one of these, or brought him to the bosom of the -Church—full indulgence for all sins.” A number of minor indulgences -were conceded for services to be rendered to the Pontificate, and for -the praying so many Pater Nosters and Ave Marias. This Bull was dated in -Rome the 28th of July, 1591.</p> - -<p>Popes Gregory XIV. and Innocent IX. granted other Bulls relating to the -rewards for using beads, medals, crosses, pictures, blessed images, -etc., with which one could gain nine plenary indulgences every day or -rescue nine souls from purgatory; and each day, twice over, all the full -indulgences yet given in and out of Rome could be obtained for living -and deceased persons.</p> - -<p>Sanchez returned to Spain (where he died), bringing with him the body of -Saint Policarp, a relic of Saint Potenciana, and one hundred and -fifty-seven martyrs;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_287" id="page_287">{287}</a></span> among them, twenty-seven popes, for remission to -the Cathedral of Manila.</p> - -<p>The supreme court was re-established with the same faculties as those of -Mexico and Lima in 1598, and since then, on seven occasions, when the -governorship has been vacant, it has acted pro tem. The following -interesting account of the pompous ceremonial attending the reception of -the Royal Seal, restoring this court, is given by Concepcion.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> He -says: “The Royal Seal of office was received from the ship with the -accustomed solemnity. It was contained in a chest covered with purple -velvet and trimmings of silver and gold, over which hung a cloth of -purple and gold. It was escorted by a majestic accompaniment, marching -to the sounds of clarions and cymbals and other musical instruments. The -cortege passed through the noble city with rich vestments and leg -trimmings and uncovered heads. Behind these followed a horse, gorgeously -caparisoned and girthed, for the president to place the coffer -containing the Royal Seal upon its back. The streets were beautifully -adorned with exquisite drapery. The high bailiff, magnificently robed, -took the reins in hand to lead the horse under a purple velvet pall -bordered with gold. The magistrates walked on either side; the aldermen -of the city, richly clad, carried their staves of office in the august -procession, which concluded with a military escort, standard-bearers, -etc., and proceeded to the Cathedral, where it was met by the dean, -holding a Cross. As the company entered the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_288" id="page_288">{288}</a></span> sacred edifice, the Te Deum -was intoned by a band of music.”</p> - -<p>In 1886 a supreme court, exactly similar to, and independent of, that of -Manila, was established in the city of Cebu. The question of precedence -in official acts having been soon after disputed between the president -of the court and the brigadier-governor of Visayas, it was decided in -favor of the latter, on appeal to the governor-general. In the meantime, -the advisability of abolishing the supreme court of Cebu was debated by -the public.</p> - -<p>Consequent on the union of the crowns of Portugal and Spain (1581 to -1640), the feuds, as between nations, diplomatically subsided, although -the individual antagonism was as rife as ever.</p> - -<p>Spanish and Portuguese interests in the Moluccas, as elsewhere, were -thenceforth officially mutual. In the Moluccas group, the old contests -between the then rival kingdoms had estranged the natives from their -forced alliances. Anti-Portuguese and Philo-Portuguese parties had -sprung up among the petty sovereignties, but the Portuguese fort and -factory established in Ternate Island were held for many years, despite -all contentions. But another rivalry, as formidable and more detrimental -than that of the Portuguese in days gone by, now menaced Spanish -ascendency.</p> - -<p>From the close of the sixteenth century up to the year of the “Family -Compact” wars (1763), Holland and Spain were relentless foes. To recount -the numerous combats between their respective fleets during this period -would itself require a volume. It will suffice here to show the bearing -of these political conflicts upon the concerns of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_289" id="page_289">{289}</a></span> the Philippine -colony. The Treaty of Antwerp, which was wrung from the Spaniards in -1609, twenty-eight years after the union of Spain and Portugal, broke -the scourge of their tyranny, while it failed to assuage the mutual -antipathy. One of the consequences of the “Wars of the Flanders,” which -terminated with this treaty, was that the Dutch were obliged to seek in -the Far East the merchandise which had hitherto been supplied to them -from the Peninsula. The short-sighted policy of the Spaniards in closing -to the Dutch the Portuguese markets, which were now theirs, brought upon -themselves the destruction of the monopolies which they had gained by -the union. The Dutch were now free, and their old tyrant’s policy -induced them to independently establish their own trading headquarters -in the Molucca Islands, whence they could obtain directly the produce -forbidden to them in the home ports. Hence, from those islands, the -ships of a powerful Netherlands Trading Company sallied forth from time -to time to meet the Spanish galleons from Mexico with silver and -manufactured goods.</p> - -<p>Previous to this, and during the Wars of the Flanders, Dutch corsairs -hovered about the waters of the Moluccas, to take reprisals from the -Spaniards. These encounters frequently took place at the eastern -entrance of the San Bernadino Straits, where the Dutch were accustomed -to hove-to in anticipation of the arrival of their prizes.</p> - -<p>In this manner, constantly roving about the Philippine waters, they -enriched themselves at the expense of their detested adversary, and, in -a small degree, avenged them<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_290" id="page_290">{290}</a></span>selves of the bloodshed and oppression -which for over sixty years had desolated the Low Countries.</p> - -<p>The Philippine colony lost immense sums in the seizure of its galleons -from Mexico, upon which it almost entirely depended for subsistence. -Being a dependency of New Spain, its whole intercourse with the -civilized world, its supplies of troops and European manufactured -articles, were contingent upon the safe arrival of the galleons. Also -the dollars with which they annually purchased cargoes from the Chinese -for the galleons came from Mexico.</p> - -<p>Consequently, the Dutch usually took the aggressive in these -sea-battles, although they were not always victorious. When there were -no ships to meet, they bombarded the ports where others were being -built. The Spaniards, on their part, from time to time fitted out -vessels to run down to the Moluccas to attack the enemy in his own -waters.</p> - -<p>During the governorship of Gomez Perez Dasmarinas (1590-1593), the -native king of Siao Island—one of the Moluccas group—came to Manila to -offer homage and vassalage to the representative of the King of Spain -and Portugal, in return for protection against the incursions of the -Dutch and the raids of the Ternate natives. Dasmarinas received him and -the Spanish priests who accompanied him with affability, and, being -satisfied with his credentials, he prepared a large expedition to go to -the Moluccas to set matters in order. The fleet was composed of several -frigates, one ship, six galleys and one hundred small vessels, all well -armed. The fighting men numbered one hundred Spaniards, four hundred -Pampanga<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_291" id="page_291">{291}</a></span> and Tagalog arquebusiers, one thousand Visayas archers and -lancers, besides one hundred Chinese to row the galleys. This -expedition, which was calculated to be amply sufficient to subdue all -the Moluccas, sailed from Cavite on the 6th of October, 1593. The -sailing ships having got far ahead of the galleys, they hove-to off -Punta de Azufre (N. of Maricaban Island) to wait for them. The galleys -arrived; and the next day they were able to start again in company. -Meanwhile a conspiracy was formed by the Chinese galleymen to murder all -the Spaniards. Assuming these Chinese to be volunteers, their action -would appear most wanton and base. If, however, as is most probable, -they were pressed into this military service to foreigners, it seems -quite natural that, being forced to bloodshed without alternative, they -should first fight for their own liberty.</p> - -<p>All but the Chinese were asleep, and they fell upon the Spaniards in a -body. Eighteen of the troops and four slaves escaped by jumping into the -sea. The governor was sleeping in his cabin, but awoke on hearing the -noise. He supposed the ship had grounded, and was coming up the -companion en deshabille, when a Chinaman cleaved his head with a -cutlass. The governor reached his stateroom, and taking his missal and -the Image of the Virgin in his hand, he died in six hours. The Chinese -did not venture below, where the priests and armed soldiers were hidden. -They cleared the decks of all their opponents, made fast the hatches and -gangways, and waited three days, when, after putting ashore those who -were still alive, they escaped to Cochin-China, where the king and -mandarins seized the vessel and all she car<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_292" id="page_292">{292}</a></span>ried. On board were found -twelve thousand dollars in coin, some silver, and jewels belonging to -the governor and his suite.</p> - -<p>Thus the expedition was brought to an untimely end. The King of Siao, -and the missionaries accompanying him, had started in advance for Otong -(Panay Island) to wait for the governor, and there they received the -news of the disaster.</p> - -<p>Among the most notable of the successful expeditions of the Spaniards -was that of Pedro Bravo de Acuna, in 1606, which consisted of nineteen -frigates, nine galleys and eight small craft, carrying a total of about -two thousand men and provisions for a prolonged struggle. The result -was, that they subdued a petty sultan friendly to the Dutch, and -established a fortress on his island.</p> - -<p>About the year 1607, the supreme court (the governorship being vacant -from 1606 to 1608) hearing that a Dutch vessel was hovering off Ternate, -sent a ship against it, commanded by Pedro de Heredia. A combat ensued. -The Dutch commander was taken prisoner with several of his men, and -lodged in the fort at Ternate, but was ransomed on payment of fifty -thousand dollars to the Spanish commander. Heredia returned joyfully to -Manila, where, much to his surprise, he was prosecuted by the supreme -court for exceeding his instructions, and expired of melancholy. The -ransomed Dutch leader was making his way back to his headquarters in a -small ship, peacefully, and without hostilizing the Spaniards in any -way, when the supreme court treacherously sent a galley and a frigate -after him to make him prisoner a second time. Overwhelmed by<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_293" id="page_293">{293}</a></span> numbers -and arms, and little expecting such perfidious conduct of the Spaniards, -he was at once arrested and brought to Manila. The Dutch returned -twenty-two Spanish prisoners of war to Manila to ransom him; but while -these were retained, the Dutch commander was, nevertheless, imprisoned -for life.</p> - -<p>Some years afterward, a Dutch squadron anchored off the south point of -Bataan Province, not far from Punta Marivelez, at the entrance to Manila -Bay. Juan de Silva, the governor (from 1609 to 1616), was in great -straits. Several ships had been lost by storms, others were away, and -there was no adequate floating armament with which to meet the enemy. -However, the Dutch lay-to for five or six months, waiting to seize the -Chinese and Japanese traders’ goods on their way to the Manila market. -They secured immense booty, and were in no hurry to open hostilities. -This delay gave Silva time to prepare vessels to attack the foe. In the -interval, he dreamed that Saint Mark had offered to help him defeat the -Dutch. On awaking, he called a priest, whom he consulted about the -dream, and they agreed that the nocturnal vision was a sign from Heaven -denoting a victory. The priest went (from Cavite) to Manila to procure a -relic of this glorious intercessor, and returned with his portrait to -the governor, who adored it. In haste the ships and armament were -prepared. On Saint Mark’s day, therefore, the Spaniards sallied forth -from Cavite with six ships, carrying seventy guns, and two galleys and -two launches also well armed, besides a number of small light vessels, -to assist in the formation of line of battle.</p> - -<p>All the European fighting men in Manila and Cavite<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_294" id="page_294">{294}</a></span> embarked—over one -thousand Spaniards—the flower of the colony, together with a large -force of natives, who were taught to believe that the Dutch were -infidels. On the issue of this day’s events perchance depended the -possession of the colony. Manila and Cavite were garrisoned by -volunteers. Orations were offered in the churches. The Miraculous Image -of Our Lady of the Guide was taken in procession from the Hermit, and -exposed to public view in the Cathedral. The saints of the different -churches and sanctuaries were adored and exhibited daily. The governor -himself took the supreme command, and dispelled all wavering doubt in -his subordinates by proclaiming Saint Mark’s promise of intercession. On -his ship he hoisted the royal standard, on which was embroidered the -Image of the Holy Virgin, with the motto: “Mostrate esse Matrem,” and -over a beautifully calm sea he led the way to battle.</p> - -<p>A shot from the Spanish heavy artillery opened the bloody combat. The -Dutch were completely vanquished, after a fierce struggle which lasted -six hours. Their three ships were destroyed, and their flags, artillery, -and plundered merchandise to the value of three hundred thousand dollars -were seized. This famous engagement was thenceforth known as the battle -of Playa Honda.</p> - -<p>Again in 1611, under Silva, a squadron sailed to the Moluccas and -defeated the Dutch off Giolo Island.</p> - -<p>In 1617, the Spaniards had a successful engagement off the Zambales -coast with the Dutch, who lost three of their ships.</p> - -<p>In July, 1620, three Mexican galleons were met by three Dutch vessels -off Cape Espiritu Santo (Samar Isl<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_295" id="page_295">{295}</a></span>and), at the entrance of the San -Bernadino Straits, but managed to escape in the dark. Two ran ashore and -broke up; the third reached Manila. After this the governor-general, -Alonzo Fajardo de Tua, ordered the course of the State ships to be -varied on each voyage.</p> - -<p>In 1625, the Dutch again appeared off the Zambales coast, and Geronimo -de Silva went out against them. The Spaniards, having lost one man, -relinquished the pursuit of the enemy, and the commander was brought to -trial by the supreme court.</p> - -<p>In 1626, at the close of the governorship of Fernando de Silva, a -Spanish colony was founded on Formosa Island, but no supplies were sent -to it, and consequently in 1642 it surrendered to the Dutch, who held it -for twenty years, until they were driven out by the Chinese adventurer -Keuseng. And thus for over a century and a half the strife continued, -until the Dutch concentrated their attention in the development of their -Eastern colonies, which the power of Spain, growing more and more -effete, was incompetent to impede.</p> - -<p>In 1761, King George III. had just succeeded to the throne of England, -and the protracted contentions with France had been suspended for a -while. It was soon evident, however, that efforts were being employed to -extinguish the power and prestige of Great Britain, and with this object -a convention had been entered into between France and Spain known as the -“Family Compact.” It was so called because it was an alliance made by -the three branches of the House of Bourbon; namely, Louis XV. of France, -Charles III. of Spain, and his son Ferdinand, who, in accordance with -the Treaty of Vienna, had<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_296" id="page_296">{296}</a></span> ascended the throne of Naples. Spain engaged -to unite her forces with those of France against England on the 1st of -May, 1762, if the war still lasted, in which case France would restore -Minorca to Spain. Pitt was convinced of the necessity of meeting the -coalition by force of arms, but he was unable to secure the support of -his Ministry to declare war, and he therefore retired from the -premiership. The succeeding Cabinet was, nevertheless, compelled to -adopt his policy, and, after having lost many advantages by delaying -their decision, war was declared against France and Spain.</p> - -<p>The British were successful everywhere. In the West Indies, the -Caribbean Islands and Havana were captured, with great booty, by Rodney -and Monckton, while a British fleet was dispatched to the Philippine -Islands with orders to take Manila.</p> - -<p>There are many versions of this event given by different historians, and -among them there is not wanting an author who, following the Spanish -custom, has accounted for defeat by alleging treason.</p> - -<p>On the 14th of September, 1762, a British vessel arrived in the Bay of -Manila, refused to admit Spanish officers on board, and after taking -soundings she sailed again out of the harbor.</p> - -<p>In the evening of the 22d of September, the British squadron, composed -of thirteen ships, under the command of Admiral Cornish, entered the -bay, and the next day two British officers were deputed to demand the -surrender of the citadel, which was refused.</p> - -<p>Brigadier-general Draper thereupon disembarked his troops, and again -called upon the city to yield. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_297" id="page_297">{297}</a></span> citation being defied, the -bombardment commenced the next day. The fleet anchored in front of a -powder-magazine, took possession of the churches of Malate, Hermita, San -Juan de Bagumbayan and Santiago. Two picket guards made an unsuccessful -sortie against them. The whole force in Manila at the time was the -king’s regiment, which mustered about six hundred men, and eighty pieces -of artillery. The British forces consisted of one thousand five hundred -European troops (one regiment of infantry and two companies of -artillery), three thousand seamen, eight hundred Sepoy fusileers and one -thousand four hundred Sepoy pioneers, making a total of six thousand -eight hundred and thirty men.</p> - -<p>There was no governor-general here at the time, and the only person with -whom the British commander could treat was the acting-governor, the -Archbishop Manuel Antonio Rojo, who was willing to yield. His authority -was, however, set aside by a rebellious war party, who placed themselves -under the leadership of a magistrate of the supreme court named Simon de -Anda y Salazar. This individual, instead of leading them to battle, fled -to the province of Bulacan, the day before the capture of Manila, in a -prahu with a few natives, carrying with him some money and half a ream -of official stamped paper. He knew perfectly well that he was defying -the legal authority of the acting-governor, and was, in fact, in open -rebellion against his mandate. It was necessary, therefore, to give an -official color to his acts by issuing his orders and proclamations on -government-stamped paper, so that their validity might be recognized if -he subsequently succeeded in justifying his action at court.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_298" id="page_298">{298}</a></span></p> - -<p>On the 24th of September the Spanish batteries of San Diego and San -Andres opened fire, but with little effect. A richly laden galleon—the -“Philipino”—was known to be on her way from Mexico to Manila, but the -British ships which were sent in quest of her fell in with another -galleon—the “Trinidad”—and brought their prize to Manila. Her treasure -amounted to about two million five hundred thousand dollars.</p> - -<p>A Frenchman resident in Manila, Monsieur Faller, made an attack on the -British, who forced him to retire, and he was then accused by the -Spaniards of treason. Artillery fire was kept up on both sides. The -archbishop’s nephew was taken prisoner, and an officer was sent with him -to hand him over to his uncle. However, a party of natives fell upon -them and murdered them all. The officer’s head having been cut off, it -was demanded by General Draper. Excuses were made for not giving it up, -and the general determined thenceforth to continue the warfare with -vigor and punish this atrocity. The artillery was increased by another -battery of three mortars, placed behind the Church of Santiago, and the -bombardment continued.</p> - -<p>Five thousand native recruits arrived from the provinces, and out of -this number two thousand Pampangos were selected. They were divided into -three columns, in order to advance by different routes and attack -respectively the Church of Santiago, Malate and Hermita, and the troops -on the beach. At each place they were driven back. The leader of the -attack on Malate and Hermita—Don Santiago Orendain—was declared a -traitor. The first two columns were dispersed with great confu<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_299" id="page_299">{299}</a></span>sion and -loss. The third column retreated before they had sustained or inflicted -any loss. The natives fled to their villages in dismay, and on the 5th -of October the British entered the walled city. After a couple of hours’ -bombardment the forts of San Andres and San Eugenio were demolished, the -artillery overturned, and the enemy’s fusileers and sappers were killed.</p> - -<p>A council of war was now held by the Spaniards. General Draper sustained -the authority of the archbishop against the war-party, composed chiefly -of civilians, who determined to continue the defense in spite of the -opinion of the military men, who argued that a capitulation was -inevitable. But matters were brought to a crisis by the natives, who -refused to repair the fortifications, and the Europeans were unable to -perform such hard labor. Great confusion reigned in the city—the clergy -fled through the Puerto del Parian, where there was still a native -guard. According to Zuniga, the British spent twenty thousand cannon -balls and five thousand shells in the bombardment of the city.</p> - -<p>Major Fell entered the city at the head of his troops and General Draper -followed, leading his column unopposed, with two field pieces in the -van, while a constant musketry fire cleared the Calle Real as they -advanced. The people fled before the enemy. The gates being closed, they -scrambled up the walls and got into boats or swam off.</p> - -<p>Colonel Monson was sent by Draper to the archbishop-governor to say that -he expected immediate surrender. This was disputed by the archbishop, -who presented a paper purporting to be terms of capitulation. The -colonel<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_300" id="page_300">{300}</a></span> refused to take it, and demanded an unconditional surrender. -Then the archbishop, a colonel of the Spanish troops and Colonel Monson -went to interview the general, whose quarters were in the palace. The -archbishop, offering himself as a prisoner, presented the terms of -capitulation, which provided for the free exercise of their religion; -security of private property; free trade to all the inhabitants of the -islands, and the continuation of the powers of the supreme court to keep -order among the ill-disposed. These terms were granted, but General -Draper, on his part, stipulated for an indemnity of four millions of -dollars, and it was agreed to pay one-half of this sum in specie and -valuables and the other half in treasury bills on Madrid. The -capitulation, with these modifications, was signed by Draper and the -archbishop-governor. The Spanish colonel took the document to the fort -to have it countersigned by the magistrates, which was at once done; the -fort was delivered up to the British, and the magistrates retired to the -palace to pay their respects to the conqueror.</p> - -<p>When the British flag was seen floating from the fort of Santiago there -was great cheering from the British fleet. The archbishop stated that -when Draper reviewed the troops more than one thousand men were missing, -including sixteen officers. Among these officers were a major, fatally -wounded by an arrow on the first day of the assault, and the -vice-admiral, who was drowned while coming ashore in a boat.</p> - -<p>The natives who had been brought from the provinces to Manila were -plundering and committing excesses in the city, so Draper had them all -driven out. Guards were<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_301" id="page_301">{301}</a></span> placed at the doors of the nunneries and -convents to prevent outrages on the women, and then the city was given -up to the victorious troops for pillage during three hours. Zuniga, -however, remarks that the European troops were moderate, but that the -Indian contingents were insatiable. They are said to have committed many -atrocities, and, reveling in bloodshed, even murdered the inhabitants. -They ransacked the suburbs of Santa Cruz and Binondo, and, acting like -savage victorious tribes, they ravished women, and even went into the -highways to murder and rob those who fled. The three hours expired, and -the following day a similar scene was permitted. The archbishop -thereupon besought the general to put a stop to it, and have compassion -on the city. The general complied with this request, and restored order -under pain of death for disobedience—some Chinese were in consequence -hanged. General Draper himself killed one whom he found in the act of -stealing, and he ordered that all church property should be restored, -but only some priests’ vestments were recovered.</p> - -<p>Draper demanded the surrender of Cavite, which was agreed to by the -archbishop and magistrates, but the commanding officer refused to -comply. The major of that garrison was sent with a message to the -commander, but on the way he talked with such freedom about the -surrender to the British, that the natives quitted their posts and -plundered the arsenal. The commander, rather than face humiliation, -retired to a ship, and left all further responsibility to the major.</p> - -<p>Measures were now taken to pay the agreed indemnity. Heavy contributions -were levied upon the inhabi<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_302" id="page_302">{302}</a></span>tants, which, however, together with the -silver from the pious establishments, church ornaments, plate, the -archbishop’s rings and breast-cross, only amounted to five hundred and -forty-six thousand dollars. The British then proposed to accept one -million at once and draw the rest from the cargo of the galleon -“Philipino,” if it resulted that she had not been seized by the British -previous to the day the capitulation was signed—but the one million was -not forthcoming. The day before the capture of Manila, a royal messenger -had been sent off with one hundred and eleven thousand dollars, with -orders to secure it in some place in the Laguna de Bay. The archbishop -now ordered its return to Manila, and issued a requisition to that -effect; but the Franciscan friars were insubordinate, and armed the -natives, whom they virtually ruled, and the treasure was secreted in -Majayjay Convent. Thence, on receipt of the archbishop’s message, it was -carried across country to a place in North Pampanga, bordering on -Cagayan and Pangasinan. The British, convinced that they were being -duped, insisted on their claim. Thomas Backhouse, commanding the troops -stationed at Pasig, went up to the Laguna de Bay with eighty mixed -troops, to intercept the bringing of the “Philipino” treasure. He -attacked Tunasan, Vinan and Santa Rosa, and embarked for Pagsanjan, -which was then the capital of the Lake Province. The inhabitants, after -firing the convent and church, fled. Backhouse returned to Calamba, -entered the Province of Batangas, overran it, and made several Austin -friars prisoners. In Lipa he seized three thousand dollars, and there he -established his quarters, expecting that the “Philipino” treasure would -be carried<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_303" id="page_303">{303}</a></span> that way; but on learning that it had been transported by -sea to a Pampanga coast town, Backhouse withdrew to Pasig.</p> - -<p>In the capitulation, the whole of the Archipelago was surrendered to the -British, but Simon de Anda determined to appeal to arms. Draper used -stratagem, and issued a proclamation commiserating the fate of the -natives who paid tribute to Spaniards, and assuring them that the King -of England would not exact it. The archbishop, as governor, became -Draper’s tool, sent messages to the Spanish families persuading them to -return, and appointed an Englishman, married in the country, to be -alderman of Tondo. Despite the strenuous opposition of the supreme -court, the archbishop, at the instance of Draper, convened a council of -native headmen and representative families, and proposed to them the -cession of all the islands to the King of England. Draper clearly saw -that the ruling powers in the colony, judging from their energy and -effective measures, were the friars, so he treated them with great -respect. The Frenchman Faller, who unsuccessfully opposed the British -assault, was offered troops to go and take possession of Zamboanga and -accept the government there, but he refused, as did also a Spaniard -named Sandoval.</p> - -<p>Draper returned to Europe; Major Fell was left in command of the troops, -while Drake assumed the military government of the city, with Smith and -Brock as council, and Brereton in charge of Cavite. Draper, on leaving, -gave orders for two frigates to go in search of the “Philipino” -treasure. The ships got as far as Capul Island and put into harbor. They -were detained there by<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_304" id="page_304">{304}</a></span> a ruse on the part of a half-caste pilot, and -the treasure was got away in the meantime.</p> - -<p>Simon de Anda, from his provincial retreat, proclaimed himself -governor-general. He declared that the archbishop and the magistrates, -as prisoners of war, were dead in the eye of the law; and that his -assumption of authority was based upon old laws. None of his countrymen -disputed his authority, and he established himself in Bacolor. The -British council then convened a meeting of the chief inhabitants, at -which Anda was declared a seditious person and deserving of capital -punishment, together with the Marquis of Monte Castro, who had violated -his parole d’honneur, and the provincial of the Austin friars, who had -joined the rebel party. All the Austin friars were declared traitors for -having broken their allegiance to the archbishop’s authority. The -British still pressed for the payment of the one million, while the -Spaniards declared they possessed no more. The Austin friars were -ordered to keep the natives peaceable if they did not wish to provoke -hostilities against themselves. At length, the British, convinced of the -futility of decrees, determined to sally out with their forces; and five -hundred men under Thomas Backhouse went up the Pasig River to secure a -free passage for supplies to the camp. While opposite Maybonga, Bustos, -with his Cagayan troops, fired on them. The British returned the fire, -and Bustos fled to Mariquina. The British passed the river, and sent an -officer with a white flag of truce to summon surrender. Bustos was -insolent, and threatened to hang the officer if he returned. Backhouse’s -troops then opened fire and placed two field pieces which completely -scared the na<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_305" id="page_305">{305}</a></span>tives, who fled in such great confusion that many were -drowned in the river. Thence the British pursued their enemy “as if they -were a flock of goats,” and reached the Bamban River, where the Sultan -of Sulu resided with his family. The sultan, after a feigned resistance, -fell a prisoner to the British, who fortified his dwelling, and occupied -it during the whole of the operations. There were subsequent skirmishes -on the Pasig River banks with the armed insurgents, who were driven as -far as the Antipolo Mountains.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile, Anda collected troops; and Bustos, as his lieutenant-general, -vaunted the power of his chief through the Bulacan and Pampanga -provinces. A Franciscan and an Austin friar, having led troops to -Masilo, about seven miles from Manila, the British went out to dislodge -them, but on their approach most of the natives feigned they were dead, -and the British returned without any loss in arms or men.</p> - -<p>The British, believing that the Austin friars were conspiring against -them in connivance with those inside the city, placed these friars in -confinement, and subsequently shipped away eleven of them to Europe. For -the same reason, they at last determined to enter the St. Augustine -Convent, and on ransacking it they found that the priests had been lying -to them all the time. Six thousand dollars in coin were found hidden in -the garden, and large quantities of wrought silver elsewhere. The whole -premises were then searched and all the valuables were seized. A British -expedition went out to Bulacan, sailing across the bay and up the -Hagonoy River, where they disembarked at Malolos on the 19th of January, -1763. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_306" id="page_306">{306}</a></span> troops, under Captain Eslay, of the Grenadiers, numbered six -hundred men, many of whom were Chinese volunteers. As they advanced from -Malolos, the natives and Spaniards fled. On the way to Bulacan, Bustos -advanced to meet them, but retreated into ambush on seeing they were -superior in numbers. Bulacan Convent was fortified with three small -cannon. As soon as the troops were in sight of the convent, a desultory -fire of case-shot made great havoc in the ranks of the Chinese forming -the British vanguard. At length the British brought their field pieces -into action, and pointing at the enemy’s cannon, the first discharge -carried off the head of their artilleryman Ybarra. The panic-stricken -natives decamped; the convent was taken by assault; there was an -indiscriminate fight and general slaughter. The alcalde and a Franciscan -friar fell in action; one Austin friar escaped, and another was seized -and killed to avenge the death of the British soldiers. The invading -forces occupied the convent, and some of the troops were shortly sent -back to Manila. Bustos reappeared near the Bulacan convent with eight -thousand native troops, of which six hundred were cavalry, but they -dared not attack the British. Bustos then maneuvered in the neighborhood -and made occasional alarms. Small parties were sent out against him with -so little effect that the British commander headed a body in person, and -put the whole of Bustos’ troops to flight like mosquitoes before a gust -of wind, for Bustos feared they would be pursued into Pampanga. After -clearing away the underwood, which served as a covert for the natives, -the British reoccupied the convent; but Bustos returned to his position, -and was a second time<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_307" id="page_307">{307}</a></span> as disgracefully routed by the British, who then -withdrew to Manila.</p> - -<p>At the same time, it was alleged that a conspiracy was being organized -among the Chinese in the Province of Pampanga with the object of -assassinating Anda and his Spanish followers. The Chinese cut trenches -and raised fortifications, avowing that their bellicose preparations -were only to defend themselves against the possible attack of the -British; while the Spaniards saw in all this a connivance with the -invaders. The latter, no doubt, conjectured rightly. Anda, acting upon -the views of his party, precipitated matters by appearing with fourteen -Spanish soldiers and a crowd of native bowmen to commence the slaughter -in the town of Guagua. The Chinese assembled there in great numbers, and -Anda endeavored in vain to induce them to surrender to him. He then sent -a Spaniard, named Miguel Garces, with a message, offering them pardon in -the name of the King of Spain if they would lay down their arms; but -they killed the emissary, and Anda therefore commenced the attack. The -result was favorable for Anda’s party, and great numbers of the Chinese -were slain. Many fled to the fields, where they were pursued by the -troops, while those who were captured were hanged. Such was the -inveterate hatred which Anda entertained for the Chinese, that he issued -a general decree declaring all the Chinese traitors to the Spanish flag, -and ordered them to be hanged wherever they might be found in the -provinces. Thus thousands of Chinese were executed who had taken no part -whatever in the events of this little war.</p> - -<p>Admiral Cornish, having decided to return to Europe,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_308" id="page_308">{308}</a></span> again urged for -the payment of the two millions of dollars. The archbishop was in great -straits; he was willing to do anything, but his colleagues opposed him, -and Cornish was at length obliged to content himself with a bill on the -Madrid treasury. Anda appointed Bustos alcalde of Bulacan, and ordered -him to recruit and train troops, as he still nurtured the hope of -confining the British to Manila—perhaps even of driving them out of the -colony.</p> - -<p>The British in the city were compelled to adopt the most rigorous -precautions against a rising of the population within the walls, and -several Spanish residents were arrested for intriguing against them in -concert with those outside.</p> - -<p>Several French prisoners from Pondicherry deserted from the British; and -some Spanish regular troops, who had been taken prisoners, effected -their escape. The fiscal of the supreme court and a Senor Villa Corta -were found conspiring. The latter was caught in the act of sending a -letter to Anda, and was sentenced to be hanged and quartered—the -quarters to be exhibited in public places. The archbishop, however, -obtained Villa Corta’s pardon, on the condition that Anda should -evacuate the Pampanga Province; and Villa Corta wrote to Anda, begging -him to accede to this, but Anda absolutely refused to make any sacrifice -to save his friend’s life; and at the same time he wrote a disgraceful -letter to the archbishop, couched in such insulting terms that the -British commander burned it without letting the archbishop see it. Villa -Corta was finally ransomed by the payment of three thousand dollars.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_309" id="page_309">{309}</a></span></p> - -<p>The treasure brought by the “Philipino” served Anda to organize a -respectable force of recruits. Spaniards who were living there in -misery, and a crowd of natives always ready for pay, enlisted. These -forces, under Lieutenant-general Bustos, encamped at Malinta, about five -miles from Manila. The officers lodged in a house belonging to the -Austin friars, around which the troops pitched their tents—the whole -being defended by redoubts and palisades raised under the direction of a -French deserter, who led a company. From this place Bustos constantly -caused alarm to the British troops, who once had to retreat before a -picket guard sent to get the church bells of Quiapo. The British, in -fact, were much molested by Bustos’ Malinta troops, who forced the -invaders to withdraw to Manila and reduce the extension of their -outposts. This measure was followed up by a proclamation, in which the -British commander alluded to Bustos’ troops as “canaille and robbers,” -and offered a reward of five thousand dollars for Anda’s head; declaring -him and his party rebels and traitors to their majesties the kings of -Spain and England. Anda, chafing at his impotence to combat the invading -party by force of arms, gave vent to his feelings of rage and -disappointment by issuing a decree, dated from Bacolor the 19th of May, -1763, of which the translated text reads as follows:</p> - -<p>“Royal Government Tribunal of these Islands for His Catholic Majesty: -Whereas the Royal Government Tribunal, Supreme Government and -Captain-Generalship of His Catholic Majesty in these Islands are gravely -offended at the audacity and blindness of those men, who, forgetting all -humanity, have condemned as rebellious and dis<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_310" id="page_310">{310}</a></span>obedient to both their -Majesties, him, who as a faithful vassal of His Catholic Majesty, and in -conformity with the law, holds the Royal Tribunal, Government and -Captain-Generalship; and having suffered by a reward being offered by -order of the British Governor in council to whomsoever shall deliver me -alive or dead; and by their having placed the arms captured in Bulacan -at the foot of the gallows—seeing that instead of their punishing and -reproaching such execrable proceedings, the spirit of haughtiness and -pride is increasing, as shown in the Proclamation published in Manila on -the 17th instant, in which the troops of His Majesty are infamously -calumniated—treating them as blackguards and disaffected to their -service—charging them with plotting to assassinate the English officers -and soldiers, and with having fled when attacked—the whole of these -accusations being false: Now therefore by these presents, be it known to -all Spaniards and true Englishmen that Messrs. Drake, Smith and Brock, -who signed the Proclamation referred to, must not be considered as -vassals of His Britannic Majesty, but as tyrants and common enemies -unworthy of human society, and therefore, I order that they be -apprehended as such, and I offer ten thousand dollars for each one of -them alive or dead. At the same time, I withdraw the order to treat the -vassals of his Britannic Majesty with all the humanity which the rights -of war will permit, as has been practiced hitherto with respect to the -prisoners and deserters.”</p> - -<p>Anda had by this time received the consent of his king to occupy the -position which he had usurped, and the British commander was thus -enabled to communicate officially<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_311" id="page_311">{311}</a></span> with, him, if occasion required it; -and Drake replied to this proclamation, recommending Anda to carry on -the war with greater moderation and humanity.</p> - -<p>On the 27th of June, 1763, the British made a sortie from the city to -dislodge Bustos, who still occupied Malinta. The attacking party -consisted of three hundred and fifty fusileers, fifty horsemen, a mob of -Chinese, and a number of guns and ammunition. The British took up -quarters on one side of the river, while Bustos remained on the other. -The opposing parties exchanged fire, but neither cared nor dared to -cross the waterway. The British forces retired in good order to Masilo, -and remained there until they heard that Bustos had burned Malinta House -and removed his camp to Meycauayan. Then the British withdrew to Manila -in the evening. On the Spanish side there were two killed, five mortally -wounded and two slightly wounded. The British losses were six mortally -wounded and seven disabled. This was the last encounter in open warfare. -Chinamen occasionally lost their lives through their love of plunder in -the vicinity occupied by the British.</p> - -<p>During these operations, the priesthood taught the ignorant natives to -believe that the invading troops were infidels—and a holy war was -preached.</p> - -<p>The friars, especially those of the Augustine order,<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> abandoned their -mission of peace for that of the sword, and the British met with a -slight reverse at Masilo, where<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_312" id="page_312">{312}</a></span> a religious fanatic of the Austin -friars had put himself at the head of a small hand lying in ambush.</p> - -<p>On the 23d of July, 1763, a British frigate brought news from Europe of -an armistice—and the preliminaries of peace, by virtue of which Manila -was to be evacuated (Peace of Paris, 10th of February, 1763), were -received by the British commander on the 27th of August following, and -communicated by him to the archbishop-governor for the -“commander-in-chief” of the Spanish arms. Anda stood on his dignity and -protested that he should be addressed directly, and be styled -captain-general. On this plea he declined to receive the communication. -Drake replied by a manifesto, dated 19th of September, to the effect -that the responsibility of the blood which might be spilled, in -consequence of Anda’s refusal to accept his notification, would rest -with him. Anda published a counter manifesto, dated 28th of September, -in Bacolor (Pampanga), protesting that he had not been treated with -proper courtesy.</p> - -<p>Greater latitude was allowed to the prisoners, and Villa Corta effected -his escape dressed as a woman. He fled to Anda—the co-conspirator who -had refused to save his life—and their superficial friendship was -renewed. Villa Corta was left in charge of business in Bacolor during -Anda’s temporary absence. Meanwhile the archbishop fell ill; and it was -discussed who should be his successor in the government in the event of -his death. Villa Corta argued that it fell to him as senior magistrate. -The discussion came to the knowledge of Anda, and seriously aroused his -jealousy. Fearing conspiracy against his ambitious projects, he left his -camp at Polo, and hastened<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_313" id="page_313">{313}</a></span> to interrogate Villa Corta, who explained -that he had only made casual remarks in the course of conversation. -Anda, however, was restless on the subject of the succession, and sought -the opinion of all the chief priests and bishops. Various opinions -existed. Some urged that the decision be left to the supreme -court—others were in favor of Anda—while many abstained from -expressing their views. Anda was so nervously anxious about the matter, -that he even begged the opinion of the British commander, and wrote him -on the subject from Bacolor on the 2d of November, 1763.</p> - -<p>Major Fell seriously quarreled with Drake about the Frenchman Faller, -whom Admiral Cornish had left under sentence of death for having written -a letter to Java accusing him of being a pirate and a robber. Drake -protected Faller, while Fell demanded the execution of the prisoner; and -the dispute became so heated that Fell was about to slay Drake with a -bayonet, but was prevented by some soldiers. Fell then went to London to -complain of Drake, hence Anda’s letter was addressed to Backhouse, who -took Fell’s place. Anda, who months since had refused to negotiate or -treat with Drake, still insisted upon being styled captain-general. -Backhouse replied that he was ignorant of the Spaniards’ statutes or -laws, but that he knew the governor was the archbishop. Anda thereupon -spread the report that the British commander had forged the -preliminaries of peace because he could no longer hold out in warfare. -The British necessarily had to send to the provinces to purchase -provisions, and Anda caused their forage parties to be attacked, so that -the war really continued, in spite<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_314" id="page_314">{314}</a></span> of the news of peace, until the 30th -of January, 1764. On this day the archbishop died, sorely grieved at the -situation, and weighed down with cares. He had engaged to pay four -millions of dollars and surrender the islands, but could he indeed have -refused any terms? The British were in possession; and these conditions -were dictated at the point of the bayonet.</p> - -<p>Immediately after the funeral of the archbishop, Anda received -dispatches from the King of Spain, by way of China, confirming the news -of peace to his governor at Manila. Then the British acknowledged Anda -as governor, and proceeded to evacuate the city; but rival factions were -not so easily set aside, and fierce quarrels ensued between the -respective parties of Anda, Villa Corta and Ustariz, as to who should be -governor and receive the city officially from the British. Anda, being -actually in command of the troops, had the game in his hands. The -conflict was happily terminated by the arrival at Marinduque of the -newly appointed governor-general from Spain—Don Francisco de la Torre. -A galley was sent there by Anda to bring his excellency to Luzon, and he -arrived at Bacolor, where Anda resigned the government to him on the -17th of March, 1764.</p> - -<p>La Torre sent a message to Backhouse and Brereton—the commanding -officers at Manila and Cavite—stating that he was ready to take over -the city in due form. La Torre thereupon took up his residence in Santa -Cruz, placed a Spanish guard with sentinels from that ward as far as the -Great Bridge (Puente de Barcas, now called Puente de España), where the -British advance guard was, and friendly communication took place. -Governor<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_315" id="page_315">{315}</a></span> Drake was indignant at being ignored in all these proceedings, -and ordered the Spanish governor to withdraw his guards, under threat of -appealing to force. Backhouse and Brereton resented this rudeness, and -ordered the troops under arms to arrest Drake, whose hostile action, due -to jealousy, they declared unwarrantable. Drake, being apprised of their -intentions, escaped from the city with his suite, embarked on board a -frigate, and sailed off.</p> - -<p>La Torre was said to be indisposed on the day appointed for receiving -the city. Some assert that he feigned his indisposition, as he did not -wish to arouse Anda’s animosity, and desired to afford him an -opportunity of displaying himself as a delegate at least of the highest -local authority by receiving the city from the British, while he -pampered his pride by allowing him to enter triumphantly into it. As the -city exchanged masters, the Spanish flag was hoisted once more on the -fort of Santiago amid the hurrahs of the populace and artillery salutes.</p> - -<p>Before embarking, Brereton offered to do justice to any claims which -might be legitimately established against the British authorities. Hence -a sloop loaned to Drake, valued at four thousand dollars, was paid for -to the Jesuits, and the three thousand dollars paid to ransom Villa -Corta’s life was returned; Brereton remarking that, if the sentence -against him were valid, it should have been executed at the time, but it -could not be commuted by money payment. At the instance of the British -authorities, a free pardon was granted and published to the Chinese, few -of whom, however, confided in it, and many left with the retiring army. -Brereton, with his<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_316" id="page_316">{316}</a></span> forces, embarked for India, after dispatching a -packet-boat to restore the Sultan of Sulu to his throne.</p> - -<p>During this convulsed period, great atrocities were committed. -Unfortunately the common felons were released by the English from their -prisons, and used their liberty to perpetrate murders and robbery in -alliance with those always naturally bent that way. So great did this -evil become, so bold were the marauders, that in time they formed large -parties, infested highways, attacked plantations, and the poor peasantry -had to flee, leaving their cattle and all their belongings in their -power. Several avenged themselves of the friars for old scores, others -settled accounts with those Europeans who had tyrannized them of old. -The Chinese, whether so-called Christians or pagans, declared for and -aided the British.</p> - -<p>The proceedings of the choleric Simon de Anda y Salazar were approved by -his sovereign, but his impetuous disposition drove from him his best -counselors, while those who were bold enough to uphold their opinions -against his were accused of connivance with the British. Communications -with Europe were scant indeed in those days, but Anda could not have -been altogether ignorant of the causes of the war, which terminated with -the Treaty of Paris.</p> - -<p>On his return to Spain, after the appointment of La Torre as -governor-general, he succeeded in retaining the favor of the king, who -conferred several honors on him, making him Councilor of Castile, etc. -In the meantime Jose Raon, who replaced La Torre, had fallen into -disgrace, and Anda was appointed to the governor-generalship of the -islands.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_317" id="page_317">{317}</a></span></p> - -<p>There is perhaps no imperiousness so intolerant as that of an official -who vaunts his authority by the reflected light of his powerful patron. -Anda on his arrival avenged himself of his opposers in all directions. -He imprisoned his predecessor, several judges, military officials and -others; some he sent back to Spain, others he banished from the capital. -Thus he brought trouble upon himself. From all sides hostile resistance -increased. He quarreled with the clergy; but when his irascible temper -had exhausted itself in the course of six years, he retired to a convent -of the Austin friars, where he expired in 1776, much to the relief of -his numerous adversaries.</p> - -<p>Consequent on the troubled state of the colony, a serious rebellion -arose in Ylogan (Cagayan Province), among the Timava natives, who -flogged the commandant, and declared they would no longer pay tribute to -the Spaniards. The revolt spread to Ilocos and Pangasinan, but the -ringleaders were caught, and tranquillity was restored by the gallows.</p> - -<p>A rising far more important occurred in Ilocos Sur. The alcalde was -deposed, and escaped after he had been forced to give up his staff of -office. The leader of this revolt was a cunning and cute Manila native, -named Diego de Silan, who persuaded the people to cease paying tribute, -and declare against the Spaniards, who, he pointed out, were unable to -resist the English. The city of Vigan was in great commotion. The -vicar-general parleyed with the natives; and then, collecting his -troops, the rebels were dispersed, while some were taken prisoners; but -the bulk of the rioters rallied and attacked, and burned down part of -the city. The loyal natives fled before the flames.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_318" id="page_318">{318}</a></span> The vicar-general’s -house was taken, and the arms in it were seized. All the Austin friars -within a large surrounding neighborhood had to ransom themselves by -money payments. Silan was then acknowledged as chief over a large -territory north and south of Vigan. He appointed his lieutenants, and -issued a manifesto declaring Jesus of Nazareth to be captain-general of -the place, and that he was his alcalde for the promotion of the Catholic -religion and dominion of the King of Spain. His manifesto was wholly -that of a religious fanatic. He obliged the natives to attend mass, to -confess, and to see that their children went to school. In the midst of -all this pretended piety, he robbed cattle and exacted ransoms for the -lives of all those who could pay them; he levied a tax of one hundred -dollars on each friar. Under the pretense of keeping out the British, he -placed sentinels in all directions to prevent news reaching the terrible -Simon de Anda. But Anda, though fully informed by an Austin friar of -what transpired, had not sufficient troops to march north. He sent a -requisition to Silan to present himself within nine days, under penalty -of arrest as a traitor. While this order was published, vague reports -were intentionally spread that the Spaniards were coming to Ilocos in -great force. Many deserted Silan, but he contrived to deceive even the -clergy and others by his feigned piety. Silan sent presents to Manila -for the British, acknowledging the King of England to be his legitimate -sovereign. The British governor sent, in return, a vessel bearing -dispatches to Silan, appointing him alcalde mayor. Elated with pride, -Silan at once made this public. The natives were undeceived, for they -had<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_319" id="page_319">{319}</a></span> counted on him to deliver them from the British; now, to their -dismay, they saw him the authorized magistrate of the invader. He gave -orders to make all the Austin friars prisoners, saying that the British -would send other clergy in their stead. The friars surrendered -themselves without resistance and joined their bishop near Vigan, -awaiting the pleasure of Silan. The bishop excommunicated Silan, and -then he released some of the priests. The Christian natives having -refused to slay the friars, a secret compact was being made, with this -object, with the mountain tribes, when a half-caste named Vicos obtained -the bishop’s benediction to go and kill Silan; and the rebellion, which -had lasted from December 14, 1762, to May 28, 1763, ended.</p> - -<p>Not until a score of little battles had been fought were the numerous -riots in the provinces quelled. The loyal troops were divided into -sections, and marched north in several directions, until peace was -restored by March, 1765. Zuniga says that the Spaniards lost in these -riots about seventy Europeans and one hundred and forty natives, while -they cost the rebels quite ten thousand men.</p> - -<p>Space will not permit us to cite all the revolutionary protests which -ensued. In the time of Legaspi the submission of the Manila and Tondo -chiefs was of but local and temporary importance. Since then, and in -fact since the very beginning up to the present time, the natives have -only yielded to a force which they have repeatedly tried to overthrow.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_320" id="page_320">{320}</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII<br /><br /> -<span class="chead">THE HISPANO-AMERICAN WAR</span></h2> -<p class="chead2">THE “MAINE”—THE COURT OF INQUIRY—THE PRESIDENT’S MESSAGE—DEWEY AT -MANILA—HOBSON AND THE “MERRIMAC”—CERVERA’S RUN TO RUIN—THE -CAPITULATION OF SANTIAGO—THE MISSION OF PEACE</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">When</span> General Weyler assumed command in Cuba he issued, October 21, 1896, -the following proclamation:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>“I order and command:</p> - -<p>First—All the inhabitants of the country now outside of the line -of fortifications of the towns shall within the period of eight -days concentrate themselves in the towns so occupied by the troops. -Any individual who after the expiration of this period is found in -the uninhabited parts will be considered a rebel and tried as -such.”</p></div> - -<p>At the time when the order was issued there was living within the -western province a population of four hundred thousand men, women and -children. The result of the order was to sweep them from their homes and -fields and confine them in open-air prisons. No food whatever was -supplied to them. As a result more than half of them died.</p> - -<p>The indignation aroused became widespread. Weyler<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_321" id="page_321">{321}</a></span> was recalled. At the -time, especially in Havana among the officials who had been his -adherents and who resented his recall, there was an expressed hatred of -the United States. That hatred it is generally understood resulted, on -the night of February 15, 1898, in the blowing up of the “Maine.”</p> - -<p>The dispatch of this vessel to Cuban waters was a friendly act arranged -by our government and that of Spain as one of a series of visits to be -paid by the ironclads of the two countries to each other’s harbors. -While the “Viscaya” was en route for New York the “Maine” went to -Havana. The harbor there was subsequently shown to have been sown with -explosives.</p> - -<p>The findings of the Court of Inquiry, which was then held, as embodied -in the report of the Foreign Relations Committee, set forth that the -destruction of the “Maine” was either compassed by the official act of -the Spanish authorities, or was made possible by negligence on their -part so willful and gross as to be equivalent to criminal culpability.</p> - -<p>The line of argument is as follows: It is established that the “Maine” -was destroyed by the explosion of a submarine mine in position under her -in a Spanish harbor, at a place where she had been moored to a buoy by -the express direction and guidance of the Spanish authorities.</p> - -<p>The report of the Spanish board of inquiry, which reported, after the -most inadequate examination, that the explosion was due to the fault of -the officers of the “Maine,” and took place within the vessel itself, -was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_322" id="page_322">{322}</a></span> declared to be manifestly false, and calculated to induce public -opinion to prejudge the question. Taking this together with the fact of -the duplicity, treachery, and cruelty of the Spanish character, the -Senate concluded that the Spanish authorities must be held responsible -for the crime, either as its direct authors or as contributors thereto -by willful and gross negligence.</p> - -<p>Spain offered to refer the question as to the cause of the loss of the -“Maine” and their responsibility for the catastrophe to arbitration. The -President made no reply.</p> - -<p>On April 11, anterior circumstances already sufficiently recited, joined -to the findings of the American Commissioners, resulted in the President -sending a message to Congress, in which he said:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>“The long trial has proved that the object for which Spain has -waged the war cannot be attained. The fire of insurrection may -flame or may smolder with varying seasons, but it has not been, and -it is plain that it cannot be, extinguished by present methods. The -only hope of relief and repose from a condition which can no longer -be endured is the enforced pacification of Cuba.</p> - -<p>“In the name of humanity, in the name of civilization, in behalf of -endangered American interests which give us the right and the duty -to speak and to act, the war in Cuba must stop.</p> - -<p>“In view of these facts and of these considerations, I ask the -Congress to authorize and empower the President to take measures to -secure a full and final termination of hostilities between the -government of Spain and the people of Cuba, and to secure in the -island the establishment of a stable government capable of -maintaining order and observing its international obligations, -insuring<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_323" id="page_323">{323}</a></span> peace and tranquillity, and the security of its citizens -as well as our own, and to use the military and naval forces of the -United States as may be necessary for these purposes.</p> - -<p class="r"> -“<i>William McKinley.</i>”<br /> -</p></div> - -<p>On April 19, Congress passed the following:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang"><i>Joint resolution for the recognition of the independence of the -people of Cuba, demanding that the government of Spain -relinquish its authority and government in the island of -Cuba, and to withdraw its land and naval forces from -Cuba and Cuban waters, and directing the President of -the United States to use the land and naval forces of the -United States to carry these resolutions into effect.</i> -</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>“<i>Whereas</i>, The abhorrent conditions which have existed for more -than three years in the island of Cuba, so near our own borders, -have shocked the moral sense of the people of the United States, -have been a disgrace to Christian civilization, culminating, as -they have, in the destruction of a United States battleship, with -two hundred and sixty of its officers and crew, while on a friendly -visit in the harbor of Havana, and cannot longer be endured, as has -been set forth by the President of the United States in his message -to Congress of April 11, 1898, upon which the action of Congress -was invited; therefore be it resolved,</p> - -<p>“First—That the people of the island of Cuba are, and of right -ought to be, free and independent.</p> - -<p>“Second—That it is the duty of the United States to demand, and -the government of the United States does hereby demand, that the -government of Spain at once relinquish its authority and government -in the island of Cuba, and withdraw its land and naval forces from -Cuba and Cuban waters.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_324" id="page_324">{324}</a></span></p> - -<p>“Third—That the President of the United States be, and he hereby -is, directed and empowered to use the entire land and naval forces -of the United States, and to call into the actual service of the -United States the militia of the several States to such an extent -as may be necessary to carry these resolutions into effect.</p> - -<p>“Fourth—That the United States hereby disclaims any disposition or -intention to exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction or control over -said island, except for the pacification thereof, and asserts its -determination when that is accomplished to leave the government and -control of the island to its people.”</p></div> - -<p>The ultimatum embodied in the foregoing being rejected by Spain, -diplomatic relations were severed and hostilities ensued.</p> - -<p>On May 1, at daybreak, the Asiatic squadron, commanded by Commodore -Dewey, arrived at Manila from Hong Kong. At Cavite, within the harbor, -protected by four batteries, lay the Spanish fleet. It was commanded by -Admiral Patricio Montojo. The squadron proceeded up the bay unmolested -and made for the naval station. Two mines were exploded, but -ineffectively. At five o’clock and ten minutes the Spaniards opened -fire. Commodore Dewey set the signals, and his entire squadron advanced -to short range. The squadron consisted of the following cruisers and -gunboats: “Olympia,” “Baltimore,” “Boston,” “Raleigh,” “Concord,” -“Petrel,” and “McCulloch.”</p> - -<p>At 5.30 the “Olympia’s” 8-inch guns opened, and the squadron swung in -front of the Spanish ships and forts in single file, firing their port -guns. Then, wheeling, they passed back, firing their starboard guns. -This maneuver<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_325" id="page_325">{325}</a></span> was repeated five times, the entire American fleet -passing all the Spanish ships and batteries at each maneuver, and each -time drawing in closer and closer and delivering fire at more deadly -range. During two hours and a half there was tremendous resistance by -the Spaniards. They had eleven ships and five land batteries in full -play, against six American warships. But the American marksmanship was -faultless. Every shot seemed to count against ship or shore battery, -while most of the Spanish powder was burned in vain. At 7.45 <small>A.M.</small> the -American fleet withdrew to ascertain damages and permit the smoke to -clear. It was seen then that several Spanish ships were crippled or -burning, and it was found that the American vessels had suffered hardly -at all. Admiral Dewey called his captains into consultation and -arrangements were made for another attack. At 10.40 the attack was -renewed, the “Baltimore” leading. She advanced right upon the enemy, -shelling them constantly, and the other Americans followed, working -their guns as rapidly as they could load and fire. The effect of this -assault was terrific. Ship after ship of the Spaniards sunk or was run -ashore to keep them from sinking or falling into American hands. At -12.45 <small>P.M.</small> the Spaniards struck their colors in token of surrender. -Admiral Patricio Montojo fled to Manila, and most of the survivors fled -with him. This ended the work of May 1.</p> - -<p>On May 2, Commodore Dewey landed a force of marines at Cavite. They -completed the destruction of the Spanish fleet and batteries and -established a guard for the protection of the Spanish hospitals. The -resistance of the forts was weak. The “Olympia” turned a few<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_326" id="page_326">{326}</a></span> guns on -the Cavite arsenal, and its magazine at once exploded, killing some and -wounding many. This practically ended the fire from the batteries, the -Spanish artillerists fearing to face the American gunners. “Remember the -‘Maine’!” was the word continually passed between the ships, and every -American officer, every “Jackie,” was eager to do his utmost.</p> - -<p>After Manila and the defeat of Admiral Montojo, the successive and -concluding events of the Hispano-American war include Admiral Sampson’s -bombardment of San Juan; Hobson’s heroic experiment with the “Merrimac”; -General Shafter’s campaign; the destruction of Cervera’s squadron; the -capitulation of Santiago; General Miles’s tour in Porto Rico, and the -overtures for peace. These events may be conveniently summarized as -follows:</p> - -<p>The bombardment of San Juan was the result of a reconnaissance. The -Spanish fleet, under command of Admiral Cervera, which it was the -purpose of the Americans to capture or destroy, subsequently sought and -found shelter within the harbor of Santiago, the entrance to which -Admiral Sampson then proceeded to invest. There, while waiting to engage -the enemy, it was thought wise to attempt to block the harbor and so -prevent a possible escape. The plan originated with Lieutenant Hobson, -and its execution was left to him. On the night of June 3, with a picked -crew of seven volunteers, he steamed up in the collier “Merrimac” to the -harbor’s entrance and sank her. From the fleet the progress of the -“Merrimac” was eagerly followed.</p> - -<p>At 3.15 the first Spanish shot was fired, coming from one of the guns on -the hill to the west of the entrance.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_327" id="page_327">{327}</a></span> The shot was seen to splash -seaward from the “Merrimac,” having passed over her. The firing became -general very soon afterward, being especially fierce and rapid from the -batteries inside on the left of the harbor, probably from batteries on -Smith Cay. The flashes and reports were apparently those of rapid-fire -guns, ranging from small automatic guns to four-inch or larger. For -fifteen minutes a perfect fusillade was kept up. Then the fire -slackened, and by 3.30 had almost ceased. There was a little desultory -firing until about 3.45, when all became quiet. Daylight came at about -five o’clock.</p> - -<p>At about 5.15 <small>A.M.</small>, a launch, which, under Cadet Powell, had followed -the “Merrimac,” in order if possible to rescue Hobson and his men, was -seen steaming from west to east, near or across the mouth of the harbor. -She steamed back from east to west and began skirting the coast to the -west of the entrance. The battery on the hill to the left opened fire on -her, but did not make good practice. The launch continued her course as -far westward as a small cove and then headed for the “Texas,” steaming -at full speed. Several shots were fired at her from the battery on the -left as she steamed out.</p> - -<p>It was broad daylight by this time. Cadet Powell came alongside the -“Texas” and reported that “No one had come out of the entrance of the -harbor.” His words sounded like the death knell of all who had gone in -on the “Merrimac.” It seemed incredible, almost impossible, any of them -could have lived through the awful fire that was directed at the ship. -Cadet Powell said that he had followed behind the ship at a distance of -four or five hundred yards. Hobson missed the entrance of the harbor at<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_328" id="page_328">{328}</a></span> -first, having gone too far to the westward; he almost ran aground. The -launch picked up the entrance and directed the “Merrimac” in. From the -launch the collier was seen until she rounded the bend of the channel -and until the helm had been put to port to swing her into position -across the channel. There was probably no one in the fleet who did not -think that all seven of the men had perished. In the afternoon, much to -the surprise of every one, a tug flying a flag of truce was seen coming -out of the entrance. The “Vixen,” flying a tablecloth at the fore, went -to meet the tug. A Spanish officer went aboard the “Vixen” from the tug -and was taken aboard the flagship. Not long afterward a signal was made -that Murphy of the “Iowa” was saved and was a prisoner of war. About -four o’clock another signal was made from the flagship: “Collier’s crew -prisoners of war; two slightly wounded. All well.”</p> - -<p>It can be easily imagined what relief this signal brought to all hands, -who had been mourning the death of all these men. The Spanish officer -said also that the prisoners were confined in Morro Castle. He said -further that Admiral Cervera considered the attempt to run in and sink -the “Merrimac” across the channel an act of such great bravery and -desperate daring that he (the Admiral) thought it very proper that our -naval officers should be notified of the safety of these men. Whatever -the motive for sending out the tug with the flag of truce, the act was a -most graceful one, and one of most chivalrous courtesy. The Spanish -officer is reported to have said: “You have made it more difficult, but -we can still get out.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_329" id="page_329">{329}</a></span>”</p> - -<p>The daring evinced by Hobson was instantly recognized, but the -importance of his achievement was not appreciated until July 3, when -Cervera’s desperate attempt to escape, would, in all likelihood, have -been partly successful but for the fact that his vessels were obliged to -leave the harbor in single file.</p> - -<p>Let us, however, recapitulate in their order the events which followed -the sinking of the “Merrimac,” news whereof was received on June 4. On -June 5, a bombardment of the Morro Castle, commanding the mouth of -Santiago Harbor, took place, but no serious impression seems to have -been made upon the fortress at that time, although some neighboring -earthworks were destroyed. Two days later, there was a more effective -bombardment of the harbor fortifications by Admiral Sampson, but the -Morro Castle still held out and protected the entrance to the port by -its ability to deliver a plunging fire. On June 9, it was known that -twelve thousand men, or about half of our regular army, together with a -number of volunteer regiments, under General Shafter, had set sail from -Tampa, and, on the following day, the Spaniards began preparations for a -vigorous defense of Santiago against a land force by means of carefully -planned intrenchments. On June 11, a body of United States marines -landed at Guantanamo Bay, and, on the three ensuing days, sustained -successfully determined assaults by the Spaniards. On June 15, the -“Vesuvius,” carrying a pneumatic gun, which discharges a tube loaded -with dynamite, arrived off Santiago, and fully justified the -expectations of her inventor by the efficient part which she took in the -bombardment. Since June 7, the Span<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_330" id="page_330">{330}</a></span>iards had attempted to repair the -Santiago forts, and had, to some extent, succeeded in doing so; -consequently, on June 16, Admiral Sampson ordered the ships to open fire -on them again, and, in this assault, is said to have discharged five -hundred thousand pounds of metal.</p> - -<p>It was not until June 22, or thirteen days after his departure from -Tampa, that General Shafter landed his troops at Baiquiri, a point on -the coast some miles southwest of Santiago. There was furious fighting -during the three following days, and there was a grievous loss of life -on the American side, infantry and dismounted cavalry having been -ordered or allowed to attack intrenchments without artillery support. -The necessity of heavy siege guns was at once clear to professional -soldiers, but these could not be moved from the transports to the shore, -because only one lighter had been brought from Tampa, and even that one -had been lost. This loss could have been quickly repaired, had not -General Shafter refused to take with him from Tampa the signal train -that had been made ready for him, on the ground that he “only wanted men -who could carry muskets.” The result of this indifference to a branch of -the service which constitutes the eyes, ears and voice of a modern army, -was that it required two days to transmit a request from Shafter’s -headquarters to the point where the cable could be used. On June 29, not -having, as yet, any heavy siege guns in position, and not having so -surrounded the city as to prevent the re-enforcement or escape of its -garrison, General Shafter telegraphed to Washington: “I can take -Santiago in forty-eight hours.” On July 1 and 2,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_331" id="page_331">{331}</a></span> General Shafter made -resolute assaults upon the Spanish intrenchments and carried many of -them, advancing his own lines very much nearer the city. The advantage -thus gained, however, had cost him a considerable fraction of his force. -The whole number of Americans killed, wounded and missing during the -land operations reached ten per cent of the number with which General -Shafter landed on June 22. Of these land engagements the most notable -were those of Aguadores, El Caney and San Juan.</p> - -<p>The battle of San Juan is described as follows:</p> - -<p>The dawn of July 1 found the troops of Wheeler’s division bivouacked on -the eminence of El Pozo. Kent’s division bivouacked near the road back -of El Pozo. Grimes’s battery went into position about two hundred and -fifty yards west of the ruined buildings of El Pozo soon after sunrise -and prepared gun pits. Grimes’s battery opened fire against San Juan a -little before 8 <small>A.M.</small> The troops of the cavalry division were scattered -about on El Pozo Hill in the rear and around the battery, without order -and with no view to their protection from the Spanish fire. This -condition rectified itself when the Spaniards, after five or six shots -by the American battery, replied with shrapnel fire at correct range and -with accurately adjusted fuses, killing two men at the first shot After -some firing soon after 9 <small>A.M.</small> Wheeler’s division was put in march toward -Santiago. Crossing Aguadores stream, it turned to the right, under -General Sumner, who was in command at that time owing to General -Wheeler’s illness. Scattering shots were fired by the Spaniards before -the arrival of the first troops at the crossing,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_332" id="page_332">{332}</a></span> but their volley -firing did not commence until the dismounted cavalry went into position, -crossing open ground. Kent’s division followed Wheeler’s, moving across -the stream, and advanced along the road in close order under a severe -enfilading fire. After advancing some distance, it turned off to the -left. Lieutenant Ord (killed in battle) made a reconnaissance from a -large tree on the banks of the stream.</p> - -<p>At about one o’clock, after a delay of nearly two hours’ waiting for the -troops to reach their positions, the whole force advanced, charged, and -carried the first line of intrenchments. They were afterward formed on -the crest and there threw up intrenchments facing the second line at a -distance of from five hundred to one thousand yards.</p> - -<p>We pass to the memorable naval combat of July 3, which annihilated -Cervera’s squadron, and dealt the deathblow to Spain’s hope of making -head against America on the sea. There is, of course, no foundation for -the report that Admiral Cervera resolved to fly because he knew that -Santiago would be immediately taken. The truth is that, on July 2, he -received peremptory orders from Madrid to leave Santiago at once, no -matter what might be the consequences; to engage the American fleet, and -to make his way, if possible, to Havana, where he would raise the -blockade. These orders he did his best to execute on the morning of July -3, having been informed by signal that Admiral Sampson’s flagship, the -“New York,” and a large part of the American fleet, were lying at some -distance toward the east, and that only the “Brooklyn,” “Texas” and -“Iowa” would have to be encountered if<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_333" id="page_333">{333}</a></span> the escaping ships moved -westward. There was a mistake in this computation, for the “Oregon” also -took an important part in the action, and so did the little -“Gloucester,” a converted yacht, which did not hesitate, single-handed, -to engage both of the torpedo-boat destroyers. With such information as -he could procure, however, Admiral Cervera believed that his ships could -outsail all of those blockading the mouth of the harbor, except the -“Brooklyn,” and that, if the “Brooklyn” could be disabled, some, at -least, of his vessels could escape. Accordingly, orders were issued by -the Spanish admiral to proceed at full speed to the westward after -clearing the entrance, and to concentrate fire upon the “Brooklyn.” In -the attempt to carry out this programme, the four warships, “Maria -Teresa,” “Almirante Oquendo,” “Vizcaya” and “Cristobal Colon,” followed -by the torpedo-boat destroyers “Pluton” and “Furor,” in the order named -and in single file, pushed with all steam up through the narrow passage -which had been left by the sunken “Merrimac.” The concerted endeavor to -disable the “Brooklyn” failed, and it turned out that both the “Oregon” -and “Texas” were faster than the “Cristobal Colon,” which was much the -swiftest of the Spanish squadron. The “Maria Teresa,” the “Almirante -Oquendo” and the “Vizcaya” were successively riddled and put <i>hors de -combat</i> by the rapid and accurate firing of the American ships, and were -beached by their officers to avoid, not so much surrender, as the danger -of explosion. The “Cristobal Colon” succeeded in reaching a point about -fifty miles from Santiago, when it was headed off not only by the -protected cruiser “Brooklyn,” but also by the iron<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_334" id="page_334">{334}</a></span>clads “Oregon” and -“Texas.” From that moment, escape was seen to be impossible, so the -commander beached his ship and hauled down his flag. This closing -incident of the battle took place at 1.20 <small>P.M.</small>, almost exactly four -hours after the leading vessel of the escaping column, the “Maria -Teresa,” had passed the Morro. Meanwhile, the little “Gloucester,” under -Commander Richard Wainwright, had stopped both of the torpedo-boat -destroyers, received their fire, and detained them until an ironclad -came up.</p> - -<p>It will be observed that the Spanish squadron did not have to contend -with the whole of the American fleet, but that, on the contrary, the -forces engaged were, on paper, much more nearly equal than is generally -understood. The Americans had the first-class battleships “Oregon” and -“Iowa,” the second-class battleship “Texas,” the protected cruiser -“Brooklyn,” and the converted yacht “Gloucester.” The Spaniards, on -their part, had one armored cruiser, three protected cruisers, and two -torpedo-boat destroyers. It is certainly a remarkable fact, and one -almost without a parallel in naval annals, if we except Dewey’s -achievement at Manila, that not a single one of the Spanish vessels -should have managed to escape. The honor of the almost unique victory at -Santiago belongs, beyond a doubt, to Commodore Schley, for, at the -beginning of the action, Admiral Sampson, in his flagship, the “New -York,” was out of sight, and he remained out of signal distance until -almost the end.</p> - -<p>Almost immediately after these incidents an expedition under command of -General Miles proceeded to Porto Rico, where, on the southwest coast, at -the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_335" id="page_335">{335}</a></span> little village of Guanica, a landing was effected on July 25.</p> - -<p>Twenty-four hours later, the Spanish Government, through M. Jules -Cambon, the French Embassador at Washington, made a formal proposal for -ending the war and arranging terms of peace.</p> - -<p>As a basis for peace negotiations it was stipulated that Spain should -first relinquish her sovereignty over any part of the Western -Hemisphere, that the Spanish forces in Porto Rico and Cuba should be -withdrawn unassisted by the United States, and that Manila should be -surrendered to the American forces.</p> - -<p>The aggressive operations of the American forces in Porto Rico and in -the Philippines hastened the acceptance of these terms by Spain. The -severest engagement of the campaign in Porto Rico was fought at Coamo on -August 9. Here the Spanish commanding officer, Major Rafael M. Yllesca, -was killed, after having defended his critical position with great -bravery. From all sides the Americans now advanced upon San Juan de -Porto Rico, the most important stronghold of the island.</p> - -<p>In the Philippines, likewise, events were nearing a crisis. On August 7 -Captain-General Augustin was served with a joint note from Admiral Dewey -and General Merritt, commanding the American forces around Manila, -advising him to remove all non-combatants in anticipation of attack. -General Augustin refused to accept the responsibility of either -defending or surrendering Manila, and accordingly resigned his command. -General Fernain Jaudenes, who succeeded him, declined to remove his -non-combatants in view of the threatening attitude of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_336" id="page_336">{336}</a></span> the Filipinos -around Manila, and resolutely prepared for the worst.</p> - -<p>On August 12 the home government in Spain gave in, and authorized the -French Embassador in Washington to sign the peace protocol agreed upon -in behalf of Spain. The instrument was formally executed during the -afternoon of the same day. Its exact text was as follows:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang"> -<i>Protocol of agreement between the United States and Spain, -embodying the terms of a basis for the establishment of peace -between the two countries</i>:</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>William R. Day, Secretary of State of the United States, and his -Excellency Jules Cambon, Embassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of -the Republic of France at Washington, respectively possessing for this -purpose full authority from the Government of the United States and the -Government of Spain, have concluded and signed the following articles, -embodying the terms on which the two Governments have agreed in respect -to the matters hereinafter set forth, having in view the establishment -of peace between the two countries, that is to say:</p> - -<p>Article I. Spain will relinquish all claim of sovereignty over and title -to Cuba.</p> - -<p>Article II. Spain will cede to the United States the island of Porto -Rico and other islands now under Spanish sovereignty in the West Indies, -and also an island in the Ladrones, to be selected by the United States.</p> - -<p>Article III. The United States will occupy and hold the city, bay, and -harbor of Manila pending the conclusion of the treaty of peace, which -shall determine the control, disposition, and government of the -Philippines.</p> - -<p>Article IV. Spain will immediately evacuate Cuba, Porto Rico, and other -islands now under Spanish sovereignty in the West Indies; and to this -end each Govern<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_337" id="page_337">{337}</a></span>ment will, within ten days after the signing of this -protocol, appoint Commissioners, and the Commissioners so appointed -shall, within thirty days after the signing of this protocol, meet at -Havana for the purpose of arranging and carrying out the details of the -aforesaid evacuation of Cuba and the adjacent Spanish islands, and each -Government will, within ten days after the signing of this protocol, -appoint other Commissioners, who shall, within thirty days after the -signing of this protocol, meet at San Juan, in Porto Rico, for the -purpose of arranging and carrying out the details of the aforesaid -evacuation of Porto Rico and other islands now under Spanish sovereignty -in the West Indies.</p> - -<p>Article V. The United States and Spain will each appoint not more than -five Commissioners to treat of peace, and the Commissioners so appointed -shall meet at Paris not later than October 1, 1898, and proceed to the -negotiation and conclusion of a treaty of peace, which treaty shall be -subject to ratification according to the respective constitutional forms -of the two countries.</p> - -<p>Article VI. Upon the conclusion and signing of this protocol hostilities -between the two countries shall be suspended, and notice to that effect -shall be given as soon as possible by each Government to the commanders -of its military and naval forces.</p> - -<p>Done at Washington, in duplicate, in English and in French, by the -undersigned, who have hereunto set their hands and seals, the 12th day -of August, 1898.</p> - -<p class="rt"> -(Seal.) <span class="smcap">William R. Day.</span><br /> -(Seal.) <span class="smcap">Jules Cambon.</span><br /> -</p></div> - -<p>An armistice was declared at once, and mutual orders were issued to -cease hostilities. The blockade of Cuba was raised. Owing to delay in -the transmission of these orders the war in the Philippines was -continued for twenty-four hours. On August 13, General Fernain Jaudenes, -who<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_338" id="page_338">{338}</a></span> had succeeded Governor-General Augustin, succumbed to a combined -attack of the American army and navy forces, and signed a formal -capitulation with all the honors of war. The last battle of the war was -a naval engagement off Caibarien, in Cuba, between the Spanish gunboat -“Herman Cortes” and the American gunboat “Mangrove.” While the two -vessels were still engaged the news of the suspension of hostilities was -signaled from shore.</p> - -<p>On September 15 the Queen-Regent approved the appointment of the -following Peace Commissioners: Eugenio Montero Rios, President of the -Senate; Buenaventura Abarzuza, Senator; Wenceslao Ramirez de -Villa-Urrutia, Embassador to Belgium; General Rafael Cerero y Saluz, and -José de Garnica, Associate Judge of the Supreme Court. Senor Ojeda -served as secretary. The American Peace Commissioners were William R. -Day, ex-Secretary of State; Senators Cushman K. Davis, William P. Frye, -and George Gray, with Whitelaw Reid, American Embassador to France. The -joint sessions of the two bodies at Paris began on October 1, and ended -with the signing of a conclusive peace treaty on December 10.</p> - -<p>The full text of the peace treaty was as follows:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>The United States of America and her Majesty the Queen-Regent of -Spain, in the name of her august son, Don Alfonso XIII., desiring -to end the state of war now existing between the two countries, -have for that purpose appointed as plenipotentiaries:</p> - -<p>The President of the United States:</p> - -<p>William R. Day, Cushman K. Davis, William P. Frye, George Gray, and -Whitelaw Reid, citizens of the United States;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_339" id="page_339">{339}</a></span></p> - -<p>And her Majesty the Queen-Regent of Spain:</p> - -<p>Don Eugenio Montero Rios, President of the Senate; Don Buenaventura -de Abarzuza, Senator of the Kingdom and ex-Minister of the Crown; -Don José de Garnica, Deputy to the Cortes and Associate Justice of -the Supreme Court; Don Wenceslao Ramirez de Villa-Urrutia, Envoy -Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary at Brussels, and Don -Rafael Cerero, General of Division.</p> - -<p>Who, having assembled in Paris and having exchanged their full -powers, which were found to be in due and proper form, have, after -discussion of the matters before them, agreed upon the following -articles:</p> - -<p class="chead2">ARTICLE I</p> -<p>Spain relinquishes all claim of sovereignty over and title to Cuba.</p> - -<p>And as the island is, upon its evacuation by Spain, to be occupied -by the United States, the United States will, so long as such -occupation shall last, assume and discharge the obligations that -may under international law result from the fact of its occupation -for the protection of life and property.</p> - -<p class="chead2">ARTICLE II</p> -<p>Spain cedes to the United States the island of Porto Rico and other -islands now under Spanish sovereignty in the West Indies, and the -island of Guam, in the Mariannes or Ladrones.</p> - -<p class="chead2">ARTICLE III</p> -<p>Spain cedes to the United States the archipelago known as the -Philippine Islands, and comprehending the islands lying within the -following lines:</p> - -<p>A line running from west to east along or near the twentieth -parallel of north latitude, and through the middle of the navigable -channel of Bachti, from the one hundred and eighteenth to the one -hundred and twenty-seventh degree<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_340" id="page_340">{340}</a></span> meridian of longitude east of -Greenwich, thence along the one hundred and twenty-seventh degree -meridian of longitude east of Greenwich to the parallel of four -degrees and forty-five minutes north latitude, thence along the -parallel of four degrees and forty-five minutes north latitude to -its intersection with the meridian of longitude one hundred and -nineteen degrees and thirty-five minutes east of Greenwich, thence -along the meridian of longitude one hundred and nineteen degrees -and thirty-five minutes east of Greenwich to the parallel of -latitude seven degrees and forty minutes north, thence along the -parallel of latitude seven degrees and forty minutes north to its -intersection with the one hundred and sixteenth degree meridian of -longitude east of Greenwich, thence by a direct line to the -intersection of the tenth degree parallel of north latitude with -the one hundred and eighteenth degree meridian of longitude east of -Greenwich, and thence along the one hundred and eighteenth degree -meridian of longitude east of Greenwich to the point of beginning.</p> - -<p>The United States will pay to Spain the sum of $20,000,000 within -three months after the exchange of the ratifications of the present -treaty.</p> - -<p class="chead2">ARTICLE IV</p> -<p>The United States will, for ten years from the date of exchange of -ratifications of the present treaty, admit Spanish ships and -merchandise to the ports of the Philippine Islands on the same -terms as ships and merchandise of the United States.</p> - -<p class="chead2">ARTICLE V</p> -<p>The United States will, upon the signature of the present treaty, -send back to Spain, at its own cost, the Spanish soldiers taken as -prisoners of war on the capture of Manila by the American forces. -The arms of the soldiers in question shall be restored to them.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_341" id="page_341">{341}</a></span></p> - -<p>Spain will, upon the exchange of the ratifications of the present -treaty, proceed to evacuate the Philippines, as well as the island -of Guam, on terms similar to those agreed upon by the Commissioners -appointed to arrange for the evacuation of Porto Rico and other -islands in the West Indies under the protocol of August 12, 1898, -which is to continue in force till its provisions are completely -executed.</p> - -<p>The time within which the evacuation of the Philippine Islands and -Guam shall be completed shall be fixed by the two Governments. -Stands of colors, uncaptured war vessels, small arms, guns of all -calibers, with their carriages and accessories, powder, ammunition, -live stock, and materials and supplies of all kinds belonging to -the land and naval forces of Spain in the Philippines and Guam -remain the property of Spain. Pieces of heavy ordnance, exclusive -of field artillery, in the fortifications and coast defenses shall -remain in their emplacements for the term of six months, to be -reckoned from the exchange of ratifications of the treaty; and the -United States may in the meantime purchase such material from Spain -if a satisfactory agreement between the two Governments on the -subject shall be reached.</p> - -<p class="chead2">ARTICLE VI</p> -<p>Spain will, upon the signature of the present treaty, release all -prisoners of war and all persons detained or imprisoned for -political offenses in connection with the insurrections in Cuba and -the Philippines and the war with the United States.</p> - -<p>Reciprocally the United States will release all persons made -prisoners of war by the American forces, and will undertake to -obtain the release of all Spanish prisoners in the hands of the -insurgents in Cuba and the Philippines.</p> - -<p>The Government of the United States will at its own cost return to -Spain, and the Government of Spain will at<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_342" id="page_342">{342}</a></span> its own cost return to -the United States, Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines, according -to the situation of their respective homes, prisoners released or -caused to be released by them, respectively, under this article.</p> - -<p class="chead2">ARTICLE VII</p> -<p>The United States and Spain mutually relinquish all claims for -indemnity, national and individual, of every kind, of either -Government, or of its citizens or subjects, against the other -Government, which may have arisen since the beginning of the late -insurrection in Cuba and prior to the exchange of ratifications of -the present treaty, including all claims for indemnity for the cost -of the war. The United States will adjudicate and settle the claims -of its citizens against Spain relinquished in this article.</p> - -<p class="chead2">ARTICLE VIII</p> -<p>In conformity with the provisions of Articles I., II. and III. of -this treaty, Spain relinquishes in Cuba and cedes in Porto Rico and -other islands in the West Indies, in the island of Guam, and in the -Philippine Archipelago all the buildings, wharves, barracks, forts, -structures, public highways, and other immovable property which in -conformity with law belong to the public domain and as such belong -to the Crown of Spain.</p> - -<p>And it is hereby declared that the relinquishment or cession, as -the case may be, to which the preceding paragraph refers, cannot in -any respect impair the property or rights which by law belong to -the peaceful possession of property of all kinds of provinces, -municipalities, public or private establishments, ecclesiastical or -civic bodies, or any other associations having legal capacity to -acquire and possess property in the aforesaid territories, -renounced or ceded, or of private individuals, of whatsoever -nationality such individuals may be.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_343" id="page_343">{343}</a></span></p> - -<p>The aforesaid relinquishment or cession, as the case may be, -includes all documents exclusively referring to the sovereignty -relinquished or ceded that may exist in the archives of the -Peninsula. Where any document in such archives only in part relates -to said sovereignty a copy of such part will be furnished whenever -it shall be requested. Like rules shall be reciprocally observed in -favor of Spain in respect of documents in the archives of the -islands above referred to.</p> - -<p>In the aforesaid relinquishment or cession, as the case may be, are -also included such rights as the Crown of Spain and its authorities -possess in respect of the official archives and records, executive -as well as judicial, in the islands above referred to, which relate -to said islands or the rights and property of their inhabitants. -Such archives and records shall be carefully preserved, and private -persons shall, without distinction, have the right to require, in -accordance with the law, authenticated copies of the contracts, -wills, and other instruments forming part of notarial protocols or -files, or which may be contained in the executive or judicial -archives, be the latter in Spain or in the islands aforesaid.</p> - -<p class="chead2">ARTICLE IX</p> -<p>Spanish subjects, natives of the Peninsula, residing in the -territory over which Spain by the present treaty relinquishes or -cedes her sovereignty, may remain in such territory or may remove -therefrom, retaining in either event all their rights of property, -including the right to sell or dispose of such property or of its -proceeds; and they shall also have the right to carry on their -industry, commerce, and professions, being subject in respect -thereof to such laws as are applicable to other foreigners. In case -they remain in the territory they may preserve their allegiance to -the Crown of Spain by making, before a court of record, within a -year from the date of the exchange of ratifications of this treaty, -a declaration of their decision to preserve such allegiance; in -default of which declaration they shall be held to have<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_344" id="page_344">{344}</a></span> renounced -it and to have adopted the nationality of the territory in which -they may reside.</p> - -<p>The civil rights and political status of the native inhabitants of -the territories hereby ceded to the United States shall be -determined by the Congress.</p> - -<p class="chead2">ARTICLE X</p> -<p>The inhabitants of the territories over which Spain relinquishes or -cedes her sovereignty shall be secured in the free exercise of -their religion.</p> - -<p class="chead2">ARTICLE XI</p> -<p>The Spaniards residing in the territories over which Spain by this -treaty cedes or relinquishes her sovereignty shall be subject in -matters civil as well as criminal to the jurisdiction of the courts -of the country wherein they reside, pursuant to the ordinary laws -governing the same; and they shall have the right to appear before -such courts and to pursue the same course as citizens of the -country to which the courts belong.</p> - -<p class="chead2">ARTICLE XII</p> -<p>Judicial proceedings pending at the time of the exchange of -ratifications of this treaty in the territories over which Spain -relinquishes or cedes her sovereignty shall be determined according -to the following rules:</p> - -<p>First—Judgments rendered either in civil suits between private -individuals, or in criminal matters, before the date mentioned, and -with respect to which there is no recourse or right of review under -the Spanish law, shall be deemed to be final, and shall be executed -in due form by competent authority in the territory within which -such judgments should be carried out.</p> - -<p>Second—Civil suits between private individuals which may on the -date mentioned be undetermined shall be prosecuted to judgment -before the court in which they may then be pending, or in the court -that may be substituted therefor.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_345" id="page_345">{345}</a></span></p> - -<p>Third—Criminal actions pending on the date mentioned before the -Supreme Court of Spain against citizens of the territory which by -this treaty ceases to be Spanish shall continue under its -jurisdiction until final judgment; but, such judgment having been -rendered, the execution thereof shall be committed to the competent -authority of the place in which the case arose.</p> - -<p class="chead2">ARTICLE XIII</p> -<p>The rights of property secured by copyrights and patents acquired -by Spaniards in the island of Cuba, and in Porto Rico, the -Philippines, and other ceded territories, at the time of the -exchange of the ratifications of this treaty, shall continue to be -respected. Spanish scientific, literary and artistic works not -subversive of public order in the territories in question shall -continue to be admitted free of duty into such territories for the -period of ten years, to be reckoned from the date of the exchange -of the ratifications of this treaty.</p> - -<p class="chead2">ARTICLE XIV</p> -<p>Spain shall have the power to establish consular officers in the -ports and places of the territories the sovereignty over which has -either been relinquished or ceded by the present treaty.</p> - -<p class="chead2">ARTICLE XV</p> -<p>The Government of each country will, for the term of ten years, -accord to the merchant vessels of the other country the same -treatment in respect to all port charges, including entrance and -clearance dues, light dues and tonnage duties, as it accords to its -own merchant vessels not engaged in the coastwise trade.</p> - -<p>This article may at any time be terminated on six months’ notice -given by either Government to the other.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_346" id="page_346">{346}</a></span></p> - -<p class="chead2">ARTICLE XVI</p> -<p>It is understood that any obligations assumed in this treaty by the -United States with respect to Cuba are limited to the time of its -occupancy thereof; but it will upon the termination of such -occupancy advise any Government established in the island to assume -the same obligations.</p> - -<p class="chead2">ARTICLE XVII</p> -<p>The present treaty shall be ratified by the President of the United -States, by and with the consent of the Senate thereof, and by Her -Majesty the Queen Regent of Spain; and the ratifications shall be -exchanged at Washington within six months from the date hereof, or -earlier if possible.</p> - -<p>In faith whereof we, the respective plenipotentiaries, have signed -this treaty, and have hereunto affixed our seals.</p> - -<p>Done in duplicate at Paris the tenth day of December, in the year -of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and ninety-eight.</p></div> - -<p>In pursuance of these terms the evacuation of Porto Rico, Cuba and of -the Philippine Islands was carried to a successful end, under the -supervision of the Evacuation Commissioners appointed by Spain.</p> - -<p>After the peace treaty had been ratified by the American Senate and -signed by President McKinley, on February 10, it received the signature -of the Queen Regent on March 17, the Cortes having been prorogued.</p> - -<p>In a Red Book on the peace treaty issued by the Government later in the -year, Senor Rios thus explained Spain’s predicaments:</p> - -<p>“The prostration and bloodless indifference of the public mind -constantly alluded to in the press, the want of well meditated -exposition of a high plane in the discus<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_347" id="page_347">{347}</a></span>sion and defense of Spain, -especially those which related to the colonial debts, perhaps the most -important which she had to assert in the conference; the multiplicity of -opinions constantly manifested during these negotiations on the other -points to be determined in the treaty; the eagerness apparent from the -first day on the part of this press that the Philippine Archipelago -should be abandoned, its preservation being considered incompatible with -the national interests; the incessant excitation of another part of the -press for this Commission to promptly terminate in any way whatever its -labors, giving way at once to the exigencies of the Federal Government, -and many other things which converted the Spanish press into a subject -for the preferred attention of the American Commissioners, weakened the -moral influence of this Commission and the force of its demands and of -the reasons on which it founded them. Would to God that they may not -also have strengthened the spirit of the American Commission to uphold -and amplify its exactions!</p> - -<p>“The Spanish Commission, considering the narrow limits in which it could -move and which had been irrevocably fixed for Spain in the preliminaries -of peace signed at Washington on August 12 last, during these -negotiations constantly drew inspiration for its acts in the purpose to -save from the ruin of the colonial empire of Spain such remnants as were -possible, however lacking in importance these remnants might be, and, -above all, in its unconquerable resolve to never consent that the honor -and the dignity of the fatherland should become stained.</p> - -<p>“As regards the question of the ‘Maine,’ the truth is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_348" id="page_348">{348}</a></span> that above all -precedents there weighed upon the American Commission the inability of -giving any satisfactory reply to the Spanish protest, because of the -action of the President of the Union—violative of the most elementary -dictates of generosity and prudence—on recalling, with language -offensive to Spain, the ‘Maine’ incident on the most solemn occasion in -the public life of the United States, and when the negotiations for the -re-establishment of peace were on the point of terminating.</p> - -<p>“The Commission believes, then, that it has done its duty. It -understands the treaty concluded is the least prejudicial for Spain that -it was possible to obtain in view of the foreign circumstances, which -could not but inevitably bear down their heavy weight upon her. It -trusts that the coming time will demonstrate this, and it entertains the -hope that, despite the solution imposed on the terrible crisis through -which the nation has just passed, it may soon recover its strength and -grandeur, and it believes, finally, that the honor and the dignity of -the fatherland have been saved in these painful negotiations as the most -precious remnants of the wreck of the old Spanish colonial empire.”</p> - -<p>The subsequent Bale of the Caroline and Ladrone Islands to Germany, for -the sum of 5,000,000 pesos, disposed of the last remnants of the Spanish -colonial empire. The Ministry of Colonies was abolished. Then followed a -series of military and naval courts-martial of the various commanding -officers implicated in the capitulations of Manila and Santiago de Cuba, -notably Admirals Montojo, Cervera and Generals Augustin, Jaudenes, -Linares and Toral. The officers laid the responsibility for their -actions at the door<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_349" id="page_349">{349}</a></span> of the Ministry of Marine. Minister d’Aunon had to -resign.</p> - -<p>Another Cabinet crisis resulted in a new Ministry composed of the -following members—President of Council and Minister Foreign Affairs, -Senor Silvela; War, General Azcarraga; Marine, Admiral Gomez Imaz; -Interior, Senor Dato; Finance, Senor Villaverde; Public Works, Marquis -Pidel; Justice, Senor Bas.</p> - -<p>Later Count Torreanaz succeeded Senor Bas in the Ministry of Justice, -and General Weyler became Minister of War.</p> - -<p>Weyler’s most formidable rival, Marshal Arsenio Martinez de Campos, -former Captain-General of Spain and Cuba, died in 1900 at Zarauz. With -Jovellar, he issued the pronunciamiento of Sagoote, through which -Alfonso reached the throne. Placed in full command of the Spanish forces -by young Alfonso, he ended the civil war by defeating Don Carlos at Pena -de la Plata in 1876. Despatched to Cuba, he succeeded in putting a stop -to the ten years’ war there by his liberal concessions to the -insurgents. Later he was once more sent to Cuba to cope with the final -insurrection in that island. But his measures were held to be too -conciliatory, and he was recalled in 1895, without having accomplished -his task. Campos never recovered from this disgrace.</p> - -<p>The accession of King Alfonso XIII. to the throne, as actual ruler, was -set for his sixteenth birthday, May 17, 1902. Accordingly his mother -delivered her last speech from the throne as Queen-Regent in June of the -preceding year.</p> - -<p>The complete list of titles falling to the little king upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_350" id="page_350">{350}</a></span> his -accession are in themselves an epitome of Spain’s former historic -grandeur. King Alfonso’s full royal titles are: “His Most Catholic -Majesty, Alfonso, King of Spain, Castile and Léon, Aragon, the Two -Sicilies, Jerusalem, the Canary Islands, the East and West Indies, -India, the Oceanic Continent, and King of Gibraltar.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_351" id="page_351">{351}</a></span>”</p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII<br /><br /> -<span class="chead">SPANISH ART, LITERATURE, AND SPORT</span></h2> - -<h3><a name="I" id="I"></a>I<br /><br /><i>PAINTING AND ARCHITECTURE</i></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Early</span> Spanish paintings are feeble imitations of Italian and Flemish -art. They lack the simplicity of the one and the realism of the other. -In color they are somber and monotonous—two qualities which -characterize the whole Spanish school. The value of this school has been -curiously overrated. Comparatively speaking of brief existence, it has -produced but two great painters—Velasquez and Murillo. Their -contemporaries, Zurbaran, Del Mazo, Ribera, Alonso Cano, Herrera and -Roelas, were men of ability, no doubt, but they were not masters.</p> - -<p>Excellent examples of Velasquez and of Murillo are to be found to-day in -the Museum of the Prado at Madrid, and in the Art Gallery of Seville. -The cathedrals and churches generally contain works of the principal -painters, both of the early and later times; but placed, as a rule, in -“Retablos” or altar-pieces, they are poorly exposed and difficult to -view.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Don Diego Velasquez de Silva</span>, or simply <span class="smcap">Velasquez</span>, the greatest painter -that Spain has produced, was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_352" id="page_352">{352}</a></span> born at Seville, in 1599, of parents of -Portuguese origin, and died at Madrid in 1660. He married in his youth -the daughter of <span class="smcap">Francisco Pacheco</span>, a painter of inferior merit, but a -learned writer on art, from whose advice and instruction he derived much -advantage. Velasquez showed from his childhood a genius for painting. He -began by copying carefully from nature, still life, and living models, -forming himself upon the study of pictures by Ribera and by Italian -masters of the Naturalistic school, which had been brought from Italy to -Spain. The best examples of his first manner are “The Adoration of the -Kings” and his famous “Borrachos,” or drunkards, in the Madrid Gallery. -In them the influence of Caravaggio and Ribera is very evident. In the -twenty-third year of his age he went to Madrid, and, attracting the -notice of influential persons, was soon taken into the service of Philip -IV.—an enthusiastic lover of art, and himself a painter. He remained -there for the rest of his life, and his pictures were almost exclusively -painted for his royal patron and for the grandees of the Spanish court. -A friendship with Rubens, who was in Madrid as embassador from the King -of England, in 1628, and two visits to Italy, in 1629 and 1648, led him -to modify his early manner. From the study at Venice of the masterpieces -of Titian and Tintoret, he acquired a greater harmony and transparency -of color, and a freer and firmer touch, without departing from that -truthful representation of nature which he always sought to attain. On -his second visit to Italy he chiefly studied in Rome. He again changed -his style: his coloring became more what the Italians term “sfumato,” or -hazy; and he returned, to some extent, to his early general soberness of -tone, rarely introducing bright colors into his last pictures.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_353" id="page_353">{353}</a></span> -Velasquez’s second and third manners, as well as his first, are fully -represented in the Madrid Gallery, which contains no less than sixty of -his pictures, or almost the whole of his genuine works. The “Borrachos” -have already been mentioned as an example of his first manner. The fine -portrait of the Infante Don Carlos, second son of Philip III., is -another. In his second manner are the “Surrender of Breda,” perhaps the -finest representation and treatment of a contemporary historical event -in the world; the magnificent portrait of the Count of Benavente, and -the four Dwarfs. In his third, the “Meninas,” and the “Hilanderas.” By -studying these pictures the student will soon be able to distinguish -between the three manners of the painter, and to decide for himself as -to the genuineness of the many pictures which pass for Velasquez’s in -the public and private galleries of Europe.</p> - -<p>It was principally as a portrait-painter that Velasquez excelled. -Although he wanted the imagination of Titian, and gave less dignity and -refinement than that great master to his portraits, yet in a marvelous -power of rendering nature, and in truthfulness of expression, he was not -his inferior. In the imaginative faculties he was singularly deficient, -as his “Forge of Vulcan,” the “Coronation of the Virgin,” and other -works of that class in the Madrid Gallery, are sufficient to prove. -However, the “Crucifixion,” in the same collection, is a grand and -solemn conception, which has excited the enthusiastic admiration of some -critics. Velasquez was essentially a “naturalistic” painter. In the -representation of animals, especially dogs, and of details such as -armor, drapery, and objects of still life, he is almost without a rival. -His freedom of touch and power of producing truthful effects<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_354" id="page_354">{354}</a></span> by the -simplest means are truly wonderful. His aerial perspective his light and -shade, his gradations of tone and color, are all equally excellent, and -have excited the admiration of Wilkie, and of the best judges of art.</p> - -<p>The high offices which Velasquez held at court gave him but little time -to paint. The number of his pictures is, therefore, comparatively small. -They were principally executed for the royal palaces; those which have -escaped the fires that destroyed so many great works have been removed -to the Madrid Museum. The portraits which are attributed to him in many -public and private collections out of Spain are, for the most part, by -his pupils, or imitators and copyists. One of the most skillful of the -latter was a certain Lucas, who, not many years ago, succeeded in -deceiving many collectors.</p> - -<p>Among his best scholars were: <span class="smcap">Juan Bautista del Mazo</span> (d. 1667), his -son-in-law. How nearly he approached his master may be seen by his -admirable portrait of D. Tiburcio de Redin, and the view of Saragossa, -in which the figures have even been attributed to Velasquez, in the -Madrid Gallery. <span class="smcap">Pareja</span>, his half-caste slave, and afterward freedman (d. -1670), who imitated his master in his portraits, but not in his -religious and other subjects, in which he followed the Dutch and Italian -painters of the time; as in his “Calling of St. Mark,” in the same -gallery. <span class="smcap">Carreno</span>, a member of a noble family (b. 1614; d. 1685), who -succeeded Velasquez as court painter, and who is chiefly known by his -portraits of the idiot king (Charles II.), his mother, Mariana of -Austria, Don John of Austria (not the hero of Lepanto), and other royal -and courtly persons of the period. Spanish writers on art rank him with -Vandyke, to whom, however, he was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_355" id="page_355">{355}</a></span> greatly inferior. His coloring is -generally insipid, and wanting in vigor.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bartolome Esteban Murillo</span> was born at Seville in 1616. He studied under -Juan del Castillo, a very indifferent painter, but formed his style, -like Velasquez, on the works of Ribera and the Italian naturalistic -painters. Like that great master, too, he modified his “manner” three -times, as he gained in experience and knowledge. From his boyhood he -painted pictures which were sold in the market-place of his native city, -and bought by dealers; chiefly, it is said, for exportation to the -Spanish colonies in America. After obtaining a considerable reputation -at Seville, he went to Madrid to improve himself by the study of the -works of the great Italian masters in the royal collection. Their -influence led him to modify his first style, called by the Spaniards -<i>frio</i> (cold), in which he had imitated the brown tints, dark shadows, -and conventional treatment of drapery of Ribera; but he did not abandon -it altogether. It may still be traced in his second, or <i>calido</i> (warm) -manner, as in the celebrated “Holy Family,” called “Del Pajarito,” in -the Madrid Gallery. The advice of Velasquez, who treated him with great -kindness, and the works of Titian and Rubens, led him to adopt a warm, -harmonious and transparent coloring, and a more truthful rendering of -nature; at the same time his drawing became more free, if not more -correct. His third manner is termed by the Spaniards <i>vaporoso</i> (misty), -from a gradual and almost imperceptible fusion of tints, producing a -kind of hazy effect. In it are painted, for the most part, his -well-known “Miraculous Conceptions,” the Virgin standing on the crescent -moon attended by angels. The three manners of Murillo are neither so -well defined nor so<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_356" id="page_356">{356}</a></span> easily recognized as those of Velasquez. He never -completely abandoned one of them for the other, and in his last pictures -he frequently returned to the calido style. As a painter of portraits -and landscapes, he was inferior to Velasquez. It was only in religious -subjects, and especially in his Holy Families, that he surpassed him. -His Virgins are taken from the common type of Andalusian beauty, -slightly idealized; but he gives to them an expression of youthful -innocence and religious sentiment which makes him the most popular of -Spanish painters. The Spaniards are naturally proud of him. They believe -that he unites the best qualities of the greatest masters, and surpasses -them all. All other critics place him second to Velasquez, who -unquestionably possessed a more original genius. Comparisons between -these two great painters are, however, more than usually pointless and -misleading, the two men being essentially different in feeling, taste, -and manner.</p> - -<p>Returning to Seville, after his first and only visit to Madrid, Murillo -established himself there for the rest of his life, painting, with the -help of scholars, many pictures for churches and convents in Spain and -her colonies. In the Peninsula, his best works are now only found at -Madrid and in his native city. The French invaders and the -picture-dealers carried the greater number away. Among those most worthy -of note at Madrid are the “St. Elizabeth of Hungary tending the Sick,” -and the “Patrician’s Dream,” now in the Academy of San Fernando, and the -two “Immaculate Conceptions” in the Gallery: at Seville, “St. Thomas of -Villanueva distributing Alms to the Poor,” in the public Museum; the -“St. Anthony of Padua” in the Cathedral; and the pictures in the -Caridad. Of his well-known sunburned<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_357" id="page_357">{357}</a></span> beggar-boys and girls there are -none, that we know of, in Spain; many of those in European collections -are probably by his favorite pupil, <span class="smcap">Villavicencio</span>, in whose arms he died -at Seville in 1682. There is a picture by this painter, who was of a -noble family, and rather an amateur than an artist, in the Madrid -Gallery, representing a group of boys at play. It has no great merit, -but shows how he attempted to imitate his master in this class of -subject. He was born in 1635, and died in 1700. The imitations and -copies of Murillo by <span class="smcap">Tobar</span> (d. 1758) are so successful that they -frequently pass for originals. The same may be said of some by <span class="smcap">Meneses</span>, -who died early in the 18th century.</p> - -<p>Among the contemporaries of Murillo was <span class="smcap">Iriarte</span> (b. 1620; d. 1685), one -of the few landscape-painters that Spain has produced. His landscapes -were much esteemed by Murillo, but they are not entitled to rank with -the works of any of the great masters in this branch of the art. The -Madrid Gallery contains five examples of them.</p> - -<p>The following painters may be mentioned among the best and most -characteristic of the second class in the Spanish school: <span class="smcap">Francisco de -Zurbaran</span>, born in Estremadura in 1598, died at Madrid 1662, was -essentially a religious painter, and his somber coloring and the -subjects of his pictures are characteristic of Spanish bigotry and of -the Inquisition. In Spain he is chiefly known by his altar-pieces for -churches and convents; out of Spain by his monks and friars. A few -figures of female saints prove that he was not insensible to grace of -form and beauty of color. But he is usually mannered, and without -dignity. A disagreeable reddish hue pervades his larger pictures. He -formed himself, like his contemporaries, on the study of the Italian -painters of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_358" id="page_358">{358}</a></span> Naturalistic school. Philip IV. is said to have named -him “Painter of the King, and King of Painters.” He enjoyed the first -title, but did not merit the second. His best work in Spain is, perhaps, -the “Apotheosis of St. Thomas Aquinas,” in the Seville Museum. It is a -grand, but somewhat stiff and unpleasing composition. Zurbaran is badly -represented in the Madrid Gallery. The “Christ Sleeping on the Cross” is -the most popular in it. One or two of his works are to be found in the -Academy of San Fernando.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Alonso Cano</span> (born at Granada, 1601; died there, 1667) enjoys the highest -reputation in Spain after Zurbaran. He was painter, sculptor, and -architect, and, moreover, carved and painted wooden figures of the -Virgin and Saints, an art in which he attained great success and renown. -Many examples of his skill may be seen at Granada. One of the most -celebrated is the statuette of St. Francis in the sacristy of the -Cathedral of Toledo. Cano was a violent, but not unkindly man, -constantly engaged in quarrels and lawsuits. He ended by becoming a -canon of the Cathedral of Granada, after narrowly escaping from the -clutches of the Inquisition. His drawing is carefully studied, but is -frequently exaggerated, and wants ease and flow; his coloring -conventional and somewhat weak; but there is a delicacy of expression -and refinement in his works which have earned him the praise of some -critics. The Madrid Gallery contains a few of his pictures: among them a -“Dead Christ”; but he is best seen at Granada.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Francisco Herrera el Viejo</span>, or the elder (b. 1576; d. 1656). His -principal works are at Seville and out of Spain. The Madrid Gallery -contains nothing by him. Spanish writers on art attribute to him the -introduction into Spain of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_359" id="page_359">{359}</a></span> new style of painting, characteristic of -the national genius. It was vigorous, but coarse, and has little to -recommend it even to those who admire the Italian eclectic school. Like -Cano, he was a man of hot temper, quarreled with his pupils, among whom -was Velasquez, and was thrown into prison on a charge of coining false -money. He was released by Philip IV. on account of his merits as a -painter. His best work in Spain is the “Last Judgment,” in the church of -St. Bernardo at Seville, which is praised for its composition and the -correct anatomy of the human form. Herrera painted in fresco, for which -he was well fitted from his bold and rapid execution; but his works in -that material have mostly perished.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Francisco Herrera el Mozo</span>, or the younger (b. 1622; d. 1685), son of the -former, studied at Rome, where he was chiefly known for his pictures of -dead animals and still life. The Italians nicknamed him “Lo Spagnuolo -dei pesci,” from his clever representations of fish. He was a painter of -small merit; weak and affected in his drawing, color, and composition. -The Madrid Gallery contains but one of his pictures—the “Triumph of St. -Hermenegildo.” Like his father, he painted frescoes, some of which are -still preserved in the churches of Madrid. He was also an architect, and -made the plans for the “Virgen del Pilar” at Saragossa.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Juan de las Roelas</span>, commonly known in Spain as “El Clerigo Roelas,” was -born at Seville about 1558, and died in 1625. He studied at Venice; -hence the richness and brilliancy of color in his best works, as in the -fine picture of the “Martyrdom of St. Andrew,” in the Museum of Seville. -In the churches of that city are some altar-pieces by him worthy of -notice. He is scarcely known out of Spain, or, indeed, out of Seville, -although he may be ranked among the best<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_360" id="page_360">{360}</a></span> of the Spanish painters of the -second rank. The picture in the Madrid Gallery attributed to him, if -genuine, is a very inferior work.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Juan de Valdés Leal</span>—born at Cordova in 1630, died at Seville 1691—was -a painter of considerable ability, but of a hasty and jealous temper, -which he especially displayed toward Murillo, the superiority of whose -work he would not acknowledge. His pictures are rare, and are best seen -at Seville. The Caridad in that city contains two, representing the -“Triumph of Death,” which are powerful, but coarse. He was also an -engraver of skill.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Francisco Rizzi</span>, the son of a Bolognese painter who had settled in -Spain, was born at Madrid in 1608, and died there in 1685. He was a -rapid and not unskillful painter, and was employed to decorate in -fresco, in the Italian fashion, the churches and royal palaces of the -capital. His well-known picture in the Madrid Gallery representing the -“Auto da Fé” held in the Plaza Mayor before Charles II. and his queen, -Marie Luisa of Orleans, in 1680, although awkward and formal in -composition, is cleverly painted.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Claudio Coello</span>, died 1693, was chiefly employed by the Spanish court in -portrait-painting and in decorating the royal palaces for triumphs and -festivities. His best known and most important picture, in the sacristy -of the Escorial, is the “Santa Forma,” or “Removal of the Miraculous -Wafer of Gorcum,” in which he has introduced portraits of Charles II. -and of the officers of his court. It is crowded and unskillful in -composition, but has merits which show that he had preserved the best -traditions of the Spanish school of painters, of whom he was almost the -last.</p> - -<p>The history of Spanish painting closes with the seven<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_361" id="page_361">{361}</a></span>teenth century. -During the eighteenth there appeared a few feeble painters who imitated, -but were even immeasurably behind the Luca Giordanos, Tiepolos, and -other Italians whom the Bourbon kings invited to Madrid to decorate the -new royal palace, and to make designs for the royal manufactory of -tapestries. The first who attempted to revive Spanish art was <span class="smcap">Francisco -Goya</span> (born in 1746), a vigorous but eccentric painter and etcher in aqua -fortis, not wanting in genius. He studied at Rome, and returning to -Spain executed frescoes, with little success, in churches at Madrid and -elsewhere. He became “pintor de camara,” or court painter, to the weak -Charles IV. and vicious Ferdinand VII. In numerous portraits of these -kings and of members of the Spanish Bourbon family he made them, perhaps -with deliberate malice—for in politics he was an ardent liberal—even -more hideous than they were. His large picture of Charles IV. and his -family in the Madrid Gallery is the best, but by no means an attractive -example of his skill, and is in parts, especially in the details of -costume, not altogether unworthy of Velasquez, whom he sought to -imitate. But his genius was chiefly shown in his etchings, in which, in -a grotesque, and not always decent way, he lashed the vices and -corruption of his country, and vented his hatred against its French -invaders. The Spaniards are very proud of Goya. The author of the “Guide -to the Madrid Gallery” discovers in his works a union of the best -qualities of Rembrandt, Titian, Paul Veronese, Watteau, and Lancret! He -was, no doubt, a powerful and original painter, and his touch is often -masterly; but he was incorrect in his drawing, and his color is -frequently exaggerated and unnatural. His designs for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_362" id="page_362">{362}</a></span> tapestries in -the royal palaces are generally weak and ill-drawn; but they are -interesting as representations of national manners and costume. Goya -died in voluntary exile at Bordeaux in 1828, having left Spain disgusted -with the political reaction which set in on the restoration of the -Bourbons, and with the persecution of the best and most enlightened of -his countrymen. His works have of late years been much sought after, -especially in France. His etchings, consisting chiefly of political -caricatures (caprichos), scenes in the bull-ring, the horrors of war, -etc., are rare. A new edition has recently been published of the -“Caprichos” from the worn-out plates.</p> - -<p>Goya may be considered the founder of the modern Spanish school of -painting, which has produced Fortuny, Madrazo, Plamaroli, and a number -of other clever painters who have achieved a European reputation. It is -not, however, in Spain, but in the private collections of London, Paris, -and New York, that their principal works are to be found. Spaniards have -little love or knowledge of art, and the high prices it is now the -fashion to pay for Spanish pictures are beyond their means.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p>The history of architecture in Spain is similar to that of France and -other countries of northern Europe, with, however, the essential -difference that Moorish art in the Middle Ages attained in Spain as -great an importance as in the East, and when combined with Christian -art, a new style was formed, known by the name of Morisco or Mudejar, -which is not met with out of the Spanish Peninsula, and is of great -interest.</p> - -<p>Spanish architecture may be divided, after the pre<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_363" id="page_363">{363}</a></span>historic period, and -invasions of the Phœnicians and Carthaginians, in the following manner:</p> - -<p>1. Roman period, until the invasions of the Goths.</p> - -<p>2. Latin Byzantine style, fifth to end of tenth century.</p> - -<p>3. Moorish architecture, eighth to fifteenth century.</p> - -<p>4. Romanesque style, eleventh, twelfth, and part of thirteenth century.</p> - -<p>5. Pointed architecture, thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth, and part of -sixteenth century.</p> - -<p>6. Mudejar style, thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth, and part of -sixteenth century.</p> - -<p>7. Renaissance or Plateresque style, Græco-Roman, and Churrigueresque.</p> - -<p>Several of the inscriptions which have come down to us of the Roman -period (see “Corpus Inscrip.,” Vol. II., Emil Hübner) mention different -buildings of public utility and adornment which were in course of -construction in Spain. The number which still remains is very great, and -may be found in almost every province; many have, however, been sadly -mutilated. The finest are undoubtedly the aqueduct at Segovia -(constructed of huge stones, and still used for carrying water to the -town), the Bridge of Alcantara (Estremadura), with its triumphal arch in -the center and temple at one end, and the walls of Lugo and Astorga. The -general structure of these monuments and their ornamentation are the -same as those of ancient Rome: it is well known that the Romans imposed -their art on the countries which came under their dominion.</p> - -<p>Two remarkable specimens exist of the Visigothic period: the church of -San Roman de Hornija (near Toro), 646, and San Juan de Banos (near Venta -de Banos), 661. Although<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_364" id="page_364">{364}</a></span> these churches have suffered much from later -additions, they still retain a great part of their construction and part -of the primitive building. A great number of fragments remain in Spain -of this period. They must be examined in order to judge this -architecture. Some are capitals of columns in the Cathedral of Cordova -and some churches at Toledo, and different friezes and fragments which -have been applied to different uses at Toledo and Merida. The votive -crowns found at Guarrazar, now at Cluny (Paris) and armory of Madrid, -give an excellent idea of the ornamentation of the Visigoths. Several -examples of architecture remain posterior to the Visigoths, and anterior -to the Romanesque style of the eleventh century. The most important are -the churches of Sta. Maria Naranco and St. Miguel de Lino, near Oviedo, -Sta. Christina de Lena (Asturias), a very remarkable specimen of -Byzantine construction, and the churches of San Pedro and San Pablo, -Barcelona.</p> - -<p>The invasion of the Arabs in 711 caused their architecture to extend -itself in the Peninsula. Its adaptation to churches and other buildings -of the Christians created a new style, known as Mudejar. The finest -specimen of Oriental architecture in Spain is the mosque at Cordova -(ninth century). Byzantine models were copied there in the same manner -as at Jerusalem, Damascus, and Cairo. The small mosque at Toledo (Cristo -de la Luz) is of the same period, and part of the church of Santiago de -Peñalva (Vierzo), the only example which is known of a Christian church -built in the Moorish style.</p> - -<p>During the eleventh and twelfth centuries this architecture underwent -radical modifications in Spain, in the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_365" id="page_365">{365}</a></span> manner as in the East, and -a new style arose which is very different to the earlier one. No writers -on this subject have explained this transformation in the East in a -satisfactory manner: it is not easy to study this transition in Spain, -for it coincides with the time in which the Spanish Moors were not rich -or powerful enough to build large constructions, as they did in the -thirteenth century, after the kings of Granada had settled there. At -this period of their art the forms of capitals, which partook of a -Byzantine and classical form, changed. Tiles are used to decorate the -walls, which are covered with an ornamentation in relief in stucco, in -which are introduced inscriptions in Cufic and African characters; the -ceilings are decorated with inlaid woodwork and stalactical pendentives -in stucco. This style ends with the conquest of Granada, 1492. The -Alhambra is the most important example of this architecture, and -following it the Alcazar of Seville.</p> - -<p>Owing to the gradual conquests by the Christians of towns belonging to -the Muhammadans, several of them continued to be inhabited by Moors, who -kept their customs and religion. They were called Moriscos or Mudejares. -The chief industries of the country were in their hands, and several -churches and other buildings of importance were built by them. They -accommodated their architecture to European or Christian necessities, -and created a new style (Mudejar), a mixture of Christian and Moorish -art, which is only to be found in the Spanish Peninsula. The finest -specimens are of the fourteenth century. The religious constructions of -this period are remarkable for their brickwork in towers and apses, and -fine wooden ceilings, artesonados. Examples exist at Toledo, Seville,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_366" id="page_366">{366}</a></span> -and Granada. The interesting synagogues built by Moriscos are at Toledo -and Segovia. As specimens of civil architecture, the finest are Casa de -Pilatos (Seville), Palace of Mendoza (Guadalajara), Archbishop’s Palace -(Alcalá), Casa de Mesa (Toledo). This style continued in vogue during -the greater part of the sixteenth century, although late Gothic was -everywhere predominant. A most striking example in which the three -styles—Moorish, Flamboyant, and Renaissance—are combined, is to be -found in a chapel of the cathedral of Sigüenza.</p> - -<p>The Romanesque style of architecture was imported in the eleventh and -twelfth centuries from France, even more directly than in other -countries, owing to the immense influence exercised by a large number of -prelates and priests, who came from Cluny and Cister, and the French -princes and families who settled in Spain. The general features of this -architecture are similar to those of France: the differences exist -chiefly in the general plan of the churches rather than in their -construction and ornamentation. The choirs in Spanish cathedrals are -placed in the central nave, a traditional remembrance of the early -basilica. In some localities, Segovia, Avila, and Valladolid, some of -these churches have external cloisters, an Oriental or Italian -modification, which never occurs in France or the north of Europe. -Romanesque examples are very numerous in Spain. Some, such as the -doorway of the Cathedral of Santiago (Galicia), and the Old Cathedral -(Salamanca), are not surpassed by any similar buildings in Europe. -Specimens are only found in the northern provinces, as the south was not -conquered from the Moors until the thirteenth century. Interesting -examples exist in Asturias, Galicia, Castile, Aragon, and Cataluña.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_367" id="page_367">{367}</a></span> The -cloisters of Gerona and Tarragona are unrivaled. Of the many striking -examples of Transition from Romanesque to Early Pointed, the finest are -the old cathedral of Lerida, the cathedrals of Tarragona and Santiago, -and the collegiate church of Tudela.</p> - -<p>The specimens of Pointed style in Spain present no other variety than -the choirs in the centers of the cathedrals. Although this style was -imported from France early in the thirteenth century, in the same manner -as in Germany, Romanesque churches continued to be built, and Pointed -architecture was only finally adopted at the end of the century. The -finest cathedrals in Spain of this architecture are those of Toledo, -Leon, and Burgos. A great number of civil and religious buildings of -this style are to be met with in Spain, in which the art-student will -find constant elements of study: it underwent the same modifications in -Spain as in other countries, until it reached, in the fifteenth century, -its latest period, the Flamboyant style. This style lasts longer in -Spain than in other countries, and acquires great importance. The -cathedrals of Salamanca (la nueva) and Segovia, both built in late -Gothic, were begun in the sixteenth century, when in other parts of -Europe and even in Spain itself Italian Renaissance models were largely -imported. Spanish cathedrals are undoubtedly, with the exception of -Italy, the most interesting in Europe; for although they cannot compete -in architectural details with those of France, they are vastly superior -in regard to the objects they contain of ecclesiastical furniture of -every kind—iron railings, carved stalls, monstrances, church-plate, -vestments, pictures, and sepulchers. Toledo and Seville cathedrals are -museums in their way.</p> - -<p>Italian models were copied in Spain from the end of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_368" id="page_368">{368}</a></span> fifteenth -century. The portals of Santa Cruz at Valladolid and Toledo are of this -period. Gothic architecture continued, however, for several years to -alternate with this style. The combination of these styles produced an -important series of models known in Spain by the name of Plateresco.</p> - -<p>The revival of the fine arts coincided in Spain with the greatest power -and richness of the country. The marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella -united Castile, Aragon, and the kingdom of Naples. The conquest of -Granada completed the political unity of the country: the discoveries of -Columbus, Cortes, and Pizarro brought riches from a new world, and the -union with the House of Austria, the Flemish States, an immense power, -which it enjoyed during the reign of the Emperor Charles V. Renaissance -architecture is better represented in Spain than in any other country -except Italy. In almost all towns of importance admirable examples of -this style will be found. The finest are at Salamanca: the University, -Santo Domingo, Casa de las Conchas, and Salinas, San Marcos (Leon), Casa -de Ayuntamiento (Seville), Valladolid, Saragossa, Burgos, etc.</p> - -<p>The cathedral and palace of Charles V. (Granada) may be quoted as an -example of pure Græco-Roman style. Part of the Alcazar at Toledo belongs -to this same period. The tendency to copy classical models increased -daily. The Monastery of the Escorial may be considered the most -important specimen of this school. In the seventeenth century the -Borromenisco style was imported from Italy. The Pantheon at the Escorial -is a good example. This architectural decay increased in Spain with -great rapidity, and in no country did it reach to such an extravagant -point. It lasted during the seventeenth and part of the eighteenth -centuries. In Spain<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_369" id="page_369">{369}</a></span> this style is called Churrigueresque, after the -architect Churriguera. Examples will be found everywhere. The -Transparente (Cathedral of Toledo), retablos of San Esteban (Salamanca), -Cartuja (Granada), and façade of Hospicio (Madrid), may be considered -the most remarkable.</p> - -<p>The creation of the Academy of San Fernando, the French architects who -accompanied Philip V., and the efforts of Charles III. to favor -classical studies, produced the same pretentious and classical reaction -as in the rest of Europe. The Palace and Convent of Salesas (Madrid) are -specimens of the first movement. The Museo and Observatory of Madrid -belong to the end of the last and beginning of the present century.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_370" id="page_370">{370}</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="II" id="II"></a>II<br /><br /><i>SPANISH LITERATURE</i></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> history of Spanish literature commences at the end of the eleventh -or beginning of the twelfth century, when the dialect emerged from the -corrupted Latin, and became an independent language capable of producing -literary works.</p> - -<p>The origin of the language may be traced to the writers of the sixth, -seventh, to the eleventh century. They wrote in the more or less -barbarous Latin of the period. The most important authors of this time -were San Isidoro and his pupils, St. Eugenio, St. Ildefonso, St. -Eulogio, Alvaro, Sansom, Pero Alonso, and Oliva. The writers of the -Roman period, Porcio Latro, Seneca, Lucan, Martial, Pomponius Mela, -Collumela, Silius Italicus, and Quintillian, though born in Spain, must -be numbered among classical authors. The Spanish language is derived in -a direct manner from the Latin, though it has been enriched by a great -number of words belonging to the different nations which have occupied -the whole or part of the Peninsula. Iberian, Punic, Greek, Visigothic, -Hebrew, and Arabic words are met with in large numbers. The abundance of -these last has induced some critics to infer that the origin of the -language is Semitic, but its grammatical structure is undoubtedly Latin. -The abundance of Oriental words does not influence its organization,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_371" id="page_371">{371}</a></span> or -produce any further result than to add nouns to the language.</p> - -<p>Spanish literature is generally divided into three groups—twelfth -century to end of fifteenth; sixteenth to seventeenth; eighteenth to the -present day.</p> - -<p>It is highly probable that Spanish poetry began by commemorating the -heroic deeds of Pelayo and other heroes who fought against the Moors; -but we can trace nothing to that period. The earliest compositions which -have reached us are, a “Charter of Oviedo,” 1145 (the “Charter of -Aviles,” 1155, has been proved to be a forgery), and two poems on the -Cid, the favorite hero of popular Spanish poetry, 1040-1099. The best of -these poems is the one beginning: El mio Cid (vide Ticknor). Though -incomplete, it constitutes a real epic poem, and if examined in detail -appears to have been written at the beginning of the twelfth century. -Three contemporary works have reached us: “La Vida de Santa Maria -Egipciaca,” “El Libro de los tres reyes d’Orient,” and “Los tres reyes -magos.” The first two were evidently written under a French influence; -“Los tres reyes magos” was written for recital in a church.</p> - -<p>The same intellectual development appears in Spain in the thirteenth -century as in Italy and France. The universities of Palencia and -Salamanca contributed toward it. The tendency of the writers of this -period is to imitate classic authors. A priest, Gonzalo de Berceo, is -the first poet of any importance in the thirteenth century, 1230: he -wrote a large number of verses on religious subjects. His poem to the -Virgin contains some poetical passages. Two poems appeared shortly -afterward, “El Libro de Apollonio” and “El Libro de Alexandre,” by J. -Lorenzo Segura, adapted from<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_372" id="page_372">{372}</a></span> the history of Alexandre Le Grand, by -Chatillon. The poem “Fernan Gonzalez” is of the same period: it is free -from foreign influence. Prose is improved at the beginning of the -century by the translation from Latin of the “Fuero Juzgo,” and other -historical and didactical works.</p> - -<p>Don Alonso el Sabio, 1221-1284, absorbs the scientific and literary life -of Spain during his time: the most eminent of his countrymen, Spaniards, -Jews and Moors, gathered round him. So many works have appeared under -his name that it is incredible they should all have been written by him. -Probably only the poems, “Las Querellas,” written in the Castilian -dialect, are his. An extensive Universal History, the first written in -Europe in a vernacular language; the “Leyes de Partidas,” a series of -legal works; “El Saber de Astronomia,” a cyclopedia of this science as -it stood at that time; the “Cantigas,” a poem containing upward of four -hundred compositions to the Virgin, written in the Galician dialect and -in the Provençal style, and several other works, have passed hitherto as -proceeding from his pen.</p> - -<p>Don Sancho el Bravo, a son of Don Alonso, wrote the “Lucidario” and -“Libro de los Castigos,” a moral treatise dedicated to his son. The -“Libro del Tesoro” and “La Gran Conquista de Ultramar” were translated -at his instigation from the Latin. The Infante, Don Juan Manuel, 1282, a -nephew of Don Alonso, wrote several works on different subjects. The -finest is the interesting collection of fables, “El Conde Lucanor.” They -are earlier than the Decameron or Canterbury Tales.</p> - -<p>Spanish poetry revived in the fourteenth century. The archpriest of -Hita, 1330-1343, wrote thousands of verses on different subjects. Rabbi -Don Santob, 1850, a Spanish Jew,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_373" id="page_373">{373}</a></span> dedicated to his friend, King Peter -the Cruel, his principal poetical works. The best is on the “Danza de la -Muerte,” a favorite subject of that time. Pero Lopez de Ayala, -1372-1407, who wrote the “Rimado de Palacio,” and Rodrigo Yanez, the -author of the “Poema de Alonso XI.,” end the series of poets of the -fourteenth century. Romances of chivalry became popular in Spain in the -fifteenth century: their popularity lasted until the sixteenth, when -Cervantes published his “Don Quixote.” “Amadis de Gaula” was the first -work of importance of this kind; “Palmerin de Oliva,” etc., follow it. -The Coronicas belong to this period. They are semi-historical -narratives, in which the leading events of each reign are described.</p> - -<p>Provençal style was introduced into Spain early in the fifteenth -century. It became very popular owing to the patronage of Don Juan II., -1407-1454. The most important courtiers imitated the king’s example, and -poems have reached us by Don Alvaro de Luna, Don Alonso de Cartagena and -others. The Marquis of Villena and Macias belong to this period. Fernan -Perez de Guzman wrote at this time his “Livros de los claros varones de -España,” and Juan de Mena, an excellent poet, his “Laberynto” and -“Dialogo de los siete Pecados mortales.” The last poet of the reign of -Don Juan II. is the Marquis of Santillana. Several wrote late in the -century: the most excellent among them being Jorge Manrique, whose -“Coplas” on the death of his father are admirable. Novels begin at this -time, generally copied from Italian models. The finest is “La -Celestina,” written in acts like a drama, one of the best works in -Spanish literature.</p> - -<p>Romances or ballads are the most original form of Span<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_374" id="page_374">{374}</a></span>ish poetry. They -constitute the popular epic poem, and are the most spontaneous -productions of the Spanish language.</p> - -<p>The revival of literature coincides in Spain with the period of its -greatest power and prosperity. The early part of the sixteenth century -is called “el Siglo de oro.” An Italian influence is predominant. -Castillejo keeps to the earlier style in his charming compositions: -“Dialogo entre el autor y su pluma,” and “Sermones de Amores.” Boscan -and Garcilaso were the first to introduce the Italian measure into -Spanish verse. Some poets wrote in both these styles. Gregorio Sylvestre -is among the best of them; an excellent poet, but very little known.</p> - -<p>Garcilaso was the earliest lyrical poet, 1503-1536. His verses are pure -in style, in the manner of Virgil and Horace. His life is interesting: -he fought by the side of Charles V., and was killed at the assault of -the fortress of Frejus (Nice). One of his contemporaries, Hurtado de -Mendoza, a soldier and statesman, popularized classical studies. His -best works are the “Rebellion de los Moriscos” and the well-known -“Lazarillo de Tormes.” The classical style is now universally adopted in -Spain. Fray Luis de Leon was undoubtedly the best poet of this period. -His ode on the “Ascension” and his “Poema a la Virgen” may certainly be -reckoned among the best compositions in the language. Several poets of -an inferior order belong to the sixteenth century. Cesina, Acuna, -Figueroa, Medrano, La Torre, Mesa and Alcazar are among the best. Their -works are clever in parts, but are generally unequal. This -characteristic becomes a leading feature in Spanish poetry. At the end -of the seventeenth century lyrics began to decay, but no author carried -affectation and exaggeration to such a height as Gongora, 1561-1627: a -gifted<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_375" id="page_375">{375}</a></span> poet, full of charm in his simple compositions (vide -translations by Archdeacon Churton), though most obscure in his -“Soledades” and “Polifemo.” This style was called in Spain culteranismo, -and not even the best dramatic authors of the seventeenth century were -free from its defects. The imitators of Gongora continued until the -eighteenth century, although here and there a poet like Rioja tried to -check the movement.</p> - -<p>Epic poetry in Spain is inferior to the dramatic and lyrical styles. The -specimens which exist are old and devoid of inspiration. “El -Monserrate,” by Virues; “La Cristiada,” by Hojeda; “La Vida de San -Jose,” by Valdivieso, and “El Bernardo,” by Balbuena, may be quoted as -examples. “La Araucana,” by Ercilla, contains some poetical passages, -but in general is hardly more than a historical narrative. “La -Gatomaquia,” by Lope de Vega, though a burlesque, is considered by many -critics the best epic poem in the Spanish language.</p> - -<p>Dramatic literature unites, perhaps, the highest conditions of -originality and power. Its earliest productions are the liturgical -representations of the Middle Ages, “Misterios” or “Autos.” Although -works of this kind are mentioned as early as the thirteenth century, the -first which have a distinct dramatic character are the “Coplas de Mingo -Revulgo” and “El Dialogo entre el Amor y un viejo.” These compositions -were written under the reign of Henry IV. At the latter part of the -fifteenth century a series of dramatic works already existed. Juan de la -Encina began the history of the Spanish drama. Lucas Fernandez was a -contemporary writer, and shortly afterward Gil Vicente. Torres Naharro, -1517, published his “Propaladia,” which contains eight comedies. Lope de -Rueda founded the modern school, and he is imi<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_376" id="page_376">{376}</a></span>tated and improved by his -followers. The drama does not attain its highest importance until Lope -de Vega (1562-1635), the most prolific of Spanish poets. He tells us he -had written fifteen hundred plays, without counting “Autos” and -“Entremeses.” Cervantes says that forty companies of actors existed at -this time in Madrid alone, consisting of no less than one thousand -actors. In 1636, three hundred companies of actors appeared in different -parts of Spain. Lope de Vega is rather unequal as a dramatic author; -but “El mejor Alcalde el rey,” “La Estrella de Sevilla,” “La dama boba,” -and “La moza de cantaro,” entitle him to rank among the best European -dramatists. Three authors share Lope’s glory, Tirso, Calderon and -Alarcon.</p> - -<p>No Spanish dramatist has surpassed Tirso in his facility of treating the -most varied subjects in admirable versification. His comedy of “Don Gil -de las calzas verdes” is as good as his dramas of “El Rey Don Pedro en -Madrid,” “El condenado por desconfiado,” or “El convidado de piedra.” -The popular type of Don Juan is taken from this drama. Alarcon is -undoubtedly the most philosophical Spanish dramatist. His comedy, “Las -paredes oyen,” is admirable, and “La verdad sospechosa,” so much admired -by Corneille, as he tells us himself, when he took the plot for his -“Menteur.” Calderon is the most popular dramatic author. He idealizes -more than his predecessors, and his genius embraces the most varied -subjects. His comedies are charming; as examples, “La dama duende” and -“Casa con dos puertas” are among the best. “El medico de su honra” is -full of dramatic power, and nothing can be more poetical than “La Vida -es sueno” (vide MacCarthy’s translations). The best imitators of the -great dramatists are Rojas and Moreto: “Garcia del Casta<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_377" id="page_377">{377}</a></span>nar,” by the -former, and “Desden con el Desden” of the latter, are equal to the -dramas of the great masters.</p> - -<p>The earliest Spanish novels are “Lazarillo de Tonnes,” by Hurtado de -Mendoza, and the “Diana Enamorada,” by Monte Mayor. They are followed by -“El Picaro Guzman de Alfarache” and “El Escudero Marcos de Obregon,” by -Aleman and Espinel. A great number of novels were written in the -following century, but were all eclipsed by Cervantes’ “Don Quixote,” -which is too well known to need any comment.</p> - -<p>Several authors in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries cultivated -different literary styles. Quevedo is the most remarkable of them. He -was the quaintest and most original of humorists. He wrote a number of -works of real merit, none of which has been so popular as his “Satiras” -in prose and verse.</p> - -<p>Political and moralist writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth -centuries are very numerous. Of these Guevara, Sta. Teresa, Fray Luis de -Granada, Gracian, Saavedra Fajardo, Mariana, Morales, Zurita, and Solis -are the most remarkable.</p> - -<p>The end of the seventeenth century was the worst period of Spanish -literature. Philip V., the first king of the House of Bourbon, 1700, did -his utmost to improve the intellectual culture of the country. The -Biblioteca Real was founded in 1711, and the Academias de la Lengua, -Historia, and Bellas Artes in 1714; several literary reviews also -appeared. The best poets of this period are Antonio de Toledo and -Gerardo Lobo. The only productions, however, of any literary merit are -the critical works of Flores, Masdeu, Mayans and others. During the -reign of Charles III., 1759-1788, Melendez wrote some tolerable verses. -He is followed by Fr. Diego Gon<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_378" id="page_378">{378}</a></span>zalez, Cienfuegos, Nicolas de Moratin -and others. The most original writers of the end of the eighteenth -century are, however, undoubtedly Leandro Moratin and Ramon. The two -comedies, “El Si de las ninas” and “El Cafe,” by the former, are -charming, and the “Sainetes,” by De la Cruz, in the manner of Plautus, -continue to be very popular in Spain.</p> - -<p>Spanish literature of the present century possesses no definite -character, although several writers can bear comparison with the best -Spanish authors of other periods. Every school and style has been -copied: Byron, Schiller, Goethe, Victor Hugo, and Dumas. The earliest -author of any importance is Quintana, a correct and inspired poet. His -odes on “La Imprenta,” “Panteon del Escorial,” and “Batalla de -Trafalgar” are very good. Martinez de la Rosa, Lista, and Nicasio -Gallegos form a group of able versifiers. Espronceda is a constant -imitator of Byron, although his legend of “El Estudiante de Salamanca” -is original, and a very fine composition. Zorrilla is the best -representative of the romantic school of 1830-40: his works are -sometimes unequal, and his legends are his best lyrical compositions. -His finest dramas are “Don Juan Tenorio” and “El Zapatero y el Rey.” The -“Romances” and drama of “Don Alvaro de Luna,” by the Duke of Rivas, have -been very popular; but no author is so deservingly so as Breton de los -Herreres, an excellent writer, who has left behind nearly one hundred -comedies, some of which, “Marcela,” “Muerete y veras,” “El pelo de la -dehesa,” etc., are perfect in their way.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_379" id="page_379">{379}</a></span></p> - -<h3><a name="III" id="III"></a>III<br /><br /><i>SPORT</i></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Bull-fight, or rather Bull Feast (Fiesta de Toros), is a modern -sport. Bulls were killed in ancient amphitheaters, but the present modus -operandi is modern, and, however based on Roman institutions, is -indubitably a thing devised by the Moors of Spain, for those in Africa -have neither the sport, the ring, nor the recollection. The principle -was the exhibition of horsemanship, courage and dexterity with the -lance; for in the early bull-fight the animal was attacked by gentlemen -armed only with the Rejon, a short projectile spear about four feet -long. This was taken from the original Iberian spear, the Sparus of Sil. -Ital. (viii. 523), the Lancea of Livy (xxxiv. 15), and is seen in the -hands of the horsemen of the old Romano-Iberian coinage. To be a good -rider and lancer was essential to the Spanish Caballero. This original -form of bull-fight (now only given on grand occasions) is called a -Fiesta Real. Such a one Philip IV. exhibited on the Plaza Mayor of -Madrid before Charles I. of England; Ferdinand VII. in 1833, at the -ratification of the Juramento, the swearing allegiance to Isabella II.; -and Alfonso XII., on his marriages, January 23, 1878, and November 29, -1879.</p> - -<p>These Fiestas Reales form the coronation ceremonial of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_380" id="page_380">{380}</a></span> Spain, and the -Caballeros en Plaza represent our champions. Bulls were killed, but no -beef eaten; as a banquet was never a thing of Iberia.</p> - -<p>The final conquest of the Moors, and the subsequent cessation of the -border chivalrous habits of Spaniards, and especially the accession of -Philip V., proved fatal to this ancient usage of Spain. The spectacle, -which had withstood the influence of Isabella the Catholic, and had -beaten the Pope’s Bulls, bowed before the despotism of fashion, and by -becoming the game of professionals instead of that of gentlemen it was -stripped of its chivalrous character, and degenerated into the vulgar -butchery of low mercenary bull-fighters, just as did the rings and -tournaments of chivalry into those of ruffian pugilists.</p> - -<p>The Spanish bulls have been immemorially famous. Hercules, that renowned -cattle-fancier, was lured into Spain by the lowing of the herds of -Geryon, the ancestor (se dice) of the Duque de Osuna. The best bulls in -Andalusia are bred by Cabrera at Utrera, in the identical pastures where -Geryon’s herds were pastured and “lifted” by the demigod, whence, -according to Strabo (iii. 169), they were obliged, after fifty days’ -feeding, to be driven off from fear of bursting from fat. Some of the -finest Castilian bulls, such as appear at Madrid, are bred on the -Jarama, near Aranjuez.</p> - -<p>Bull-fights are extremely expensive, costing from one thousand five -hundred dollars to two thousand dollars apiece; accordingly, except in -the chief capitals and Andalusia, they are only got up now and then, on -great church festivals and upon royal and public rejoicings. As -Andalusia is the headquarters of the ring, and Seville the capital, the -alma mater of the tauromachists of the Peninsula, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_381" id="page_381">{381}</a></span> necessity of -sending to a distance for artists and animals increases the expense. The -prices of admittance, compared to the wages of labor in Spain, are high.</p> - -<p>The profits of the bull-fight are usually destined for the support of -hospitals, and, certainly, the fever and the frays subsequent to the -show provide patients as well as funds. The Plaza is usually under the -superintendence of a society of noblemen and gentlemen, called -Maestranzas, instituted in 1562, by Philip II., in the hope of improving -the breed of Spanish horses and men-at-arms.</p> - -<p>The first thing is to secure a good place beforehand, by sending for a -Boletin de Sombra, a “ticket in the shade.” The prices of the seats vary -according to position; the best places are on the northern side, in the -shade. The transit of the sun over the Plaza, the zodiacal progress into -Taurus, is certainly not the worst calculated astronomical observation -in Spain: the line of shadow defined on the arena is marked by a -gradation of prices. The sun of torrid, tawny Spain, on which it once -never set, is not to be trifled with, and the summer season is selected, -because pastures are plentiful, which keep the bulls in good condition, -and the days are longer. The fights take place in the afternoon, when -the sun is less vertical. The different seats and prices are detailed in -the bills of the play, with the names of the combatants, and the colors -and breeds of the bulls.</p> - -<p>The day before the fight the bulls destined for the spectacle are -brought to a site outside the town. No amateur should fail to ride out -to the pastures from whence the cattle (ganado) are selected. The -encierro, the driving them from this place to the arena, is a service of -danger, but is extremely picturesque and national. No artist or -aficionado<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_382" id="page_382">{382}</a></span> should omit attending it The bulls are enticed by tame oxen, -cabestros, into a road which is barricaded on each side, and then are -driven full speed by the mounted conocedores into the Plaza. It is so -exciting a spectacle that the poor who cannot afford to go to the -bull-fight risk their lives and cloaks in order to get the front places, -and the best chance of a stray poke en passant.</p> - -<p>The next afternoon (Sunday is usually the day) all the world crowds to -the Plaza de toros; nothing, when the tide is full, can exceed the -gayety and sparkle of a Spanish public going, eager and dressed in their -best, to the fight. All the streets or open spaces near the outside of -the arena are a spectacle. The bull-fight is to Madrid what a review is -to Paris, and the Derby to London. Sporting men now put on all their -majo-finery; the distinguished ladies wear on these occasions white lace -mantillas; a fan, abanico, is quite necessary, as it was among the -Romans. The aficionados and “the gods” prefer the pit, tendido, the -lower range, in order, by being nearer, that they may not lose the nice -traits of tauromaquia. The Plaza has a language to itself, a dialect -peculiar to the ring. The coup d’œil on entrance is unique; the -classical scene bursts on the foreigner in all the glory of the south, -and he is carried back to the Coliseum under Commodus. The president -sits in the center box. The proceedings open with the procession of the -performers, the mounted spearmen, picadores; then follow the chulos, the -attendants on foot, who wear their silk cloaks, capas de durancillo, in -a peculiar manner, with the arms projecting in front; and, lastly, the -slayers, the espadas, and the splendid mule-team, el tiro, which is -destined to carry off the slain. The profession of bull-fighter is very -low-caste in Spain, although the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_383" id="page_383">{383}</a></span> champions are much courted by some -young nobles, like the British blackguard boxers, and are the pride and -darlings of all the lower classes. Those killed on the spot were -formerly denied the burial rites, as dying without confession, but a -priest is now in attendance with Su Magestad (the consecrated Host), -ready to give always spiritual assistance to a dying combatant.</p> - -<p>When all the bull-fighting company have advanced and passed the -president, a trumpet sounds; the president throws the key of the cell of -the bull to the alguacil or policeman, which he ought to catch in his -feathered hat. The different performers now take their places as -fielders do at a cricket match. The bull-fight is a tragedy in three -acts, lasts about twenty minutes, and each consists of precisely the -same routine. From six to eight bulls are usually killed during each -“funcion”; occasionally another is conceded to popular clamor, which -here will take no denial.</p> - -<p>When the door of the cell is opened, the public curiosity to see the -first rush out is intense; and as none knows whether the bull will -behave well or ill, all are anxious to judge of his character from the -way he behaves upon first entering the ring. The animal, turned from his -dark cell into glare and crowd, feels the novelty of his position; but -is happily ignorant of his fate, for die he must, however skillful or -brave his fight. This death does not diminish the sustained interest of -the spectators as the varied chances in the progress of the acts offer -infinite incidents and unexpected combinations. In the first of the -three acts the picadores are the chief performers; three of them are now -drawn up, one behind the other, to the right, at the tablas, the barrier -between the arena and spectators; each sits bolt upright on his<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_384" id="page_384">{384}</a></span> -Rosinante, with his lance in rest, and as valiant as Don Quixote. They -wear the broad-brimmed Thessalian hat; their legs are cased with iron -and leather, which gives a heavy look; and the right one, which is -presented to the bull, is the best protected. This greave is termed la -mona—the more scientific name is gregoriana, from the inventor, Don -Gregorio Gallo—just as we say a spencer, from the noble earl. The -spear, garrocha, is defensive rather than offensive; the blade ought not -to exceed one inch; the sheathing is, however, pushed back when the -picador anticipates an awkward customer. When the bull charges, the -picador, holding the lance under his right arm, pushes to the right, and -turns his horse to the left; the bull, if turned, passes on to the next -picador. This is called recibir, to receive the point. If a bull is -turned at the first charge, he seldom comes up well again. A bold bull -is sometimes cold and shy at first, but grows warmer by being punished. -Those who are very active, those who paw the ground, are not much -esteemed; they are hooted by the populace, and execrated as goats, -little calves, cows, which is no compliment to a bull; and, however -unskilled in bucolics, all Spaniards are capital judges of bulls in the -ring. Such animals as show the white feather are loathed, as depriving -the public of their just rights, and are treated with insult, and, -moreover, soundly beaten as they pass near the tablas, by forests of -sticks, la cachiporra. The stick of the elegant majo, when going to the -bull-fight, is sui generis, and is called la chivata; taper, and between -four and five feet long, it terminates in a lump or knob, while the top -is forked, into which the thumb is inserted. This chivata is peeled, -like the rods of Laban, in alternate rings, black and white or red. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_385" id="page_385">{385}</a></span> -lower classes content themselves with a common shillalah; one with a -knob at the end is preferred, as administering a more impressive whack. -While a slow bull is beaten and abused, a murderous bull, duro chocante -carnicero y pegajoso, who kills horses, upsets men, and clears the -plaza, becomes deservedly a universal favorite; the conquering hero is -hailed with “Viva toro! viva toro! bravo toro!” Long life is wished to -the poor beast by those who know he must be killed in ten minutes.</p> - -<p>The horses destined for the plaza are of no value; this renders -Spaniards, who have an eye chiefly to what a thing is worth, indifferent -to their sufferings. If you remark how cruel it is to “let that poor -horse struggle in death’s agonies,” they will say, “Ah que! na vale na” -(“Oh! he is worth nothing”). When his tail quivers in the last -death-struggle, the spasm is remarked as a jest, mira que cola! The -torture of the horse is the blot of the bull-fight: no lover of the -noble beast can witness his sufferings without disgust; the fact of -these animals being worth nothing in a money point of view increases the -danger to the rider; it renders them slow, difficult to manage, and very -unlike those of the ancient combats, when the finest steeds were chosen, -quick as lightning, turning at touch, and escaping the deadly rush: the -eyes of these poor animals, who would not otherwise face the bull, are -bound with a handkerchief like criminals about to be executed; thus they -await blindfold the fatal rip which is to end their life of misery. If -only wounded, the gash is sewed up and stopped with tow, as a leak! and -life is prolonged for new agonies. When the poor brute is dead at last, -his carcass is stripped as in a battle. The high-class Spaniard admits -and regrets the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_386" id="page_386">{386}</a></span> cruelty to the horses, but justifies it as a necessity. -The bull, says he, is a tame, almost a domestic animal, and would never -fight at all unless first roused by the sight of blood. The wretched -horse is employed for this purpose as a corpus vile; and the bull, -having gored him once or twice, becomes “game.”</p> - -<p>The picadores are subject to hair-breadth escapes and severe falls: few -have a sound rib left. The bull often tosses horse and rider in one run; -and when the victims fall on the ground, exhausts his rage on his -prostrate enemies, till lured away by the glittering cloaks of the -chulos, who come to the assistance of the fallen picador. These horsemen -often show marvelous skill in managing to place their horses as a -rampart between them and the bull. When these deadly struggles take -place, when life hangs on a thread, the amphitheater is peopled with -heads. Every expression of anxiety, eagerness, fear, horror, and delight -is stamped on speaking countenances. These feelings are wrought up to a -pitch when the horse, maddened with wounds and terror, plunging in the -death-struggle, the crimson streams of blood streaking his -sweat-whitened body, flies from the infuriated bull, still pursuing, -still goring: then is displayed the nerve, presence of mind, and -horsemanship of the undismayed picador. It is, in truth, a piteous sight -to see the poor dying horses treading out their entrails, yet saving -their riders unhurt. The miserable steed, when dead, is dragged out, -leaving a bloody furrow on the sand. The picador, if wounded, is carried -out and forgotten—los muertos y idos, no tienen amigos (the dead and -absent have no friends)—a new combatant fills the gap, the battle -rages, he is not missed, fresh incidents arise, and no time is left for -regret or reflection. The bull bears<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_387" id="page_387">{387}</a></span> on his neck a ribbon, la devisa; -this is the trophy which is most acceptable to the querida of a buen -torero. The bull is the hero of the scene, yet, like Milton’s Satan, he -is foredoomed and without reprieve. Nothing can save him from the -certain fate which awaits all, whether brave or cowardly. The poor -creatures sometimes endeavor in vain to escape, and leap over the -barrier (barrera) into the tendido, among the spectators, upsetting -sentinels, water-sellers, etc., and creating a most amusing hubbub. The -bull which shows this craven turn—un tunante cobarde picaro—is not -deemed worthy of a noble death, by the sword. He is baited, pulled down, -and stabbed in the spine. A bull that flinches from death is scouted by -all Spaniards, who neither beg for their own life nor spare that of a -foe.</p> - -<p>At the signal of the president, and sound of a trumpet, the second act -commences with the chulos. This word chulo signifies, in the Arabic, a -lad, a clown, as at our circus. They are picked young men, who commence -in these parts their tauromachian career. The duty of this light -division is to draw off the bull from the picador when endangered, which -they do with their colored cloaks; their address and agility are -surprising, they skim over the sand like glittering humming-birds, -scarcely touching the earth. They are dressed, á lo majo, in short -breeches, and without gaiters, just like Figaro in the opera of the -“Barbiere de Sevilla.” Their hair is tied into a knot behind, mono, and -inclosed in the once universal silk net, the redecilla—the identical -reticulum—of which so many instances are seen on ancient Etruscan -vases. No bull-fighter ever arrives at the top of his profession without -first excelling as a chulo (apprentice); then he begins to be taught how -to entice the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_388" id="page_388">{388}</a></span> bull, llamar al toro, and to learn his mode of attack, -and how to parry it. The most dangerous moment is when these chulos -venture out into the middle of the plaza, and are followed by the bull -to the barrier, in which there is a small ledge, on which they place -their foot and vault over, and a narrow slit in the boarding, through -which they slip. Their escapes are marvelous; they seem really -sometimes, so close is the run, to be helped over the fence by the -bull’s horns. Occasionally some curious suertes are exhibited by chulos -and expert toreros, which do not strictly belong to the regular drama; -such as the suerte de la capa, where the bull is braved with no other -defense but a cloak; another, the salto tras cuerno, when the performer, -as the bull lowers his head to toss him, places his foot between his -horns and is lifted over him. The chulos, in the second act, are the -sole performers; another exclusive part is to place small barbed darts, -banderillas, which are ornamented with cut paper of different colors, on -each side of the neck of the bull. The banderilleros go right up to him, -holding the arrows at the shaft’s end, and pointing the barbs at the -bull; just when the animal stoops to toss them, they dart them into his -neck and slip aside. The service appears to be more dangerous than it -is, but it requires a quick eye, a light hand and foot. The barbs should -be placed exactly on each side—a pretty pair, a good match—buenos -pares. Sometimes these arrows are provided with crackers, which, by -means of a detonating powder, explode the moment they are affixed in the -neck, banderillas de fuego. The agony of the tortured animal frequently -makes him bound like a kid, to the frantic delight of the people. A very -clever banderillero will some<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_389" id="page_389">{389}</a></span>times seat himself in a chair, wait for -the bull’s approach, plant the arrows in his neck, and slip away, -leaving the chair to be tossed into the air. This feat is uncommon, and -gains immense applause.</p> - -<p>The last trumpet now sounds; the arena is cleared for the third act; the -espada, the executioner, the man of death, stands before his victim -alone, and thus concentrates in himself an interest previously frittered -among the number of combatants. On entering, he addresses the president, -and throws his montera, his cap, to the ground, and swears he will do -his duty. In his right hand he holds a long straight Toledan blade, la -spada; in his left he waves the muleta, the red flag, the engano, the -lure, which ought not (so Romero laid down) to be so large as the -standard of a religious brotherhood (cofradia), nor so small as a lady’s -pocket-handkerchief (panuelito de senorita): it should be about a yard -square. The color is red, because that best irritates the bull and -conceals blood. There is always a spare matador, in case of accidents, -which may happen in the best regulated bull-fights; he is called media -espada, or sobresaliente. The espada (el diestro, the cunning in fence -in olden books) advances to the bull, in order to entice him toward -him—citarlo á la suerte, á la jurisdiccion del engano—to subpœna him, -to get his head into chancery, as our ring would say; he next rapidly -studies his character, plays with him a little, allows him to run once -or twice on the muleta, and then prepares for the coup de grace. There -are several sorts of bulls—levantados, the bold and rushing; parados, -the slow and sly; aplomados, the heavy and leaden. The bold are the -easiest to kill; they rush, shutting their eyes, right on to the lure or -flag. The worst of all are the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_390" id="page_390">{390}</a></span> sly bulls; when they are marrajos, -cunning and not running straight, when they are revueltos, when they -stop in their charge and run at the man instead of the flag, they are -most dangerous. The espada who is long killing his bull, or shows the -white feather, is insulted by the jeers of the impatient populace; he -nevertheless remains cool and collected, in proportion as the spectators -and bull are mad. There are many suertes or ways of killing the bull; -the principal is la suerte de frente—the espada receives the charge on -his sword, lo mato de un recibido. The volapie, or half-volley, is -beautiful, but dangerous; the matador takes him by advancing, -corriendoselo. A firm hand, eye, and nerve form the essence of the art; -the sword enters just between the left shoulder and the blade. In -nothing is the real fancy so fastidious as in the exact nicety of the -placing this death-wound; when the thrust is true—buen estoque—death -is instantaneous, and the bull, vomiting forth blood, drops at the feet -of his conqueror, who, drawing the sword, waves it in triumph over the -fallen foe. It is indeed the triumph of knowledge over brute force; all -that was fire, fury, passion, and life, falls in an instant, still -forever.</p> - -<p>The team of mules now enter, glittering with flags, and tinkling with -bells, whose gay decorations contrast with the stern cruelty and blood; -the dead bull is carried off at a rapid gallop, which always delights -the populace. The espada wipes the hot blood from his sword, and bows -with admirable sangfroid to the spectators, who throw their hats into -the arena, a compliment which he returns by throwing them back again.</p> - -<p>When a bull will not run at all at the picador, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_391" id="page_391">{391}</a></span> at the muleta, he is -called a toro abanto, and the media luna, the half-moon, is called for; -this is the cruel ancient Oriental mode of houghing the cattle (Joshua -xi. 6). The instrument is the Iberian bident—a sharp steel crescent -placed in a long pole. The cowardly blow is given from behind; and when -the poor beast is crippled, an assistant, the cachetero, pierces the -spinal marrow with his cachete—puntilla, or pointed dagger—with a -traitorous stab from behind. This is the usual method of slaughtering -cattle in Spain. To perform all these operations (el desjarretar) is -considered beneath the dignity of the matadores or espadas; some of -them, however, will kill the bull by plunging the point of their sword -in the vertebræ, el descabellar—the danger gives dignity to the -difficult feat. The identical process obtains in each of the fights that -follow. After a short collapse, a fresh object raises a new desire, and -the fierce sport is renewed through eight repetitions; and not till -darkness covers the heavens do the mob retire to sacrifice the rest of -the night to Bacchus and Venus, with a passing homage to the knife.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_393" id="page_393">{393}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_392" id="page_392">{392}</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="APPENDIX" id="APPENDIX"></a>APPENDIX</h2> - -<p class="cb">CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="" -style="margin:1em 10em;font-size:80%;"> - -<tr><td colspan="2" class="cb">NO. I</td></tr> -<tr><td>Carthaginian Domination in Spain </td><td class="rt">238 to 200 <small>B.C.</small></td></tr> -<tr><td>Roman Domination</td><td class="rt">200 <small>B.C.</small> to 414 <small>A.D.</small></td></tr> -<tr><td>Visigothic Domination</td><td class="rt">414 <small>A.D.</small> to 711 <small>A.D.</small></td></tr> -</table> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="" -style="margin:1em 10em;font-size:80%;"> - -<tr><th colspan="2"><i>Visigothic Kings</i></th></tr> - -<tr><td> </td><td class="rt">A.D.</td></tr> -<tr><td>Ataulfo</td><td class="rt">414, D. 417</td></tr> -<tr><td>Sigerico</td><td class="rt">417</td></tr> -<tr><td>Walia</td><td class="rt">420</td></tr> -<tr><td>Teodoredo</td><td class="rt">451</td></tr> -<tr><td>Turismundo</td><td class="rt">454</td></tr> -<tr><td>Teodorico</td><td class="rt">466</td></tr> -<tr><td>Eurico</td><td class="rt">483</td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="2" class="c">This king, after conquering the Suevi and other races, is -considered he founder of the monarchy.</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Alarico</td><td class="rt">D. 505</td></tr> -<tr><td>Gesaleico</td><td class="rt">510</td></tr> -<tr><td>Amalarico</td><td class="rt">531</td></tr> -<tr><td>Teudis</td><td class="rt">548</td></tr> -<tr><td>Teudiselo</td><td class="rt">549</td></tr> -<tr><td>Agila</td><td class="rt">554</td></tr> -<tr><td>Atanagildo</td><td class="rt">567</td></tr> -<tr><td>Liuva I.</td><td class="rt">572</td></tr> -<tr><td>Leovigildo</td><td class="rt">586</td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="2" class="cind">After destroying the barbarians that still remained in the country, -he was the first king who ruled over the whole of the Peninsula.</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Recaredo I.</td><td class="rt">601</td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="2" class="cind">Summoned the 3d Council of Toledo, renounced Arianism, and became -the first Catholic king of Spain.</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Liuva II.</td><td class="rt">603</td></tr> -<tr><td>Witerico</td><td class="rt">610</td></tr> -<tr><td>Gundemaro</td><td class="rt">612</td></tr> -<tr><td>Sisebuto</td><td class="rt">621</td></tr> -<tr><td>Recaredo II.</td><td class="rt">621</td></tr> -<tr><td>Suintila</td><td class="rt">631</td></tr> -<tr><td>Sisenando</td><td class="rt">635</td></tr> -<tr><td>Tulga</td><td class="rt">640</td></tr> -<tr><td>Chindasvinto</td><td class="rt">650</td></tr> -<tr><td>Recesvinto</td><td class="rt">672</td></tr> -<tr><td>Wamba</td><td class="rt">680</td></tr> -<tr><td>Ervigio</td><td class="rt">687</td></tr> -<tr><td>Egica</td><td class="rt">701</td></tr> -<tr><td>Witiza</td><td class="rt">709</td></tr> -<tr><td>Don Rodrigo</td><td class="rt">711</td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="2" class="cind">The Moors entered Spain and defeated Don Rodrigo at the battle of -Guadalete, who disappeared there. The Moors occupied in the two -following years almost the whole of the Peninsula, and governed -under the dependence of the Caliphs of Damascus.</td></tr> - -<tr><th colspan="2"><i>Moorish Rulers in Spain</i></th></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd">Emirs dependent on the - Caliphs of Damascus</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom">711-715</td></tr> -<tr><td class="pdd">Independent Caliphate established - by the Ommeyah - family, the capital being - Cordova</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom">755-1009</td></tr> -<tr><td class="pdd">Kings of Taifas, governors - of the provinces which declared - themselves independent - during the last - Caliphate, Hischen II.</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom">1009-1090</td></tr> -<tr><td class="pdd">The Almoravides from Africa - established themselves - in the Moorish territory - of the Peninsula</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom">1090-1157</td></tr> -<tr><td class="pdd">The Almohades conquered - the Almoravides</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom">1157-1212</td></tr> -<tr><td class="pdd">Kings of Granada. The - Moorish domination is - reduced to the kingdom - of Granada</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom">1226-1492</td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="2" class="cind">The rule of the Moors in Spain ends in 1492, at the conquest of -Granada.</td></tr> - -<tr><th colspan="2"><i>Kings of Asturias, Leon, and Castile</i></th></tr> - -<tr><td>Pelayo (the re-conquest begins)</td><td class="rt">718, D. 737</td></tr> -<tr><td>Favila</td><td class="rt">739</td></tr> -<tr><td>Alonso I., el Catolico</td><td class="rt">757</td></tr> -<tr><td>Favila I. (fixes his Court at Oviedo)</td><td class="rt">768</td></tr> -<tr><td>Aurelio</td><td class="rt">774</td></tr> -<tr><td>Silo</td><td class="rt">783</td></tr> -<tr><td>Mauregato</td><td class="rt">788</td></tr> -<tr><td>Bermudo I., el Diacono</td><td class="rt">795</td></tr> -<tr><td>Alonso II., el Casto</td><td class="rt">843</td></tr> -<tr><td>Ramiro I.</td><td class="rt">850</td></tr> -<tr><td>Ordoño I.</td><td class="rt">865</td></tr> -<tr><td><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_394" id="page_394">{394}</a></span> -Alonso III., el Magno</td><td class="rt">910</td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="2" class="cind">Divided the kingdom of Galicia, Leon, and Asturias, among his sons, -the three following kings.</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Garcia</td><td class="rt">913</td></tr> -<tr><td>Ordoño II.</td><td class="rt">923</td></tr> -<tr><td>Fruela II.</td><td class="rt">924</td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="2" class="cind">Ordoño fixed his Court at Leon, and here end the named kings or -Asturias.</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Alonso IV., el Monge</td><td class="rt">930</td></tr> -<tr><td>Ramiro II.</td><td class="rt">950</td></tr> -<tr><td>Ordoño III.</td><td class="rt">955</td></tr> -<tr><td>Sancho I., el Craso</td><td class="rt">967</td></tr> -<tr><td>Ramiro III.</td><td class="rt">982</td></tr> -<tr><td>Bermudo II.</td><td class="rt">999</td></tr> -<tr><td>Alonso V., el Noble</td><td class="rt">1028</td></tr> -<tr><td>Bermudo III.</td><td class="rt">1037</td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="2" class="cind">The territory of Castile, which formed a separate state, governed -by <i>Condes</i>, passed to Dona Sancha and Don Fernando I., who -entitled themselves Kings of Castile and Leon.</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Fernando I. and Dona Sancha</td><td class="rt">1065</td></tr> -<tr><td>Sancho II., el Fuerte</td><td class="rt">1073</td></tr> -<tr><td>Alfonso VI.</td><td class="rt">1108</td></tr> -<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Conquered Toledo in 1085.)</span></td></tr> -<tr><td>Dona Urraca</td><td class="rt">1126</td></tr> -<tr><td>Alfonso VII., el Emperador</td><td class="rt">1157</td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="2" class="cind">At his death the kingdoms of Castile and Leon are divided among the -six following kings:</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Sancho III. (Castilla)</td><td class="rt">1158</td></tr> -<tr><td>Fernando II. (Leon)</td><td class="rt">1188</td></tr> -<tr><td>Alfonso VIII. (Castilla)</td><td class="rt">1214</td></tr> -<tr><td>Alfonso IX. (Leon)</td><td class="rt">1230</td></tr> -<tr><td>Enrique I. (Castilla)</td><td class="rt">1217</td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="2" class="cind">Dona Berenguela, who abdicated the crown of Castile in favor of her -son, Fernando III., who inherited also the crown of Leon from his -father, Alfonso IX.</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Fernando III., King of Castile and Leon</td> <td class="rt">1252</td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="2" class="cind">He conquered Cordova, Jaen, and Seville.</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Alonso X., el Sabio</td><td class="rt">1284</td></tr> -<tr><td>Sancho IV., el Bravo</td><td class="rt">1295</td></tr> -<tr><td>Fernando IV., el Emplazado</td><td class="rt">1312</td></tr> -<tr><td>Alonso XI.</td><td class="rt">1350</td></tr> -<tr><td>Pedro I., el Cruel</td><td class="rt">1369</td></tr> -<tr><td>Enrique II., el Bastardo</td><td class="rt">1379</td></tr> -<tr><td>Juan I.</td><td class="rt">1390</td></tr> -<tr><td>Enrique III., el Doliente</td><td class="rt">1407</td></tr> -<tr><td>Juan II.</td><td class="rt">1454</td></tr> -<tr><td>Enrique IV., el Impotente</td><td class="rt">1474</td></tr> -<tr><td>Dona Isabel, la Catolica</td><td class="rt">1504</td></tr> -<tr><td>Fernando V. de Aragon</td><td class="rt">1516</td></tr> -<tr><td>Dona Juana, la loca</td><td class="rt">1555</td></tr> -<tr><td>Felipe I., el Hermoso, first king of the house of Austria</td><td class="rt">1505</td></tr> -<tr><td>Carlos V., Emperador</td><td class="rt">1558</td></tr> -<tr><td>Felipe II.</td><td class="rt">1598</td></tr> -<tr><td>Felipe III.</td><td class="rt">1621</td></tr> -<tr><td>Felipe IV.</td><td class="rt">1665</td></tr> -<tr><td>Carlos II.</td><td class="rt">1700</td></tr> -<tr><td>Felipe V. (first king of the house of Bourbon) abdicated in </td><td class="rt">1724</td></tr> -<tr><td>Luis I.</td><td class="rt">1724</td></tr> -<tr><td>Felipe V.</td><td class="rt">1746</td></tr> -<tr><td>Fernando VI.</td><td class="rt">1759</td></tr> -<tr><td>Carlos III.</td><td class="rt">1788</td></tr> -<tr><td>Carlos IV., abdicated</td><td class="rt">1808</td></tr> -<tr><td>Fernando VII.</td><td class="rt">1833</td></tr> -<tr><td>Isabel II., dethroned</td><td class="rt">1868</td></tr> -<tr><td>Gobierno Provisional</td><td class="rt">1871</td></tr> -<tr><td>Amadeo de Saboya</td><td class="rt">abdicated 1873</td></tr> -<tr><td>Spanish Republic</td><td class="rt">1874</td></tr> -<tr><td>Alfonso XII</td><td class="rt">died 1886</td></tr> - -<tr><th colspan="2"><i>Kings of Navarre.</i></th></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="2" class="cind">The inhabitants of Navarre began the re-conquest from the middle of -the 8th century. Their rulers were called condes, or kings, until -Sancho Abarca widened the territory; from that time they are always -called kings of Navarre.</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Sancho Abarca</td><td class="rt">980-994</td></tr> -<tr><td>Garcia III.</td><td class="rt">1000</td></tr> -<tr><td>Sancho III., el Mayor</td><td class="rt">1038</td></tr> -<tr><td>Garcia IV.</td><td class="rt">1057</td></tr> -<tr><td>Sancho IV.</td><td class="rt">1076</td></tr> -<tr><td>Sancho Ramirez V.</td><td class="rt">1092</td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="2" class="cind">This king, and the two that followed, were likewise kings of -Aragon.</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Pedro I.</td><td class="rt">1106</td></tr> -<tr><td>Alfonso, el Batallador</td><td class="rt">1134</td></tr> -<tr><td>Garcia Ramirez IV.</td><td class="rt">1150</td></tr> -<tr><td>Sancho VI., el Sabio</td><td class="rt">1194</td></tr> -<tr><td>Sancho VII., el Fuerte</td><td class="rt">1234</td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="2" class="cind">Here begin the kings of the House of Champagne.</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Teobaldo I.</td><td class="rt">1253</td></tr> -<tr><td>Teobaldo II.</td><td class="rt">1270</td></tr> -<tr><td>Enrique I.</td><td class="rt">1273</td></tr> -<tr><td>Juana I.</td><td class="rt">1304</td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="2" class="cind">On her marriage with Philip le Bel, Navarre passed to the house of -France.</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Luis Hutin</td><td class="rt">1316</td></tr> -<tr><td>Felipe le Long</td><td class="rt">1320</td></tr> -<tr><td>Carlos I. de Navarra, IV. de Francia</td><td class="rt">1329</td></tr> -<tr><td>Juana II.</td><td class="rt">1343</td></tr> -<tr><td>Carlos II. d’Evreux</td><td class="rt">1387</td></tr> -<tr><td>Carlos III.</td><td class="rt">1425</td></tr> -<tr><td>Dona Blanca y Juan I.</td><td class="rt">1479</td></tr> -<tr><td>Francisco Febo</td><td class="rt">1483</td></tr> -<tr><td><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_395" id="page_395">{395}</a></span> - -Catalina</td><td class="rt">1512</td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="2" class="cind">Fernando V. of Navarre took possession in 1512 of Navarre, and it -was then incorporated with Castile.</td></tr> - -<tr><th colspan="2"><i>Kings of Aragon.</i></th></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="2" class="cind">Aragon belonged to the kingdom of Navarre until Sancho III. gave it -to his son Ramiro.</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Ramiro I.</td><td class="rt">1035, D. 1063</td></tr> -<tr><td>Sancho I.</td><td class="rt">1094</td></tr> -<tr><td>Pedro I.</td><td class="rt">1104</td></tr> -<tr><td>Alfonso I., el Batallador</td><td class="rt">1134</td></tr> -<tr><td>Ramiro II., el Monge</td><td class="rt">1137</td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="2" class="cind">Aragon and Cataluña are united.</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Petronila</td><td class="rt">1162</td></tr> -<tr><td>Alfonso II.</td><td class="rt">1196</td></tr> -<tr><td>Pedro II.</td><td class="rt">1213</td></tr> -<tr><td>Jaime I., el Conquistador</td><td class="rt">1276</td></tr> -<tr><td>Pedro III.</td><td class="rt">1285</td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="2" class="cind">Sicily is united to Aragon.</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Alfonso III.</td><td class="rt">1291</td></tr> -<tr><td>Jaime II.</td><td class="rt">1327</td></tr> -<tr><td>Alfonso IV.</td><td class="rt">1336</td></tr> -<tr><td>Pedro IV.</td><td class="rt">1387</td></tr> -<tr><td>Juan I.</td><td class="rt">1395</td></tr> -<tr><td>Martin</td><td class="rt">1410</td></tr> -<tr><td>Fernando, el de Antequera</td><td class="rt">1416</td></tr> -<tr><td>Alfonso V.</td><td class="rt">1458</td></tr> -<tr><td>Juan II.</td><td class="rt">1470</td></tr> -<tr><td>Fernando el Catolico.</td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="2" class="cind">Aragon passes to the crown of Castile.</td></tr> - -<tr><th colspan="2"><i>Counts of Barcelona.</i></th></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="2" class="cind">In the 8th and 9th centuries Cataluña belonged to Charlemagne and -his successors. Wilfredo was the first independent Conde.</td></tr> - -<tr><td>Wilfredo el Belloso</td><td class="rt">864-898</td></tr> -<tr><td>Borrell I.</td><td class="rt">912</td></tr> -<tr><td>Suniario</td><td class="rt">917</td></tr> -<tr><td>Borrell II. and his brother Miron</td><td class="rt">992</td></tr> -<tr><td>Ramon Borrell</td><td class="rt">1018</td></tr> -<tr><td>Ramon Berenguer I.</td><td class="rt">1025</td></tr> -<tr><td>Ramon Berenguer II.</td><td class="rt">1077</td></tr> -<tr><td>Berenguer and Ramon Berenguer III.</td><td class="rt">1113</td></tr> -<tr><td>Ramon Berenguer IV.</td><td class="rt">1131</td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="2" class="cind">Ramon Berenguer V. married Dona Petronila de Aragon, and this -kingdom was incorporated with the Condado de Cataluña.</td></tr> -</table> - -<div class="sml80"> -<p class="cb">NO. II</p> - -<p class="c"><i>Contemporary Sovereigns</i></p> - -<p class="c">The periods have been selected during which leading events in Spanish -history have occurred.</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="" -style="margin:1em 3em;"> -<tr><td class="c">A.D.</td> -<td class="c">Spain.</td> -<td class="c">England.</td> -<td class="c">France.</td> -<td class="c">Rome.</td></tr> -<tr><td>800</td><td>Alonso II. el Casto</td><td>Egbert</td><td>Charlemagne</td><td>Leo III.</td></tr> -<tr><td>877</td><td>Alonso III. el Magno</td><td>Alfred</td><td>Louis II.</td><td>John VII.</td></tr> -<tr><td>996</td><td>Ramiro III.</td><td>Ethelred II.</td><td>Hugh Capet</td><td>Gregory V.</td></tr> -<tr><td>1075</td><td>Sancho II.</td><td>William the Conqueror</td><td>Philip I.</td><td>Gregory VII.</td></tr> -<tr valign="top"><td>1155</td><td>Alfonso VII.</td><td>Henry II.</td><td>Louis VII.</td><td>Adrian IV.<br /> Breakspeare</td></tr> -<tr><td>1245</td><td>San Fernando</td><td>Henry III.</td><td>St. Louis</td><td>Innocent IV.</td></tr> -<tr><td>1345</td><td>Alfonso XI.</td><td>Edward III.</td><td>Philip VI.</td><td>Benedict VI.</td></tr> -<tr><td>1360</td><td>Pedro el Cruel</td><td>Edward III.</td><td>John II.</td><td>Innocent VI.</td></tr> -<tr><td>1485</td><td>Isabel la Catolica</td><td>Henry VII.</td><td>Charles VIII.</td><td>Innocent VIII.</td></tr> -<tr><td>1515</td><td>Fernando de Aragon</td><td>Henry VIII.</td><td>Francis I.</td><td>Leo X.</td></tr> -<tr><td>1550</td><td>Carlos V.</td><td>Edward VI.</td><td>Henry II.</td><td>Paul III.</td></tr> -<tr><td>1560</td><td>Felipe II.</td><td>Elizabeth</td><td>Charles IX.</td><td>Pius IV.</td></tr> -<tr><td>1644</td><td>Felipe IV.</td><td>Charles I.</td><td>Louis XIV.</td><td>Innocent X.</td></tr> -<tr><td>1705</td><td>Felipe V.</td><td>Anne</td><td>Louis XIV.</td><td>Clement XI.</td></tr> -<tr><td>1760</td><td>Carlos III.</td><td>George III.</td><td>Louis XV.</td><td>Clement XIII.</td></tr> -<tr><td>1808</td><td>Fernando VII.</td><td>George III.</td><td>Napoleon I.</td><td>Pius VII.</td></tr> -<tr><td rowspan="2">1840</td><td rowspan="2">Isabel II.</td><td rowspan="5" class="bl">—Victoria</td><td class="bl">Louis Philippe</td><td class="bl">Gregory XVI.</td></tr> -<tr> <td class="bl">Napoleon III.</td><td class="bl">and Pius IX.</td></tr> -<tr><td>1877</td><td>Alfonso XII.</td><td>French Republic</td><td>Leo XIII.</td></tr> -<tr><td>1886</td><td>Cristina, queen-regent</td></tr> -<tr><td>1886</td><td>Alfonso XIII.</td></tr> -</table> -</div> - -<div class="footnotes"><p class="cb">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> “Historia general de España,” by Juan de Mariana. 9 vols., -Valencia, 1783-96.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> <i>Al Manzor al Allah</i>: “The Victor of God; or, Victorious by -the Grace of God.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> <i>Mas Moros mas ganancia</i>, “The more the Moors, the greater -the booty,” was one of his sayings, and it has passed into a well-known -national proverb.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Having kicked to pieces the splendid furniture and beaten -the Papal chamberlain, he proceeded to threaten to caparison his horse -with the rich hangings of the chapel, if the Pope refused him instant -Absolution! -</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">Si no me absolveis, el Papa,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Seriaos mal contado<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Que do vuestras ricas ropas<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Cubriré yo mi caballo!<br /></span> -<span class="i6">—Wolf and Hofmann, “Cid Ballads.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Muley is an Arabic word meaning “my lord.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Certainly in 1480, possibly not five-and-twenty years -later. From curious criminal proceedings instituted against the -Corregidor of Medina del Campo, we learn that that high judicial -authority had not hesitated to declare that the soul of Isabella had -gone direct to hell for her cruel oppression of her subjects, and that -King Ferdinand was a thief and a robber, and that all the people round -Medina and Valladolid, where the queen was best known, had formed the -same judgment of her. “Arch. Gen. Simancas,” Estado, Legajo i., folio -192; “Calendar of State Papers” (Spain), Supplement to i. and ii. -(1868), p. 27.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> From January, 1493, till October, 1497.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Legaspi and Guido Lavezares, under oath, made promises of -rewards to the Lacandola family and a remission of tribute in -perpetuity, but they were not fulfilled. In the following century—year -1660—it appears that the descendants of the rajah Lacandola still -upheld the Spanish authority, and having become sorely impoverished -thereby, the heir of the family petitioned the governor (Sabiniano -Manrique de Lara) to make good the honor of his first predecessors. -Eventually the Lacandolas were exempted from the payment of tribute and -poll tax forever, as recompense for the filching of their domains. -</p><p> -In 1884, when the fiscal reforms were introduced which abolished the -tribute and established in lieu thereof a document of personal identity -(cedula personal), for which a tax is levied, the last vestige of -privilege disappeared. -</p><p> -Descendants of Lacandola are still to be met with in several villages -near Manila. They do not seem to have materially profited by their -transcendent ancestry—one of them was serving as a waiter in a French -restaurant in the capital in 1885.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Guido de Lavezares deposed a sultan in Borneo, in order to -aid another to the throne, and even asked permission of King Philip II. -to conquer China, which of course was not conceded to him. <i>Vide</i> also -the history of the destruction of the Aztec (Mexican) and Incas -(Peruvian) dynasties by the Spaniards.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> According to Juan de la Concepcion, in his “Hist. Gen. de -Philipinas,” Vol I., page 431, Li-ma-hong made his escape by cutting a -canal for his ships to pass through, but this appears highly improbable -under the circumstances.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Other authors assert that only Soliman rebelled.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Bondage in the Philippines was apparently not so necessary -for the interests of the Church as it was in Cuba, where a commission of -friars, appointed soon after the discovery of the island to deliberate -on the policy of partially permitting slavery there, reported “that the -Indians would not labor without compulsion, and that, unless they -labored, they could not be brought into communication with the whites, -nor be converted to Christianity.” Vide W. H. Prescott’s “Hist. of the -Conquest of Mexico.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> “Hist. Gen. de Philipinas,” by Juan de la Concepcion Vol. -III., Chap. IX., page 365, pub. Manila, 1788.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> So tenacious was the opposition brought by the Austin -friars both in Manila and the provinces that the British appear to have -regarded them as their special foes.</p></div> - -</div> - -<hr class="full" /> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Spain and Her Colonies (World's Best -Histories), by Archibald Wilberforce - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SPAIN AND HER COLONIES *** - -***** This file should be named 62786-h.htm or 62786-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/2/7/8/62786/ - -Produced by D A Alexander, Chuck Greif, Natrona County -Public Library System, in Casper, Wyoming, for generously -donating the books in this project to PG and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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